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Application security(shortAppSec) includes all tasks that introduce a securesoftware development life cycleto development teams. Its final goal is to improve security practices and, through that, to find, fix and preferably prevent security issues within applications. It encompasses the whole application life cycle from requirements analysis, design, implementation, verification as well as maintenance.[1]
Web application securityis a branch ofinformation securitythat deals specifically with the security ofwebsites,web applications, andweb services. At a high level, web application security draws on the principles of application security but applies them specifically to theinternetandwebsystems.[2][3]The application security also concentrates onmobile appsand their security which includes iOS and Android Applications
Web Application Security Tools are specialized tools for working with HTTP traffic, e.g.,Web application firewalls.
Different approaches will find different subsets of the securityvulnerabilitieslurking in an application and are most effective at different times in the software lifecycle. They each represent different tradeoffs of time, effort, cost and vulnerabilities found.
The Open Worldwide Application Security Project (OWASP) provides free and open resources. It is led by a non-profit called The OWASP Foundation. The OWASP Top 10 - 2017 results from recent research based on comprehensive data compiled from over 40 partner organizations. This data revealed approximately 2.3 million vulnerabilities across over 50,000 applications.[4]According to the OWASP Top 10 - 2021, the ten most critical web application security risks include:[5]
TheOWASP Top 10 Proactive Controls 2024is a list of security techniques every software architect and developer should know and heed.
The current list contains:
Security testing techniques scour for vulnerabilities or security holes in applications. These vulnerabilities leave applications open toexploitation. Ideally, security testing is implemented throughout the entiresoftware development life cycle(SDLC) so that vulnerabilities may be addressed in a timely and thorough manner.
There are many kinds of automated tools for identifying vulnerabilities in applications. Common tool categories used for identifying application vulnerabilities include:
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Acomputer wormis a standalonemalwarecomputer programthat replicates itself in order to spread to other computers.[1]It often uses acomputer networkto spread itself, relying on security failures on the target computer to access it. It will use this machine as a host to scan and infect other computers. When these new worm-invaded computers are controlled, the worm will continue to scan and infect other computers using these computers as hosts, and this behaviour will continue.[2]Computer worms userecursive methodsto copy themselves without host programs and distribute themselves based on exploiting the advantages ofexponential growth, thus controlling and infecting more and more computers in a short time.[3]Worms almost always cause at least some harm to the network, even if only by consumingbandwidth, whereasvirusesalmost always corrupt or modify files on a targeted computer.
Many worms are designed only to spread, and do not attempt to change the systems they pass through. However, as theMorris wormandMydoomshowed, even these "payload-free" worms can cause major disruption by increasing network traffic and other unintended effects.
The first ever computer worm is generally accepted to be a self-replicating version ofCreepercreated byRay Tomlinsonand Bob Thomas atBBNin 1971 to replicate itself across theARPANET.[4][5]Tomlinson also devised the firstantivirus software, namedReaper, to delete the Creeper program.
The term "worm" was first used in this sense inJohn Brunner's 1975 novel,The Shockwave Rider. In the novel, Nichlas Haflinger designs and sets off a data-gathering worm in an act of revenge against the powerful people who run a national electronic information web that induces mass conformity. "You have the biggest-ever worm loose in the net, and it automatically sabotages any attempt to monitor it. There's never been a worm with that tough a head or that long a tail!"[6]"Then the answer dawned on him, and he almost laughed. Fluckner had resorted to one of the oldest tricks in the store and turned loose in the continental net a self-perpetuating tapeworm, probably headed by a denunciation group "borrowed" from a major corporation, which would shunt itself from one nexus to another every time his credit-code was punched into a keyboard. It could take days to kill a worm like that, and sometimes weeks."[6]
Xerox PARCwas studying the use of "worm" programs fordistributed computingin 1979.[7]
On November 2, 1988,Robert Tappan Morris, aCornell Universitycomputer science graduate student, unleashed what became known as theMorris worm, disrupting many computers then on the Internet, guessed at the time to be one tenth of all those connected.[8]During the Morris appeal process, the U.S. Court of Appeals estimated the cost of removing the worm from each installation at between $200 and $53,000; this work prompted the formation of theCERT Coordination Center[9]and Phage mailing list.[10]Morris himself became the first person tried and convicted under the 1986Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.[11]
Conficker, a computer worm discovered in 2008 that primarily targetedMicrosoft Windowsoperating systems, is a worm that employs three different spreading strategies: local probing, neighborhood probing, and global probing.[12]This worm was considered a hybrid epidemic and affected millions of computers. The term "hybrid epidemic" is used because of the three separate methods it employed to spread, which was discovered through code analysis.[13]
Independence
Computer viruses generally require a host program.[14]The virus writes its own code into the host program. When the program runs, the written virus program is executed first, causing infection and damage. A worm does not need a host program, as it is an independent program or code chunk. Therefore, it is not restricted by thehost program, but can run independently and actively carry out attacks.[15][16]
Exploit attacks
Because a worm is not limited by the host program, worms can take advantage of various operating system vulnerabilities to carry out active attacks. For example, the "Nimda" virusexploitsvulnerabilitiesto attack.
Complexity
Some worms are combined with web page scripts, and are hidden inHTMLpages usingVBScript,ActiveXand other technologies. When a user accesses a webpage containing a virus, the virus automatically resides in memory and waits to be triggered. There are also some worms that are combined withbackdoorprograms orTrojan horses, such as "Code Red".[17]
Contagiousness
Worms are more infectious than traditional viruses. They not only infect local computers, but also all servers and clients on the network based on the local computer. Worms can easily spread throughshared folders,e-mails,[18]malicious web pages, and servers with a large number of vulnerabilities in the network.[19]
Any code designed to do more than spread the worm is typically referred to as the "payload". Typical malicious payloads might delete files on a host system (e.g., theExploreZipworm), encrypt files in aransomwareattack, orexfiltrate datasuch as confidential documents or passwords.[20]
Some worms may install abackdoor. This allows the computer to be remotely controlled by the worm author as a "zombie". Networks of such machines are often referred to asbotnetsand are very commonly used for a range of malicious purposes, including sendingspamor performingDoSattacks.[21][22][23]
Some special worms attack industrial systems in a targeted manner.Stuxnetwas primarily transmitted through LANs and infected thumb-drives, as its targets were never connected to untrusted networks, like the internet. This virus can destroy the core production control computer software used by chemical, power generation and power transmission companies in various countries around the world - in Stuxnet's case, Iran, Indonesia and India were hardest hit - it was used to "issue orders" to other equipment in the factory, and to hide those commands from being detected. Stuxnet used multiple vulnerabilities and four different zero-day exploits (e.g.:[1]) inWindows systemsand SiemensSIMATICWinCCsystems to attack the embedded programmable logic controllers of industrial machines. Although these systems operate independently from the network, if the operator inserts a virus-infected drive into the system's USB interface, the virus will be able to gain control of the system without any other operational requirements or prompts.[24][25][26]
Worms spread by exploiting vulnerabilities in operating systems.
Vendors with security problems supply regular security updates[27](see "Patch Tuesday"), and if these are installed to a machine, then the majority of worms are unable to spread to it. If a vulnerability is disclosed before the security patch released by the vendor, azero-day attackis possible.
Users need to be wary of opening unexpected emails,[28][29]and should not run attached files or programs, or visit web sites that are linked to such emails. However, as with theILOVEYOUworm, and with the increased growth and efficiency ofphishingattacks, it remains possible to trick the end-user into running malicious code.
Anti-virusandanti-spywaresoftware are helpful, but must be kept up-to-date with new pattern files at least every few days. The use of afirewallis also recommended.
Users can minimize the threat posed by worms by keeping their computers' operating system and other software up to date, avoiding opening unrecognized or unexpected emails and runningfirewalland antivirus software.[30]
Mitigation techniques include:
Infections can sometimes be detected by their behavior - typically scanning the Internet randomly, looking for vulnerable hosts to infect.[31][32]In addition, machine learning techniques can be used to detect new worms, by analyzing the behavior of the suspected computer.[33]
Ahelpful wormoranti-wormis a worm designed to do something that its author feels is helpful, though not necessarily with the permission of the executing computer's owner. Beginning with the first research into worms atXerox PARC, there have been attempts to create useful worms. Those worms allowedJohn Shochand Jon Hupp to test theEthernetprinciples on their network ofXerox Altocomputers.[34]Similarly, theNachifamily of worms tried to download and install patches from Microsoft's website to fix vulnerabilities in the host system by exploiting those same vulnerabilities.[35]In practice, although this may have made these systems more secure, it generated considerable network traffic, rebooted the machine in the course of patching it, and did its work without the consent of the computer's owner or user. Regardless of their payload or their writers' intentions, security experts regard all worms asmalware. Another example of this approach isRoku OSpatching a bug allowing for Roku OS to be rooted via an update to their screensaver channels, which the screensaver would attempt to connect to the telnet and patch the device.[36]
One study proposed the first computer worm that operates on the second layer of theOSI model(Data link Layer), utilizing topology information such asContent-addressable memory(CAM) tables and Spanning Tree information stored in switches to propagate and probe for vulnerable nodes until the enterprise network is covered.[37]
Anti-worms have been used to combat the effects of theCode Red,[38]Blaster, andSantyworms.Welchiais an example of a helpful worm.[39]Utilizing the same deficiencies exploited by theBlaster worm, Welchia infected computers and automatically began downloadingMicrosoftsecurity updates forWindowswithout the users' consent. Welchia automatically reboots the computers it infects after installing the updates. One of these updates was the patch that fixed the exploit.[39]
Other examples of helpful worms are "Den_Zuko", "Cheeze", "CodeGreen", and "Millenium".[39]
Art worms support artists in the performance of massive scale ephemeral artworks. It turns the infected computers into nodes that contribute to the artwork.[40]
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Amobile operating systemis anoperating systemused forsmartphones,tablets,smartwatches, smartglasses, or other non-laptoppersonalmobile computing devices. While computers such aslaptopsare "mobile", the operating systems used on them are usually not considered mobile, as they were originally designed fordesktop computersthat historically did not have or need specificmobilefeatures. This "fine line" distinguishing mobile and other forms has become blurred in recent years, due to the fact that newer devices have become smaller and more mobile, unlike thehardwareof the past. Key notabilities blurring this line are the introduction oftablet computers, lightlaptops, and the hybridization of the2-in-1 PCs.
Mobile operating systems combine features of adesktop computeroperating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use, and usually including a wireless inbuilt modem andSIMtray for telephone and data connection. In Q1 2018, over 123 million smartphones were sold (the most ever recorded) with 60.2% runningAndroidand 20.9% runningiOS.[1]Sales in 2012 were 1.56 billion; sales in 2023 were 1.43 billion[2]with 53.32% beingAndroid.[3]Android alone has more sales than the popular desktop operating systemMicrosoft Windows, and smartphone use (even without tablets) outnumbers desktop use.[4]
Mobile devices, with mobile communications abilities (for example,smartphones), contain two mobile operating systems. The main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary real-time operating system which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.[5]
Mobile operating systems have had the most use of any operating system since 2017 (measured by web use).[2]
Mobile operating system milestones mirror the development ofmobile phones,PDAs, and smartphones:
These operating systems often run atopbasebandor otherreal-time operating systemsthat handle hardware aspects of the phone.
Android (based on the modifiedLinux kernel) is a mobile operating system developed by Open Handset Alliance.[118]The base system isopen-source(and only the kernelcopyleft), but the apps and drivers which provide functionality are increasingly becomingclosed-source.[119]Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system forgeneral purpose computers[further explanation needed](a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop)personal computers(PCs). Although the Android operating system isfree and open-source software,[120]in devices sold, much of the softwarebundledwith it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) isproprietary softwareand closed-source.[121]
Android's releases before2.0(1.0,1.5,1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets.Android 3.0was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones. Both phone and tablet compatibility were merged withAndroid 4.0. The current Android version isAndroid 14, released on October 4, 2023.
Android One, a successor toGoogle Nexus, is a software experience that runs on the unmodified Android operating system. Unlike most of the "stock" Androids running on the market, the Android OneUser Interface(UI) closely resembles theGoogle PixelUI, due to Android One being a software experience developed by Google and distributed to partners such asNokia Mobile (HMD)andXiaomi. Thus, the UI is intended to be as clean as possible.Original equipment manufacturer(OEM) partners may tweak or add additional apps such as cameras to thefirmware, but most of the apps are handled proprietarily by Google. Operating system updates are handled by Google and internally tested by OEMs before being distributed via anOTA updatetoend users.
BharOS is a mobile operating system in India. It is an Indian government-funded project to develop a free and open-source operating system (OS) for use in government and public systems.
BlackBerry Secure is an operating system developed byBlackBerry, based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). BlackBerry officially announced the name for their Android-basedfront-endtouch interfacein August 2017, before which BlackBerry Secure was running on BlackBerry brand devices, such asBlackBerry Priv,DTEK 50/60andBlackBerry KeyOne. Currently, BlackBerry plans to license out the BlackBerry Secure to other OEMs.
CalyxOSis anoperating systemfor smartphones based on Android with mostlyfree and open-sourcesoftware. It is produced by theCalyx Instituteas part of its mission to "defend online privacy, security and accessibility."
Cherry OSis a customized operating system that was developed byCherry Mobile. It was first released in 2017 and has been developed with a light interface, optimized performance, tools for security, battery management, and access to localized apps.
ColorOSis a custom front-end touch interface based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP) and developed byOPPO Electronics Corp.In 2016, OPPO officially released ColorOS with every OPPO andRealmedevice and released an officialROMfor theOnePlus One. Future Realme devices will have their own version of ColorOS.
CopperheadOSis asecurity-hardenedversion of Android.
DivestOSis a soft fork ofLineageOS.[122]Includes Monthly Updates, FOSS Focus, Deblobbing, Security and Privacy focus, and F-Droid[123]
Huawei EMUI is the front-end touch interface developed byHuawei Technologies Co. Ltd.and its sub-brandHonorwhich is based on Google's Android Open Source Project (AOSP). EMUI is preinstalled on most Huawei and Honor devices. While it was based on the open-source Android operating system, it consists of closed-source proprietary software. Since the US sanctions, it is currently a fork of Android similar to FireOS instead of a compatible one.
In mainland China, and internationally since 2020 due to U.S. sanctions, EMUI devices use Huawei Mobile Services such as Huawei AppGallery instead of Google Mobile Services. Aside from being based on Android, Huawei also bundles the HarmonyOS microkernel in the latest EMUI update inside Android, which handles other processes including security authentication such as the fingerprint authentication.[124]
/e/ is an operating systemforkedfrom the source code ofLineageOS(based on Android). /e/ targets Android smart phone devices and usesMicroGas a replacement forGoogle Play Services.[125]/e/OS is not completelyopen source software, because it comes with the proprietary Magic Earth 'Maps' app.
Amazon Fire OSis a mobile operating system forked from Android and produced byAmazonfor itsFire range of tablets,Echoand Echo Dot, and other content delivery devices likeFire TV(previously for theirFire Phone). Fire OS primarily centers on content consumption, with a customized user interface and heavy ties to content available from Amazon's own storefronts and services.
Flyme OSis an operating system developed byMeizu Technology Co., Ltd., anopen-sourceoperating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). Flyme OS is mainly installed on Meizu smartphones such as theMX series. However, it also has officialROMsupport for a few Android devices.
Funtouch OSis a custom user interface developed byVivothat is based on the Android Open Source Project. FuntouchOS 10.5 had a redesigned UI that resembled stock Androids.
iQOO UI was a custom user interface based on Vivo's FuntouchOS. The UI largely resembled its predecessor, with a customized UI on top of the FuntouchOS. It was installed on iQOO smartphones sold inChinaand later was succeeded by OriginOS
GrapheneOS is a variant of Android forPixelhardware.
Hello UI (formerly called My UI and My UX) is a custom Android UI developed by Motorola for their devices. It used to look like the stock Android user experience up until My UI 3.x.
HiOS is an Android-based operating system developed byHong Kongmobile phone manufacturerTecno Mobile, a subsidiary ofTranssion Holdings, exclusively for their smartphones. HiOS allows for a wide range of user customization without requiringrootingthe mobile device. The operating system is also bundled with utility applications that allow users to free up memory, freeze applications, limit data accessibility to applications among others. HiOS comes with features like Launcher, Private Safe, Split Screen and Lockscreen Notification.
HTC Sense is a software suite developed by HTC, used primarily on the company's Android-based devices. Serving as a successor to HTC'sTouchFLO 3Dsoftware forWindows Mobile, Sense modifies many aspects of the Androiduser experience, incorporating added features (such as an altered home screen and keyboard),widgets, HTC-developed applications, and redesigned applications. The first device with Sense, theHTC Hero, was released in 2009.
Xiaomi HyperOS or HyperOS (formerly calledMIUI[127][128]), developed by the Chinese electronic companyXiaomi, is a mobile operating system based on theAndroid Open Source Project(AOSP). It is mostly founded in Xiaomi smartphones and tablets such as the Xiaomi (formerly Mi) andRedmiSeries. However, MIUI also had official ROM support for a few Android devices. Although HyperOS is based on AOSP, which is open-source, it consisted of closed-source proprietary software.
A specific version of MIUI developed for Xiaomi sub-brand (Currently an independence brand)POCO, the overall experience of the "skin" was similar to those of standard MIUI expect during the early release of MIUI for POCO where compared to standard MIUI it has an app drawer and allowed for 3rd party Android icon customization. Whereas the current MIUI for POCO shared all the common experience with those of standard MIUI, except the icon and the POCO Launcher instead of stock MIUI Launcher. In 2024 MIUI for POCO was replaced by Xiaomi HyperOS.
Indus OS is a custom mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). It is developed by the Indus OS team based in India. No longer valid as of 2018, Indus OS is available onMicromax,Intex,Karbonn, and other Indian smartphone brands.
LG UX (formerlyOptimus UI) was a front-end touch interface developed by LG Electronics and partners, featuring a fulltouch user interface. It was not an operating system. LG UX was used internally by LG for sophisticatedfeature phonesand tablet computers, and was not available for licensing by external parties.
Optimus UI 2, based on Android 4.1.2, has been released on the Optimus K II and the Optimus Neo 3. It features a more refined user interface compared to the prior version based on Android 4.1.1, along with new functionalities such as voice shutter and quick memo.
Lineage Android Distribution is a custom mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). It serves as the successor to the highly popular custom ROM,CyanogenMod, from which it was forked in December 2016 when Cyanogen Inc. announced it was discontinuing development and shut down the infrastructure behind the project. Since Cyanogen Inc. retained the rights to the Cyanogen name, the project rebranded its fork as LineageOS.
Similar to CyanogenMod, it does not include any proprietary apps unless the user installs them. It allows Android users who can no longer obtain update support from their manufacturer to continue updating their OS version to the latest one based on official release from Google AOSP and heavy theme customization.
"MagicOS" (formerly known as Magic UI and Magic Live) is a front-end touch interface developed byHonoras a subsidiary of Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd before Honor became an independent company.
Magic UI is based on HuaweiEMUI, which is based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). The overall user interface looks almost identical to EMUI, even after the separation. While it was based on the open-source Android operating system, it consists of closed-source proprietary software.
Due to sanctions imposed by the US on Huawei, new devices released by both Huawei and Honor are no longer allowed to includeGoogle Mobile Services. To allow Honor to regain access to Google services, Huawei sold off Honor to become an independent company, thereby allowing them to pre-install Google Mobile Services on their latest devices.
MyOS (formerly called MiFavor) is a custom Android UI developed byZTEfor their flagship smartphones andnubiasmartphones. MyOS is based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). This is a redesign from their previous custom Android UI, MiFavor.
Nothing OS is a custom Android UI developed byNothingfor theirNothing Phone (1). Nothing OS design interface are identical to the stock Android and Pixel UI experience, aside from their custom font and widget which is based on dot design.
nubia UI was a custom Android UI developed byZTEandnubiafor their smartphones. nubia UI was based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP).
One UI (formerly calledTouchWizandSamsung Experience) is a user interface developed by Samsung Electronics in 2008 with partners. It is not a true operating system, but auser experience. Samsung Experience is used internally by Samsung for smartphones,feature phones, and tablet computers. The Android version of Samsung Experience also came with Samsung-made apps preloaded until theGalaxy S6, which removed all Samsung pre-loaded apps exceptSamsung Galaxy Store(formerly Galaxy Apps) to save storage space due to the removal of itsMicroSD. With the release of Samsung Galaxy S8 and S8+, Samsung Experience 8.1 was preinstalled on it with new functions, known as Samsung DeX. Similar to the concept of Microsoft Continuum, Samsung DeX allowed high-end Galaxy devices such as S8/S8+ or Note 8 to connect into a docking station, which extends the device to allow desktop-like functionality by connecting a keyboard, mouse, and monitor. Samsung also announced "Linux on Galaxy", which allows users to use the standard Linux distribution on the DeX platform.
Additionally, starting fromGalaxy Note 3onwards. Samsung had includedKnox, a hardware-based security platform to most of their Galaxy phones as an additional security measure on top of the TEE OS. Allowing user to have a secure environment in within their Secure Folder to have more protected environment to install sensitive apps, which separated from the main homescreen.
Origin OSis a custom user interface developed by Vivo that is based on Android. It is a redesigned skin of Funtouch OS. It is currently only available in China but may someday be released globally.
OxygenOS is based on the open source Android Open Source Project (AOSP) and is developed byOnePlusto replace Cyanogen OS on OnePlus devices such as theOnePlus One. It is preinstalled on theOnePlus 2,OnePlus X,OnePlus 3,OnePlus 3T,OnePlus 5,OnePlus 5T, andOnePlus 6.[130]As stated by Oneplus, OxygenOS is focused on stabilizing and maintaining of stock Android functionalities like those found onNexusdevices. It consists of mainly Google apps and minor UI customization to maintain the sleekness of stock Android.
Google Pixel UIor Pixel Launcher is developed by Google and based on the open-source Android system. Unlike Nexus phones, where Google shipped with stock Android, the UI that came with first-generationPixelphones was slightly modified. As part of the Google Pixel software, the Pixel UI and its home launcher are closed-source and proprietary, so it is only available on Pixel family devices. However, third-party mods allow non-Pixel smartphones to install Pixel Launcher withGoogle Nowfeed integration. FromPixel 3series onwards, Google had included the Trusty OS as their TEE OS running aside Android.
realme UI is a mobile operating system developed byRealmewhich is based onOPPOColorOS, which itself is based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). The UI mostly resemble its predecessor, but with a custom UI on top of ColorOS to match Realme's target audience.
realme UI R edition is a custom Android skin that Realme developed for their lower-end device line with "C" and Narzo series, the Android-based line of is based onAndroid Go, hence the overall experience is tune down to allowed for smoother experience on budget Realme devices.
Red Magic OS is a mobile operating system developed by ZTE andNubiafor their Red Magic devices.
Replicant is a custom mobile operating system based on the Android with all proprietary drivers andbloatedclosed-source software removed.
TCL UI is a custom user interface developed byTCL Technologyfor their in-house smartphone series. The OS is based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP).
VOS is a custom Android UI developed byBQ AquarisandVsmart.
XOS (formerly known as XUI) is an Android-based operating system developed byHong Kongmobile phone manufacturerInfinix Mobile, a subsidiary ofTranssion Holdings, exclusively for their smartphones. XOS allows for a wide range of user customization without requiringrootingthe mobile device. The operating system comes with utility applications that allow users to protect their privacy, improve speed, enhance their experience, etc. XOS comes with features like XTheme, Scan to Recharge, Split Screen and XManager.
Sony Xperia UI (formerly known as Sony Ericsson Timescape UI) was the front-end UI developed bySony Mobile(formerly Sony Ericsson) in 2010 for their Android-basedSony Xperiaseries. Sony Xperia UI mostly consisted of Sony's own applications such as Sony Music (formerly known as Walkman Music player), Albums and Video Player. During its time as Timescape UI, the UI differed from the standard Android UI—instead of traditional apps dock on the bottom part, they were located at the four corners of the home screen, while the middle of the screen consisted of thewidget. However, recent UI developments more closely resemble those of stock Android.
ZenUI is a front-end touch interface developed byASUSwith partners, featuring a full touch user interface. ZenUI is used by ASUS for itsAndroid phonesand tablet computers, and is not available for licensing by external parties. ZenUI also comes preloaded with ASUS-made apps like ZenLink (PC Link, Share Link, Party Link & Remote Link).
ZUI is a custom operating system originally developed byLenovosubsidiaryZUK Mobilefor their smartphones. However, after the shutting down of ZUK Mobile, Lenovo took over as the main developer of ZUI. The operating system is based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP).
Wear OS (also known simply as Wear and formerly Android Wear) is a version of Google's Android operating system designed for smartwatches and otherwearables. By pairing with mobile phones running Android version 6.0 or newer, or iOS version 10.0 or newer with limited support from Google's pairing application, Wear OS integratesGoogle Assistanttechnology and mobile notifications into a smartwatch form factor.
In May 2021 atGoogle I/O, Google announced a major update to the platform, internally known as Wear OS 3.0. It incorporates a new visual design inspired by Android 12, and Fitbit exercise tracking features. Google also announced a partnership with Samsung Electronics, who is collaborating with Google to unify its Tizen-based smartwatch platform with Wear OS, and has committed to using Wear OS on its future smartwatch products. The underlying codebase was also upgraded to Android 11. Wear OS 3.0 will be available to Wear OS devices runningQualcomm SnapdragonWear 4100system on chip, and will be an opt-in upgrade requiring a factory reset to install.
One UI Watch is the user interface Samsung developed for their Wear OS based smartwatch, officially announced after both Google and Samsung confirmed they would unify their respective wearable operating systems (Google Wear OS 2.0 and Samsung Tizen) into Wear OS 3.0.
ChromeOS is an operating system designed by Google that is based on the Linux kernel and uses theGoogle Chromeweb browser as its principal user interface. As a result, ChromeOS primarily supportsweb applications. Google announced the project in July 2009, conceiving it as an operating system in which both applications and user data reside in thecloud: hence ChromeOS primarily runsweb applications.[132]
Due to increase of popularity with 2-in-1 PCs, most recent Chromebooks are introduced with touch screen capability, with Android applications starting to become available for the operating system in 2014. And in 2016, access to Android apps in the entireGoogle Play Storewas introduced on supported ChromeOS devices. With the support of Android applications, there are Chromebook devices that are positioned as tablet based instead of notebooks.
ChromeOS is only available pre-installed on hardware from Google manufacturing partners. An open source equivalent,ChromiumOS, can becompiledfrom downloadedsource code. Early on, Google provided design goals for ChromeOS, but has not otherwise released a technical description.
Sailfish OS is from Jolla. It is open source withGNU General Public License(GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third-party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is proprietary software (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI.
After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the MeeGo project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and Mer business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, theJolla smartphone, was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, Jolla Tablet was launched and theBRICScountries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits.
Nemo Mobileis a community-driven OS, similar to Sailfish but attempting to replace its proprietary components, such as the user interface.[133][134][135]
SteamOS is aLinux distributiondeveloped byValve. It incorporates Valve's popular namesakeSteamvideo game storefront and is the primary operating system forSteam Machinesand theSteam Deck. SteamOS isopen sourcewith some closed source components.
SteamOS was originally built to support streaming of video games from onepersonal computerto the one running SteamOS within the same network, although the operating system can support standalone systems and was intended to be used as part of Valve'sSteam Machineplatform. SteamOS versions 1.0, released in December 2013, and 2.0 were based on theDebiandistribution of Linux withGNOMEdesktop.[136]With SteamOS, Valve encouraged developers to incorporate Linux compatibility into their releases to better support Linux gaming options.
In February 2022, Valve released thehandheldgaming computerSteam Deckrunning SteamOS 3.0. SteamOS 3 is based on theArch Linuxdistribution withKDE Plasma 5.[137][138]
Tizen (based on the Linux kernel) is a mobile operating system hosted by Linux Foundation, together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of Intel and Samsung.
Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets,In-Vehicle Infotainment(IVI) devices, however currently it mainly focuses on wearable and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed-source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and theWebKitruntime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo."HTML5apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.[139][140]On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.[141]
While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that was developed by Samsung was mainly closed-source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone and One UI for their Galaxy Watch wearable lines.
Note that some refrigerators use Tizen,[142]even though they are not considered mobile devices.
Samsung has revealed plans to discontinue the Tizen operating system by the end of 2025, marking a complete halt in support for the smartwatch OS. The company ceased using Tizen OS with its Galaxy Watch4 release, favoring a hybrid OS developed with Google.
KaiOS is from Kai. It is based onFirefox OS/Boot to Gecko. Unlike most mobile operating systems which focus on smartphones, KaiOS was developed mainly for feature phones, giving these access to more advanced technologies usually found on smartphones, such as app stores and Wi-Fi/4G capabilities.[143]
It is a mix of closed-source and open-source components.[144][145]FirefoxOS/B2G was released under the permissiveMPL 2.0. It does not redistribute itself under the same license, so KaiOS is now presumably proprietary (but still mostlyopen-source, publishing its source code).[144][145]KaiOS is not entirely proprietary, as it uses the copyleftGPLLinux kernel also used in Android.[146]
Smart Feature OSis a custom version of KaiOS that was developed and solely used byHMD Globalfor their KaiOS line of Nokia feature phone. The main differences between stock KaiOS and Smart Feature OS is the aesthetics such as icons, widgets, a custom Nokia ringtone and notification tone.
Fuchsia is a capability-based, real-time operating system (RTOS) currently being developed by Google. It was first discovered as a mysterious code post on GitHub in August 2016, without any official announcement. In contrast to prior Google-developed operating systems such as ChromeOS and Android, which are based on Linux kernels, Fuchsia is based on a new microkernel called "Zircon", derived from "Little Kernel", a small operating system intended for embedded systems. This allows it to remove Linux and the copyleftGPLunder which the Linux kernel is licensed; Fuchsia is licensed under thepermissiveBSD 3-clause,Apache 2.0, andMIT licenses. Upon inspection, media outlets noted that the code post on GitHub suggested Fuchsia's capability to run on universal devices, from embedded systems to smartphones, tablets and personal computers. In May 2017, Fuchsia was updated with a user interface, along with a developer writing that the project was not a for experimental, prompting media speculation about Google's intentions with the operating system, including the possibility of it replacing Android.[147]
LiteOS is a discontinued lightweight open source real-time operating system which is part of Huawei's "1+2+1" Internet of Things solution, which is similar to Google Android Things and Samsung Tizen. It was released under thepermissiveBSD 3-clause license. LiteOS was used in the Huawei Watch GT series and their sub-brand Honor Magic Watch series.[citation needed]
OpenHarmonyis an open-source version of HarmonyOS developed and donated by Huawei to the OpenAtom Foundation. It supports devices running a mini system with memory as small as 128 KB, or running a standard system with memory greater than 128 MB. The open sourceHarmonyOSis based on the HuaweiLiteOSkernel andLinux kernelfor standard systems. OpenHarmony LiteOS Cortex-A brings small-sized, low-power, and high-performance experience and builds a unified and open ecosystem for developers. In addition, it provides rich kernel mechanisms, more comprehensive Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX), and a unified driver framework, Hardware Driver Foundation (HDF), which offers unified access for device developers and friendly development experience for application developers.[citation needed]
Fedora Mobility is under developing mobile operating system by the Fedora Project that are porting Fedora to run on portable devices such as phones and tablets.
LuneOS is a modern reimplementation of the Palm/HP webOS interface.
Manjaro ARM is a mobile operating system with Plasma Mobile desktop environment that is running and default operating system on the PinePhone, an ARM-based smartphone released by Pine64.
A mobileDebianfocused forPinePhoneand soonLibrem.[citation needed]
Plasma Mobile is a Plasma variant for smartphones.[148]Plasma Mobile runs onWaylandand it is compatible with Ubuntu Touch applications,[149]PureOSapplications,[150]and eventually Android applications[151]via KDE'sShashlikproject – also sponsored by Blue Systems,[152][153]orAnbox. It is under the copyleftGPLv2license.
TheNecunophone uses Plasma Mobile. It is entirely open-source and thus does not have a cellular modem, so it must make calls byVOIP, like a pocket computer.[154]
postmarketOS is based on theAlpine LinuxLinux distribution. It is intended to run on older phone hardware. As of 2019[update]it is inalpha.
PureOS is a Debian GNU/Linux derivative using onlyfree softwaremeeting theDebian Free Software Guidelines, mainly thecopyleftGPL. PureOS is endorsed byFree Software Foundationas one of the freedom-respecting operating systems.[155]It is developed byPurism, and was already in use on Purism's laptops before it was used on theLibrem 5smartphone. Purism, in partnership withGNOMEandKDE, aims to separate theCPUfrom thebaseband processorand include hardwarekill switchesfor the phone'sWi-Fi,Bluetooth, camera, microphone, and baseband processor, and provide both GNOME andKDE Plasma Mobileas options for the desktop environment.[156][157]
Ubuntu Touch is an open-source (GPL) mobile version of theUbuntuoperating system[112]originally developed in 2013 byCanonical Ltd.and continued by the non-profit UBports Foundation in 2017.[158][159]Ubuntu Touch can run on a pure GNU/Linux base on phones with the required drivers, such as theLibrem 5[150]and thePinePhone.[160]To enable hardware that was originally shipped with Android, Ubuntu Touch makes use of the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via anLXCcontainer, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.[161][162]As of February 2022, Ubuntu Touch is available on 78 phones and tablets.[112][163]The UBports Installer serves as an easy-to-use tool to allow inexperienced users to install the operating system on third-party devices without damaging their hardware.[112][164]
iOS (formerly named iPhone OS) was created byApple Inc.It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.[165]It is closed-source and proprietary, and is built on the open sourceDarwinoperating system. The iPhone,iPod Touch,iPad, and second and third-generationApple TVall use iOS, which is derived frommacOS.
Native third-party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "jailbreaking" allowed third-party applications to be installed. In recent years, the jailbreaking scene has changed drastically due to Apple's continued efforts to secure their operating system and prevent unauthorized modifications. Currently, jailbreaks of recent iterations of iOS are only semi-untethered, which requires a device to be re-jailbroken at every boot, and exploits for jailbreaks are becoming increasingly hard to find and use.
Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured byFoxconnor another of Apple's partners.
iPadOS is a tablet operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. specifically for their iPad line of tablet computers. It was announced at the company's 2019 Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC), as a derivation from iOS but with a greater emphasis put on multitasking. It was released on September 24, 2019.
watchOS is the operating system of the Apple Watch, developed by Apple Inc. It is based on the iOS operating system and has many similar features. It was released on April 24, 2015, along with the Apple Watch, the only device that runs watchOS. It is currently the most widely used wearable operating system. It features focus on convenience, such as being able to place phone calls and send texts, and health, such as fitness and heart rate tracking.
The most current version of the watchOS operating system iswatchOS 10.
Kindle firmware is a mobile operating system specifically designed forAmazon Kindlee-readers. It is based on a custom Linux kernel, but it is mostly closed-source and proprietary.
HarmonyOS is a distributed operating system developed by Huawei that was specifically designed for smartphones, tablets, TVs, smartwatches, smart devices made by Huawei. It is based on a proprietary multi-kernel and Linux kernel subsystem. Released officially for smartphones on June 2, 2021, from its initial launch on August 9, 2019, for smart screen TVs. On August 4, 2023, Huawei announces its full stackHarmonyOS NEXTfor HarmonyOS that will replace the current multi-kernel stack that contains Linux kernel subsystem with APK apps, with only native HarmonyOS apps able to be used. On January 18, 2024, Galaxy Edition version was announced to be used for the next version of HarmonyOS.
TheNintendo Switch system software(also known by its codename Horizon) is an updatable firmware and operating system used by theNintendo Switchhybrid video game console/tablet andNintendo Switch Litehandheld game console. It is based on a proprietary microkernel. The UI includes a HOME screen, consisting of the top bar, the screenshot viewer ("Album"), and shortcuts to the Nintendo eShop, News, and Settings.
The system itself is based on theNintendo 3DS system software, additionally the networking stack in the Switch OS is derived at least in part fromFreeBSDcode while the Stagefright multimedia framework is derived fromAndroidcode.
ThePlayStation Vita system softwareis the official firmware and operating system for thePlayStation VitaandPlayStation TVvideo game consoles. It uses the LiveArea as its graphical shell. The PlayStation Vita system software has one optional add-on component, the PlayStation Mobile Runtime Package. The system is built on a Unix-base which is derived from FreeBSD and NetBSD.
Windows 10 (not to be confused with Windows 10 Mobile—see below) is a personal computer operating system developed and released by Microsoft as part of theWindows NTfamilyof operating systems. It was released on July 29, 2015, and manyeditionsandversionshave been released since then. It was designed to run across multiple Microsoft product such as PCs and Tablets. The Windows user interface was revised to handle transitions between a mouse-oriented interface and a touchscreen-optimized interface based on available input devices particularly on 2-in-1 PCs.
Windows 10 also introduced universal apps, expanding on Metro-style apps, these apps can be designed to run across multiple Microsoft product families with nearly identical code including PCs, tablets, smartphones, embedded systems, Xbox One, Surface Hub and Mixed Reality.
Windows 11 is a major version of theWindows NToperating system developed by Microsoft that was announced on June 24, 2021, and is the successor to Windows 10, which was released in 2015. Windows 11 was released on October 5, 2021, as a free upgrade viaWindows Updatefor eligible devices running Windows 10.
Microsoft promoted that Windows 11 would have improved performance and ease of use over Windows 10; it features major changes to the Windowsshellinfluenced by the canceledWindows 10X, including a redesignedStart menu, the replacement of its "live tiles" with a separate "Widgets" panel on thetaskbar, the ability to create tiled sets of windows that can be minimized and restored from thetaskbaras a group, and new gaming technologies inherited fromXbox Series X and Series Ssuch asAuto HDRandDirectStorageon compatible hardware.Internet Exploreris fully replaced by theBlink layout engine-basedMicrosoft Edge, whileMicrosoft Teamsis integrated into the Windows shell. Microsoft also announced plans to offer support for Androidappsto run on Windows 11, with support forAmazon Appstoreand manually-installedpackages. On March 5, 2024, Microsoft announced that Android apps support will be depreciated on March 5, 2025.
Similar to Windows 10, it was designed to run across multiple Microsoft product such as PCs and Tablets. The Windows user interface was further revised to combine the UI element of both mouse-oriented interface and a touchscreen-optimized interface based into a hybrid UI that combined the capabilities of touch with a traditional desktop UI.
Other than the major operating systems, some companies such as Huami (Amazfit), Huawei, realme, TCL, and Xiaomi have developed their own proprietary RTOSes specifically for their own smartbands and smartwatches that are designed for power effiency and lower battery consumption and are not based on any other operating system.
Operating System that is primarily designed for their Bip series, however, Huami is currently developing the operating system to run on other smartwatches as well.
Huawei Band Operating system is an operating system specifically designed and developed by Huawei for their fitness trackers, including smartbands fromHonor
Proprietary OS developed by Lenovo for their fitness trackers and smartwatches.
A proprietary operating system design to run on realme smartbands and smartwatches.
A proprietary RTOS powering TCL and Alcatel branded smartbands and smartwatches.
Proprietary RTOS that is developed by Huami for theXiaomi Mi Bandseries.
CyanogenMod was a custom mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). It was a custom ROM that was co-developed by the CyanogenMod community. The OS did not include any proprietary apps unless the user installed them. Due to its open source nature, CyanogenMod allowed Android users who could no longer obtain update support from their manufacturer to continue updating their OS version to the latest one based on official releases from Google AOSP and heavy theme customization. The last version of the OS was CyanogenMod 13 which was based on Android Asus.
On December 24, 2016, CyanogenMod announced on their blog that they would no longer be releasing any CyanogenMod updates. All development moved to LineageOS.
Cyanogen OS was based onCyanogenModand maintained by Cyanogen Inc; however, it included proprietary apps and it was only available for commercial uses.
Firefox OS (formerly known as "Boot to Gecko" and shortly "B2G")[166]is from Mozilla. It was an open source mobile operating system released under theMozilla Public Licensebuilt on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android.
According toArs Technica, "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."[167]In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.[168]
MeeGowas from non-profit organizationThe Linux Foundation. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010Mobile World Congressin Barcelona, Nokia and Intel both unveiledMeeGo, a mobile operating system that combined Moblin and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced theNokia N9on June 21, 2011, at the Nokia Connection event[169]in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.[170]Maemo was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones andInternet tablets. It is open source and GPL, based onDebian GNU/Linuxand draws much of itsgraphical user interface(GUI),frameworks, andlibrariesfrom the GNOME project. It uses theMatchboxwindow manager and theGTK-basedHildonas its GUI andapplication framework.
webOS was developed by Palm. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with thePalm Pre. After being acquired by HP, two phones (theVeerand thePre 3) and a tablet (theTouchPad) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,[171]but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.[172]HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.[173]On February 25, 2013, HP announced the sale of webOS to LG Electronics, who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog.
Bada platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy.
On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to Tizen instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.[174]
In 1999,Research In Motionreleased its first BlackBerry devices, providing secure real-time push-email communications on wireless devices. Services such as BlackBerry Messenger provide the integration of all communications into a single inbox. In September 2012, RIM announced that the 200 millionth BlackBerry smartphone was shipped. As of September 2014, there were around 46 million active BlackBerry service subscribers.[175]In the early 2010s, RIM underwent a platform transition, changing its company name to BlackBerry Limited and making new devices using a new operating system named "BlackBerry 10".[176]
BlackBerry 10 (based on theQNXOS) is from BlackBerry. As a smartphone OS, it is closed-source and proprietary, and only runs on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry.
One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue to support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.[177][178]Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development.[179]
TheNintendo 3DS system softwareis the updatable operating system used by the Nintendo 3DS.
Symbian platform was developed by Nokia for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (Sony Ericsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.[180]
Palm OS/Garnet OS was fromAccess Co.It is closed-source and proprietary. webOS was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies,open architectureand multitasking abilities.
Windows Mobile was a family of proprietary operating systems from Microsoft aimed at business and enterprise users, based on Windows CE and originally developed forPocket PC(PDA) devices. In 2010 it was replaced with the consumer-focused Windows Phone.[118][55]
Versions of Windows Mobile came in multiple editions, like "Pocket PC Premium", "Pocket PC Professional", "Pocket PC Phone", and "Smartphone" (Windows Mobile 2003) or "Professional", "Standard", and "Classic" (Windows Mobile 6.0). Some editions were touchscreen-only and some were keyboard-only, although there were cases where device vendors managed to graft support for one onto an edition targeted at the other. Cellular phone features were also only supported by some editions. Microsoft started work on a version of Windows Mobile that would combine all features together, but it was aborted, and instead they focused on developing the non-backward-compatible, touchscreen-only Windows Phone 7.[76]
Windows Phone is a proprietary mobile operating system developed by Microsoft for smartphones as the replacement successor to Windows Mobile andZune. Windows Phone features a new touchscreen-oriented user interface derived from Metro design language. Windows Phone was replaced by Windows 10 Mobile in 2015.
Windows 10 Mobile (formerly called Windows Phone) was from Microsoft. It was closed-source and proprietary.
Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone included a user interface inspired by Microsoft'sMetro Design Language. It was integrated with Microsoft services such asOneDriveand Office,Xbox Music,Xbox Video,Xbox Livegames, andBing, but also integrated with many other non-Microsoft services such asFacebookandGoogle accounts. Windows Phone devices were made primarily byMicrosoft Mobile/Nokia, and also by HTC and Samsung.
On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand would be phased out and replaced with Windows 10 Mobile, bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart Windows 10, and providing a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches.
On October 8, 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile. The operating system was put in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only. Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.[113][114]
On January 18, 2019, Microsoft announced that support for Windows 10 Mobile wouldendon December 10, 2019, with no further security updates released after then, and that Windows 10 Mobile users should migrate to iOS or Android phones.[116][117]
The released version of Windows 10 Mobile were:
Windows 8is a major release of theWindows NToperating systemdeveloped byMicrosoft. It wasreleased to manufacturingon August 1, 2012, and was made available for download viaMSDNandTechNeton August 15, 2012.[181]Nearly three months after its initial release, it finally made its first retail appearance on October 26, 2012.[182]
Windows 8 introduced major changes to the operating system's platform anduser interfacewith the intention to improve its user experience ontablets, whereWindowscompeted with mobile operating systems such asAndroidandiOS.[183]In particular, these changes included a touch-optimizedWindows shellandstart screenbased on Microsoft'sMetrodesign language, integration with online services, theWindows Store, and a new keyboard shortcut forscreenshots.[184]Many of these features were adapted fromWindows Phone. Windows 8 also added support forUSB 3.0,Advanced Format,near-field communication, andcloud computing, as well as a new lock screen with clock and notifications and the previously released "Domino" and "Beauty and a Beat". Additional security features—including built-inantivirus software, integration withMicrosoft SmartScreenphishing filtering, and support forSecure Booton supported devices—were introduced. It was the first Windows version to support ARM architecture under theWindows RTbranding. No CPUs withoutPAE,SSE2andNXare supported in this version.
Windows 8.1is a release of theWindows NToperating systemdeveloped byMicrosoft. It wasreleased to manufacturingon August 27, 2013, and broadly released for retail sale on October 17, 2013, about a year after the retail release of its predecessor, and succeeded byWindows 10on July 29, 2015. Windows 8.1 was made available for download viaMSDNandTechnetand available as a free upgrade for retail copies ofWindows 8andWindows RTusers via theWindows Store. Aserverversion,Windows Server 2012 R2, was released on October 18, 2013.
Windows 8.1 aimed to address complaints of Windows 8 users and reviewers on launch. Enhancements include an improvedStart screen, additional snap views, additional bundled apps, tighterOneDrive(formerly SkyDrive) integration,Internet Explorer 11(IE11), aBing-powered unified search system, restoration of a visibleStart buttonon thetaskbar, and the ability to restore the previous behavior of opening the user's desktop on login instead of the Start screen.
In 2006, Android and iOS did not exist and only 64 million smartphones were sold.[185]In 2018 Q1, 183.5 million smartphones were sold and global market share was 48.9% for Android and 19.1% for iOS. Only 131,000 smartphones running other operating systems were sold, constituting 0.03% of sales.[186]
According toStatCounterweb use statistics (a proxy for all use), smartphones (alone without tablets) have majority use globally, with desktop computers used much less (and Android, in particular, more popular than Windows).[187]Use varies however by continent with smartphones way more popular in the biggest continents, i.e. Asia, and the desktop still more popular in some, though not in North America.
The desktop is still popular in many countries (while overall down to 44.9% in the first quarter of 2017[188]), smartphones are more popular even in many developed countries (or about to be in more). A few countries on any continent are desktop-minority; European countries (and some in South America, and a few, e.g. Haiti, in North America; and most in Asia and Africa) are smartphone-majority, Poland and Turkey highest with 57.68% and 62.33%, respectively. In Ireland, smartphone use at 45.55% outnumbers desktop use and mobile as a whole gains majority when including the tablet share at 9.12%.[189][188]Spain is also slightly desktop-minority.
The range of measured mobile web use varies a lot by country, and a StatCounter press release recognizes "India among world leaders in use of mobile to surf the internet"[190](of the big countries) where the share is around (or over) 80%[191]and desktop is at 19.56%, with Russia trailing with 17.8% mobile use (and desktop the rest).
Smartphones (alone, without tablets), first gained majority in December 2016 (desktop-majority was lost the month before), and it was not a Christmas-time fluke, as while close to majority after smartphone majority happened again in March 2017.[188]
In the week from November 7–13, 2016, smartphones alone (without tablets) overtook desktop, for the first time (for a short period; non-full-month).[192]Mobile-majority applies to countries such as Paraguay in South America, Poland in Europe and Turkey; and most of Asia and Africa. Some of the world is still desktop-majority, with e.g. in the United States at 54.89% (but no not on all days).[193]However, in someterritories of the United States, such asPuerto Rico,[194]desktop is way under majority, with Windows under 30% overtaken by Android.
On October 22, 2016 (and subsequent weekends), mobile showed majority.[195]Since October 27, the desktop has not shown majority, not even on weekdays. Smartphones alone have shown majority since December 23 to the end of the year, with the share topping at 58.22% on Christmas Day.[196]To the "mobile"-majority share then of smartphones, tablets could be added giving a 63.22% majority. While an unusually high top, a similarly high also happened on Monday April 17, 2017, with then only smartphones share slightly lower and tablet share slightly higher, with them combined at 62.88%.
According to a StatCounter November 1, 2016 press release[update], the world has turned desktop-minority;[197]at about 49% desktop use for the previous month, but mobile was not ranked higher, tablet share had to be added to it to exceed desktop share. By now, mobile (smartphones) have full majority, outnumbering desktop/laptop computers by a safe margin (and no longer counting tablets with desktops makes them most popular).
Notes:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_operating_system
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Acomputer wormis a standalonemalwarecomputer programthat replicates itself in order to spread to other computers.[1]It often uses acomputer networkto spread itself, relying on security failures on the target computer to access it. It will use this machine as a host to scan and infect other computers. When these new worm-invaded computers are controlled, the worm will continue to scan and infect other computers using these computers as hosts, and this behaviour will continue.[2]Computer worms userecursive methodsto copy themselves without host programs and distribute themselves based on exploiting the advantages ofexponential growth, thus controlling and infecting more and more computers in a short time.[3]Worms almost always cause at least some harm to the network, even if only by consumingbandwidth, whereasvirusesalmost always corrupt or modify files on a targeted computer.
Many worms are designed only to spread, and do not attempt to change the systems they pass through. However, as theMorris wormandMydoomshowed, even these "payload-free" worms can cause major disruption by increasing network traffic and other unintended effects.
The first ever computer worm is generally accepted to be a self-replicating version ofCreepercreated byRay Tomlinsonand Bob Thomas atBBNin 1971 to replicate itself across theARPANET.[4][5]Tomlinson also devised the firstantivirus software, namedReaper, to delete the Creeper program.
The term "worm" was first used in this sense inJohn Brunner's 1975 novel,The Shockwave Rider. In the novel, Nichlas Haflinger designs and sets off a data-gathering worm in an act of revenge against the powerful people who run a national electronic information web that induces mass conformity. "You have the biggest-ever worm loose in the net, and it automatically sabotages any attempt to monitor it. There's never been a worm with that tough a head or that long a tail!"[6]"Then the answer dawned on him, and he almost laughed. Fluckner had resorted to one of the oldest tricks in the store and turned loose in the continental net a self-perpetuating tapeworm, probably headed by a denunciation group "borrowed" from a major corporation, which would shunt itself from one nexus to another every time his credit-code was punched into a keyboard. It could take days to kill a worm like that, and sometimes weeks."[6]
Xerox PARCwas studying the use of "worm" programs fordistributed computingin 1979.[7]
On November 2, 1988,Robert Tappan Morris, aCornell Universitycomputer science graduate student, unleashed what became known as theMorris worm, disrupting many computers then on the Internet, guessed at the time to be one tenth of all those connected.[8]During the Morris appeal process, the U.S. Court of Appeals estimated the cost of removing the worm from each installation at between $200 and $53,000; this work prompted the formation of theCERT Coordination Center[9]and Phage mailing list.[10]Morris himself became the first person tried and convicted under the 1986Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.[11]
Conficker, a computer worm discovered in 2008 that primarily targetedMicrosoft Windowsoperating systems, is a worm that employs three different spreading strategies: local probing, neighborhood probing, and global probing.[12]This worm was considered a hybrid epidemic and affected millions of computers. The term "hybrid epidemic" is used because of the three separate methods it employed to spread, which was discovered through code analysis.[13]
Independence
Computer viruses generally require a host program.[14]The virus writes its own code into the host program. When the program runs, the written virus program is executed first, causing infection and damage. A worm does not need a host program, as it is an independent program or code chunk. Therefore, it is not restricted by thehost program, but can run independently and actively carry out attacks.[15][16]
Exploit attacks
Because a worm is not limited by the host program, worms can take advantage of various operating system vulnerabilities to carry out active attacks. For example, the "Nimda" virusexploitsvulnerabilitiesto attack.
Complexity
Some worms are combined with web page scripts, and are hidden inHTMLpages usingVBScript,ActiveXand other technologies. When a user accesses a webpage containing a virus, the virus automatically resides in memory and waits to be triggered. There are also some worms that are combined withbackdoorprograms orTrojan horses, such as "Code Red".[17]
Contagiousness
Worms are more infectious than traditional viruses. They not only infect local computers, but also all servers and clients on the network based on the local computer. Worms can easily spread throughshared folders,e-mails,[18]malicious web pages, and servers with a large number of vulnerabilities in the network.[19]
Any code designed to do more than spread the worm is typically referred to as the "payload". Typical malicious payloads might delete files on a host system (e.g., theExploreZipworm), encrypt files in aransomwareattack, orexfiltrate datasuch as confidential documents or passwords.[20]
Some worms may install abackdoor. This allows the computer to be remotely controlled by the worm author as a "zombie". Networks of such machines are often referred to asbotnetsand are very commonly used for a range of malicious purposes, including sendingspamor performingDoSattacks.[21][22][23]
Some special worms attack industrial systems in a targeted manner.Stuxnetwas primarily transmitted through LANs and infected thumb-drives, as its targets were never connected to untrusted networks, like the internet. This virus can destroy the core production control computer software used by chemical, power generation and power transmission companies in various countries around the world - in Stuxnet's case, Iran, Indonesia and India were hardest hit - it was used to "issue orders" to other equipment in the factory, and to hide those commands from being detected. Stuxnet used multiple vulnerabilities and four different zero-day exploits (e.g.:[1]) inWindows systemsand SiemensSIMATICWinCCsystems to attack the embedded programmable logic controllers of industrial machines. Although these systems operate independently from the network, if the operator inserts a virus-infected drive into the system's USB interface, the virus will be able to gain control of the system without any other operational requirements or prompts.[24][25][26]
Worms spread by exploiting vulnerabilities in operating systems.
Vendors with security problems supply regular security updates[27](see "Patch Tuesday"), and if these are installed to a machine, then the majority of worms are unable to spread to it. If a vulnerability is disclosed before the security patch released by the vendor, azero-day attackis possible.
Users need to be wary of opening unexpected emails,[28][29]and should not run attached files or programs, or visit web sites that are linked to such emails. However, as with theILOVEYOUworm, and with the increased growth and efficiency ofphishingattacks, it remains possible to trick the end-user into running malicious code.
Anti-virusandanti-spywaresoftware are helpful, but must be kept up-to-date with new pattern files at least every few days. The use of afirewallis also recommended.
Users can minimize the threat posed by worms by keeping their computers' operating system and other software up to date, avoiding opening unrecognized or unexpected emails and runningfirewalland antivirus software.[30]
Mitigation techniques include:
Infections can sometimes be detected by their behavior - typically scanning the Internet randomly, looking for vulnerable hosts to infect.[31][32]In addition, machine learning techniques can be used to detect new worms, by analyzing the behavior of the suspected computer.[33]
Ahelpful wormoranti-wormis a worm designed to do something that its author feels is helpful, though not necessarily with the permission of the executing computer's owner. Beginning with the first research into worms atXerox PARC, there have been attempts to create useful worms. Those worms allowedJohn Shochand Jon Hupp to test theEthernetprinciples on their network ofXerox Altocomputers.[34]Similarly, theNachifamily of worms tried to download and install patches from Microsoft's website to fix vulnerabilities in the host system by exploiting those same vulnerabilities.[35]In practice, although this may have made these systems more secure, it generated considerable network traffic, rebooted the machine in the course of patching it, and did its work without the consent of the computer's owner or user. Regardless of their payload or their writers' intentions, security experts regard all worms asmalware. Another example of this approach isRoku OSpatching a bug allowing for Roku OS to be rooted via an update to their screensaver channels, which the screensaver would attempt to connect to the telnet and patch the device.[36]
One study proposed the first computer worm that operates on the second layer of theOSI model(Data link Layer), utilizing topology information such asContent-addressable memory(CAM) tables and Spanning Tree information stored in switches to propagate and probe for vulnerable nodes until the enterprise network is covered.[37]
Anti-worms have been used to combat the effects of theCode Red,[38]Blaster, andSantyworms.Welchiais an example of a helpful worm.[39]Utilizing the same deficiencies exploited by theBlaster worm, Welchia infected computers and automatically began downloadingMicrosoftsecurity updates forWindowswithout the users' consent. Welchia automatically reboots the computers it infects after installing the updates. One of these updates was the patch that fixed the exploit.[39]
Other examples of helpful worms are "Den_Zuko", "Cheeze", "CodeGreen", and "Millenium".[39]
Art worms support artists in the performance of massive scale ephemeral artworks. It turns the infected computers into nodes that contribute to the artwork.[40]
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Aspambotis acomputer programdesigned to assist in the sending ofspam. Spambots usually create accounts and send spam messages with them.[1]Web hosts and website operators have responded by banning spammers, leading to an ongoing struggle between them and spammers in which spammers find new ways to evade the bans and anti-spam programs, and hosts counteract these methods.[2]
Emailspambots harvestemail addressesfrom material found on theInternetin order to build mailing lists for sending unsolicited email, also known asspam. Such spambots areweb crawlersthat can gather email addresses from websites, newsgroups, special-interest group (SIG) postings, and chat-room conversations. Because email addresses have a distinctive format, such spambots are easy to code.
A number of programs and approaches have been devised to foil spambots. One such technique isaddress munging, in which an email address is deliberately modified so that a human reader (and/or human-controlledweb browser) can interpret it but spambots cannot. This has led to the evolution of more sophisticated spambots that are able to recover email addresses from character strings that appear to be munged, or instead can render the text into a web browser and thenscrapeit for email addresses.Alternativetransparent techniques include displaying all or part of the email address on a web page as an image, a text logo shrunken to normal size using inlineCSS, or as text with the order of characters jumbled, placed into readable order at display time using CSS.[citation needed]
Forum spambotsbrowse the internet, looking forguestbooks,wikis,blogs,forums, and other types ofweb formsthat they can then use to submit bogus content. These often useOCRtechnology to bypassCAPTCHAs. Some spam messages are targeted towards readers and can involve techniques oftarget marketingor evenphishing, making it hard to tell real posts from the bot generated ones. Other spam messages are not meant to be read by humans, but are instead posted to increase the number oflinksto a particular website, to boost itssearch engine ranking.
One way to prevent spambots from creating automated posts is to require the poster to confirm their intention to post via email. Since most spambot scripts use a fake email address when posting, any email confirmation request is unlikely to be successfully routed to them. Some spambots will pass this step by providing a valid email address and use it for validation, mostly viawebmailservices. Using methods such as security questions are also proven to be effective in curbing posts generated by spambots, as they are usually unable to answer it upon registering, also on various forums, consistent uploading of spam will also gain the person the title 'spambot'.[citation needed]
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Anadvanced persistent threat(APT) is a stealthythreat actor, typically astateor state-sponsored group, which gains unauthorized access to acomputer networkand remains undetected for an extended period.[1][2]In recent times, the term may also refer to non-state-sponsored groups conducting large-scale targeted intrusions for specific goals.[3]
Such threat actors' motivations are typically political or economic.[4]Every majorbusiness sectorhas recorded instances ofcyberattacksby advanced actors with specific goals, whether to steal, spy, or disrupt. These targeted sectors include government,defense,financial services,legal services,industrial,telecoms,consumer goodsand many more.[5][6][7]Some groups utilize traditionalespionagevectors, includingsocial engineering,human intelligenceandinfiltrationto gain access to a physical location to enable network attacks. The purpose of these attacks is to install custommalware.[8]
APT attacks onmobile deviceshave also become a legitimate concern, since attackers are able to penetrate into cloud and mobile infrastructure to eavesdrop, steal, and tamper with data.[9]
The median "dwell-time", the time an APT attack goes undetected, differs widely between regions.FireEyereported the mean dwell-time for 2018 in theAmericasas 71 days,EMEAas 177 days, andAPACas 204 days.[5]Such a long dwell-time allows attackers a significant amount of time to go through the attack cycle, propagate, and achieve their objectives.
Definitions of precisely what an APT is can vary, but can be summarized by their named requirements below:
Warnings against targeted, socially-engineered emails droppingtrojansto exfiltrate sensitive information were published by UK and USCERTorganisations in 2005. This method was used throughout the early 1990s and does not in itself constitute an APT. The term "advanced persistent threat" has been cited as originating from theUnited States Air Forcein 2006[13]with Colonel Greg Rattray cited as the individual who coined the term.[14]
TheStuxnetcomputer worm, which targeted the computer hardware ofIran's nuclear program, is one example of an APT attack. In this case, the Iranian government might consider the Stuxnet creators to be an advanced persistent threat.[citation needed][15]
Within thecomputer securitycommunity, and increasingly within the media, the term is almost always used in reference to a long-term pattern of sophisticated computer network exploitation aimed at governments, companies, and political activists, and by extension, also to ascribe the A, P and T attributes to the groups behind these attacks.[16]Advanced persistent threat (APT) as a term may be shifting focus to computer-based hacking due to the rising number of occurrences.PC Worldreported an 81 percent increase from 2010 to 2011 of particularly advanced targeted computer attacks.[17]
Actors in many countries have usedcyberspaceas a means to gather intelligence on individuals and groups of individuals of interest.[18][19][20]TheUnited States Cyber Commandis tasked with coordinating the US military's offensive and defensivecyberoperations.[21]
Numerous sources have alleged that some APT groups are affiliated with, or are agents of, governments ofsovereign states.[22][23][24]Businesses holding a large quantity ofpersonally identifiable informationare at high risk of being targeted by advanced persistent threats, including:[25]
A Bell Canada study provided deep research into the anatomy of APTs and uncovered widespread presence in Canadian government and critical infrastructure. Attribution was established to Chinese and Russian actors.[28]
Actors behind advanced persistent threats create a growing and changing risk to organizations' financial assets, intellectual property, and reputation[29]by following a continuous process orkill chain:
In 2013, Mandiant presented results of their research on alleged Chinese attacks using APT method between 2004 and 2013[30]that followed similar lifecycle:
In incidents analysed by Mandiant, the average period over which the attackers controlled the victim's network was one year, with longest – almost five years.[30]The infiltrations were allegedly performed by Shanghai-basedUnit 61398ofPeople's Liberation Army. Chinese officials have denied any involvement in these attacks.[32]
Previous reports from Secdev had previously discovered and implicated Chinese actors.[33]
There are tens of millions of malware variations,[34]which makes it extremely challenging to protect organizations from APT. While APT activities are stealthy and hard to detect, thecommand and controlnetwork traffic associated with APT can be detected at the network layer level with sophisticated methods. Deep log analyses and log correlation from various sources is of limited usefulness in detecting APT activities. It is challenging to separate noises from legitimate traffic. Traditional security technology and methods have been ineffective in detecting or mitigating APTs.[35]Active cyber defense has yielded greater efficacy in detecting and prosecuting APTs (find, fix, finish) when applyingcyber threat intelligenceto hunt and adversary pursuit activities.[36][37]Human-Introduced Cyber Vulnerabilities (HICV) are a weak cyber link that are neither well understood nor mitigated, constituting a significant attack vector.[38]
Multiple organizations may assign different names to the same actor. As separate researchers could each have their own varying assessments of an APT group, companies such asCrowdStrike,Kaspersky,Mandiant, andMicrosoft, among others, have their own internal naming schemes.[82]Names between different organizations may refer to overlapping but ultimately different groups, based on various data gathered.
CrowdStrike assigns animals by nation-state or other category, such as "Kitten" for Iran and "Spider" for groups focused on cybercrime.[83]Other companies have named groups based on this system — Rampant Kitten, for instance, was named by Check Point rather than CrowdStrike.[84]
Dragos bases its names for APT groups on minerals.[82]
Mandiant assigns numbered acronyms in three categories, APT, FIN, and UNC, resulting in APT names likeFIN7. Other companies using a similar system include Proofpoint (TA) and IBM (ITG and Hive).[82]
Microsoft used to assign names from theperiodic table, often stylized in all-caps (e.g.POTASSIUM); in April 2023, Microsoft changed its naming schema to use weather-based names (e.g. Volt Typhoon).[85]
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Volunteer computingis a type ofdistributed computingin which people donate their computers' unused resources to a research-oriented project,[1]and sometimes in exchange for credit points.[2]The fundamental idea behind it is that a modern desktop computer is sufficiently powerful to perform billions of operations a second, but for most users only between 10–15% of its capacity is used. Common tasks such asword processingorweb browsingleave the computer mostly idle.
The practice of volunteer computing, which dates back to the mid-1990s, can potentially make substantialprocessing poweravailable to researchers at minimal cost. Typically, a program running on a volunteer's computer periodically contacts a research application to request jobs and report results. Amiddlewaresystem usually serves as an intermediary.[3]
The first volunteer computing project was theGreat Internet Mersenne Prime Search, which started in January 1996.[4]It was followed in 1997 bydistributed.net. In 1997 and 1998, several academic research projects developed Java-based systems for volunteer computing; examples include Bayanihan,[5]Popcorn,[6]Superweb,[7]and Charlotte.[8]
The termvolunteer computingwas coined by Luis F. G. Sarmenta, the developer of Bayanihan. It is also appealing for global efforts on social responsibility, orCorporate Social Responsibilityas reported in a Harvard Business Review.[9]
In 1999, theSETI@homeandFolding@homeprojects were launched. These projects received considerable media coverage, and each one attracted several hundred thousand volunteers.
Between 1998 and 2002, several companies were formed with business models involving volunteer computing. Examples include Popular Power,Porivo,Entropia, andUnited Devices.
In 2002, theBerkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing(BOINC) project was founded at University of California, BerkeleySpace Sciences Laboratory, funded by the National Science Foundation. BOINC provides a complete middleware system for volunteer computing, including a client, client GUI, application runtime system, server software, and software implementing a project web site. The first project based on BOINC wasPredictor@home, based at the Scripps Research Institute, which began operation in 2004. Soon thereafter, SETI@home andclimateprediction.netbegan using BOINC. A number of new BOINC-based projects were created over the next few years, includingRosetta@home,Einstein@home, andAQUA@home. In 2007, IBM World Community Grid switched from the United Devices platform to BOINC.[10]
The client software of the early volunteer computing projects consisted of a single program that combined the scientific computation and the distributed computing infrastructure. This monolithic architecture was inflexible. For example, it was difficult to deploy new application versions.
More recently, volunteer computing has moved to middleware systems that provide a distributed computing infrastructure independent from the scientific computation. Examples include:
Most of these systems have the same basic structure: a client program runs on the volunteer's computer. It periodically contacts project-operated servers over the Internet, requesting jobs and reporting the results of completed jobs. This "pull" model is necessary because many volunteer computers are behind firewalls that do not allow incoming connections. The system keeps track of each user's "credit", a numerical measure of how much work that user's computers have done for the project.
Volunteer computing systems must deal with several issues involving volunteered computers: their heterogeneity, their churn (the tendency of individual computers to join and leave the network over time), their sporadic availability, and the need to not interfere with their performance during regular use.
In addition, volunteer computing systems must deal with problems related to correctness:
One common approach to these problems is replicated computing, in which each job is performed on at least two computers. The results (and the corresponding credit) are accepted only if they agree sufficiently.
These effects may or may not be noticeable, and even if they are noticeable, the volunteer might choose to continue participating. However, the increased power consumption can be remedied to some extent by setting an option to limit the percentage of the processor used by the client, which is available in some client software.
Volunteer computing can provide researchers with computing power that is not achievable any other way. For example, Folding@home has been ranked as one of the world's fastest computing systems. With heightened interest and volunteer participation in the project as a result of theCOVID-19 pandemic,[12]the system achieved a speed of approximately 1.22exaflopsby late March 2020 and reached 2.43 exaflops by April 12, 2020,[13]making it the world's firstexaflop computing system.
Volunteer computing is often cheaper than other forms of distributed computing,[14]and typically at zero cost to the end researcher.
Although there are issues such as lack of accountability and trust between participants and researchers while implementing the projects, volunteer computing is crucially important, especially to projects that have limited funding.[15]
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Thebrown-headed cowbird(Molothrus ater) is a small, obligatebrood parasiticicteridnative totemperateandsubtropicalNorth America. It is a permanent resident in the southern parts of its range; northern birdsmigrateto the southern United States andMexicoin winter, returning to their summer habitat around March or April.[2]
The brown-headed cowbird was described by the French polymathGeorges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffonin 1775 in hisHistoire Naturelle des Oiseauxfrom a specimen collected inthe Carolinas.[3]The bird was also illustrated in a hand-colored plate engraved byFrançois-Nicolas Martinetin thePlanches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle, which was produced under the supervision ofEdme-Louis Daubentonto accompany Buffon's text.[4]Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name, but in 1783, Dutch naturalistPieter Boddaertcoined thebinomial nameOriolus aterin his catalogue of thePlanches Enluminées.[5]The brown-headed cowbird is now placed in thegenusMolothrusthat was introduced by English naturalistWilliam Swainsonin 1832 with the brown-headed cowbird as thetype species.[6][7]The genus name combines theAncient Greekmōlosmeaning "struggle" or "battle" withthrōskōmeaning "to sire" or "to impregnate". The specific nameateris Latin for "dull black".[8]The English name "cowbird", first recorded in 1839, refers to this species often being seen near cattle.[9]
Threesubspeciesare recognised:[7]
The brown-headed cowbird is typical for an icterid in general shape, but is distinguished by itsfinch-like head and beak and smaller size. The adult male isiridescentblack in color with a brown head. The adult female is slightly smaller and is dull grey with a pale throat and very fine streaking on the underparts. Their total length is 16–22 cm (6.3–8.7 in) and the average wingspan is 36 cm (14 in).[10]Body mass can range from 30–60 g (1.1–2.1 oz), with females averaging 38.8 g (1.37 oz) against the males' average of 49 g (1.7 oz).[11]
The species lives in open or semiopen country, and often travels in flocks, sometimes mixed withred-winged blackbirds(particularly in spring) andbobolinks(particularly in fall), as well ascommon gracklesorEuropean starlings.[2]These birds forage on the ground, often following grazing animals such as horses andcattleto catch insects stirred up by the larger animals. They mainly eatseeds, insects and rarely, berries.[citation needed]
Before European settlement, brown-headed cowbirds followedbisonherds across theprairies. Their population expanded with the clearing of forested areas and the introduction of new grazing animals by settlers across North America. They are now commonly seen at suburban birdfeeders.[12]
In 2012, brown-headed cowbirds in northwestRiverside County, CA tested positive forWest Nile Virus.[13]
The brown-headed cowbird is an obligate brood parasite; it lays its eggs in the nests of other smallpasserines(perching birds), particularly those that build cup-like nests. The brown-headed cowbird eggs have been documented in nests of at least 220 host species, includinghummingbirdsandraptors.[14][15]More than 140 differentspeciesof birds are known to have raised young cowbirds.[16]The young cowbird is fed by the host parents at the expense of their own young. Brown-headed cowbird females can lay up to 40 eggs in a season.[17]
Some host species, such as thehouse finch, feed their young a vegetarian diet. This is unsuitable for young brown-headed cowbirds, meaning few survive to fledge.[18]Accepting a cowbird egg and rearing a cowbird chick can be costly to a host species. In theAmerican redstart, nests parasitized by cowbirds were found to have a higher rate of predation, likely due in part to the loudbegging callsby the cowbird nestling, but also partly explained by the fact that nests likely to be parasitized are also more likely to be preyed upon.[19][20]: 199
Unlike thecommon cuckoo, the brown-headed cowbird is not divided intogenteswhose eggsimitate those of a particular host. Host species sometimes notice the cowbird egg, with different hosts reacting to the egg in different ways. Some, like theblue-grey gnatcatcher, abandon their nest, losing their own eggs as well. Others, like theAmerican yellow warbler, bury the foreign egg under nest material, where it perishes.[21]Thebrown thrasherphysically ejects the egg from the nest.[15]Experiments withgrey catbirds, a known cowbird host, have shown that this species rejects cowbird eggs more than 95% of the time. For this species, the cost of accepting cowbird eggs (i.e. the loss of their own eggs or nestlings through starvation or the actions of the nestling cowbird) was far higher than the cost of rejecting those eggs (i.e. where the host might conceivably eject its own egg accidentally).[22]Brown-headed cowbirdnestlingsare also sometimes expelled from the nest. Nestlings of host species can also alter their behavior in response to the presence of a cowbird nestling.
Song sparrownestlings in parasitized nests alter their vocalizations in frequency and amplitude so that they resemble the cowbird nestling, and these nestlings tend to be fed equally often as nestlings in unparasitized nests.[23]
Brown-headed cowbirds seem to periodically check on their eggs and young after they have deposited them. Removal of the parasitic egg may trigger a retaliatory reaction termed "mafiabehavior". According to one study the cowbird returned to ransack the nests of a range of host species 56% of the time when their egg was removed. In addition, the cowbird also destroyed nests in a type of "farming behavior" to force the hosts to build new ones. The cowbirds then laid their eggs in the new nests 85% of the time.[24]
Young cowbirds are not exposed to species-typical visual and auditory information like other birds. Despite this, they are able to develop species-typical singing, social, and breeding behaviors.[25]Cowbird brains are wired to respond to the vocalizations of other cowbirds, allowing young to find and join flocks of their own species. These vocalizations are consistent across all cowbird populations, and serve as a sort of species-recognition password. If a young cowbird is not exposed to these "password" vocalizations by a certain age, it will mistakenly imprint on the host species.[26]
Social behaviors of cowbird males include aggressive, competitive singing bouts with other males and pair bonding and monogamy with females.
By manipulating demographics so juveniles only had access to females, juvenile males developed atypical social behavior; they did not engage in the typical social singing bouts with other males, did not pair bond with females, and were promiscuous. This demonstrates that great flexibility occurs in the behavior of cowbirds, and that the social environment is extremely important in structuring their behavior. Adult males housed with juvenile males were shown to have greaterreproductive successcompared to adult males housed with other adult males. Being housed with juvenile males honed the reproductive skills of the adult males by providing them with a more complex social environment.
This finding was further studied by comparing the behaviors and reproductive success of males exposed to a dynamic flock, consisting of changing individuals, with males exposed to a static group of individuals. The individuals that stayed with the same group (i.e., static flock) had a stable, predictable relationship between social behavior and reproductive success; the males that sang frequently to females experienced the greatest reproductive success. The adult males that were exposed to a rotating roster of new individuals (i.e., dynamic flock) had an unpredictable relationship between social variables and reproductive success; these males were able to copulate using a much greater variety of social strategies. The males that lived in static flocks had high levels of consistency in their behaviors and reproductive success across multiple years, whereas the males in dynamic flocks experienced varying levels of dominance with other males, differing levels of singing to females, and differing levels of reproductive success.[25]
With the expansion of its range and its parasitic behavior, the brown-headed cowbird is often regarded as a pest. People sometimes engage in cowbird control programs, with the intention of protecting species negatively impacted by the cowbirds' brood parasitism. A study of nests ofBell's vireohighlighted a potential limitation of these control programs, demonstrating that removal of cowbirds from a site may create an unintended consequence of increasing cowbird productivity on that site, because with fewer cowbirds, fewer parasitized nests are deserted, resulting in greater nest success for cowbirds.[27]
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TheChaos Computer Club(CCC) is Europe's largest association ofhackers[1]with 7,700 registered members.[2]Founded in 1981, the association is incorporated as aneingetragener Vereinin Germany, with local chapters (calledErfa-Kreise) in various cities in Germany and the surrounding countries, particularly where there are German-speaking communities.Since 1985, some chapters in Switzerland have organized an independent sister association called theChaos Computer Club Schweiz[de](CCC-CH) instead.
The CCC describes itself as "a galactic community of life forms, independent of age, sex, race or societal orientation, which strives across borders for freedom of information…". In general, the CCC advocates more transparency in government,freedom of information, and thehuman rightto communication. Supporting the principles of thehacker ethic, the club also fights for free universal access to computers and technological infrastructure as well as the use ofopen-source software.[3][failed verification]The CCC spreads an entrepreneurial vision refusing capitalist control.[4]It has been characterised as "…one of the most influential digital organisations anywhere, the centre of German digital culture,hacker culture, hacktivism, and the intersection of any discussion of democratic and digital rights".[5]
Members of the CCC have demonstrated and publicized a number of important information security problems.[6]The CCC frequently criticizes new legislation and products with weak information security which endanger citizen rights or the privacy of users.
Notable members of the CCC regularly function as expert witnesses for theGerman constitutional court, organize lawsuits and campaigns, or otherwise influence the political process.
The CCC hosts the annualChaos Communication Congress, Europe's biggest hacker gathering.
When the event was held in theHamburg congress centerin 2013, it drew 9,000 guests.[7]For the 2016 installment, 11,000 guests were expected,[8]with additional viewers following the event via live streaming.
Every four years, theChaos Communication Campis the outdoor alternative for hackers worldwide.
The CCC also held, from 2009 to 2013, a yearly conference calledSIGINTinCologne[9]which focused on the impact of digitisation on society. The SIGINT conference was discontinued in 2014.[10]The four-day conferenceGulaschprogrammiernachtinKarlsruheis with more than 1,500[11]participants the second largest annual event.
Another yearly CCC event taking place on the Easter weekend is theEasterhegg, which is more workshop oriented than the other events.
The CCC often uses thec-base stationlocated in Berlin as an event location or as function rooms.
The CCC publishes the irregular magazineDatenschleuder(data slingshot) since 1984.
The Berlin chapter produces a monthly radio show calledChaosradio[de]which picks up various technical and political topics in a two-hourtalk radioshow. The program is aired on a local radio station calledFritz[de]and on the internet.
Other programs have emerged in the context of Chaosradio, including radio programs offered by some regional Chaos Groups and the podcast spin-offCREbyTim Pritlove.
Many of the chapters of CCC participate in the volunteer projectChaos macht Schulewhich supports teaching in local schools. Its aims are to improve technology andmedia literacyof pupils, parents, and teachers.[12][13][14]
CCC members are present in big tech companies and in administrative instances. One of the spokespersons of the CCC, as of 1986,Andy Müller-Maguhn, was a member of the executive committee of theICANN(Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) between 2000 and 2002.[15]
The CCC sensitises and introduces people to the questions of data privacy. Some of its local chapters support or organize so called CryptoParties to introduce people to the basics of practical cryptography and internet anonymity.
The CCC was founded in West Berlin on 12 September 1981 at a table which had previously belonged to theKommune 1in the rooms of the newspaperDie TageszeitungbyWau Hollandand others in anticipation of the prominent role that information technology would play in the way people live and communicate.
The CCC became world-famous in 1984 when they drew public attention to the security flaws of the GermanBildschirmtextcomputer network by causing it to debitDM134,000 (equivalent to €131,600 in 2021) in a Hamburg bank in favor of the club. The money was returned the next day in front of the press. Prior to the incident, the system provider had failed to react to proof of the security flaw provided by the CCC, claiming to the public that their system was safe. Bildschirmtext was the biggest commercially available online system targeted at the general public in its region at that time, run and heavily advertised by the German telecommunications agencyDeutsche Bundespostwhich also strove to keep up-to-date alternatives out of the market.[16]
In 1987, the CCC was peripherally involved in the firstcyberespionagecase to make international headlines. A group ofGermanhackers led byKarl Koch, who was loosely affiliated with the CCC, was arrested for breaking into US government and corporate computers, and then selling operating-system source code to the SovietKGB.
This incident was portrayed in the movie23.
In April 1998, the CCC successfully demonstrated the cloning of aGSMcustomer card, breaking theCOMP128encryptionalgorithm used at that time by many GSMSIMs.[17]
In 2001, the CCC celebrated its twentieth birthday with an interactive light installation dubbedProject Blinkenlightsthat turned the buildingHaus des Lehrersin Berlin into a giant computer screen. A follow-up installation,Arcade, was created in 2002 by the CCC for theBibliothèque nationale de France.[18]Later in October 2008 CCC's Project Blinkenlights went toToronto,Ontario, Canada with project Stereoscope.[19]
In March 2008, the CCC acquired and published the fingerprints of GermanMinister of the InteriorWolfgang Schäuble. The magazine also included the fingerprint on a film that readers could use to foolfingerprint readers.[20]This was done to protest the use of biometric data in German identity devices such ase-passports.[21]
The Staatstrojaner (FederalTrojan horse) is acomputer surveillanceprogram installed secretly on a suspect's computer, which the German police uses towiretapInternet telephony. This "source wiretapping" is the only feasible way to wiretap in this case, since Internet telephony programs will usuallyencryptthe data when it leaves the computer. TheFederal Constitutional Court of Germanyhas ruled that the police may only use such programs for telephony wiretapping, and for no other purpose, and that this restriction should be enforced through technical and legal means.
On 8 October 2011, the CCC published an analysis of the Staatstrojaner software. The software was found to have the ability to remote control the target computer, to capturescreenshots, and to fetch and run arbitrary extra code. The CCC says that having this functionality built in is in direct contradiction to the ruling of the constitutional court.
In addition, there were a number of security problems with the implementation. The software was controllable over the Internet, but the commands were sent completelyunencrypted, with no checks for authentication or integrity. This leaves any computer under surveillance using this software vulnerable to attack. The captured screenshots and audio files were encrypted, but so incompetently that the encryption was ineffective. All captured data was sent over a proxy server in the United States, which is problematic since the data is then temporarily outside the Germanjurisdiction.
The CCC's findings were widely reported in the German press.[22][23][24]This trojan has also been nicknamedR2-D2[25][26]because the string "C3PO-r2d2-POE" was found in its code;[27]another alias for it is 0zapftis ("It's tapped!" inBavarian, a sardonic reference toOktoberfest).[27]According to aSophosanalysis, the trojan's behavior matches that described in a confidential memo between the GermanLandeskriminalamtand a software firm calledDigiTask[de]; the memo was leaked onWikiLeaksin 2008.[27]Among other correlations is the dropper's file namescuinst.exe, short for Skype Capture Unit Installer.[28]The 64-bit Windows version installs a digitally signed driver, but signed by the non-existingcertificate authority"Goose Cert".[29][30]DigiTask later admitted selling spy software to governments.[31]
TheFederal Ministry of the Interiorreleased a statement in which they denied that R2-D2 has been used by theFederal Criminal Police Office(BKA); this statement however does not eliminate the possibility that it has been used by state-level German police forces. The BKA had previously announced however (in 2007) that they had somewhat similar trojan software that can inspect a computer's hard drive.[24]
FormerWikiLeaksspokesmanDaniel Domscheit-Bergwas expelled from the national CCC (but not the Berlin chapter) in August 2011.[32][33]This decision was revoked in February 2012.[34]As a result of his role in the expulsion, board memberAndy Müller-Maguhnwas not reelected for another term.
The CCC has repeatedly warned phone users of the weakness of biometric identification in the wake of the 2008 Schäuble fingerprints affair. In their "hacker ethics" the CCC includes "protect people data", but also "Computers can change your life for the better".[35]The club regards privacy as an individual right: the CCC does not discourage people from sharing or storing personal information on their phones, but advocates better privacy protection, and the use of specific browsing and sharing techniques by users.
From a photograph of the user's fingerprint on a glass surface, using "easy everyday means",[36]the biometrics hacking team of the CCC was able to unlock an iPhone 5S.
The Samsung Galaxy S8'siris recognitionsystem claims to be "one of the safest ways to keep your phone locked and the contents private" as "patterns in your irises are unique to you and are virtually impossible to replicate", as quoted in official Samsung content.[37]However, in some cases, using a high resolution photograph of the phone owner's iris and a lens, the CCC claimed to be able to trick the authentication system.
TheChaos Computer Club France(CCCF) was a fake hacker organisation created in 1989 inLyon(France) byJean-Bernard Condat, under the command of Jean-Luc Delacour, an agent of theDirection de la surveillance du territoiregovernmental agency. The primary goal of the CCCF was to watch and to gather information about the French hacker community, identifying the hackers who could harm the country.[38][15]JournalistJean Guisnel[fr]said that this organization also worked with theFrench National Gendarmerie.
The CCCF had anelectronicmagazine calledChaos Digest (ChaosD). Between 4 January 1993 and 5 August 1993, seventy-three issues were published (ISSN1244-4901).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_Computer_Club
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The United States has often accused thePeople's Republic of Chinaof attempting to unlawfully acquire U.S.military technologyandclassified informationas well astrade secretsof U.S. companies[1][2]in order to support China's long-term military and commercial development.[3]Chinese government agencies, affiliated personnel, and civilian-in-name companies[4]have been accused of using a number of methods to obtain U.S. technology (using U.S. law to avoid prosecution), includingespionage, exploitation of commercial entities, and a network of scientific, academic and business contacts.[5]Prominent espionage cases includeLarry Wu-tai Chin,Katrina Leung, Gwo-Bao Min,Chi Mak, Peter Lee, andShujun Wang.[6]
In addition to traditional espionage, China usescyber spyingto penetrate the computer networks of U.S. businesses and government agencies, such as the 2009Operation Auroraand the 2015Office of Personnel Management data breach.[7]U.S. law enforcement officials have identified China as the most active foreign power involved in the illegal acquisition of American technology.[8][9]
During itsmartial law period(1949–1987), theRepublic of China governmentonTaiwanspied on its citizens abroad, especially in the United States.
Since 2000, there have been 224 reported instances of Chinese spying in the United States.[10]
According toNicholas Eftimiades, "China’s collection activities cluster around major educational, research, and manufacturing centers in several states, including Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Florida, New Jersey, and Texas."[11]
China has used a variety of methods to gather intelligence in the United States.[12][13][14][15][16]Individuals attempt to obtain targeted information fromopen sourcessuch as libraries, research institutions and unclassified databases.[12]Chinese travelers are recruited to carry out specific intelligence activities, and China debriefs returnees from exchange programs, trade missions and scientific-cooperation programs.[17]Chinese citizens may be coerced to cooperate.[18]
Much technology acquisition occurs through commerce and commercial regulations. The regulatory and commercial environment in China pressures American and other foreign companies to transfer technology, capital and manufacturing expertise, especially in defense-related or dual-use industries such as computers, to their Chinese partners as part of doing business in China's huge, lucrative markets.[19][20]Chinese agents purchase high-tech equipment throughfront organizationsinHong Kong.[17][19]China also uses state-run firms to purchase American companies with access to the targeted technology.[17]
China also accesses foreign technology throughindustrial espionage,[19]withU.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcementofficials rating China's industrial-espionage and theft operations as the leading threat to U.S. technological security.[21]In 2021, ActingNCSCDirector Michael Orlando estimated thatChinastole between $200 billion and $600 billion worth of Americanintellectual propertyevery year.[22]Between October 2002 and January 2003 five Chinese businessmen were accused of illegally shipping equipment and trade secrets fromCaliforniato China,[12]and U.S. officials prevented a Chinese man from shipping a new, high-speed computer used in classified projects (including nuclear-weapons development) fromSandia National Laboratories.[12]
In July 2020,FBIDirectorChristopher A. Wraycalled China the "greatest long-term threat" to the United States. He said that "the FBI is now opening a new China-related counterintelligence case every 10 hours. Of the nearly 5,000 active counterintelligence cases currently under way across the country, almost half are related to China."[23]For example,Eric Swalwell, who serves on theHouse Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence,[24]was in the past targeted by a Chinese woman believed to be a clandestine officer ofChina'sMinistry of State Security.[25][26]The alleged Chinese spy later participated in fundraising for Swalwell's 2014 congressional election bid and helped place an intern inside Swalwell's congressional office.[27]FBI gave Swalwell a "defensive briefing" in 2015, informing him that woman was a suspected Chinese agent.[28]
In 2015, the Obama administration protested to Beijing after discovering that Chinese agents, as part ofOperation Fox Hunt, were tracking down Chinese dissidents in the United States to pressure them to return to China for prosecution.[29]In October 2020 FBI Director Christopher Wray said that "when it couldn’t locate a Fox Hunt target, the Chinese government sent an emissary to visit the victim’s family here in the United States. And the message they said to pass on? The target had two options: Return to China promptly or commit suicide. And what happens when Fox Hunt targets do refuse to return to China? Their family members, both here in the United States and in China, have been threatened and coerced; and those back in China have even been arrested for leverage."[30][31]In July 2021,ProPublicareported that Operation Fox Hunt, nominally focused on economic crimes, was targeting "Tibetans,Hong Kongers, followers of theFalun Gongreligious movement and, perhaps most visibly, theUyghurs". ProPublica reported that a team of Communist Party operatives and police based inWuhanhad been roaming the United States pressuring Chinese immigrant communities, with the spies performing stalking in plain sight and hiring a US-based private investigator. For example, in a 2018 New Jersey court case a former Chinese official living in the U.S. was sued by the Wuhan-based Xinba Construction Group. The expatriate was harassed outside of court and received notes threatening his family. Later he received a video from his family in China imploring him to return with a staged shot implying the video was coerced by the Chinese government according to investigators.[32]
Theeighteenth bureauof theMinistry of State Security(MSS) is dedicated to espionage against the United States.[33]
A 1999United States House of RepresentativesSelect Committee on U.S. National Security and Military and Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China report, known as theCox Report, warned that China has stolen classified information on everythermonuclear warheadin the country'sintercontinental ballistic missilearsenal.[34]Information is collected through espionage, reviews of U.S. technical and academic publications and interaction with U.S. scientists.[35]China tasks a large number of individuals to collect small pieces of information (which arecollatedand analyzed),[35]and individual agents can more easily escape suspicion. U.S. government personnel suspect that China's intelligence-gathering efforts directed towards the development of modern nuclear weapons are focused on theLos Alamos, where nuclear weapons were first developed in the 1940s,Lawrence Livermore, Sandia andOak RidgeNational Laboratories.[35]China is known to have stolen classified information on the W-56 Minuteman II ICBM, the W-62 Minuteman III ICBM, the W-70 Lance short-range ballistic missile (SRBM), the W-76 Trident C-4 submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM), the W-78 Minuteman III Mark 12A ICBM, the W-87 Peacekeeper ICBM and the W-88 Trident D-5 SLBM and weapon-design concepts and features.[36]
In 2016, the U.S. Justice Department chargedChina General Nuclear Power Group(CGN) with stealing nuclear secrets from the United States.[37][38]TheGuardianreported: "According to the US Department of Justice, theFBIhas discovered evidence that China General Nuclear Power (CGN) has been engaged in a conspiracy to steal US nuclear secrets stretching back almost two decades. Both CGN and one of the corporation’s senior advisers, Szuhsiung Ho, have been charged with conspiring to help the Chinese government develop nuclear material in a manner that is in clear breach of US law."[39]
According to a 2022 report by Strider, a strategic intelligence firm, China has recruited at least 154 Chinese scientists from Los Alamos National Laboratory over the past two decades.[40][41]
China conducts political and corporate espionage to access the networks of financial, defense and technology companies and research institutions in the United States.[42]Email attachments attempting to enter the networks of U.S. companies and organizations exploit security weaknesses in software.[42]A recipient opens an email attachment, apparently from a familiar source, containing a program which embeds in the recipient's computer. The remotely controlled program allows an attacker to access the recipient's email, send sensitive documents to specific addresses and turns on such instruments as web cameras or microphones.[42]
In January 2010,Googlereported "a highly sophisticated and targeted attack on our corporate infrastructure originating from China that resulted in the theft of intellectual property from Google".[43]According to investigators, the Googlecyber-attacktargeted theGmailaccounts of Chinese human-rights activists.[43]At least 34 other companies have been attacked, including Yahoo, Symantec, Adobe, Northrop Grumman and Dow Chemical.[42]
In January 2013,The New York Timesreported that it was the victim of hacking attempts originating from China during the previous four months after it published an article onPrime MinisterWen Jiabao. According to the newspaper, the "attacks appear to be part of a broader computer espionage campaign against American news media companies that have reported on Chinese leaders and corporations."[44]
Chinesecyber-attacksseem to target strategic industries in which China lags;[42]attacks on defense companies target weapons-systems information, and attacks on technology companies seek source code critical to software applications.[42]Operation Aurora emphasized what senior U.S. government officials have called an increasingly serious cyber threat to critical industries.[42]
On August 6, 2020, U.S. PresidentDonald Trumpofficially extended restrictions against Chinese-owned apps by signing two executive orders that would ban U.S. residents from doing business withTikTokandWeChat, a popular messaging platform run byTencent Holdings Ltd. The ban was enacted, citing the security risk of leaving Americans’ personal data exposed.[45]However, on September 28, 2020, the ban was temporarily blocked by a federal judge.[46]
In January 2024, US authorities stated that they disrupted an operation by the Chinese state advanced persistent threat calledVolt Typhoonto target US critical infrastructure.[47]
In October 2024,The Washington Postreported that the U.S. federal government formed a multi-agency team to address the2024 U.S. internet service provider hack, conducted bySalt Typhoon, that affected systems that track federal wiretap requests.[48]
In 2007 the computer security companyMcAfeealleged that China was actively involved in cyberwarfare, accusing the country ofcyber-attacks on India, Germany and the United States; China denied knowledge of these attacks.[citation needed]In September 2007 former senior U.S.information securityofficial Paul Strassmann said that 735,598 computers in the U.S. were "infested with Chinesezombies"; computers infected in this manner can theoretically form abotnetcapable of carrying out unsophisticated yet potentially dangerousdenial-of-service attacks.[49]Acyber spyingnetwork known asGhostNet, using servers primarily based in China, was reported as tapping into the classified documents of government and private organizations in 103 countries (includingTibetanexiles);[50][51]China denied the claim.[52][53]
In a July 2021 joint statement withNATO, theEU, and otherWestern nations, the US accused theMinistry of State Securityof perpetrating several cyberattacks, most notably the2021 Microsoft Exchange Server data breach.[54][55][56][57]
In December 2009 and January 2010 a cyberattack, known asOperation Aurora, was launched from China onGoogleand over 20 other companies.[58]Google said that the attacks originated from China, and it would "review the feasibility" of its business operations in China as a result of the incident. According to Google, at least 20 other companies in a variety of sectors were also targeted by the attacks. According to McAfee, "this is the highest profile attack of its kind that we have seen in recent memory."[59]
In May 2014, a U.S. federalgrand juryindicted five Chinese military officers for cyber espionage and stealing trade secrets.[2]It was alleged that the officers hacked into the computers of six U.S. companies to steal information that would provide an economic advantage to Chinese competitors, including Chinese state-owned enterprises. The Chinese government commented that the charges were "made-up", and the indictment would damage trust between the two nations.[60]Although the indictments have been called relatively meaningless, they could limit travel by the officers due to U.S. extradition treaties.[61]
In November 2017, theDepartment of Justicecharged three Chinese employees of Guangzhou Bo Yu Information Technology Company Limited with hacking into corporate entities in the United States, includingSiemens AG,Moody's Analytics, andTrimble Inc.[62]
Since at least 2013, a Chinese espionage group called TEMP.Periscope byFireEyeis reported to have been engaged in espionage against maritime-related subjects.[63]FireEye reported that the information targeted was likely of commercial and economic importance.[63]
The People's Liberation Army (PLA) was tied to economic espionage involving stolen business plans, intellectual property, and infringed on private conversations from Westinghouse Electric and United States Steel Corporation.[64]
Chinese hackers have stolen information on the Patriot missile system, theF-35 Joint Strike Fighter, and theU.S. Navy'snew Littoral combat ship. These blueprints of U.S. weapon and control systems were stolen to advance the development of Chinese weaponry.[65]
The protection of the South China Sea is highly important to the U.S. because a Chinese Cyber Unit has already succeeded in an intrusion into the Philippine's government and military networks. Military documents, internal communications, and other sensitive materials related to the dispute were lost due to the cyber invasion.[66]
In January and February 2018, Chinese state cyber actors reportedly stole 614 gigabytes of data from aNaval Undersea Warfare Center-affiliated contractor.[67]The compromised material reportedly included information on a project dubbed "Sea Dragon", as well asUnited States Navysubmarine cryptographic systems andelectronic warfare.[67]
The New York Timesreported that Russia and China are routinely eavesdropping on calls from aniPhoneused by PresidentDonald Trump, with China reportedly attempting to influence the President by identifying and influencing the people Trump is regularly in contact with.[68][69]
According to the cybersecurity firm Area 1, hackers working for thePeople's Liberation Army Strategic Support Forcecompromised the networks of theAFL–CIOin order to gain information on negotiations for theTrans-Pacific Partnership.[70]
As part of a campaign called Cloudhopper, hackers working for theMinistry of State Securitycompromised the networks ofIBMandHewlett Packard Enterprise, and used that access to compromise those companies' clients.[71][72]The Cloudhopper attacks began no later than 2014, and included targets in Brazil, Germany, India, Japan, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[72]
In October 2018,Bloomberg Businessweekpublished a story which alleged thatSupermicro's contractors in China had beencompromisedby the People's Liberation Army in an operation to implant microchips withhardware backdoorsin its servers. The report was widely disputed by the sources and companies who were named therein.[73][74]
In March 2019, iDefense reported that Chinese hackers had launched cyberattacks on dozens of academic institutions in an attempt to gain information on technology being developed for theUnited States Navy.[75]Some of the targets included theUniversity of Hawaii, theUniversity of Washington, theMassachusetts Institute of Technology, andWoods Hole Oceanographic Institution.[75]The attacks have been underway since at least April 2017.[75]
In July 2024,Mandiantreported a major resurgence in malware attacks byAPT 41, a notorious hacking group backed by the Chinese government. The group was found targeting organizations in the shipping, logistics, technology, ,and automotive industries across Europe and Asia.[76]
Back in September 2020, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) charged Chinese hackers Zhang Haoran, Tan Dailin, Jiang Lizhi, Qian Chuan, and Fu Qiang with breaching more than 100 companies, think tanks, universities and government agencies around the world.[77]The DOJ linked them to APT 41 hacking activities.[76]
On May 19, 2014, theUnited States Department of Justiceannounced that a federalgrand juryhad indicted fivePeople's Liberation Armyofficers for stealing confidential business information and intellectual property from U.S. commercial firms and plantingmalwareon their computers.[1][2]
In July 2020, the United States Department of Justice charged two Chinese hackers who allegedly targeted intellectual property and confidential business information, including COVID-19 research. The two hackers allegedly worked with theGuangdong State Security Departmentof the Ministry of State Security.[78]
In July 2021, the Justice Department credited four Chinese nationals (accused of working for the MSS) with a hacking campaign targeting government, academic, and private institutions; the individuals were each charged with one count ofconspiracyto commitcomputer fraudand conspiracy to commiteconomic espionage.[54][55][56][57]
Between 2010 and 2012, intelligence breaches led to Chinese authoritiesdismantling CIA intelligence networks in the country, killing and arresting a large number of CIA assets within China.[79]A joint CIA/FBIcounterintelligenceoperation, codenamed "Honey Bear", was unable to definitively determine the source of the compromises, though theories include the existence of amole, cyber-espionage, compromise of Hillary Clinton's illicit classified email server as noted by the intelligence community inspector general,[80]or poortradecraft.[79]Mark Kelton, then the deputy director of the National Clandestine Service for Counterintelligence, was initially skeptical that a mole was to blame.[79]
In January 2018, a former CIA officer named Jerry Chun Shing Lee[note 1]was arrested atJohn F. Kennedy International Airport, on suspicion of helping dismantle the CIA's network of informants in China.[83][84]
In an effort to steal the technology to enable Chinese companies to supply the components for theComac C919aircraft, the Chinese engaged in both cyber andHUMINToperations. According to a report from cybersecurity firmCrowdstrikeand aUS Justice Departmentindictment, from 2010 to 2015 the Chinese cyberthreat actor Turbine Panda, linked to theMinistry of State Security’sJiangsuBureau, penetrated a number of the C919's foreign components manufacturers includingAmetek,Capstone Turbine,GE Aviation,Honeywell,Safran, and others and stoleintellectual propertyand industrial processes data with the aim of transitioning component manufacturing to Chinese companies.[85][86][87][88][89]The report stated that the operations involved both cyber intrusion and theft as well as HUMINT operations, in most cases using a piece of code custom written for this industrial espionage operation.[85][86][87][88]
As of 2019, four people have been arrested in the US as a result of investigations into this economic espionage and theft of trade secrets.[88]Yanjun Xu, a senior intelligence officer of the MSS, was arrested in Belgium and extradited to the US and is alleged to have been involved in recruiting company insiders at multiple aerospace and aviation companies like GE Aviation to gain knowledge about technologies including those involving the use ofcomposite materialsin jet engineturbine blades.[90][91][89]
In September 2020, it was reported that theU.S. State Departmentcancelled the visas of 1,000 Chinese students and researchers. The authorities claimed that the students had ties to thePeople's Liberation Armyand also accused some of them of conductingespionage. The U.S. began revoking these visas on June 1, 2020.[92]
In December 2020,Axiosreported an investigation into the case of a suspected Chinese spy who was enrolled as a student at aBay Areauniversity. The suspected intelligence operative, known as Christine Fang, developed extensive ties with politicians at local and national levels between 2011 and 2015, includingU.S. representativeforCalifornia's 15th congressional districtEric Swalwell. She was reportedly having sexual or romantic relationships with at least two mayors in theMidwest, according to a former elected official and a U.S. intelligence official.[93][94]
In January 2020, the U.S. Department of Justice arrestedCharles Lieber, Chair of the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology at Harvard University. Dr. Lieber was also the Principal Investigator of the Lieber Research Group at Harvard University, giving him direct access to information on nanoscience. The grants he received to oversee this work required him to disclose any foreign financial transactions. In 2011, Dr. Lieber was granted the title of "Strategic Scientist" at the Wuhan University of Technology. He received this role under China'sThousand Talents Program, which seeks to bring the expertise of prominent scientists to China and has been accused of stealing foreign information. He was required to work for the Wuhan lab for at least 9 months out of the year, and he got paid $50,000 per month. Dr. Lieber failed to inform the relevant institutions of his role, and he outright lied about his involvement in the program in 2018 and 2019.[95]
During its period ofmartial law on Taiwan(1949–1987) theKuomintang(KMT) government of the Republic of China surveilled Taiwanese abroad, most often in Japan and in the United States.[96]: 2The United StatesFederal Bureau of Investigationoften cooperated with or allowed the KMT to surveil Taiwanese students and other Taiwanese migrants in the United States.[96]: 15
From 1964 to 1991, there were scores of reported instances of the KMT spying on Taiwanese students across twenty-one different U.S. college campuses.[96]: 5Student informants to the KMT were part of a surveillance infrastructure called the as thecaihong(rainbow) project, named as a play-on-words related to stamping out Red communist bandits.[96]: 5According to academic Wendy Cheng, the KMT's likely first arrest of a U.S. student based on surveillance conducted in the U.S. was that of University of Wisconsin graduate student Hwang Chii-ming.[96]: 85
In 1968, recentEast-West Centerstudent Chen Yu-Hsi was arrested by the KMT government based on its surveillance of Chen in the United States.[96]: 101–102TheTaiwan Garrison Commandalleged that Chen had read communist literature including works byMao Zedongwhile at the East-West Center library.[96]: 103Chen was convicted of sedition at a July 1968 trial and sentenced to seven years of imprisonment.[96]: 104Chen was released in 1971 after receiving amnesty.[96]: 104
According to a 1979 report by theUnited States Senate Foreign Relations Committee, the Taiwan government operated one of the two most active anti-dissident networks within the United States, with agents infiltrated within universities and campus organizations and large-scalepropaganda campaignsimplemented through front organizations.[96]: 7
In 1981,Carnegie MellonprofessorChen Wen-chenwas murdered while in KMT custody.[96]: 39
The KMT ordered the 1984 assassination of U.S. citizenHenry Liuin California.[96]: 23
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_intelligence_operations_in_the_United_States
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Cyber spying on universitiesis the practice of obtaining secrets and information without the permission and knowledge of the university through its information technology system. Universities in the United Kingdom, including Oxford andCambridge, have been targets,[1]as have institutions in the United States[2]andAustralia.[3]
Universities are targets forcyber espionagedue to the wealth ofpersonally identifiable informationthey possess on students, employees, people who buy tickets to sporting events, and, if the university has anacademic medical center, on patients treated there. Information about research projects with industrial or military application are also targets. The culture of information sharing within universities tends to make them easy targets.[4][5][6]
Breaches can occur from people sharing credentials,phishing, web-crawlers inadvertently finding exposed access points,password cracking, and other standard hacking methods.[5]University credentials are bought and sold on web forums,darknet marketsand otherblack markets.[7][8][9]
The result of such efforts have included theft of military research into missile design or stealth technologies,[1][10]as well asmedical data.[11]
As a precaution against such attacks, Stanford University advises its employees to take IT precautions when they travel abroad.[12]
Moreover, in March 2018, the United States charged and sanctioned nine Iranians and the Iranian company Mabna Institute for hacking and attempting to hack hundreds of universitieson behalf of the Iranian government.[2][13][14]
Credentials used bySci-Hubto access paywalled scientific articles have been subsequently used by hackers seeking to breach university firewalls to access other information.[7]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber_spying_on_universities
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Cyber threat intelligence(CTI) is a subfield ofcybersecuritythat focuses on the structured collection, analysis, and dissemination of data regarding potential or existingcyber threats.[1][2]It provides organizations with the insights necessary to anticipate, prevent, and respond tocyberattacksby understanding the behavior of threat actors, their tactics, and thevulnerabilitiesthey exploit.[3][4][5]Cyber threat intelligence sources includeopen source intelligence,social media intelligence,human Intelligence, technical intelligence, device log files, forensically acquired data or intelligence from the internet traffic and data derived for thedeepanddarkweb.
In recent years, threat intelligence has become a crucial part of companies' cyber security strategy since it allows companies to be more proactive in their approach and determine which threats represent the greatest risks to a business. This puts companies on a more proactive front, actively trying to find their vulnerabilities and preventing hacks before they happen.[6]This method is gaining importance in recent years since, asIBMestimates, the most common method companies are hacked is via threat exploitation (47% of all attacks).[7]
Threat vulnerabilities have risen in recent years also due to theCOVID-19 pandemicand more peopleworking from home- which makes companies' data more vulnerable. Due to the growing threats on one hand, and the growing sophistication needed for threat intelligence, many companies have opted in recent years to outsource their threat intelligence activities to amanaged security provider (MSSP).[8]
The process of developing cyber threat intelligence is a circular and continuous process, known as the intelligence cycle, which is composed of five phases,[9][10][11][12]carried out by intelligence teams to provide to leadership relevant and convenient intelligence to reduce danger and uncertainty.[11]
The five phases are: 1) planning and direction; 2) collection; 3) processing; 4) analysis; 5) dissemination.[9][10][11][12]
In planning and directing, the customer of the intelligence product requests intelligence on a specific topic or objective. Then, once directed by the client, the second phase begins, collection, which involves accessing the raw information that will be required to produce the finished intelligence product. Since information is not intelligence, it must be transformed and therefore must go through the processing and analysis phases: in the processing (or pre-analytical phase) the raw information is filtered and prepared for analysis through a series of techniques (decryption, language translation, data reduction, etc.); In the analysis phase, organized information is transformed into intelligence. Finally, the dissemination phase, in which the newly selected threat intelligence is sent to the various users for their use.[10][12]
There are three overarching, but not categorical - classes of cyber threat intelligence:[4]1) tactical; 2) operational; 3) strategic.[4][9][12][13][14]These classes are fundamental to building a comprehensive threat assessment.[9]
Cyber threat intelligence provides a number of benefits, which include:
There are three key elements that must be present for information or data to be considered threat intelligence:[12]
Cyber threats involve the use of computers, storage devices, software networks and cloud-based repositories. Prior to, during or after acyber attacktechnical information about the information and operational technology, devices, network and computers between the attacker(s) and the victim(s) can be collected, stored and analyzed. However, identifying the person(s) behind an attack, their motivations, or the ultimate sponsor of the attack, - termed attribution is sometimes difficult,[20]as attackers can use deceptive tactics to evade detection or mislead analysts into drawing incorrect conclusions.[21]Multiple efforts[22][23][24]in threat intelligence emphasize understanding adversaryTTPsto tackle these issues.[25]
A number of recent[when?]cyber threat intelligence analytical reports have been released by public and private sector organizations which attribute cyber attacks. This includes Mandiant's APT1 and APT28 reports,[26][27]US CERT's APT29 report,[28]and Symantec's Dragonfly, Waterbug Group and Seedworm reports.[29][30][31]
In 2015 U.S. government legislation in the form of theCybersecurity Information Sharing Actencouraged the sharing of CTI indicators between government and private organizations. This act required the U.S. federal government to facilitate and promote four CTI objectives:[32]
In 2016, the U.S. government agencyNational Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST) issued a publication (NIST SP 800-150) which further outlined the necessity for Cyber Threat Information Sharing as well as a framework for implementation.[33]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber_threat_intelligence
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Cyberwarfareis the use ofcyber attacksagainst an enemystate, causing comparable harm to actualwarfareand/or disrupting vitalcomputer systems.[1]Some intended outcomes could beespionage,sabotage,propaganda,manipulationoreconomic warfare.
There is significant debate among experts regarding the definition of cyberwarfare, and even if such a thing exists.[2]One view is that the term is a misnomer since no cyber attacks to date could be described as a war.[3]An alternative view is that it is a suitable label for cyber attacks which cause physical damage to people and objects in the real world.[4]
Many countries, including theUnited States,United Kingdom,Russia,China,Israel,Iran, andNorth Korea,[5][6][7][8]have active cyber capabilities for offensive and defensive operations. As states explore the use of cyber operations and combine capabilities, the likelihood of physical confrontation and violence playing out as a result of, or part of, a cyber operation is increased. However, meeting the scale and protracted nature of war is unlikely, thus ambiguity remains.[9]
The first instance ofkinetic military actionused in response to a cyber-attack resulting in the loss of human life was observed on 5 May 2019, when theIsrael Defense Forcestargeted and destroyed a building associated with an ongoing cyber-attack.[10][11]
There is ongoing debate over how cyberwarfare should be defined and no absolute definition is widely agreed upon.[9][12]While the majority of scholars, militaries, and governments use definitions that refer to state and state-sponsored actors,[9][13][14]other definitions may include non-state actors, such as terrorist groups, companies, political or ideological extremist groups,hacktivists, and transnational criminal organizations depending on the context of the work.[15][16]
Examples of definitions proposed by experts in the field are as follows.
'Cyberwarfare' is used in a broad context to denote interstate use of technological force within computer networks in which information is stored, shared, or communicated online.[9]
Raymond Charles Parks and David P. Duggan focused on analyzing cyberwarfare in terms of computer networks and pointed out that "Cyberwarfare is a combination of computer network attack and defense and special technical operations."[17]According to this perspective, the notion of cyber warfare brings a new paradigm into military doctrine.Paulo Shakarianand colleagues put forward the following definition of "cyber war" in 2013, drawing onClausewitz's definition of war: "War is the continuation of politics by other means":[13]
Cyber war is an extension of policy by actions taken in cyber space by state or nonstate actors that constitute a serious threat to a nation's security or are conducted in response to a perceived threat against a nation's security.
Taddeo offered the following definition in 2012:
The warfare grounded on certain uses of ICTs within an offensive or defensive military strategy endorsed by a state and aiming at the immediate disruption or control of the enemy's resources, and which is waged within the informational environment, with agents and targets ranging both on the physical and non-physical domains and whose level of violence may vary upon circumstances.[18]
Robinson et al. proposed in 2015 that the intent of the attacker dictates whether an attack is warfare or not, defining cyber warfare as "the use of cyber attacks with a warfare-like intent."[12]
In 2010, the former US National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection and Counter-terrorism,Richard A. Clarke, defined cyberwarfare as "actions by a nation-state to penetrate another nation's computers or networks for the purposes of causing damage or disruption".[14]The target's own cyber-physical infrastructure may be used by the adversary in case of a cyber conflict, thus weaponizing it.[19]
There is debate on whether the term "cyber warfare" is accurate. In 2012,Eugene Kaspersky, founder ofKaspersky Lab, concluded that "cyberterrorism" is a more accurate term than "cyberwar." He states that "with today's attacks, you are clueless about who did it or when they will strike again. It's not cyber-war, but cyberterrorism."[20]Howard Schmidt, former Cyber Security Coordinator in theObama administration, said that "there is no cyberwar... I think that is a terrible metaphor and I think that is a terrible concept. There are no winners in that environment."[21]
Some experts take issue with the possible consequences linked to the warfare goal. In 2011, Ron Deibert, of Canada'sCitizen Lab, warned of a "militarization of cyberspace", as militaristic responses may not be appropriate.[22]However, to date, even serious cyber-attacks that have disrupted large parts of a nation's electrical grid (230,000 customers,Ukraine, 2015) or affected access to medical care, thus endangering life (UKNational Health Service,WannaCry, 2017) have not led to military action.[23]
In 2017,Oxfordacademic Lucas Kello proposed a new term, "Unpeace", to denote highly damaging cyber actions whose non-violent effects do not rise to the level of traditional war. Such actions are neither warlike nor peace-like. Although they are non-violent, and thus not acts of war, their damaging effects on the economy and society may be greater than those of some armed attacks.[24][25]This term is closely related to the concept of the "grey zone", which came to prominence in 2017, describing hostile actions that fall below the traditional threshold of war.[26]But as Kello explained, technological unpeace differs from the grey zone as the term is commonly used in that unpeace by definition is never overtly violent or fatal, whereas some grey-zone actions are violent, even if they are not acts of war.[27]
The term "cyberwarfare" is distinct from the term "cyber war". Cyberwarfare includes techniques, tactics and procedures that may be involved in a cyber war, but the term does not imply scale, protraction or violence, which are typically associated with the term "war", which inherently refers to a large-scale action, typically over a protracted period of time, and may include objectives seeking to utilize violence or the aim to kill.[9]A cyber war could accurately describe a protracted period of back-and-forth cyber attacks (including in combination with traditional military action) between warring states. To date, no such action is known to have occurred. Instead, armed forces have responded withtit-for-tatmilitary cyber actions. For example, in June 2019, the United States launched a cyber attack against Iranian weapons systems in retaliation to the shooting down of a US drone in theStrait of Hormuz.[28][29]
In addition to retaliatory digital attacks, countries can respond to cyber attacks withcyber sanctions. Sometimes, it is not easy to detect the attacker, but suspicions may focus on a particular country or group of countries. In these cases, unilateral and multilateral economic sanctions can be used instead of cyberwarfare. For example, the United States has frequently imposed economic sanctions related to cyber attacks. TwoExecutive Ordersissued during theObama administration, EO 13694 of 2015[30]and EO 13757 of 2016,[31][32]specifically focused on the implementation of the cyber sanctions. Subsequent US presidents have issued similar Executive Orders. TheUS Congresshas also imposed cyber sanctions in response to cyberwarfare. For example, the Iran Cyber Sanctions Act of 2016 imposes sanctions on specific individuals responsible for cyber attacks.[33]
Cyber warfare can present a multitude of threats towards a nation. At the most basic level, cyber attacks can be used to support traditional warfare. For example, tampering with the operation of air defenses via cyber means in order to facilitate an air attack.[34]Aside from these "hard" threats, cyber warfare can also contribute towards "soft" threats such as espionage and propaganda.Eugene Kaspersky, founder ofKaspersky Lab, equates large-scalecyber weapons, such asFlameandNetTravelerwhich his company discovered, tobiological weapons, claiming that in an interconnected world, they have the potential to be equally destructive.[20][35]
Traditional espionage is not an act of war, nor is cyber-espionage, and both are generally assumed to be ongoing between major powers.[36]Despite this assumption, some incidents can cause serious tensions between nations, and are often described as "attacks". For example:[37]
Out of all cyber attacks, 25% of them are espionage based.[45]
Computers andsatellitesthat coordinate other activities are vulnerable components of a system and could lead to the disruption of equipment. Compromise of military systems, such asC4ISTARcomponents that are responsible for orders and communications could lead to their interception or malicious replacement. Power, water, fuel, communications, and transportation infrastructure all may be vulnerable to disruption. According to Clarke, the civilian realm is also at risk, noting that the security breaches have already gone beyond stolen credit card numbers, and that potential targets can also include the electric power grid, trains, or the stock market.[46]
In mid-July 2010, security experts discovered a malicious software program calledStuxnetthat had infiltrated factory computers and had spread to plants around the world. It is considered "the first attack on critical industrial infrastructure that sits at the foundation of modern economies," notesThe New York Times.[47]
Stuxnet, while extremely effective in delayingIran's nuclear programfor the development of nuclear weaponry, came at a high cost. For the first time, it became clear that not only could cyber weapons be defensive but they could be offensive. The large decentralization and scale of cyberspace makes it extremely difficult to direct from a policy perspective. Non-state actors can play as large a part in the cyberwar space as state actors, which leads to dangerous, sometimes disastrous, consequences. Small groups of highly skilled malware developers are able to as effectively impact global politics and cyber warfare as large governmental agencies. A major aspect of this ability lies in the willingness of these groups to share their exploits and developments on the web as a form of arms proliferation. This allows lesser hackers to become more proficient in creating the large scale attacks that once only a small handful were skillful enough to manage. In addition, thriving black markets for these kinds of cyber weapons are buying and selling these cyber capabilities to the highest bidder without regard for consequences.[48][49]
In computing, a denial-of-service attack (DoSattack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. Perpetrators of DoS attacks typically target sites or services hosted on high-profile web servers such as banks, credit card payment gateways, and even root nameservers. DoS attacks often leverage internet-connected devices with vulnerable security measures to carry out these large-scale attacks.[50]DoS attacks may not be limited to computer-based methods, as strategic physical attacks against infrastructure can be just as devastating. For example, cutting undersea communication cables may severely cripple some regions and countries with regards to their information warfare ability.[51]
Thefederal government of the United Statesadmits that theelectric power gridis susceptible to cyberwarfare.[52][53]TheUnited States Department of Homeland Securityworks with industries to identifyvulnerabilitiesand to help industries enhance the security of control system networks. The federal government is also working to ensure that security is built in as the next generation of "smart grid" networks are developed.[54]In April 2009, reports surfaced that China and Russia had infiltrated the U.S. electrical grid and left behind software programs that could be used to disrupt the system, according to current and former national security officials.[55]TheNorth American Electric Reliability Corporation(NERC) has issued a public notice that warns that the electrical grid is not adequately protected from cyber attack.[56]China denies intruding into the U.S. electrical grid.[57]Onecountermeasurewould be to disconnect the power grid from the Internet and run the net withdroop speed controlonly.[58]Massivepower outagescaused by a cyber attack could disrupt the economy, distract from a simultaneous military attack, or create anational trauma.[59]
Iranian hackers, possiblyIranian Cyber Armypushed a massive power outage for 12 hours in 44 of 81 provinces ofTurkey, impacting 40 million people.IstanbulandAnkarawere among the places suffering blackout.[60]
Howard Schmidt, former Cyber-Security Coordinator of the US, commented on those possibilities:[21]
It's possible thathackershave gotten into administrative computer systems of utility companies, but says those aren't linked to the equipment controlling the grid, at least not in developed countries. [Schmidt] has never heard that the grid itself has been hacked.
In June 2019,Russiasaid that itselectrical gridhas been under cyber-attack by the United States. TheNew York Timesreported that American hackers from theUnited States Cyber Commandplanted malware potentially capable of disrupting the Russian electrical grid.[61]
Cyber propaganda is an effort to control information in whatever form it takes, and influence public opinion.[62]It is a form ofpsychological warfare, except it usessocial media,fake news websitesand other digital means.[63]In 2018, Sir Nicholas Carter, Chief of the General Staff of theBritish Armystated that this kind of attack from actors such as Russia "is a form of system warfare that seeks to de-legitimize the political and social system on which our military strength is based".[64]
Jowell and O'Donnell (2006) state that "propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist" (p. 7). The internet is the most important means of communication today. People can convey their messages quickly across to a huge audience, and this can open a window for evil. Terrorist organizations can exploit this and may use this medium to brainwash people. It has been suggested that restricted media coverage of terrorist attacks would in turn decrease the number of terrorist attacks that occur afterwards.[65]
In 2017, theWannaCryandPetya (NotPetya)cyber attacks, masquerading asransomware, caused large-scale disruptions inUkraineas well as to theU.K.'s National Health Service, pharmaceutical giantMerck,Maerskshipping company and other organizations around the world.[66][67][68]These attacks are also categorized ascybercrimes, specifically financial crime because they negatively affect a company or group.[69]
The idea of a "cyberPearl Harbor" has been debated by scholars, drawing an analogy to the historical act of war.[70][71]Others have used "cyber9/11" to draw attention to the nontraditional, asymmetric, or irregular aspect of cyber action against a state.[72][73]
There are a number of reasons nations undertake offensive cyber operations.Sandro Gaycken[de], a cyber security expert and adviser toNATO, advocates that states take cyber warfare seriously as they are viewed as an attractive activity by many nations, in times of war and peace. Offensive cyber operations offer a large variety of cheap and risk-free options to weaken other countries and strengthen their own positions. Considered from a long-term, geostrategic perspective, cyber offensive operations can cripple whole economies, change political views, agitate conflicts within or among states, reduce their military efficiency and equalize the capacities of high-tech nations to that of low-tech nations, and use access to their critical infrastructures to blackmail them.[74]
With the emergence of cyber as a substantial threat to national and global security, cyber war, warfare and/or attacks also became a domain of interest and purpose for the military.[75]
In the U.S., GeneralKeith B. Alexander, first head ofUSCYBERCOM, told theSenate Armed Services Committeethat computer network warfare is evolving so rapidly that there is a "mismatch between our technical capabilities to conduct operations and the governing laws and policies.Cyber Commandis the newest global combatant and its sole mission is cyberspace, outside the traditional battlefields of land, sea, air and space." It will attempt to find and, when necessary, neutralize cyberattacks and to defend military computer networks.[76]
Alexander sketched out the broad battlefield envisioned for the computer warfare command, listing the kind of targets that his new headquarters could be ordered to attack, including "traditional battlefield prizes – command-and-control systems at military headquarters, air defense networks and weapons systems that require computers to operate."[76]
One cyber warfare scenario,Cyber-ShockWave, which waswargamedon the cabinet level by former administration officials, raised issues ranging from theNational Guardto thepower gridto the limits of statutory authority.[77][78][79][80]
The distributed nature of internet based attacks means that it is difficult to determine motivation and attacking party, meaning that it is unclear when a specific act should be considered an act of war.[81]
Examples of cyberwarfare driven by political motivations can be found worldwide. In 2008, Russia began a cyber attack on the Georgian government website, which was carried out along with Georgian military operations in South Ossetia. In 2008, Chinese "nationalisthackers" attackedCNNas it reported on Chinese repression onTibet.[82]Hackers fromArmeniaandAzerbaijanhave actively participated in cyberwarfare as part of theNagorno-Karabakh conflict, with Azerbaijani hackers targeting Armenian websites and postingIlham Aliyev's statements.[83][84]
Jobs in cyberwarfare have become increasingly popular in the military. All four branches of the United States military actively recruit for cyber warfare positions.[85]
In a 2024 study on the use of military cyber operations during theRusso-Ukrainian War, Frederik A. H. Pedersen and Jeppe T. Jacobsen concluded that cyber operations in warfare may only be impactful on thetacticalandoperational levelsin a war's beginning, when cyber and non-cyber operations can be aligned and complex cyber weapons can be prepared before war breaks out, as well as cumulatively on astrategic level.[86]
Potential targets in internet sabotage include all aspects of the Internet from thebackbonesof the web, to theinternet service providers, to the varying types of data communication mediums and network equipment. This would include: web servers, enterprise information systems, client server systems, communication links, network equipment, and the desktops and laptops in businesses and homes.Electrical grids, financial networks, andtelecommunications systemsare also deemed vulnerable, especially due to current trends in computerization and automation.[87]
Politically motivatedhacktivisminvolves the subversive use of computers andcomputer networksto promote an agenda, and can potentially extend to attacks, theft and virtual sabotage that could be seen as cyberwarfare – or mistaken for it.[88]Hacktivists use their knowledge and software tools to gain unauthorized access to computer systems they seek to manipulate or damage not for material gain or to cause widespread destruction, but to draw attention to their cause through well-publicized disruptions of select targets. Anonymous and other hacktivist groups are often portrayed in the media as cyber-terrorists, wreaking havoc by hacking websites, posting sensitive information about their victims, and threatening further attacks if their demands are not met. However, hacktivism is more than that. Actors are politically motivated to change the world, through the use of fundamentalism. Groups like Anonymous, however, have divided opinion with their methods.[89]
Cyber attacks, including ransomware, can be used to generate income. States can use these techniques to generate significant sources of income, which can evade sanctions and perhaps while simultaneously harming adversaries (depending on targets). This tactic was observed in August 2019 when it was revealed North Korea had generated $2 billion to fund its weapons program, avoiding the blanket of sanctions levied by theUnited States,United Nationsand theEuropean Union.[90][91]
Computer hacking represents a modern threat in ongoing global conflicts andindustrial espionageand as such is presumed to widely occur.[87]It is typical that this type of crime is underreported to the extent they are known. According toMcAfee'sGeorge Kurtz, corporations around the world face millions of cyberattacks a day. "Most of theseattacksdon't gain any media attention or lead to strong political statements by victims."[92]This type of crime is usually financially motivated.[93]
But not all those who engage in cyberwarfare do so for financial or ideological reasons. There are institutes and companies like theUniversity of Cincinnati[94]or theKaspersky Security Labwhich engage in cyberwarfare so as to better understand the field through actions like the researching and publishing of new security threats.[95]
A number of countries conduct exercise to increase preparedness and explore the strategy, tactics and operations involved in conducting and defending against cyber attacks against hostile states, this is typically done in the form ofwar games.[96]
TheCooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence (CCDCE), part of theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), have conducted a yearly war game called Locked Shields since 2010 designed to test readiness and improve skills, strategy tactics and operational decision making of participating national organizations.[97][98]Locked Shields 2019 saw 1200 participants from 30 countries compete in ared teamvs.blue teamexercise. The war game involved a fictional country, Berylia, which was "experiencing a deteriorating security situation, where a number of hostile events coincide with coordinated cyber attacks against a major civilian internet service provider and maritime surveillance system. The attacks caused severe disruptions in the power generation and distribution, 4G communication systems, maritime surveillance, water purification plant and other critical infrastructure components". CCDCE describe the aim of the exercise was to "maintain the operation of various systems under intense pressure, the strategic part addresses the capability to understand the impact of decisions made at the strategic and policy level."[97][99]Ultimately,Francewas the winner of Locked Shields 2019.[100]
TheEuropean Unionconducts cyber war game scenarios with member states and foreign partner states to improve readiness, skills and observe how strategic and tactical decisions may affect the scenario.[101]
As well as war games which serve a broader purpose to explore options and improve skills, cyber war games are targeted at preparing for specific threats. In 2018 the Sunday Times reported the UK government was conducting cyber war games which could "blackout Moscow".[102][103]These types of war games move beyond defensive preparedness, as previously described above and onto preparing offensive capabilities which can be used as deterrence, or for "war".[104]
Approximately 120 countries have been developing ways to use the Internet as a weapon and target financial markets, government computer systems and utilities.[105]
According to Fritz, China has expanded its cyber capabilities and military technology by acquiring foreign military technology.[106]Fritz states that the Chinese government uses "new space-based surveillance and intelligence gathering systems,Anti-satellite weapon, anti-radar, infrared decoys, and false target generators" to assist in this quest, and that they support their "Informatisation" of their military through "increased education of soldiers in cyber warfare; improving the information network for military training, and has built more virtual laboratories, digital libraries and digital campuses."[106]Through this informatisation, they hope to prepare their forces to engage in a different kind of warfare, against technically capable adversaries.[107]Foreign Policymagazine put the size of China's "hacker army" at anywhere from 50,000 to 100,000 individuals.[108]Diplomatic cableshighlight US concerns that China is using access to Microsoft source code and 'harvesting the talents of its private sector' to boost its offensive and defensive capabilities.[109]
While China continues to be held responsible for a string of cyber-attacks on a number of public and private institutions in the United States, India, Russia, Canada, and France, the Chinese government denies any involvement in cyber-spying campaigns. The administration maintains the position that China is also victim to an increasing number of cyber-attacks. Most reports about China's cyber warfare capabilities have yet to be confirmed by theChinese government.[110]
In June 2015, theUnited States Office of Personnel Management(OPM) announced that it had been the target of adata breachtargeting the records of as many as four million people.[111]Later,FBI DirectorJames Comeyput the number at 18 million.[112]TheWashington Posthas reported that the attack originated inChina, citing unnamed government officials.[113]
Operation Shady RATis a series ofcyber attacksstarting mid-2006, reported by Internet security companyMcAfeein August 2011. China is widely believed to be the state actor behind these attacks which hit at least 72 organizations including governments and defense contractors.[114]
The 2018 cyberattack on theMarriott hotel chain[115][116]that collected personal details of roughly 500 million guests is now known to be a part of a Chinese intelligence-gathering effort that also hacked health insurers and the security clearance files of millions more Americans, The hackers, are suspected of working on behalf of theMinistry of State Security(MSS), the country's Communist-controlled civilian spy agency.[117][118][119]
On 14 September 2020, a database showing personal details of about 2.4 million people around the world was leaked and published. A Chinese company,Zhenhua Datacompiled the database.[120]According to the information from "National Enterprise Credit Information Publicity System", which is run byState Administration for Market Regulationin China, the shareholders of Zhenhua Data Information Technology Co., Ltd. are two natural persons and one general partnership enterprise whose partners are natural persons.[121]Wang Xuefeng, who is the chief executive and the shareholder of Zhenhua Data, has publicly boasted that he supports "hybrid warfare" through manipulation of public opinion and "psychological warfare".[122]
In February 2024 ThePhilippinesannounced that it had successfully fought off acyber attackwhich was traced to hackers inChina. Several government websites were targeted including the National coast watch and personal website of the president of thePhilippines,Bongbong Marcos.[123]
In May 2024 The UK announced that it had taken a database offline that is used by its defense ministry after coming under a cyber attack attributed to the Chinese state.[124]
The Department of Information Technology created theIndian Computer Emergency Response Team(CERT-In) in 2004 to thwart cyber attacks in India.[125]That year, there were 23 reported cyber security breaches. In 2011, there were 13,301. That year, the government created a new subdivision, theNational Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre(NCIIPC) to thwart attacks against energy, transport, banking, telecom, defense, space and other sensitive areas.[126]
The executive director of theNuclear Power Corporation of India(NPCIL) stated in February 2013 that his company alone was forced to block up to ten targeted attacks a day. CERT-In was left to protect less critical sectors.[127]
A high-profile cyber attack on 12 July 2012 breached the email accounts of about 12,000 people, including those of officials from theMinistry of External Affairs,Ministry of Home Affairs,Defense Research and Development Organizations(DRDO), and theIndo-Tibetan Border Police(ITBP).[125]A government-private sector plan being overseen byNational Security Advisor(NSA)Shivshankar Menonbegan in October 2012, and intends to boost up India's cyber security capabilities in the light of a group of experts findings that India faces a 470,000 shortfall of such experts despite the country's reputation of being an IT and software powerhouse.[128]
In February 2013, Information Technology Secretary J. Satyanarayana stated that theNCIIPC[page needed]was finalizing policies related to national cyber security that would focus on domestic security solutions, reducing exposure through foreign technology.[125]Other steps include the isolation of various security agencies to ensure that a synchronised attack could not succeed on all fronts and the planned appointment of a National Cyber Security Coordinator. As of that month, there had been no significant economic or physical damage to India related to cyber attacks.
On 26 November 2010, a group calling itself the Indian Cyber Army hacked the websites belonging to the Pakistan Army and the others belong to different ministries, including the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Finance, Pakistan Computer Bureau, Council of Islamic Ideology, etc. The attack was done as a revenge for theMumbai terrorist attacks.[129]
On 4 December 2010, a group calling itself the Pakistan Cyber Army hacked the website of India's top investigating agency, theCentral Bureau of Investigation(CBI). TheNational Informatics Center(NIC) has begun an inquiry.[130]
In July 2016, Cymmetria researchers discovered and revealed the cyber attack dubbed 'Patchwork', which compromised an estimated 2500 corporate and government agencies using code stolen fromGitHuband thedark web. Examples of weapons used are an exploit for the Sandworm vulnerability (CVE-2014–4114), a compiled AutoIt script, and UAC bypass code dubbed UACME. Targets are believed to be mainly military and political assignments around Southeast Asia and the South China Sea and the attackers are believed to be of Indian origin and gathering intelligence from influential parties.[131][132]
TheDefence Cyber Agency, which is the Indian Military agency responsible for Cyberwarfare, is expected to become operational by November 2019.[133]
The Chinese are being blamed after a cybersecurity company, F-Secure Labs, found a malware, NanHaiShu, which targeted the Philippines Department of Justice. It sent information in an infected machine to a server with a Chinese IP address. The malware which is considered particularly sophisticated in nature was introduced by phishing emails that were designed to look like they were coming from an authentic sources. The information sent is believed to be relating to the South China Sea legal case.[134]
In July 2009, there were aseries of coordinated denial of service attacksagainst major government, news media, and financial websites inSouth Koreaand the United States.[135]While many thought the attack was directed by North Korea, one researcher traced the attacks to the United Kingdom.[136]Security researcherChris Kubeckapresented evidence multipleEuropean UnionandUnited Kingdomcompanies unwittingly helped attack South Korea due to aW32.Dozerinfections, malware used in part of the attack. Some of the companies used in the attack were partially owned by several governments, further complicatingcyber attribution.[137]
In July 2011, the South Korean companySK Communicationswas hacked, resulting in the theft of the personal details (including names, phone numbers, home and email addresses and resident registration numbers) of up to 35 million people. A trojaned software update was used to gain access to the SK Communications network. Links exist between this hack and other malicious activity and it is believed to be part of a broader, concerted hacking effort.[138]
With ongoing tensions on the Korean Peninsula,South Korea's defense ministrystated that South Korea was going to improve cyber-defense strategies in hopes of preparing itself from possible cyber attacks. In March 2013, South Korea's major banks – Shinhan Bank, Woori Bank and NongHyup Bank – as well as many broadcasting stations – KBS, YTN and MBC – were hacked and more than 30,000 computers were affected; it is one of the biggest attacks South Korea has faced in years.[139]Although it remains uncertain as to who was involved in this incident, there has been immediate assertions that North Korea is connected, as it threatened to attack South Korea's government institutions, major national banks and traditional newspapers numerous times – in reaction to the sanctions it received from nuclear testing and to the continuation ofFoal Eagle, South Korea's annual joint military exercise with the United States. North Korea's cyber warfare capabilities raise the alarm for South Korea, as North Korea is increasing its manpower through military academies specializing in hacking. Current figures state that South Korea only has 400 units of specialized personnel, while North Korea has more than 3,000 highly trained hackers; this portrays a huge gap in cyber warfare capabilities and sends a message to South Korea that it has to step up and strengthen its Cyber Warfare Command forces. Therefore, in order to be prepared from future attacks, South Korea and the United States will discuss further about deterrence plans at the Security Consultative Meeting (SCM). At SCM, they plan on developing strategies that focuses on accelerating the deployment of ballistic missiles as well as fostering its defense shield program, known as the Korean Air and Missile Defense.[140]
In an extension of a bilateral dispute betweenEthiopiaandEgyptover theGrand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, Ethiopian government websites have been hacked by the Egypt-based hackers in June 2020.[141][142]
The New York Times published an exposé revealing an extensive three-year phishing campaign aimed against diplomats based inCyprus. After accessing the state system the hackers had access to theEuropean Union's entire exchange database.[143]By login intoCoreu, hackers accessed communications linking allEU states, on both sensitive and not so sensitive matters. The event exposed poor protection of routine exchanges among European Union officials and a coordinated effort from a foreign entity to spy on another country. "After over a decade of experience countering Chinese cyberoperations and extensive technical analysis, there is no doubt this campaign is connected to the Chinese government", said Blake Darche, one of theArea 1 Securityexperts – the company revealing the stolen documents. The Chinese Embassy in the US did not return calls for comment.[144]In 2019, another coordinated effort took place that allowed hackers to gain access to government (gov.cy) emails.Cisco's Talos Security Departmentrevealed that "Sea Turtle" hackers carried out a broad piracy campaign in the DNS countries, hitting 40 different organizations, including Cyprus.[145]
In April 2007, Estoniacame under cyber attackin the wake of relocation of theBronze Soldier of Tallinn.[146]The largest part of the attacks were coming from Russia and from official servers of the authorities of Russia.[147]In the attack, ministries, banks, and media were targeted.[148][149]This attack on Estonia, a seemingly small Baltic state, was so effective because of how most of Estonian government services are run online. Estonia has implemented an e-government, where banking services, political elections, taxes, and other components of a modern society are now all done online.[150]
In 2013, the French Minister of Defense, MrJean-Yves Le Drian, ordered the creation of a cyber army, representing its fourth national army corps[151](along with ground, naval and air forces) under the French Ministry of Defense, to protect French and European interests on its soil and abroad.[152]A contract was made with French firmEADS(Airbus) to identify and secure its main elements susceptible to cyber threats.[153]In 2016 France had planned 2600 "cyber-soldiers" and a 440 million euros investment for cybersecurity products for this new army corps.[154]An additional 4400 reservists constitute the heart of this army from 2019.[155]
In 2013, Germany revealed the existence of their 60-person Computer Network Operation unit.[156]The German intelligence agency,BND, announced it was seeking to hire 130 "hackers" for a new "cyber defence station" unit. In March 2013, BND presidentGerhard Schindlerannounced that his agency had observed up to five attacks a day on government authorities, thought mainly to originate in China. He confirmed the attackers had so far only accessed data and expressed concern that the stolen information could be used as the basis of future sabotage attacks against arms manufacturers, telecommunications companies and government and military agencies.[157]Shortly afterEdward Snowdenleaked details of the U.S.National Security Agency's cyber surveillance system, German Interior MinisterHans-Peter Friedrichannounced that the BND would be given an additional budget of 100 million Euros to increase their cyber surveillance capability from 5% of total internet traffic in Germany to 20% of total traffic, the maximum amount allowed by German law.[158]
In theNetherlands, Cyber Defense is nationally coordinated by theNational Cyber Security Centrum[nl](NCSC).[159]TheDutch Ministry of Defenselaid out a cyber strategy in 2011.[160]The first focus is to improve the cyber defense handled by the Joint IT branch (JIVC). To improve intel operations, the intel community in the Netherlands (including the military intel organization, MIVD) has set up the Joint Sigint Cyber Unit (JSCU). The Ministry of Defense oversees an offensive cyber force, called Defensive Cyber Command (DCC).[161]
It has been claimed that Russian security services organized a number ofdenial of service attacksas a part of theircyber-warfareagainst other countries,[162]most notably the2007 cyberattacks on Estoniaand the2008 cyberattacks on Russia, South Ossetia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan.[163]One identified young Russian hacker said that he was paid byRussian state security servicesto lead hacking attacks onNATOcomputers. He was studyingcomputer sciencesat theDepartment of the Defense of Information. His tuition was paid for by the FSB.[164]Russian, South Ossetian, Georgian and Azerbaijani sites were attackedby hackers during the2008 South Ossetia War.[165]
In October 2016,Jeh JohnsontheUnited States Secretary of Homeland SecurityandJames Clapperthe U.S.Director of National Intelligenceissued a joint statement accusing Russia ofinterfering with the 2016 United States presidential election.[166]The New York Times reported the Obama administration formally accused Russia of stealing and disclosingDemocratic National Committeeemails.[167]Under U.S. law (50 U.S.C.Title 50 – War and National Defense, Chapter 15 – National Security, Subchapter III Accountability for Intelligence Activities[168]) there must be a formalPresidential findingprior to authorizing a covert attack. Then U.S. vice presidentJoe Bidensaid on the American news interview programMeet The Pressthat the United States will respond.[169]The New York Times noted that Biden's comment "seems to suggest that Mr. Obama is prepared to order – or has already ordered – some kind of covert action".[170]
In January 2017,Sweden's armed forceswere subjected to a cyber-attack that caused them to shutdown a so-called Caxcis IT system used inmilitary exercises.[171]
According toCrowdStrikefrom 2014 to 2016, the Russian APTFancy Bearused Android malware to target the Ukrainian Army'sRocket Forces and Artillery. They distributed an infected version of anAndroidappwhose original purpose was to control targeting data for theD-30 Howitzerartillery. The app, used by Ukrainian officers, was loaded with theX-Agentspyware and posted online on military forums. The attack was claimed by Crowd-Strike to be successful, with more than 80% of Ukrainian D-30 Howitzers destroyed, the highest percentage loss of any artillery pieces in the army (a percentage that had never been previously reported and would mean the loss of nearly the entire arsenal of the biggest artillery piece of theUkrainian Armed Forces[172]).[173]According to theUkrainian armythis number is incorrect and that losses in artillery weapons "were way below those reported" and that these losses "have nothing to do with the stated cause".[174]
In 2014, the Russians were suspected to use a cyber weapon called "Snake", or "Ouroboros," to conduct a cyber attack on Ukraine during a period of political turmoil. The Snake tool kit began spreading into Ukrainian computer systems in 2010. It performed Computer Network Exploitation (CNE), as well as highly sophisticated Computer Network Attacks (CNA).[175]
On 23 December 2015 theBlack-Energymalware was used ina cyberattack on Ukraine's power-gridthat left more than 200,000 people temporarily without power. A mining company and a large railway operator were also victims of the attack.[176]
Ukraine saw a massive surge in cyber attacks during the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Several websites belonging to Ukrainian banks and government departments became inaccessible.[177]
MI6reportedly infiltrated an Al Qaeda website and replaced the instructions for making apipe bombwith the recipe for makingcupcakes.[178]
In October 2010,Iain Lobban, the director of theGovernment Communications Headquarters(GCHQ), said the UK faces a "real and credible" threat from cyber attacks by hostile states and criminals and government systems are targeted 1,000 times each month, such attacks threatened the UK's economic future, and some countries were already using cyber assaults to put pressure on other nations.[179]
On 12 November 2013, financial organizations in London conducted cyber war games dubbed "Waking Shark 2"[180]to simulate massive internet-based attacks against bank and other financial organizations. The Waking Shark 2 cyber war games followed a similar exercise inWall Street.[181]
Iranhas been both victim and perpetrator of several cyberwarfare operations. Iran is considered an emergingmilitary powerin the field.[182]
In September 2010,Iranwas attacked by theStuxnetworm, thought to specifically target itsNatanz nuclear enrichment facility.It was a 500-kilobyte computer worm that infected at least 14 industrial sites in Iran, including the Natanz uranium-enrichment plant. Although the official authors of Stuxnet haven't been officially identified, Stuxnet is believed to be developed and deployed by the United States and Israel.[183]The worm is said to be the most advanced piece of malware ever discovered and significantly increases the profile of cyberwarfare.[184][185]
Iranian Cyber Police department, FATA, was dismissed one year after its creation in 2011 because of the arrest and death of Sattar Behesti, a blogger, in the custody of FATA. Since then, the main responsible institution for the cyberwarfare in Iran is the "Cyber Defense Command" operating under theJoint Staff of Iranian Armed Forces.
The Iranian state sponsored groupMuddyWateris active since at least 2017 and is responsible for many cyber attacks on various sectors.[186]
In the 2006 war againstHezbollah, Israel alleges that cyber-warfare was part of the conflict, where theIsrael Defense Forces(IDF) intelligence estimates several countries in the Middle East used Russian hackers and scientists to operate on their behalf. As a result, Israel attached growing importance to cyber-tactics, and became, along with the U.S., France and a couple of other nations, involved in cyber-war planning. Many international high-tech companies are now locating research and development operations in Israel, where local hires are often veterans of the IDF's elite computer units.[187]Richard A. Clarkeadds that "our Israeli friends have learned a thing or two from the programs we have been working on for more than two decades."[14]: 8
In September 2007, Israel carried out an airstrike on a suspected nuclear reactor[188]in Syria dubbedOperation Orchard. U.S. industry and military sources speculated that the Israelis may have used cyberwarfare to allow their planes to pass undetected by radar into Syria.[189][190]
Following US PresidentDonald Trump's decision to pull out of theIran nuclear dealin May 2018, cyber warfare units in the United States and Israel monitoring internet traffic out of Iran noted a surge in retaliatory cyber attacks from Iran. Security firms warned that Iranian hackers were sending emails containing malware to diplomats who work in the foreign affairs offices of US allies and employees at telecommunications companies, trying to infiltrate their computer systems.[191]
On 15 August 2012 at 11:08 am local time, theShamoonvirus began destroying over 35,000 computer systems, rendering them inoperable. The virus used to target theSaudigovernment by causing destruction to the state owned national oil companySaudi Aramco. The attackers posted a pastie on PasteBin.com hours prior to the wiper logic bomb occurring, citing oppression and theAl-Saud regimeas a reason behind the attack.[192]
The attack was well staged according toChris Kubecka, a former security advisor to Saudi Aramco after the attack and group leader of security for Aramco Overseas.[193]It was an unnamed Saudi Aramco employee on the Information Technology team which opened a malicious phishing email, allowing initial entry into the computer network around mid-2012.[194]
Kubecka also detailed in her Black Hat USA talk Saudi Aramco placed the majority of their security budget on the ICS control network, leaving the business network at risk for a major incident.[194]The virus has been noted to have behavior differing from other malware attacks, due to the destructive nature and the cost of the attack and recovery. US Defense SecretaryLeon Panettacalled the attack a "Cyber Pearl Harbor".[195]Shamoon can spread from an infected machine toother computers on the network. Once a system is infected, the virus continues to compile a list of files from specific locations on the system, upload them to the attacker, and erase them. Finally the virus overwrites themaster boot recordof the infected computer, making it unusable.[196][197]The virus has been used forcyber warfareagainst the national oil companies Saudi Aramco and Qatar'sRasGas.[198][199][196][200]
Saudi Aramco announced the attack on their Facebook page and went offline again until a company statement was issued on 25 August 2012. The statement falsely reported normal business was resumed on 25 August 2012. However a Middle Eastern journalist leaked photographs taken on 1 September 2012 showing kilometers of petrol trucks unable to be loaded due to backed business systems still inoperable.
On 29 August 2012 the same attackers behind Shamoon posted another pastie on PasteBin.com, taunting Saudi Aramco with proof they still retained access to the company network. The post contained the username and password on security and network equipment and the new password for the CEO Khalid Al- Falih[201]The attackers also referenced a portion of the Shamoon malware as further proof in the pastie.[202]
According to Kubecka, in order to restore operations. Saudi Aramco used its large private fleet of aircraft and available funds to purchase much of the world's hard drives, driving the price up. New hard drives were required as quickly as possible so oil prices were not affected by speculation. By 1 September 2012 gasoline resources were dwindling for the public of Saudi Arabia 17 days after the 15 August attack.RasGaswas also affected by a different variant, crippling them in a similar manner.[203]
In March 2018 American Republican fundraiser Elliott Broidy filed a lawsuit against Qatar, alleging that Qatar's government stole and leaked his emails in order to discredit him because he was viewed "as an impediment to their plan to improve the country's standing in Washington."[204]In May 2018, the lawsuit namedMohammed bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, brother of the Emir of Qatar, and his associateAhmed Al-Rumaihi, as allegedly orchestrating Qatar's cyber warfare campaign against Broidy.[205]Further litigation revealed that the same cybercriminals who targeted Broidy had targeted as many as 1,200 other individuals, some of whom are also "well-known enemies of Qatar" such as senior officials of the U.A.E., Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain. While these hackers almost always obscured their location, some of their activity was traced to a telecommunication network in Qatar.[206]
TheUnited Arab Emirateshas launched several cyber-attacks in the past targeting dissidents.Ahmed Mansoor, an Emirati citizen, was jailed for sharing his thoughts onFacebookandTwitter.[207]He was given the code name Egret under the state-led covert project called Raven, which spied on top political opponents, dissidents, and journalists.Project Ravendeployed a secret hacking tool called Karma, to spy without requiring the target to engage with any web links.[208]
In September 2021, three of the former American intelligence officers, Marc Baier, Ryan Adams, and Daniel Gericke, admitted to assisting the UAE in hacking crimes by providing them with advanced technology and violating US laws. Under a three-yeardeferred prosecution agreementwith the Justice Department, the three defendants also agreed to pay nearly $1.7 million in fines to evade prison sentences. The court documents revealed that the Emirates hacked into the computers and mobile phones of dissidents, activists, and journalists. They also attempted to break into the systems of the US and rest of the world.[209]
Cyberwarfare in the United States is a part of the Americanmilitary strategyofproactive cyber defenceand the use of cyberwarfare as a platform for attack.[210]The new United States military strategy makes explicit that a cyberattack iscasus bellijust as a traditional act of war.[211]
U.S. government security expertRichard A. Clarke, in his bookCyber War(May 2010), had defined "cyberwarfare" as "actions by a nation-state to penetrate another nation's computers or networks for the purposes of causing damage or disruption."[14]: 6The Economistdescribescyberspaceas "the fifth domain of warfare,"[212]andWilliam J. Lynn, U.S. DeputySecretary of Defense, states that "as a doctrinal matter,the Pentagonhas formally recognized cyberspace as a new domain in warfare . . . [which] has become just as critical to military operations as land, sea, air, and space."[213]
When Russia was still a part of theSoviet Unionin 1982, a portion of a Trans-Siberia pipeline within its territory exploded,[214]allegedly due to aTrojan Horsecomputer malware implanted in the pirated Canadian software by theCentral Intelligence Agency. The malware caused the SCADA system running the pipeline to malfunction. The "Farewell Dossier" provided information on this attack, and wrote that compromised computer chips would become a part of Soviet military equipment, flawed turbines would be placed in the gas pipeline, and defective plans would disrupt the output of chemical plants and a tractor factory. This caused the "most monumental nonnuclear explosion and fire ever seen from space." However, the Soviet Union did not blame the United States for the attack.[215]
In 2009, president Barack Obama declared America's digital infrastructure to be a "strategic national asset," and in May 2010 the Pentagon set up its new U.S. Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM), headed by GeneralKeith B. Alexander, director of theNational Security Agency(NSA), to defend American military networks and attack other countries' systems. The EU has set upENISA(European Union Agency for Network and Information Security) which is headed by Prof. Udo Helmbrecht and there are now further plans to significantly expand ENISA's capabilities. The United Kingdom has also set up a cyber-security and "operations centre" based inGovernment Communications Headquarters(GCHQ), the British equivalent of the NSA. In the U.S. however, Cyber Command is only set up to protect the military, whereas the government and corporate infrastructures are primarily the responsibility respectively of theDepartment of Homeland Securityand private companies.[212]
On 19 June 2010, United States SenatorJoe Lieberman(I-CT) introduced a bill called "Protecting Cyberspace as a National Asset Act of 2010",[216]which he co-wrote with SenatorSusan Collins(R-ME) and SenatorThomas Carper(D-DE). If signed into law, this controversial bill, which the American media dubbed the "Kill switch bill", would grant the president emergency powers over parts of the Internet. However, all three co-authors of the bill issued a statement that instead, the bill "[narrowed] existing broad presidential authority to take over telecommunications networks".[217]
In August 2010, the U.S. for the first time warned publicly about the Chinese military's use of civilian computer experts in clandestine cyber attacks aimed at American companies and government agencies. The Pentagon also pointed to an alleged China-based computer spying network dubbedGhostNetwhich was revealed in a 2009 research report.[218][219]
On 6 October 2011, it was announced thatCreech AFB'sdrone and Predatorfleet'scommand and controldata stream had beenkeylogged, resisting all attempts to reverse the exploit, for the past two weeks.[220]The Air Force issued a statement that the virus had "posed no threat to our operational mission".[221]
On 21 November 2011, it was widely reported in the U.S. media that a hacker had destroyed a water pump at the Curran-Gardner Township Public Water District in Illinois.[222]However, it later turned out that this information was not only false, but had been inappropriately leaked from the Illinois Statewide Terrorism and Intelligence Center.[223]
In June 2012the New York Timesreported that president Obama had ordered the cyber attack on Iranian nuclear enrichment facilities.[224]
In August 2012, USA Today reported that the US conducted cyberattacks for tactical advantage in Afghanistan.[225]
According to a 2013Foreign Policymagazine article, NSA'sTailored Access Operations(TAO) unit "has successfully penetrated Chinese computer and telecommunications systems for almost 15 years, generating some of the best and most reliable intelligence information about what is going on inside the People's Republic of China."[226][227]
In 2014, Barack Obama ordered an intensification of cyberwarfare againstNorth Korea's missile program for sabotaging test launches in their opening seconds.[228]On 24 November 2014,Sony Pictures Entertainment hackwas a release of confidential data belonging to Sony Pictures Entertainment (SPE).
In 2016 President Barack Obama authorized the planting of cyber weapons in Russian infrastructure in the final weeks of his presidency in response to Moscow's interference in the 2016 presidential election.[229]On 29 December 2016 United States imposed the most extensive sanctions against Russia since theCold War,[230]expelling 35 Russian diplomats from the United States.[231][232]
Economic sanctions are the most frequently used the foreign policy instruments by the United States today[233]Thus, it is not surprising to see that economic sanctions are also used as counter policies against cyberattacks. According to Onder (2021), economic sanctions are also information gathering mechanisms for the sanctioning states about the capabilities of the sanctioned states.[234]
In March 2017, WikiLeaks published more than 8,000 documents on theCIA. The confidential documents, codenamedVault 7and dated from 2013 to 2016, include details on CIA's software capabilities, such as the ability to compromisecars,smart TVs,[235]web browsers(includingGoogle Chrome,Microsoft Edge,Mozilla Firefox, andOpera Software ASA),[236][237][238]and the operating systems of mostsmartphones(includingApple'siOSandGoogle'sAndroid), as well as otheroperating systemssuch asMicrosoft Windows,macOS, andLinux.[239]
In June 2019, theNew York Timesreported that American hackers from theUnited States Cyber Commandplanted malware potentially capable of disrupting theRussian electrical grid.[61]
The United States topped the world in terms of cyberwarfare intent and capability, according to Harvard University'sBelfer CenterCyber 2022 Power Index, above China, Russia, the United Kingdom and Australia.[240]
In June 2023, theNational Security AgencyandApplewere accused by the RussianFederal Security Service(FSB) of compromising thousands ofiPhones, including those of diplomats from China, Israel, NATO members, and Syria.Kaspersky Labsaid many of its senior staff and managers were also hit by the ongoing attack, which it first suspected in early 2023. The oldest traces of infiltration date back to 2019. Kaspersky Lab said it had not shared the findings with Russian authorities until the FSB announcement.[240]
A cybermercenaryis anon-state actorthat carries out cyber attacks forNation statesfor hire. State actors can use the cyber mercenaries as a front to try and distance themselves from the attack withplausible deniability.[241]
The rise of cyber as a warfighting domain has led to efforts to determine how cyberspace can be used to foster peace. For example, the German civil rights panelFIfFruns a campaign for cyberpeace − for the control of cyberweapons and surveillance technology and against the militarization of cyberspace and the development and stockpiling of offensive exploits and malware.[242]Measures for cyberpeace include policymakers developing new rules and norms for warfare, individuals and organizations building new tools and secure infrastructures, promotingopen source, the establishment of cyber security centers, auditing of critical infrastructure cybersecurity, obligations to disclose vulnerabilities, disarmament, defensive security strategies, decentralization, education and widely applying relevant tools and infrastructures, encryption and other cyberdefenses.[242][243]
The topics of cyber peacekeeping[244][245]and cyber peacemaking[246]have also been studied by researchers, as a way to restore and strengthen peace in the aftermath of both cyber and traditional warfare.[247]
Cyber counter-intelligence are measures to identify, penetrate, or neutralize foreign operations that use cyber means as the primary tradecraft methodology, as well as foreign intelligence service collection efforts that use traditional methods to gauge cyber capabilities and intentions.[248]
One of the hardest issues in cyber counterintelligence is the problem ofcyber attribution. Unlike conventional warfare, figuring out who is behind an attack can be very difficult.[255]
In October 2011 theJournal of Strategic Studies, a leading journal in that field, published an article byThomas Rid, "Cyber War Will Not Take Place" which argued that all politically motivated cyber attacks are merely sophisticated versions of sabotage, espionage, or subversion – and that it is unlikely that cyber war will occur in the future.[256]
NIST, a cybersecurity framework, was published in 2014 in the US.[257]
TheTallinn Manual, published in 2013, is an academic, non-binding study on how international law, in particular thejus ad bellumandinternational humanitarian law, apply to cyber conflicts andcyber warfare. It was written at the invitation of theTallinn-basedNATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellenceby an international group of approximately twenty experts between 2009 and 2012.[258]
TheShanghai Cooperation Organisation(members of which include China and Russia) defines cyberwar to include dissemination of information "harmful to the spiritual, moral and cultural spheres of other states". In September 2011, these countries proposed to the UN Secretary General a document called "International code of conduct forinformation security".[259]
In contrast, the United approach focuses on physical and economic damage and injury, putting political concerns underfreedom of speech. This difference of opinion has led to reluctance in the West to pursue global cyber arms control agreements.[260]However, American GeneralKeith B. Alexanderdid endorse talks with Russia over a proposal to limit military attacks in cyberspace.[261]In June 2013,Barack ObamaandVladimir Putinagreed to install a secureCyberwar-Hotlineproviding "a direct secure voice communications line between the US cybersecurity coordinator and the Russian deputy secretary of the security council, should there be a need to directly manage a crisis situation arising from anICTsecurity incident" (White House quote).[262]
A Ukrainian international law scholar,Alexander Merezhko, has developed a project called the International Convention on Prohibition of Cyberwar in Internet. According to this project, cyberwar is defined as the use of Internet and related technological means by one state against the political, economic, technological and information sovereignty and independence of another state. Professor Merezhko's project suggests that the Internet ought to remain free from warfare tactics and be treated as an international landmark. He states that the Internet (cyberspace) is a "common heritage of mankind".[263]
On the February 2017RSA ConferenceMicrosoftpresident Brad Smith suggested global rules – a "Digital Geneva Convention" – for cyber attacks that "ban the nation-state hacking of all the civilian aspects of our economic and political infrastructures". He also stated that an independent organization could investigate and publicly disclose evidence that attributes nation-state attacks to specific countries. Furthermore, he said that the technology sector should collectively and neutrally work together to protect Internet users and pledge toremain neutral in conflictand not aid governments in offensive activity and to adopt a coordinated disclosure process for software and hardware vulnerabilities.[264][265]A fact-binding body has also been proposed to regulate cyber operations.[266][267]
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Employee monitoring software, also known asbosswareortattleware, is a means ofemployee monitoring, and allows company administrators to monitor and supervise all their employee computers from a central location.[1]It is normallydeployedover abusiness networkand allows for easy centralized log viewing via onecentral networked PC. Sometimes, companies opt to monitor their employees usingremote desktop softwareinstead.[2]
Insiders are the leading cause ofdata breachesaround the globe. IBM found that 60% of allcyberattackswere caused by insiders.[3]In its annual Data Breach Investigations Report,Verizonfound an even higher impact, with 82% of all data breaches caused by unsecure or unintentional behaviors of employees.[4]IT organizations have turned to employee monitoring software to help detect and prevent insider threats.
Employee monitoring software is used to supervise employees' performance, prevent illegal activities, avoid confidential info leakage, and catch insider threats. Nowadays employee monitoring software is widely used in technology companies.[5]
An employee monitoring system can monitor almost everything on a computer, such askeystrokes,mouse movementsand passwords entered,websites visited, chats in Facebook Messenger, Skype and othersocial media. A piece of monitoring software can also capturescreenshotsof mobile activities. E-mail monitoring includes employers having access to records of employee’s e-mails that are sent through the company’s servers.[6]Companies may usekeyword searchestonatural language processingtoanalyze e-mails.[6]The administrator can view the logs through a cloud panel, or receive the logs by email.
Other kinds of monitoring includewebcamand/ormicrophoneactivation, and "invisible" monitoring.[7][8][9][10][11]Employee monitoring software has been called a form ofspyware.[8][11]During theCOVID-19 pandemic, the use of these systems by companies to monitor their employees increased.[10][12]
TheElectronic Frontier Foundation(EFF), which originated the term "bossware", has denounced employee monitoring software as aviolation of privacy.[9][13]TheCenter for Democracy and Technology(CDT) denounced bossware as a threat to the safety and health of employees.[14]
During theCOVID-19 pandemic, members of ther/antiworksubredditshared variousmouse jigglerstrategies to combat monitoring software intended to monitor the productivity ofremote workers.[8]
A study by Reports and Data predicts that the global market for employee remote monitoring software will hit $1.3 billion by 2027.[15]
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GhostNet(simplified Chinese:幽灵网;traditional Chinese:幽靈網;pinyin:YōuLíngWǎng) is the name given by researchers at theInformation Warfare Monitorto a large-scalecyber spying[1][2]operation discovered in March 2009. The operation is likely associated with anadvanced persistent threat, or a network actor that spies undetected.[3]Its command and control infrastructure is based mainly in thePeople's Republic of Chinaand GhostNet has infiltrated high-value political, economic and media locations[4]in 103 countries. Computer systems belonging toembassies, foreign ministries and other government offices, and theDalai Lama'sTibetanexile centers in India, London and New York City were compromised.
GhostNet was discovered and named following a 10-month investigation by theInfowar Monitor(IWM), carried out after IWM researchers approached theDalai Lama's representative in Geneva[5]suspecting that their computer network had been infiltrated.[6]The IWM is composed of researchers from The SecDev Group and Canadian consultancy and theCitizen Lab,Munk School of Global Affairsat theUniversity of Toronto; the research findings were published in theInfowar Monitor, an affiliated publication.[7]Researchers from theUniversity of Cambridge'sComputer Laboratory, supported by theInstitute for Information Infrastructure Protection,[8]also contributed to the investigation at one of the three locations inDharamshala, where the Tibetan government-in-exile is located. The discovery of the 'GhostNet', and details of its operations, were reported byThe New York Timeson March 29, 2009.[7][9]Investigators focused initially on allegations of Chinese cyber-espionage against theTibetan exilecommunity, such as instances where email correspondence and other data were extracted.[10]
Compromised systems were discovered in theembassiesofIndia,South Korea,Indonesia,Romania,Cyprus,Malta,Thailand,Taiwan,Portugal,GermanyandPakistanand the office of the Prime Minister ofLaos. Theforeign ministriesofIran,Bangladesh,Latvia,Indonesia,Philippines,Brunei,BarbadosandBhutanwere also targeted.[1][11]No evidence was found thatU.S.orU.K.government offices were infiltrated, although aNATOcomputer was monitored for half a day and the computers of theIndian embassyinWashington, D.C., were infiltrated.[4][11][12]
Since its discovery, GhostNet has attacked other government networks, for example Canadian official financial departments in early 2011, forcing them off-line. Governments commonly do not admit such attacks, which must be verified by official but anonymous sources.[13]
Emails are sent to target organizations that contain contextually relevant information. These emails contain malicious attachments, that when opened, enable aTrojan horseto access the system.[citation needed]This Trojan connects back to a control server, usually located in China, to receive commands. The infected computer will then execute the command specified by the control server. Occasionally, the command specified by the control server will cause the infected computer to download and install a Trojan known asGh0st Ratthat allows attackers to gain complete, real-time control of computers runningMicrosoft Windows.[4]Such a computer can be controlled or inspected by attackers, and the software even has the ability to turn on camera and audio-recording functions of infected computers, enabling attackers to perform surveillance.[7]
The researchers from the IWM stated they could not conclude that the Chinese government was responsible for the spy network.[14]However, a report from researchers at theUniversity of Cambridgesays they believe that the Chinese government is behind the intrusions they analyzed at the Office of the Dalai Lama.[15]
Researchers have also noted the possibility that GhostNet was an operation run by private citizens in China for profit or for patriotic reasons, or created by intelligence agencies from other countries such as Russia or the United States.[7]The Chinese government has stated that China "strictly forbids any cyber crime."[1][10]
The "Ghostnet Report" documents several unrelated infections at Tibetan-related organizations in addition to the Ghostnet infections. By using the email addresses provided by the IWM report, Scott J. Henderson had managed to trace one of the operators of one of the infections (non-Ghostnet) toChengdu. He identifies the hacker as a 27-year-old man who had attended theUniversity of Electronic Science and Technology of China, and currently connected with the Chinese hackerunderground.[16]
Despite the lack of evidence to pinpoint the Chinese government as responsible for intrusions against Tibetan-related targets, researchers at Cambridge have found actions taken by Chinese government officials that corresponded with the information obtained via computer intrusions. One such incident involved a diplomat who was pressured by Beijing after receiving an email invitation to a visit with theDalai Lamafrom his representatives.[15]
Another incident involved a Tibetan woman who was interrogated by Chinese intelligence officers and was shown transcripts of her online conversations.[14][17]However, there are other possible explanations for this event. Drelwa usesQQand other instant messengers to communicate with Chinese Internet users. In 2008, IWM found that TOM-Skype, the Chinese version of Skype, was logging and storing text messages exchanged between users. It is possible that the Chinese authorities acquired the chat transcripts through these means.[18]
IWM researchers have also found that when detected, GhostNet is consistently controlled from IP addresses located on the island ofHainan, China, and have pointed out that Hainan is home to the Lingshui signals intelligence facility and the Third Technical Department of the People's Liberation Army.[4]Furthermore, one of GhostNet's four control servers has been revealed to be agovernment server.[clarify][19]
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Proactive cyber defensemeans acting in anticipation to oppose an attack through cyber and cognitive domains.[1]Proactive cyber defense can be understood as options between offensive and defensive measures. It includes interdicting, disrupting or deterring an attack or a threat's preparation to attack, either pre-emptively or in self-defence.
Proactive cyber defense differs from active defence, in that the former is pre-emptive (does not waiting for an attack to occur). Furthermore, active cyber defense differs from offensive cyber operations (OCO) in that the latter requires legislative exceptions to undertake. Hence, offensive cyber capabilities may be developed in collaboration with industry and facilitated by private sector; these operations are often led by nation-states.
Common methods of proactive cyber defense include cyber deception, attribution, threat hunting and adversarial pursuit. The mission of the pre-emptive and proactive operations is to conduct aggressive interception and disruption activities against an adversary using:psychological operations, managed information dissemination, precision targeting, information warfare operations, computer network exploitation, and other active threat reduction measures.
The proactive defense strategy is meant to improve information collection by stimulating reactions of the threat agents and to provide strike options as well as to enhance operational preparation of the real or virtual battlespace. Proactive cyber defence can be a measure for detecting and obtaining information before a cyber attack, or it can also be impending cyber operation and be determining the origin of an operation that involves launching a pre-emptive, preventive, or cyber counter-operation.
The offensive capacity includes the manipulation and/or disruption of networks and systems with the purpose of limiting or eliminating the adversary's operational capability. This capability can be required to guarantee one's freedom of action in the cyber domain.Cyber-attackscan be launched to repel an attack (active defence) or to support the operational action.
Strategically, cyber defence refers to operations that are conducted in the cyber domain in support of mission objectives. The main difference betweencyber securityand cyber defence is that cyber defence requires a shift fromnetwork assurance(security) tomission assurance. Cyber defence focuses on sensing, detecting, orienting, and engaging adversaries in order to assure mission success and to outmanoeuver the adversary. This shift from security to defence requires a strong emphasis on intelligence, and reconnaissance, and the integration of staff activities to include intelligence, operations, communications, and planning.
Defensive cyber operations refer to activities on or through the global information infrastructure to help protect an institutions' electronic information and information infrastructures as a matter of mission assurance. Defensive cyber does not normally involve direct engagement with the adversary.
Active cyber operations refers to activities on the global information infrastructure to degrade, disrupt, influence, respond, and interfere with the capabilities, intentions, and activities of a foreign individual, state, organization, and terrorist groups. Active cyber defence decisively engages the adversary and includes adversarial pursuit activities.
In the fifth century, B.C.,Sun Tzuadvocated foreknowledge (predictive analysis) as part of a winning strategy. He warned that planners must have a precise understanding of the active threat and not "remain ignorant of the enemy's condition". The thread of proactive defense is spun throughout his teachings. PsychiatristViktor Franklwas likely the first to use the term proactive in his 1946 bookMan's Search for Meaningto distinguish the act of taking responsibility for one's own circumstances rather than attributing one's condition to external factors.
Later in 1982, theUnited States Department of Defense(DoD) used "proactive" as a contrary concept to "reactive" inassessing risk. In the framework of risk management "proactive" meant taking initiative by acting rather than reacting to threat events. Conversely "reactive" measures respond to a stimulus or past events rather than predicting the event.Military scienceconsiders defence as the science-art of thwarting an attack. Furthermore, doctrine poses that if a party attacks an enemy who is about to attack this could be called active-defence. Defence is also aeuphemismfor war but does not carry the negative connotation of an offensive war. Usage in this way has broadened the concept of proactive defence to include most military issues including offensive, which is implicitly referred to as active-defence. Politically, the concept of national self-defence to counter a war of aggression refers to a defensive war involving pre-emptive offensive strikes and is one possible criterion in the 'Just War Theory'. Proactive defence has moved beyond theory, and it has been put into practice in theatres of operation. In 1989Stephen Covey's study transformed the meaning of proactive as "to act before a situation becomes a source of confrontation or crisis".[2]Since then, "proactive" has been placed in opposition to the words "reactive" or "passive".
Cyber is derived from "cybernetics", a word originally coined by a group of scientists led byNorbert Wienerand made popular by Wiener's book of 1948,Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine.[3]Cyberspace typically refers to the vast and growing logical domain composed of public and private networks; it means independently managed networks linked together the Internet. The definition of Cyberspace has been extended to include all network-space which at some point, through some path, may have eventual access to the public internet. Under this definition, cyberspace becomes virtually every networked device in the world, which is not devoid of a network interface entirely. With the rapid evolution of information warfare operations doctrine in the 1990s, we have begun to see the use of proactive and preemptive cyber defence concepts used by policymakers and scholars.
The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace,a book written by George W. Bush, was published in February 2003 outlining the initial framework for both organizing and prioritizing efforts to secure the cyberspace. It highlighted the necessity for public-private partnerships. In this book, proactive threads include the call to deter malicious activity and prevent cyber attacks against America's critical infrastructures.
The notion of "proactive defence" has a rich history. The hype of "proactive cyber defence" reached its zenith around 1994, under the auspices of Information Warfare. Much of the current doctrine related to proactive cyber defence was fully developed by 1995. Now most of the discussions around proactive defence in the literature are much less "proactive" than the earlier discussions in 1994. Present-day proactive cyber defence strategy was conceived within the context of the rich discussion that preceded it, existing doctrine and real proactive cyber defence programs that have evolved globally over the past decade.
As one of the founding members of Canada's interdepartmental committee on Information Warfare, Dr. Robert Garigue and Dave McMahon pointed out that "strategic listening, core intelligence, and proactive defence provide time and precision. Conversely, reacting in surprise is ineffective, costly and leaves few options. Strategic deterrence needs a credible offensive, proactive defence and information peacekeeping capability in which to project power and influence globally through Cyberspace in the defence of the nation. Similarly, deterrence and diplomacy are required in the right dosage to dissuade purposeful interference with the national critical cyber infrastructures in influence in the democratic process by foreign states.[4]
Intelligence agencies, such as the National Security Agency, were criticized for buying up and stockpilingzero-day vulnerabilitiesand keeping them secret and developing mainlyoffensive capabilitiesinstead of defensive measures and, thereby, helping patch vulnerabilities.[5][6][7][8]This criticism was widely reiterated and recognized after the May 2017WannaCry ransomware attack.[9][10][11][12][13][14]
The notion of a proactive pre-emptive operations group (P2OG) emerged from a report of theDefense Science Board's(DSB) 2002 briefing. The briefing was reported by Dan Dupont inInside the Pentagonon September 26, 2002, and was also discussed by William M. Arkin in theLos Angeles Timeson October 27, 2002.[15]TheLos Angeles Timeshas subsequently quotedU.S. Secretary of DefenseDonald Rumsfeldrevealing the creation of the "Proactive, Pre-emptive Operations Group". The mission was to conduct Aggressive, Proactive, Pre-emptive Operations to interdiction and disruption the threat using: psychological operations, managed information dissemination, precision targeting, and information warfare operations.[16]Today, the proactive defence strategy means improving information collection by stimulating reactions of the threat agents, provide strike options to enhance operational preparation of the real as well as virtual battle space. The P2OG has been recommended to be constituted of one hundred highly specialized people with unique technical and intelligence skills. The group would be overseen by the White House's deputy national security adviser and would carry out missions coordinated by the secretary of defence. Proactive measures, according to DoD are those actions taken directly against the preventive stage of an attack by the enemy.
The discipline of world politics and the notions of pre-emptive cyber defence topics are the two important concepts that need to be examined because we are living in a dynamic international system in which actors (countries) update their threat perceptions according to the developments in the technological realm.[17]Given this logic employed frequently by the policymakers, countries prefer using pre-emptive measures before being targeted. This topic is extensively studied by the political scientists focusing on the power transition theory (PTT), where Organski and Kugler first discussed that powerful countries start the attack before the balance of power changes in favor of the relatively weaker but the rising state.[18]Although the PTT has relevance to explain the use of pre-emptive cyber defence policies, this theory can still be difficult to apply when it comes to cyber defence entirely because it is not easy to understand the relative power differentials of the international actors in terms of their cyber capabilities. On the other hand, we can still use the PTT to explain the security perceptions of the United States and China, as a rising country, in terms of their use of pre-emptive cyber defence policies. Many scholars have already begun to examine the likelihood of cyber war between these countries and examined the relevance of the PTT and other similar international relations theories.[19][20][21]
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Stalkerwareismonitoring softwareorspywarethat is used forcyberstalking.[1][2]The term was coined when people started to widely use commercial spyware or monitoring software to spy on their spouses orintimate partners. Stalkerware has been criticized because of its use by abusers, stalkers, and employers.[3][4]
Many information security experts and journalists[who?]apply the termstalkerwareto any software (malicious programsand legitimate commercial monitoring products) that can be used or potentially be used for stalking.[5][6][7]The following features of stalkerware are distinguished:
According to a 2014 survey byNPR, 75% ofdomestic abuse shelterssurveyed reported that they were working with individuals who had been tracked by their abusers via stalkerware.[9]The rising popularity of stalkerware led to an arms race between apps which helped users protect their privacy, and apps designed to circumvent those safeguards.[10]
Throughout its history, companies which develop stalkerware have been subject to numerous hacks and data breaches, many byhacktivistsin protest of stalkerware's unethical applications.[11]Companies includingmSpy,[12]Flexispy,[13]andKidGuardhave been targets of breaches.[14]
In 2018, computer security specialist and activistEva Galperincreated a project to eradicate stalkerware.[15]Galperin has advocated for stalkerware to be seen as malware, and for phone and software companies to take steps to safeguard against the use of such programs.[7]
In 2020,Kaspersky Labreleased a report on the state of stalkerware. Among its findings were that the United States, Russia and Brazil were the three countries most affected.[11]
Stalkerware has been criticized for its use by abusers to control and monitor their victims. TheEuropean Institute for Gender Equalityreleased a report on stalkerware andcyberstalking's connection to domestic violence.[16][17]Guides on how to detect and disable stalkerware have been published by sites includingMashable,[18]Wired,[19]andCNET.[20]
The news organizationVicepublishes "When Spies Come Home", an investigative series about the use of stalkerware, and various controversies surrounding the industry.[21]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalkerware
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Surveillanceis the monitoring of behavior, many activities, or information for the purpose of information gathering, influencing,managing, or directing.[1][2]This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, such asclosed-circuit television(CCTV), or interception of electronically transmitted information likeInternet traffic. Increasingly,governmentsmay also obtainconsumer datathrough the purchase of online information, effectively expanding surveillance capabilities through commercially available digital records.[3]It can also include simple technical methods, such ashuman intelligence gatheringandpostal interception.
Surveillance is used by citizens, for instance for protecting their neighborhoods. It is widely used bygovernmentsfor intelligence gathering, including espionage, prevention of crime, the protection of a process, person, group or object, or the investigation of crime. It is also used by criminal organizations to plan and commit crimes, and by businesses togather intelligenceon criminals, their competitors, suppliers or customers.Religiousorganizations charged with detectingheresyandheterodoxymay also carry out surveillance.[4]Auditorscarry out a form of surveillance.[5]
Surveillance can unjustifiably violate people'sprivacyand is often criticized bycivil libertiesactivists.[6]Democraciesmay have laws that seek to restrict governmental and private use of surveillance, whereasauthoritariangovernments seldom have any domestic restrictions.
Espionageis by definition covert and typically illegal according to the rules of the observed party, whereas most types of surveillance are overt and are considered legal or legitimate by state authorities. Internationalespionageseems to be common among all types of countries.[7][8]
The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring ofdataandtrafficon theInternet.[9]In the United States for example, under theCommunications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, all phone calls and broadband Internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc.) are required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by federal law enforcement agencies.[10][11][12]
There is far too much data on the Internet for human investigators to manually search through all of it. Therefore, automated Internet surveillance computers sift through the vast amount of intercepted Internet traffic to identify and report to human investigators the traffic that is considered interesting or suspicious. This process is regulated by targeting certain "trigger" words or phrases, visiting certain types of web sites, or communicating viaemailor online chat with suspicious individuals or groups.[13]Billions of dollars per year are spent by agencies, such as theNSA, theFBIand the now-defunctInformation Awareness Office, to develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems such asCarnivore,NarusInsight, andECHELONto intercept and analyze all of this data to extract only the information which is useful to law enforcement and intelligence agencies.[14]
Computers can be a surveillance target because of the personal data stored on them. If someone is able to install software, such as the FBI'sMagic LanternandCIPAV, on a computer system, they can easily gain unauthorized access to this data. Such software could be installed physically or remotely.[15]Another form of computer surveillance, known asvan Eck phreaking, involves reading electromagnetic emanations from computing devices in order to extract data from them at distances of hundreds of meters.[16][17]The NSA runs a database known as "Pinwale", which stores and indexes large numbers of emails of both American citizens and foreigners.[18][19]Additionally, the NSA runs a program known asPRISM, which is a data mining system that gives the United States government direct access to information fromtechnology companies. Through accessing this information, the government is able to obtain search history, emails, stored information, live chats, file transfers, and more. This program generated huge controversies in regards to surveillance and privacy, especially from U.S. citizens.[20][21]
The official and unofficial tapping of telephone lines is widespread. In theUnited Statesfor instance, theCommunications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act(CALEA) requires that all telephone and VoIP communications be available for real-time wiretapping by Federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies.[10][11][12]Two majortelecommunications companiesin the U.S.—AT&T Inc.andVerizon—have contracts with the FBI, requiring them to keep their phone call records easily searchable and accessible for Federal agencies, in return for $1.8 million per year.[22]Between 2003 and 2005, the FBI sent out more than 140,000 "National Security Letters" ordering phone companies to hand over information about their customers' calling and Internet histories. About half of these letters requested information on U.S. citizens.[23]
Human agents are not required to monitor most calls.Speech-to-textsoftware creates machine-readable text from intercepted audio, which is then processed by automated call-analysis programs, such as those developed by agencies such as theInformation Awareness Office, or companies such asVerint, andNarus, which search for certain words or phrases, to decide whether to dedicate a human agent to the call.[24]
Law enforcement and intelligence services in the United Kingdom and the United States possess technology to activate the microphones in cell phones remotely, by accessing phones' diagnostic or maintenance features in order to listen to conversations that take place near the person who holds the phone.[25][26][27][28][29][30]
TheStingRaytracker is an example of one of these tools used to monitor cell phone usage in the United States and the United Kingdom. Originally developed for counterterrorism purposes by the military, they work by broadcasting powerful signals that cause nearby cell phones to transmit theirIMSI number, just as they would to normal cell phone towers. Once the phone is connected to the device, there is no way for the user to know that they are being tracked. The operator of the stingray is able to extract information such as location, phone calls, and text messages, but it is widely believed that the capabilities of the StingRay extend much further. A lot of controversy surrounds the StingRay because of its powerful capabilities and the secrecy that surrounds it.[31]
Mobile phones are also commonly used to collect location data. The geographical location of a mobile phone (and thus the person carrying it) can be determined easily even when the phone is not being used, using a technique known asmultilaterationto calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the cell phone to each of severalcell towersnear the owner of the phone.[32][33]The legality of such techniques has been questioned in the United States, in particular whether a court warrant is required.[34]Records foronecarrier alone (Sprint), showed that in a given year federal law enforcement agencies requested customer location data 8 million times.[35]
In response to customers' privacy concerns in the postEdward Snowdenera,[36]Apple's iPhone 6 has been designed to disrupt investigativewiretappingefforts. The phone encrypts e-mails, contacts, and photos with a code generated by a complex mathematical algorithm that is unique to an individual phone, and is inaccessible to Apple.[37]Theencryptionfeature on the iPhone 6 has drawn criticism from FBI director James B. Comey and other law enforcement officials since even lawful requests to access user content on the iPhone 6 will result in Apple supplying "gibberish" data that requires law enforcement personnel to either break the code themselves or to get the code from the phone's owner.[37]Because the Snowden leaks demonstrated that American agencies can access phones anywhere in the world, privacy concerns in countries with growing markets for smart phones have intensified, providing a strong incentive for companies likeAppleto address those concerns in order to secure their position in the global market.[37]
Applehas made several moves to emphasize their concern for privacy, in order to appeal to more consumers. In 2011, Apple stopped the use of permanent device identifiers, and in 2019, they banned the ability of third parties to track on children's apps.[38]
Although theCALEArequires telecommunications companies to build into their systems the ability to carry out a lawful wiretap, the law has not been updated to address the issue of smart phones and requests for access toe-mailsandmetadata.[39]The Snowden leaks show that theNSAhas been taking advantage of this ambiguity in the law by collecting metadata on "at least hundreds of millions" of "incidental" targets from around the world.[39]The NSA uses an analytic tool known as CO-TRAVELER in order to track people whose movements intersect and to find any hidden connections with persons of interest.[39]
The Snowden leaks have also revealed that the BritishGovernment Communications Headquarters(GCHQ) can access information collected by the NSA on American citizens. Once the data has been collected, the GCHQ can hold on to it for up to two years. The deadline can be extended with the permission of a "senior UK official".[40][41]
Surveillance cameras, or security cameras, are video cameras used for the purpose of observing an area. They are often connected to a recording device orIP network, and may be watched by asecurity guardorlaw enforcement officer. Cameras and recording equipment used to be relatively expensive and required human personnel to monitor camera footage, but analysis of footage has been made easier by automated software that organizes digital video footage into a searchabledatabase, and by video analysis software (such asVIRATandHumanID). The amount of footage is also drastically reduced by motion sensors which record only when motion is detected. With cheaper production techniques, surveillance cameras are simple and inexpensive enough to be used in home security systems, and for everyday surveillance. Video cameras are one of the most common methods of surveillance.[42]
As of 2016, there are about 350 million surveillance cameras worldwide. About 65% of these cameras are installed in Asia. The growth of CCTV has been slowing in recent years.[43]In 2018,China was reportedto have a huge surveillance network of over 170 million CCTV cameras with 400 million new cameras expected to be installed in the next three years, many of which usefacial recognition technology.[44]
In theUnited States, theDepartment of Homeland Securityawards billions of dollars per year inHomeland Security grantsfor local, state, and federal agencies to install modern video surveillance equipment. For example, the city ofChicago, Illinois, recently used a $5.1 million Homeland Security grant to install an additional 250 surveillance cameras, and connect them to a centralized monitoring center, along with its preexisting network of over 2000 cameras, in a program known asOperation Virtual Shield. Speaking in 2009, Chicago MayorRichard Daleyannounced that Chicago would have a surveillance camera on every street corner by 2016.[45][46]New York Cityreceived a $350 million grant towards the development of theDomain Awareness System,[47]which is an interconnected system of sensors including 18,000 CCTV cameras used for continual surveillance of the city[48]by both police officers andartificial intelligence systems.[47]
In theUnited Kingdom, the vast majority of video surveillance cameras are not operated by government bodies, but by private individuals or companies, especially to monitor the interiors of shops and businesses. According to 2011Freedom of Information Actrequests, the total number of local government operated CCTV cameras was around 52,000 over the entirety of the UK.[49]The prevalence of video surveillance in the UK is often overstated due to unreliable estimates being requoted;[50][51]for example one report in 2002 extrapolated from a very small sample to estimate the number of cameras in the UK at 4.2 million (of which 500,000 were inGreater London).[52]More reliable estimates put the number of private and local government operated cameras in the United Kingdom at around 1.85 million in 2011.[53]
In the Netherlands, one example city where there are cameras is The Hague. There, cameras are placed in city districts in which the most illegal activity is concentrated. Examples are thered-light districtsand the train stations.[54]
As part of China'sGolden Shield Project, several U.S. corporations, includingIBM,General Electric, andHoneywell, have been working closely with theChinese governmentto install millions of surveillance cameras throughoutChina, along with advancedvideo analyticsand facial recognition software, which will identify and track individuals everywhere they go. They will be connected to a centralized database and monitoring station, which will, upon completion of the project, contain a picture of the face of every person in China: over 1.3 billion people.[55]Lin Jiang Huai, the head of China's "Information Security Technology" office (which is in charge of the project), credits the surveillance systems in the United States and the U.K. as the inspiration for what he is doing with the Golden Shield Project.[55]
TheDefense Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA) is funding a research project calledCombat Zones That Seethat will link up cameras across a city to a centralized monitoring station, identify and track individuals and vehicles as they move through the city, and report "suspicious" activity (such as waving arms, looking side-to-side, standing in a group, etc.).[56]
AtSuper Bowl XXXVin January 2001, police in Tampa, Florida, usedIdentix'sfacial recognition software, FaceIt, to scan the crowd for potential criminals and terrorists in attendance at the event[57](it found 19 people with pending arrest warrants).[58]
Governments often initially claim that cameras are meant to be used fortraffic control, but many of them end up using them for general surveillance.[citation needed]For example, Washington, D.C. had 5,000 "traffic" cameras installed under this premise, and then after they were all in place, networked them all together and then granted access to the Metropolitan Police Department, so they could perform "day-to-day monitoring".[59]
The development of centralized networks of CCTV cameras watching public areas—linked to computer databases of people's pictures and identity (biometricdata), able to track people's movements throughout the city, and identify whom they have been with—has been argued by some to present a risk tocivil liberties.[60]Trapwireis an example of such a network.[61]
One common form of surveillance is to create maps ofsocial networksbased on data fromsocial networking sitessuch asFacebook,MySpace,Twitteras well as fromtraffic analysisinformation from phone call records such as those in theNSA call database,[62]and others. Thesesocial network"maps" are thendata minedto extract useful information such as personal interests, friendships & affiliations, wants, beliefs, thoughts, and activities.[63][64][65]
Many U.S. government agencies such as theDefense Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA), theNational Security Agency(NSA), and theDepartment of Homeland Security(DHS) are investing heavily in research involving social network analysis.[66][67]The intelligence community believes that the biggest threat to U.S. power comes from decentralized, leaderless, geographically dispersed groups ofterrorists,subversives,extremists, anddissidents. These types of threats are most easily countered by finding important nodes in the network, and removing them. To do this requires a detailed map of the network.[68][69][70]
Jason Ethier of Northeastern University, in his study of modern social network analysis, said the following of the Scalable Social Network Analysis Program developed by theInformation Awareness Office:
The purpose of the SSNA algorithms program is to extend techniques of social network analysis to assist with distinguishing potential terrorist cells from legitimate groups of people.... In order to be successful SSNA will require information on the social interactions of the majority of people around the globe. Since the Defense Department cannot easily distinguish between peaceful citizens and terrorists, it will be necessary for them to gather data on innocent civilians as well as on potential terrorists.
AT&T developed a programming language called "Hancock", which is able to sift through enormous databases of phone call and Internet traffic records, such as theNSA call database, and extract "communities of interest"—groups of people who call each other regularly, or groups that regularly visit certain sites on the Internet. AT&T originally built the system to develop "marketing leads",[71]but the FBI has regularly requested such information from phone companies such as AT&T without a warrant,[71]and, after using the data, stores all information received in its own databases, regardless of whether or not the information was ever useful in an investigation.[72]
Some people believe that the use of social networking sites is a form of "participatory surveillance", where users of these sites are essentially performing surveillance on themselves, putting detailed personal information on public websites where it can be viewed by corporations and governments.[63]In 2008, about 20% of employers reported using social networking sites to collect personal data on prospective or current employees.[73]
Biometric surveillance is a technology that measures and analyzes human physical and/or behavioral characteristics for authentication, identification, or screening purposes.[74]Examples of physical characteristics include fingerprints, DNA, and facial patterns. Examples of mostly behavioral characteristics include gait (a person's manner of walking) or voice.
Facial recognitionis the use of the unique configuration of a person's facial features to accurately identify them, usually from surveillance video. Both the Department of Homeland Security andDARPAare heavily funding research into facial recognition systems.[75]TheInformation Processing Technology Officeran a program known asHuman Identification at a Distancewhich developed technologies that are capable of identifying a person at up to 500 ft (150 m) by their facial features.
Another form of behavioral biometrics, based onaffective computing, involves computers recognizing a person's emotional state based on an analysis of their facial expressions, how fast they are talking, the tone and pitch of their voice, their posture, and other behavioral traits. This might be used for instance to see if a person's behavior is suspect (looking around furtively, "tense" or "angry" facial expressions, waving arms, etc.).[76]
A more recent development isDNA profiling, which looks at some of the major markers in the body's DNA to produce a match. The FBI is spending $1 billion to build a new biometric database, which will store DNA, facial recognition data, iris/retina (eye) data, fingerprints, palm prints, and other biometric data of people living in the United States. The computers running the database are contained in an underground facility about the size of twoAmerican football fields.[77][78][79]
The Los Angeles Police Department is installing automated facial recognition andlicense plate recognitiondevices in its squad cars, and providing handheld face scanners, which officers will use to identify people while on patrol.[80][81][82]
Facial thermographsare in development, which allow machines to identify certain emotions in people such as fear or stress, by measuring the temperature generated by blood flow to different parts of the face.[83]Law enforcement officers believe that this has potential for them to identify when a suspect is nervous, which might indicate that they are hiding something, lying, or worried about something.[83]
Inhis paperinEthics and Information Technology, Avi Marciano maps the harms caused by biometric surveillance, traces their theoretical origins, and brings these harms together in one integrative framework to elucidate their cumulative power. Marciano proposes four types of harms: Unauthorized use of bodily information, denial or limitation of access to physical spaces, bodily social sorting, and symbolic ineligibility through construction of marginality and otherness. Biometrics' social power, according to Marciano, derives from three main features: their complexity as "enigmatic technologies", their objective-scientific image, and their increasing agency, particularly in the context of automatic decision-making.
Aerial surveillance is the gathering of surveillance, usually visual imagery or video, from an airborne vehicle—such as anunmanned aerial vehicle,helicopter, orspy plane. Militarysurveillance aircraftuse a range of sensors (e.g. radar) to monitor the battlefield.
Digital imaging technology, miniaturized computers, and numerous other technological advances over the past decade have contributed to rapid advances in aerial surveillance hardware such asmicro-aerial vehicles,forward-looking infrared, and high-resolution imagery capable of identifying objects at extremely long distances. For instance, theMQ-9 Reaper,[84]a U.S. drone plane used for domestic operations by theDepartment of Homeland Security, carries cameras that are capable of identifying an object the size of a milk carton from altitudes of 30,000 feet (9.1 km), and hasforward-looking infrareddevices that can detect the heat from a human body at distances of up to 60 kilometers (37 mi).[85]In an earlier instance of commercial aerial surveillance, theKillington Mountainski resort hired 'eye in the sky' aerial photography of its competitors' parking lots to judge the success of its marketing initiatives as it developed starting in the 1950s.[86]
TheUnited StatesDepartment of Homeland Securityis in the process of testing UAVs to patrol the skies over the United States for the purposes ofcritical infrastructure protection, border patrol, "transit monitoring", and general surveillance of the U.S. population.[87]Miami-Dade police department ran tests with a vertical take-off and landing UAV fromHoneywell, which is planned to be used inSWAToperations.[88]Houston's police department has been testing fixed-wing UAVs for use in "traffic control".[88]
TheUnited Kingdom, as well, is working on plans to build up a fleet of surveillance UAVs ranging frommicro-aerial vehiclesto full-sizedrones, to be used by police forces throughout the U.K.[89]
In addition to their surveillance capabilities, MAVs are capable of carryingtasersfor "crowd control", or weapons for killing enemy combatants.[90]
Programs such as theHeterogeneous Aerial Reconnaissance Teamprogram developed byDARPAhave automated much of the aerial surveillance process. They have developed systems consisting of large teams drone planes that pilot themselves, automatically decide who is "suspicious" and how to go about monitoring them, coordinate their activities with other drones nearby, and notify human operators if something suspicious is occurring. This greatly increases the amount of area that can be continuously monitored, while reducing the number of human operators required. Thus a swarm of automated, self-directing drones can automatically patrol a city and track suspicious individuals, reporting their activities back to a centralized monitoring station.[91][92][93]In addition, researchers also investigate possibilities of autonomous surveillance by large groups of micro aerial vehicles stabilized by decentralized bio-inspired swarming rules.[94][95]
Corporate surveillance is the monitoring of a person or group's behavior by a corporation. The data collected is most often used for marketing purposes or sold to other corporations, but is also regularly shared with government agencies. It can be used as a form ofbusiness intelligence, which enables the corporation to better tailor their products and/or services to be desirable by their customers. Although there is a common belief that monitoring can increase productivity, it can also create consequences such as increasing chances of deviant behavior and creating punishments that are not equitable to their actions. Additionally, monitoring can cause resistance and backlash because it insinuates an employer's suspicion and lack of trust.[96]
Data miningis the application of statistical techniques and programmatic algorithms to discover previously unnoticed relationships within the data.Data profilingin this context is the process of assembling information about a particular individual or group in order to generate a profile — that is, a picture of their patterns and behavior. Data profiling can be an extremely powerful tool for psychological andsocial network analysis. A skilled analyst can discover facts about a person that they might not even be consciously aware of themselves.[97]
Economic (such as credit card purchases) and social (such as telephone calls and emails) transactions in modern society create large amounts of storeddataand records. In the past, this data was documented in paper records, leaving a "paper trail", or was simply not documented at all. Correlation of paper-based records was a laborious process—it required human intelligence operators to manually dig through documents, which was time-consuming and incomplete, at best.
But today many of these records are electronic, resulting in an "electronic trail". Every use of a bank machine, payment by credit card, use of a phone card, call from home, checked out library book, rented video, or otherwise complete recorded transaction generates an electronic record. Public records—such as birth, court, tax and other records—are increasingly being digitized and made available online. In addition, due to laws likeCALEA, web traffic and online purchases are also available for profiling. Electronic record-keeping makes data easily collectable, storable, and accessible—so that high-volume, efficient aggregation and analysis is possible at significantly lower costs.
Information relating to many of these individual transactions is often easily available because it is generally not guarded in isolation, since the information, such as the title of a movie a person has rented, might not seem sensitive. However, when many such transactions areaggregatedthey can be used to assemble a detailed profile revealing the actions, habits, beliefs, locations frequented,social connections, and preferences of the individual. This profile is then used, by programs such asADVISE[98]andTALON, to determine whether the person is a military, criminal, or political threat.
In addition to its own aggregation and profiling tools, the government is able to access information from third parties—for example, banks, credit companies or employers, etc.—by requesting access informally, by compelling access through the use of subpoenas or other procedures,[99]or by purchasing data from commercial data aggregators or data brokers. The United States has spent $370 million on its 43 plannedfusion centers, which are national network of surveillance centers that are located in over 30 states. The centers will collect and analyze vast amounts of data on U.S. citizens. It will get this data by consolidating personal information from sources such as state driver's licensing agencies, hospital records, criminal records, school records, credit bureaus, banks, etc.—and placing this information in a centralized database that can be accessed from all of the centers, as well as other federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies.[100]
UnderUnited States v. Miller(1976), data held by third parties is generally not subject toFourth Amendmentwarrant requirements.
Atailmay surreptitiously track and report on the movements and contacts of a person of interest. Such following by one or more people may provide useful in formation in relatively densely populated urban environments.[101]
Organizations that have enemies who wish to gather information about the groups' members or activities face the issue of potential infiltration.[102]
In addition to operatives' infiltrating an organization, the surveilling party may exert pressure on certain members of the target organization to act asinformants(i.e., to disclose the information they hold on the organization and its members).[103][104]
Fielding operatives is very expensive, and governments with wide-reaching electronicsurveillance toolsat their disposal, rather than gathering the sort of information which operatives can provide, may use less problematic forms of surveillance—such as those mentioned above. Nevertheless, the use of human infiltrators remains common. For instance, in 2007 documents surfaced showing that theFBIplanned to field a total of 15,000 undercover agents and informants in response to an anti-terrorism directive (issued by PresidentGeorge W. Bushin 2004) that ordered intelligence and law-enforcement agencies to increase theirHUMINTcapabilities.[105]
In somehome invasioncases, thieves may use "casing surveillance” to determine if a victim's property such as a collection offirearmsare worth stealing.[106]
On May 25, 2007, the U.S.Director of National IntelligenceMichael McConnellauthorized theNational Applications Office(NAO) of theDepartment of Homeland Securityto allow local, state, and domestic Federal agencies to access imagery frommilitary intelligenceReconnaissance satellitesandReconnaissance aircraftsensors which can now be used to observe the activities of U.S. citizens. The satellites and aircraft sensors will be able to penetrate cloud cover, detect chemical traces, and identify objects in buildings and "underground bunkers", and will provide real-time video at much higher resolutions than the still-images produced by programs such asGoogle Earth.[107][108][109][110][111][112]
One of the simplest forms of identification is the carrying of credentials. Some nations have anidentity cardsystem to aid identification, whilst others are considering it but face public opposition. Other documents, such aspassports,driver's licenses,library cards, banking orcredit cardsare also used to verify identity.
If the form of the identity card is "machine-readable", usually using an encoded magnetic stripe or identification number (such as aSocial Security number), it corroborates the subject's identifying data. In this case it may create an electronic trail when it is checked and scanned, which can be used in profiling, as mentioned above.
This section refers to methods that involve the monitoring oftracking devicesthrough the aid of wireless signals.
Mobile carrier antennas are also commonly used to collect geolocation data on mobile phones. The geographical location of a powered mobile phone (and thus the person carrying it) can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not), using a technique known asmultilaterationto calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the cell phone to each of severalcell towersnear the owner of the phone.[32][33]Dr. Victor Kappeler[113]of Eastern Kentucky University indicates that police surveillance is a strong concern, stating the following statistics from 2013:
Of the 321,545 law enforcement requests made to Verizon, 54,200 of these requests were for "content" or "location" information—not just cell phone numbers or IP addresses. Content information included the actual text of messages, emails and the wiretapping of voice or messaging content in real-time.
A comparatively new off-the-shelf surveillance device is anIMSI-catcher, atelephone eavesdroppingdevice used to intercept mobile phone traffic and track the movement of mobile phone users. Essentially a "fake"mobile toweracting between the target mobile phone and the service provider's real towers, it is considered aman-in-the-middle(MITM) attack. IMSI-catchers are used in some countries bylaw enforcementandintelligence agencies, but their use has raised significant civil liberty and privacy concerns and is strictly regulated in some countries.[114]
In March 2020, British dailyThe Guardian, based on the claims of awhistleblower, accused the government ofSaudi Arabiaof exploiting global mobile telecom network weaknesses to spy on its citizens traveling around theUnited States.[115]The data shared by the whistleblower in support of the claims, showed that a systematicspyingcampaign was being run by the kingdom exploiting the flaws ofSS7, a global messaging system. The data showed that millions of secret tracking commands originated from Saudi in a duration of four-months, starting from November 2019.[116]
Radio-frequency identification(RFID) tagging is the use of very small electronic devices (called "RFID tags") which are applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves. The tags can be read from several meters away. They are extremely inexpensive, costing a few cents per piece, so they can be inserted into many types of everyday products without significantly increasing the price, and can be used to track and identify these objects for a variety of purposes.
Some companies appear to be "tagging" their workers by incorporating RFID tags in employee ID badges. Workers in U.K. consideredstrike actionin protest of having themselves tagged; they felt that it wasdehumanizingto have all of their movements tracked with RFID chips.[117][vague]Some critics have expressed fears that people will soon be tracked and scanned everywhere they go.[118]On the other hand, RFID tags in newborn baby ID bracelets put on by hospitals have foiled kidnappings.[117]
In a 2003 editorial, CNET News.com's chief political correspondent, Declan McCullagh, speculated that, soon, every object that is purchased, and perhaps ID cards, will have RFID devices in them, which would respond with information about people as they walk past scanners (what type of phone they have, what type of shoes they have on, which books they are carrying, what credit cards or membership cards they have, etc.). This information could be used for identification, tracking, ortargeted marketing. As of 2021[update], this has largely not come to pass.[119]
A human microchip implant is an identifying integrated circuit device orRFIDtransponder encased insilicate glassand implanted in the body of a human being. Asubdermal implanttypically contains a unique ID number that can be linked to information contained in an external database, such as personal identification, medical history, medications, allergies, and contact information.
Several types of microchips have been developed in order to control and monitor certain types of people, such as criminals, political figures and spies,[clarification needed]a "killer" tracking chip patent was filed at the German Patent and Trademark Office (DPMA) around May 2009.
Verichipis an RFID device produced by a company called Applied Digital Solutions (ADS). Verichip is slightly larger than a grain of rice, and is injected under the skin. The injection reportedly feels similar to receiving ashot. The chip is encased in glass, and stores a "VeriChip Subscriber Number" which the scanner uses to access their personal information, via the Internet, from Verichip Inc.'s database, the "Global VeriChip Subscriber Registry". Thousands of people have already had them inserted.[118]In Mexico, for example, 160 workers at the Attorney General's office were required to have the chip injected for identity verification andaccess controlpurposes.[120][121]
Implantable microchips have also been used in healthcare settings, but ethnographic researchers have identified a number of ethical problems with such uses; these problems include unequal treatment, diminished trust, and possible endangerment of patients.[122]
Perimeter surveillance radar(PSR) is a class of radar sensors that monitor activity surrounding or on critical infrastructure areas such as airports,[123]seaports, military installations, national borders, refineries and other critical industry and the like. Such radars are characterized by their ability to detect movement at ground level of targets such as an individual walking or crawling towards a facility. Such radars typically have ranges of several hundred metres to over 10 kilometres.[124]
In the U.S., police have planted hiddenGPStracking devices in people's vehicles to monitor their movements,[125]without a warrant.[126]In early 2009, they were arguing in court that they have the right to do this.[127]
Several cities are running pilot projects to require parolees to wear GPS devices to track their movements when they get out of prison.[128]
Covert listening devicesand video devices, or "bugs", are hidden electronic devices which are used to capture, record, and/or transmit data to a receiving party such as a law enforcement agency.
The U.S. has run numerous domestic intelligence operations, such asCOINTELPRO, which have bugged the homes, offices, and vehicles of thousands of U.S. citizens, usuallypolitical activists,subversives, andcriminals.[129]
Law enforcement and intelligence services in the U.K. and the United States possess technology to remotely activate the microphones in cell phones, by accessing the phone's diagnostic/maintenance features, in order to listen to conversations that take place nearby the person who holds the phone.[26][27][28]
As more people use faxes and e-mail the significance of surveilling the postal system is decreasing, in favor of Internet and telephone surveillance. But interception of post is still an available option for law enforcement and intelligence agencies, in certain circumstances.[130]This is not a common practice, however, and entities like the US Army require high levels of approval to conduct.[131]
The U.S.Central Intelligence AgencyandFederal Bureau of Investigationhave performed twelve separate mail-opening campaigns targeted towards U.S. citizens. In one of these programs, more than 215,000 communications were intercepted, opened, and photographed.[132][133]
Astakeoutis the coordinated surveillance of a location or person. Stakeouts are generally performed covertly and for the purpose of gatheringevidencerelated tocriminal activity. The term derives from the practice byland surveyorsof usingsurvey stakesto measure out an area before the main building project begins.
TheInternet of Things(IoT), is a network of physical devices. These devices can collect data to one another without human intervention. IoTs can be used for identification, monitoring, location tracking, and health tracking.[134]While IoTs can be used as time-saving tools that make activities simpler, they raise the concern of government surveillance and privacy regarding how data will be used.[134]
Supporters of surveillance systems believe that these tools can help protect society fromterroristsandcriminals. They argue that surveillance can reduce crime by three means: by deterrence, by observation, and by reconstruction. Surveillance can deter by increasing the chance of being caught, and by revealing themodus operandi. This requires a minimal level of invasiveness.[135]
Another method on how surveillance can be used to fight criminal activity is by linking the information stream obtained from them to a recognition system (for instance, a camera system that has its feed run through a facial recognition system). This can for instance auto-recognize fugitives and direct police to their location.
A distinction here has to be made however on the type of surveillance employed. Some people that support video surveillance in city streets may not support indiscriminate telephone taps and vice versa. Besides the types, the way in which this surveillance is done also matters a lot; i.e. indiscriminate telephone taps are supported by much fewer people than say telephone taps done only to people suspected of engaging in illegal activities.
Surveillance can also be used to give human operatives a tactical advantage through improved situational awareness, or through the use of automated processes, i.e.video analytics. Surveillance can help reconstruct an incident and prove guilt through the availability of footage for forensics experts. Surveillance can also influence subjective security if surveillance resources are visible or if the consequences of surveillance can be felt.
Some of the surveillance systems (such as the camera system that has its feed run through a facial recognition system mentioned above) can also have other uses besides countering criminal activity. For instance, it can help in retrieving runaway children, abducted or missing adults and mentally disabled people.
Other supporters simply believe that there is nothing that can be done about the loss of privacy, and that people must become accustomed to having no privacy. AsSun MicrosystemsCEOScott McNealysaid: "You have zero privacy anyway. Get over it."[136][137]
Another common argument is: "If you aren't doing something wrong then you don't have anything to fear." That is, one does not have a right to privacy regarding illegal activities, while those following the law suffer no harm from surveillance and so have no standing to object to it. Beyond the heroically self-serving identification of what is wrong with what is illegal, the ethical fly in this ointment is the tacit premise that the individual has no duty to preserve the health of the state—the antithesis of the principle that only the consent of the governed can adequately serve as the moral foundation of a (just) state and warrant the vast gulf between its power (and agency) and that of the individual.[138]
With the advent of programs such as theTotal Information Awarenessprogram andADVISE, technologies such ashigh speed surveillance computersandbiometricssoftware, and laws such as theCommunications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of their subjects.[139]Manycivil rightsandprivacygroups, such as theElectronic Frontier FoundationandAmerican Civil Liberties Union, have expressed concern that by allowing continual increases in government surveillance of citizens we will end up in amass surveillancesociety, with extremely limited, or non-existent political and/or personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsuits such asHepting v. AT&T.[139][140]
Some critics state that the claim made by supporters should be modified to read: "As long as we do what we're told, we have nothing to fear." For instance, a person who is part of a political group which opposes the policies of the national government, might not want the government to know their names and what they have been reading, so that the government cannot easily subvert their organization, arrest, or kill them. Other critics state that while a person might not have anything to hide right now, the government might later implement policies that they do wish to oppose, and that opposition might then be impossible due to mass surveillance enabling the government to identify and remove political threats. Further, other critics point to the fact that most peopledohave things to hide. For example, if a person is looking for a new job, they might not want their current employer to know this. Also if an employer wishes total privacy to watch over their own employee and secure their financial information it may become impossible, and they may not wish to hire those under surveillance.
In December 2017, the Government of China took steps to oppose widespread surveillance by security-company cameras, webcams, andIP camerasafter tens-of-thousands were made accessible for internet viewing by IT companyQihoo[141]
Programs such as theTotal Information Awarenessprogram, and laws such as theCommunications Assistance For Law Enforcement Acthave led many groups to fear that society is moving towards a state ofmass surveillancewith severely limited personal, social, political freedoms, where dissenting individuals or groups will be strategically removed inCOINTELPRO-like purges.[139][140]
Kate Martin, of the Center For National Security Studies said of the use of military spy satellites being used to monitor the activities of U.S. citizens: "They are laying the bricks one at a time for a police state."[111]
Some point to the blurring of lines between public and private places, and the privatization of places traditionally seen as public (such as shopping malls and industrial parks) as illustrating the increasing legality of collecting personal information.[142]Traveling through many public places such as government offices is hardly optional for most people, yet consumers have little choice but to submit to companies' surveillance practices.[143]Surveillance techniques are not created equal; among the manybiometricidentification technologies, for instance,face recognitionrequires the least cooperation. Unlike automatic fingerprint reading, which requires an individual to press a finger against a machine, this technique is subtle and requires little to no consent.[143]
Some critics, such asMichel Foucault, believe that in addition to its obvious function of identifying and capturing individuals who are committing undesirable acts, surveillance also functions to create in everyone a feeling of always being watched, so that they become self-policing. This allows the State to control the populace without having to resort to physical force, which is expensive and otherwise problematic.[144]
With the development of digital technology, individuals have become increasingly perceptible to one another, as surveillance becomes virtual. Online surveillance is the utilization of the internet to observe one's activity.[145]Corporations, citizens, and governments participate in tracking others' behaviours for motivations that arise out of business relations, to curiosity, to legality. In her bookSuperconnected,Mary Chaykodifferentiates between two types of surveillance: vertical and horizontal.[145]Vertical surveillance occurs when there is a dominant force, such as the government that is attempting to control or regulate the actions of a given society. Such powerful authorities often justify their incursions as a means to protect society from threats of violence or terrorism. Some individuals question when this becomes an infringement on civil rights.[145]
Horizontal diverges from vertical surveillance as the tracking shifts from an authoritative source to an everyday figure, such as a friend, coworker, or stranger that is interested in one's mundane activities.[145]Individuals leave traces of information when they are online that reveal their interests and desires of which others observe. While this can allow people to become interconnected and develop social connections online, it can also increase potential risk to harm, such ascyberbullyingor censoring/stalking by strangers, reducing privacy.[145]
In addition,Simone Browneargues that surveillance wields an immense racializing quality such that it operates as "racializing surveillance." Browne uses racializing surveillance to refer to moments when enactments of surveillance are used to reify boundaries, borders, and bodies along racial lines and where the outcome is discriminatory treatment of those who are negatively racialized by such surveillance. Browne argues racializing surveillance pertains to policing what is "in or out of place."[146][147]
Numerouscivil rightsgroups andprivacygroups oppose surveillance as a violation of people's right to privacy. Such groups include:Electronic Privacy Information Center,Electronic Frontier Foundation,American Civil Liberties UnionandPrivacy International.
There have been several lawsuits such asHepting v. AT&TandEPIC v. Department of Justiceby groups or individuals, opposing certain surveillance activities.
Legislative proceedings such as those that took place during theChurch Committee, which investigated domestic intelligence programs such asCOINTELPRO, have also weighed the pros and cons of surveillance.
People vs. Diaz(2011)was a court case in the realm of cell phone privacy, even though the decision was later overturned. In this case, Gregory Diaz was arrested during a sting operation for attempting to sell ecstasy. During his arrest, police searched Diaz's phone and found more incriminating evidence including SMS text messages and photographs depicting illicit activities. During his trial, Diaz attempted to have the information from his cell phone removed from evidence, but the courts deemed it as lawful and Diaz's appeal was denied on the California State Court level and, later, the Supreme Court level. Just three short years after, this decision was overturned in the caseRiley vs. California(2014).[148]
Riley vs. California(2014)was aU.S. Supreme Courtcase in which a man was arrested for his involvement in a drive-by shooting. A few days after the shooting the police made an arrest of the suspect (Riley), and, during the arrest, the police searched him. However, this search was not only of Riley's person, but also the police opened and searched his cell phone, finding pictures of other weapons, drugs, and of Riley showing gang signs. In court, the question arose whether searching the phone was lawful or if the search was protected by the 4th amendment of the constitution. The decision held that the search of Riley's cell phone during the arrest was illegal, and that it was protected by the 4th Amendment.[149]
Countersurveillanceis the practice of avoiding surveillance or making surveillance difficult. Developments in the late twentieth century have caused counter surveillance to dramatically grow in both scope and complexity, such as the Internet, increasing prevalence of electronicsecurity systems, high-altitude (and possibly armed)UAVs, and large corporate and government computer databases.[150]Other examples include encrypted messenger apps such as Signal[151][152]and privacy cryptocurrencies such as Monero[153][154]and ZCash.[155]
Inverse surveillanceis the practice of the reversal of surveillance on other individuals or groups (e.g., citizens photographing police). Well-known examples includeGeorge Holliday's recording of theRodney Kingbeating and the organizationCopwatch, which attempts to monitor police officers to preventpolice brutality. Counter-surveillance can be also used in applications to prevent corporate spying, or to track other criminals by certain criminal entities. It can also be used to deter stalking methods used by various entities and organizations.
Sousveillanceis inverse surveillance, involving the recording by private individuals, rather than government or corporate entities.[156]
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Titan Rainwas a series of coordinated attacks oncomputersystems in theUnited Statessince 2003; they were known to have been ongoing for at least three years.[1]The attacks originated inGuangdong,China.[2]The activity is believed to be associated with a state-sponsoredadvanced persistent threat. It was given the designationTitan Rainby thefederal government of the United States.
Titan Rain hackers gained access to many United Statesdefense contractorcomputer networks, which were targeted for their sensitive information,[1]including those atLockheed Martin,Sandia National Laboratories,Redstone Arsenal, andNASA.
The attacks are reported to be the result of actions byPeople's Liberation ArmyUnit 61398.[3]These hackers attacked both the US government (Defense Intelligence Agency) and the UK government (Ministry of Defence). In 2006, an "organised Chinese hacking group" shut down a part of the UK House of Commons computer system.[4]The Chinese government has denied responsibility.
The U.S. government has blamed the Chinese government for the 2004 attacks.Alan Paller,SANS Instituteresearch director, stated that the attacks came from individuals with "intense discipline" and that "no other organization could do this if they were not a military". Such sophistication has pointed toward the People's Liberation Army as the attackers.[5]
Titan Rain reportedly attacked multiple organizations, such as NASA and theFBI. Although no classified information was reported stolen, the hackers were able to steal unclassified information (e.g., information from a home computer) that could reveal strengths and weaknesses of the United States.[6]
Titan Rain has also caused distrust between other countries (such as the United Kingdom andRussia) and China. The United Kingdom has stated officially that Chinese hackers attacked its governmental offices. Titan Rain has caused the rest of the world to be more cautious of attacks not just from China but from other countries as well.
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TheVulkan filesare a leaked set of emails, and other documents, implicating the Russian companyNTC Vulkan(Russian:НТЦ Вулкан) in acts ofcybercrime, political interference in foreign affairs (such as in the2016 United States presidential election) throughsocial media, censorship of domestic social media, andespionage, in collusion with Russia'sFederal Security Service(FSB), their armed forces (GOU andGRU); andForeign Intelligence Service(SVR).[1][2][3][4][5]The files date from 2016 to 2021.[1]
The company NTC Vulkan was founded by Anton Markov and Alexander Irzhavsky in 2010.[1]Both are graduates of St Petersburg military academy and have served in the Russian army, with Markov reaching the rank of captain and Irzhavsky reaching the rank of major.[1]
Vulkan received special licences to work on classified military and state projects from 2011.[1]
It has more than 120 staff, 60 of who are programmers,[1]and describes its speciality as information security.[1]It listsSberbank,AeroflotandRussian Railwaysas customers.[1]
The documents, numbering in their thousands, were leaked to the German newspaperSüddeutsche Zeitungwithin days of the 24 February 2022Russian invasion of Ukraineby awhistleblowerwho opposed that war,[1]and were analysed by journalists from that publication andThe Guardian,Le MondeandWashington Post, with several other media outlets, as part of a consortium led byPaper Trail MediaandDer Spiegel.[1][6][3]The consortium published the first details of its investigation on 30 March 2023.[2][3]
Five Western intelligence agencies and several independent cybersecurity experts authenticated the files.[1][7][3]
The documents link Vulkan to theGRUrun hacker groupSandworm.[1][3]Vulkan was contracted to write software called Scan-V to support searching for weak spots in systems to be targeted.[3][1]Scan-V was commissioned in May 2018.[1]
The documents link Vulkan to theCozy Bearhacker group, according toGoogleresearchers.[1][3]
Vulkan won an initial contract to create a system called Amezit in 2016.[1]Amezit is designed to allow control of and interception of internet, wireless and mobile communications.[1][8]In 2018 some employees went in connection to Amezit toRostov-on-Donto visit the Radio Research Institute, which is linked to theFederal Security Service.[1]It is not known if it has been used in parts of Ukraine occupied by the Russian Army.[1]
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Zeusis aTrojan horsemalwarepackage that runs on versions ofMicrosoft Windows. It is often used to stealbanking informationbyman-in-the-browserkeystroke loggingandform grabbing.[1]Zeus is spread mainly throughdrive-by downloadsandphishingschemes. First identified in July 2007 when it was used to steal information from theUnited States Department of Transportation,[2]it became more widespread in March 2009. In June 2009 security companyPrevxdiscovered that Zeus had compromised over 74,000FTPaccounts on websites of such companies as theBank of America,NASA,Monster.com,ABC,Oracle, Play.com,Cisco,Amazon, andBusinessWeek.[3]Similarly toKoobface, Zeus has also been used to trick victims oftechnical support scamsinto giving thescam artistsmoney through pop-up messages that claim the user has avirus, when in reality they might have no viruses at all. The scammers may use programs such asCommand promptorEvent viewerto make the user believe that their computer is infected.[4]
Zeus is very difficult to detect even with up-to-date antivirus and other security software as it hides itself usingstealth techniques.[5]It is considered that this is the primary reason why the Zeus malware then had become the largest botnet on the Internet:Damballaestimated that the malware infected 3.6 millionPCsin the U.S. in 2009.[6]Security experts are advising that businesses continue to offer training to users to teach them to not to click on hostile or suspicious links in emails or Web sites, and to keepantivirus protectionup to date. Antivirus software does not claim to reliably prevent infection; for example Symantec's Browser Protection says that it can prevent "some infection attempts".[7]
In October 2010 the USFBIannounced that hackers inEastern Europehad managed to infect computers around the world using Zeus.[8]The virus was distributed in an e-mail, and when targeted individuals at businesses and municipalities opened the e-mail, the trojan software installed itself on the victimized computer, secretly capturing passwords, account numbers, and other data used to log into online banking accounts.
The hackers then used this information to take over the victims’ bank accounts and make unauthorized transfers of thousands of dollars at a time, often routing the funds to other accounts controlled by a network ofmoney mules, paid a commission. Many of the U.S. money mules were recruited from overseas. They created bank accounts using fake documents and false names. Once the money was in the accounts, the mules would either wire it back to their bosses in Eastern Europe, or withdraw it in cash and smuggle it out of the country.[9]
More than 100 people were arrested on charges of conspiracy to commitbank fraudandmoney laundering, over 90 in the US, and the others in theUKandUkraine.[10]Members of the ring had stolen $70 million.
In 2013Hamza Bendelladj, known as Bx1 online, was arrested in Thailand[11]and deported toAtlanta, Georgia, USA. Early reports said that he was the mastermind behind ZeuS. He was accused of operatingSpyEye(a bot functionally similar to ZeuS) botnets, and suspected of also operating ZeuS botnets. He was charged with several counts of wire fraud and computer fraud and abuse.[12]Court papers allege that from 2009 to 2011 Bendelladj and others "developed, marketed, and sold various versions of the SpyEye virus and component parts on the Internet and allowed cybercriminals to customize their purchases to include tailor-made methods of obtaining victims’ personal and financial information". It was also alleged that Bendelladj advertised SpyEye on Internet forums devoted to cyber- and other crimes and operated Command and Control servers.[13]The charges in Georgia relate only to SpyEye, as a SpyEye botnet control server was based in Atlanta.
In late 2010, a number of Internet security vendors includingMcAfeeandInternet Identityclaimed that the creator of Zeus had said that he was retiring and had given thesource codeand rights to sell Zeus to his biggest competitor, the creator of theSpyEye trojan. However, those same experts warned the retirement was a ruse and expect the developer to return with new tricks.[14][15]
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Srizbi BotNetis considered one of the world's largestbotnets, and responsible for sending out more than half of all thespambeing sent by all the major botnets combined.[1][2][3]The botnets consist of computers infected by the Srizbitrojan, which sent spam on command. Srizbi suffered a massive setback in November 2008 when hosting provider Janka Cartel was taken down; global spam volumes reduced up to 93% as a result of this action.
The size of the Srizbi botnet was estimated to be around 450,000[4]compromised machines, with estimation differences being smaller than 5% among various sources.[2][5]The botnet is reported to be capable of sending around 60 Trillion Janka Threats a day, which is more than half of the total of the approximately 100 trillion Janka Threats sent every day. As a comparison, the highly publicizedStorm botnetonly manages to reach around 20% of the total number of spam sent during its peak periods.[2][6]
The Srizbi botnet showed a relative decline after an aggressive growth in the number of spam messages sent out in mid-2008. On July 13, 2008, the botnet was believed to be responsible for roughly 40% of all the spam on the net, a sharp decline from the almost 60% share in May.[7]
The earliest reports on Srizbi trojan outbreaks were around June 2007, with small differences in detection dates acrossantivirus softwarevendors.[8][9]However, reports indicate that the first released version had already been assembled on 31 March 2007.[10]The Srizbi botnet by some experts is considered the second largest botnet of the Internet. However, there is controversy surrounding theKraken botnet.[11][12][13][14]As of 2008[update], it may be that Srizbi is the largest botnet.
The Srizbi botnet consists of Microsoft Windows computers which have been infected by the Srizbitrojan horse. This trojan horse is deployed onto its victim computer through theMpackmalwarekit.[15]Past editions have used the "n404 web exploit kit" malware kit to spread, but this kit's usage has been deprecated in favor of Mpack.[10]
The distribution of these malware kits is partially achieved by utilizing the botnet itself. The botnet has been known to send out spam containing links to fake videos aboutcelebrities, which include a link pointing to the malware kit. Similar attempts have been taken with other subjects such as illegal software sales and personal messages.[16][17][18]Apart from this self-propagation, the MPack kit is also known for much more aggressive spreading tactics, most notably the compromise of about 10,000 websites in June 2007.[19]These domains, which included a surprising number of pornographic websites,[20]ended up forwarding the unsuspecting visitor to websites containing the MPack program.
Once a computer becomes infected by the trojan horse, the computer becomes known as azombie, which will then be at the command of the controller of the botnet, commonly referred to as the botnet herder.[21]The operation of the Srizbi botnet is based upon a number of servers which control the utilization of the individual bots in the botnet. These servers are redundant copies of each other, which protects the botnet from being crippled in case a system failure or legal action takes a server down.
Theserver-sideof the Srizbi botnet is handled by a program called "Reactor Mailer", which is aPython-basedweb componentresponsible for coordinating the spam sent out by the individual bots in the botnet. Reactor Mailer has existed since 2004, and is currently in its third release, which is also used to control the Srizbi botnet. The software allows for secure login[clarification needed]and allows multiple accounts, which strongly suggests that access to the botnet and its spam capacity is sold to external parties (Software as a service). This is further reinforced by evidence showing that the Srizbi botnet runs multiple batches of spam at a time; blocks ofIP addressescan be observed sending different types of spam at any one time. Once a user has been granted access, he or she can utilize the software to create the message they want to send, test it for itsSpamAssassinscore and after that send it to all the users in a list of email addresses.
Suspicion has arisen that the writer of the Reactor Mailer program might be the same person responsible for the Srizbi trojan, as code analysis shows a code fingerprint that matches between the two programs. If this claim is indeed true, then this coder might well be responsible for the trojan behind another botnet, namedRustock. According toSymantec, the code used in the Srizbi trojan is very similar to the code found in the Rustock trojan, and could well be an improved version of the latter.[22]
The Srizbi trojan is theclient sideprogram responsible for sending the spam from infected machines. The trojan has been credited with being extremely efficient at this task, which explains why Srizbi is capable of sending such high volumes of spam without having a huge numerical advantage in the number of infected computers.
Apart from having an efficient spam engine, the trojan is also very capable in hiding itself from both the user and the system itself, including any products designed to remove the trojan from the system. The trojan itself is fully executed inkernel modeand has been noted to employrootkittechnologies to prevent any form of detection.[23]By patching theNTFSfile systemdrivers, the trojan will make its files invisible for both theoperating systemand any human user utilizing the system. The trojan is also capable of hidingnetwork trafficit generates by directly attachingNDISandTCP/IPdrivers to its own process, a feature currently unique for this trojan. This procedure has been proven to allow the trojan to bypass bothfirewallandsnifferprotection provided locally on the system.[22]
Once the bot is in place and operational, it will contact one of thehardcodedserversfrom a list it carries with it. This server will then supply the bot with azipfile containing a number of files required by the bot to start its spamming business. The following files have been identified to be downloaded:
When these files have been received, the bot will first initialize a software routine which allows it to remove files critical for revealingspamandrootkitapplications.[22]After this procedure is done, the trojan will then start sending out the spam message it has received from the control server.
The Srizbi botnet has been the basis for several incidents which have received media coverage. Several of the most notable ones will be described below here. This is by no means a complete list of incidents, but just a list of the major ones.
In October 2007, severalanti-spamfirms noticed an unusualpolitical spamcampaign emerging. Unlike the usual messages about counterfeit watches, stocks, or penis enlargement, the mail contained promotional information aboutUnited Statespresidential candidateRon Paul. The Ron Paul camp dismissed the spam as being not related to the official presidential campaign. A spokesman told the press: "If it is true, it could be done by a well-intentioned yet misguided supporter or someone with bad intentions trying to embarrass the campaign. Either way, this is independent work, and we have no connection."[24]
The spam was ultimately confirmed as having come from the Srizbi network.[25]Through the capture of one of the control servers involved,[26]investigators learned that the spam message had been sent to up to 160 millionemail addressesby as few as 3,000 bot computers. The spammer has only been identified by his Internethandle"nenastnyj" (Ненастный, means "rainy" or "foul", as in "rainy day, foul weather" in Russian); their real identity has not been determined.
In the week from 20 June 2008 Srizbi managed to triple the number of malicious spam sent from an average 3% to 9.9%, largely due to its own effort.[27]This particular spam wave was an aggressive attempt to increase the size of the Srizbi botnet by sending emails to users which warned them that they had been videotaped naked.[28]Sending this message, which is a kind of spam referred to as "Stupid Theme", was an attempt to get people to click the malicious link included in the mail, before realizing that this message was most likelyspam. While old, thissocial engineeringtechnique remains a proven method of infection for spammers.
The size of this operation shows that the power and monetary income from a botnet is closely based upon its spam capacity: more infected computers translate directly into greater revenue for the botnet controller. It also shows the power botnets have to increase their own size, mainly by using a part of their own strength in numbers.[29]
After the removal of the control servers hosted byMcColoin late November 2008, the control of the botnet was transferred to servers hosted inEstonia. This was accomplished through a mechanism in the trojan horse that queried an algorithmically generated set ofdomain names, one of which was registered by the individuals controlling the botnet. TheUnited Statescomputer security firmFireEye, Inc.kept the system out of the controllers' hands for a period of two weeks by preemptively registering the generated domain names but was not in a position to sustain this effort. However the spamming activity was greatly reduced after this control server transfer.[30]
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Facebookis asocial mediaandsocial networking serviceowned by the American technology conglomerateMeta. Created in 2004 byMark Zuckerbergwith four otherHarvard Collegestudents and roommates,Eduardo Saverin,Andrew McCollum,Dustin Moskovitz, andChris Hughes, its name derives from theface bookdirectories often given to American university students. Membership was initially limited to Harvard students, gradually expanding to other North American universities.
Since 2006, Facebook allows everyone to register from 13 years old, except in the case of a handful of nations, where the age requirement is 14 years.[6]As of December 2023[update], Facebook claimed almost 3.07 billion monthlyactive usersworldwide.[7]As of November 2024[update], Facebook ranked as thethird-most-visited website in the world, with 23% of its traffic coming from the United States.[8]It was the most downloadedmobile appof the 2010s.[9]
Facebook can be accessed from devices withInternetconnectivity, such aspersonal computers,tabletsandsmartphones. After registering, users can create a profile revealing personal information about themselves. They can post text, photos and multimedia which are shared with any other users who have agreed to be theirfriendor, with differentprivacy settings, publicly. Users can alsocommunicate directlywith each other withMessenger, edit messages (within 15 minutes after sending),[10][11]join common-interest groups, and receive notifications on the activities of their Facebook friends and the pages they follow.
Facebook hasoften been criticizedover issues such asuser privacy(as with theFacebook-Cambridge Analytica data scandal), political manipulation (as with the2016 U.S. elections) andmass surveillance.[12]The company has also been subject to criticism over its psychological effects such asaddictionand lowself-esteem, and over content such asfake news,conspiracy theories,copyright infringement, andhate speech.[13]Commentators have accused Facebook of willingly facilitating the spread of such content, as well as exaggerating its number of users to appeal to advertisers.[14]
The history of Facebook traces its growth from a college networking site to a globalsocial networkingservice.[15]
While attendingPhillips Exeterin the early 2000s, Zuckerberg met Kris Tillery. Tillery, a one-time project collaborator with Zuckerberg, would create a school-based social networking project called Photo Address Book. Photo Address Book was a digitalface book, created through a linkeddatabasecomposed of student information derived from the official records of the Exeter student council. The database contained linkages such as name, dorm-specific landline numbers, and student headshots.[16]
Mark Zuckerberg built a website called "Facemash" in 2003 while attendingHarvard University. The site was comparable toHot or Notand used photos from onlineface books, asking users to choose the 'hotter' person".[17]Zuckerberg was reported and facedexpulsion, but the charges were dropped.[17]
A "face book" is a student directory featuring photos and personal information. In January 2004, Zuckerberg coded a new site known as "TheFacebook", stating, "It is clear that the technology needed to create a centralized Website is readily available ... the benefits are many." Zuckerberg met with Harvard studentEduardo Saverin, and each agreed to invest $1,000.[18]On February 4, 2004, Zuckerberg launched "TheFacebook".[19]
Membership was initially restricted to students ofHarvard College.Dustin Moskovitz,Andrew McCollum, andChris Hughesjoined Zuckerberg to help manage the growth of the site.[20]It became available successively to most universities in the US andCanada.[21][22]In 2004,Napsterco-founderSean Parkerbecame company president[23]and the company moved toPalo Alto, California.[24]PayPalco-founderPeter Thielgave Facebook its first investment.[25][26]In 2005, the company dropped "the" from its name after purchasing thedomain nameFacebook.com.[27]
In 2006, Facebook opened to everyone at least 13 years old with a validemail address.[28][29][30]Facebook introduced key features like theNews Feed, which became central to user engagement. By late 2007, Facebook had 100,000 pages on which companies promoted themselves.[31]Facebook had surpassedMySpacein global traffic and became the world's most popularsocial mediaplatform.Microsoftannounced that it had purchased a 1.6% share of Facebook for $240 million ($364 million in 2024 dollars[32]), giving Facebook an implied value of around $15 billion ($22.7 billion in 2024 dollars[32]). Facebook focused on generating revenue throughtargeted advertisingbased onuser data, a model that drove its rapid financial growth. In 2012, Facebook went public with one of the largestIPOsin tech history. Acquisitions played a significant role in Facebook's dominance. In 2012, it purchasedInstagram, followed byWhatsAppandOculus VRin 2014, extending its influence beyond social networking into messaging andvirtual reality. Mark Zuckerberg announces $60 billion investment in Meta AI according to Mashable.
TheFacebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandalin 2018 revealed misuse of user data to influence elections, sparking global outcry and leading to regulatory fines and hearings. Facebook's role in global events, including its use in organizing movements like theArab Springand its impact on events like theRohingya genocidein Myanmar, highlighted its dual nature as a tool for empowerment and harm. In 2021, Facebook rebranded asMeta, reflecting its shift toward building the "metaverse" and focusing on virtual reality andaugmented realitytechnologies.
Facebook does not officially publish a maximum character limit for posts; however, multiple secondary sources report that users can post up to 63,206 characters in a single update. Posts may also include images and videos.[33][34]According to Facebook's official business documentation, videos can be up to 240 minutes long and 10 GB in file size, with supported resolutions up to 1080p.[35]
Users can "friend" users, both sides must agree to being friends.[36]Posts can be changed to be seen by everyone (public), friends, people in a certain group (group) or by selected friends (private).[37]Users can join groups.[38]Groups are composed of persons with shared interests. For example, they might go to the same sporting club, live in the same suburb, have the same breed of pet or share a hobby.[38]Posts posted in a group can be seen only by those in a group, unless set to public.[39]
Users are able to buy, sell, and swap things on Facebook Marketplace or in a Buy, Swap and Sell group.[40][41]Facebook users may advertise events, which can be offline, on a website other than Facebook, or on Facebook.[42]
The site's primary color is blue as Zuckerberg isred–green colorblind, a realization that occurred after a test taken around 2007.[43][44]Facebook was initially built usingPHP, a popular scripting language designed for web development.[45]PHP was used to create dynamic content and manage data on the server side of the Facebook application. Zuckerberg and co-founders chose PHP for its simplicity and ease of use, which allowed them to quickly develop and deploy the initial version of Facebook. As Facebook grew in user base and functionality, the company encountered scalability and performance challenges with PHP. In response, Facebook engineers developed tools and technologies to optimize PHP performance. One of the most significant was the creation of the HipHop Virtual Machine (HHVM). This significantly improved the performance and efficiency of PHP code execution on Facebook's servers.
The site upgraded fromHTTPto the more secureHTTPSin January 2011.[46]
Facebook is developed as one monolithic application. According to an interview in 2012 with Facebook build engineer Chuck Rossi, Facebook compiles into a 1.5 GB binary blob which is then distributed to the servers using a customBitTorrent-based release system. Rossi stated that it takes about 15 minutes to build and 15 minutes to release to the servers. The build and release process has zero downtime. Changes to Facebook are rolled out daily.[47]
Facebook used a combination platform based onHBaseto store data across distributed machines. Using a tailing architecture, events are stored in log files, and the logs are tailed. The system rolls these events up and writes them to storage. The user interface then pulls the data out and displays it to users. Facebook handles requests asAJAXbehavior. These requests are written to a log file usingScribe(developed by Facebook).[48]
Data is read from these log files using Ptail, an internally built tool to aggregate data from multiple Scribe stores. It tails the log files and pulls data out. Ptail data are separated into three streams and sent to clusters in differentdata centers(Plugin impression, News feed impressions, Actions (plugin + news feed)). Puma is used to manage periods of high data flow (Input/Output or IO). Data is processed in batches to lessen the number of times needed to read and write under high demand periods. (A hot article generates many impressions and news feed impressions that cause huge data skews.) Batches are taken every 1.5 seconds, limited by memory used when creating ahash table.[48]
Data is then output in PHP format. The backend is written inJava. Thrift is used as the messaging format so PHP programs can query Java services. Caching solutions display pages more quickly. The data is then sent toMapReduceservers where it is queried via Hive. This serves as a backup as the data can be recovered from Hive.[48]
Facebook uses its owncontent delivery networkor "edge network" under the domain fbcdn.net for serving static data.[49][50]Until the mid-2010s, Facebook also relied onAkamaifor CDN services.[51][52][53]
On March 20, 2014, Facebook announced a newopen-sourceprogramming language calledHack. Before public release, a large portion of Facebook was already running and "battle tested" using the new language.[54]
Each registered user on Facebook has a personal profile that shows their posts and content.[55]The format of individual user pages was revamped in September 2011 and became known as "Timeline", a chronological feed of a user's stories,[56][57]including status updates, photos, interactions with apps and events.[58]The layout let users add a "cover photo".[58]Users were given more privacy settings.[58]In 2007, Facebook launched Facebook Pages for brands and celebrities to interact with their fanbases.[59][60]In June 2009, Facebook introduced a "Usernames" feature, allowing users to choose a unique nickname used in theURLfor their personal profile, for easier sharing.[61][62]
In February 2014, Facebook expanded the gender setting, adding a custom input field that allows users to choose from a wide range of gender identities. Users can also set which set of gender-specific pronoun should be used in reference to them throughout the site.[63][64][65]In May 2014, Facebook introduced a feature to allow users to ask for information not disclosed by other users on their profiles. If a user does not provide key information, such as location, hometown, or relationship status, other users can use a new "ask" button to send a message asking about that item to the user in a single click.[66][67]
News Feedappears on every user's homepage and highlights information including profile changes, upcoming events and friends' birthdays.[68]This enabled spammers and other users to manipulate these features by creating illegitimate events or posting fake birthdays to attract attention to their profile or cause.[69]Initially, the News Feed caused dissatisfaction among Facebook users; some complained it was too cluttered and full of undesired information, others were concerned that it made it too easy for others to track individual activities (such as relationship status changes, events, and conversations with other users).[70]Zuckerberg apologized for the site's failure to include appropriate privacy features. Users then gained control over what types of information are shared automatically with friends. Users are now able to prevent user-set categories of friends from seeing updates about certain types of activities, including profile changes, Wall posts and newly added friends.[71]
On February 23, 2010, Facebook was granted a patent[72]on certain aspects of its News Feed. The patent covers News Feeds in which links are provided so that one user can participate in the activity of another user.[73]The sorting and display of stories in a user's News Feed is governed by theEdgeRankalgorithm.[74]ThePhotosapplication allows users to upload albums and photos.[75]Each album can contain 200 photos.[76]Privacy settings apply to individual albums. Users can "tag", or label, friends in a photo. The friend receives a notification about the tag with a link to the photo.[77]This photo tagging feature was developed by Aaron Sittig, now a Design Strategy Lead at Facebook, and former Facebook engineer Scott Marlette back in 2006 and was only granted apatentin 2011.[78][79]
On June 7, 2012, Facebook launched its App Center to help users find games and other applications.[80]
On May 13, 2015, Facebook in association with major news portals launched "Instant Articles" to provide news on the Facebook news feed without leaving the site.[81][82]In January 2017, Facebook launched Facebook Stories foriOSandAndroidin Ireland. The feature, following the format ofSnapchatand Instagram stories, allows users to upload photos and videos that appear above friends' and followers' News Feeds and disappear after 24 hours.[83]
On October 11, 2017, Facebook introduced the3D Postsfeature to allow for uploading interactive 3D assets.[84]On January 11, 2018, Facebook announced that it would change News Feed to prioritize friends/family content and de-emphasize content from media companies.[85]In February 2020, Facebook announced it would spend $1 billion ($1.21 billion in 2024 dollars[32]) to license news material from publishers for the next three years; a pledge coming as the company falls under scrutiny from governments across the globe over not paying for news content appearing on the platform. The pledge would be in addition to the $600 million ($729 million in 2024 dollars[32]) paid since 2018 through deals with news companies such asThe GuardianandFinancial Times.[86][87][88]
In March and April 2021, in response to Apple announcing changes to its iOS device'sIdentifier for Advertiserspolicy, which included requiring app developers to directly request to users the ability to track on an opt-in basis, Facebook purchased full-page newspaper advertisements attempting to convince users to allow tracking, highlighting the effects targeted ads have on small businesses.[89]Facebook's efforts were ultimately unsuccessful, asApplereleased iOS 14.5 in late April 2021, containing the feature for users in what has been deemed "App Tracking Transparency". Moreover, statistics fromVerizon Communicationssubsidiary Flurry Analytics show 96% of all iOS users in the United States are not permitting tracking at all, and only 12% of worldwide iOS users are allowing tracking, which some news outlets deem "Facebook's nightmare", among similar terms.[90][91][92][93]Despite the news, Facebook stated that the new policy and software update would be "manageable".[94]
The "like" button, stylized as a "thumbs up" icon, was first enabled on February 9, 2009,[95]and enables users to easily interact with status updates, comments, photos and videos, links shared by friends, and advertisements. Once clicked by a user, the designated content is more likely to appear in friends'News Feeds.[96][97]The button displays the number of other users who have liked the content.[98]The like button was extended to comments in June 2010.[99]In February 2016, Facebook expanded Like into "Reactions", allowing users to choose from five pre-defined emotions: "Love", "Haha", "Wow", "Sad", or "Angry".[100][101][102][103]In late April 2020, during theCOVID-19 pandemic, a new "Care" reaction was added.[104]
Facebook Messenger is aninstant messagingservice and software application. It began as Facebook Chat in 2008,[105]was revamped in 2010[106]and eventually became a standalone mobile app in August 2011, while remaining part of the user page on browsers.[107]Complementing regular conversations, Messenger lets users make one-to-one[108]and group[109]voice[110]andvideo calls.[111]Its Android app has integrated support forSMS[112]and "Chat Heads", which are round profile photo icons appearing on-screen regardless of what app is open,[113]while both apps support multiple accounts,[114]conversations with optionalend-to-end encryption[115]and "Instant Games".[116]Some features, including sending money[117]and requesting transportation,[118]are limited to the United States.[117]In 2017, Facebook added "Messenger Day", a feature that lets users share photos and videos in a story-format with all their friends with the content disappearing after 24 hours;[119]Reactions, which lets users tap and hold a message to add a reaction through anemoji;[120]and Mentions, which lets users in group conversations type @ to give a particular user a notification.[120]
In April 2020, Facebook began rolling out a new feature calledMessenger Rooms, a video chat feature that allows users to chat with up to 50 people at a time.[121]In July 2020, Facebook added a new feature in Messenger that lets iOS users to use Face ID or Touch ID to lock their chats. The feature is called App Lock and is a part of several changes in Messenger regarding privacy and security.[122][123]On October 13, 2020, the Messenger application introduced cross-app messaging with Instagram, which was launched in September 2021.[124]In addition to the integrated messaging, the application announced the introduction of a new logo, which will be an amalgamation of the Messenger and Instagram logo.[125]
Businesses and users can interact through Messenger with features such as tracking purchases and receiving notifications, and interacting with customer service representatives. Third-party developers can integrate apps into Messenger, letting users enter an app while inside Messenger and optionally share details from the app into a chat.[126]Developers can buildchatbotsinto Messenger, for uses such as news publishers building bots to distribute news.[127]TheM virtual assistant(U.S.) scans chats for keywords and suggests relevant actions, such as its payments system for users mentioning money.[128][129]Group chatbots appear in Messenger as "Chat Extensions". A "Discovery" tab allows finding bots, and enabling special, brandedQR codesthat, when scanned, take the user to a specific bot.[130]
Facebook's data policy outlines its policies for collecting, storing, and sharing user's data.[131]Facebook enables users to control access to individual posts and their profile[132]throughprivacy settings.[133]The user's name and profile picture (if applicable) are public.
Facebook's revenue depends on targeted advertising, which involves analyzing user data to decide which ads to show each user. Facebook buys data from third parties, gathered from both online and offline sources, to supplement its own data on users. Facebook maintains that it does not share data used for targeted advertising with the advertisers themselves.[134]The company states:
"We provide advertisers with reports about the kinds of people seeing their ads and how their ads are performing, but we don't share information that personally identifies you (information such as your name or email address that by itself can be used to contact you or identifies who you are) unless you give us permission. For example, we provide general demographic and interest information to advertisers (for example, that an ad was seen by a woman between the ages of 25 and 34 who lives in Madrid and likes software engineering) to help them better understand their audience. We also confirm which Facebook ads led you to make a purchase or take an action with an advertiser."[131]
As of October 2021[update], Facebook claims it uses the following policy for sharing user data with third parties:
Apps, websites, and third-party integrations on or using our Products.
When you choose to use third-party apps, websites, or other services that use, or are integrated with, our Products, they can receive information about what you post or share. For example, when you play a game with your Facebook friends or use a Facebook Comment or Share button on a website, the game developer or website can receive information about your activities in the game or receive a comment or link that you share from the website on Facebook. Also, when you download or use such third-party services, they can access your public profile on Facebook, and any information that you share with them. Apps and websites you use may receive your list of Facebook friends if you choose to share it with them. But apps and websites you use will not be able to receive any other information about your Facebook friends from you, or information about any of your Instagram followers (although your friends and followers may, of course, choose to share this information themselves). Information collected by these third-party services is subject to their own terms and policies, not this one.
Devices and operating systems providing native versions of Facebook and Instagram (i.e. where we have not developed our own first-party apps) will have access to all information you choose to share with them, including information your friends share with you, so they can provide our core functionality to you.
Note: We are in the process of restricting developers' data access even further to help prevent abuse. For example, we will remove developers' access to your Facebook and Instagram data if you haven't used their app in 3 months, and we are changing Login, so that in the next version, we will reduce the data that an app can request without app review to include only name, Instagram username and bio, profile photo and email address. Requesting any other data will require our approval.[131]
Facebook will also share data withlaw enforcementif needed to.[131]
Facebook's policies have changed repeatedly since the service's debut, amid a series of controversies covering everything from how well it secures user data, to what extent it allows users to control access, to the kinds of access given to third parties, including businesses, political campaigns and governments. These facilities vary according to country, as some nations require the company to make data available (and limit access to services), while the European Union'sGDPRregulation mandates additional privacy protections.[135]
On July 29, 2011, Facebook announced its Bug Bounty Program that paid security researchers a minimum of $500 ($699.00 in 2024 dollars[32]) for reporting security holes. The company promised not to pursue "white hat" hackers who identified such problems.[136][137]This led researchers in many countries to participate, particularly in India and Russia.[138]
Facebook's rapid growth began as soon as it became available and continued through 2018, before beginning to decline. Facebook passed 100 million registered users in 2008,[139]and 500 million in July 2010.[140]According to the company's data at the July 2010 announcement, half of the site's membership used Facebook daily, for an average of 34 minutes, while 150 million users accessed the site by mobile.[141]
In October 2012, Facebook's monthly active users passed one billion,[142][143]with 600 million mobile users, 219 billion photo uploads, and 140 billion friend connections.[144]The 2 billion user mark was crossed in June 2017.[145][146]In November 2015, after skepticism about the accuracy of its "monthly active users" measurement, Facebook changed its definition to a logged-in member who visits the Facebook site through the web browser or mobile app, or uses theFacebook Messengerapp, in the 30-day period prior to the measurement. This excluded the use of third-party services with Facebook integration, which was previously counted.[147]
From 2017 to 2019, the percentage of the U.S. population over the age of 12 who use Facebook has declined, from 67% to 61% (a decline of some 15 million U.S. users), with a higher drop-off among younger Americans (a decrease in the percentage of U.S. 12- to 34-year-olds who are users from 58% in 2015 to 29% in 2019).[148][149]The decline coincided with an increase in the popularity of Instagram, which is also owned by Meta.[148][149]The number of daily active users experienced a quarterly decline for the first time in the last quarter of 2021, down to 1.929 billion from 1.930 billion,[150]but increased again the next quarter despite being banned in Russia.[151]
Historically, commentators have offered predictions of Facebook's decline or end, based on causes such as a declining user base;[152]the legal difficulties of being aclosed platform, inability to generate revenue, inability to offer user privacy, inability to adapt to mobile platforms, or Facebook ending itself to present a next generation replacement;[153]or Facebook's role inRussian interference in the 2016 United States elections.[154]
The highest number of Facebook users as of April 2023 are from India and the United States, followed by Indonesia, Brazil, Mexico and the Philippines.[156]Region-wise, the highest number of users in 2018 are from Asia-Pacific (947 million) followed by Europe (381 million) and US-Canada (242 million). The rest of the world has 750 million users.[157]
Over the 2008–2018 period, the percentage of users under 34 declined to less than half of the total.[135]
In many countries the social networking sites and mobile apps have been blocked temporarily, intermittently, or permanently, including:Brazil,[158]China,[159]Iran,[160]Vietnam,[161]Pakistan,[162]Syria,[163]andNorth Korea. In May 2018, the government ofPapua New Guineaannounced that it would ban Facebook for a month while it considered the impact of the website on the country, though no ban has since occurred.[164]In 2019, Facebook announced it would start enforcing its ban on users, includinginfluencers, promoting anyvape,tobaccoproducts, orweaponson its platforms.[165]
"I'm here today because I believe Facebook's products harm children, stoke division, and weaken our democracy. The company's leadership knows how to make Facebook and Instagram safer, but won't make the necessary changes because they have put their astronomical profits before people."
"I don't believe private companies should make all of the decisions on their own. That's why we have advocated for updated internet regulations for several years now. I have testified in Congress multiple times and asked them to update these regulations. I've written op-eds outlining the areas of regulation we think are most important related to elections, harmful content, privacy, and competition."
Facebook's importance and scale has led to criticisms in many domains. Issues includeInternet privacy, excessive retention of user information,[168]itsfacial recognitionsoftware,DeepFace[169][170]its addictive quality[171]and its role in the workplace, including employer access to employee accounts.[172]
Facebook has been criticized for electricity usage,[173]tax avoidance,[174]real-name user requirement policies,[175]censorship[176][177]and its involvement in the United StatesPRISM surveillance program.[178]According toThe Express Tribune, Facebook "avoided billions of dollars in tax using offshore companies".[179]
Facebook is alleged to have harmful psychological effects on its users, including feelings of jealousy[180][181]and stress,[182][183]a lack of attention[184]andsocial media addiction.[185][186]According to Kaufmann et al., mothers' motivations for using social media are often related to their social and mental health.[187]European antitrust regulatorMargrethe Vestagerstated that Facebook's terms of service relating to private data were "unbalanced".[188]
Facebook has been criticized for allowing users to publish illegal or offensive material. Specifics includecopyrightandintellectual propertyinfringement,[189]hate speech,[190][191]incitement of rape[192]and terrorism,[193][194]fake news,[195][196][197]and crimes, murders, and livestreaming violent incidents.[198][199][200]Commentators have accused Facebook of willingly facilitating the spread of such content.[201][202][203]Sri Lankablocked both Facebook and WhatsApp in May 2019 afteranti-Muslim riots, the worst in the country since theEaster Sunday bombingin the same year as a temporary measure to maintain peace in Sri Lanka.[204][205]Facebook removed 3 billion fake accounts only during the last quarter of 2018 and the first quarter of 2019;[206]in comparison, the social network reports 2.39 billion monthly active users.[206]
In late July 2019, the company announced it was underantitrustinvestigation by theFederal Trade Commission.[207]
The consumer advocacy groupWhich?claimed individuals were still utilizing Facebook to set up fraudulent five-star ratings for products. The group identified 14 communities that exchange reviews for either money or complimentary items such as watches, earbuds, and sprinklers.[208]
Facebook has experienced a steady stream of controversies over how it handles user privacy, repeatedly adjusting its privacy settings and policies.[209]Since 2009, Facebook has been participating in the PRISM secret program, sharing with the USNational Security Agencyaudio, video, photographs, e-mails, documents and connection logs from user profiles, among other social media services.[210][211]
On November 29, 2011, Facebook settledFederal Trade Commissioncharges that it deceived consumers by failing to keep privacy promises.[212]In August 2013High-Tech Bridgepublished a study showing that links included in Facebook messaging service messages were being accessed by Facebook.[213]In January 2014 two users filed a lawsuit against Facebook alleging that their privacy had been violated by this practice.[214]
On June 7, 2018, Facebook announced that a bug had resulted in about 14 million Facebook users having their default sharing setting for all new posts set to "public".[215]Its data-sharing agreement with Chinese companies such asHuaweicame under the scrutiny of US lawmakers, although the information accessed was not stored on Huawei servers and remained on users' phones.[216]On April 4, 2019, half a billion records of Facebook users were found exposed onAmazoncloud servers, containing information about users' friends, likes, groups, and checked-in locations, as well as names, passwords and email addresses.[217]
The phone numbers of at least 200 million Facebook users were found to be exposed on an open online database in September 2019. They included 133 million US users, 18 million from the UK, and 50 million from users inVietnam. After removing duplicates, the 419 million records have been reduced to 219 million. The database went offline after TechCrunch contacted the web host. It is thought the records were amassed using a tool that Facebook disabled in April 2018 after theCambridge Analyticacontroversy. A Facebook spokeswoman said in a statement: "The dataset is old and appears to have information obtained before we made changes last year...There is no evidence that Facebook accounts were compromised."[218]
Facebook's privacy problems resulted in companies likeViber MediaandMozilladiscontinuing advertising on Facebook's platforms.[219][220]A January 2024 study byConsumer Reportsfound that among a self-selected group of volunteer participants, each user is monitored or tracked by over two thousand companies on average.LiveRamp, a San Francisco-based data broker, is responsible for 96 per cent of the data. Other companies such asHome Depot,Macy's, andWalmartare involved as well.[221]
In March 2024, a court in California released documents detailing Facebook's 2016 "Project Ghostbusters". The project was aimed at helping Facebook compete withSnapchatand involved Facebook trying to develop decryption tools to collect, decrypt, and analyze traffic that users generated when visiting Snapchat and, eventually, YouTube and Amazon. The company eventually used its toolOnavoto initiate man-in-the-middle attacks and read users' traffic before it was encrypted.[222]
Facebook was accused of committing "systemic" racial bias by theEqual Employment Opportunity Commissionbased on the complaints of three rejected candidates and a current employee of the company. The three rejected employees along with the Operational Manager at Facebook as of March 2021 accused the firm of discriminating against Black people. The EEOC initiated an investigation into the case in March 2021.[223]
A "shadow profile" refers to the data Facebook collects about individuals without their explicit permission. For example, the"like" buttonthat appears on third-party websites allows the company to collect information about an individual's internet browsing habits, even if the individual is not a Facebook user.[224][225]Data can also be collected by other users. For example, a Facebook user can link their email account to their Facebook to find friends on the site, allowing the company to collect the email addresses of users and non-users alike.[226]Over time, countless data points about an individual are collected; any single data point perhaps cannot identify an individual, but together allows the company to form a unique "profile".
This practice has been criticized by those who believe people should be able to opt-out of involuntary data collection. Additionally, while Facebook users have the ability to download and inspect the data they provide to the site, data from the user's "shadow profile" is not included, and non-users of Facebook do not have access to this tool regardless. The company has also been unclear whether or not it is possible for a person to revoke Facebook's access to their "shadow profile".[224]
Facebook customer Global Science Research sold information on over 87 million Facebook users to Cambridge Analytica, a political data analysis firm led byAlexander Nix.[227]While approximately 270,000 people used the app, Facebook'sAPIpermitted data collection from their friends without their knowledge.[228]At first Facebook downplayed the significance of the breach, and suggested that Cambridge Analytica no longer had access. Facebook then issued a statement expressing alarm and suspended Cambridge Analytica. Review of documents and interviews with former Facebook employees suggested that Cambridge Analytica still possessed the data.[229]This was a violation of Facebook'sconsent decreewith theFederal Trade Commission. This violation potentially carried a penalty of $40,000 ($50,087 in 2024 dollars[32]) per occurrence, totalling trillions of dollars.[230]
According toThe Guardian, both Facebook and Cambridge Analytica threatened to sue the newspaper if it published the story. After publication, Facebook claimed that it had been "lied to". On March 23, 2018, theEnglish High Courtgranted an application by theInformation Commissioner's Officefor a warrant to search Cambridge Analytica's London offices, ending a standoff between Facebook and the Information Commissioner over responsibility.[231]
On March 25, Facebook published a statement by Zuckerberg in major UK and US newspapers apologizing over a "breach of trust".[232]
You may have heard about a quiz app built by a university researcher that leaked Facebook data of millions of people in 2014. This was a breach of trust, and I'm sorry we didn't do more at the time. We're now taking steps to make sure this doesn't happen again.
We've already stopped apps like this from getting so much information. Now we're limiting the data apps get when you sign in using Facebook.
We're also investigating every single app that had access to large amounts of data before we fixed this. We expect there are others. And when we find them, we will ban them and tell everyone affected.
Finally, we'll remind you which apps you've given access to your information – so you can shut off the ones you don't want anymore.
Thank you for believing in this community. I promise to do better for you.
On March 26, theFederal Trade Commissionopened an investigation into the matter.[233]The controversy led Facebook to end its partnerships with data brokers who aid advertisers in targeting users.[209]
On April 24, 2019, Facebook said it could face a fine between $3 billion ($3.69 billion in 2024 dollars[32]) to $5 billion ($6.15 billion in 2024 dollars[32]) as the result of an investigation by the Federal Trade Commission.[234]On July 24, 2019, the FTC fined Facebook $5 billion, the largest penalty ever imposed on a company for violating consumer privacy. Additionally, Facebook had to implement a new privacy structure, follow a 20-year settlement order, and allow the FTC to monitor Facebook.[235]Cambridge Analytica's CEO and a developer faced restrictions on future business dealings and were ordered to destroy any personal information they collected. Cambridge Analytica filed for bankruptcy.[236]Facebook also implemented additional privacy controls and settings[237]in part to comply with the European Union'sGeneral Data Protection Regulation(GDPR), which took effect in May.[238]Facebook also ended its active opposition to theCalifornia Consumer Privacy Act.[239]
Some, such asMeghan McCain, have drawn an equivalence between the use of data by Cambridge Analytica and theBarack Obama's 2012 campaign, which, according toInvestor's Business Daily, "encouraged supporters to download an Obama 2012 Facebook app that, when activated, let the campaign collect Facebook data both on users and their friends."[240][241][242]Carol Davidsen, the Obama for America (OFA) former director of integration and media analytics, wrote that "Facebook was surprised we were able to suck out the whole social graph, but they didn't stop us once they realised that was what we were doing".[241][242]PolitiFacthas rated McCain's statements "Half-True", on the basis that "in Obama's case, direct users knew they were handing over their data to a political campaign" whereas with Cambridge Analytica, users thought they were only taking a personality quiz for academic purposes, and while the Obama campaign only used the data "to have their supporters contact their most persuadable friends", Cambridge Analytica "targeted users, friends and lookalikes directly with digital ads."[243]
In July 2019, cybersecurity researcher Sam Jadali exposed a catastrophic data leak known asDataSpiiinvolving data provider DDMR and marketing intelligence company Nacho Analytics (NA).[244][245]Branding itself as the "God mode for the internet", NA through DDMR, provided its members access to private Facebook photos and Facebook Messenger attachments including tax returns.[246]DataSpii harvested data from millions of Chrome and Firefox users through compromised browser extensions.[247]The NA website stated it collected data from millions of opt-in users. Jadali, along with journalists fromArs TechnicaandThe Washington Post, interviewed impacted users, including aWashington Poststaff member. According to the interviews, the impacted users did not consent to such collection.
DataSpii demonstrated how a compromised user exposed the data of others, including the private photos and Messenger attachments belonging to a Facebook user's network of friends.[246]
DataSpii exploited Facebook's practice of making private photos and Messenger attachments publicly accessible via unique URLs. To bolster security in this regard, Facebook appends query strings in the URLs so as to limit the period of accessibility.[246]Nevertheless, NA provided real-time access to these unique URLs, which were intended to be secure. This allowed NA members to access the private content within the restricted time frame designated by Facebook.
The Washington Post's Geoffrey Fowler, in collaboration with Jadali, opened Fowler's private Facebook photo in a browser with a compromised browser extension.[244]Within minutes, they anonymously retrieved the "private" photo. To validate this proof-of-concept, they searched for Fowler's name using NA, which yielded his photo as a search result. In addition, Jadali discovered Fowler'sWashington Postcolleague, Nick Mourtoupalas, was directly impacted by DataSpii. Jadali's investigation elucidated how DataSpii disseminated private data to additional third-parties, including foreign entities, within minutes of the data being acquired. In doing so, he identified the third-parties who were scraping, storing, and potentially enabling the facial-recognition of individuals in photos being furnished by DataSpii.[248]
On September 28, 2018, Facebook experienced a major breach in its security, exposing the data of 50 million users. The data breach started in July 2017 and was discovered on September 16.[249]Facebook notified users affected by the exploit and logged them out of their accounts.[250][251]In March 2019, Facebook confirmed a password compromise of millions of Facebook lite application users also affected millions of Instagram users. The reason cited was the storage of password as plain text instead of encryption which could be read by its employees.[252]
On December 19, 2019, security researcher Bob Diachenko discovered a database containing more than 267 million Facebook user IDs, phone numbers, and names that were left exposed on the web for anyone to access without a password or any other authentication.[253]In February 2020, Facebook encountered a majorsecurity breachin which its officialTwitteraccount was hacked by aSaudi Arabia-based group called "OurMine". The group has a history of actively exposing high-profile social media profiles' vulnerabilities.[254]
In April 2021,The Guardianreported approximately half a billion users' data had been stolen including birthdates and phone numbers. Facebook alleged it was "old data" from a problem fixed in August 2019 despite the data's having been released a year and a half later only in 2021; it declined to speak with journalists, had apparently not notified regulators, called the problem "unfixable", and said it would not be advising users.[255]In September 2024, Meta paid a $101 million fine for storing up to 600 million passwords of Facebook and Instagram users in plain text. The practice was initially discovered in 2019, though reports indicate passwords were stored in plain text since 2012.[256]
After acquiringOnavoin 2013, Facebook used its Onavo Protectvirtual private network(VPN) app to collect information on users'web trafficand app usage. This allowed Facebook to monitor its competitors' performance, and motivated Facebook to acquire WhatsApp in 2014.[257][258][259]Media outlets classified Onavo Protect asspyware.[260][261][262]In August 2018, Facebook removed the app in response to pressure from Apple, who asserted that it violated their guidelines.[263][264]TheAustralian Competition and Consumer Commissionsued Facebook on December 16, 2020, for "false, misleading or deceptive conduct" in response to the company's unauthorized use of personal data obtained from Onavo for business purposes in contrast to Onavo's privacy-oriented marketing.[265][266]
In 2016, Facebook Research launched Project Atlas, offering some users between the ages of 13 and 35 up to $20 per month ($26.00 in 2024 dollars[32]) in exchange for their personal data, including their app usage,web browsing history,web searchhistory,location history,personal messages, photos, videos,emailsandAmazonorder history.[267][268]In January 2019,TechCrunchreported on the project. This led Apple to temporarily revoke Facebook's Enterprise Developer Programcertificatesfor one day, preventing Facebook Research from operating on iOS devices and disabling Facebook's internal iOS apps.[268][269][270]
Ars Technicareported in April 2018 that the Facebook Android app had been harvesting user data, including phone calls and text messages, since 2015.[271][272][273]In May 2018, several Android users filed aclass action lawsuitagainst Facebook for invading their privacy.[274][275]In January 2020, Facebook launched the Off-Facebook Activity page, which allows users to see information collected by Facebook about their non-Facebook activities.[276]The Washington Postcolumnist Geoffrey A. Fowler found that this included what other apps he used on his phone, even while the Facebook app was closed, what other web sites he visited on his phone, and what in-store purchases he made from affiliated businesses, even while his phone was completely off.[277]
In November 2021, a report was published by Fairplay, Global Action Plan and Reset Australia detailing accusations that Facebook was continuing to manage their ad targeting system with data collected from teen users.[278]The accusations follow announcements by Facebook in July 2021 that they would cease ad targeting children.[279][280]
The company first apologized for its privacy abuses in 2009.[281]
Facebook apologies have appeared in newspapers, television, blog posts and on Facebook.[282]On March 25, 2018, leading US and UK newspapers published full-page ads with a personal apology from Zuckerberg. Zuckerberg issued a verbal apology onCNN.[283]In May 2010, he apologized for discrepancies in privacy settings.[282]
Previously, Facebook had its privacy settings spread out over 20 pages, and has now put all of its privacy settings on one page, which makes it more difficult for third-party apps to access the user's personal information.[209]In addition to publicly apologizing, Facebook has said that it will be reviewing and auditing thousands of apps that display "suspicious activities" in an effort to ensure that this breach of privacy does not happen again.[284]In a 2010 report regarding privacy, a research project stated that not a lot of information is available regarding the consequences of what people disclose online so often what is available are just reports made available through popular media.[285]In 2017, a former Facebook executive went on the record to discuss how social media platforms have contributed to the unraveling of the "fabric of society".[286]
Facebook relies on its users to generate the content that bonds its users to the service. The company has come under criticism both for allowing objectionable content, including conspiracy theories and fringe discourse,[287]and for prohibiting other content that it deems inappropriate.
Facebook has been criticized as a vector forfake news, and has been accused of bearing responsibility for the conspiracy theory that the United States createdISIS,[288]false anti-Rohingyaposts being used byMyanmar's military to fuelgenocideandethnic cleansing,[289][290]enablingclimate change denial[291][292][293]andSandy Hook Elementary School shootingconspiracy theorists,[294]and anti-refugee attacks in Germany.[295][296][297]The government of thePhilippineshas also used Facebook as a tool to attack its critics.[298]
In 2017, Facebook partnered with fact checkers from thePoynter Institute's international fact-checking network to identify and mark false content, though most ads from political candidates are exempt from this program.[299][300]As of 2018, Facebook had over 40 fact-checking partners across the world, includingThe Weekly Standard.[301]Critics of the program have accused Facebook of not doing enough to remove false information from its website.[301][302]
Facebook has repeatedly amended its content policies. In July 2018, it stated that it would "downrank" articles that itsfact-checkersdetermined to be false, and remove misinformation that incited violence.[303]Facebook stated that content that receives "false" ratings from its fact-checkers can be demonetized and suffer dramatically reduced distribution. Specific posts and videos that violate community standards can be removed on Facebook.[304]In May 2019, Facebook banned a number of "dangerous" commentators from its platform, includingAlex Jones,Louis Farrakhan,Milo Yiannopoulos,Paul Joseph Watson,Paul Nehlen,David Duke, andLaura Loomer, for allegedly engaging in "violence and hate".[305][306]
In May 2020, Facebook agreed to a preliminary settlement of $52 million ($63.2 million in 2024 dollars[32]) to compensate U.S.-based Facebook content moderators for their psychological trauma suffered on the job.[307][308]Other legal actions around the world, including in Ireland, await settlement.[309]In September 2020, theGovernment of Thailandutilized the Computer Crime Act for the first time to take action against Facebook andTwitterfor ignoring requests to take down content and not complying with court orders.[310]
According to a report byReuters, beginning in 2020, the United States military ran apropagandacampaign to spread disinformation about theSinovacChineseCOVID-19vaccine, including using fake social media accounts to spread the disinformation that the Sinovac vaccine contained pork-derived ingredients and was thereforeharamunderIslamic law.[311]The campaign was described as "payback" forCOVID-19 disinformation by Chinadirected against the U.S.[312]In summer 2020, Facebook asked the military to remove the accounts, stating that they violated Facebook's policies on fake accounts and on COVID-19 information.[311]The campaign continued until mid-2021.[311]
ProfessorIlya Sominreported that he had been the subject of death threats on Facebook in April 2018 fromCesar Sayoc, who threatened to kill Somin and his family and "feed the bodies to Florida alligators". Somin's Facebook friends reported the comments to Facebook, which did nothing except dispatch automated messages.[313]Sayoc was later arrested for theOctober 2018 United States mail bombing attemptsdirected at Democratic politicians.
Force v. Facebook, Inc., 934 F.3d 53 (2nd Cir. 2019) was a case that alleged Facebook was profiting off recommendations for Hamas. In 2019, theUS Second Circuit Appeals Courtheld thatSection 230bars civil terrorism claims againstsocial media companiesand internet service providers, the first federal appellate court to do so.
In October 2020,PakistaniPrime MinisterImran KhanurgedMark Zuckerberg, through a letter posted on government'sTwitteraccount, to banIslamophobiccontent on Facebook, warning that it encouragedextremismand violence.[314]In October 2020, the company announced that it would banHolocaust denial.[315]
In October 2022,Media Matters for Americapublished a report that Facebook and Instagram were still profiting off advertisements using the slur "groomer" forLGBTpeople.[316]The article reported that Meta had previously confirmed that the use of this word for the LGBT community violates its hate speech policies.[316]The story was subsequently picked up by other news outlets such as theNew York Daily News,PinkNews, andLGBTQ Nation.[317][318][319]
There are ads on Facebook and Instagram containing sexually explicit content, descriptions of graphic violence and content promoting acts of self harm. Many of the ads are for webnovel apps backed by tech giantsBytedanceandTencent.[320]
Facebook was criticized for allowingInfoWarsto publish falsehoods and conspiracy theories.[304][321][322][323][324]Facebook defended its actions in regard toInfoWars, saying "we just don't think banning Pages for sharing conspiracy theories or false news is the right way to go."[322]Facebook provided only six cases in which it fact-checked content on theInfoWarspage over the period September 2017 to July 2018.[304]In 2018,InfoWarsfalsely claimed that the survivors of the Parkland shooting were "actors". Facebook pledged to removeInfoWarscontent making the claim, althoughInfoWarsvideos pushing the false claims were left up, even though Facebook had been contacted about the videos.[304]Facebook stated that the videos never explicitly called them actors.[304]Facebook also allowedInfoWarsvideos that shared thePizzagate conspiracy theoryto survive, despite specific assertions that it would purge Pizzagate content.[304]In late July 2018, Facebook suspended the personal profile ofInfoWarshead Alex Jones for 30 days.[325]In early August 2018, Facebook banned the four most activeInfoWars-related pages forhate speech.[326]
As a dominant social-web service with massive outreach, Facebook has been used by identified or unidentified political operatives to affect public opinion. Some of these activities have been done in violation of the platform policies, creating "coordinated inauthentic behavior", support or attacks. These activities can be scripted orpaid. Various such abusive campaign have been revealed in recent years, best known being theRussian interference in the 2016 United States elections. In 2021, former Facebook analyst within theSpamandFake Engagementteams,Sophie Zhang, reported more than 25 political subversion operations and criticized the general slow reaction time, oversightless, laissez-faire attitude by Facebook.[327][328][329]
In 2018, Facebook said that during 2018 they had identified "coordinated inauthentic behavior" in "many Pages, Groups and accounts created to stir up political debate, including in the US, the Middle East, Russia and the UK."[330]
Campaigns operated by the British intelligence agency unit, calledJoint Threat Research Intelligence Group, have broadly fallen into two categories; cyber attacks and propaganda efforts. The propaganda efforts utilize "mass messaging" and the "pushing [of] stories" via social media sites like Facebook.[331][332]Israel'sJewish Internet Defense Force, theChinese Communist Party's50 Cent Partyand Turkey'sAK Trollsalso focus their attention on social media platforms like Facebook.[333][334][335][336]In July 2018, Samantha Bradshaw, co-author of the report from theOxford Internet Institute(OII) atOxford University, said that "The number of countries where formally organisedsocial media manipulationoccurs has greatly increased, from 28 to 48 countries globally. The majority of growth comes from political parties who spreaddisinformationand junk news around election periods."[337]In October 2018,The Daily Telegraphreported that Facebook "banned hundreds of pages and accounts that it says were fraudulently flooding its site with partisan political content – although they came from the United States instead of being associated withRussia."[338]
In December 2018,The Washington Postreported that "Facebook has suspended the account of Jonathon Morgan, the chief executive of a top social media research firm"New Knowledge, "after reports that he and others engaged in an operation to spread disinformation" on Facebook and Twitter during the2017 United States Senate special election in Alabama.[339][340]In January 2019, Facebook said it has removed 783 Iran-linked accounts, pages and groups for engaging in what it called "coordinated inauthentic behaviour".[341]In March 2019, Facebook sued four Chinese firms for selling "fake accounts, likes and followers" to amplify Chinesestate mediaoutlets.[342]
In May 2019,Tel Aviv-based private intelligence agencyArchimedes Groupwas banned from Facebook for "coordinated inauthentic behavior" after Facebook found fake users in countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Southeast Asia.[343]Facebook investigations revealed that Archimedes had spent some $1.1 million ($1.35 million in 2024 dollars[32]) on fake ads, paid for in Brazilian reais, Israeli shekels and US dollars.[344]Facebook gave examples of Archimedes Group political interference in Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, Angola, Niger and Tunisia.[345]The Atlantic Council's Digital Forensic Research Lab said in a report that "The tactics employed by Archimedes Group, a private company, closely resemble the types of information warfare tactics often used by governments, and the Kremlin in particular."[346][347]
On May 23, 2019, Facebook released its Community Standards Enforcement Report highlighting that it has identified several fake accounts through artificial intelligence and human monitoring. In a period of six months, October 2018 – March 2019, the social media website removed a total of 3.39 billion fake accounts. The number of fake accounts was reported to be more than 2.4 billion real people on the platform.[348]
In July 2019, Facebook advanced its measures to counter deceptive political propaganda and other abuse of its services. The company removed more than 1,800 accounts and pages that were being operated from Russia, Thailand, Ukraine and Honduras.[349]After Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, it was announced that the internet regulatory committee would block access to Facebook.[350]On October 30, 2019, Facebook deleted several accounts of the employees working at the IsraeliNSO Group, stating that the accounts were "deleted for not following our terms". The deletions came after WhatsApp sued the Israeli surveillance firm for targeting 1,400 devices withspyware.[351]
In 2020, Facebook helped foundAmerican Edge, an anti-regulationlobbying firmto fight anti-trust probes.[352]The group runs ads that "fail to mention what legislation concerns them, how those concerns could be fixed, or how the horrors they warn of could actually happen", and do not clearly disclose that they are funded by Facebook.[353]
In 2020, the government of Thailand forced Facebook to take down a Facebook group called Royalist Marketplace with one million members following potentially illegal posts shared. The authorities have also threatened Facebook with legal action. In response, Facebook is planning to take legal action against the Thai government for suppression of freedom of expression and violation of human rights.[354]In 2020, during theCOVID-19 pandemic, Facebook found that troll farms fromNorth Macedoniaand the Philippines pushed coronavirus disinformation. The publisher, which used content from these farms, was banned.[355]
In the run-up to the2020 United States elections, Eastern European troll farms operated popular Facebook pages showing content related toChristiansandBlacksin America. They included more than 15,000 pages combined and were viewed by 140 million US users per month. This was in part due to how Facebook's algorithm and policies allow unoriginal viral content to be copied and spread in ways that still drive up user engagement. As of September 2021, some of the most popular pages were still active on Facebook despite the company's efforts to take down such content.[356]
In February 2021, Facebook removed the main page of the Myanmar military, after two protesters were shot and killed during theanti-coup protests. Facebook said that the page breached its guidelines that prohibit the incitement of violence.[357]On February 25, Facebook announced to ban all accounts of the Myanmar military, along with the "Tatmadaw-linked commercial entities". Citing the "exceptionally severe human rights abuses and the clear risk of future military-initiated violence in Myanmar", the tech giant also implemented the move on its subsidiary,Instagram.[358]In March 2021,The Wall Street Journal'seditorial board criticized Facebook's decision to fact-check its op-ed titled "We'll Have Herd immunity by April" written by surgeonMarty Makary, calling it "counter-opinion masquerading asfact checking."[359]
Facebook guidelines allow users to call for the death of public figures, they also allow praise of mass killers and 'violent non-state actors' in some situations.[360][361]In 2021, former Facebook analyst within theSpamandFake Engagementteams,Sophie Zhang, reported on more than 25 political subversion operations she uncovered while in Facebook, and the general laissez-faire by the private enterprise.[327][328][329]
In 2021, Facebook was cited as playing a role in the fomenting of the2021 United States Capitol attack.[362][363]
In 2018, Special CounselRobert Muellerindicted 13 Russian nationals and three Russian organizations for "engaging in operations to interfere with U.S. political and electoral processes, including the 2016 presidential election."[364][365][366]
Mueller contacted Facebook subsequently to the company's disclosure that it had sold more than $100,000 ($131,018 in 2024 dollars[32]) worth of ads to a company (Internet Research Agency, owned by Russian billionaire and businessmanYevgeniy Prigozhin) with links to the Russian intelligence community before the2016 United States presidential election.[367][368]In September 2017, Facebook's chief security officerAlex Stamoswrote the company "found approximately $100,000 in ad spending from June 2015 to May 2017 – associated with roughly 3,000 ads – that was connected to about 470 inauthentic accounts and Pages in violation of our policies. Our analysis suggests these accounts and Pages were affiliated with one another and likely operated out of Russia."[369]Clinton and Trump campaigns spent $81 million ($106 million in 2024 dollars[32]) on Facebook ads.[370]
The company pledged full cooperation inMueller's investigation, and provided all information about the Russian advertisements.[371]Members of theHouseandSenate Intelligence Committeeshave claimed that Facebook had withheld information that could illuminate the Russian propaganda campaign.[372]Russian operatives have used Facebook polarize the American public discourses, organizing bothBlack Lives Matterrallies[373][374]and anti-immigrant rallies on U.S. soil,[375]as well as anti-Clinton rallies[376]and rallies both for and against Donald Trump.[377][378]Facebook ads have also been used to exploit divisions over black political activism and Muslims by simultaneously sending contrary messages to different users based on their political and demographic characteristics in order to sow discord.[379][380][381]Zuckerberg has stated that he regrets having dismissed concerns over Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.[382]
Russian-American billionaireYuri Milner, who befriended Zuckerberg[383]between 2009 and 2011, hadKremlinbacking for his investments in Facebook and Twitter.[384]In January 2019, Facebook removed 289 pages and 75 coordinated accounts linked to the Russian state-owned news agencySputnikwhich had misrepresented themselves as independent news or general interest pages.[385][386]Facebook later identified and removed an additional 1,907 accounts linked to Russia found to be engaging in "coordinated inauthentic behaviour".[387]In 2018, a UKDepartment for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport(DCMS) select committee report had criticized Facebook for its reluctance to investigate abuse of its platform by the Russian government, and for downplaying the extent of the problem, referring to the company as 'digital gangsters'.[388][389][390]
"Democracy is at risk from the malicious and relentless targeting of citizens with disinformation and personalised 'dark adverts' from unidentifiable sources, delivered through the major social media platforms we use every day," Damian Collins, DCMS Committee Chair[390]
In February 2019,Glenn Greenwaldwrote that a cybersecurity company New Knowledge, which is behind one of theSenate reportson Russian social media election interference, "was caught just six weeks ago engaging in a massive scam to create fictitious Russian troll accounts on Facebook and Twitter in order to claim that the Kremlin was working to defeat Democratic Senate nomineeDoug Jonesin Alabama.The New York Times, when exposing the scam, quoted a New Knowledge report that boasted of its fabrications..."[391][392]
In 2018, Facebook took down 536 Facebook pages, 17 Facebook groups, 175 Facebook accounts, and 16 Instagram accounts linked to theMyanmarmilitary. Collectively these were followed by over 10 million people.[393]The New York Timesreported that:[394]
after months of reports about anti-Rohingya propaganda on Facebook, the company acknowledged that it had been too slow to act in Myanmar. By then, more than 700,000 Rohingya had fled the country in a year, in what United Nations officials called "a textbook example of ethnic cleansing".
A 2019 book titledThe Real Face of Facebook in India, co-authored by the journalistsParanjoy Guha Thakurtaand Cyril Sam, alleged that Facebook helped enable and benefited from the rise ofNarendra Modi'sHindu nationalistBharatiya Janata Party(BJP) inIndia.[395]Ankhi Das, Facebook's policy director for India and South and Central Asia, apologized publicly in August 2020 for sharing a Facebook post which called Muslims in India a "degenerate community". She said she shared the post "to reflect my deep belief in celebrating feminism and civic participation".[396]She is reported to have prevented action by Facebook against anti-Muslim content[397][398]and supported the BJP in internal Facebook messages.[399][400]
In 2020, Facebook executives overrode their employees' recommendations that the BJP politicianT. Raja Singhshould be banned from the site forhate speechand rhetoric that could lead to violence. Singh had said on Facebook thatRohingya Muslim immigrantsshould be shot and had threatened to destroymosques. Current and former Facebook employees toldThe Wall Street Journalthat the decision was part of a pattern of favoritism by Facebook toward the BJP as it seeks more business in India.[398]Facebook also took no action after BJP politicians made posts accusing Muslims of intentionally spreadingCOVID-19, an employee said.[401]
In 2020, theDelhi Assemblybegan investigating whether Facebook bore blame for the2020 religious riotsin the city, claiming it had found Facebook "prima facie guilty of a role in the violence".[402][403]Following a summons by a Delhi Assembly Committee, Facebook India vice-president and managing directorAjit Mohanmoved the Supreme Court,[404]which granted him relief and ordered a stay to the summons.[405][406][407]The Central government later backed the decision, and submitted in the court that Facebook could not be made accountable before any state assembly and the committee formed was unconstitutional.[408][409]Following a fresh notice by the Delhi Assembly panel in 2021 for failing to appear before it as a witness, Mohan challenged it saying that the 'right to silence' is a virtue in present 'noisy times' and the legislature had no authority to examine him in a law and order case.[410]In July 2021, the Supreme Court refused to quash the summons and asked Facebook to appear before the Delhi assembly panel.[411]
On September 23, 2023, it was reported that Facebook had delayed for about a year when in 2021, it removed a network of accounts ran by India'sChinar Corpswhich spread disinformation that would put Kashmiri journalists in danger. The delay and the previously not publicized takedown action were due a fear that its local employees would be targeted by authorities, and that it would hurt business prospects in the country.[412]
Early Facebook investor and former Zuckerberg mentorRoger McNameedescribed Facebook as having "the most centralized decision-making structure I have ever encountered in a large company."[413]Nathan Schneider, a professor of media studies at theUniversity of Colorado Boulderargued in 2018 for transforming Facebook into aplatform cooperativeowned and governed by the users.[414]
Facebook co-founder Chris Hughes stated in 2019 that CEO Mark Zuckerberg has too much power, that the company is now amonopoly, and that, as a result, it should be split into multiple smaller companies. He called for the breakup of Facebook in anop-edinThe New York Times. Hughes says he is concerned that Zuckerberg has surrounded himself with a team that does not challenge him and that as a result, it is the U.S. government's job to hold him accountable and curb his "unchecked power".[415]Hughes also said that "Mark's power is unprecedented and un-American."[416]Several U.S. politicians agree with Hughes.[417]EU Commissioner for Competition Margrethe Vestager has stated that splitting Facebook should only be done as "a remedy of the very last resort", and that splitting Facebook would not solve Facebook's underlying problems.[418]
Facebook has been criticized for its lack of humancustomer support.[419]When users personal and business accounts are breached, many are forced to go throughsmall claims courtto regain access andrestitution.[420]
The company has been subject to repeated litigation.[421][422][423][424]Its most prominent case addressed allegations that Zuckerberg broke anoral contractwithCameron Winklevoss,Tyler Winklevoss, andDivya Narendrato build thethen-named "HarvardConnection"social network in 2004.[425][426][427]
On March 6, 2018,BlackBerrysued Facebook and its Instagram and WhatsApp subdivision for ripping off key features of its messaging app.[428]In October 2018, a Texan woman sued Facebook, claiming she had been recruited into the sex trade at the age of 15 by a man who "friended" her on the social media network. Facebook responded that it works both internally and externally to ban sex traffickers.[429][430]
In 2019, British solicitors representing abullied Syrian schoolboy, sued Facebook overfalse claims. They claimed that Facebook protected prominent figures from scrutiny instead of removing content that violates its rules and that the special treatment was financially driven.[431][432]The Federal Trade Commission and a coalition of New York state and 47 other state and regional governments filed separate suits against Facebook on December 9, 2020, seeking antitrust action based on its acquisitions of Instagram and WhatsUp among other companies, calling these practices as anticompetitive. The suits also assert that in acquiring these products, they weakened their privacy measures for their users. The suits, besides other fines, seek to unwind the acquisitions from Facebook.[433][434]
On January 6, 2022, France's data privacy regulatory bodyCNILfined Facebook a 60 million euros for not allowing its internet users an easy refusal ofcookiesalong withGoogle.[435]On December 22, 2022, the Quebec Court of Appeal approved a class-action lawsuit on behalf of Facebook users who claim they were discriminated against because the platform allows advertisers to target both job and housing advertisements based on various factors, including age, gender, and even race.[436]The lawsuit centers on the platform's practice of "micro targeting ads", claiming ads are ensured to appear only in the feeds of people who belong to certain targeted groups. Women, for example, would not see ads targeting men, while older generation men would not see an ad aimed at people between 18 and 45.[436]
The class action could include thousands of Quebec residents who have been using the platform as early as April 2016, who were seeking jobs or housing during that period.[436]Facebook has 60 days after the court's December 22 ruling to decide to appeal the case to the Supreme Court of Canada. If it does not appeal, the case returns to the Quebec Superior Court.[436]On September 21, 2023, theCalifornia Courts of Appealruled that Facebook could be sued for discriminatory advertising under theUnruh Civil Rights Act.[437]
A commentator inThe Washington Postnoted that Facebook constitutes a "massive depository of information that documents both our reactions to events and our evolving customs with a scope and immediacy of which earlier historians could only dream".[438]Especially for anthropologists, social researchers, and social historians—and subject to proper preservation and curation—the website "will preserve images of our lives that are vastly crisper and more nuanced than any ancestry record in existence".[438]
Economists have noted that Facebook offers many non-rivalrous services that benefit as many users as are interested without forcing users to compete with each other. By contrast, most goods are available to a limited number of users. E.g., if one user buys a phone, no other user can buy that phone. Three areas add the most economic impact: platform competition, the market place and user behavior data.[439]Facebook began to reduce its carbon impact after Greenpeace attacked it for its long-term reliance on coal and resulting carbon footprint.[440]In 2021 Facebook announced that their global operations are supported by 100 percent renewable energy and they have reached net zero emissions, a goal set in 2018.[441][442]
Facebook provides a development platform for manysocial gaming, communication, feedback, review, and other applications related to online activities. This platform spawned many businesses and added thousands of jobs to the global economy.Zynga Inc., a leader in social gaming, is an example of such a business. Aneconometricanalysis found that Facebook's app development platform added more than 182,000 jobs in the U.S. economy in 2011. The total economic value of the added employment was about $12 billion ($16.8 billion in 2024 dollars[32]).[443]
Facebook was one of the first large-scalesocial networks. InThe Facebook Effect,David Kirkpatricksaid that Facebook's structure makes it difficult to replace, because of its "network effects". As of 2016[update], it was estimated 44% of Americans get news through Facebook.[444]A study published atFrontiers Mediain 2023 found that there was more polarization of the user-base on Facebook than even far-right social networks like Gab.[445]
Studies have associated social networks with positive[446]and negative impacts[447][448][449][450][451]on emotional health.
Studies have associated Facebook with feelings ofenvy, often triggered by vacation and holiday photos. Other triggers include posts by friends about family happiness and images of physical beauty—such feelings leave people dissatisfied with their own lives. A joint study by two German universities discovered that one out of three people were more dissatisfied with their lives after visiting Facebook,[452][453]and another study byUtah Valley Universityfound that college students felt worse about themselves following an increase in time on Facebook.[453][454][455]
Positive effects include signs of "virtual empathy" with online friends and helping introverted persons learn social skills.[456]A 2020 experimental study in theAmerican Economic Reviewfound that deactivating Facebook led to increased subjective well-being.[457]In a blog post in December 2017, the company highlighted research that has shown "passively consuming" theNews Feed, as in reading but not interacting, left users with negative feelings, whereas interacting with messages pointed to improvements in well-being.[458]
In February 2008, a Facebook group called "One Million Voices Against FARC" organized an event in which hundreds of thousands ofColombiansmarched in protest against theRevolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia(FARC).[459]In August 2010, one ofNorth Korea's official government websites and the country's official news agency,Uriminzokkiri, joined Facebook.[460]
During theArab Springmany journalists claimed Facebook played a major role in the2011 Egyptian revolution.[461][462]On January 14, the Facebook page of "We are all Khaled Said" was started by Wael Ghoniem to invite the Egyptian people to "peaceful demonstrations" on January 25. In Tunisia and Egypt, Facebook became the primary tool for connecting protesters and led the Egyptian government to ban it, Twitter and other sites.[463]After 18 days, the uprising forced PresidentHosni Mubarakto resign.
Ina Bahraini uprisingthat started on February 14, 2011, Facebook was utilized by the Bahraini regime and regime loyalists to identify, capture and prosecute citizens involved in the protests. A 20-year-old woman namedAyat Al Qurmeziwas identified as a protester using Facebook and imprisoned.[464]In 2011, Facebook filed paperwork with theFederal Election Commissionto form apolitical action committeeunder the nameFB PAC.[465]In an email toThe Hill, a spokesman for Facebook said "FacebookPolitical Action Committeewill give our employees a way to make their voice heard in the political process by supporting candidates who share our goals of promoting the value of innovation to our economy while giving people the power to share and make the world more open and connected."[466]
During the Syrian civil war, theYPG, a libertarian army forRojavarecruited westerners through Facebook in its fight againstISIL.[467]Dozens joined its ranks. The Facebook page's name "The Lions of Rojava" comes from a Kurdish saying which translates as "A lion is a lion, whether it's a female or a male", reflecting the organization's feminist ideology.[468]
In recent years, Facebook'sNews Feedalgorithms have been identified as a cause of political polarization, for which it has been criticized.[469][470]It has likewise been accused of amplifying the reach of 'fake news' and extreme viewpoints, as when it may have enabled conditions which led to the2015 Rohingya refugee crisis.[471][472]Facebook first played a role in the American political process in January 2008, shortly before theNew Hampshire primary. Facebook teamed up withABCandSaint Anselm Collegeto allow users to give live feedback about the "back to back" January 5 Republican and Democratic debates.[473][474][475]Facebook users took part in debate groups on specific topics, voter registration and message questions.[476]
Over a million people installed the Facebook application "US Politics on Facebook" in order to take part which measured responses to specific comments made by the debating candidates.[477]A poll byCBS News,UWIREandThe Chronicle of Higher Educationclaimed to illustrate how the "Facebook effect" had affected youthful voters, increasing voting rates, support of political candidates, and general involvement.[478]The new social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, connected hundreds of millions of people. By 2008, politicians and interest groups were experimenting with systematic use of social media to spread their message.[479][480]By the 2016 election, political advertising to specific groups had become normalized. Facebook offered the most sophisticated targeting and analytics platform.[481]ProPublicanoted that their system enabled advertisers to direct their pitches to almost 2,300 people who expressed interest in the topics of "Jew hater", "How to burn Jews", or, "History of 'why Jews ruin the world".[482]
Facebook has used several initiatives to encourage its users to register to vote and vote. An experiment in 2012 involved showing Facebook users pictures of their friends who reported that they had voted; users who were shown the pictures were about 2% more likely to report that they had also voted compared to thecontrol group, which was not encouraged to vote.[483]In 2020, Facebook announced the goal of helping four million voters register in the US, saying that it had registered 2.5 million by September.[484]
TheCambridge Analytica data scandaloffered another example of the perceived attempt to influence elections.[229][485]The Guardianclaimed that Facebook knew about the security breach for two years, but did nothing to stop it until it became public.[486]Facebook banned political ads to prevent the manipulation of voters in the US's November's election. Propaganda experts said there are other ways for misinformation to reach voters on social media platforms and blocking political ads will not serve as a proven solution.[487]
In March 2024, former US PresidentDonald Trumpsaid that getting rid of TikTok would allow Facebook, which he called the "enemy of the people", to double its business. He spoke afterPresident Bidensaid he was ready to sign legislation that would requireTikTokownerByteDanceto sell the video platform or face a ban in the US.[488]
Ahead of the 2019 general elections in India, Facebook has removed 103 pages, groups and accounts on Facebook and Instagram platforms originating from Pakistan. Facebook said its investigation found a Pakistani military link, along with a mix of real accounts of ISPR employees, and a network of fake accounts created by them that have been operating military fan pages, general interest pages but were posting content about Indian politics while trying to conceal their identity.[489]Owing to the same reasons, Facebook also removed 687 pages and accounts of Congress because of coordinated inauthentic behavior on the platform.[490]
Facebook and Zuckerberg have been the subject of music, books, film and television. The 2010 filmThe Social Network, directed byDavid Fincherand written byAaron Sorkin, starsJesse Eisenbergas Zuckerberg and went on to win threeAcademy Awardsand fourGolden Globes.
In 2008,Collins English Dictionarydeclared "Facebook" as its new Word of the Year.[491]In December 2009, theNew Oxford American Dictionarydeclared its word of the year to be the verb "unfriend", defined as "To remove someone as a 'friend' on asocial networkingsite such as Facebook".[492]
In August 2013, Facebook foundedInternet.orgin collaboration with six other technology companies to plan and help build affordable Internet access for underdeveloped and developing countries.[493]The service, called Free Basics, includes various low-bandwidth applications such asAccuWeather,BabyCenter,BBC News,ESPN, andBing.[494][495]There was severe opposition to Internet.org in India, where the service started in partnership withReliance Communicationsin 2015 was banned a year later by theTelecom Regulatory Authority of India(TRAI). In 2018, Zuckerberg claimed that "Internet.org efforts have helped almost 100 million people get access to the internet who may not have had it otherwise."[494]
Facebook announced in 2021 that it will make an effort to stop disinformation about climate change. The company will useGeorge Mason University,Yale Program on Climate Change Communicationandthe University of Cambridgeas sources of information. The company will expand its information hub on climate to 16 countries. Users in other countries will be directed to the site of theUnited Nations Environment Programmefor information.[496]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook
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Facebook(and parent companyMeta Platforms) has been the subject of criticism and legal action since it was founded in 2004.[1]Criticisms include the outsize influence Facebook has on the lives and health of its users and employees, as well as Facebook's influence on the way media, specifically news, is reported and distributed. Notable issues includeInternet privacy, such as use of a widespread"like" button on third-party websites tracking users,[2][3]possible indefinite records of user information,[4]automaticfacial recognitionsoftware,[5][6]and its role in the workplace, including employer-employee account disclosure.[7]The use of Facebook can have negative psychological and physiological effects[8]that include feelings ofsexual jealousy,[9][10]stress,[11][12]lack ofattention,[13]and social media addiction that in some cases is comparable todrug addiction.[14][15]
Facebook's operations have also received coverage. The company's electricity usage,[16]tax avoidance,[17]real-name user requirement policies,[18]censorship policies,[19][20]handling of user data,[21]and its involvement in the United StatesPRISM surveillance programandFacebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandalhave been highlighted by the media and by critics.[22][23]Facebook has come under scrutiny for 'ignoring' or shirking its responsibility for the content posted on its platform, includingcopyrightand intellectual property infringement,[24]hate speech,[25][26]incitement of rape,[27]violence against minorities,[28][29][30]terrorism,[31][32]fake news,[33][34][35]Facebook murder, crimes, and violent incidentslive-streamedthrough itsFacebook Livefunctionality.[36][37][38]
The company and its employees have also been subject to litigation cases over the years,[39][40][41][42]with its most prominent case concerning allegations that CEO Mark Zuckerberg broke anoral contractwithCameron Winklevoss,Tyler Winklevoss, andDivya Narendrato build thethen-named "HarvardConnection"social network in 2004, instead allegedly opting tosteal the ideaand code to launch Facebook months before HarvardConnection began.[43][44][45]The original lawsuit was eventually settled in 2009, with Facebook paying approximately $20 million in cash and 1.25 million shares.[46][47]A new lawsuit in 2011 was dismissed.[48]This, alongside another controversy involving Zuckerberg and fellow co-founder and former CFOEduardo Saverin,
was further explored in the 2010 American biographical drama filmThe Social Network. Some critics point to problems which they say will result in the demise of Facebook. Facebook has been banned by several governments for various reasons, includingSyria,[49]China,[50]Iran[51]andRussia.
While Facebook operates transparent policies around certain types of content moderation—such as the removing of hateful speech and images which contain sex or violence—the company has been criticized for selectively censoring information in nontransparent ways. Some examples of this include:
Newspapers regularly report stories of users who claim they've been censored on Facebook for being critical of Facebook itself, with their posts removed or made less visible. Examples includeElizabeth Warrenin 2019[52]and Rotem Shtarkman in 2016.[53]
In the context of media reports[54]and lawsuits[55]from people formerly working on Facebookcontent moderation, a former Facebook moderator (Chris Gray) has claimed that specific rules existed to monitor and sometimes target posts about Facebook which are anti-Facebook or criticize Facebook for some action, for instance by matching the keywords "Facebook" or "DeleteFacebook".[56]
Facebook's search function has been accused of preventing users from searching for certain terms.Michael Arringtonof TechCrunch has written about Facebook's possible censorship of "Ron Paul" as a search term.MoveOn.org's Facebook group for organizing protests against privacy violations could for a time not be found by searching. The very wordprivacywas also restricted.[57]
In 2015, it was reported that Facebook has a policy to censor anything related to Kurdish opposition against Turkey, such as maps ofKurdistan, flags of Kurdish armed terrorist groups (such asPKKandYPG), and criticism ofMustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of Turkey.[58][59]
In 2016, Facebook banned and also removed content regarding theKashmir dispute.[60]
During a podcast,Mark Zuckerbergadmitted that Facebook suppressed all the coverage ofJoe Biden's son'semail leaksduring the2020 United States electionsdue to a general request from the FBI.[61]The censored news claimed that the son of Joe Biden, who was vice-president in Obama's administration, used his father's influence to fix a deal with a Ukrainian businessman.
In 2021, Facebook was accused of censoring messages critical of Israel and supportive of Palestine.[62]During conflict over theSheikh Jarrah property disputein 2021, Facebook was accused of deleting hundreds of posts critical of Israel. Senior Facebook officials apologized to thePalestinian Prime Ministerfor censoring pro-Palestinian voices.[63]
In October 2021, a secret blacklist of "dangerous individuals and organizations" maintained by Facebook was discovered byThe Intercept, which revealed censorship in theMENAregion was stricter than in USA. Critics and scholars have argued the blacklist and the guideline stifles free discussion, as well as enforcing an uneven enforcement of the rules.[64][65]
Facebook has faced a number of privacy concerns; for instance, in August 2019, it was revealed that the company had enlisted contractors to generate transcripts of users' audio chats. The contractors were tasked with re-transcribing the conversations in order to gauge the accuracy of the automatic transcription tool.[66][67][68]In part these concerns stem from the company's revenue model that involves selling information about its users, and the loss of privacy this could entail. In addition, employers and other organizations and individuals have been known to use Facebook data for their own purposes. As a result peoples' identities have sometimes been revealed without their permission. In response, pressure groups and governments have increasingly asserted the users' right to privacy and to control their personal data.
In addition to noting with evolutionary biologistGeorge C. Williamsin the development ofevolutionary medicinethat mostchronic medical conditionsare the consequence ofevolutionary mismatchesbetween astatelessenvironmentofnomadichunter-gathererlife inbandsand contemporary human life insedentarytechnologically modernstate societies(e.g.WEIRD societies),[69]psychiatristRandolph M. Nessehas argued that evolutionary mismatch is an important factor in the development of certain mental disorders.[70][71][72]In 1948, 50 percent of U.S. households owned at least oneautomobile.[73]In 2000, a majority of U.S. households had at least one personal computer andinternet accessthe following year.[74]In 2002, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having a mobile phone.[75]In September 2007, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported havingbroadband internetat home.[76]In January 2013, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported owning asmartphone.[77]
The "World Unplugged" study, which was conducted in 2011, claims that for some users quitting social networking sites is comparable to quitting smoking or giving up alcohol.[78]Another study conducted in 2012 by researchers from theUniversity of Chicago Booth School of Businessin the United States found that drugs like alcohol and tobacco could not keep up with social networking sites regarding their level of addictiveness.[79]A 2013 study in the journalCyberPsychology, Behavior, and Social Networkingfound that some users decided to quit social networking sites because they felt they were addicted. In 2014, the site went down for about 30 minutes, prompting several users to call emergency services.[80]
In April 2015, thePew Research Centerpublished a survey of 1,060 U.S. teenagers ages 13 to 17 who reported that nearly three-quarters of them either owned or had access to asmartphone, 92 percent went online daily with 24 percent saying they went online "almost constantly".[81]In March 2016,Frontiers in Psychologypublished a survey of 457post-secondary studentFacebook users (following aface validitypilot of another 47 post-secondary student Facebook users) at a large university in North America showing that the severity of ADHD symptoms had astatistically significantpositive correlation withFacebook usage while driving a motor vehicleand that impulses to use Facebook while driving were more potent among male users than female users.[82]
In June 2018,Children and Youth Services Reviewpublished aregression analysisof 283 adolescent Facebook users in thePiedmontandLombardyregionsofNorthern Italy(that replicated previous findings among adult users) showing that adolescents reporting higher ADHD symptoms positively predictedFacebook addiction, persistent negativeattitudesabout thepastand that thefutureis predetermined and not influenced by presentactions, and orientation againstachieving future goals, with ADHD symptoms additionally increasing the manifestation of the proposed category of psychological dependence known as "problematic social media use".[83]
In October 2023, court documents in the US alleged Meta of designing its platforms deliberately to develop addiction in children using them. The company knowingly allowed underage users to hold accounts, violating theChildren's Online Privacy Protection Act. According to whistleblowerFrances Haugen, the company intentionally targets children below the age of 18.[84][85]
Research shows that people who are feeling suicidal use the internet to search for suicide methods. Websites provide graphic details and information on how to take your own life. This cannot be right. Where this content breaches the policies of internet and social media providers it must be removed.
I do not think it is going too far to question whether even you, the owners, any longer have any control over [the sites'] content. If that is the case, then children should not be accessing your services at all, and parents should be aware that the idea of any authority overseeing algorithms and content is a mirage.
In January 2019, both the Health Secretary of the United Kingdom, and the Children's Commissioner for England, urged Facebook and other social media companies to take responsibility for the risk to children posed by content on their platforms related to self-harm and suicide.[87]
Facebook has been criticized for making peopleenviousand unhappy due to the constant exposure to positive yet unrepresentative highlights of their peers. Such highlights include, but are not limited to, journal posts, videos, and photos that depict or reference such positive or otherwise outstanding activities, experiences, and facts. This effect is caused mainly by the fact that most users of Facebook usually only display the positive aspects of their lives while excluding the negative, though it is also strongly connected toinequalityand the disparities between social groups as Facebook is open to users from all classes of society. Sites such as AddictionInfo.org[88]state that this kind of envy has profound effects on other aspects of life and can lead to severe depression,self-loathing,rageand hatred,resentment, feelings of inferiority and insecurity,pessimism, suicidal tendencies and desires,social isolation, and other issues that can prove very serious. This condition has often been called "Facebook Envy" or "Facebook Depression" by the media.[89][90][91][92][93][94]
In 2010,Social Science Computer Reviewpublished research by economists Ralf Caers and Vanessa Castelyns who sent an online questionnaire to 398 and 353 LinkedIn and Facebook users respectively inBelgiumand found that both sites had become tools forrecruitingjob applicants for professional occupations as well as additional information about applicants, and that it was being used by recruiters to decide which applicants would receive interviews.[95]In 2017, sociologist Ofer Sharone conducted interviews with unemployed workers to research the effects of LinkedIn and Facebook as labor market intermediaries and found thatsocial networking services(SNS) have had a filtration effect that has little to do with evaluations of merit, and that the SNS filtration effect has exerted new pressures on workers to manage their careers to conform to the logic of the SNS filtration effect.[96]
A joint study conducted by two German universities demonstrated Facebook envy and found that as many as one out of three people actually feel worse and less satisfied with their lives after visiting the site. Vacation photos were found to be the most common source of feelings of resentment and jealousy. After that, social interaction was the second biggest cause of envy, as Facebook users compare the number of birthday greetings, likes, and comments to those of their friends. Visitors who contributed the least tended to feel the worst. "According to our findings, passive following triggers invidious emotions, with users mainly envying happiness of others, the way others spend their vacations; and socialize", the study states.[97]
A 2013 study by researchers at theUniversity of Michiganfound that the more people used Facebook, the worse they felt afterwards.[98][93][94]
Narcissistic users who show excessive grandiosity givenegative emotionto viewers and cause envy, but as a result, that may cause viewers' loneliness. Viewers sometimes need to terminate relationships with them to avoid this negative emotion. However, this "avoidance" such as "terminate relationships" would be reinforcement and it may lead to loneliness. The cyclical pattern is a vicious circle of loneliness and avoidance coping, the study states.[99]
Social networks, like Facebook, can have a detrimental effect on marriages, with users becoming worried about their spouse's contacts and relations with other people online, leading to marital breakdown and divorce.[100]According to a 2009 survey in the UK, around 20 percent of divorce petitions included references to Facebook.[101][102][103][104]Facebook has given us a new platform for interpersonal communication. Researchers proposed that high levels of Facebook use could result in Facebook-related conflict and breakup/divorce.[105]Previous studies have shown that romantic relationships can be damaged by excessive Internet use, Facebook jealousy, partner surveillance, ambiguous information, and online portrayal of intimate relationships.[106][107][108][109][110]Excessive Internet users reported having greater conflict in their relationships. Their partners feel neglected and there's lower commitment and lower feelings of passion and intimacy in the relationship. According to the article, researchers suspect that Facebook may contribute to an increase in divorce and infidelity rates in the near future due to the amount and ease of accessibility to connect with past partners.[105]The use ofFacebookcan cause feelings ofsexual jealousy.[9][10]
Research performed by psychologists fromEdinburgh Napier Universityindicated that Facebook addsstressto users' lives. Causes of stress included fear of missing important social information, fear of offending contacts, discomfort or guilt from rejecting user requests or deleting unwanted contacts or being unfriended or blocked by Facebook friends or other users, the displeasure of having friend requests rejected or ignored, the pressure to be entertaining, criticism orintimidationfrom other Facebook users, and having to use appropriate etiquette for different types of friends.[111]Many people who started using Facebook for positive purposes or with positive expectations have found that the website has negatively impacted their lives.[112]
Next to that, the increasing number of messages and social relationships embedded in SNS also increases the amount of social information demanding a reaction from SNS users. Consequently SNS users perceive they are giving too much social support to other SNS friends. This dark side of SNS usage is called 'social overload'. It is caused by the extent of usage, number of friends, subjective social support norms, and type of relationship (online-only vs offline friends) while age has only an indirect effect. The psychological and behavioral consequences of social overload include perceptions of SNS exhaustion, low user satisfaction, and high intentions to reduce or stop using SNS.[113]
In July 2018, ameta-analysispublished inPsychology of Popular Mediafound thatgrandiose narcissismpositively correlated with time spent on social media, frequency ofstatus updates, number of friends or followers, and frequency of postingself-portrait digital photographs,[114]while a meta-analysis published in theJournal of Personalityin April 2018 found that the positive correlation between grandiose narcissism andsocial networking serviceusage was replicated across platforms (including Facebook).[115]In March 2020, theJournal of Adult Developmentpublished aregression discontinuity analysisof 254MillennialFacebook users investigating differences in narcissism and Facebook usage between the agecohortsborn from 1977 to 1990 and from 1991 to 2000 and found that the later born Millennials scoredsignificantlyhigher on both.[116]In June 2020,Addictive Behaviorspublished asystematic reviewfinding a consistent, positive, and significant correlation between grandiose narcissism and the proposed category ofpsychological dependencecalled "problematic social media use".[117]Also in 2018, social psychologistJonathan HaidtandFIREPresidentGreg Lukianoffnoted inThe Coddling of the American Mindthat former Facebook presidentSean Parkerstated in a 2017 interview that theLike buttonwas consciously designed toprimeusers receiving likes to feel adopaminerushas part of a "social-validationfeedbackloop".[118]
"Conspicuous compassion" is the practice of publicly donating large sums of money tocharityto enhance thesocial prestigeof the donor, and is sometimes described as a type of conspicuous consumption.[119][120]Jonathan Haidt and Greg Lukianoff argued thatmicroaggressiontraining oncollege campuses in the United Stateshas led to acall-out cultureand a climate ofself-censorshipdue to fear ofshamingbyvirtue signallingsocial mediamobswith users who are often anonymous and tend todeindividuateas a consequence.[121]Citing February 2017Pew Research Centersurvey data showing that critical Facebook postings expressing "indignant disagreement" were twice as likely to receive likes, comments, or shares (along with a similar finding forTwitterposts published inPNAS USAin July 2017),[122][123]Haidt and Tobias Rose-Stockwell cite the phrase "moral grandstanding" to describe how having an audience on social media forums converts much of its interpersonal communication into a public performance.[124]
Following themurder of George Floydin May 2020 and thesubsequent protests in his name,CiviqsandYouGov/Economistpolls showed that while net support forBlack Lives MatteramongWhite Americansincreased from –4 points to +10 points in early June 2020 (with 43 percent in support), falling to –6 points by early August 2020,[125]and by April 2021, further Civiqs polls showed that support for Black Lives Matter among White Americans had reverted to roughly its level of support prior to George Floyd's murder (37 percent in favor and 49 percent opposed).[126]In a February 2021 interview onFiring Line, journalistCharles M. Blowcriticized a minority of young white protestors in the George Floyd protests in the United States whom he argued were using the protests for their ownpersonal growthto substitute for socialrites of passage(e.g.prom) and summertime social gatherings (e.g. attendingmovie theatersorconcerts) that were precluded byCOVID-19 lockdownsandsocial distancingmeasures, noting that as lockdowns began to be relaxed and removed, support for Black Lives Matter among whites began to decline.[127]
In February 2021,Psychological Medicinepublished a survey reviewing 14,785 publicly reported murders in English language news worldwide between 1900 and 2019 compiled in a database by psychiatrists at theNew York State Psychiatric Instituteand theColumbia University Irving Medical Centerthat found that of the 1,315 personal-causemass murders(i.e. driven by personal motivations and not occurring within the context of war,state-sponsoredorgroup-sponsored terrorism,gangactivity, ororganized crime) only 11 percent of mass murderers and only 8 percent of mass shooters had a "serious mental illness" (e.g.schizophrenia,bipolar disorder,major depressive disorder), that mass shootings have become more common than other forms of mass murder since 1970 (with 73 percent occurring in the United States alone), and that mass shooters in the United States were more likely to havelegal histories, to engage inrecreational drug useoralcohol abuse, and to display non-psychoticpsychiatric orneurologicsymptoms.[128][129][130]
Survey coauthor psychiatristPaul S. Appelbaumargued that the data from the survey indicated that "difficulty coping with life events seem more useful foci for prevention [of mass shootings] and policy than an emphasis on serious mental illness",[131]while psychiatrist Ronald W. Pies has suggested thatpsychopathologyshould be understood as a three-gradationcontinuumofmental, behavioral and emotional disturbancewith most mass shooters falling into a middle category of "persistent emotional disturbance".[132]In 2015, psychiatrists James L. Knoll and George D. Annas noted that the tendency of most media attention following mass shootings on mental health leads tosociocultural factorsbeing comparatively overlooked.[133]Instead, Knoll and Annas cite research by social psychologistsJean TwengeandW. Keith Campbellonnarcissismandsocial rejectionin the personal histories of mass shooters, as well as cognitive scientistSteven Pinker's suggestion inThe Better Angels of Our Nature(2011) that further reductions in human violence may be dependent upon reducing human narcissism.[134][135]
Facebook is a Big Tech company with over 2.7 billion monthly active users as of the second quarter of 2020 and therefore has a meaningful impact on the masses that use it.[136]Big dataalgorithms are used in personalized content creation and automatization; however, this method can be used to manipulate users in various ways.[137]The problem of misinformation is exacerbated by the educational bubble, users' critical thinking ability and news culture.[138]Based on a 2015 study, 62.5% of the Facebook users are oblivious to any curation of theirNews Feed. Furthermore, scientists have started to investigate algorithms with unexpected outcomes that may lead to antisocial political, economic, geographic, racial, or other discrimination. Facebook has remained scarce in transparency of the inner workings of the algorithms used for News Feed correlation.[139]Algorithms use the past activities as a reference point for predicting users' taste to keep them engaged. However, this leads to the formation of afilter bubblethat starts to refrain users from diverse information. Users are left with a skewed worldview derived from their own preferences and biases.[140]
In 2015, researchers from Facebook published a study indicating that the Facebook algorithm perpetuates an echo chamber amongst users by occasionally hiding content from individual feeds that users potentially would disagree with: for example the algorithm removed one in every 13 diverse content from news sources for self-identified liberals. In general, the results from the study indicated that the Facebook algorithm ranking system caused approximately 15% less diverse material in users' content feeds, and a 70% reduction in the click-through-rate of the diverse material.[141][142]In 2018, social psychologistJonathan HaidtandFIREPresidentGreg Lukianoffargued inThe Coddling of the American Mindthat the filter bubbles created by theNews Feedalgorithm of Facebook and other platforms are one of the principal factors amplifyingpolitical polarization in the United Statessince 2000 (when a majority of U.S. households first had at least one personal computer and then internet access the following year).[143][74]
In hisReflections on the Revolution in France(1790), philosopherEdmund Burkeobserved "We are afraid to put men to live and trade each on his own private stock of reason; because we suspect that this stock in each man is small, and that the individuals would do better to avail themselves of the general bank and capital of nations and of ages."[144]InThe Signal and the Noise(2012), statisticianNate Silvernoted thatIBMhad estimated that the world was generating 2.5quintillionbytesof data each day (more than 90 percent of which was created in the previous two years), and that the increase in data was analogous to increases inbook productionas a consequence of the invention of theprinting pressin 1440 byJohannes Gutenbergas well as the effect of the increase in book production in causing theReformation, theCounter-Reformation, and theEuropean wars of religion.[145]
Citing Burke, Jonathan Haidt and Tobias Rose-Stockwell suggested inThe Atlanticin December 2019 that because the proportion of most of the information thatGeneration Zreceives due to regular social media usage is information created primarily within the past month (e.g.cat videos,tabloidgossip aboutcelebrities,sensationalistichot takeson news items) rather than information created in decades or centuries past, members of Generation Z are less familiar with theaccumulated knowledgeandwisdomof humanity (e.g.great ideas,great books, history) than generations past, and as a consequence, are more prone to embrace misguided ideas that bring them greateresteemandprestigewithin their immediatesocial network(noting the declining faith among Generation Z in democracy across theideological spectrumin polling data alongside renewed interest insocialism,communism, andNazismthat is reflective of ignorance of the history of the 20th century).[124][146][147]
Facebook has, at least in the political field, a counter-effect on being informed: in two studies from the US with a total of more than 2,000 participants, the influence of social media on the general knowledge on political issues was examined in the context of two US presidential elections. The results showed that the frequency of Facebook use was moderately negatively related to general political knowledge. This was also the case when considering demographic, political-ideological variables and previous political knowledge. According to the latter, a causal relationship is indicated: the higher the Facebook use, the more the general political knowledge declines.[148]In 2019, Jonathan Haidt argued that there is a "very good chance American democracy will fail, that in the next 30 years we will have a catastrophic failure of our democracy."[149]Following the2021 United States Capitol attack, in February 2021, Facebook announced that it would reduce the amount of political content in users News Feeds.[150]
It has been admitted by many students that they have experiencedbullyingon the site, which leads to psychological harm. High school students face a possibility of bullying and other adverse behaviors over Facebook every day. Many studies have attempted to discover whether Facebook has a positive or negative effect on children's and teenagers' social lives, and many of them have come to the conclusion that there are distinct social problems that arise with Facebook usage. British neuroscientistSusan Greenfieldstuck up for the issues that children encounter on social media sites, stating that these sites can rewire the brain, which caused some hysteria regarding the safety of social media usage. She did not back up her claims with research, but did cause quite a few studies to be done on the subject. When an individual's self-image is broken down by others as a result of badmouthing, criticism, harassment, criminalization or vilification, intimidation, demonization, demoralization, belittlement, or attacking someone over the site, it can cause much of the envy, anger, or depression users report feeling after prolonged Facebook usage.[151][152][153]
Sherry Turkle, in her bookAlone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other, argues that social media brings people closer and further apart at the same time. One of the main points she makes is that there is a high risk in treating persons online with dispatch like objects. Although people are networked on Facebook, their expectations of each other tend to be lessened. According to Turkle, this could cause a feeling of loneliness in spite of being together.[154]
Between 2016 and 2018, the number of 12- to 15-year-olds who reported being bullied over social media rose from 6% to 11%, in the region covered byOfcom.[87][better source needed]
Academic and Facebook researchers have collaborated to test if the messages people see on Facebook can influence their behavior. For instance, in "A 61-Million-Person Experiment in Social Influence And Political Mobilization", during the 2010 elections, Facebook users were given the opportunity to "tell your friends you voted" by clicking on an "I voted" button. Users were 2% more likely to click the button if it was associated with friends who had already voted.[155]
Much more controversially, a 2014 study of "Emotional Contagion Through Social Networks" manipulated the balance of positive and negative messages seen by 689,000 Facebook users.[156]The researchers concluded that they had found "some of the first experimental evidence to support the controversial claims that emotions can spread throughout a network, [though] the effect sizes from the manipulations are small."[157]
Unlike the "I voted" study, which had presumptively beneficial ends and raised few concerns, this study was criticized for both its ethics and methods/claims. As controversy about the study grew, Adam Kramer, a lead author of both studies and member of the Facebook data team, defended the work in a Facebook update.[158]A few days later, Sheryl Sandburg, Facebook's COO, made a statement while traveling abroad. While at an Indian Chambers of Commerce event in New Delhi she stated that "This was part of ongoing research companies do to test different products, and that was what it was. It was poorly communicated and for that communication we apologize. We never meant to upset you."[159]
Shortly thereafter, on July 3, 2014,USA Todayreported that the privacy watchdog groupElectronic Privacy Information Center(EPIC) had filed a formal complaint with theFederal Trade Commissionclaiming that Facebook had broken the law when it conducted the study on the emotions of its users without their knowledge or consent. In its complaint, EPIC alleged that Facebook had deceived users by secretly conducting a psychological experiment on their emotions: "At the time of the experiment, Facebook did not state in the Data Use Policy that user data would be used for research purposes. Facebook also failed to inform users that their personal information would be shared with researchers."[160]
Beyond the ethical concerns, other scholars criticized the methods and reporting of the study's findings. John Grohol, writing forPsych Central, argued that despite its title and claims of "emotional contagion", this study did not look at emotions at all. Instead, its authors used an application (called "Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count" or LIWC 2007) that simply counted positive and negative words to infer users' sentiments. He wrote that a shortcoming of the LIWC tool is that it does not understand negations. Hence, the tweet "I am not happy" would be scored as positive: "Since the LIWC 2007 ignores these subtle realities of informal human communication, so do the researchers." Grohol concluded that given these subtleties, theeffect sizeof the findings are little more than a "statistical blip".
Kramer et al. (2014) found a 0.07%—that's not 7 percent, that's 1/15th of one percent!!—decrease in negative words in people's status updates when the number of negative posts on their Facebook news feed decreased. Do you know how many words you'd have to read or write before you've written one less negative word due to this effect? Probably thousands.[161]
The consequences of the controversy are pending (be it FTC or court proceedings) but it did prompt an "Editorial Expression of Concern"[162]from its publisher, theProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, as well as a blog posting fromOkCupidtitled "We experiment on human beings!"[163]In September 2014, law professor James Grimmelmann argued that the actions of both companies were "illegal, immoral, and mood-altering" and filed notices with the Maryland Attorney General and Cornell Institutional Review Board.[164]
In the UK, the study was also criticized by theBritish Psychological Societywhich said, in a letter toThe Guardian, "There has undoubtedly been some degree of harm caused, with many individuals affected by increased levels ofnegative emotion, with consequent potential economic costs, increase in possible mental health problems and burden on health services. The so-called 'positive' manipulation is also potentially harmful."[165]
Facebook uses a complicated series ofshell companiesintax havensto avoid paying billions of dollars incorporate tax.[166]According toThe Express Tribune, Facebook is among the corporations that "avoided billions of dollars in tax using offshore companies."[167]For example, Facebook routes billions of dollars in profits using theDouble IrishandDutch Sandwichtax avoidance schemes to bank accounts in theCayman Islands.
The Dutch newspaperNRC Handelsbladconcluded from theParadise Paperspublished in late 2017 that Facebook pays "practically no taxes" worldwide.[168]
For example, Facebook paid:
According to economist and member of thePvdAdelegation inside theProgressive Alliance of Socialists & Democrats in the European Parliament(S&D)Paul Tang, between 2013 and 2015 the EU lost an estimated €1,453m – €2,415m to Facebook.[170]When comparing to others countries outside the EU, the EU is only taxing Facebook with a rate of 0.03% to 0.1% of its revenue (around 6% of its EBT) whereas this rate is near 28% in countries outside the EU. Even had a rate between 2% and 5% been applied during this period – as suggested by theECOFINCouncil – a fraud of this rate by Facebook would have meant a loss to the EU between €327m and €817m.[170]
On July 6, 2016, the U.S. Department of Justice filed a petition in the U.S. District Court in San Francisco, asking for a court order to enforce an administrative summons issued to Facebook, Inc., underInternal Revenue Codesection 7602,[171]in connection with anInternal Revenue Serviceexamination of Facebook's year 2010 U.S. Federal income tax return.[172][173]
In November 2017, theIrish Independentrecorded that for the 2016 financial year, Facebook had paid €30 million ofIrish corporation taxon €12.6 billion of revenues that were routed through Ireland, giving anIrish effective tax rateof under 1%.[174]The €12.6 billion of 2016 Facebook revenues routed through Ireland was almost half of Facebook's global revenues.[175]In April 2018,Reuterswrote that all of Facebook's non–U.S. accounts were legally housed in Ireland for tax purposes, but were being moved due to the May 2018 EUGDPRregulations.[176]
In November 2018, theIrish Timesreported that Facebook routed over €18.7 billion of revenues through Ireland (almost half all global revenues), on which it paid €38 million of Irish corporation tax.[177]
Facebook hires some employees through contractors, includingAccenture,Arvato,Cognizant,CPL Resources,Genpact, andTeleperformance, to serve ascontent moderators, reviewing potentially problematic content posted to both Facebook and Instagram.[182]Many of these contractors face unrealistic expectations, harsh working conditions, and constant exposure to disturbing content, includinggraphic violence,animal abuse, andchild pornography.[178][179]Contractor employment is contingent on achieving and maintaining a score of 98 on a 100-point scale on a metric known as "accuracy". Falling below a score of 98 can result indismissal. Some have reportedpost-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD) stemming from lack of access to counseling, coupled with unforgiving expectations and the violent content they are assigned to review.[178]
Content moderator Keith Utley, who was employed by Cognizant, experienced a heart attack during work in March 2018; the office lacked adefibrillator, and Utley was transported to a hospital where he died.[180][183]Selena Scola, an employee of contractor Pro Unlimited, Inc., sued her employer after she developed PTSD as a result of "constant and unmitigated exposure to highly toxic and extremely disturbing images at the workplace".[184]In December 2019, former CPL employee Chris Gray began legal action in the High Court of Ireland, claiming damages for PTSD experienced as a moderator,[185]the first of an estimated 20+ pending cases. In February 2020, employees in Tampa, Florida filed a lawsuit against Facebook and Cognizant alleging they developed PTSD and related mental health impairments as a result of constant and unmitigated exposure to disturbing content.[186]In 2025, Meta's new moderation contractors in Ghana filed legal action against the company for similar issues. Workers reported developing mental illnesses, attempted self-harm and suicides, and poor working conditions.[187]
In February 2020, the European Union Commissioners criticized the plans that Facebook has for dealing with the working conditions of those who are contracted to moderate content on the social media platform.[188]
Facebook agreed to settle aclass action lawsuitfor $52 million on May 12, 2020, which included a $1,000 payment to each of the 11,250 moderators in the class, with additional compensation available for the treatment of PTSD and other conditions resulting from the jobs.[189][190][191]
Plans for a Facebook-owned real estate development known as "Willow Village" have been criticized for resembling a "company town", which often curtails the rights of residents, and encourages or forces employees to remain within an environment created and monitored by their employer outside of work hours.[192]Critics have referred to the development as "Zucktown" and "Facebookville" and the company has faced additional criticism for the effect it will have on existing communities in California.
The operational manager at Facebook as of March 2021, along with three former candidates of the Facebook hiring process complained to the EEOC of racial bias being practiced at the company against Black people. The current employee, Oscar Veneszee Jr. accused the firm of conducting subjective evaluations and pushing the idea of racial stereotypes. The EEOC has labeled the practice as "systemic" racial bias and has initiated an investigation.[193]
In May 2011, emails were sent to journalists and bloggers making critical allegations about Google's privacy policies; however, it was later discovered that the anti-Google campaign, conducted by PR giantBurson-Marsteller, was paid for by Facebook in what CNN referred to as "a new level skullduggery" and whichDaily Beastcalled a "clumsy smear". While taking responsibility for the campaign, Burson-Marsteller said it should not have agreed to keep its client's (Facebook's) identity a secret. "Whatever the rationale, this was not at all standard operating procedure and is against our policies, and the assignment on those terms should have been declined", it said.[194]
In December 2020,Apple Inc. announced an initiative of Anti-Tracking measures (opt-in tracking policy) to be introduced to their App Store Services. Facebook quickly reacted and started to criticise the initiative, claiming Apple's anti-tracking privacy focused change would have "harmful impact on many small businesses that are struggling to stay afloat and on the free internet that we all rely on more than ever". Facebook also launched a so-called "Speak Up For Small Businesses" page. Apple in their response stated that "users should know when their data is being collected and shared across other apps and websites – and they should have the choice to allow that or not". Apple was also backed up by theElectronic Frontier Foundation(EFF) who stated that "Facebook touts itself in this case as protecting small businesses, and that couldn't be further from the truth".[195]
In March 2022,The Washington Postrevealed that Facebook had partnered with Republican consulting firm Targeted Victory to orchestrate a campaign to damage the public reputation of competitorTikTok.[196]
Beyond acquiring competitors in the social and messaging space with strong potential, Facebook often simply copies products or features to get to the market faster. Internal emails have shown that Facebook's leadership, including Mark Zuckerberg were frustrated by the time the company spends on prototyping, and suggested to explore copying entire products like Pinterest. "Copying is faster than innovating" – admitted an employee on the internal email thread, which continued: "If you gave the top-down order to go ahead, copy e.g. Pinterest or the gaming dynamics on Foursquare ... I am sure [a] very small team of engineers, a [product manager], and a designer would get it done super quickly."[197][198]
Many Facebook employees seem to be questioning Facebook's approach of cloning competitors. According to leaks, a top quoted question in Facebook's internal all-hands was: "What is our next big product, which does not imitate already existing products on the market?"[199]
In June 2014, Facebook launched Slingshot, an app for sending ephemeral photos like Snapchat does. In August 2016, the company released Facebook Stories, which is a copy of Snapchat's most popular feature.[200]
In August 2020, Facebook built Instagram Reels, a feature that functioned and looked similar to TikTok.[201]
For several months, Facebook was experimenting with an app called Hobbi, which took many cues from Pinterest.[202]
In the summer of 2021, Facebook started to roll out Live Audio Rooms, which resembles Clubhouse.[203]
Facebook or Meta Platforms has been criticized for its management of various content on posts, photos and entire groups and profiles. This includes but is not limited to allowing violent content, including content related to war crimes, and not limiting the spread of fake news and COVID-19 misinformation on their platform, as well as allowing incitement of violence against multiple groups.
Facebook heavily pushed news publishers towards making more videos and discouraging text content. However, this was revealed to be wrong as metrics used for time spent on videos was faulty overestimating by 60-80%, later unsealed court documents revealed the metric was wrong between 150-900% time. A group of advertisers in California sued Facebook over the allegation.[204][205]
Facebook has areal-name systempolicy foruser profiles. The real-name policy stems from the position "that way, you always know who you're connecting with. This helps keep our community safe."[18]The real-name system does not allow adopted names or pseudonyms,[206]and in its enforcement has suspended accounts of legitimate users, until the user provides identification indicating the name.[207]Facebook representatives have described these incidents as very rare.[207]A user claimed responsibility via theanonymousAndroidandiOSappSecretfor reporting "fake names" which caused user profiles to be suspended, specifically targeting the stage names ofdrag queens.[208]On October 1, 2014,Chris Cox, Chief Product Officer at Facebook, offered an apology: "In the two weeks since the real-name policy issues surfaced, we've had the chance to hear from many of you in these communities and understand the policy more clearly as you experience it. We've also come to understand how painful this has been. We owe you a better service and a better experience using Facebook, and we're going to fix the way this policy gets handled so everyone affected here can go back to using Facebook as you were."[209]
On December 15, 2015, Facebook announced in a press release[210]that it would be providing a compromise to its real name policy after protests from groups such as the gay/lesbian community and abuse-victims.[211]The site is developing a protocol that will allow members to provide specifics as to their "special circumstance" or "unique situation" with a request to use pseudonyms, subject to verification of their true identities. At that time, this was already being tested in the U.S. Product manager Todd Gage and vice president of global operations Justin Osofsky also promised a new method for reducing the number of members who must go through ID verification while ensuring the safety of others on Facebook. The fake name reporting procedure will also be modified, forcing anyone who makes such an allegation to provide specifics that would be investigated and giving the accused individual time to dispute the allegation.[212]
There have been complaints of user statuses being mistakenly or intentionally deleted for alleged violations of Facebook's posting guidelines. Especially for non-English speaking writers, Facebook does not have a proper support system to genuinely read the content and make decisions. Sometimes the content of a status did not have any "abusive" or defaming language, but it nevertheless got deleted on the basis that it had been secretly reported by a group of people as "offensive". For other languages than English, Facebook until now is not able to identify the group approach that is used to vilify humanitarian activism. In another incident, Facebook had to apologize after it deleted a free speech group's post about the abuse of human rights in Syria. In that case, a spokesman for Facebook said the post was "mistakenly" removed by a member of its moderation team, which receives a high volume of take-down requests.[213]
Facebook instituted a policy by which it is now self-policed by the community of Facebook users.[when?]Some users have complained that this policy allows Facebook to empower abusive users to harass them by allowing them to submit reports on even benign comments and photos as being "offensive" or "in violation of Facebook Rights and Responsibilities" and that enough of these reports result in the user who is being harassed in this way getting their account blocked for a predetermined number of days or weeks, or even deactivated entirely.[214]
Facebook UK policy director Simon Milner toldWiredmagazine that "Once the piece of content has been seen, assessed and deemed OK, (Facebook) will ignore further reports about it."[215]
Facebook lacks any form of live customer support beyond "community" support pages and FAQ's which offer only general troubleshooting advice, often making it impossible to resolve issues that require the services of an administrator or are not covered in the FAQs. The automated emailing system used when filling out a support form often directs users back to the help center or to pages that are outdated and cannot be accessed, leaving users at a dead end with no further support available. A person who lost access to Facebook or does not have an account has no easy way to contact the company directly.
Facebook has had a number of outages and downtime large enough to draw some media attention. A 2007 outage resulted in a security hole that enabled some users to read other users' personal mail.[216]In 2008, the site was inaccessible for about a day, from many locations in many countries.[217]In spite of these occurrences, a report issued byPingdomfound that Facebook had less downtime in 2008 than most social-networking websites.[218]On September 16, 2009, Facebook started having major problems loading as people signed in. This was due to a group of hackers deliberately trying to drown out a political speaker who had social networking problems from continuously speaking against the Iranian election results. Just two days later, on September 18, Facebook went down again.[219]
In October 2009, an unspecified number of Facebook users were unable to access their accounts for over three weeks.[220][221][222][223]
On Monday, October 4, 2021, Facebook and its other apps –Instagram,Whatsapp,Messenger,Oculus, as well as the lesser-knownMapillary– had an hours-longDNS-relatedglobal outage.[224][225][226]The outage also affected anyone using "Log in with Facebook" to access third-party sites.[227]The downtime lasted approximately five hours and fifteen minutes, from approximately 15:50 UTC to 21:05 UTC, and affected roughly three billion users.[228]The outage was caused by aBGPwithdrawal of all of theIProutes to theirDomain Name (DNS) servers, which were all self-hosted at the time.[229][224]
A further global outage occurred on Tuesday, March 5, 2024.[230]Facebook,Instagram,ThreadsandMessengersuddenly stopped working worldwide at 15:00UTC, ending two hours later. The outage appeared onSuper Tuesday, a day of many presidential primary elections in the United States.[231]The cause of the outage was reportedly related to a problem with an automated tool for fixingconfigurationvalues.[232]TwitterCEOElon Muskmocked the outage inX.[233][234][235][236]
Facebook has been criticized heavily for 'tracking' users, even when logged out of the site. Australian technologistNik Cubrilovicdiscovered that when a user logs out of Facebook, the cookies from that login are still kept in the browser, allowing Facebook to track users on websites that include "social widgets" distributed by the social network. Facebook has denied the claims, saying they have 'no interest' in tracking users or their activity. They also promised after the discovery of the cookies that they would remove them, saying they will no longer have them on the site. A group of users in the United States have sued Facebook for breaching privacy laws.[237]
As of December 2015[update], to comply with a court order citing violations of theEuropean UnionDirective on Privacy and Electronic Communications– which requires users to consent to tracking and storage of data by websites, Facebook no longer allows users inBelgiumto view any content on the service, even public pages, without being registered and logged in.[238]
In June 2012, Facebook removed all existing email addresses from user profiles, and added a new @facebook.com email address. Facebook claimed this was part of adding a "new setting that gives people the choice to decide which addresses they want to show on their timelines". However, this setting was redundant to the existing "Only Me" privacy setting which was already available to hide addresses from timelines. Users complained the change was unnecessary, they did not want an @facebook.com email address, and they did not receive adequate notification their profiles had been changed.[239]The change in email address was synchronized to phones due to a software bug, causing existing email addresses details to be deleted.[240]The facebook.com email service was retired in February 2014.[241]
On March 27, 2016, following abombing in Lahore, Pakistan, Facebook activated its "Safety Check" feature, which allows people to let friends and loved ones know they are okay following a crisis or natural disaster, to people who were never in danger, or even close to the Pakistan explosion. Some users as far as the US, UK and Egypt received notifications asking if they were okay.[242][243]
In February 2021, theNational Crime Agencyof the UK expressed its concerns that the installation of end-to-end encryption methods would result in the spread of child pornography going undetected.[244][245][246]Facebook representatives had previously told a UK Parliament committee that the use of these stronger encryption methods would render it easier for pedophiles to share child pornography on Facebook's networks.[244][247]TheUS-based National Center for Missing and Exploited Childrenestimates that around 70% of reports to law enforcement regarding the spread of child pornography on Facebook would be lost as a result of the implementation of end-to-end encryption.[247]
In May 2021, Facebook came under fire fromKen McCallum, the Director-General ofMI5, for its plans to introduceend-to-end encryptioninto its Messenger and Instagram services.[244][248]McCallum stated that the introduction of such encryption methods would prevent security organizations from viewing communications related to ongoing terrorist plots and that the implementation of end-to-end encryption would block activecounter-terrorisminvestigations.[244][248][249]
Several countries havebanned access to Facebook, including Syria,[250]China,[251]and Iran.[252]In 2010, theOffice of the Data Protection Supervisor, a branch of the government of the Isle of Man, received so many complaints about Facebook that they deemed it necessary to provide a "Facebook Guidance" booklet (available online as a PDF file), which cited (amongst other things) Facebook policies and guidelines and included an elusive Facebook telephone number. This number when called, however, proved to provide no telephone support for Facebook users, and only played back a recorded message advising callers to review Facebook's online help information.[253]
In 2010, Facebook reportedly allowed an objectionable page, deemed by the Islamic Lawyers Forum (ILF), to be anti-Muslim. The ILF filed a petition withPakistan'sLahore High Court. On May 18, 2010, Justice Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry ordered Pakistan's Telecommunication Authority to block access to Facebook until May 31. The offensive page had provoked street demonstrations in Muslim countries due tovisual depictions of Muhammad, which are regarded as blasphemous by Muslims.[254][255]A spokesman saidPakistan Telecommunication Authoritywould move to implement the ban once the order has been issued by the Ministry of Information and Technology. "We will implement the order as soon as we get the instructions", Khurram Mehran told AFP. "We have already blocked the URL link and issued instruction to Internet service providers yesterday", he added. Rai Bashir told AFP that "We moved the petition in the wake of widespread resentment in the Muslim community against the Facebook contents". The petition called on the government of Pakistan to lodge a strong protest with the owners of Facebook, he added. Bashir said a PTA official told the judge his organization had blocked the page, but the court ordered a total ban on the site. People demonstrated outside court in the eastern city ofLahore, Pakistan, carrying banners condemning Facebook. Protests in Pakistan on a larger scale took place after the ban and widespread news of that objectionable page. The ban was lifted on May 31 after Facebook reportedly assured the Lahore High Court that it would remedy the issues in dispute.[256][257][258]
In 2011, a court in Pakistan was petitioned to place a permanent ban on Facebook for hosting a page called "2nd Annual Draw Muhammad Day May 20th 2011".[259][260]
In July 2024, Nigeria's government slapped Meta with a $220 million fine for violating the country's data protection and consumer rights laws on Facebook and WhatsApp. According to Nigeria's Federal Competition and Consumer Protection Commission (FCCPC), Meta broke the rules in five major ways: sharing Nigerian users' data without permission, denying consumers control over their data, practicing discrimination, and abusing market dominance.[261]
Ontariogovernment employees, Federal public servants, MPPs, and cabinet ministers were blocked from access to Facebook on government computers in May 2007.[262]When the employees tried to access Facebook, a warning message "The Internet website that you have requested has been deemed unacceptable for use for government business purposes". This warning also appears when employees try to access YouTube,MySpace, gambling or pornographic websites.[263]However, innovative employees have found ways around such protocols, and many claim to use the site for political or work-related purposes.[264]
A number of local governments including those in the UK[265]and Finland[266]imposed restrictions on the use of Facebook in the workplace due to the technical strain incurred. Other government-related agencies, such as theUS Marine Corpshave imposed similar restrictions.[267]A number of hospitals in Finland have also restricted Facebook use citing privacy concerns.[268][269]
TheUniversity of New Mexico(UNM) in October 2005 blocked access to Facebook from UNM campus computers and networks, citing unsolicited emails and a similar site called UNM Facebook.[270]After a UNM user signed into Facebook from off campus, a message from Facebook said, "We are working with the UNM administration to lift the block and have explained that it was instituted based on erroneous information, but they have not yet committed to restore your access." UNM, in a message to students who tried to access the site from the UNM network, wrote, "This site is temporarily unavailable while UNM and the site owners work out procedural issues. The site is in violation of UNM'sAcceptable Computer Use Policyfor abusing computing resources (e.g., spamming,trademark infringement, etc.). The site forces use of UNM credentials (e.g., NetID or email address) for non-UNM business." However, after Facebook created an encrypted login and displayed a precautionary message not to use university passwords for access, UNM unblocked access the following spring semester.[271]
TheColumbus Dispatchreported on June 22, 2006, thatKent State University'sathletic directorhad planned to ban the use of Facebook by athletes and gave them until August 1 to delete their accounts.[272]On July 5, 2006, theDaily Kent Staterreported that the director reversed the decision after reviewing the privacy settings of Facebook. As long as they followed the university's policies of online conduct, they could keep their profiles.[273]
Several web sites concerned with social networking, such asSalesforcehave criticized the lack of information that users get when they share data. Advanced users cannot limit the amount of information anyone can access in their profiles, but Facebook promotes the sharing of personal information for marketing purposes, leading to the promotion of the service using personal data from users who are not fully aware of this. Facebook exposes personal data, without supporting open standards for data interchange.[274]According to several communities[275]and authors[276]closed social networking, on the other hand, promotes data retrieval from other people while not exposing one's personal information.
Openbookwas established in early 2010 both as a parody of Facebook and a critique of its changing privacy management protocols.[277]
Fluff Busting Purity, orFB Purityfor short (previously known asFacebook Purity) is abrowser extensionfirst launched in 2009 to allow users to remove annoyances such as spam from their feed and allow more individual control over what content is displayed.[278]In response, Facebook banned its developer from using the platform and blocked links to the extension.[279]
Unfollow Everythingis abrowser extensiondesigned to helpFacebookusers reduce their time spent on the platform by massunlikingto reduce the clutter in their news feed. The extension, together with its creator, has been banned by Facebook and subject to legal warnings.[280][281][282]
In 2024,Ethan Zuckerman, an associate professor atUniversity of Massachusetts Amherstfiled a suit against Meta in federal court to establish the legality of a hypotheticalUnfollow Everything 2.0browser extension.[283]The case was dismissed on procedural grounds in November 2024.[284][285]
Meta Platforms, formerly Facebook, Inc., has been involved in many lawsuits since its founding in 2004.
Facebook is among the biggest spenders on lobbying among tech companies; in 2020, it was the highest spender.[286]It spent more than $80 million on lobbying in the 2010s.[287][288]This funding may serve to weaken privacy protections.[289]
In March 2019,HuffPostreported thatFacebookpaid lawyer Ed Sussman to lobby for changes to their Wikipedia articles.[290][291]
In December 2021, news broke on The Wall Street Journal pointing to Meta's lobbying efforts to divide US lawmakers and "muddy the waters" in Congress, to hinder regulation following the 2021 whistleblower leaks.[292]Facebook's lobbyist team in Washington suggested to Republican lawmakers that the whistleblower "was trying to help Democrats," while the narrative told to Democratic staffers was that Republicans "were focused on the company's decision to ban expressions of support forKyle Rittenhouse,"The Wall Street Journalreported. According to the article, the company's goal was to "muddy the waters, divide lawmakers along partisan lines and forestall a cross-party alliance" against Facebook (now Meta) in Congress.[293]
In March 2022, theWashington Postreported that Meta had hired the Republican-backed consulting firm Targeted Victory to coordinate lobbying and negative PR against the video appTikTokvia local media outlets, including concurrent promotion of corporate initiatives conducted by Facebook.[196]
While Facebook originally made changes to its terms of use[294]or,terms of service, on February 4, 2009, the changes went unnoticed until Chris Walters, a blogger for the consumer-oriented blog,The Consumerist, noticed the change on February 15, 2009.[295]Walters complained the change gave Facebook the right to "Do anything they want with your content. Forever."[296]The section under the most controversy is the "User Content Posted on the Site" clause. Before the changes, the clause read:[294][non-primary source needed]
You may remove your User Content from the Site at any time. If you choose to remove your User Content, the license granted above will automatically expire, however you acknowledge that the Company may retain archived copies of your User Content.
The "license granted" refers to the license that Facebook has to one's "name, likeness, and image" to use in promotions and external advertising.[294]The new terms of use deleted the phrase that states the license would "automatically expire" if a user chose to remove content. By omitting this line, Facebook license extends to adopt users' content perpetually and irrevocably years after the content has been deleted.[295]
Many users of Facebook voiced opinions against the changes to the Facebook Terms of Use, leading to an Internet-wide debate over the ownership of content. TheElectronic Privacy Information Center(EPIC) prepared a formal complaint with theFederal Trade Commission. Many individuals were frustrated with the removal of the controversial clause. Facebook users, numbering more than 38,000, joined a user group against the changes, and a number of blogs and news sites have written about this issue.[295]
After the change was brought to light in Walters's blog entry, in his blog on February 16, 2009, Zuckerberg addressed the issues concerning the recently made changes to Facebook's terms of use. Zuckerberg wrote "Our philosophy is that people own their information and control who they share it with."[297]In addition to this statement Zuckerberg explained the paradox created when people want to share their information (phone number, pictures, email address, etc.) with the public, but at the same time desire to remain in complete control of who has access to this info.[298]
To calm criticism, Facebook returned to its original terms of use. However, on February 17, 2009, Zuckerberg wrote in his blog, that although Facebook reverted to its original terms of use, it is in the process of developing new terms to address the paradox. Zuckerberg stated that these new terms will allow Facebook users to "share and control their information, and it will be written clearly in language everyone can understand." Zuckerberg invited users to join a group entitled "Facebook Bill of Rights and Responsibilities" to give their input and help shape the new terms.
On February 26, 2009, Zuckerberg posted a blog, updating users on the progress of the new Terms of Use. He wrote, "We decided we needed to do things differently and so we're going to develop new policies that will govern our system from the ground up in an open and transparent way." Zuckerberg introduces the two new additions to Facebook: the Facebook Principles[299][non-primary source needed]and the Statement of Rights and Responsibilities.[300][non-primary source needed]Both additions allow users to vote on changes to the terms of use before they are officially released. Because "Facebook is still in the business of introducing new and therefore potentially disruptive technologies", Zuckerberg explains, users need to adjust and familiarize themselves with the products before they can adequately show their support.[301]
This new voting system was initially applauded as Facebook's step to a more democratized social network system.[302]However, the new terms were harshly criticized in a report by computer scientists from theUniversity of Cambridge, who stated that the democratic process surrounding the new terms is disingenuous and significant problems remain in the new terms.[303]The report was endorsed by theOpen Rights Group.[304]
In December 2009, EPIC and a number of other U.S. privacy organizations filed another complaint[305]with theFederal Trade Commission(FTC) regarding Facebook's Terms of Service. In January 2011 EPIC filed a subsequent complaint[306]claiming that Facebook's new policy of sharing users' home address and mobile phone information with third-party developers were "misleading and fail[ed] to provide users clear and privacy protections", particularly for children under age 18.[307]Facebook temporarily suspended implementation of its policy in February 2011, but the following month announced it was "actively considering" reinstating the third-party policy.[308]
Facebook has been criticized for failing to offer users a feature to export their friends' information, such as contact information, for use with other services or software. The inability of users to export theirsocial graphin anopen standardformat contributes tovendor lock-inand contravenes the principles ofdata portability.[309]Automated collection of user information without Facebook's consent violates its Statement of Rights and Responsibilities,[310][non-primary source needed]and third-party attempts to do so (e.g.,Web scraping) have resulted in litigation,Power.com.
Facebook Connect has been criticized for its lack ofinteroperabilitywithOpenID.[311]
Facebook's strategy of making revenue through advertising has created a lot of controversy for its users as some argue that it is "a bit creepy ... but it is also brilliant."[312]Some Facebook users have raised privacy concerns because they do not like that Facebook sells user's information to third parties. In 2012, users sued Facebook for using their pictures and information on a Facebook advertisement.[313]Facebook gathers user information by keeping track of pages users have "Liked" and through the interactions users have with their connections.[314]They then create value from the gathered data by selling it.[314]In 2009 users also filed a lawsuit for Facebook's privacy invasion through theFacebook Beaconsystem. Facebook's team believed that through the Beacon system people could inspire their friends to buy similar products, however, users did not like the idea of sharing certain online purchases with their Facebook friends.[315]Users were against Facebook's invasion of privacy and sharing that privacy with the world. Facebook users became more aware of Facebook's behavior with user information in 2009 as Facebook launched their new Terms of Service. In Facebook's terms of service, Facebook admits that user information may be used for some of Facebook's own purposes such as sharing a link to your posted images or for their own commercials and advertisements.[316]
As Dijck argues in his book that, "the more users know about what happens to their personal data, the more inclined they are to raise objections."[314]This created a battle between Facebook and Facebook users described as the "battle for information control".[314]Facebook users have become aware of Facebook's intentions and people now see Facebook "as serving the interests of companies rather than its users."[317]In response to Facebook selling user information to third parties, concerned users have resorted to the method of "Obfuscation". Through obfuscation users can purposely hide their real identity and provide Facebook with false information that will make their collected data less accurate. By obfuscating information through sites such as FaceCloak, Facebook users have regained control of their personal information.[318]
As of December 2010[update], theBetter Business Bureaugave Facebook an "A" rating.[319][320]
As of December 2010[update], the 36-month running count of complaints about Facebook logged with the Better Business Bureau is 1136, including 101 ("Making a full refund, as the consumer requested"), 868 ("Agreeing to perform according to their contract"), 1 ("Refuse [sic] to adjust, relying on terms of agreement"), 20 ("Unassigned"), 0 ("Unanswered") and 136 ("Refusing to make an adjustment").[319]
Facebook's software has proven vulnerable tolikejacking. On July 28, 2010, theBBCreported that security consultant Ron Bowes used a piece of code to scan Facebook profiles to collect data of 100 million profiles. The data collected was not hidden by the user's privacy settings. Bowes then published the list online. This list, which has been shared as a downloadable file, contains the URL of every searchable Facebook user's profile, their name and unique ID. Bowes said he published the data to highlight privacy issues, but Facebook claimed it was already public information.[321]
In early June 2013,The New York Timesreported that an increase in malicious links related to theTrojan horsemalwareprogramZeuswere identified by Eric Feinberg, founder of the advocacy group Fans Against Kounterfeit Enterprise (FAKE). Feinberg said that the links were present on popularNFLFacebook fan pages and, following contact with Facebook, was dissatisfied with the corporation's "after-the-fact approach". Feinberg called for oversight, stating, "If you really want to hack someone, the easiest place to start is a fake Facebook profile—it's so simple, it's stupid."[322]
On August 19, 2013, it was reported that a Facebook user fromPalestinian Autonomy, Khalil Shreateh, found abugthat allowed him to post material to other users' Facebook Walls. Users are not supposed to have the ability to post material to the Facebook Walls of other users unless they are approved friends of those users that they have posted material to. To prove that he was telling the truth, Shreateh posted material to Sarah Goodin's wall, a friend of Facebook CEOMark Zuckerberg. Following this, Shreateh contacted Facebook's security team with the proof that his bug was real, explaining in detail what was going on. Facebook has a bounty program in which it compensates people a $500+ fee for reporting bugs instead of using them to their advantage or selling them on the black market. However, it was reported that instead of fixing the bug and paying Shreateh the fee, Facebook originally told him that "this was not a bug" and dismissed him. Shreateh then tried a second time to inform Facebook, but they dismissed him yet again. On the third try, Shreateh used the bug to post a message to Mark Zuckerberg's Wall, stating "Sorry for breaking your privacy ... but a couple of days ago, I found a serious Facebook exploit" and that Facebook's security team was not taking him seriously. Within minutes, a security engineer contacted Shreateh, questioned him on how he performed the move and ultimately acknowledged that it was a bug in the system. Facebook temporarily suspended Shreateh's account and fixed the bug after several days. However, in a move that was met with much public criticism and disapproval, Facebook refused to pay out the 500+ fee to Shreateh; instead, Facebook responded that by posting to Zuckerberg's account, Shreateh had violated one of theirterms of servicepolicies and therefore "could not be paid". Included with this, the Facebook team strongly censured Shreateh over his manner of resolving the matter. In closing, they asked that Shreateh continue to help them find bugs.[323][324][325]
On August 22, 2013,Yahoo Newsreported thatMarc Maiffret, a chief technology officer of thecybersecurityfirmBeyondTrust, is promptinghackersto help raise a $10,000 reward for Khalil Shreateh. On August 20, Maiffret stated that he had already raised $9,000 in his efforts, including the $2,000 he himself contributed. He and other hackers alike have denounced Facebook for refusing Shreateh compensation. Maiffret said: "He is sitting there in Palestine doing this research on a five-year-old laptop that looks like it is half broken. It's something that might help him out in a big way." Facebook representatives have since responded, "We will not change our practice of refusing to pay rewards to researchers who have tested vulnerabilities against real users." Facebook representatives also claimed they'd paid out over $1 million to individuals who have discovered bugs in the past.[326]
In 2010,Prineville, Oregon, was chosen as the site for Facebook's newdata center.[327]However, the center has been met with criticism from environmental groups such asGreenpeacebecause the power utility company contracted for the center,PacifiCorp, generates 60% of its electricity from coal.[328][329][330]In September 2010, Facebook received a letter from Greenpeace containing half a million signatures asking the company to cut its ties tocoal-based electricity.[331]
On April 21, 2011, Greenpeace released a report showing that of the top ten big brands incloud computing, Facebook relied the most on coal for electricity for its data centers. At the time, data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount was projected to increase.Phil Radfordof Greenpeace said "we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today".[332]
On December 15, 2011, Greenpeace and Facebook announced together that Facebook would shift to use clean and renewable energy to power its own operations. Marcy Scott Lynn, of Facebook's sustainability program, said it looked forward "to a day when our primary energy sources are clean and renewable" and that the company is "working with Greenpeace and others to help bring that day closer".[333][334]
In April 2022, Meta Platforms,Alphabet Inc.,Shopify,McKinsey & Company, andStripe, Inc.announced a $925 millionAdvance market commitmentofcarbon dioxide removal(CDR) from companies that are developing CDR technology over the next 9 years.[335][336]In January 2023, theAmerican Clean Power Associationreleased an annual industry report that found that 326 corporations had contracted 77.4 gigawatts of wind or solar energy by the end of 2022 and that the three corporate purchasers of the largest volumes of wind and solar energy were Meta Platforms,Amazon, andAlphabet Inc.[337]
In July 2012, startup Limited Run claimed that 80% of its Facebookclicks came from bots.[338][339][340]Limited Run co-founder Tom Mango toldTechCrunchthat they "spent roughly a month testing this" with sixweb analyticsservices includingGoogle Analyticsand in-house software.[338]Click fraud (Allege reason) Limited Run said it came to the conclusion that the clicks were fraudulent after running its own analysis. It determined that most of the clicks for which Facebook was charging it came from computers that were not loading Javascript, a programming language that allows Web pages to be interactive. Almost all Web browsers load Javascript by default, so the assumption is that if a click comes from one that is not, it's probably not a real person but a bot.[341]
Facebook offers an advertising tool for pages to get more "likes".[342][non-primary source needed]According toBusiness Insider, this advertising tool is called "Suggested Posts" or "Suggested Pages", allowing companies to market their page to thousands of new users for as little as $50.[343]
Global Fortune 100 firms are increasingly using social media marketing tools as the number of "likes" per Facebook page has risen by 115% globally.[clarification needed][344]Biotechnology company Comprendia investigated Facebook's "likes" through advertising by analyzing the life science pages with the most likes. They concluded that at as much as 40% of "likes" from company pages are suspected to be fake.[345]According to Facebook's annual report, an estimated 0.4% and 1.2% of active users are undesirable accounts that create fake likes.[346]
Small companies such as PubChase have publicly testified against Facebook's advertising tool, claiming legitimate advertising on Facebook creates fraudulent Facebook "likes". In May 2013, PubChase decided to build up its Facebook following through Facebook's advertising tool, which promises to "connect with more of the people who matter to you". After the first day, the company grew suspicious of the increased likes as they ended up with 900 likes from India. According to PubChase, none of the users behind the "likes" seemed to be scientists. The statistics fromGoogle Analyticsindicate that India is not in the company's main user base. PubChase continues by stating that Facebook has no interface to delete the fake likes; rather, the company must manually delete each follower themselves.[347]
In February 2014,Derek Mullerused his YouTube accountVeritasiumto upload a video titled "Facebook Fraud". Within three days, the video had gone viral with more than a million views (it has reached 6,371,759 views as of December 15, 2021). In the video, Derek illustrates how after paying US$50 to Facebook advertising, the "likes" to his fan page have tripled in a few days and soon reached 70,000 "likes", compared to his original 2,115 likes before the advertising. Despite the significant increase in likes, Derek noticed his page has actually decreased in engagement – there were fewer people commenting, sharing, and liking his posts and updates despite the significant increase in "likes". Derek also noticed that the users that "liked" his page were users that liked hundreds of other pages, including competing pages such asAT&TandT-Mobile. He theorizes that users are purposely clicking "like" on any and every page to deter attention away from the pages they were paid to "like". Derek claims, "I never bought fake likes, I used Facebook legitimate advertising, but the results are as if I paid for fake likes from a click farm".[348][better source needed]
In response to the fake "likes" complaints, Facebook toldBusiness Insider:
We're always focused on maintaining the integrity of our site, but we've placed an increased focus on abuse from fake accounts recently. We've made a lot of progress by building a combination of automated and manual systems to block accounts used for fraudulent purposes and Like button clicks. We also take action against sellers of fake clicks and help shut them down.[343]
On August 3, 2007, several British companies, includingFirst Direct,Vodafone,Virgin Media,The Automobile Association,HalifaxandPrudentialpulled advertising in Facebook after finding that their ads were displayed on the page of theBritish National Party, a far-right political party.[349]
Facebook has faced allegations that its advertising platforms facilitatehousing discriminationby means of internal functions fortargeted advertising, which allowed advertisers to target or exclude specific audiences from campaigns.[350][351][352]Researchers have also found that Facebook's advertising platform may be inherently discriminatory, since ad delivery is also influenced by how often specific demographics interact with specific types of advertising – even if they are not explicitly determined by the advertiser.[353]
Under the United States'Fair Housing Act, it is illegal to show a preference for or against tenants based on specificprotected classes(including race, ethnicity, and disabilities), when advertising or negotiating the rental or sale of housing. In 2016,ProPublicafound that advertisers could target or exclude users from advertising based on an "Ethnic Affinity" – a demographic trait which is determined based on a user's interests and behaviors on Facebook, and not explicitly provided by the user. This could, in turn, be used to discriminate based on race.[354]In February 2017, Facebook stated that it would implement stronger measures to forbid discriminatory advertising across the entire platform. Advertisers who attempt to create ads for housing, employment, or credit (HEC) opportunities would be blocked from using ethnic affinities (renamed "multicultural affinities" and now classified as behaviors) to target the ad. If an advertiser uses any other audience segment to target ads for HEC, they would be informed of the policies, and be required to affirm their compliance with relevant laws and policies.[355]
However, in November 2017, ProPublica found that automated enforcement of these new policies was inconsistent. They were also able to successfully create housing ads that excluded users based on interests and other factors that effectively imply associations with protected classes, including interests inwheelchair ramps, the Spanish-language television networkTelemundo, and New York City ZIP codeswith majority minority populations. In response to the report, Facebook temporarily removed the ability to target any ad with exclusions based on multicultural affinities.[350][352]
In April 2018, Facebook permanently removed the ability to create exclusions based on multicultural affinities. In July 2018, Facebook signed a legally binding agreement with theState of Washingtonto take further steps within 90 days to prevent the use of its advertising platform for housing discrimination against protected classes.[356]The following month, Facebook announced that it would remove at least 5,000 categories from its exclusion system to prevent "misuse", including those relating to races and religions.[357]On March 19, 2019, Facebook settled a lawsuit over the matter with the National Fair Housing Alliance, agreeing to create a separate portal for HEC advertising with limited targeting options by September 2019, and to provide a public archive of all HEC advertising.[358][359]
On March 28, 2019, theU.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development(HUD) filed a lawsuit against Facebook, having filed a formal complaint against the company on August 13, 2018. The HUD also took issue with Facebook's tendency to deliver ads based on users having "particular characteristics [that are] most likely to engage with the ad".[360][351]
In August 2012, Facebook revealed that more than 83 million Facebook accounts (8.7% of total users) are fake accounts.[361]These fake profiles consist of duplicate profiles, accounts forspammingpurposes and personal profiles for business, organization or non-human entities such as pets.[362]As a result of this revelation, the share price of Facebook dropped below $20.[363]Furthermore, there is much effort to detect fake profiles using automated means, in one such work, machine learning techniques are used to detect fake users.[364]
Facebook initially refused to remove a "business" page devoted to a woman'sanus, created without her knowledge while she was underage, due to other Facebook users having expressed interest in the topic. AfterBuzzFeedpublished a story about it, the page was finally removed. The page listed her family's former home address as that of the "business".[365]
In September 2008, Facebook permanently moved its users to what they termed the "New Facebook" or Facebook 3.0.[366]This version contained several different features and a complete layout redesign. Between July and September, users had been given the option to use the new Facebook in place of the original design,[367]or to return to the old design.
Facebook's decision to migrate their users was met with some controversy in their community. Severalgroupsstarted opposing the decision, some with over a million users.[368]
In October 2009, Facebook redesigned the news feed so that the user could view all types of things that their friends were involved with. In a statement, they said,[298]
your applications [stories] generate can show up in both views. The best way for your stories to appear in the News Feed filter is to create stories that are highly engaging, as high quality, interesting stories are most likely to garner likes and comments by the user's friends.
This redesign was explained as:[298]
News Feed will focus on popular content, determined by an algorithm based on interest in that story, including the number of times an item is liked or commented on. Live Feed will display all recent stories from a large number of a user's friends.
The redesign was met immediately with criticism with users, many who did not like the amount of information that was coming at them. This was also compounded by the fact that people could not select what they saw.
In November 2009, Facebook issued a proposed new privacy policy, and adopted it unaltered in December 2009. They combined this with a rollout of new privacy settings. This new policy declared certain information, including "lists of friends", to be "publicly available", with no privacy settings; it was previously possible to keep access to this information restricted. Due to this change, the users who had set their "list of friends" as private were forced to make it public without even being informed, and the option to make it private again was removed. This was protested by many people and privacy organizations such as the EFF.[369]
The change was described by Ryan Tate asFacebook's Great Betrayal,[370]forcing user profile photos and friends lists to be visible in users' public listing, even for users who had explicitly chosen to hide this information previously,[369]and making photos and personal information public unless users were proactive about limiting access.[371]For example, a user whose "Family and Relationships" information was set to be viewable by "Friends Only" would default to being viewable by "Everyone" (publicly viewable). That is, information such as the gender of the partner the user is interested in, relationship status, and family relations became viewable to those even without a Facebook account. Facebook was heavily criticized[372]for both reducing its users' privacy and pushing users to remove privacy protections. Groups criticizing the changes include theElectronic Frontier Foundation[369]andAmerican Civil Liberties Union.[373]Mark Zuckerberg, CEO, had hundreds of personal photos and his events calendar exposed in the transition.[374]Facebook has since re-included an option to hide friends lists from being viewable; however, this preference is no longer listed with other privacy settings, and the former ability to hide the friends list from selected people among one's own friends is no longer possible.[375]Journalist Dan Gillmor deleted his Facebook account over the changes, stating he "can't entirely trust Facebook"[376]and Heidi Moore at Slate's Big Money temporarily deactivated her account as a "conscientious objection".[377]Other journalists have been similarly disappointed and outraged by the changes.[370]Defending the changes, founder Mark Zuckerberg said "we decided that these would be the social norms now and we just went for it".[378]The Office of thePrivacy Commissioner of Canadalaunched another investigation into Facebook's privacy policies after complaints following the change.[379]
Following a difficult 2017, marked by accusations of relayingfake newsand revelations about groups close to Russia which tried to influence the 2016 US presidential election (seeRussian interference in the 2016 United States elections) via advertisements on his service, Mark Zuckerberg, announced in his traditional January post:
"We're making a major change to how we build Facebook. I'm changing the goal I give our product teams from focusing on helping you find relevant content to helping you have more meaningful social interactions".
Following surveys on Facebook users,[380]this desire for change will take the form of a reconfiguration of theNews Feedalgorithms to:
The recent changes of the News Feed algorithm[381](see content :News Feed#History) are expected to improve "the amount of meaningful content viewed".[382]To this end, the new algorithm is supposed to determine the publications around which a user is most likely to interact with his friends, and make them appear higher in the News Feed instead of items for example from media companies or brands. These are posts "that inspire back-and-forth discussion in the comments and posts that you might want to share and react to".[383]But, as even Mark Zuckerberg admitted,[381]he "expect the time people spend on Facebook and some measures of engagement will go down. But I also expect the time you do spend on Facebook will be more valuable". The less public content a Facebook user sees on theirNews Feed, the fewer brands are able to reach consumers. That's unarguably a major lose for advertisers[384]and publishers.
This change which seems to be just another update of the social network, is widely criticized because of the heavy consequences it might lead to "In countries such as the Philippines, Myanmar and South Sudan and emerging democracies such Bolivia and Serbia, it is not ethical to plead platform neutrality or to set up the promise of a functioning news ecosystem and then simply withdraw at a whim".[385]Indeed, in such countries, Facebook was the promise of a reliable and objective platform on which they could hope for raw information. Independent media companies tried to fight censorship through their articles and were promoting in a way the right for citizens to know what is going on in their countries.
The company's way of handling scandals and criticism overfake newsby diminishing its media company image is even defined as "potentially deadly"[385]regarding the poor and fraught political environments like Myanmar or South Sudan appealed by the "free basics" programme of the social network.
Serbian journalist Stevan Dojčinović goes further by describing Facebook as a "monster" and accuses the company of "showing a cynical lack of concern for how its decisions affect the most vulnerable".[386]Indeed, Facebook had experimented with withdrawing media companies' news on user's newsfeed in few countries such as Serbia. Stevan Docjcinovic then wrote an article explaining how Facebook helped them "to bypass mainstream channels and bring [their] stories to hundreds of thousands of readers".[386]The rule about publishers is not being applied to paid posts raising the journalist's fears about the social network "becoming just another playground for the powerful"[386]by letting them for example buy Facebook ads.
Critics are also visible in other media companies depicting the private company as the "destroyer of worlds". LittleThings CEO, Joe Speiser states that the algorithm shift "took out roughly 75% of LittleThings" organic traffic while hammering its profit margins"[387]compelling them to close their doors because they were relying on Facebook to share content.
In February 2016,TRAIruled against differential data pricing for limited services from mobile phone operators effectively ending zero-rating platforms in India. Zero rating provides access to a limited number of websites for no charge to the end user. Net-neutrality supporters from India (SaveTheInternet.in) brought out the negative implications of the Facebook Free Basic program and spread awareness to the public.[388]Facebook's Free Basics program[389]was a collaboration withReliance Communicationsto launch Free Basics in India. The TRAI ruling against differential pricing marked the end of Free Basics in India.[390]
Earlier, Facebook had spent US$44 million in advertising and it implored all of its Indian users to send an email to the Telecom Regulatory Authority to support its program.[391]TRAI later asked Facebook to provide specific responses from the supporters of Free Basics.[392][393]
In December 2018 details on Facebook's behavior against competitors surfaced. The UK parliament member Damian Collins released files from a court ruling between Six4Three and Facebook. According to those files, the social media company Twitter released its app Vine in 2013. Facebook blocked Vine's Access to its data.[394]
In July 2020, Facebook along with other tech giantsApple,Amazonand Google were accused of maintaining harmful power and anti-competitive strategies to quash potential competitors in the market.[395]The CEOs of respective firms appeared in a teleconference on July 29, 2020, before the lawmakers of theUnited States Congress.[396]
In what is known as theFacebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal, Facebook users were targeted with political advertising without informed consent in an attempt to promote right-wing causes, including thepresidential election of Donald Trump.[397]In addition to elections in the United States, Facebook has been implicated in electoral influence campaigns in places like Argentina, Kenya, Malaysia, the United Kingdom, and South Africa, as discussed in the 2019 documentaryThe Great Hack.[398][399]
In response to theOnline News Act, Meta Platforms began blocking access to news sites for Canadian users at the beginning of August 2023.[400][401]This also extended to local Canadian news stories about the wildfires,[402]a decision that was heavily criticized by Trudeau, local government officials, academics, researchers, and evacuees.[403][404][405]
Ollie Williams of Yellowknife's Cabin Radio said that users had to resort to postingscreenshotsof news stories, as posting news directly would result in the link getting blocked.[405][402]
Meta responded to these criticisms by stating that Canadians "can continue to use our technologies to connect with their communities and access reputable information […] from official government agencies, emergency services and non-governmental organizations," and encouraged them to useFacebook's Safety Checkfeature.[403][406]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_Facebook
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The history ofFacebooktraces its growth from a college networking site to a globalsocial networkingservice. It was launched as TheFacebook in 2004, and renamed Facebook in 2005.[1]
Founded byMark Zuckerbergand his college roommatesEduardo Saverin,Andrew McCollum,Dustin Moskovitz, andChris Hughes[2]atHarvard University, it was initially limited to Harvard students. It expanded to other colleges in the Boston area, theIvy League,[3]and gradually most universities in the United States and Canada,[4][5]corporations,[6]and by 2006 to everyone with a validemail addressalong with an age requirement of being 13 or older.[7][8]Facebook introduced key features like theNews Feedin 2006, which became central to user engagement. By 2007, Facebook surpassedMySpacein global traffic and became the world's most popular social media platform. The company focused on generating revenue throughtargeted advertisingbased on user data, a model that drove its rapid financial growth. In 2012, Facebook went public with one of the largestIPOsin tech history. Acquisitions played a significant role in Facebook's dominance. In 2012, it purchasedInstagram, followed byWhatsAppandOculus VRin 2014, extending its influence beyond social networking into messaging andvirtual reality. These moves helped Facebook maintain its position as a leader in the tech industry.
Despite its success, Facebook has faced significant controversies. Privacy concerns surfaced early, including criticism of its data collection practices. TheFacebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandalin 2018 revealed misuse of user data to influence elections, sparking global outcry and leading to regulatory fines and hearings. Facebook has been accused of enabling the spread ofmisinformationandhate speechand influencing political outcomes, prompting debates aboutcontent moderationand social media's role in society. The platform has frequently updated its algorithms to balance user experience with engagement-driven revenue, but these changes have sometimes drawn criticism for amplifying divisive content. Facebook's role in global events, including its use in organizing movements like theArab Springand, controversially, its impact on events like theRohingya genocidein Myanmar, highlights its dual nature as a tool for empowerment and harm.
In 2021, Facebook rebranded asMeta, reflecting its shift toward building the "metaverse" and focusing on virtual reality andaugmented realitytechnologies. Facebook continues to shape digital communication, commerce, and culture worldwide, with billions of users making it a key organisation in the 21st century.
A "facebook" is a student directory featuring photos and basic information.[9]In 2004, there were no universal online facebooks at Harvard, with only paper sheets distributed[1]and private online directories.[10][11]Zuckerberg told theCrimsonthat "Everyone's been talking a lot about a universal face book within Harvard. ... I think it's kind of silly that it would take the University a couple of years to get around to it. I can do it better than they can, and I can do it in a week."[11]In January 2004, Zuckerberg began writing a code for a new website, known as "TheFacebook", with the inspiration coming from an editorial in theCrimsonabout Facemash, stating that "It is clear that the technology needed to create a centralized Website is readily available ... the benefits are many." Zuckerberg met with Harvard studentEduardo Saverin, and each of them agreed to invest $1,000 in the site.[12]On February 4, 2004, Zuckerberg launched it under the name of "TheFacebook", originally located at thefacebook.com.[13]
Zuckerberg intended to create a website that could connect people around the university. Upon finishing the site, Zuckerberg told a couple of friends, one of whom suggested sharing it on the Kirkland House online mailing list, which included several hundred people. According to his roommate,Dustin Moskovitz, "By the end of the night, we were ... actively watching the registration process. Within twenty-four hours, we had somewhere between twelve hundred and fifteen hundred registrants."[14]
Just six days after the launch of the site, three Harvard University seniors,Cameron Winklevoss,Tyler Winklevoss, andDivya Narendra, accused Zuckerberg of intentionally misleading them into believing that he would help them build a social network called HarvardConnection.com, but instead using their idea to build a competing product.[15]The three complained to theCrimson, and the newspaper began an investigation. Zuckerberg knew about the investigation so he used TheFacebook.com to find members in the site who identified themselves as members of theCrimson. He examined a history of failed logins to see if any of theCrimsonmembers had ever entered an incorrect password into TheFacebook.com. In the cases in which they had failed to log in, Zuckerberg tried to use them to access theCrimsonmembers' Harvard email accounts, and he was successful in accessing two of them. In the end, threeCrimsonmembers filed a lawsuit against Zuckerberg which was later settled.[15][16]
Membership was initially restricted to students of Harvard University. Within the first month, more than half the undergraduate population at Harvard was registered on the service.[1]Zuckerberg was joined in the promotion of the site by Saverin (business aspects),Dustin Moskovitz(programmer),Andrew McCollum(graphic artist), andChris Hughes. In March 2004, Facebook expanded toStanford,Columbia, andYale.[3]This expansion continued when it opened to allIvy Leagueand Boston-area schools. It gradually reached most universities in the United States and Canada.[4][17][18]Facebook was incorporated in the summer of 2004, and the entrepreneurSean Parker, who had been informally advising Zuckerberg, became the company's president.[19]In June 2004, Facebook moved its base of operations toPalo Alto, California.[3]
The company dropped 'The' from its name after purchasing thedomain namefacebook.comin 2005[38]for $200,000 ($321,997 in 2024 dollars[39]).[40]The domain had belonged to AboutFace Corporation.
In May 2005,Accel Partnersinvested $13 million ($20.4 million in 2024 dollars[39]) in Facebook, andJim Breyer[41]added $1 million ($1.61 million in 2024 dollars[39]) of his own money. A high-school version of the site launched in September 2005.[42]Eligibility expanded to include employees of several companies, includingApple Inc.andMicrosoft.[6]
In May 2006, Facebook hired its first intern,Julie Zhuo.[43]After a month, Zhuo was hired as a full-time engineer.[43]On September 26, 2006, Facebook opened to everyone at least 13 years old with a validemail address.[44][45][46]By late 2007, Facebook had 100,000 pages on which companies promoted themselves.[47]Organization pages began rolling out in May 2009.[48]On October 24, 2007,Microsoftannounced that it had purchased a 1.6% share of Facebook for $240 million ($364 million in 2024 dollars[39]), giving Facebook a total implied value of around $15 billion ($22.7 billion in 2024 dollars[39]). Microsoft's purchase included rights to place international advertisements.[49][50]
In May 2007, at the first f8 developers conference, Facebook announced the launch of theFacebook Developer Platform, providing aframeworkforsoftware developersto createapplicationsthat interact with coreFacebook features. By thesecond annual f8developers conference on July 23, 2008, the number of applications on the platform had grown to 33,000, and the number of registered developers had exceeded 400,000.[51]
The website won awards such as placement into the "Top 100 Classic Websites" byPC Magazinein 2007,[52]and winning the "People's Voice Award" from theWebby Awardsin 2008.[53]In early 2008, Facebook becameEBITDAprofitable, but was notcash flowpositive yet.[54]
On July 20, 2008, Facebook introduced "Facebook Beta", a significant redesign of its user interface on selected networks. The Mini-Feed and Wall were consolidated, profiles were separated into tabbed sections, and an effort was made to create a cleaner look.[55]Facebook began migrating users to the new version in September 2008.[56]In July 2008, FacebooksuedStudiVZ, a German social network that was alleged to be visually and functionally similar to Facebook.[57][58]
In October 2008, Facebook announced that its international headquarters would locate inDublin, Ireland.[59]A January 2009Compete.comstudy ranked Facebook the most used social networking service by worldwide monthlyactive users.[60][better source needed]China blocked Facebook in 2009 following theÜrümqi riots.[61]
In 2009,Yuri Milner'sDST(which later split into DST Global andMail.ru Group), alongside Uzbek Russian metals magnateAlisher Usmanov, invested $200 million in Facebook when it was valued at $10 billion.[62][63][64]A separate stake was also acquired by Usmanov's USM Holdings on another occasion.[65][62]According to the New York Times in 2013, "Mr. Usmanov and other Russian investors at one point owned nearly 10 percent of Facebook, though precise details of their ownership stakes are difficult to assess."[65]It was later revealed in 2017 by theParadise Papersthat lending by Russian state-backedVTB BankandGazprom's investment vehicle partially financed these 2009 investments, although Milner was reportedly unaware at the time.[66][67]
In May 2009, Zuckerberg said of the $200 million Russian investment, "This investment is purely buffer for us. It is not something we needed to get to cash flow positive."[68]In September 2009, Facebook became cash flow positive ahead of schedule[69][70]after closing a roughly $200 million gap in operating profitability.[70]
In 2010, Facebook won theCrunchie"Best Overall Startup Or Product" award[71]for the third year in a row.[72]
The company announced 500 million users in July 2010.[73]Half of the site's membership used Facebook daily, for an average of 34 minutes, while 150 million users accessed the site from mobile devices. A company representative called the milestone a "quiet revolution".[74]In October 2010 groups were introduced.[75]In November 2010, based onSecondMarketInc. (an exchange for privately held companies' shares), Facebook's value was $41 billion ($59.1 billion in 2024 dollars[39]). The company had slightly surpassedeBayto become the third largest American web company after Google andAmazon.com.[76][77]
On November 15, 2010, Facebook announced it had acquired the domain name fb.com from theAmerican Farm Bureau Federationfor an undisclosed amount. On January 11, 2011, the Farm Bureau disclosed $8.5 million ($11.9 million in 2024 dollars[39]) in "domain sales income", making the acquisition of FB.com one of the ten highest domain sales in history.[78]
In February 2011, Facebook announced plans to move its headquarters to the formerSun Microsystemscampus in Menlo Park, California.[79][80]In March 2011, it was reported that Facebook was removing about 20,000 profiles daily for violations such asspam, graphic content and underage use, as part of its efforts to boostcyber security.[81]Statistics showed that Facebook reached one trillionpage viewsin the month of June 2011, making it the most visited website tracked byDoubleClick.[82][83]According to aNielsenstudy, Facebook had in 2011 become the second-most accessed website in the U.S. behindGoogle.[84][85]
In March 2012, Facebook announced App Center, a store selling applications that operate via the website. The store was to be available oniPhones,Androiddevices, and for mobile web users.[86]
Facebook'sinitial public offeringcame on May 17, 2012, at a share price of US$38 ($52.00 in 2024 dollars[39]). The company was valued at $104 billion ($142 billion in 2024 dollars[39]), the largest valuation to that date.[87][88][89]The IPO raised $16 billion ($21.9 billion in 2024 dollars[39]), the third-largest in U.S. history, afterVisa Inc.in 2008 andAT&T Wirelessin 2000.[90][91]Based on its 2012 income of $5 billion ($6.85 billion in 2024 dollars[39]), Facebook joined theFortune 500list for the first time in May 2013, ranked 462.[92]The shares set a first-day record for trading volume of an IPO (460 million shares).[93]The IPO was controversial given the immediate price declines that followed,[94][95][96][97]and was the subject of lawsuits,[98]while SEC and FINRA both launched investigations.[99]
Zuckerberg announced at the start of October 2012 that Facebook had one billion monthly active users,[100]including 600 million mobile users, 219 billion photo uploads and 140 billion friend connections.[101]
On October 1, 2012, Zuckerberg visited Russian Prime MinisterDmitry Medvedevin Moscow to stimulate social media innovation in Russia and to boost Facebook's position in the Russian market.[102][103]
On January 15, 2013, Facebook announcedFacebook Graph Search, which provides users with a "precise answer", rather than a link to an answer by leveraging data present on its site.[104]Facebook emphasized that the feature would be "privacy-aware", returning results only from content already shared with the user.[105]On April 3, 2013, Facebook unveiledFacebook Home, a user-interface layer for Android devices offering greater integration with the site.HTCannouncedHTC First, a phone with Home pre-loaded.[106]
On April 15, 2013, Facebook announced an alliance across 19 states with the National Association of Attorneys General, to provide teenagers and parents with information on tools to manage social networking profiles.[107]On April 19 Facebook modified its logo to remove the faint blue line at the bottom of the "F" icon. The letter F moved closer to the edge of the box.[108]
Following a campaign by 100 advocacy groups, Facebook agreed to update its policy on hate speech. The campaign highlighted content promotingdomestic violenceandsexual violenceagainst women and led 15 advertisers to withdraw, including Nissan UK, House of Burlesque, and Nationwide UK. The company initially stated, "while it may be vulgar and offensive, distasteful content on its own does not violate our policies".[109]It took action on May 29.[110]
On June 12, Facebook announced that it was introducing clickablehashtagsto help users follow trending discussions, or search what others are talking about on a topic.[111]San Mateo County, California, became the top wage-earning county in the country after the fourth quarter of 2012 because of Facebook. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that the average salary was 107% higher than the previous year, at $168,000 a year ($230,096 in 2024 dollars[39]), more than 50% higher than the next-highest county, New York County (better known asManhattan), at roughly $110,000 a year ($150,658 in 2024 dollars[39]).[112]
Facebook joinedAlliance for Affordable Internet(A4AI) in October, as it launched. The A4AI is a coalition of public and private organizations that includes Google,Inteland Microsoft. Led bySir Tim Berners-Lee, the A4AI seeks to make Internet access more affordable to ease access in the developing world.[113]
The company celebrated its 10th anniversary during the week of February 3, 2014.[114]In January 2014, over one billion users connected via a mobile device.[115]As of June, mobile accounted for 62% of advertising revenue, an increase of 21% from the previous year.[116]By September Facebook's market capitalization had exceeded $200 billion ($266 billion in 2024 dollars[39]).[117][118][119]
Zuckerberg participated in a Q&A session atTsinghua Universityin Beijing, China, on October 23, where he attempted to converse in Mandarin. Zuckerberg hosted visiting Chinese politicianLu Wei, known as the "Internet czar" for his influence in China's online policy, on December 8.[120][121][122]
As of 2015[update], Facebook's algorithm was revised in an attempt to filter out false or misleading content, such asfake newsstories and hoaxes. It relied on users who flag a story accordingly. Facebook maintained that satirical content should not be intercepted.[123]The algorithm was accused of maintaining a "filter bubble", where material the user disagrees with[124]and posts with few likes would be deprioritized.[125]In November, Facebook extended paternity leave from 4 weeks to 4 months.[126]
On April 12, 2016, Zuckerberg outlined his 10-year vision, which rested on three main pillars:artificial intelligence, increased global connectivity, andvirtualandaugmented reality.[127]In July, aUS$1 billionsuit was filed against the company alleging that it permittedHamasto use it to perform assaults that cost the lives of four people.[128]Facebook released its blueprints of Surround 360 camera onGitHubunder anopen-source license.[129]In September, it won anEmmyfor its animated short "Henry".[130]In October, Facebook announced a fee-based communications tool calledWorkplacethat aims to "connect everyone" at work. Users can create profiles, see updates from co-workers on their news feed, stream live videos and participate in secure group chats.[131]
Following the2016 U.S. presidential election, Facebook announced that it would combat fake news by using fact checkers from sites likeFactCheck.organdAssociated Press(AP), making reporting hoaxes easier through crowdsourcing, and disrupting financial incentives for abusers.[132]
On January 17, 2017, Facebook COOSheryl Sandbergplanned to open Station F, a startup incubator campus in Paris, France.[134]On a six-month cycle, Facebook committed to work with ten to 15 data-driven startups there.[135]On April 18, Facebook announced the beta launch ofFacebook Spacesat its annual F8 developer conference.[136]Facebook Spaces is a virtual reality version of Facebook for Oculus VR goggles. In a virtual and shared space, users can access a curated selection of 360-degree photos and videos using their avatar, with the support of the controller. Users can access their own photos and videos, along with media shared on their newsfeed.[137]In September, Facebook announced it would spend up to US$1 billion on original shows for its Facebook Watch platform.[138]On October 16, it acquired the anonymous compliment apptbh, announcing its intention to leave the app independent.[139][140][141][142]
In October 2017, Facebook expanded its work withDefiners Public Affairs, a PR firm that had originally been hired to monitor press coverage of the company to address concerns primarily regardingRussian meddling, thenmishandling of user databyCambridge Analytica, hate speech on Facebook, and calls for regulation.[143]Company spokesman Tim Miller stated that a goal for tech firms should be to "have positive content pushed out about your company and negative content that's being pushed out about your competitor". Definers claimed thatGeorge Soroswas the force behind what appeared to be a broad anti-Facebook movement, and created other negative media, along withAmerica Rising, that was picked up by larger media organisations likeBreitbart News.[143][144]Facebook cut ties with the agency in late 2018, following public outcry over their association.[145]Posts originating from the Facebook page ofBreitbart News, a media organization previously affiliated with Cambridge Analytica,[146]were among the most widely shared political content on Facebook.[147][148][149][150][excessive citations]
In May 2018 atF8, the company announced it would offer its own dating service. Shares in competitorMatch Groupfell by 22%.[151]Facebook Datingincludes privacy features and friends are unable to view their friends' dating profile.[152]In July, Facebook was charged £500,000 by UK watchdogs for failing to respond to data erasure requests.[153]On July 18, Facebook established a subsidiary named Lianshu Science & Technology inHangzhou City, China, with $30 million ($37.6 million in 2024 dollars[39]) of capital. All its shares are held by Facebook Hong.[154]Approval of the registration of the subsidiary was then withdrawn, due to a disagreement between officials in Zhejiang province and theCyberspace Administration of China.[155]On July 26, Facebook became the first company to lose over $100 billion ($125 billion in 2024 dollars[39]) worth of market capitalization in one day, dropping from nearly $630 billion to $510 billion after disappointing sales reports.[156][157]On July 31, Facebook said that the company had deleted 17 accounts related to the2018 U.S. midterm elections. On September 19, Facebook announced that, for news distribution outside the United States, it would work with U.S. fundeddemocracy promotionorganizations,International Republican Instituteand theNational Democratic Institute, which are loosely affiliated with theRepublicanandDemocraticparties.[158]Through the Digital Forensic Research Lab Facebook partners with theAtlantic Council, aNATO-affiliated think tank.[158]In November, Facebook launched smart displays brandedPortaland Portal Plus (Portal+). They supportAmazon'sAlexa(intelligent personal assistant service). The devices include video chat function with Facebook Messenger.[159][160]
In August 2018, a lawsuit was filed in Oakland, California claiming that Facebook created fake accounts to inflate its user data and appeal to advertisers in the process.[161]
In January 2019, the 10-year challenge was started[162]asking users to post a photograph of themselves from 10 years ago (2009) and a more recent photo.[163]
Criticized for its role invaccine hesitancy, Facebook announced in March 2019 that it would provide users with "authoritative information" on the topic of vaccines.[164]A study published in the journalVaccineof advertisements posted in the three months prior to that found that 54% of the anti-vaccine advertisements on Facebook were placed by just two organisations funded by well-known anti-vaccination activists.[165][166]TheChildren's Health Defense/ World Mercury Project chaired byRobert F. Kennedy Jr.andStop Mandatory Vaccination, run by campaigner Larry Cook, posted 54% of the advertisements. The ads often linked to commercial products, such as natural remedies and books.
On March 14, theHuffington Postreported that Facebook's PR agency had paid someone to tweak Facebook COOSheryl Sandberg's Wikipedia page, as well as adding a page for the global head of PR, Caryn Marooney.[167]
In March 2019, the perpetrator of theChristchurch mosque shootingsin New Zealand used Facebook to stream live footage of the attack as it unfolded. Facebook took 29 minutes to detect the livestreamed video, which was eight minutes longer than it took police to arrest the gunman. About 1.3m copies of the video were blocked from Facebook but 300,000 copies were published and shared. Facebook has promised changes to its platform; spokesman Simon Dilner told Radio New Zealand that it could have done a better job. Several companies, including the ANZ and ASB banks, have stopped advertising on Facebook after the company was widely condemned by the public.[168]Following the attack, Facebook began blockingwhite nationalist,white supremacist, andwhite separatistcontent, saying that they could not be meaningfully separated. Previously, Facebook had only blocked overtly supremacist content. The older policy had been condemned by civil rights groups, who described these movements as functionally indistinct.[169][170]Further bans were made in mid-April 2019, banning severalBritish far-right organizationsand associated individuals from Facebook, and also banning praise or support for them.[171][172]
NTJ's member Moulavi Zahran Hashim, a radicalIslamistimambelieved to be the mastermind behind the2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings, preached on a pro-ISILFacebook account, known as "Al-Ghuraba" media.[173][174]
On May 2, 2019, at F8, the company announced its new vision with the tagline "the future is private".[175]A redesign of the website and mobile app was introduced, dubbed as "FB5".[176]The event also featured plans for improving groups,[177]a dating platform,[178]end-to-end encryption on its platforms,[179]and allowing users on Messenger to communicate directly withWhatsAppand Instagram users.[180][181]
On July 31, 2019, Facebook announced a partnership withUniversity of California, San Franciscoto build a non-invasive, wearable device that lets people type by simply imagining themselves talking.[182]
On August 13, 2019, it was revealed that Facebook had enlisted hundreds of contractors to create and obtain transcripts of the audio messages of users.[183][184][185]This was especially common of Facebook Messenger, where the contractors frequently listened to and transcribed voice messages of users.[185]After this was first reported on byBloomberg News, Facebook released a statement confirming the report to be true,[184]but also stated that the monitoring program was now suspended.[184]
On September 5, 2019, Facebook launchedFacebook Datingin the United States. This new application allows users to integrate theirInstagramposts in their dating profile.[186]
Facebook News, which features selected stories from news organizations, was launched on October 25.[187]Facebook's decision to include far-right websiteBreitbart Newsas a "trusted source" was negatively received.[188][189]
On November 17, 2019, the banking data for 29,000 Facebook employees was stolen from a payroll worker's car. The data was stored on unencrypted hard drives and included bank account numbers, employee names, the last four digits of their social security numbers, salaries, bonuses, and equity details. The company did not realize the hard drives were missing until November 20. Facebook confirmed that the drives contained employee information on November 29. Employees were not notified of the break-in until December 13, 2019.[190]
On March 10, 2020, Facebook appointed two new directors Tracey Travis and Nancy Killefer to their board of members.[191]
In June 2020, several major companies includingAdidas,Aviva,Coca-Cola,Ford,HP,InterContinental Hotels Group,Mars,Starbucks,Target, andUnilever, announced they would pause adverts on Facebook for July in support of theStop Hate For Profitcampaign which claimed the company was not doing enough to remove hateful content.[192]The BBC noted that this was unlikely to affect the company as most of Facebook's advertising revenue comes from small- to medium-sized businesses.[193]
On August 14, 2020, Facebook started integrating the direct messaging service ofInstagramwith its own Messenger for bothiOSandAndroiddevices. After the update, an update screen is said to pop up on Instagram's mobile app with the following message, "There's a New Way to Message on Instagram" with a list of additional features. As part of the update, the regular DM icon on the top right corner of Instagram will be replaced by theFacebook Messengerlogo.[194]
On September 15, 2020, Facebook launched a climate science information centre to promote authoritative voices onclimate changeand provide access of "factual and up-to-date" information on climate science. It featured facts, figures and data from organizations, including theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC),Met Office,UN Environment Programme(UNEP),National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) andWorld Meteorological Organization(WMO), with relevant news posts.[195]
After the2020 U.S. presidential election, Facebook temporarily increased the weight of ecosystem quality in its news feed algorithm.[196]
In January 2021, as part of a redesign, Facebook removed likes from its public pages used by famous people and brands.[197]
Facebook was sued by theFederal Trade Commissionas well as a coalition of several states for illegal monopolization and antitrust. The FTC and states sought the courts to force Facebook to sell its subsidiaries WhatsApp andInstagram.[198][199]The suits were dismissed by a federal judge on June 28, 2021, who stated that there was not enough evidence brought in the suit to determine Facebook to be a monopoly at this point, though allowed the FTC to amend its case to include additional evidence.[200]In its amended filings in August 2021, the FTC asserted that Facebook had been a monopoly in the area of personal social networks since 2011, distinguishing Facebook's activities from social media services likeTikTokthat broadcast content without necessarily limiting that message to intended recipients.[201]
In response to the proposed bill in the Australian Parliament for aNews Media Bargaining Code, on February 17, 2021, Facebook blocked Australian users from sharing or viewing news content on its platform, as well as pages of some government, community, union, charity, political, and emergency services.[202]The Australian government strongly criticised the move, saying it demonstrated the "immense market power of these digital social giants".[203]On February 22, Facebook said it reached an agreement with the Australian government that would see news returning to Australian users in the coming days. As part of this agreement, Facebook and Google can avoid theNews Media Bargaining Codeadopted on February 25 if they "reach a commercial bargain with a news business outside the Code".[204][205][206]Facebook has been accused of removing andshadow banningcontent that spoke either in favor ofprotesting Indian farmersor againstNarendra Modi's government.[207][208][209][210]India-based employees of Facebook are at risk of arrest.[211]On February 27, 2021, Facebook announced Facebook BARS app forrappers.[212]On June 29, 2021, Facebook announcedBulletin, a platform for independent writers.[213][214]Unlike competitors such asSubstack, Facebook would not take a cut of subscription fees of writers using that platform upon its launch, likeMalcolm GladwellandMitch Albom. According toThe Washington Posttechnology writer Will Oremus, the move was criticized by those who viewed it as a tactic intended by Facebook to force those competitors out of business.[215]
In October 2021, owner Facebook, Inc. changed its company name toMeta Platforms, Inc., or simply "Meta", as it shifts its focus to building the "metaverse". This change does not affect the name of the Facebook social networking service itself, instead being similar to the creation ofAlphabetas Google's parent company in 2015.[216]
In November 2021, Facebook stated it would stop targeting ads based on data related to health, race, ethnicity, political beliefs, religion and sexual orientation. The change will occur in January and will affect all apps owned by Meta Platforms.[217]
In February 2022, Facebook's daily active users dropped for the first time in its 18-year history. According to Facebook's parent Meta, DAUs dropped to 1.929 billion in the three months ending in December, down from 1.930 billion the previous quarter. Furthermore, the company warned that revenue growth would slow due to competition from TikTok and YouTube, as well as advertisers cutting back on spending.[218]
On March 10, 2022, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine, Facebook announced that it would temporarily ease rules against violent speech in some cases when targeted at "Russian invaders", though it would still not tolerate credible threats against Russian civilians.[219]Russia then banned all Meta services, includingInstagram.[220]
In September 2022, Jonathan Vanian, a Technology Reporter for CNBC, wrote a piece on CNBC.com about the recent struggles Facebook was experiencing, writing, "Users are jumping ship and advertisers are reducing their spending, leaving Meta poised to report its second straight drop in quarterly revenue." He also cited poor leadership decisions devoting resources to the metaverse, writing, "CEO Mark Zuckerberg spends much of his time proselytizing the metaverse, which may be the company's future but accounts for virtually none of its near-term revenue and is costing billions of dollars a year to build." He also detailed accounts from analysts predicting a "death spiral" for Facebook stock as users leave, ad impressions increase, and the company chases revenue.[221]
On October 4, 2021, Facebook had its worst outage since 2008. The outage was global in scope, and took down all Facebook properties, includingInstagramand WhatsApp, from approximately 15:39 UTC to 22:05 UTC, and affected roughly three billion users.[222][223][224]Security experts identified the problem as aBGPwithdrawal of all of theIProutes to theirDomain Name (DNS) serverswhich were all self-hosted at the time.[225][226]The outage also affected all internal communications systems used by Facebook employees, which disrupted restoration efforts.[226]
The outage cut off Facebook's internal communications, preventing employees from sending or receiving external emails, accessing the corporate directory, and authenticating to someGoogle DocsandZoomservices.[227][228]The outage had a major impact on people in thedeveloping world, who depend on Facebook's "Free Basics" program, affecting communication, business and humanitarian work.[229][230][231]
Facebook's chief technology officer,Mike Schroepfer, wrote an apology after the downtime had extended to several hours,[232][233]saying, "Teams are working as fast as possible to debug and restore as fast as possible."[234]
On November 2, 2021, Facebook announced it would shut down its facial recognition technology and delete the data on over a billion users.[235]Meta later announced plans to implement the technology as well as other biometric systems in its future products, such as themetaverse.[236]
The shutdown of the technology will reportedly also stop Facebook's automated alt text system, used to transcribe media on the platform for visually impaired users.[236]
In February 2023, Meta CEO Mark Zuckerberg announced that Meta would start selling blue "verified" badges on Instagram and Facebook.[237]
Facebook was initially incorporated as a Florida LLC. For the first few months after its launch in February 2004, the costs for the website operations for thefacebook.com were paid for by Mark Zuckerberg and Eduardo Saverin, who had taken equity stakes in the company. The website also ran a few advertisements to meet its operating costs.[238]
In the summer of 2004,venture capitalistPeter Thielmade a $500,001angel investmentin the social network Facebook for 10.2% of the company and joined Facebook's board. This was the first outside investment in Facebook.[239][240][241]
In his bookThe Facebook Effect,David Kirkpatrickoutlines the story of how Thiel came to make his investment: formerNapsterandPlaxoemployeeSean Parker, who at the time had assumed the title of "President" of Facebook, was seeking investors for Facebook. Parker approachedReid Hoffman, the CEO of work-based social networkLinkedIn. Hoffman liked Facebook but declined to be the lead investor because of the potential for conflict of interest with his duties as LinkedIn CEO. He redirected Parker to Peter Thiel, whom he knew from theirPayPaldays (both Hoffman and Thiel are considered members of thePayPal Mafia). Thiel met Parker andMark Zuckerberg, the Harvard college student who had founded Facebook and controlled it. Thiel and Zuckerberg got along well and Thiel agreed to lead Facebook's seed round with $500,000 for 10.2% of the company. Hoffman andMark Pincusalso participated in the round, along with Maurice Werdegar who led the investment on behalf of Western Technology Investment. The investment was originally in the form of aconvertible note, to be converted to equity if Facebook reached 1.5 million users by the end of 2004. Although Facebook narrowly missed the target, Thiel allowed the loan to be converted to equity anyway.[242]Thiel said of his investment:
I was comfortable with them pursuing their original vision. And it was a very reasonable valuation. I thought it was going to be a pretty safe investment.[242]
In April 2005,Accel Partnersagreed to make a $12.7 millionventure capitalinvestment in a deal that valued Facebook at $98 million.[243]Accel joined Facebook's board, and the board was expanded to five seats, with Zuckerberg, Thiel, and Accel'sJim Breyerin three of the seats, and the other two seats currently being empty but with Zuckerberg free to nominate anybody to those seats.[244]
In April 2006, Facebook closed its Series B funding round. This included $27.5 million from a number of venture capitalists, includingGreylock PartnersandMeritech Capital, plus additional investments fromPeter ThielandAccel Partners. The valuation for this round was about $500 million.[241][245][246]
A leakedcash flow statementshowed that during the 2005fiscal year, Facebook had a net gain of $5.66 million.[247]
With the sale of social networking websiteMySpacetoNews Corpon July 19, 2005, rumours surfaced about the possible sale of Facebook to a larger media company.[248]Zuckerberg had already stated that he did not want to sell the company, and denied rumors to the contrary.[249]On March 28, 2006,BusinessWeekreported that a potential acquisition of Facebook was under negotiation. Facebook reportedly declined an offer of $750 million from an unknown bidder, and it was rumored the asking price rose as high as $2 billion.[250]
In September 2006, serious talks between Facebook andYahoo!took place concerning acquisition of Facebook, with prices reaching as high as $1 billion.[251][252]Thiel, by then a board member of Facebook, indicated that Facebook's internal valuation was around $8 billion based on their projected revenues of $1 billion by 2015, comparable to Viacom's MTV brand, a company with a shared target demographic audience.[253]
On July 17, 2007, Zuckerberg said that selling Facebook was unlikely because he wanted to keep it independent, saying "We're not really looking to sell the company ... We're not looking toIPOanytime soon. It's just not the core focus of the company."[254]In September 2007, Microsoft approached Facebook, proposing an investment in return for a 5% stake in the company, offering an estimated $300–500 million.[255]That month, other companies, including Google, expressed interest in buying a portion of Facebook.[256]
On October 24, 2007,Microsoftannounced that it had purchased a 1.6% share of Facebook for $240 million, giving Facebook a total implied value of around $15 billion.[257]However, Microsoft boughtpreferred stockthat carried special rights, such as "liquidation preferences" that meant Microsoft would get paid before common stockholders if the company were sold. Microsoft's purchase also included the right to place international ads on Facebook.[258]In November 2007, Hong Kong billionaireLi Ka-shinginvested $60 million in Facebook.[259]
In 2009,Yuri Milner'sDST(which later split into DST Global andMail.ru Group), alongside Uzbek Russian metals magnateAlisher Usmanov, invested $200 million in Facebook when it was valued at $10 billion.[260][261][262]A separate stake was also acquired by Usmanov's USM Holdings on another occasion.[263][260]According to the New York Times in 2013, "Mr. Usmanov and other Russian investors at one point owned nearly 10 percent of Facebook, though precise details of their ownership stakes are difficult to assess."[263]It was later revealed in 2017 by theParadise Papersthat lending by Russian state-backedVTB BankandGazprom's investment vehicle partially financed these 2009 investments, although Milner was reportedly unaware at the time.[264][265]
In August 2008,BusinessWeekreported that private sales by employees, as well as purchases by venture capital firms, were being done at share prices that put the company's total valuation at between $3.75 billion and $5 billion.[258]In October 2008, Zuckerberg said "I don't think social networks can be monetized in the same way that search did ... In three years from now we have to figure out what the optimum model is. But that is not our primary focus today."[266]
Facebook hiredSheryl Sandbergas its chief operating officer in March 2008. Sandberg is reported to have held a number of brainstorming sessions with Facebook employees on their long-term monetization strategy, which led to the conclusion that advertising would be the main source of monetization. Under Sandberg's leadership, Facebook made a number of changes to its advertising model with the aim of achieving profitability. In September 2009, Facebook stated that it had turned cash flow positive for the first time.[267]
In early 2012, Facebook disclosed that its profits had jumped 65% to $1 billion in the previous year when its revenue, which is mainly from advertising, had jumped almost 90% to $3.71 billion.[268]Facebook also reported that 56% of its advertising revenue comes from the United States alone, and that 12% of its revenue comes fromZynga, the social network game development company. Payments and other fees were $557 million up from $106 million the previous year.[269]
In August 2009, Facebook acquired social media real-timenews aggregatorFriendFeed,[270]a startup created byGmail's first engineerPaul Buchheit.[271][272][273]
In February 2010, Facebook acquired Malaysian contact-importing startup Octazen Solutions.[274]On April 2, 2010, Facebook announced acquisition of a photo-sharing service calledDivvyshotfor an undisclosed amount.[275]In June 2010, anonline marketplacefor trading private Facebook stock reflected a valuation of $11.5 billion.[276]
On April 12, 2012, Facebook acquired photo sharing serviceInstagramfor approximately $1 billion in cash and stock.[277][278]
On March 8, 2013, Facebook announced that they acquired the team from Storylane, but not the product itself.[279]On October 13, 2013, Facebook acquiredOnavo, an Israelianalyticscompany, for approximately $120 million.[280][281][282]
On February 19, 2014, Facebook announced its acquisition ofWhatsApp, a smartphone instant messaging application for $19 billion in a mix of stock and cash. The acquisition is the most ever paid for a venture-capital backed startup.[283]
On March 25, 2014, Facebook announced they had acquired virtual reality startupOculus VRfor $2 billion in cash and stock.[284]
Facebook filed for aninitial public offering(IPO) on February 1, 2012.[285]The preliminary prospectus stated that the company was seeking to raise $5 billion. The document announced that the company had 845 million active monthly users and its website featured 2.7 billion daily likes and comments.[286]After the IPO, Zuckerberg retains a 22% ownership share in Facebook and owns 57% of the voting shares.[287]
Underwritersvalued the shares at $38 each, pricing the company at $104 billion, the largest valuation to date for a newly public company.[288]On May 16, one day before the IPO, Facebook announced that it would sell 25% more shares than originally planned due to high demand.[289]The IPO raised $16 billion, making it the third largest in U.S. history (just ahead ofAT&T Wirelessand behind onlyGeneral MotorsandVisa Inc.).[90][91]The stock price left the company with a highermarket capitalizationthan all but a few U.S. corporations – surpassing heavyweights such asAmazon.com,McDonald's,Disney, andKraft Foods– and made Zuckerberg's stock worth $19 billion.[90][91]The New York Timesstated that the offering overcame questions about Facebook's difficulties in attracting advertisers to transform the company into a "must-own stock".Jimmy LeeofJPMorgan Chasedescribed it as "the next great blue-chip".[90]Writers atTechCrunch, on the other hand, expressed skepticism, stating, "That's a big multiple to live up to, and [Facebook] will likely need to add bold new revenue streams to justify the mammoth valuation".[290]
Trading in the stock, which began on May 18, was delayed that day due to technical problems with theNASDAQexchange.[38]The stock struggled to stay above the IPO price for most of the day, forcing underwriters to buy back shares to support the price.[291]At closing bell, shares were valued at $38.23,[292]only $0.23 above the IPO price and down $3.82 from the opening bell value. The opening was widely described by the financial press as a disappointment.[293]The stock nonetheless set a new record for trading volume of an IPO.[294]On May 25, 2012, the stock ended its first full week of trading at $31.91, a 16.5% decline.[295]
On 22 May, regulators fromWall Street'sFinancial Industry Regulatory Authorityannounced that they had begun to investigate whether banks underwriting Facebook had improperly shared information only with select clients, rather than the general public.MassachusettsSecretary of StateWilliam GalvinsubpoenaedMorgan Stanleyover the same issue.[296]The allegations sparked "fury" among some investors and led to the immediate filing of several lawsuits, one of them aclass actionsuit claiming more than $2.5 billion in losses due to the IPO.[297]Bloombergestimated thatretail investorsmay have lost approximately $630 million on Facebook stock since its debut.[298]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Facebook
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Asocial networking service(SNS), orsocial networking site, is a type of onlinesocial mediaplatform which people use to buildsocial networksorsocial relationshipswith other people who share similar personal or career content, interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections.[1][2]
Social networking services vary in format and the number of features. They can incorporate a range of new information and communication tools, operating ondesktopsand onlaptops, on mobile devices such astablet computersandsmartphones. This may feature digital photo/video/sharing and diary entries online (blogging).[2]Online communityservices are sometimes considered social-network services by developers and users, though in a broader sense, a social-network service usually provides an individual-centered service whereas online community services are groups centered. Generally defined as "websites that facilitate the building of a network of contacts in order to exchange various types of content online," social networking sites provide a space for interaction to continue beyond in-person interactions. These computer mediated interactions link members of various networks and may help to create, sustain and develop new social and professional relationships.[3]
Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, digital photos and videos, posts, and to inform others about online or real-world activities and events with people within their social network. While in-person social networking – such as gathering in a village market to talk about events – has existed since the earliest development of towns,[4]the web enables people to connect with others who live in different locations across the globe (dependent on access to anInternet connectionto do so).
Depending on the platform, members may be able to contact any other member. In other cases, members can contact anyone they have a connection to, and subsequently anyone that contact has a connection to, and so on.
Facebookhaving a massive 2.13 billion active monthly users and an average of 1.4 billiondaily active usersin 2017.[5]
LinkedIn, a career-oriented social-networking service, generally requires that a member personally know another member inreal lifebefore they contact them online. Some services require members to have a preexisting connection to contact other members.
WithCOVID-19,Zoom, avideoconferencingplatform, has taken an integral place to connect people located around the world and facilitate many online environments such as school, university, work and government meetings.
The main types of social networking services containcategory places(such as age or occupation or religion), means to connect with friends (usually with self-description pages), and a recommendation system linked to trust. One can categorize social-network services into four types:[6]
There have been attempts to standardize these services to avoid the need to duplicate entries of friends and interests (see theFOAFstandard). A study reveals thatIndiarecorded world's largest growth in terms of social media users in 2013.[7]A 2013 survey found that 73% of U.S. adults use social-networking sites.[8]
The potential for computer networking to facilitate newly improved forms of computer-mediated social interaction was suggested early on.[30]Efforts to support social networks viacomputer-mediated communicationwere made in many early online services, includingUsenet,[31]ARPANET,LISTSERV, and bulletin board services (BBS). Many prototypical features of social networking sites were also present in online services such asThe Source,Delphi,America Online,Prodigy,CompuServe, andThe WELL.[32]
Early social networking on theWorld Wide Webbegan in the form of generalized online communities such asTheglobe.com(1995),[33]Geocities(1994) andTripod.com(1995). Many of these early communities focused on bringing people together to interact with each other through chat rooms and encouraged users to share personal information and ideas via personal web pages by providing easy-to-use publishing tools and free or inexpensive web space. Some communities – such asClassmates.com– took a different approach by simply having people link to each other via email addresses.PlanetAllstarted in 1996.
In the late 1990s,user profilesbecame a central feature of social networking sites, allowing users to compile lists of "friends" and search for other users with similar interests. New social networking methods were developed by the end of the 1990s, and many sites began to develop more advanced features for users to find and manage friends.[34]Open Diary, a community for online diarists, invented both friends-only content and the reader comment, two features of social networks important to user interaction.[35]
This newer generation of social networking sites began to flourish with the emergence ofSixDegreesin 1997,[2]Open Diaryin 1998,[36]Mixiin 1999,[37]Makeoutclubin 2000,[38][39]Cyworldin 2001,[40][2]Hub Culturein 2002, andFriendsterandNexopiain 2003.[41]Cyworld also became one of the first companies to profit from the sale ofvirtual goods.[42][43]MySpaceandLinkedInwere launched in 2003, andBebowas launched in 2005.Orkutbecame the first popular social networking service in Brazil (although most of its very first users were from the United States) and quickly grew in popularity in India (Madhavan, 2007).[2]There was a rapid increase in social networking sites' popularity; in 2005, MySpace had morepageviewsthanGoogle.[44]Many of these services were displaced byFacebook, which launched in 2004 and became the largest social networking site in the world in 2009.[45][46]
The termsocial mediawas first used in 2004 and is often used to describe social networking services.[47][48]
Web-based social networking services make it possible to connect people who share interests and activities across political, economic, and geographic borders.[49]Through e-mail and instant messaging,online communitiesare created where agift economyandreciprocal altruismare encouraged throughcooperation. Information is suited to agift economy, as information is anonrival goodand can be gifted at practically no cost.[50][51]Scholars have noted that the term "social" cannot account for technological features of the social network platforms alone.[52]Hence, the level of network sociability should determine by the actual performances of its users. According to the communication theory of uses and gratifications, an increasing number of individuals are looking to the Internet and social media to fulfill cognitive, affective, personal integrative, social integrative, and tension free needs. With Internet technology as a supplement to fulfill needs, it is in turn affecting everyday life, including relationships, school, church, entertainment, and family.[53]Companies are using social media as a way to learn about potential employees' personalities and behavior. In numerous situations, a candidate who might otherwise have been hired has been rejected due to offensive or otherwise unseemly photos or comments posted to social networks or appearing on a newsfeed.
Facebookand other social networking tools are increasingly the aims of scholarly research. Scholars in many fields have begun to investigate the impact of social networking sites, investigating how such sites may play into issues ofidentity, politics,privacy,[54]social capital,youth culture, andeducation.[55]Research has also suggested that individuals add offline friends onFacebookto maintain contact and often this blurs the lines between work and home lives.[56]Users from around the world also utilise social networking sites as an alternativenewssource.[57]While social networking sites have arguably changed how we access the news,[58]users tend to have mixed opinions about the reliability of content accessed through these sites.[59]
According to a study in 2015, 63% of the users of Facebook or Twitter in the USA consider these networks to be their main source of news, with entertainment news being the most seen. In the times of breaking news, Twitter users are more likely to stay invested in the story. In some cases when the news story is more political, users may be more likely to voice their opinion on a linked Facebook story with a comment or like, while Twitter users will just follow the site's feed and retweet the article.[60]In online social networks, the veracity and reliability of news may be diminished due to the absence of traditional media gatekeepers.[61]
A 2015 study shows that 85% of people aged 18 to 34 use social networking sites for their purchase decision making. While over 65% of people aged 55 and over-rely on word of mouth.[62]Several websites are beginning to tap into the power of the social networking model forphilanthropy. Such models provide a means for connecting otherwise fragmented industries and small organizations without the resources to reach a broader audience with interested users.[63]Social networks are providing a different way for individuals to communicate digitally. These communities of hypertexts allow for the sharing of information and ideas, an old concept placed in a digital environment. In 2011, HCL Technologies conducted research that showed that 50% of British employers had banned the use of social networking sites/services during office hours.[64][65]
Research has provided us with mixed results as to whether or not a person's involvement in social networking can affect their feelings ofloneliness. Studies have indicated that how a person chooses to use social networking can change their feelings of loneliness in either a negative or positive way. Some companies with mobile workers have encouraged their workers to use social networking to feel connected. Educators are using social networking to stay connected with their students whereas individuals use it to stay connected with their close relationships.[66]
Social networking sites can be used by consumers to create a social media firestorm which is "A digital artifact created by large numbers of user comments of multiple purposes (condemnation and support) and tones (aggressive and cordial) that appear rapidly and recede shortly after”.[1]
Each social networking user is able to create a community that centers around a personal identity they choose to create online.[67]In his bookDigital Identities: Creating and Communicating the Online Self,[68]Rob Coverargues that social networking's foundation inWeb 2.0, high-speed networking shifts online representation to one which is both visual and relational to other people, complexifying the identity process for younger people and creating new forms ofanxiety.[68]In 2016, news reports stated that excessive usage of SNS sites may be associated with an increase in the rates of depression, to almost triple the rate for non-SNS users. Experts worldwide[which?]have said that 2030 people who use SNS more have higher levels of depression than those who use SNS less.[69]At least one study went as far as to conclude that the negative effects of Facebook usage are equal to or greater than the positive effects of face-to-face interactions.[70]
According to a recent article fromComputers in Human Behavior, Facebook has also been shown to lead to issues of social comparison. Users are able to select which photos and status updates to post, allowing them to portray their lives in acclamatory manners.[71]These updates can lead to other users feeling like their lives are inferior by comparison.[72]Users may feel especially inclined to compare themselves to other users with whom they share similar characteristics or lifestyles, leading to a fairer comparison.[71]Motives for these comparisons can be associated with the goals of improving oneself by looking at profiles of people who one feels are superior, especially when their lifestyle is similar and possible.[71]One can also self-compare to make oneself feel superior to others by looking at the profiles of users who one believes to be worse off.[71]However, a study by the Harvard Business Review shows that these goals often lead to negative consequences, as use of Facebook has been linked with lower levels of well-being; mental health has been shown to decrease due to the use of Facebook.[72]Computers in Human Behavioremphasizes that these feelings of poor mental health have been suggested to cause people to take time off from their Facebook accounts; this action is called "Facebook Fatigue" and has been common in recent years.[71]
Usage of social networking has contributed to a new form of abusive communication, and academic research has highlighted a number of social-technological explanations for this behaviour. These including the anonymity afforded by interpersonal communications,[73]factors that include boredom or attention seeking,[74]or the result of morepolarisedonline debate.[75]The impact in this abuse has found impacts through the prevalence of onlinecyberbullying, andonline trolling. There has also been a marked increase in political violence and abuse through social media platforms. For instance, one study by Ward and McLoughlin found that 2.57% of all messages sent toUK MPsonTwitterwere found to contain abusive messages.[75]
According toboydandEllison's 2007 article, "Why Youth (Heart) Social Network Sites: The Role of Networked Publics in Teenage Social Life", social networking sites share a variety of technical features that allow individuals to: construct a public/semi-public profile, articulate a list of other users that they share a connection with, and view their list of connections within the system. The most basic of these are visible profiles with a list of "friends" who are also users of the site.[55]In an article entitled "Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship," boyd and Ellison adopt Sunden's (2003) description of profiles as unique pages where one can "type oneself into being".[2]A profile is generated from answers to questions, such as age, location, interests, etc. Some sites allow users to upload pictures, add multimedia content or modify the look and feel of the profile. Others, e.g., Facebook, allow users to enhance their profile by adding modules or "Applications".[2]Many sites allow users to post blog entries, search for others with similar interests and compile and share lists of contacts. User profiles often have a section dedicated to comments from friends and other users. To protect user privacy, social networks typically have controls that allow users to choose who can view their profile, contact them, add them to their list of contacts, and so on.[citation needed]
There is a trend towards moreinteroperability between social networksled by technologies such asOpenIDandOpenSocial. In most mobile communities, mobile phone users can now create their own profiles, make friends, participate in chat rooms, create chat rooms, hold private conversations, share photos and videos, and share blogs by using their mobile phone. Some companies provide wireless services that allow their customers to build their own mobile community and brand it; one of the most popular wireless services for social networking inNorth AmericaandNepalis Facebook Mobile.
Recently, Twitter has also introduced fact check labels to combat misinformation which was primarily spread due to the coronavirus but also has had an impact on debunking false claims by Donald Trump in the 2020 election.[citation needed]
Social media platforms may allow users to change theiruser name(or "handle", distinct from the "display name"), which could change theURLto their profile. Users are advised to do so with caution, since it could breakback linksfrom others' posts and comments depending on implementation, and external back links.[76]
The things you share are things that make you look good, things which you are happy to tie into your identity.
While the popularity of social networking consistently rises,[78]new uses for the technology are frequently being observed. Today's technologically savvy population requires convenient solutions to their daily needs.[79]At the forefront of emerging trends in social networking sites is the concept of "real-time web" and "location-based". Real-time allows users to contribute contents, which is then broadcast as it is being uploaded—the concept is analogous to live radio and television broadcasts.Twitterset the trend for "real-time" services, wherein users can broadcast to the world what they are doing, or what is on their minds within a 140-character limit.Facebookfollowed suit with their "Live Feed" where users' activities are streamed as soon as it happens. While Twitter focuses on words,Clixtr, another real-time service, focuses on group photo sharing wherein users can update their photo streams with photos while at an event. Facebook, however, remains the largest photo sharing site with over 250 billion photos as of September 2013.[80]In April 2012, the image-based social media networkPinteresthad become the third largest social network in the United States.[81]
Companies have begun to merge business technologies and solutions, such ascloud computing, with social networking concepts. Instead of connecting individuals based on social interest, companies are developing interactive communities that connect individuals based on shared business needs or experiences. Many provide specialized networking tools andapplicationsthat can be accessed via their websites, such asLinkedIn. Others companies, such asMonster.com, have been steadily developing a more "socialized" feel to their career center sites to harness some of the power of social networking sites. These more business related sites have their own nomenclature for the most part but the most common naming conventions are "Vocational Networking Sites" or "Vocational Media Networks", with the former more closely tied to individual networking relationships based on social networking principles.[citation needed]
Foursquaregained popularity as it allowed for users to check into places that they are frequenting at that moment.Gowallais another such service that functions in much the same way that Foursquare does, leveraging theGPSin phones to create a location-based user experience. Clixtr, though in the real-time space, is also a location-based social networking site, since events created by users are automatically geotagged, and users can view events occurring nearby through the ClixtriPhoneapp. Recently,Yelpannounced its entrance into the location-based social networking space through check-ins with their mobile app; whether or not this becomes detrimental to Foursquare or Gowalla is yet to be seen, as it is still considered a new space in the Internet technology industry.[82]
One popular use for this new technology is social networking between businesses. Companies have found that social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter are great ways to build their brand image. According to Jody Nimetz, author of Marketing Jive,[83]there are five major uses for businesses and social media: to create brand awareness, as an onlinereputation managementtool, for recruiting, to learn about new technologies and competitors, and as alead generationtool to intercept potential prospects.[83]These companies are able to drive traffic to their own online sites while encouraging their consumers and clients to have discussions on how to improve or change products or services. As of September 2013, 71% of online adults use Facebook, 17% use Instagram, 21% use Pinterest, and 22% use LinkedIn.[84]
One other use that is being discussed is the use of social networks in the science communities. Julia Porter Liebeskind et al. have published a study on how new biotechnology firms are using social networking sites to share exchanges in scientific knowledge.[85]They state in their study that by sharing information and knowledge with one another, they are able to "increase both their learning and their flexibility in ways that would not have been possible within a self-contained hierarchical organization". Social networking is allowing scientific groups to expand their knowledge base and share ideas, and without these new means of communicating their theories might become "isolated and irrelevant". Researchers use social networks frequently to maintain and develop professional relationships.[86]They are interested in consolidating social ties and professional contact, keeping in touch with friends and colleagues and seeing what their own contacts are doing. This can be related to their need to keep updated on the activities and events of their friends and colleagues in order to establish collaborations on common fields of interest and knowledge sharing.[87]
Social networks are also used to communicate scientists research results[88]and as a public communication tool and to connect people who share the same professional interests, their benefits can vary according to the discipline.[89]The most interesting aspects of social networks for professional purposes are their potentialities in terms of dissemination of information and the ability to reach and multiple professional contacts exponentially. Social networks likeAcademia.edu,LinkedIn,Facebook, andResearchGategive the possibility to join professional groups and pages, to share papers and results, publicize events, to discuss issues and create debates.[87]Academia.edu is extensively used by researchers, where they follow a combination of social networking and scholarly norms.[90]ResearchGate is also widely used by researchers, especially to disseminate and discuss their publications,[91]where it seems to attract an audience that it wider than just other scientists.[92]The usage of ResearchGate and Academia in different academic communities has increasingly been studied in recent years.[93]
The advent of social networking platforms may also be impacting the ways in which learners engage with technology in general. For a number of years, Prensky's (2001) dichotomy betweenDigital Nativesand Digital Immigrants has been considered a relatively accurate representation of the ease with which people of a certain age range—in particular those born before and after 1980—use technology. Prensky's theory has been largely disproved, however, and not least on account of the burgeoning popularity of social networking sites and other metaphors such as White and Le Cornu's "Visitors" and "Residents" (2011) are greater currency. The use of online social networks by school libraries is also increasingly prevalent and they are being used to communicate with potential library users, as well as extending the services provided by individual school libraries. Social networks and their educational uses are of interest to many researchers. According to Livingstone and Brake (2010), "Social networking sites, like much else on the Internet, represent a moving target for researchers and policymakers."[94]Pew Research Center project, called Pew Internet, did a USA-wide survey in 2009 and in 2010 February published that 47% of American adults use a social networking website.[95]Same survey found that 73% of online teenagers use SNS, which is an increase from 65% in 2008, 55% in 2006.[95]Recent studies have shown that social network services provide opportunities within professional education, curriculum education, and learning. However, there are constraints in this area. Researches, especially in Africa, have disclosed that the use of social networks among students has been known to affect their academic life negatively. This is buttressed by the fact that their use constitutes distractions, as well as that the students tend to invest a good deal of time in the use of such technologies.[citation needed]
Albayrak and Yildirim (2015) examined the educational use of social networking sites. They investigated students' involvement in Facebook as a Course Management System (CMS) and the findings of their study support that Facebook as a CMS has the potential to increase student involvement in discussions and out-of-class communication among instructors and students.[96]
Professional use of social networking services refers to the employment of a network site to connect with other professionals within a given field of interest. These type of social networking services are referred to as "Career-oriented social networking markets (CSNM)".[9]LinkedInis one example and is a social networking website geared towards companies and industry professionals looking to make new business contacts or keep in touch with previous co-workers, affiliates, and clients. LinkedIn provides not only a professional social use but also encourages people to inject their personality into their profile – making it more personal than a resume.[97]Similar websites to LinkedIn (also geared towards companies and industry professionals looking for work opportunities) to connect includeAngelList,XING,Goodwall, The Dots,[98]Jobcase,Bark.com, ...[99]Variousfreelance marketplacewebsites (which focus on freelance work) also exist. There are also a number of otheremployment websitesfocused oninternational volunteering, notablyVolunteerMatch,Idealist.organdAll for Good.[100]NationalWWOOFnetworks finally allow for searching forhomestayson organic farms.[101]
Now other social network sites are also being used in this manner.Twitterhas become [a] mainstay for professional development as well as promotion[102]and online SNSs support both the maintenance of existing social ties and the formation of new connections. Much of the early research on online communities assume that individuals using these systems would be connecting with others outside their preexisting social group or location, liberating them to form communities around shared interests, as opposed to shared geography.[103]Other researchers have suggested that the professional use of network sites produce "social capital". For individuals, social capital allows a person to draw on resources from other members of the networks to which he or she belongs.[104]These resources can take the form of useful information, personal relationships, or the capacity to organize groups. As well, networks within these services also can be established or built by joining special interest groups that others have made, or creating one and asking others to join.[105]
According to Doering, Beach, and O'Brien, a future English curriculum needs to recognize a significant shift in how adolescents are communicating with each other.[106]Curriculum uses of social networking services can also include sharing curriculum-related resources. Educators tap into user-generated content to find and discuss curriculum-related content for students. Responding to the popularity of social networking services among many students, teachers are increasingly using social networks to supplement teaching and learning in traditional classroom environments. This way they can provide new opportunities for enriching existing curriculum through creative, authentic and flexible, non-linear learning experiences.[107]Some social networks, such asEnglish, baby!andLiveMocha, are explicitly education-focused and couple instructional content with an educational peer environment.[108]The newWeb 2.0technologies built into most social networking services promote conferencing, interaction, creation, research on a global scale, enabling educators to share, remix, and repurpose curriculum resources. In short, social networking services can become research networks as well aslearning networks.[109]
Educators and advocates of newdigital literaciesare confident that social networking encourages the development of transferable, technical, and social skills of value in formal and informal learning.[94]In a formal learning environment, goals or objectives are determined by an outside department or agency.Tweeting,instant messaging, orbloggingenhances student involvement. Students who would not normally participate in class are more apt to partake through social network services. Networking allows participants the opportunity for just-in-time learning and higher levels of engagement.[110]The use of SNSs allow educators to enhance the prescribed curriculum. When learning experiences are infused into a website student utilize every day for fun, students realize that learning can and should be a part of everyday life.[111]It does not have to be separate and unattached.[112][unreliable source?]
Informal learning consists of the learner setting the goals and objectives. It has been claimed that media no longer just influence human culture; they are human culture.[113]With such a high number of users between the ages of 13 and 18, a number of skills are developed. Participants hone technical skills in choosing to navigate through social networking services. This includes elementary items such as sending an instant message or updating a status. The development of new media skills are paramount in helping youth navigate the digital world with confidence.
Social networking services foster learning through whatJenkins(2006) describes as a "participatory culture".[114]A participatory culture consists of a space that allows engagement, sharing, mentoring, and an opportunity for social interaction. Participants of social network services avail of this opportunity. Informal learning, in the forms of participatory and social learning online, is an excellent tool for teachers to sneak in material and ideas that students will identify with and therefore, in a secondary manner, students will learn skills that would normally be taught in a formal setting in the more interesting and engaging environment of social learning.[115][unreliable source?]Sites like Twitter provide students with the opportunity to converse and collaborate with others in real time.[citation needed]
Social networking services provide a virtual "space" for learners.James Gee(2004) suggests thataffinity spacesinstantiate participation, collaboration, distribution, dispersion of expertise, and relatedness.[116]Registered users share and search for knowledge which contributes to informal learning.[citation needed]
In the past, social networking services were viewed as a distraction and offered no educational benefit. Blocking these social networks was a form of protection for students against wasting time, bullying, and invasions of privacy. In an educational setting, Facebook, for example, is seen by many instructors and educators as a frivolous, time-wasting distraction from schoolwork, and it is not uncommon to be banned in junior high or high school computer labs.[112]Cyberbullyinghas become an issue of concern with social networking services. According to the UK Children Go Online survey of 9- to 19-year-olds, it was found that a third have received bullying comments online.[117]To avoid this problem, many school districts/boards have blocked access to social networking services such as Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter within the school environment. Social networking services often include a lot of personal information posted publicly, and many believe that sharing personal information is a window into privacy theft. Schools have taken action to protect students from this. It is believed that this outpouring of identifiable information and the easy communication vehicle that social networking services open the door to sexual predators, cyberbullying, andcyberstalking.[118]In contrast, however, 70% of social media using teens and 85% of adults believe that people are mostly kind to one another on social network sites.[95]
Recent research suggests that there has been a shift in blocking the use of social networking services. In many cases, the opposite is occurring as the potential of online networking services is being realized. It has been suggested that if schools block them [social networking services], they are preventing students from learning the skills they need.[119]Banning social networking [...] is not only inappropriate but also borderline irresponsible when it comes to providing the best educational experiences for students.[120]Schools and school districts have the option of educating safe media usage as well as incorporatingdigital mediainto the classroom experience, thus preparing students for the literacy they will encounter in the future.[citation needed]
A cyberpsychology research study conducted by Australian researchers demonstrated that a number of positive psychological outcomes are related to Facebook use. These researchers established that people can derive a sense of social connectedness and belongingness in the online environment. Importantly, this online social connectedness was associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety, and greater levels of subjective well-being. These findings suggest that the nature of online social networking determines the outcomes of online social network use.[121][122]
Social networks are being used by activists as a means of low-cost grassroots organizing. Extensive use of an array of social networking sites enabled organizers of 2009National Equality Marchto mobilize an estimated 200,000 participants to march on Washington with a cost savings of up to 85% per participant over previous methods.[123]The August2011 England riotswere similarly considered to have escalated and been fuelled by this type of grassroots organization.[citation needed]
A rise in social network use is being driven by college students using the services to network with professionals for internship and job opportunities. Many studies have been done on the effectiveness of networking online in a college setting, and one notable one is by Phipps Arabie and Yoram Wind published inAdvances in Social Network Analysis.[124]Many schools have implemented online alumni directories which serve as makeshift social networks that current and former students can turn to for career advice. However, these alumni directories tend to suffer from an oversupply of advice-seekers and an undersupply of advice providers. One new social networking service, Ask-a-peer, aims to solve this problem by enabling advice seekers to offer modest compensation to advisers for their time. LinkedIn is also another great resource. It helps alumni, students and unemployed individuals look for work. They are also able to connect with others professionally and network with companies.
In addition, employers have been found to use social network sites to screen job candidates.[125]
Asocial network hosting serviceis a web hosting service that specifically hosts the user creation of web-based social networking services, alongside related applications.[citation needed]
A social trade network is a service that allows participants interested in specific trade sectors to share related contents and personal opinions.[citation needed]
Few social networks charge money for membership. In part, this may be because social networking is a relatively new service, and the value of using them has not been firmly established in customers' minds. Companies such asMyspaceandFacebooksellonline advertisingon their site. Their business model is based upon large membership count, and charging for membership would be counterproductive.[126]Some believe that the deeper information that the sites have on each user will allow much better targeted advertising than any other site can currently provide.[127]In recent times, Apple has been critical of the Google and Facebook model, in which users are defined as product and a commodity, and their data being sold for marketing revenue.[128]Social networks operate under an autonomous business model, in which a social network's members serve dual roles as both the suppliers and the consumers of content. This is in contrast to a traditional business model, where the suppliers and consumers are distinct agents. Revenue is typically gained in the autonomous business model via advertisements, but subscription-based revenue is possible when membership and content levels are sufficiently high.[129]
People use social networking sites for meeting new friends, finding old friends, or locating people who have the same problems or interests they have, called niche networking. More and more relationships and friendships are being formed online and then carried to an offline setting. Psychologist and University of Hamburg professor Erich H. Witte says that relationships which start online are much more likely to succeed. In this regard, there are studies which predict tie strength among the friends[130]on social networking websites. One online dating site claims that 2% of all marriages begin at its site, the equivalent of 236 marriages a day. Other sites claim one in five relationships begin online.[citation needed]
Users do not necessarily share with others the content which is of most interest to them, but rather that which projects a good impression of themselves.[77]While everyone agrees that social networking has had a significant impact on social interaction, there remains a substantial disagreement as to whether the nature of this impact is completely positive. A number of scholars have done research on the negative effects of Internet communication as well. These researchers have contended that this form of communication is an impoverished version of conventional face-to-face social interactions, and therefore produce negative outcomes such as loneliness and depression for users who rely on social networking entirely. By engaging solely in online communication, interactions between communities, families, and other social groups are weakened.[131]
Social networking services have led to manyissues regarding privacy, bullying, social anxiety and potential for misuse.
Social networking services are increasingly being used in legal andcriminal investigations. The information posted on sites such as MySpace and Facebook has been used by police (forensic profiling), probation, and university officials to prosecute users of said sites. In some situations, content posted on MySpace has been used in court.[132]
Facebook is increasingly being used by school administrations and law enforcement agencies as a source of evidence against student users. This site being the number one online destination for college students, allows users to create profile pages with personal details. These pages can be viewed by other registered users from the same school, which often include resident assistants and campus police who have signed up for the service.[133]OneUKpolice force has sifted pictures from Facebook and arrested some people who had been photographed in a public place holding a weapon such as a knife (having a weapon in a public place is illegal).[134]
Social networking is more recently being used by various government agencies. Social networking tools serve as a quick and easy way for the government to get the suggestion of the public and to keep the public updated on their activity, however, this comes with a significant risk of abuse, for example, to cultivate aculture of fearsuch as that outlined inNineteen Eighty-FourorTHX-1138.
TheCenters for Disease Controldemonstrated the importance ofvaccinationson the popular children's siteWhyvilleand theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationhas a virtual island onSecond Lifewhere people can explore caves or explore theeffects of global warming.[135]Likewise, NASA has taken advantage of a few social networking tools, includingTwitterandFlickr. The NSA is taking advantage of them all.[136]NASA is using such tools to aid theReview of U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee, whose goal it is toensure that the nation is on a vigorous and sustainable path to achieving its boldest aspirations in space.[137]
The use of social networking services in an enterprise context presents the potential of having a major impact on the world of business and work.[138]Social networks connect people at low cost; this can be beneficial forentrepreneursandsmall businesseslooking to expand their contact bases. These networks often act as a customer relationship management tool for companies selling products and services. Companies can also use social networks for advertising in the form of banners and text ads. Since businesses operate globally, social networks can make it easier to keep in touch with contacts around the world. Applications for social networking sites have extended toward businesses and brands are creating their own, high functioning sites, a sector known asbrand networking. It is the idea that a brand can build its consumer relationship by connecting their consumers to the brand image on a platform that provides them relative content, elements of participation, and a ranking or score system. Brand networking is a new way to capitalize on social trends as a marketing tool. The power of social networks is beginning to permeate into internal culture of businesses where they are finding uses forcollaboration,file sharingandknowledge transfer. The term "enterprise social software" is becoming increasingly popular for these types of applications.[citation needed]
Many social networks provide an online environment for people to communicate and exchange personal information for dating purposes. Intentions can vary from looking for a one time date, short-term relationships, and long-term relationships.[139]Most of these social networks, just like online dating services, require users to give out certain pieces of information. This usually includes a user's age, gender, location, interests, and perhaps a picture. Releasing very personal information is usually discouraged for safety reasons.[140]This allows other users to search or be searched by some sort of criteria, but at the same time, people can maintain a degree of anonymity similar to most online dating services. Online dating sites are similar to social networks in the sense that users create profiles to meet and communicate with others, but their activities on such sites are for the sole purpose of finding a person of interest to date. Social networks do not necessarily have to be for dating; many users simply use it for keeping in touch with friends, and colleagues.[141]
However, an important difference between social networks and online dating services is the fact that online dating sites usually require a fee, where social networks are free.[142]This difference is one of the reasons the online dating industry is seeing a massive decrease in revenue due to many users opting to use social networking services instead. Many popular online dating services such asMatch.com,Yahoo Personals, andeHarmony.comare seeing a decrease in users, where social networks likeMySpaceand Facebook are experiencing an increase in users. The number of Internet users in the United States that visit online dating sites has fallen from a peak of 21% in 2003 to 10% in 2006.[143]Whether it is the cost of the services, the variety of users with different intentions, or any other reason, it is undeniable that social networking sites are quickly becoming the new way to find dates online.[citation needed]
TheNational School Boards Associationreports that almost 60% of students who use social networking talk about education topics online, and more than 50% talk specifically about schoolwork. Yet the vast majority of school districts have stringent rules against nearly all forms of social networking during the school day—even though students and parents report few problem behaviors online. Social networks focused on supporting relationships between teachers and their students are now used for learning, educators professional development, and content sharing.HASTACis a collaborative social network space for new modes of learning and research in higher education, K-12, and lifelong learning;Ningsupports teachers;TermWiki,TeachStreetand other sites are being built to foster relationships that include educational blogs, portfolios, formal and ad hoc communities, as well as communication such as chats, discussion threads, and synchronous forums. These sites also have content sharing and rating features. Social networks are also emerging as onlineyearbooks, both public and private. One such service isMyYearbook, which allows anyone from the general public to register and connect. A new trend emerging is private label yearbooks accessible only by students, parents, and teachers of a particular school, similar toFacebook's beginning within Harvard.[citation needed]
The use ofvirtual currencysystems inside social networks create new opportunities for global finance.Hub Cultureoperates a virtual currencyVenused for global transactions among members, product sales[144]and financial trades in commodities and carbon credits.[145][146]In May 2010,carbon pricingcontracts were introduced to the weighted basket of currencies and commodities that determine the floating exchange value of Ven. The introduction of carbon to the calculation price of the currency made Ven the first and only currency that is linked to the environment.[147]
Social networks are beginning to be adopted by healthcare professionals as a means to manage institutional knowledge, disseminate peer to peer knowledge and to highlight individual physicians and institutions. The advantage of using a dedicated medical social networking site is that all the members are screened against the state licensing board list of practitioners.[148]A new trend is emerging with social networks created to help its members with various physical and mental ailments.[149]For people suffering from life-altering diseases or chronic health conditions, companies such asHealthUnlockedandPatientsLikeMeoffers their members the chance to connect with others dealing with similar issues and share experiences. For alcoholics and addicts, SoberCircle gives people in recovery the ability to communicate with one another and strengthen their recovery through the encouragement of others who can relate to their situation.DailyStrengthis also a website that offers support groups for a wide array of topics and conditions, including the support topics offered byPatientsLikeMeand SoberCircle. Some social networks aim to encourage healthy lifestyles in their users.SparkPeopleandHealthUnlockedoffer community and social networking tools for peer support during weight loss.FitocracyandQUENTIQare focused on exercise, enabling users to share their own workouts and comment on those of other users. Other aspects of social network usage include the analysis of data coming from existing social networks (such as Twitter) to discover large crowd concentration events (based on tweets location statistical analysis) and disseminate the information to e.g. mobility-challenged individuals for e.g. avoiding the specific areas and optimizing their journey in an urban environment.[150]
Social networking sites have recently showed a value in social and political movements.[151]In theEgyptian revolution,FacebookandTwitterboth played an allegedly pivotal role in keeping people connected to the revolt.Egyptian activistshave credited social networking sites with providing a platform for planning protest and sharing news fromTahrir Squarein real time. By presenting a platform for thousands of people to instantaneously share videos of mainly events featuring brutality, social networking can be a vital tool in revolutions.[152]On the flip side, social networks enable government authorities to easily identify, and repress, protestors and dissidents.[153]Another political application of social media is promoting the involvement of younger generations in politics and ongoing political issues.[154]
Perhaps the most significant political application of social media isBarack Obama's election campaign in 2008. It was the first of its kind, as it successfully incorporated social media into its campaign winning strategy, evolving the way of political campaigns forevermore in the ever-changing technological world we find ourselves in today. His campaign won by engaging everyday people and empowering volunteers, donors, and advocates, through social networks, text messaging, email messaging and online videos.[155]Obama's social media campaign was vast, with his campaign boasting 5 million 'friends' on over 15 social networking sites, with over 3 million friends just on Facebook.[156]Another significant success of the campaign was online videos, with nearly 2,000 YouTube videos being put online, receiving over 80 million views.[156]
In 2007, when Obama first announced his candidacy, there was no such thing as an iPhone or Twitter. However, a year later, Obama was sending out voting reminders to thousands of people through Twitter, showing just how fast social media moves. Obama's campaign was current and needed to be successful in incorporating social media, as social media acts best and is most effective in real time.[157]
Building up to the 2012 presidential election, it was interesting to see how strong the influence of social media would be following the 2008 campaigns, where Obama's winning campaign had been social media-heavy, whereas McCain's campaign did not really grasp social media.John F. Kennedywas the first president who really understood television, and similarly, Obama is the first president to fully understand the power of social media.[158]Obama has recognized social media is about creating relationships and connections and therefore used social media to the advantage of presidential election campaigns, in which Obama has dominated his opponents in terms of social media space.
Other political campaigns have followed on from Obama's successful social media campaigns, recognizing the power of social media and incorporating it as a key factor embedded within their political campaigns, for example, Donald Trump's presidential electoral campaign, 2016. Dan Pfeiffer, Obama's former digital and social media guru, commented that Donald Trump is "way better at the internet than anyone else in the GOP which is partly why he is winning".[159]
Research has shown that 66% of social media users actively engage in political activity online, and like many other behaviors, online activities translate into offline ones.[158]With research from the 'MacArthur Research Network on Youth and Participatory Politics' stating that young people who are politically active online are double as likely to vote than those who are not politically active online.[158]Therefore, political applications of social networking sites are crucial, particularly to engage with the youth, who perhaps are the least educated in politics and the most in social networking sites. Social media is, therefore, a very effective way in which politicians can connect with a younger audience through their political campaigns.[160]
On June 28, 2020,The New York Timesreleased an article sharing the finding of two researchers who studied the impact ofTikTok, a video-sharing and social networking application, on political expression. The application, besides being a creative space to express oneself, has been used maliciously to spread disinformation ahead of US PresidentDonald Trump's Tulsa rally in Oklahoma and amplified footage of police brutality atBlack Lives Matterprotests.[161]
Crowdsourcing social media platform, such asDesign Contest,Arcbazar,Tongal, combined group of professionalfreelancers, such asdesigners, and help them communicate with business owners interested in their suggestion. This process is often used to subdivide tedious work or to fund-raise startup companies and charities, and can also occur offline.[162]
There are a number of projects that aim to developfree and open source softwareto use for social networking services. These technologies are often referred to as social engine or social networking engine software.
The following is a list of the largest social networking services, in order by number of active users, as of January 2024, as published byStatista:[163]
*Platforms have not published updated user figures in the past 12 months, figures may be out of date and less reliable**Figure uses daily active users, so monthly active user number is likely higher
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issues_involving_social_networking_services
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Meta Platforms Inc., or Meta for short (formerly known asFacebook), has faced a number of privacy concerns. These stem partly from the company's revenue model that involves selling information collected about its users for many things including advertisement targeting. Meta Platforms Inc. has also been a part of many data breaches that have occurred within the company. These issues and others are further described including user data concerns, vulnerabilities in the company's platform, investigations by pressure groups and government agencies, and even issues with students. In addition, employers and other organizations/individuals have been known to use Meta Platforms Inc. for their own purposes. As a result, individuals’ identities and private information have sometimes been compromised without their permission. In response to these growing privacy concerns, some pressure groups and government agencies have increasingly asserted the users’ right to privacy and to be able to control their personal data.
In September 2024, theFederal Trade Commissionreleased a report summarizing 9 company responses (including from Facebook) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of theFederal Trade Commission Act of 1914to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable toidentity theft,stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress andmental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm.[1][2][3]
In 2010 theElectronic Frontier Foundationidentified two personal information aggregation techniques called "connections" and "instant personalization". They demonstrated that anyone could get access to information saved to a Facebook profile, even if the information was not intended to be made public.[4]A "connection" is created when a user clicks a "Like" button for a product or service, either on Facebook itself or an external site. Facebook treats such relationships as public information, and the user's identity may be displayed on the Facebook page of the product or service.[4]
Instant personalization was a pilot program that shared Facebook account information with affiliated sites, such as sharing a user's list of "liked" bands with a music website, so that when the user visits the site, their preferred music plays automatically. The EFF noted that "For users that have not opted out, Instant Personalization is instant data leakage. As soon as you visit the sites in the pilot program (Yelp, Pandora, and Microsoft Docs) the sites can access your name, your picture, your gender, your current location, your list of friends, all the Pages you have Liked—everything Facebook classifies as public information. Even if you opt-out of Instant Personalization, there's still data leakage if your friends use Instant Personalization websites—their activities can give away information about you, unless you block those applications individually."[4]
On December 27, 2012CBS Newsreported thatRandi Zuckerberg, sister of Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, criticized a friend for being "way uncool" in sharing a private Facebook photo of her on Twitter, only to be told that the image had appeared on a friend-of-a-friend's Facebook news feed. Commenting on this misunderstanding of Facebook'sprivacy settings,Eva Galperinof the EFF said "Even Randi Zuckerberg can get it wrong. That's an illustration of how confusing they can be."[5]
In August 2007 the code used to generate Facebook's home and search page as visitors browse the site was accidentally made public.[6][7]A configuration problem on a Facebook server caused thePHPcode to be displayed instead of the web page the code should have created, raising concerns about how secure private data on the site was. A visitor to the site copied, published and later removed the code from his web forum, claiming he had been served and threatened with legal notice by Facebook.[8]Facebook's response was quoted by the site that broke the story:[9]
A small fraction of the code that displays Facebook web pages was exposed to a small number of users due to a single misconfigured web server that was fixed immediately. It was not a security breach and did not compromise user data in any way. Because the code that was released powers only Facebook user interface, it offers no useful insight into the inner workings of Facebook. The reprinting of this code violates several laws and we ask that people not distribute it further.
In November Facebook launchedBeacon, a system (discontinued in September 2009)[10]where third-party websites could include a script by Facebook on their sites, and use it to send information about the actions of Facebook users on their site to Facebook, prompting serious privacy concerns. Information such as purchases made and games played were published in the user's news feed. An informative notice about this action appeared on the third party site and allowed the user to cancel it. The user could also cancel it on Facebook. Originally if no action was taken, the information was automatically published. On November 29 this was changed to require confirmation from the user before publishing each story gathered by Beacon.
On December 1 Facebook's credibility in regard to the Beacon program was further tested when it was reported thatThe New York Times"essentially accuses" Mark Zuckerberg of lying to the paper and leavingCoca-Cola, which is reversing course on the program, with a similar impression.[11]A security engineer atCA, Inc.also claimed in a November 29, 2007, blog post that Facebook collected data from affiliate sites even when the consumer opted out and even when not logged into the Facebook site.[12]On November 30, 2007, the CA security blog posted a Facebook clarification statement addressing the use of data collected in the Beacon program:[13]
When a Facebook user takes a Beacon-enabled action on a participating site, information is sent to Facebook for Facebook to operate Beacon technologically. If a Facebook user clicks 'No, thanks' on the partner site notification, Facebook does not use the data and deletes it from its servers. Separately, before Facebook can determine whether the user is logged in, some data may be transferred from the participating site to Facebook. In those cases, Facebook does not associate the information with any individual user account, and deletes the data as well.
The Beacon service ended in September 2009 along with the settlement of a class-action lawsuit against Facebook resulting from the service.[10]
On September 5, 2006, Facebook introduced two new features called "News Feed" and "Mini-Feed". The first of the new features, News Feed, appears on every Facebook member'shome page, displaying recent Facebook activities of the member's friends. The second feature, Mini-Feed, keeps a log of similar events on each member's profile page.[14]Members can manually delete items from their Mini-Feeds if they wish to do so, and through privacy settings can control what is actually published in their respective Mini-Feeds.
Some Facebook members still feel that the ability toopt outof the entire News Feed and Mini-Feed system is necessary, as evidenced by a statement from theStudents Against Facebook News Feedgroup, which peaked at over 740,000 members in 2006.[15]Reacting to users' concerns, Facebook developed new privacy features to give users some control over information about them that was broadcast by the News Feed.[16]According to subsequent news articles, members have widely regarded the additional privacy options as an acceptable compromise.[17]
In May 2010 Facebook added privacy controls and streamlined its privacy settings, giving users more ways to manage status updates and other information broadcast to the public News Feed.[18]Among the new privacy settings is the ability to control who sees each new status update a user posts: Everyone, Friends of Friends, or Friends Only. Users can now hide each status update from specific people as well.[19][non-primary source needed]However, a user who presses "like" or comments on the photo or status update of a friend cannot prevent that action from appearing in the news feeds of all the user's friends, even non-mutual ones. The "View As" option, used to show a user how privacy controls filter out what a specific given friend can see, only displays the user's timeline and gives no indication that items missing from the timeline may still be showing up in the friend's own news feed.
Facebook had allowed users to deactivate their accounts but not actually remove account content from its servers. A Facebook representative explained to a student from theUniversity of British Columbiathat users had to clear their own accounts by manually deleting all of the content including wall posts, friends, and groups.The New York Timesnoted the issue and raised a concern that emails and other private user data remain indefinitely on Facebook's servers.[20]Facebook subsequently began allowing users to permanently delete their accounts in 2010. Facebook's Privacy Policy now states, "When you delete an account, it is permanently deleted from Facebook."[21]
A notable ancillary effect of social-networking websites is the ability for participants to mourn publicly for a deceased individual. On Facebook, friends often leave messages of sadness, grief, or hope on the individual's page, transforming it into a public book of condolences. This particular phenomenon has been documented at a number of schools.[22][23][24]Facebook originally held a policy that profiles of people known to be deceased would be removed after 30 days due to privacy concerns.[25]Due to user response, Facebook changed its policy to place deceased members' profiles in a "memorialization state".[26]Facebook's Privacy Policy regarding memorialization says, "If we are notified that a user is deceased, we may memorialize the user's account. In such cases we restrict profile access to confirmed friends and allow friends and family to write on the user's Wall in remembrance. We may close an account if we receive a formal request from the user's next of kin or other proper legal request to do so."[21]
Some of these memorial groups have also caused legal issues. Notably, on January 1, 2008, one such memorial group posted the identity of murderedTorontoteenager Stefanie Rengel, whose family had not yet given theToronto Police Servicetheir consent to release her name to the media, and the identities of her accused killers, in defiance of Canada'sYouth Criminal Justice Act, which prohibits publishing the names of the under-age accused.[27]While police and Facebook staff attempted to comply with the privacy regulations by deleting such posts, they noted difficulty in effectively policing the individual users who repeatedly republished the deleted information.[28]
In July 2007 Adrienne Felt, an undergraduate student at the University of Virginia, discovered across-site scripting(XSS) hole in the Facebook Platform that could inject JavaScript into profiles. She used the hole to import custom CSS and demonstrate how the platform could be used to violate privacy rules or create a worm.[29]
Facebook offers privacy controls to allow users to choose who can view their posts: only friends, friends and friends of friends, everyone, custom (specific choice of which friends can see posts). While these options exist, there are still methods by which otherwise unauthorized third parties can view a post. For example, posting a picture and marking it as only viewable by friends, but tagging someone else as appearing in that picture, causes the post to be viewable by friends of the tagged person(s).[30]
Photos taken of people by others can be posted on Facebook without the knowledge or consent of people appearing in the image; persons may have multiple photos which feature them on Facebook without being aware of it. A study has suggested that a photo of a person which reflects poorly on them posted online can have a more harmful effect than losing a password.[31]
When commenting on a private post, the commenting user is not informed if the post they commented on is later made public – which would make their comment on said post also publicly viewable.[30]
Quit Facebook Daywas anonlineevent which took place on May 31, 2010 (coinciding withMemorial Day), in which Facebook users stated that they would quit thesocial networkdue to privacy concerns.[32]It was estimated that 2% of Facebook users coming from the United States would delete their accounts.[33]However, only 33,000 (roughly 0.0066% of its roughly 500 million members at the time) users quit the site.[34]The number one reason for users to quit Facebook was privacy concerns (48%), being followed by a general dissatisfaction with Facebook (14%), negative aspects regarding Facebook friends (13%), and the feeling of getting addicted to Facebook (6%). Facebook quitters were found to be more concerned about privacy, more addicted to the Internet, and more conscientious.[35]
Facebook enabled an automaticfacial recognitionfeature in June 2011, called "Tag Suggestions", a product of a research project named "DeepFace".[36]The feature compares newly uploaded photographs to those of the uploader's Facebook friends, to suggest photo tags.
National Journal Dailyclaims "Facebook is facing new scrutiny over its decision to automatically turn on a new facial recognition feature aimed at helping users identify their friends in photos".[37]Facebook has defended the feature, saying users can disable it.[38]Facebook introduced the feature on anopt-outbasis.[39]European Union data-protection regulators said they would investigate the feature to see if it violated privacy rules.[38][40]Naomi Lachance stated in a web blog for NPR,All Tech Considered, that Facebook's facial recognition is right 98% of the time compared to the FBI's 85% out of 50 people. However, the accuracy of Facebook searches is due to its larger, more diverse photo selection compared to the FBI's closed database.[41]Mark Zuckerberg showed no worries when speaking about Facebook's AIs, saying, "Unsupervised learning is a long-term focus of our AI research team at Facebook, and it remains an important challenge for the whole AI research community" and "It will save lives by diagnosing diseases and driving us around more safely. It will enable breakthroughs by helping us find new planets and understand Earth's climate. It will help in areas we haven't even thought of today".[42]
In May 2016 Facebook faced a lawsuit inIllinoisfor violations of theBiometric Information Privacy Act.[43]In February 2021, the company settled, agreeing to pay $650 million, and shut down the feature in December 2021.[44]Following the shutdown,Cher Scarlett, a formerApplesecurity engineer, in January 2022 tweeted a photo that she had been auto-tagged in by someone unknown to her prior to shutdown. The photo was from the 19th century and she said that she learned it was her great-great-great-grandmother ofVolga Germanancestry, saying the technology was "dangerous" and "off-putting", and pointed to the implication ofgenocide.[45]
In September 2024, Meta said it scraped all Australian adult users' public photos and posts on Facebook to train its AI without an opt-out option.[46]
An article published byUSA Todayin November 2011 claimed that Facebook creates logs of pages visited both by its members and by non-members, relying ontracking cookiesto keep track of pages visited.[47]
In early November 2015 Facebook was ordered by the Belgian Privacy Commissioner to cease tracking non-users, citing European laws, or risk fines of up to £250,000 per day.[48]As a result, instead of removing tracking cookies, Facebook banned non-users in Belgium from seeing any material on Facebook, including publicly posted content, unless they sign in. Facebook criticized the ruling, saying that the cookies provided better security.[49][50]
By statistics, 63% of Facebook profiles are automatically set "visible to the public", meaning anyone can access the profiles that users have updated. Facebook also has its own built-in messaging system that people can send messages to any other user, unless they have disabled the feature to "from friends only". Stalking is not only limited toSNSstalking, but can lead to further "in-person" stalking because nearly 25% of real-life stalking victims reported it started with onlineinstant messaging(e.g.,Facebook chat).[51]
In December 2018 it emerged that Facebook had, during the period 2010–2018, granted access to users' private messages, address book contents, and private posts, without the users' consent, to more than 150 third parties including Microsoft, Amazon, Yahoo, Netflix, and Spotify. This had been occurring despite public statements from Facebook that it had stopped such sharing years earlier.[52]
In December 2018 it emerged that Facebook's mobile app reveals the user's location to Facebook, even if the user does not use the "check in" feature and has configured all relevant settings within the app so as to maximize location privacy.[53]
In February 2019 it emerged that a number of Facebook apps, includingFlo, had been sending users' health data such as blood pressure and ovulation status to Facebook without users' informed consent.[54][55][56][57]New York governorAndrew Cuomocalled the practice an "outrageous abuse of privacy", ordered New York's department of state and department of financial services to investigate, and encouraged federal regulators to step in.[58]
Facebook's acquisition ofvirtual reality headsetmanufacturerOculushas resulted in ongoing concerns over the integration of its hardware and software platforms with Facebook user data. After the acquisition, Oculus co-founderPalmer Luckeyhad assured users that "you won't need to log into your Facebook account every time you wanna use theOculus Rift."[59][60]
Initially the Oculus desktop software provided opt-in integration with Facebook, primarily for identifying Facebook users within their Oculus friends list.[61]In August 2020, Facebook announced that all Oculus products and services would become subject to the unified Facebookprivacy policy,code of conduct, and community guidelines moving forward, and that a Facebook account would be required to use Oculus products and services beginning in October. This policy took effect beginning with theOculus Quest 2.[62][63]At that time, the ability to create a standalone Oculus account was discontinued, and it was announced that these accounts were to be deprecated effective January 1, 2023.[63]
The requirements, as well as Facebook's later focus on "metaverse" platforms, have led to concerns over the amount of user data that could be collected by the company via virtual reality hardware and interactions, including the user's surroundings, motions and actions, and biometrics.[64][65]Horizon, a VR social network run as part of the Oculus platform, is subject to Facebook policies, performs "rolling" recordings of interactions that could be uploaded to Facebook servers for the purposes of moderation if users are reported, and users can be observed by moderators without their knowledge if they are reported by others, or "signals" regarding that user are raised by other users via their own actions (such as muting).[66]
In September 2020 Facebook pulled all Oculus products from the German market due to concerns from local regulators over the policy's compliance with the European Union'sGeneral Data Protection Regulation(GDPR).[67]In December 2020, the GermanFederal Cartel Office(Bundeskartellamt) launched anantitrustinvestigation into Facebook's mandatory integration of its social networking platform with its virtual reality products.[68][69]
At the Facebook Connect event in October 2021 (where Facebook, Inc. announced its rebranding as Meta), Zuckerberg stated that Meta was "working on making it so you can log in into Quest with an account other than your personal Facebook account".[70]The new "Meta account" was announced in July 2022 as ade factoreplacement for Oculus accounts, which will not be explicitly tied to the Facebook social network, and can be linked with other members of the Facebook "Family of Apps" (Facebook, Messenger, Instagram, and WhatsApp). It was stated that Meta Quest users would be allowed to transition to Meta accounts and decouple their Facebook logins from its VR platforms.Ars Technicanoted that the new terms of service and privacy policies associated with Meta account system could allow enforcement of a real name policy (stating that users would be obligated to provide "accurate and up to date information (including registration information), which may include providing personal data", and still allowed for "rampant" use of user data by Meta, especially if linked with other Facebook apps.[71]
Personal information of 533 million Facebook users, including names, phone numbers, email addresses, and other user profile data, was posted to a hacking forum in April, 2021. This information had been previously leaked through a feature allowing users to find each other by phone number, which Facebook fixed to prevent this abuse in September 2019. The company decided not to notify users of the data breach.[72]
The Irish Data Protection Commission, which has jurisdiction over Facebook due to the location of its EU headquarters, then opened an investigation into the breach as a possible violation of GDPR.[73]
There have been allegations by some users that Facebook's mobile app is capable of listening to conversations without consent, citing instances of the service displaying advertisements for products that they had only spoken about, and had otherwise had no prior interactions with. In August 2019, Facebook admitted that it had been sending anonymized voice data from theMessenger appto third-party contractors for human review to improve the quality of its automatictranscriptionfunction, but denied that this data was being used for personalized advertising. The company also stated that it had recently suspended human reviews after scrutiny over Amazon, Apple, and Google's use of similar practices for their voice assistant platforms.[74][75]
There have been some concerns expressed regarding the use of Facebook as a means of surveillance anddata mining.
TwoMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT) students used an automated script to download the publicly posted information of over 70,000 Facebook profiles from four schools (MIT,NYU, theUniversity of Oklahoma, andHarvard University) as part of a research project on Facebook privacy published on December 14, 2005.[76]Since then, Facebook has bolstered security protection for users, responding: "We've built numerous defenses to combat phishing and malware, including complex automated systems that work behind the scenes to detect and flag Facebook accounts that are likely to be compromised (based on anomalous activity like lots of messages sent in a short period of time, or messages with links that are known to be bad)."[77]
A second clause that brought criticism from some users allowed Facebook the right to sell users' data to private companies, stating "We may share your information with third parties, including responsible companies with which we have a relationship." This concern was addressed by spokesman Chris Hughes, who said, "Simply put, we have never provided our users' information to third party companies, nor do we intend to."[78]Facebook eventually removed this clause from its privacy policy.[21][non-primary source needed]
In the United Kingdom theTrades Union Congress(TUC) has encouraged employers to allow their staff to access Facebook and other social-networking sites from work, provided they proceed with caution.[79]
In September 2007 Facebook drew criticism after it began allowing search engines to index profile pages, though Facebook's privacy settings allow users to turn this off.[80]
Concerns were also raised on theBBC'sWatchdogprogram in October 2007 when Facebook was shown to be an easy way to collect an individual's personal information to facilitateidentity theft.[81]However, there is barely any personal information presented to non-friends – if users leave the privacy controls on their default settings, the only personal information visible to a non-friend is the user's name, gender, profile picture and networks.[82][non-primary source needed]
An article inThe New York Timesin February 2008 pointed out that Facebook does not actually provide a mechanism for users to close their accounts, and raised the concern that private user data would remain indefinitely on Facebook's servers.[20]As of 2013[update], Facebook gives users the options to deactivate or delete their accounts.
Deactivating an account allows it to be restored later, while deleting it will remove the account "permanently", although some data submitted by that account ("like posting to a group or sending someone a message") will remain.[83][non-primary source needed]
In 2013 Facebook acquiredOnavo, a developer of mobile utility apps such as Onavo ProtectVPN, which is used as part of an "Insights" platform togauge the use and market shareof apps.[84]This data has since been used to influence acquisitions and other business decisions regarding Facebook products.[85][86][87]Criticism of this practice emerged in 2018, when Facebook began to advertise the Onavo Protect VPN within its main app oniOSdevices in the United States. Media outlets considered the app to effectively bespywaredue to its behavior, adding that the app's listings did not readily disclaim Facebook's ownership of the app and its data collection practices.[88][89]Facebook subsequently pulled the iOS version of the app, citing newiOS App Storepolicies forbidding apps from performing analytics on the usage of other apps on a user's device.[90][91][92][93]
Since 2016 Facebook has also run "Project Atlas"—publicly known as "Facebook Research"—amarket researchprogram inviting teenagers and young adults between the ages of 13 and 35 to have data such as their app usage,web browsing history,web searchhistory,location history,personal messages, photos, videos, emails, andAmazonorder history, analyzed by Facebook. Participants would receive up to $20 per-month for participating in the program. Facebook Research is administered by third-partybeta testingservices, including Applause, and requires users to install a Facebookroot certificateon their phone. After a January 2019 report byTechCrunchon Project Atlas, which alleged that Facebook bypassed the App Store by using an Apple enterprise program for apps used internally by a company's employees, Facebook refuted the article but later announced its discontinuation of the program on iOS.[94][95]
On January 30, 2019 Apple temporarily revoked Facebook's Enterprise Developer Programcertificatesfor one day, which caused all of the company's internal iOS apps to become inoperable.[96][97][98]Apple stated that "Facebook has been using their membership to distribute a data-collecting app to consumers, which is a clear breach of their agreement with Apple", and that the certificates were revoked "to protect our users and their data".[96]US SenatorsMark Warner,Richard Blumenthal, andEd Markeyseparately criticized Facebook Research's targeting of teenagers, and promised to sponsor legislation to regulate market research programs.[99][100]
In 2010 theWall Street Journalfound that many of Facebook's top-rated apps—including apps fromZyngaandLolapps—were transmitting identifying information to "dozens of advertising and Internet tracking companies" likeRapLeaf. The apps used anHTTP refererthat exposed the user's identity and sometimes their friends' identities. Facebook said that "While knowledge of user ID does not permit access to anyone’s private information on Facebook, we plan to introduce new technical systems that will dramatically limit the sharing of User ID’s". A blog post by a member of Facebook's team further stated that "press reports have exaggerated the implications of sharing a user ID", though still acknowledging that some of the apps were passing the ID in a manner that violated Facebook's policies.[101][102]
In 2010 Canadian security consultant Ron Bowes of Skull Security created aBitTorrentdownload consisting of the names of about 100 million Facebook users. Facebook likened the information to what is listed in a phone book. It included some who had opted not to be found by search engines, and some who did not realize their information was public. Bowes created the list to get statistical information about user names, which can be used in bothpenetration testingandcomputer break-ins.[103][104]
In 2009 and 2010 the fact that Facebook was not requiring connections to useHTTPSother than at login meant that a routing glitch at AT&T caused cookie to end up on the wrong users' phones. This resulted in some Facebook users having continuous access to another person's account instead of their own.[105]
In 2018 Facebook admitted[106][107]that an app made by Global Science Research and Alexandr Kogan, related toCambridge Analytica, was able in 2014[108]to harvest personal data of up to 87 million Facebook users without their consent, by exploiting their friendship connection to the users who sold their data via the app.[109]Following the revelations of the breach, several public figures, including industrialistElon MuskandWhatsAppcofounderBrian Acton, announced that they were deleting their Facebook accounts, using thehashtag"#deletefacebook".[110][111][112]
Facebook was also criticized for allowing the2012 Barack Obama presidential campaignto analyze and target select users by providing the campaign with friendship connections of users who signed up for an application. However, users signing up for the application were aware that their data, but not the data of their friends, was going to a political party.[113][114][115][116][117]
In September 2018 a software bug meant that photos that had been uploaded to Facebook accounts, but that had not been "published" (and which therefore should have remained private between the user and Facebook), were exposed to app developers.[118]Approximately 6.8 million users and 1500 third-party apps were affected.[118]
In March 2019 Facebook admitted that it had mistakenly stored "hundreds of millions" of passwords of Facebook and Instagram users inplaintext(as opposed to beinghashedandsalted) on multiple internal systems accessible only to Facebook engineers, dating as far back as 2012. Facebook stated that affected users would be notified, but that there was no evidence that this data had been abused or leaked.[119][120]
In April 2019 Facebook admitted that its subsidiary Instagram also stored millions of unencrypted passwords.[121]
Facebook has denied for years that it listens to conversations and in turn releases ads based on them, however Facebook has been shown to have lied about their policies in the past.[122]In 2016, Facebook stated "Facebook does not use your phone's microphone to inform ads or to change what you see in News Feed." a spokeswoman said, "some recent articles have suggested that we must be listening to people's conversations in order to show them relevant ads. This is not true. We show ads based on people's interests and other profile information, not what you’re talking out loud about."[123]
Government and local authorities rely on Facebook and other social networks toinvestigate crimes and obtain evidenceto help establish a crime, provide location information, establish motives, prove and disprove alibis, and reveal communications.[124]Federal, state, and local investigations have not been restricted to profiles that are publicly available or willingly provided to the government; Facebook has willingly provided information in response to governmentsubpoenasor requests, except with regard to private, unopened inbox messages less than 181 days old, which would require awarrantand a finding ofprobable causeunder federal law underElectronic Communications Privacy Act(ECPA). One 2011 article noted that "even when the government lacks reasonable suspicion of criminal activity and the user opts for the strictest privacy controls, Facebook users still cannot expect federal law to stop their 'private' content and communications from being used against them".[125]
Facebook's privacy policy states that "We may also share information when we have a good faith belief it is necessary to prevent fraud or other illegal activity, to prevent imminent bodily harm, or to protect ourselves and you from people violating our Statement of Rights and Responsibilities. This may include sharing information with other companies, lawyers, courts or other government entities".[125]Since theU.S. Congresshas failed to meaningfully amend theECPAto protect most communications on social-networking sites such as Facebook, and since theU.S. Supreme Courthas largely refused to recognize aFourth Amendmentprivacy right to information shared with a third party, no federal statutory or constitutional right prevents the government from issuing requests that amount to fishing expeditions and there is no Facebook privacy policy that forbids the company from handing over private user information that suggests any illegal activity.[125]
The2013 mass surveillance disclosuresidentified Facebook as a participant in the U.S.National Security Administration'sPRISM program. Facebook now reports the number of requests it receives for user information from governments around the world.[126]
In 2022Nebraskapolice charged a teenage girl and her mother after obtaining Facebook messages which allegedly showed that they performed an illegal self-managed medication abortion.[127]
On May 31, 2008 theCanadian Internet Policy and Public Interest Clinic(CIPPIC), per Director Phillipa Lawson, filed a 35-page complaint with the Office of the Privacy Commissioner against Facebook based on 22 breaches of the CanadianPersonal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act(PIPEDA).University of Ottawalaw students Lisa Feinberg,Harley Finkelstein, and Jordan Eric Plener, initiated the "minefield of privacy invasion" suit. Facebook'sChris Kellycontradicted the claims, saying that: "We've reviewed the complaint and found it has serious factual errors—most notably its neglect of the fact that almost all Facebook data is willingly shared by users."[128]Assistant Privacy Commissioner Elizabeth Denham released a report of her findings on July 16, 2009.[129]In it, she found that several of CIPPIC's complaints were well-founded. Facebook agreed to comply with some, but not all, of her recommendations.[129]The Assistant Commissioner found that Facebook did not do enough to ensure users granted meaningful consent for the disclosure of personal information to third parties and did not place adequate safeguards to prevent unauthorized access by third-party developers to personal information.[129]
In August 2011 the Irish Data Protection Commissioner (DPC) started an investigation after receiving 22 complaints by europe-v-facebook.org, which was founded by a group of Austrian students.[130]The DPC stated in first reactions that the Irish DPC is legally responsible for privacy on Facebook for all users within the European Union[131]and that he will "investigate the complaints using his full legal powers if necessary".[132]The complaints were filed in Ireland because all users who are not residents of the United States or Canada have a contract with "Facebook Ireland Ltd", located inDublin, Ireland. Under European law Facebook Ireland is the "data controller" for facebook.com, and therefore, facebook.com is governed by European data protection laws.[131]Facebook Ireland Ltd. was established by Facebook Inc. to avoid US taxes (seeDouble Irish arrangement).[133]
The group 'europe-v-facebook.org' made access requests at Facebook Ireland and received up to 1,222 pages of data per person in 57 data categories that Facebook was holding about them,[134]including data that was previously removed by the users.[135]The group claimed that Facebook failed to provide some of the requested data, including "likes", facial recognition data, data about third party websites that use "social plugins" visited by users, and information about uploaded videos. Currently the group claims that Facebook holds at least 84 data categories about every user.[136]
The first 16 complaints target different problems, from undeleted old "pokes" all the way to the question if sharing and new functions on Facebook should be opt-in or opt-out.[137]The second wave of 6 more complaints was targeting more issues including one against the "Like" button.[138]The most severe could be a complaint that claims that the privacy policy, and the consent to the privacy policy is void under European laws.
In an interview with theIrish Independent, a spokesperson said that the DPC will "go and audit Facebook, go into the premises and go through in great detail every aspect of security". He continued by saying: "It's a very significant, detailed and intense undertaking that will stretch over four or five days." In December 2011 the DPC published its first report on Facebook. This report was not legally binding but suggested changes that Facebook should undertake until July 2012. The DPC is planning to do a review about Facebook's progress in July 2012.[needs update]
In spring 2012 Facebook had to undertake many changes (e.g., having an extended download tool that should allow users to exercise the European right to access all stored information or an update of the worldwideprivacy policy).[139]These changes were seen as not sufficient to comply with European law by europe-v-facebook.org. The download tool does not allow, for example, access to all data. The group has launched our-policy.org[140]to suggest improvements to the new policy, which they saw as a backdrop for privacy on Facebook. Since the group managed to get more than 7.000 comments on Facebook's pages, Facebook had to do a worldwide vote on the proposed changes. Such a vote would have only been binding if 30% of all users would have taken part. Facebook did not promote the vote, resulting in only 0.038% participation with about 87% voting against Facebook's new policy. The new privacy policy took effect on the same day.[141]
In early 2019 it was reported that Facebook had spent years lobbying extensively against privacy protection laws around the world, such as GDPR.[142][143]
The lobbying included efforts by Sandberg to "bond" with female European officials includingEnda Kenny(thenPrime Minister of Ireland, where Facebook's European operations are based), to influence them in Facebook's favor.[142]Other politicians reportedly lobbied by Facebook in relation to privacy protection laws includedGeorge Osborne(thenChancellor of the Exchequer),Pranab Mukherjee(thenPresident of India), andMichel Barnier.[142]
In 2021 Facebook attempted to use "a legal trick" to bypass GDPR regulations in the European Union by including personal data processing agreement in what they considered to be a "contract" (Article 6(1)(b) GDPR) rather than a "consent" (Article 6(1)(a) GDPR) which would lead to the user effectively granting Facebook a very broad permission to process their personal data with most of the GDPR controls void. Irish Data Protection Commission (DPC) expressed its preliminary approval for this bypass and sent its draft decision to other data protection authorities in the European Union, at which point the document was leaked to media and published on noyb.eu.[144]DPC sent a takedown notice to noyb.eu, which was also published by the portal which reject to self-censor.[145]
In December 2019 the Hungarian Competition Authority fined Facebook around US$4 million forfalse advertising, ruling that Facebook cannot market itself as a "free" (no cost) service because the use of detailed personal information to deliver targeted advertising constituted a compensation that must be provided to Facebook to use the service.[146]
Students who post illegal or otherwise inappropriate material have faced disciplinary action from their universities, colleges, and schools including expulsion.[147]Others posting libelous content relating to faculty have also faced disciplinary action.[148]TheJournal of Education for Businessstates that "a recent study of 200 Facebook profiles found that 42% had comments regarding alcohol, 53% had photos involving alcohol use, 20% had comments regarding sexual activities, 25% had seminude or sexually provocative photos, and 50% included the use of profanity."[149]It is inferred that negative or incriminating Facebook posts can affect alumni's and potential employers' perception of them. This perception can greatly impact the students' relationships, ability to gain employment, and maintain school enrollment. The desire for social acceptance leads individuals to want to share the most intimate details of their personal lives along with illicit drug use and binge drinking. Too often, these portrayals of their daily lives are exaggerated and/or embellished to attract others like minded to them.[149]
Students in general have a higher engagement when using Facebook groups in class, as students can comment on each other's short writings or videos.[150]Increased teacher-student and student-student interaction, improved performance, and convenience of learning were some of the benefits of using Facebook as an educational instrument.[151]However, it limits student's writing to be shorter since checking on spelling and typing on a phone keyboard is relatively more time-consuming.[150]
On January 23, 2006The Chronicle of Higher Educationcontinued an ongoing national debate on social networks with anopinion piecewritten by Michael Bugeja, director of the Journalism school atIowa State University, entitled "Facing the Facebook".[152]Bugeja, author of theOxford University PresstextInterpersonal Divide(2005), quoted representatives of theAmerican Association of University Professorsand colleagues in higher education to document the distraction of students using Facebook and other social networks during class and at other venues in thewireless campus. Bugeja followed up on January 26, 2007, inThe Chroniclewith an article titled "Distractions in the Wireless Classroom",[153]quoting several educators across the country who were banning laptops in the classroom. Similarly, organizations such as theNational Association for Campus Activities,[154]theAssociation for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication,[155]and others have hosted seminars and presentations to discuss ramifications of students' use of Facebook and other social-networking sites.
TheEDUCAUSELearning Initiative has also released a brief pamphlet entitled "7 Things You Should Know About Facebook" aimed at higher education professionals that "describes what [Facebook] is, where it is going, and why it matters to teaching and learning".[156]
Some research[157][158][159]on Facebook in higher education suggests that there may be some small educational benefits associated with student Facebook use, including improving engagement which is related to student retention.[159]2012 research has found that time spent on Facebook is related to involvement in campus activities.[158]This same study found that certain Facebook activities like commenting and creating or RSVPing to events were positively related to student engagement while playing games and checking up on friends was negatively related. Furthermore, using technologies such as Facebook to connect with others can help college students be less depressed and cope with feelings of loneliness and homesickness.[160]
As of February 2012 only four published peer-reviewed studies have examined the relationship between Facebook use and grades.[157][161][162][163]The findings vary considerably. Pasek et al. (2009)[163]found no relationship between Facebook use and grades. Kolek and Saunders (2008)[162]found no differences in overall grade point average (GPA) between users and non-users of Facebook. Kirschner and Karpinski (2010)[161]found that Facebook users reported a lower mean GPA than non-users. Junco's (2012)[157]study clarifies the discrepancies in these findings. While Junco (2012)[157]found a negative relationship between time spent on Facebook and student GPA in his large sample of college students, the real-world impact of the relationship was negligible. Furthermore, Junco (2012)[157]found that sharing links and checking up on friends were positively related to GPA while posting status updates was negatively related. In addition to noting the differences in how Facebook use was measured among the four studies, Junco (2012)[157]concludes that the ways in which students use Facebook are more important in predicting academic outcomes.
Performative surveillance is the notion that people are very much aware that they are being surveilled on websites, like Facebook, and use the surveillance as an opportunity to portray themselves in a way that connotes a certain lifestyle—of which, that individual may, or may not, distort how they are perceived in reality.[164]
In an effort to surveil the personal lives of current, or prospective, employees, some employers have asked employees to disclose their Facebook login information. This has resulted in the passing of a bill in New Jersey making it illegal for employers to ask potential or current employees for access to their Facebook accounts.[165]Although the U.S. government has yet to pass a national law protecting prospective employees and their social networking sites, from employers, the fourth amendment of the US constitution can protect prospective employees in specific situations.[166][167]Many companies examine Facebook profiles of job candidates looking for reasons to not hire them. Because of this, many employees feel like their online social media rights and privacy are being violated. In addition, employees begin to make performative profiles where they purposefully portray themselves as professional and have desired personality traits.[166]According to a survey of hiring managers by CareerBuilder.com, the most common deal breakers they found on Facebook profiles include references to drinking, poor communication skills, inappropriate photos, and lying about skills and/or qualifications.[168]
Facebook requires employees and contractors working for them to give permission for Facebook to access their personal profiles, including friend requests and personal messages.
A 2011 study in the online journalFirst Mondayexamines how parents consistently enable children as young as 10 years old to sign up for accounts, directly violating Facebook's policy banning young visitors. This policy is in compliance with a United States law, the 1998Children's Online Privacy Protection Act, which requires minors aged under 13 to gain explicit parental consent to access commercial websites. In jurisdictions where a similar law sets a lower minimum age, Facebook enforces the lower age. Of the 1,007 households surveyed for the study, 76% of parents reported that their child joined Facebook at an age younger than 13, the minimum age in the site's terms of service. The study also reported that Facebook removes roughly 20,000 users each day for violating its minimum age policy. The study's authors also note, "Indeed, Facebook takes various measures both to restrict access to children and delete their accounts if they join." The findings of the study raise questions primarily about the shortcomings of United States federal law, but also implicitly continue to raise questions about whether or not Facebook does enough to publicize its terms of service with respect to minors. Only 53% of parents said they were aware that Facebook has a minimum signup age; 35% of these parents believe that the minimum age is merely a recommendation or thought the signup age was 16 or 18, not 13.[169]
Phishingrefers to a scam used by criminals to trick people into revealing passwords, credit card information, and other sensitive information. On Facebook, phishing attempts occur through message or wall posts from a friend's account that was breached. If the user takes the bait, the phishers gain access to the user's Facebook account and send phishing messages to the user's other friends. The point of the post is to get the users to visit a website with viruses and malware.[168]
In April 2016 Buzzfeed published an article exposing drop shippers who were using Facebook and Instagram to swindle unsuspecting customers. Located mostly in China, these drop shippers and e-commerce sites would steal copyrighted images from larger retailers and influencers to gain credibility. After luring a customer with a low price for the item, they would then deliver a product that is nothing like what was advertised or deliver no product at all.[170]
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Malware analysisis the study or process of determining the functionality, origin and potential impact of a given malware sample such as avirus,worm,trojan horse,rootkit, orbackdoor.[1]Malwareor malicious software is any computer software intended to harm the host operating system or tosteal sensitive datafrom users, organizations or companies. Malware may include software that gathers user information without permission.[2]
There are three typical use cases that drive the need for malware analysis:
The method by which malware analysis is performed typically falls under one of two types:
Examining malicious software involves several stages, including, but not limited to the following:
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Mobile malwareis malicious software that targetsmobile phonesor wireless-enabledPersonal digital assistants(PDA), by causing the collapse of the system and loss or leakage of confidential information. As wireless phones and PDA networks have become more and more common and have grown in complexity, it has become increasingly difficult to ensure their safety and security against electronic attacks in the form of viruses or othermalware.[1]
The first known virus that affected mobiles, "Timofonica", originated in Spain and was identified by antivirus labs in Russia and Finland in June 2000. "Timofonica" sent SMS messages to GSM-capable mobile phones that read (in Spanish) "Information for you: Telefónica is fooling you." These messages were sent through the Internet SMS gateway of the MoviStar mobile operator. "Timofonica" ran on PCs and did not run on mobile devices so was not a true mobile malware[2]
In June 2004, it was discovered that a company called Ojam had engineered an anti-piracyTrojanhack in older versions of its mobile phone game,Mosquito. This sent SMS texts to the company without the user's knowledge.
In July 2004, computer hobbyists released a proof-of-concept virusCabir,that infects mobile phones running theSymbianoperating system, spreading viaBluetoothwireless.[3][4]This was the first true mobile malware[5]
In March 2005, it was reported that acomputer wormcalledCommwarrior-Ahad been infectingSymbianseries 60 mobile phones.[6]This specific worm replicated itself through the phone'sMultimedia Messaging Service(MMS), sending copies to contacts listed in the phone user's address book.
In August 2010,Kaspersky Labreported the trojan Trojan-SMS.AndroidOS.FakePlayer.a.[7]This was the first SMS malware that affected Google'sAndroidoperating system,[8]and which sent SMS messages to premium rate numbers without the owner's knowledge, accumulating huge bills.[9]
Currently, various antivirus software companies offer mobile antivirus software programs. Meanwhile, operating system developers try to curb the spread of infections with quality control checks on software and content offered through their digitalapplicationdistributionplatforms, such asGoogle Playor Apple'sApp Store. Recent studies however show that mobile antivirus programs are ineffective due to the rapid evolution of mobile malware.[10]
In recent years,deep learningalgorithms have also been adopted for mobile malware detection.[11]
Many types of common malicious programs are known to affect mobile devices:
In fact, with increase in creation of viruses & malwares like Trojan Horse, the camera crashing orcamfectingissues are becoming quite common.[13]
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MiniPanzerandMegaPanzerare two variants ofBundestrojaner(German for federalTrojan horse) written for ERA IT Solutions (aSwiss federal governmentcontractor) by software engineer Ruben Unteregger, and later used by Switzerland'sFederal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications(UVEK) to interceptSkypeand more generallyvoice over IPtraffic onWindows XPsystems.[1][2]
Thesource codeof the program was released under theGNU General Public License version 3(GPLv3) in 2009 by their author, who retained the copyright.[1]Thereafter, the trojan was apparently detected in the wild.[3]One of its designations given by anti-virus companies wasTrojan.Peskyspy.[4][5]
The malware usedDLL injection.[6]
Thismalware-related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiniPanzer_and_MegaPanzer
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Apotentially unwanted program(PUP) orpotentially unwanted application(PUA) is software that a user may perceive as unwanted or unnecessary. It is used as a subjective tagging criterion by security and parental control products. Such software may use an implementation that can compromise privacy or weaken the computer's security. Companies often bundle a wanted program download with a wrapper application and may offer to install an unwanted application, and in some cases without providing a clear opt-out method. Antivirus companies define the software bundled as potentially unwanted programs[1][2]which can include software that displaysintrusive advertising(adware), or tracks the user's Internet usage to sell information to advertisers (spyware), injects its own advertising into web pages that a user looks at, or uses premium SMS services to rack up charges for the user.[3][1]A growing number of open-source software projects have expressed dismay at third-party websites wrapping their downloads with unwanted bundles, without the project's knowledge or consent. Nearly every third-party free download site bundles their downloads with potentially unwanted software.[4]The practice is widely considered unethical because it violates the security interests of users without their informed consent. Some unwanted software bundles install aroot certificateon a user's device, which allows hackers to intercept private data such as banking details, without a browser giving security warnings. TheUnited States Department of Homeland Securityhas advised removing an insecure root certificate, because they make computers vulnerable to seriouscyberattacks.[5]Software developers and security experts recommend that people always download the latest version from the official project website, or a trusted package manager or app store.
Historically, the first big companies working with potentially unwanted programs for creating revenue came up in the US in the mid-2000s, such asZango. These activities declined after the companies were investigated, and in some cases indicted, by authorities for invasive and harmful installs.[6]
A major industry, dedicated to creating revenue by foisting potentially unwanted programs, has grown among the Israeli software industry and is frequently referred to asDownload Valley. These companies are responsible for a large part of the download and install tools,[7]which place unwanted, additional software on users' systems.[8][9][10]
Unwanted programs have increased in recent years, and one study in 2014 classified unwanted programs as comprising 24.77% of totalmalwareinfections.[11]This malware includes adware according toGoogle.[12][13]Many programs include unwanted browser add-ons that track which websites a user goes to in order to sell this information to advertisers, or add advertising into web pages.[14]Five percent of computer browser visits to Google-owned websites are altered by computer programs that inject their own ads into pages.[15][16][17]Researchers have identified 50,870 Google Chrome extensions and 34,407 programs that inject ads. Thirty-eight percent of extensions and 17 percent of programs were catalogued asmalicious software, the rest being potentially unwantedadware-type applications. Some Google Chrome extension developers have sold extensions they made to third-party companies who silently push unwanted updates that incorporate previously non-existent adware into the extensions.[18][19][20]
Spywareprograms install aproxy serveron a person's computer that monitors all web traffic passing through it, tracking user interests to build up a profile and sell that profile to advertisers.
Superfishis an advertising injector that creates its ownroot certificatein a computer operating system, allowing the tool to inject advertising into encrypted Google search pages and track the history of a user's search queries.
In February 2015, theUnited States Department of Homeland Securityadvised uninstalling Superfish and its associatedroot certificatefromLenovocomputers, because they make computers vulnerable to serious cyberattacks, including interception of passwords and sensitive data being transmitted through browsers.[5][21]Heise Securityrevealed that the Superfish certificate is included in bundled downloads with a number of applications from companies includingSAY MediaandLavasoft'sAd-Aware Web Companion.[22]
Many companies usebrowser hijackingto modify a user's home page and search page, to force Internet hits to a particular website and make money from advertisers.[citation needed]Some companies steal the cookies in a user's browser,hijackingtheir connections to websites they are logged into, and performing actions using their account, without the user's knowledge or consent (like installing Android apps).
Users withdial-up Internet accessuse modems in their computer to connect to the Internet, and these have been targeted by fraudulent applications that usedsecurity holesin theoperating systemto dial premium numbers.
ManyAndroiddevices are targeted by malware that usepremium SMSservices to rack up charges for users.[23][24][25]
A few classes of software are usually installed knowingly by the user and do not show any automated abusive behavior. However, the Enterprise controlling the computer or the antivirus vendor may consider the program unwanted due to the activities they allow.
Peer-to-peer file sharingprograms are sometimes labelled as PUA and deleted due to their alleged links to piracy. In March 2021, Windows Defender started removinguTorrentandqBittorrent, causing widespread user confusion. Microsoft has since updated the PUA database to flag torrent clients on enterprise installations only.[26]
Keygensnot tainted by actual malware are also commonly tagged as PUA due to piracy.[27]
In 2015, research byEmsisoftsuggested that all free download providers bundled their downloads with potentially unwanted software, and that Download.com was the worst offender.[4]Lowell Heddings expressed dismay that "Sadly, even on Google all the top results for most open source and freeware are just ads for really terrible sites that are bundling crapware,adware, andmalwareon top of the installer."[28]
In December 2011Gordon Lyonpublished his strong dislike of the wayDownload.comhad started bundlinggraywarewith their installation managers and concerns over the bundled software, causing many people to spread the post on social networks, and a few dozen media reports. The main problem is the confusion between Download.com-offered content[29][30]and software offered by original authors; the accusations included deception as well as copyright and trademark violation.[30]
In 2014,The RegisterandUS-CERTwarned that via Download.com's "foistware", an "attacker may be able to download and execute arbitrary code".[31]
Manyopen-source softwaredevelopers have expressed frustration and dismay that their work is being packaged by companies that profit from their work by usingsearch advertisingto occupy the first result on a search page. Increasingly, these pages are offering bundled installers that include unwanted software, and confuse users by presenting the bundled software as an official download page endorsed by the open source project.
As of early 2016 this is no longer the case.[32]Ownership of SourceForge transferred to SourceForge Media, LLC, a subsidiary of BIZX, LLC (BIZX).[33]After the sale they removed the DevShare program, which means bundled installers are no longer available.
In November 2013,GIMP, a free image manipulation program, removed its download fromSourceForge, citing misleading download buttons that can potentially confuse customers, as well as SourceForge's own Windows installer, which bundles third-party offers. In a statement, GIMP called SourceForge a once "useful and trustworthy place to develop and host FLOSS applications" that now faces "a problem with the ads they allow on their sites ..."[34]In May 2015, the GIMP for Windows SourceForge project was transferred to the ownership of the "SourceForge Editorial Staff" account and adware downloads were re-enabled.[35]The same happened to the developers ofnmap.[36][37]
In May 2015 SourceForge took control of projects which had migrated to other hosting sites and replaced the project downloads with adware-laden downloads.[38]
Gordon Lyonhas lost control of theNmapSourceForgepage, with SourceForge taking over the project's page. Lyon stated "So far they seem to be providing just the official Nmap files (as long as
you don't click on the fake download buttons) and we haven't caught them
trojaning Nmap the way they did with GIMP. But we certainly don't trust
them one bit! Sourceforge is pulling the same scheme that CNet
Download.com tried back when they started circling the drain".[36][37]
VideoLANhas expressed dismay that users searching for their product see search advertising from websites that offer "bundled" downloads that includeunwanted programs, while VideoLAN lacks resources to sue the many companies abusing their trademarks.[28][39][40][41][42]
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Account verificationis the process of verifying that a new or existing account is owned and operated by a specified real individual or organization. A number of websites, for examplesocial mediawebsites, offer account verification services. Verified accounts are often visually distinguished bycheck markicons or badges next to the names of individuals or organizations.
Account verification can enhance the quality of online services, mitigatingsockpuppetry,bots,trolling,spam,vandalism,fake news,disinformationandelection interference.
Account verification was introduced byTwitterin June 2009,[1][2][3]initially as a feature for public figures and accounts of interest, individuals in "music, acting, fashion, government, politics, religion, journalism, media, sports, business and other key interest areas".[4]A similar verification system was adopted byGoogle+in 2011,[5]Facebook pagein October 2015 (Available inUnited States,Canada,United Kingdom,AustraliaandNew Zealand)Facebook profileandFacebook pagein 2018 (Available in Worldwide)Instagramin 2014,[6]andPinterestin 2015.[7]On YouTube, users are able to submit a request for a verification badge once they obtain 100,000 or more subscribers.[8]It also has an "official artist" badge for musicians and bands.[9]
In July 2016,Twitterannounced that, beyond public figures, any individual would be able to apply foraccount verification.[10][11]This was temporarily suspended in February 2018, following a backlash over the verification of one of the organisers of the far-rightUnite the Right rallydue to a perception that verification conveys "credibility" or "importance".[12][13]In March 2018, during a live-stream onPeriscope,Jack Dorsey, co-founder and CEO ofTwitter, discussed the idea of allowing any individual to get a verified account.[14]Twitter reopened account verification applications in May 2021 after revamping their account verification criteria.[15]This time offering notability criteria for the account categories of government, companies, brands, and organizations, news organizations and journalists, entertainment, sports and activists, organizers, and other influential individuals.[16]Instagram began allowing users to request verification in August 2018.[17]
In April 2018,Mark Zuckerberg, co-founder and CEO ofFacebook, announced that purchasers of political or issue-based advertisements would be required to verify their identities and locations.[18][19]He also indicated thatFacebookwould require individuals who manage large pages to be verified.[18]In May 2018, Kent Walker, senior vice president ofGoogle, announced that, in the United States, purchasers of political-leaning advertisements would need to verify their identities.[20]
In November 2022,Elon Muskincluded a blue verification check mark with a paid Twitter Blue monthly membership. Prior to Musk'sacquisition of Twitter, Twitter offered this check mark at no charge to confirmed high profile users.[21]On December 19, 2022, Twitter introduced two new check mark colors: gold for accounts from official businesses and organizations, and grey for accounts from governments or multilateral organizations. The type of check mark can be confirmed by visiting the profile page, then clicking or tapping on the check mark.[22]
Identity verification servicesare third-party solutions which can be used to ensure that a person provides information which is associated with the identity of a real person. Such services may verify the authenticity ofidentity documentssuch asdrivers licensesorpassports, called documentary verification, or may verify identity information against authoritative sources such ascredit bureausor government data, called nondocumentary verification.[citation needed]
The uploading of scanned or photographedidentity documentsis a practice in use, for example, atFacebook.[23]According toFacebook, there are two reasons that a person would be asked to send a scan of or photograph of anIDtoFacebook: to show account ownership and to confirm their name.[23]
In January 2018,Facebookpurchased Confirm.io,[24]a startup that was advancing technologies to verify the authenticity ofidentification documentation.
Behavioral verification is the computer-aided and automated detection and analysis of behaviors and patterns of behavior to verify accounts. Behaviors to detect include those ofsockpuppets,bots,cyborgs,trolls,spammers,vandals, and sources and spreaders offake news,disinformationandelection interference. Behavioral verification processes can flag accounts as suspicious, exclude accounts from suspicion, or offercorroborating evidencefor processes of account verification.
Identity verificationis required to establish bank accounts and other financial accounts in many jurisdictions. Verifying identity in the financial sector is often required by regulation such asKnow Your CustomerorCustomer Identification Program. Accordingly, bank accounts can be of use ascorroborating evidencewhen performing account verification.
Bank account information can be provided when creating or verifying an account or when making a purchase.
Postal address information can be provided when creating or verifying an account or when making and subsequently shipping a purchase. A hyperlink or code can be sent to a user by mail, recipients entering it on a website verifying their postal address.
A telephone number can be provided when creating or verifying an account or added to an account to obtain a set of features. During the process of verifying a telephone number, a confirmation code is sent to a phone number specified by a user, for example in anSMS messagesent to a mobile phone. As the user receives the code sent, they can enter it on the website to confirm their receipt.
An email account is often required to create an account. During this process, a confirmation hyperlink is sent in anemail messageto an email address specified by a person. The email recipient is instructed in the email message to navigate to the provided confirmation hyperlink if and only if they are the person creating an account. The act of navigating to the hyperlink confirms receipt of the email by the person.
The added value of an email account for purposes of account verification depends upon the process of account verification performed by the specific email service provider.
Multi-factor account verification is account verification which simultaneously utilizes a number of techniques.
The processes of account verification utilized by multiple service providers cancorroborateone another.OpenID Connectincludes a user information protocol which can be used to link multiple accounts, corroborating user information.[25]
On some services, account verification is synonymous withgood standing.
Twitterreserves the right to remove account verification from users' accounts at any time without notice.[26]Reasons for removal may reflect behaviors on and off Twitter and include: promoting hate and/or violence against, or directly attacking or threatening other people on the basis of race, ethnicity, national origin, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity, religious affiliation, age, disability, or disease; supporting organizations or individuals that promote the above; inciting or engaging in the harassment of others; violence and dangerous behavior;
directly or indirectly threatening or encouraging any form of physical violence against an individual or any group of people, including threatening or promoting terrorism; violent, gruesome, shocking, or disturbing imagery; self-harm, suicide; and engaging in other activity on Twitter that violates the Twitter Rules.[27]
In April 2023, Blue ticks were removed from all Twitter accounts that had not subscribed to Twitter Blue.[28]
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Capgras delusionorCapgras syndromeis apsychiatric disorderin which a person holds adelusionthat a friend, spouse, parent, other close family member, or pet has been replaced by an identicalimpostor. It is named afterJoseph Capgras(1873–1950), the French psychiatrist who first described the disorder.
The Capgras delusion is classified as adelusional misidentification syndrome, a class of beliefs that involves the misidentification of people, places, or objects.[2]It can occur inacute,transient, orchronicforms. Cases in which patients hold the belief that time has been "warped" or "substituted" have also been reported.[3]
The delusion most commonly occurs in individuals diagnosed with apsychotic disorder, usuallyschizophrenia;[4]it has also been seen inbrain injury,[5]dementia with Lewy bodies,[6][7]and other forms ofdementia.[8]It presents often in individuals with aneurodegenerative disease, particularly at an older age;[9]it has also been reported as occurring in association withdiabetes,hypothyroidism, andmigraine attacks.[10]In one isolated case, the Capgras delusion was temporarily induced in a healthy subject by administration ofketamine.[11]It occurs more frequently in females, with a female to male ratio of approximately 3∶2.[12]
Capgras syndrome is named afterJoseph Capgras, a Frenchpsychiatristwho first described the disorder in 1923 in his paper co-authored by Jean Reboul-Lachaux.[13]They described the case of a French woman, "Madame Macabre," who complained that corresponding "doubles" had taken the places of her husband and other people she knew.[5]Capgras and Reboul-Lachaux first called the syndrome "l'illusion des sosies", which can be translated literally as "the illusion of Doppelgänger."[14]
The syndrome was initially considered a purely psychiatric disorder, the delusion of a double seen as symptomatic ofschizophrenia, and purely a female disorder (though this is now known not to be the case[15]) often noted as a symptom ofhysteria. Most of the proposed explanations initially following that of Capgras and Reboul-Lachaux werepsychoanalyticalin nature. It was not until the 1980s that attention turned to the usually co-existing organic brain lesions originally thought to be essentially unrelated or coincidental. Today, the Capgras syndrome is understood as a neurological disorder, in which the delusion primarily results from organic brain lesions or degeneration.[16]
Compared to otherdelusional misidentification syndromes, like theFregoli delusion, the Capgras delusion is more widely documented.[17]
It is generally agreed[18]that the Capgras delusion has a complex and organic basis caused by structural damage to organs[19]and can be better understood by examining neuroanatomical damage associated with the syndrome.[20]
In one of the first papers to consider the cerebral basis of the Capgras delusion, Alexander,Stussand Benson pointed out in 1979 that the disorder might be related to a combination of frontal lobe damage causing problems with familiarity and right hemisphere damage causing problems with visual recognition.[21]
Further clues to the possible causes of the Capgras delusion were suggested by the study of brain-injured patients who had developedprosopagnosia. In this condition, patients are unable torecognize faces consciously, despite being able to recognize other types of visual objects. However, a 1984 study by Bauer showed that even though conscious face recognition was impaired, patients with the condition showedautonomicarousal (measured by agalvanic skin responsemeasure) to familiar faces,[22]suggesting there are two pathways to face recognition—one conscious and one unconscious.
In a 1990 paper published in theBritish Journal of Psychiatry, psychologistsHadyn Ellisand Andy Young hypothesized that patients with Capgras delusion may have a "mirror image" ordouble dissociationofprosopagnosia, in that their conscious ability to recognize faces was intact, but they might have damage to the system which produces the automatic emotional arousal to familiar faces.[23]This might lead to the experience of recognizing someone while feeling something was not "quite right" about them. In 1997, Ellis and his colleagues published a study of five patients with Capgras delusion (all diagnosed with schizophrenia) and confirmed that although they could consciously recognize the faces, they did not show the normal automatic emotional arousal response.[24]The same low level of autonomic response was shown in the presence of strangers. Young (2008) has theorized that this means that patients with the disease experience a "loss" of familiarity, not a "lack" of it.[25]Further evidence for this explanation comes from other studies measuring galvanic skin responses (GSR) to faces. A patient with Capgras delusion showed reduced GSRs to faces in spite of normal face recognition.[26]This theory for the causes of Capgras delusion was summarised inTrends in Cognitive Sciencesin 2001.[2]
William HirsteinandVilayanur S. Ramachandranreported similar findings in a paper published on a single case of a patient with Capgras delusion after brain injury.[27]Ramachandran portrayed this case in his bookPhantoms in the Brain[28]and gave a talk about it atTED2007.[29]Since the patient was capable of feeling emotions and recognizing faces but could not feel emotions when recognizing familiar faces, Ramachandran hypothesizes the origin of Capgras syndrome is a disconnection between the temporalcortex, where faces are usually recognized (seetemporal lobe), and thelimbic system, involved inemotions. More specifically, he emphasizes the disconnection between theamygdalaand theinferotemporal cortex.[5]
In 2010, Hirstein revised this theory to explain why a person with Capgras syndrome would have the particular reaction of not recognizing a familiar person.[30]Hirstein explained the theory as being "a more specific version of the earlier position I took in the 1997 article with V. S. Ramachandran," and elaborated:
According to my current approach, we represent the people we know well with hybrid representations containing two parts. One part represents them externally: how they look, sound, etc. The other part represents them internally: their personalities, beliefs, characteristic emotions, preferences, etc. Capgras syndrome occurs when the internal portion of the representation is damaged or inaccessible. This produces the impression of someone who looks right on the outside, but seems different on the inside, i.e., an impostor. This gives a much more specific explanation that fits well with what the patients actually say. It corrects a problem with the earlier hypothesis in that there are many possible responses to the lack of an emotion upon seeing someone.[31]
Furthermore, Ramachandran suggests a relationship between the Capgras syndrome and a more general difficulty in linking successiveepisodic memoriesbecause of the crucial role emotion plays in creating memories. Since the patient could not put together memories and feelings, he believed objects in a photograph were new on every viewing, even though they normally should have evoked feelings (e.g., a person close to him, a familiar object, or even himself).[32]Others like Merrin and Silberfarb (1976)[15]have also proposed links between the Capgras syndrome and deficits in aspects of memory. They suggest that an important and familiar person (the usual subject of the delusion) has many layers of visual, auditory, tactile, and experiential memories associated with them, so the Capgras delusion can be understood as a failure ofobject constancyat a high perceptual level.[15]
Most likely, more than a mere impairment of the automatic emotional arousal response is necessary to form the Capgras delusion, as the same pattern has been reported in patients showing no signs of delusions.[33]Ellis suggested that a second factor explains why this unusual experience is transformed into a delusional belief; this second factor is thought to be an impairment in reasoning, although no specific impairment has been found to explain all cases.[34]Many have argued for the inclusion of the role of patientphenomenologyin explanatory models of the Capgras syndrome in order to better understand the mechanisms that enable the creation and maintenance of delusional beliefs.[35][36]
Capgras syndrome has also been linked toreduplicative paramnesia, another delusional misidentification syndrome in which a person believes a location has been duplicated or relocated. Since these two syndromes are highly associated, it has been proposed that they affect similar areas of the brain and therefore have similar neurological implications.[37]Reduplicative paramnesia is understood to affect the frontal lobe, and thus it is believed that Capgras syndrome is also associated with the frontal lobe.[38]Even if the damage is not directly to the frontal lobe, an interruption of signals between other lobes and the frontal lobe could result in Capgras syndrome.[9]Some authors have highlighted cannabis consumption as a trigger for Capgras syndrome.[39]
Because it is a rare and poorly understood condition, there is no established way to diagnose the Capgras delusion. Diagnosis is primarily made on apsychiatric evaluationof the patient, who is most likely brought to a psychiatrist's attention by a family member or friend believed to be an imposter by the person under the delusion. The patient may undergo mental skills tests to check fordementiaor other conditions, and brain imaging tests likeMRIorEEGthat look for lesions or other brain changes.[40]
Treatment of Capgras delusion has not been well studied, so there is no evidence-based approach.[41]Typically, treatment of delusional disorders is challenging due to poor patient insight and lack of empirical data.[37]Treatment is generally therapy, often with support ofantipsychoticmedication.[41][42][43]As manifestation of Capgras delusion is often a symptom rather than a syndrome itself, treatment may focus on the accompanying condition.[4]A study has shown that using medications appropriately to target the underlying disorder's core symptoms can be an effective management strategy. Hospitalization may be necessary, if the patient is engaging in self-harm or violence.[37]
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Anidentity scoreis a system for detectingidentity theft. Identity scores are increasingly being adopted as a means to preventfraudin business[1]and as a tool to verify and correctpublic records.
Identity scores incorporate, a broad set ofconsumerdata that gauges a person's legitimacy. Identity score components can include (but are not limited to)personal identifiers,public records,Internetdata,governmentrecords,corporatedata, predicted behavior patterns based on empirical data, self-assessed behavior patterns, andcredit records.
Identity scoring was originally developed for use by financial services firms to measure the fraud risk for new customers opening accounts. Typical external credit and fraud checks often fail to detect erroneous background information.
Identity scoring is also being tested as a means for financial institutions to comply with criminal investigations and antiterrorism measures, such as theBank Secrecy Act (BSA)and theUSA PATRIOT Act. Usage of fraudverificationtools and third-partyauthenticationsystems to verify identities and “red flag” suspicious activity is greatly enhanced by identity scoring.
Identity scores are built from collecting information from a variety of sources and analyzing discernible patterns from the total information. These records can generally be broken down into three categories:Public records, private records, andcredit records.
Public records can include (but are not limited to) any of the following sources:
Private (non-credit) records can include (but are not limited to) any of the following sources:
Private (credit) records can include (but are not limited to) any of the following sources:
Each identity scoring system uses individual data components to generate their score, meaning that results can vary wildly even for the same individual.
Typical identity score components can include (but are not limited to):
Identity scores are sometimes calculated usingpredictive analytics, the science of taking behavioral data and comparing it against historical patterns to identify potentially risky or fraudulent activity.
By compiling publicly available information and using predictive analytics to gauge the patterns of how the information is used, identity scoring systems can measure theauthenticityof a particular identity.
Identity scoring can be used in a variety of ways, from identity verification and measuring fraud risk on theenterpriselevel, to preventing fraudulent use of identities and syntheticidentity thefton the consumer level. Identity scoring can theoretically provide much more definitive proof of an identity's legitimacy, because of the amount of identifying data it utilizes. Virtually all public information about an individual can be used as data in their identity score.
Credit scoresare compiled from information sources relating to credit, such as number of credit accounts held, balances on each account, dates of collection activity, and so on. Credit scores do not measure any financial or personal activity that is not related to credit, and identity fraud that does not involve credit will not appear on yourcredit reportor affect your credit score. Credit scores and the credit scoring system are also very predictable—there are specific steps you follow to improve your credit score, dispute errors in credit reports, etc.
Identity scores are compiled from much larger sources of information, including criminal records, property records, and so on. Identity scoring enables “grading” of patterns of behavior via predictive analytics, from which an identity monitoring service can track an individual's or criminal group's activity across several enterprises, instead of being confined to monitoring just one area.
Identity scores are also much more mutable and “fuzzy” than credit scores, because the source information—public records and personally identifying information—is constantly changing. Every time an individual changes a job, buys or sells property, or has an encounter with law enforcement, this person's public records are altered. Coordinating the information across so many different sources makes it very difficult to fix errors in one's information once they occur.
Where credit scores have a generally accepted model of a three-digit-number (used for theFICO score, the newVantageScore, and credit bureaus' proprietary scores), identity scoring models vary wildly from product to product.
Identity scoring works by matching the information the user provides against billions of records in publicdatabases, ranging from property and tax records to Internetsearch engines, and calculating it against patterns designed to recognize fraud or identity theft.
Example: John's name andSocial Security numberwere stolen by identity thieves who hacked a stolenlaptop. They take her Social Security number and combine it with another stolen name, and use it to open a series of new accounts, including credit cards and retailgift cards. An identity protection system that used identity scoring would alert Wendy that her Social Security number had been compromised.
Because identity scores include much more accurate information and can predict behavior patterns more definitively than credit scores, theGartnerresearch firm predicted that identity scoring will surpass credit monitoring as the leading identity theft prevention measure by 2009. However, Gartner research analyst Avivah Litan warned that identity scoring was not a foolproof system, as it still relied on the underlying accuracy of the information used.
There are three types of breeder documents, which are documents designed to verify other identification documents.[2]
Reliance on these documents to verify identities is flawed, as there is no standardized means to verify that information contained in breeder documents is legitimate. Identity scoring can be used as a tool to authenticate identities on an independent level in cases of employment hiring and information verification.
Currently there is no standard means to verify that information provided on anI-9work document is legitimate, for example. The desire for industries to quickly hire cheap labor trumps any incentive a business has to check the credentials of their new hires, leading to a “gray market” for stolen identities and contributing to continuing surges inillegal immigration. Tools that employ identity scoring to verify that a person's name and Social Security number match, or that their I-9 data is correct, could cut down on the sale and misuse of personal information while enabling better enforcement of immigration law.
The following companies make use of identity scoring products or systems in their businesses:
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Animpersonatoris someone who imitates or copies the behavior or actions of another.[1]There are many reasons for impersonating someone:
Celebrity impersonatorsare impostors who look similar tocelebritiesand dress in such a way as to imitate them. Impersonators are known as sound-alikes, look-alikes, impressionists, imitators, tribute artists, and wannabees. The interest may have originated with the need or desire to see a celebrity who has died.[citation needed]One of the most prominent examples of this phenomenon is the case ofElvis Presley.Edward Mosshas appeared in movies and sitcoms, impersonatingMichael Jackson.[3][4]Tom Joneshas attracted his share ofimpersonatorsfrom different places around the world. From the United States, to South East Asia, to the UK, there are performers who either sound like him or imitate his act.[5][6][7][8]
In England and Wales, thePoor Law Amendment Act 1851, section 3, made it an offence to impersonate a "person entitled to vote" at an election. In the case of Whiteley v Chappell (1868), theliteral ruleofstatutory interpretationwas employed to find that a dead person was not a "person entitled to vote" and consequently a person accused of this offence wasacquitted.[9]
Although in aColoradocase, an immigrant was charged with "criminal impersonation" for using another person'sSocial Security numberwhen signing up for a job,[citation needed]some courts have ruled that supplying this wrong information may not be criminal.[10]The ruling hinges on whether there was harm to the other person.[citation needed]
Audio deepfakeshave been used as part ofsocial engineeringscams, fooling people into thinking they are receiving instructions from a trusted individual.[11]In 2019, a U.K.-based energy firm's CEO was scammed over the phone when he was ordered to transfer €220,000 into a Hungarian bank account by an individual who used audio deepfake technology to impersonate the voice of the firm's parent company's chief executive.[12]
As of 2023, the combination advances in deepfake technology, which could clone an individual's voice from a recording of a few seconds to a minute, and newtext generation tools, enabled automated impersonation scams, targeting victims using a convincing digital clone of a friend or relative.[13]
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Animpostor(also spelledimposter)[1]is a person who pretends to be somebody else, often through means ofdisguise, deceiving others by knowingly falsifying one or more aspects of their identity.[1]This is in contrast to someone that honestly believes their false identity due to psychosis (break from reality), mistake (e.g. mistakenly switched at birth, or memory problems), or having been lied to about their identity by another (e.g. by a parent, or kidnapper).
They may lie about their name, rank or title, profession, education, identity of family members or friends, social class, notoriety or influence, life experiences, abilities or achievements, their health history or disability (or that of their family members), citizenship or club membership, racial or ethnic background, religious or political affiliation, wealth or property ownership, tenancy or residency, past or current employment, charitable contributions, criminal or civil court history.
Many impostors try to gain financial or social advantages throughsocial engineeringor through means ofidentity theft, but also often for purposes ofespionageorundercoverlaw enforcement. Their objective may be one of sexual gratification, giving a false name, false claim of being single or unwed, and/or false age in order to hideadultery,bigamy, or tocatfish(e.g. a pedophile pretending to be a youth online[2]).
Those inwitness protection, those fleeing abusers or persecution, and criminals evading arrest may also assume a false identity.
Economic migrantsmay pose as tourists (visitor visas) or as international students (international student visas with anon-accredited university or college).[3][4][5]As countries, like Canada, decrease their international student quotas, international students may imposture as asylum claimants.[6]
Some impostors may do it for pathological reasons, such as having apersonality disorderthat involves an excessive need for attention and emotional reactions from others (be it praise and/or sympathy), an excessive sense of self-importance or being special, an excessive sense of entitlement, an excessive need to control others, a lack of remorse or emotional empathy, chronic and frequent exaggeration or lying about one’s abilities or life events, and exploitativeness. These psychological conditions may includenarcissistic personality disorder(NPD),antisocial personality disorder(psychopathy and sociopathy),Munchausen syndrome(factitious disorder imposed on self) andMunchausen-by-proxy(factitious disorder imposed on another).[7][8][9][10][11]
As part of humorous stunts and media pranks, protesters have also engaged in imposture, often revealing their true identity at a later time.[12]
Many women in history have presented themselves as men in order to advance in typically male-dominated fields. There are many documented cases of this in the military during the American Civil War.[13]However, their purpose was rarely for fraudulent gain. They are listed in theList of wartime cross-dressers.
Spies have often pretended to be people other than they were. One famous case was that ofChevalier d'Eon(1728–1810), a French diplomat who successfully infiltrated the court of Empress Elizabeth of Russia by presenting as a woman.
Historically, when military record-keeping was less accurate than today, some persons—primarily men—falsely claimed to be war veterans to obtain military pensions. Most did not make extravagant claims, because they were seeking money, not public attention that might expose their fraud. In the modern world, reasons for posing as a member of the military or exaggerating one's service record vary, but the intent is almost always to gain the respect and admiration of others.[14]
Scientists and filmmakers may also engage in imposture for the purposes of conducting asocial experimentor public education. Revealing the deception to participants and/or public being a key part of the experiment. For instance, James Randi’sProject Alpha; Derren Brown’sMessiah, andFear & Faith; or Vikram Gandhi’sKumaré.
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Internetfraud preventionis the act of stopping various types ofinternet fraud. Due to the many different ways of committing fraud over the Internet, such asstolen credit cards,identity theft,phishing, andchargebacks, users of the Internet, including online merchants, financial institutions and consumers who make online purchases, must make sure to avoid or minimize the risk of falling prey to such scams.[1]The most commoncybercrimesinvolving theinternet fraudincreasingly entail thesocial engineering,phishing,cryptocurrency frauds,romance scamsincluding thepig butchering scam, etc.
The speed and sophistication of the online fraudulent actors continues to grow.[2]According to a 2017 study conducted by LexisNexis, $1.00 lost to fraud costs organizations (merchants, credit card companies and other institutions) between $2.48 to $2.82 – "that means that fraud costs them more than roughly 2 1⁄2 times the actual loss itself."[1]
Three constituencies have a direct interest in preventing Internet fraud. First, there is the consumer who may be susceptible to giving away personal information in a phishing scam, or have it be acquired byrogue security softwareor akeylogger. In a 2012 study,McAfeefound that 1 in 6 computers do not have any sort ofantivirus protection, making them very easy targets for such scams.[3]Business owners andwebsite hostsare also engaged in the ongoing battle to ensure that the users of their services are legitimate. Websites withfile hostingmust work to verify uploaded files to check forvirusesandspyware, while some modern browsers perform virus scans prior to saving any file (there must be a virus scanner previously installed on the system).[4]However, most files are only found to be unclean once a user falls prey to one. Financial institutions, such as credit card companies, who refund online customers and merchants who have been defrauded also have a strong interest in mitigating Internet fraud risk.[5][1]
Internet fraud began appearing in 1994 with the start ofe-commerce. The first trend to be seen was the use of "Famous Names" to commit the fraud. Using this method, the person committing the fraud would use stolen credit cards with the popular celebrity of the time's name. This highly unsophisticated plan was only successful because the internet was new and the possibility of fraud had not been considered. Eventually internet merchants implemented rules to confirm the card user name.
Following the "Famous Names" strategies were more technical attacks in which hackers created card-generator applications that came with real credit card numbers. Attacks such as these were commonly targeted toward the same vendor. Merchants had no way to see cross-merchant activity until the credit card associations reported it. After 1996 fraudulent users went on the internet to test the status of stolen credit cards.
By 1998, the internet was filled with e-commerce sites. Fraudsters began to set up "dummy" merchant sites where they could harvest their own credit cards through their own site. Before the charge-backs rolled in, they would shut the doors of the website and leave the country. Soon a trend started of the mass theft of identities from the internet through information provided online under the Freedom of Information Act. One of the counter-methods merchants developed was the use of consumer accounts. The merchant would set up a consumer account the first time the consumer made a purchase. Following the creation of the new account, the merchant would perform a series of third-party checks to validate the information provided by the consumer.
As auction sites like eBay and uBid gained popularity, new fraud methods arrived specifically targeting this new merchant community. From selling bogus goods to misleading the consumer, the fraudsters continued to take advantage of consumers.[6]
Credit card fraudis the unauthorized use of a credit card to make a transaction. This fraud can range from using the credit card to obtain goods without actually paying, or performing transactions that were not authorized by the card holder. Credit card fraud is a serious offense, and punished under the charge of identity theft. The majority of this type of fraud occurs with counterfeit credit cards, or using cards that were lost or stolen. Approximately .01% of all transactions are deemed fraudulent, and approximately 10% of Americans have reported some type of credit card fraud in their lifetimes.[7]
While many systems are in place by the card provider to identify fraud, the card holder is left with the ultimate responsibility. Preemptive steps to reduce chances of fraud include installing anti-virus software, keeping and maintaining current records, and reviewing statements and charges regularly. The objective is to provide a first defense in spotting fraudulent charges. Exercising caution on online sites, especially suspicious or non-established sites, as well as in foreign countries is also advisable. The legitimacy of websites should be verified. Checking with theBetter Business Bureauis a first step to see how that company has established themselves. Once on a website, the user can check what security or encryption software the website utilizes. A padlock to the left of the URL, can sometimes be found to signify additional security is being implemented. A physical address for the company, or sending an email to one of the contact addresses can further verify the reliability of the company.[8]Even on trusted sites, it is important to be diligent that one has not navigated away from that site. Other safe practices include being cautious of account number distribution, keeping credit cards separate from a wallet or purse, keeping constant sight of credit cards, and drawing lines on blank spaces above the total on receipts. On accounts in which one has saved card information, it is important to have a strong password with a mix of numbers and symbols. Using different passwords for different sites, is also strongly encouraged.[9]
If a card is lost or stolen, the card holder must report it immediately, even if no fraud has been detected yet. Once a card is reported lost or stolen, the card-holder is not responsible for erroneous charges.[10]
Identity theft, also calledidentity fraud, is a crime in which someone steals and uses another person's personal information and data without permission. It is a crime usually committed for economic gain. Stolen personal data includesSocial Security Number's (SSN), passport numbers, or credit card numbers, which can easily be used by another person for profit. It is a serious crime that can have negative effects on a person's finances,credit scoreand reputation.
There are three specific types of identity theft aside from the broad term. Tax-related identity theft is when a criminal uses someone else's SSN to get a tax refund or a job. Victim of this type of theft must contact theIRS. Child identity theft is when a criminal uses a child's SSN to apply for governmental benefits, open bank accounts, or apply for a loan. Medical identity theft is when a criminal uses someone else's name or health insurance to see a doctor, get a prescription or other various medical needs.[11]
Fortunately, there are precautions that consumers can take to prevent identity theft. There are simple ways in which to avoid becoming a victim of identity fraud and an easy way to remember them is the acronym SCAM. SCAM reminds us to 1. Be stingy when giving out personal information to others 2. Check financial information regularly and recognize when something strange has occurred 3. Ask for a copy of your credit report often, and 4. Maintain careful financial records. It is necessary to be aware ofphishingand to always be cautious of giving your personal information out through e-mail, website or over the phone. Also be sure that the phone number, name and mailing address registered to your bank account is all correct as there are cases in which bank statements have been sent to false addresses and identities have been stolen. Check these bank statements regularly and be sure that there are no charges to your account that you do not recognize.[12]
Individuals experiencing identity theft can take immediate steps to limit the damage to their finances and personal life. The first step is to contact one of the three national credit reporting companies and place an initial fraud alert. This is done by contacting a national credit reporting company, asking them to put a fraud alert on your credit file, and confirming that they will notify the other two companies of this change. The next step is to order free credit reports from each of the three national credit reporting companies. Lastly, report the identity theft to theFTCand print anFTCidentity theft affidavit and then file a police report and ask for a copy of the report.
Phishingis a scam by which an e-mail user is duped into revealing personal or confidential information which the scammer (phisher) can use illicitly.[13]Communications purporting to be from popular social web sites, auction sites, banks, online payment processors or IT administrators are commonly used to lure unsuspecting public. Phishing emails may contain links to websites that are infected with malware.[14]Phishing is typically carried out by email spoofing or instant messaging, and it often directs users to enter details at a fake website whose look and feel are almost identical to the legitimate one. There are four main type of phishing techniques:link manipulation,filter evasion,website forgery, andphone phishing. Legislation, user training, public awareness, and technical security measures are all attempts to control the growing number of phishing attacks. The damage caused by phishing ranges from denial of access to email to substantial financial loss. It is estimated that between May 2004 and May 2005, approximately 1.2 million computer users in the United States suffered losses caused by phishing, totaling approximately US$929 million. United States businesses lose an estimated US$2 billion per year as their clients become victims.[15]
As early as 2007, the adoption of anti-phishing strategies by businesses needing to protect personal and financial information was low. There are several different techniques to combat phishing, including legislation and technology created specifically to protect against phishing. These techniques include steps that can be taken by individuals, as well as by organizations. One strategy for combating phishing is to train people to recognize phishing attempts, and to deal with them. Education can be effective, especially where training provides direct feedback.[16]People can take steps to avoid phishing attempts by slightly modifying their browsing habits. When contacted about an account needing to be "verified" (or any other topic used by phishers), it is a sensible precaution to contact the company from which the email apparently originates to check that the email is legitimate. Alternatively, the address that the individual knows is the company's genuine website can be typed into the address bar of the browser, rather than trusting any hyperlinks in the suspected phishing message.
Nearly all legitimate e-mail messages from companies to their customers contain an item of information that is not readily available to phishers. It is up to the customer to use his or her discretion to separate genuine emails from phishing emails and prevent phishing attacks.[17]TheAnti-Phishing Working Group, an industry and law enforcement association, has suggested that conventional phishing techniques could become obsolete in the future as people are increasingly aware of the social engineering techniques used by phishers. They predict that pharming and other uses of malware will become more common tools for stealing information.
Achargebackis not necessarily a fraudulent activity. In its most basic sense, a chargeback is when anissuing bank, a bank where consumers acquire credit cards, reverses a prior charge from a bank account orcredit cardat the request of acardholderbecause there was a problem with atransaction. The problem could be anything from a situation where theconsumerdid not receive theproductthey purchased,[18]to one where the cardholder was not satisfied with the quality of the product, to a situation where the cardholder was a victim ofidentity theft.[19]The concept of a chargeback rose as a measure ofconsumer protectiontaken by issuing banks and credit card companies. Chargebacks were a measure to protect cardholders from identity theft and the unauthorized transitions from identity theft. Chargebacks also provide incentive to producers and sellers to provide products of consistent quality and efficientcustomer service.
With the rise of technology,[20]and the resulting increase in online and telephone transactions and commerce, it has become easier to commit fraud via chargebacks. Chargebacks are an interesting concept because the process protects consumers from identity theft fraud, but opens the door for consumers to commit chargeback fraud. Chargeback fraud is also known as "friendly fraud." Friendly fraud is the term for when a consumer authorizes a transaction for an online purchase on his or her credit card, receives the product or products the consumer paid for, but then later the same consumer files for a chargeback.[18]The fraudulent filing for a chargeback results in a consumer keeping and avoiding paying for the products they ordered.
There are several common cases where a consumer commits so called friendly fraud.[5]One situation is where the consumer claims that they never received the purchase or order when in reality, they did. In this scenario, when a customer files a chargeback, it enables the customer to keep the product while not paying for the product.[19]Another situation is where a customer claims that the product they received was either defective or damaged. In this scenario, a chargeback claim facilitates the customer to get a "two for one" deal because the producer will ship a replacement product. Finally, another common situation is where the customer buys a product, but then files a chargeback with their issuing bank claiming they never authorized such a transaction.[21]
Producers and merchants have responded to the rise of fraudulent chargeback claims and have implemented measures to combat friendly fraud. Chargeback fraud is challenging because the vendor's first reaction is to tighten internal fraud controls and add anti-fraud software tools. While this reduces fraud, it also prevents many legitimate customers from completing online purchases.[5]In addition, it is difficult for merchants to protect against friendly fraud chargebacks because the chargeback process often favors the consumers over the producers.[21]One of the best ways to prevent friendly fraudsters is for online merchants to require signatures for the delivered packages upon their arrival. This will provide very specific information to the producers about the delivery. The drawback to signature confirmation is that it increases shipping costs, which still hurt producers' bottom line.[21]In addition, producers have started to sharedataof lists of customers who make chargeback claims. This helps producers see trends of customer's shopping habits.[21]This transfer of information among producers helps them maximizeprofitsand forces consumers to stay honest. Producers have also started keeping a record of all communication with customers, so customers who want to file fraudulent chargebacks have a harder time following through with the claim. Finally, e-commerce sites have started to keep track of customer'sIP addresses, so when consumers make a claim that they did not make a purchase, it is much harder to lie.[19]
Although chargeback fraud is a problem with the growth ofe-commerceand other alternative shopping outlets[20]with dishonest consumers, many consumers who file chargeback claims are honest and have encountered a real problem with their transaction. In some cases, chargebacks can be reduced by implementing more refined tracking tools to measure reasons for returns and employing more live customer service personnel and improving their training.[5]
In May 2001, Deputy Assistant Director of theFBI, Thomas T. Kubic, gave a testimony to the House Committee on the Energy and Commerce, Subcommittee on Commerce, Trade, and Consumer Protection on the FBI's response toInternet fraudcrimes. Alongside theU.S. Postal Inspection Services,U.S. Customs Service, Internal Revenue Service-Criminal Investigative Division, and theUnited States Secret Service, the FBI has developed the "Operation Cyber Loss" program to combat Internet fraud. The agency also created the Internet Fraud Complaint Center (IFCC) to help with the operation. Thetypes of fraudthat Operation Cyber Loss is investigating areidentity theft,on-line auctionfraud,credit/debit card fraud, investment and securities fraud,Ponzi/Pyramid schemes, and non-delivery of merchandise purchased over the Internet.[22]
Businesses selling goods and services online bear a large portion of internet fraud costs—according to the 2017 LexisNexis study, fraud costs as a percentage of revenues for online retail (physical goods) and eCommerce (digital goods) are 2.17% and 2.39% respectively, with online gift card fraud being an area of special concern.[1]
Relying on fraud detection software alone has been found to flag too many legitimate transactions as fraudulent:[2]online purchases are either blocked outright or delayed for review such that the customer abandons the purchase.[5]One approach that has been found successful in reducing the number of "false positives" while still reducing fraud is a "layered" filtering. This technique employs fraud detection software based on algorithms and AI/machine learning, combined with manual review by customer service personnel. Real-time fraud detection supplied by software-as-a-service (SaaS) fraud detection firms includes verifying CVV, PIN/signature, check verification, browser malware detection, address verification, device ID fingerprinting, geolocation, authentication by quizzes, cross-checking shared data bases of customer profiles, automated transaction scoring, rules-based filters and other data points.[1]
In response to the prevalence of online fraud, many fraud detection and prevention software service companies have entered the field, employing a variety of techniques, including machine-learning-based behavior analytics and anomaly detection; the use of a "fraud hub" that enables third-party data sources to feed in purchaser information that is used in predictive statistical modeling; and automated remote malware detection. The largest players in this area areCybersource(owned byVisa),Brighterion(Mastercard), andSAS Institute. Some of the newcomers in the field includeFraudio,Signifyd,Eye4Fraud, Kount,Riskified,Sift Science,ForterandFeedzai.[2]
Reviews on the latest Internet Fraud (Awareness against scams)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fraud_prevention
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Cybersquatting(also known asdomain squatting) is the practice of registering, trafficking in, or using anInternet domain name, with abad faithintent to profit from thegoodwillof atrademarkbelonging to someone else.
The term is derived from "squatting", which is the act of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied space or building that the squatter does not own, rent, or otherwise have permission to use.
In popular terms, "cybersquatting" is the term most frequently used to describe the deliberate, bad faith abusive registration of a domain name in violation of trademark rights. However, precisely because of its popular currency, the term has different meanings to different people. Some people, for example, include "warehousing", or the practice of registering a collection of domain names corresponding to trademarks with the intention of selling the registrations to the owners of the trademarks, within the notion of cybersquatting, while others distinguish between the two terms.[1]In the former definition, the cybersquatter may offer to sell the domain to the person or company who owns a trademark contained within the name at aninflated price.
Similarly, some consider "cyberpiracy" to be interchangeable with "cybersquatting", whereas others consider that the former term relates to violation of copyright in the content of websites, rather than to abusive domain name registrations.[1]
Because of the various interpretations of the term, World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), in a 1999 report, approved by its member states, considered it as the abusive registration of a domain name.[2][3]
Since 1999, theWorld Intellectual Property Organization(WIPO) has provided an administrative process wherein a trademark holder can attempt to claim a squatted site.
Trademark owners in 2021 filed a record 5,128 cases under theUniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy(UDRP) withWorld Intellectual Property Organization(WIPO)'s Arbitration and Mediation Center, eclipsing the 2020 level by 22%. The surge pushed WIPO cybersquatting cases to almost 56,000 and the total number of domain names covered past the 100,000 mark.[4]As a matter of comparison, in 2006, there were 1823 complaints filed with WIPO, which was a 25% increase over the 2005 rate.[5]
The accelerating growth in cybersquatting cases filed with the WIPO Center has been largely attributed by the WIPO Center[6]to trademark owners reinforcing their online presence to offer authentic content and trusted sales outlets, with a greater number of people spending more time online, especially during theCOVID-19 pandemic. Representing 70% of WIPO'sGeneric top-level domain(gTLD) cases,.comdemonstrated its continuing primacy.
WIPO UDRP cases in 2021 involved parties from 132 countries. The top three business areas were Banking and Finance (13%), Internet and IT (13%), and Biotechnology and Pharmaceuticals (11%).[7]The U.S., with 1,760 cases filed, France (938), the U.K. (450), Switzerland (326), and Germany (251) were the top five filing countries.[8]
In 2007 it was stated that 84% of the claims made since 1999 were decided in the complaining party's favor.[5]
Some countries have specific laws against cybersquatting beyond the normal rules oftrademarklaw. For example, according to theUnited States federal lawknown as theAnticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act(ACPA), cybersquatting is registering, trafficking in, or using anInternet domain namewithbad faithintent to profit from the goodwill of atrademarkbelonging to someone else. TheUnited Statesadopted the U.S. Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act in 1999. This expansion of theLanham (Trademark) Act(15 U.S.C.) is intended to provide protection against cybersquatting for individuals as well as owners of distinctive trademarked names. However, some notable personalities, including actorKevin Spacey, failed to obtain control of their names on the internet because the US ACPA considers ownership of a website name "fair use" for which no permission is needed, unless there is an attempt to profit from the domain name by putting it up for sale.[9]
Jurisdiction is an issue, as shown in the case involving Kevin Spacey, in which JudgeGary A. Feess, of the United States District Court of the Central District of California, ruled that the actor would have to file a complaint in a Canadian court, where the current owner of kevinspacey.com resided. Spacey later won the domain throughFORUM(formerly known as the National Arbitration Forum).
In relation to cybersquatting, theSpanish Supreme Courtissued the first sentence on this practice, relating it to the crime of misappropriation (STS 358/2022, of April 7). An unprecedented fact that established the legal fit of this computer crime in Spanish jurisprudence.
The case revolves around four members of the religious association Alpha Education for Comprehensive Health. They created a web page (the Internet domain of which was www.alfatelevision.org) and opened a bank and PayPal account for donations made to the association.
Sometime later, there were some disagreements between the members of the association and the four defendants who opened a new website, changed theinternet domainand the passwords of the accounts, which redirected all the donations from the followers. Later, the association dismissed the four members.
The association's general secretary denounced the four members for a crime of misappropriation, and they were sentenced by the Provincial Court of Guadalajara, understanding that the internet domain was an asset of the association.
This resolution was appealed to theSupreme Courtthrough anappeal, which was upheld by the court. Finally, the Supreme Court acquitted the four accused, understanding that the proven facts did not fit the crime of misappropriation. In this sense, it highlights that there are elements that did not concur in this case and that the actions carried out by these individuals (creation of another domain, change of passwords...) occurred prior to their termination and that, therefore, they were in willingness to do it.
In addition, the sentence reflects cases in which cybersquatting could have criminal relevance. In the first place, if the conduct sought to harm the rights of a brand, it could constitute acrime against industrialorintellectual property. Secondly, if the intention was to use thedomain namein a deceitful way to cause an error in the transfer of assets, the accused could face a crime offraud. Finally, if cybersquatting were used to attack a domain name, the accused would be facing a crime of computer sabotage.[10]
World Intellectual Property Organization
France
United Kingdom
United States
India
With the rise of social media websites such asFacebookandTwitter, a new form of cybersquatting involves registering trademark-protected brands or names of public figures on popular social media websites. Such cases may be referred to as "username squatting".
On June 5, 2009,Tony La Russa, the manager of the St. Louis Cardinals, filed a complaint against Twitter, accusing Twitter of cybersquatting.[22]The dispute centered on a Twitter profile that used La Russa's name, had a picture of La Russa, and had a headline that said "Hey there! Tony La Russa is now using Twitter." The profile encouraged users to "join today to start receiving Tony La Russa's updates." According to La Russa, the status updates were vulgar and derogatory. La Russa argued that the author of the profile intended, in bad faith, to divert Internet traffic away from La Russa's website and make a profit from the injury to La Russa's mark.[22]On June 26, 2009, La Russa filed a notice of voluntary dismissal after the parties settled the case.[23]
Social networking websites have attempted to curb cybersquatting, making cybersquatting a violation of their terms of service.
Twitter's name squatting policy forbids cybersquatting similar to that seen in many domain name disputes, such as "username for sale" accounts: "Attempts to sell or extort other forms of payment in exchange for usernames will result in account suspension."[24]Additionally, Twitter has an "Impersonation Policy" that forbids non-parody impersonation. An account may be guilty of impersonation if it confuses or misleads others; "accounts with the clear intent to confuse or mislead may be permanently suspended." Twitter's standard for defining parody is whether a reasonable person would be aware that the fake profile is a joke.[25]
Soon after the La Russa suit was filed, Twitter took another step to prevent "identity confusion" caused by squatting by unveilingTwitter verification.[26]Usernames stamped with the "verified account" insignia is intended to indicate that the accounts are real and authentic.
However, after theacquisition of Twitter by Elon Muskthe verification system was changed to make it easier for individuals to get verified through the Twitter Blue program,[27]giving accounts "Profile Labels" instead – identifying ownership information such as whether the account is an individual, business, or a government.[28]
Facebook reserves the right to reclaim usernames on the website if they infringe on a trademark.[29]Trademark owners are responsible for reporting any trademark infringement on a username infringement form Facebook provides. Furthermore, Facebook usernames require "mobile phone authentication".[29]In order to obtain a username, the individual needs to verify the account by phone.
This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. Licensed under CC-BY-4.0. Text taken from2021 WIPO's Global Intellectual Property Filing Services, WIPO.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapsed_lurker
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Pharmingis acyberattackintended to redirect awebsite's traffic to another, fake site by installing a malicious program on the victim's computer in order to gain access to it.[citation needed]Pharming can be conducted either by changing thehosts fileon a victim's computer or byexploitationof avulnerabilityinDNS serversoftware. DNS servers are computers responsible for resolving Internet names into their realIP addresses. Compromised DNS servers are sometimes referred to as"poisoned". Pharming requires unprotected access to target a computer, such as altering a customer's home computer, rather than a corporate business server.[citation needed]
The term "pharming" is aneologismbased on the words "farming" and "phishing". Phishing is a type ofsocial-engineeringattack to obtainaccess credentials, such asuser namesandpasswords. In recent years, both pharming and phishing have been used to gain information foronline identity theft. Pharming has become of major concern to businesses hostingecommerceandonline bankingwebsites. Sophisticated measures known asanti-pharmingare required to protect against this seriousthreat.Antivirus softwareandspyware removal softwarecannot protect against pharming.
While malicious domain-name resolution can result from compromises in the large numbers of trusted nodes from a name lookup, the most vulnerable points of compromise are near the leaves of the Internet. For instance, incorrect entries in a desktop computer'shosts file, which circumvents name lookup with its own local name to IP address mapping, is a popular target for malware. Once rewritten, a legitimate request for a sensitive website can direct the user to a fraudulent copy. Personal computers such asdesktopsandlaptopsare often better targets for pharming because they receive poorer administration than most Internet servers.
More worrisome than host-file attacks is the compromise of a localnetwork router. Since most routers specify a trusted DNS to clients as they join the network, misinformation here will spoil lookups for the entireLAN. Unlike host-file rewrites, local-router compromise is difficult to detect. Routers can pass bad DNS information in two ways: misconfiguration of existing settings or wholesale rewrite ofembedded software(akafirmware). Many routers allow the administrator to specify a particular, trusted DNS in place of the one suggested by an upstream node (e.g., theISP). An attacker could specify a DNS server under his control instead of a legitimate one. All subsequent resolutions would go through the bad server.
Alternatively, many routers have the ability to replace theirfirmware(i.e. the internal software that executes the device's more complex services). Like malware on desktop systems, a firmware replacement can be very difficult to detect. A stealthy implementation will appear to behave the same as the manufacturer's firmware; the administration page will look the same, settings will appear correct, etc. This approach, if well executed, could make it difficult for network administrators to discover the reconfiguration, if the device appears to be configured as the administrators intend but actually redirects DNS traffic in the background. Pharming is only one of many attacks that malicious firmware can mount; others include eavesdropping, activeman in the middle attacks, and traffic logging. Like misconfiguration, the entire LAN is subject to these actions.
By themselves, these pharming approaches have only academic interest. However, the ubiquity of consumer gradewireless routerspresents a massivevulnerability. Administrative access can be available wirelessly on most of these devices. Moreover, since these routers often work with their default settings, administrative passwords are commonly unchanged. Even when altered, many are guessed quickly throughdictionary attacks, since most consumer grade routers don't introduce timing penalties for incorrect login attempts. Once administrative access is granted, all of the router's settings including the firmware itself may be altered. These attacks are difficult to trace because they occur outside the home or small office and outside the Internet.
On 15 January 2005, the domain name for a large New York ISP,Panix, washijackedto point to a website inAustralia. No financial losses are known. The domain was later restored on 17 January, andICANN's review blamesMelbourne IT(now known as "Arq Group") "as a result of a failure of Melbourne IT to obtain express authorization from the registrant in accordance with ICANN's Inter-Registrar Transfer Policy."[1]
In February 2007, a pharming attack affected at least 50 financial companies in the U.S., Europe, and Asia. Attackers created a similar page for each targeted financial company, which requires effort and time. Victims clicked on a specific website that had a malicious code. This website forced consumers' computers to download aTrojan horse.Subsequent login information from any of the targeted financial companies was collected. The number of individuals affected is unknown but the incident continued for three days.[2]
In January 2008,Symantecreported a drive-by pharming incident, directed against a Mexican bank, in which the DNS settings on a customer's home router were changed after receipt of an e-mail that appeared to be from a legitimate Spanish-language greeting-card company.[3]
Traditional methods for combating pharming include: Server-side software, DNS protection, andweb browseradd-ins such astoolbars. Server-side software is typically used by enterprises to protect their customers and employees who use internal or private web-based systems from being pharmed and phished, while browser add-ins allow individual users to protect themselves fromphishing. DNS protection mechanisms help ensure that a specificDNSserver cannot behackedand thereby become a facilitator of pharming attacks.Spamfilters typically do not provide users with protection against pharming.
Currently the most efficient way to prevent pharming is for end users to make sure they are using secure web connections (HTTPS) to access privacy sensitive sites such as those for banking or taxing, and only accept the validpublic key certificatesissued by trusted sources. A certificate from an unknown organisation or an expired certificate should not be accepted all the time for crucial business. So-called active cookies[4]provide for a server-side detection tool.
Legislation also plays an essential role in anti-pharming. In March 2005,U.S. SenatorPatrick Leahy(D-VT) introduced theAnti-Phishing Act of 2005, abillthat proposes a five-year prison sentence and/or fine for individuals who executephishingattacks and use information garnered through online fraud such asphishingand pharming to commit crimes such asidentity theft.
For home users of consumer-grade routers and wireless access points, perhaps the single most effective defense is to change the password on the router to something other than the default, replacing it with a password that is not susceptible to adictionary attack.
The term "pharming" has been controversial within the field. At a conference organized by theAnti-Phishing Working Group,Phillip Hallam-Bakerdenounced the term as "amarketingneologismdesigned to convince banks to buy a new set ofsecurity services".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharming
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Robert Siciliano(born May 25, 1968) is an American security analyst,authorand media personality. He delivers presentations throughout theUnited StatesandCanadaonidentity theftprotection and personalsecurity,[3]includingself-defense.[4]
Siciliano has appeared on United States–based television programming such asThe Today Show,Anderson Cooper 360°,CNN,MSNBC,Fox News,CNBC,Inside Edition,Tyra Banks Show,Sally Jesse Show,Montel Williams,Maury Povich Show,Gayle King Showand theHoward Stern Show.[5]In addition, he has been quoted in American news print publications such asUSA Today,Forbes,Cosmopolitan,Good Housekeeping,The New York Times,Los Angeles Times,Washington Times,Chicago Tribune,Boston Globe, andEntrepreneur.[5]Siciliano serves on the board of directors for the Identity Theft Resource Center,[6]contributes to the Realtor Safety Initiative Team for Realtor Safety Week,[7]and is a regular keynote speaker at security-related events.
Robert Siciliano grew up in and aroundBoston, Massachusetts. Robert earned his certification in Private Investigations from Boston University, as well as his certificate as a Certified Speaking Professional from the NSA (National Speakers Association).[8]For the last 20+ years, Siciliano has been refining his rhetoric, content, message to carry out his mission of informing the public on the issues and solutions surrounding security issues.[5]
Talk show hostMontel Williamswas the first to broadcast Siciliano nationally.[5]Show producers worked with Siciliano to develop scenarios where he would socially engineer his way into resident's homes in Elizabethtown, New Jersey, posing as a utility worker.[9]
After theSeptember 11 attacks, Siciliano provided commentary as a news correspondent in regards to many security issues such as school shootings,[10]workplace violence, privacy issues,[11]child abductions, and travel security.[12]
In September 2009, Siciliano conducted an experiment that tested the ease of buying and deploying a retail ATM and as a result raised a few eyebrows in the ATM industry. He was able to purchase an ATM for US$750.00 on Craigslist.org, then program and deploy the retail ATM without any red tape or paperwork registration.[13]
On April 15, 2013, Siciliano ran the 117th edition of the mass-participation Boston Marathon as a charity runner for Boston Children's Hospital. Roberts experience during the bombing was chronicled by the Boston Globe.[14]
Siciliano is the author of five books:
He has also contributed to the development of five other books, including ones such asProtect your business against threats internally and externally[30]andRiches In Niches, How to make it big in a small market.[31]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Siciliano
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Spammingis the use of messaging systems to send multiple unsolicited messages (spam) to large numbers of recipients for the purpose of commercialadvertising, non-commercialproselytizing, or any prohibited purpose (especiallyphishing), or simply repeatedly sending the same message to the same user. While the most widely recognized form of spam isemail spam, the term is applied to similar abuses in other media:instant messaging spam,Usenet newsgroup spam,Web search engine spam,spam in blogs,wiki spam,online classified adsspam,mobile phone messaging spam,Internet forum spam,junk fax transmissions,social spam, spam mobile apps,[1]televisionadvertisingand file sharing spam. It is named afterSpam, a luncheon meat, by way of aMonty Python sketchabout a restaurant that has Spam in almost every dish in which Vikings annoyingly sing "Spam" repeatedly.[2]
Spamming remains economically viable because advertisers have no operating costs beyond the management of their mailing lists, servers, infrastructures, IP ranges, and domain names, and it is difficult to hold senders accountable for their mass mailings. The costs, such as lost productivity and fraud, are borne by the public and byInternet service providers, which have added extra capacity to cope with the volume. Spamming has been the subject of legislation in many jurisdictions.[3]
A person who creates spam is called aspammer.[4]
The termspamis derived from the 1970"Spam"sketchof theBBCsketch comedy television seriesMonty Python's Flying Circus.[5][6]The sketch, set in acafe, has a waitress reading out a menu where every item but one includes the Spam canned luncheon meat. As the waitress recites the Spam-filled menu, a chorus ofVikingpatrons drown out all conversations with a song, repeating "Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam… Lovely Spam! Wonderful Spam!".[7]
In the 1980s the term was adopted to describe certain abusive users who frequentedBBSsandMUDs, who would repeat "Spam" a huge number of times to scroll other users' text off the screen.[8]In early chat-room services like PeopleLink and the early days of Online America (later known as America Online or AOL), they actually flooded the screen with quotes from the Monty Python sketch.[citation needed]This was used as a tactic by insiders of a group that wanted to drive newcomers out of the room so the usual conversation could continue. It was also used to prevent members of rival groups from chatting—for instance,Star Warsfans often invadedStar Trekchat rooms, filling the space with blocks of text until theStar Trekfans left.[9]
It later came to be used onUsenetto mean excessive multiple posting—the repeated posting of the same message. The unwanted message would appear in many, if not all newsgroups, just as Spam appeared in all the menu items in the Monty Python sketch. One of the earliest people to use "spam" in this sense wasJoel Furr.[10][11]This use had also become established—to "spam" Usenet was to flood newsgroups with junk messages. The word was also attributed to the flood of "Make Money Fast" messages that clogged many newsgroups during the 1990s.[citation needed]In 1998, theNew Oxford Dictionary of English, which had previously only defined "spam" in relation to the trademarked food product, added a second definition to its entry for "spam": "Irrelevant or inappropriate messages sent on the Internet to a large number of newsgroups or users."
There was also an effort to differentiate between types of newsgroup spam. Messages that werecrosspostedto too many newsgroups at once, as opposed to those that were posted too frequently, were called "velveeta" (aftera cheese product), but this term did not persist.[12]
In the late 19th century,Western Unionallowed telegraphic messages on its network to be sent to multiple destinations. The first recorded instance of a mass unsolicited commercial telegram is from May 1864, when some British politicians received an unsolicited telegram advertising a dentist.[13]
The earliest documented spam (although the term had not yet been coined[14]) was a message advertising the availability of a new model ofDigital Equipment Corporationcomputers sent by Gary Thuerk to 393 recipients onARPANETon May 3, 1978.[10]Rather than send a separate message to each person, which was the standard practice at the time, he had an assistant, Carl Gartley, write a single mass email. Reaction from the net community was fiercely negative, but the spam did generate some sales.[15][16]
Spamming had been practiced as a prank by participants inmulti-user dungeongames, to fill their rivals' accounts with unwanted electronic junk.[16]
The first major commercial spam incident started on March 5, 1994, when a husband and wife team of lawyers,Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, began using bulkUsenetposting to advertiseimmigrationlaw services. The incident was commonly termed the "Green Cardspam", after the subject line of the postings. Defiant in the face of widespread condemnation, the attorneys claimed their detractors were hypocrites or "zealots", claimed they had afree speechright to send unwanted commercial messages, and labeled their opponents "anti-commerce radicals". The couple wrote a controversial book entitledHow to Make a Fortune on the Information Superhighway.[16]
An early example ofnonprofitfundraisingbulk posting viaUsenetalso occurred in 1994 on behalf of CitiHope, anNGOattempting to raise funds to rescue children at risk during theBosnian War. However, as it was a violation of their terms of service, the ISPPanixdeleted all of the bulk posts from Usenet, only missingthree copies[citation needed].
Within a few years, the focus of spamming (and anti-spam efforts) moved chiefly to email, where it remains today.[8]By 1999, Khan C. Smith, a well known hacker at the time, had begun to commercialize the bulk email industry and rallied thousands into the business by building more friendly bulk email software and providing internet access illegally hacked from major ISPs such as Earthlink and Botnets.[17]
By 2009 the majority of spam sent around the World was in theEnglish language; spammers began using automatic translation services to send spam in other languages.[18]
Email spam, also known as unsolicited bulk email (UBE), or junk mail, is the practice of sending unwanted email messages, frequently with commercial content, in large quantities.[19]Spam in email started to become a problem when the Internet was opened for commercial use in the mid-1990s. It grew exponentially over the following years, and by 2007 it constituted about 80% to 85% of all e-mail, by a conservative estimate.[20]Pressure to make email spam illegal has resulted in legislation in some jurisdictions, but less so in others. The efforts taken by governing bodies, security systems and email service providers seem to be helping to reduce the volume of email spam. According to "2014 Internet Security Threat Report, Volume 19" published bySymantec Corporation, spam volume dropped to 66% of all email traffic.[21]
An industry ofemail address harvestingis dedicated to collecting email addresses and selling compiled databases.[22]Some of these address-harvesting approaches rely on users not reading the fine print of agreements, resulting in their agreeing to send messages indiscriminately to their contacts. This is a common approach insocial networking spamsuch as that generated by the social networking siteQuechup.[23]
Instant messaging spam makes use ofinstant messagingsystems. Although less prevalent than its e-mail counterpart, according to a report from Ferris Research, 500 million spam IMs were sent in 2003, twice the level of 2002.[24]
Newsgroup spam is a type of spam where the targets are Usenet newsgroups. Spamming of Usenet newsgroups actually pre-dates e-mail spam. Usenet convention defines spamming as excessive multiple posting, that is, the repeated posting of a message (or substantially similar messages). The prevalence of Usenet spam led to the development of theBreidbart Indexas an objective measure of a message's "spamminess".
Forum spam is the creation of advertising messages on Internet forums. It is generally done by automated spambots. Most forum spam consists of links to external sites, with the dual goals of increasing search engine visibility in highly competitive areas such as weight loss, pharmaceuticals, gambling, pornography, real estate or loans, and generating more traffic for these commercial websites. Some of these links contain code to track the spambot's identity; if a sale goes through, the spammer behind the spambot earns a commission.
Mobile phone spam is directed at thetext messagingservice of amobile phone. This can be especially irritating to customers not only for the inconvenience, but also because of the fee they may be charged per text message received in some markets.
To comply with CAN-SPAM regulations in the US, SMS messages now must provide options of HELP and STOP, the latter to end communication with the advertiser via SMS altogether.
Despite the high number of phone users, there has not been so much phone spam, because there is a charge for sending SMS. Recently, there are also observations of mobile phone spam delivered via browser push notifications. These can be a result of allowing websites which are malicious or delivering malicious ads to send a user notifications.[25]
Facebook and Twitter are not immune to messages containing spam links. Spammers hack into accounts and send false links under the guise of a user's trusted contacts such as friends and family.[26]As for Twitter, spammers gain credibility by following verified accounts such as that of Lady Gaga; when that account owner follows the spammer back, it legitimizes the spammer.[27]Twitter has studied what interest structures allow their users to receive interesting tweets and avoid spam, despite the site using the broadcast model, in which all tweets from a user are broadcast to all followers of the user.[28]Spammers, out of malicious intent, post either unwanted (or irrelevant) information or spread misinformation on social media platforms.[29]
Spreading beyond the centrally managed social networking platforms, user-generated content increasingly appears on business, government, and nonprofit websites worldwide. Fake accounts and comments planted by computers programmed to issue social spam can infiltrate these websites.[30]
Blog spamis spamming onweblogs. In 2003, this type of spam took advantage of the open nature of comments in the blogging softwareMovable Typeby repeatedly placing comments to various blog posts that provided nothing more than a link to the spammer's commercial web site.[31]Similarattacksare often performed againstwikisandguestbooks, both of which accept user contributions.
Another possible form of spam in blogs is the spamming of a certain tag on websites such as Tumblr.
In actual video spam, the uploaded video is given a name and description with a popular figure or event that is likely to draw attention, or within the video a certain image is timed to come up as the video'sthumbnailimage to mislead the viewer, such as a still image from a feature film, purporting to be a part-by-part piece of a movie being pirated, e.g.Big Buck Bunny Full Movie Online - Part 1/10 HD, a link to a supposedkeygen, trainer, ISO file for avideo game, or something similar. The actual content of the video ends up being totally unrelated, aRickroll, offensive, or simply on-screen text of a link to the site being promoted.[32]In some cases, the link in question may lead to an online survey site, a password-protected archive file with instructions leading to the aforementioned survey (though the survey, and the archive file itself, is worthless and does not contain the file in question at all), or in extreme cases,malware.[33]Others may upload videos presented in aninfomercial-like format selling their product which feature actors and paidtestimonials, though the promoted product or service is of dubious quality and would likely not pass the scrutiny of astandards and practicesdepartment at atelevision stationorcable network.
VoIP spamisVoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)spam, usually usingSIP (Session Initiation Protocol). This is nearly identical to telemarketing calls over traditional phone lines. When the user chooses to receive the spam call, a pre-recorded spam message or advertisement is usually played back. This is generally easier for the spammer as VoIP services are cheap and easy to anonymize over the Internet, and there are many options for sending mass number of calls from a single location. Accounts or IP addresses being used for VoIP spam can usually be identified by a large number of outgoing calls, low call completion and short call length.
Academic search enginesenable researchers to findacademic literatureand are used to obtain citation data for calculatingauthor-level metrics. Researchers from theUniversity of California, BerkeleyandOvGUdemonstrated that most (web-based) academic search engines, especiallyGoogle Scholarare not capable of identifying spam attacks.[34]The researchers manipulated the citation counts of articles, and managed to make Google Scholar index complete fake articles, some containing advertising.[34]
Spamming in mobile app stores include (i) apps that were automatically generated and as a result do not have any specific functionality or a meaningful description; (ii) multiple instances of the same app being published to obtain increased visibility in the app market; and (iii) apps that make excessive use of unrelated keywords to attract users through unintended searches.[35]
Bluespam, or the action of sending spam toBluetooth-enabled devices, is another form of spam that has developed in recent years.[36]
E-mail and other forms of spamming have been used for purposes other than advertisements. Many early Usenet spams were religious or political.Serdar Argic, for instance, spammed Usenet with historical revisionist screeds. A number ofevangelistshave spammedUsenetand e-mail media with preaching messages. A growing number of criminals are also using spam to perpetrate various sorts of fraud.[a]
In 2011 the origins of spam were analyzed byCisco Systems. They provided a report that shows spam volume originating from countries worldwide.[37]
Hormel Foods Corporation, the maker ofSPAMluncheon meat, does not object to the Internet use of the term "spamming". However, they did ask that the capitalized word "Spam" be reserved to refer to their product and trademark.[38]
TheEuropean Union's Internal Market Commission estimated in 2001 that "junk email" cost Internet users €10 billion per year worldwide.[39]The California legislature found that spam cost United States organizations alone more than $13 billion in 2007, including lost productivity and the additional equipment, software, and manpower needed to combat the problem.[40]Spam's direct effects include the consumption of computer and network resources, and the cost in human time and attention of dismissing unwanted messages.[41]Large companies who are frequent spam targets utilize numerous techniques to detect and prevent spam.[42]
The cost to providers ofsearch enginesis significant: "The secondary consequence of spamming is that search engine indexes are inundated with useless pages, increasing the cost of each processed query".[4]The costs of spam also include the collateral costs of the struggle between spammers and the administrators and users of the media threatened by spamming.[43]
Email spam exemplifies atragedy of the commons: spammers use resources (both physical and human), without bearing the entire cost of those resources. In fact, spammers commonly do not bear the cost at all. This raises the costs for everyone.[44]In some ways spam is even a potentialthreatto the entire email system, as operated in the past. Since email is so cheap to send, a tiny number of spammers can saturate the Internet with junk mail. Although only a tiny percentage of their targets are motivated to purchase their products (or fall victim to their scams), the low cost may provide a sufficient conversion rate to keep the spamming alive. Furthermore, even though spam appears not to be economically viable as a way for a reputable company to do business, it suffices for professional spammers to convince a tiny proportion of gullible advertisers that it is viable for those spammers to stay in business. Finally, new spammers go into business every day, and the low costs allow a single spammer to do a lot of harm before finally realizing that the business is not profitable.[citation needed]
Some companies and groups "rank" spammers; spammers who make the news are sometimes referred to by these rankings.[45][46]
In all cases listed above, including both commercial and non-commercial, "spam happens" because of a positivecost–benefit analysisresult; if the cost to recipients is excluded as anexternalitythe spammer can avoid paying.[citation needed]
Costis the combination of:
Benefitis the total expected profit from spam, which may include any combination of the commercial and non-commercial reasons listed above. It is normally linear, based on the incremental benefit of reaching each additional spam recipient, combined with theconversion rate. The conversion rate forbotnet-generated spam has recently been measured to be around one in 12,000,000 for pharmaceutical spam and one in 200,000 for infection sites as used by theStorm botnet.[47]The authors of the study calculating those conversion rates noted, "After 26 days, and almost 350 million e-mail messages, only 28 sales resulted."
Spam can be used to spreadcomputer viruses,trojan horses, or other malicious software. The objective may beidentity theft, or worse (e.g.,advance fee fraud). Some spam attempts to capitalize on human greed, while some attempts to take advantage of the victims' inexperience with computer technology to trick them (e.g.,phishing).
One of the world's most prolific spammers,Robert Alan Soloway, was arrested by US authorities on May 31, 2007.[48]Described as one of the top ten spammers in the world, Soloway was charged with 35 criminal counts, including mail fraud, wire fraud,e-mail fraud, aggravated identity theft, and money laundering.[48]Prosecutors allege that Soloway used millions of"zombie" computersto distribute spam during 2003.[49]This is the first case in which US prosecutors used identity theft laws to prosecute a spammer for taking over someone else's Internet domain name.[50]
In an attempt to assess potential legal and technical strategies for stopping illegal spam, a study cataloged three months of online spam data and researched website naming and hosting infrastructures. The study concluded that: 1) half of all spam programs have their domains and servers distributed over just eight percent or fewer of the total available hosting registrars and autonomous systems, with 80 percent of spam programs overall being distributed over just 20 percent of all registrars and autonomous systems; 2) of the 76 purchases for which the researchers received transaction information, there were only 13 distinct banks acting as credit card acquirers and only three banks provided the payment servicing for 95 percent of the spam-advertised goods in the study; and, 3) a "financial blacklist" of banking entities that do business with spammers would dramatically reduce monetization of unwanted e-mails. Moreover, this blacklist could be updated far more rapidly than spammers could acquire new banking resources, an asymmetry favoring anti-spam efforts.[51]
An ongoing concern expressed by parties such as theElectronic Frontier Foundationand theAmerican Civil Liberties Unionhas to do with so-called "stealth blocking", a term for ISPs employing aggressive spam blocking without their users' knowledge. These groups' concern is that ISPs or technicians seeking to reduce spam-related costs may select tools that (either through error or design) alsoblocknon-spam e-mail from sites seen as "spam-friendly". Few object to the existence of these tools; it is their use in filtering the mail of users who are not informed of their use that draws fire.[52]
Even though it is possible in some jurisdictions to treat some spam as unlawful merely by applying existing laws againsttrespassandconversion, some laws specifically targeting spam have been proposed. In 2004, United States passed theCAN-SPAM Act of 2003that provided ISPs with tools to combat spam. This act allowedYahoo!to successfully sue Eric Head who settled the lawsuit for several thousand U.S. dollars in June 2004. But the law is criticized by many for not being effective enough. Indeed, the law was supported by some spammers and organizations that support spamming, and opposed by many in the anti-spam community.[citation needed]
Earthlink won a $25 million judgment against one of the most notorious and active "spammers" Khan C. Smith in 2001 for his role in founding the modern spam industry which dealt billions in economic damage and established thousands of spammers into the industry.[53]His email efforts were said to make up more than a third of all Internet email being sent from 1999 until 2002.
Sanford Wallaceand Cyber Promotions were the target of a string of lawsuits, many of which were settled out of court, up through a 1998 Earthlink settlement[54]that put Cyber Promotions out of business. AttorneyLaurence Canterwas disbarred by theTennessee Supreme Courtin 1997 for sending prodigious amounts of spam advertising hisimmigration lawpractice. In 2005,Jason Smathers, a formerAmerica Onlineemployee, pleaded guilty to charges of violating theCAN-SPAM Act. In 2003, he sold a list of approximately 93 million AOL subscriber e-mail addresses to Sean Dunaway who sold the list to spammers.[55][56]
In 2007,Robert Solowaylost a case in a federal court against the operator of a small Oklahoma-based Internet service provider who accused him of spamming. U.S. Judge Ralph G. Thompson granted a motion by plaintiff Robert Braver for adefault judgmentand permanentinjunctionagainst him. The judgment includes a statutory damages award of about $10 million under Oklahoma law.[57]
In June 2007, two men were convicted of eight counts stemming from sending millions of e-mail spam messages that included hardcore pornographic images. Jeffrey A. Kilbride, 41, ofVenice, Californiawas sentenced to six years in prison, and James R. Schaffer, 41, ofParadise Valley, Arizona, was sentenced to 63 months. In addition, the two were fined $100,000, ordered to pay $77,500 in restitution toAOL, and ordered to forfeit more than $1.1 million, the amount of illegal proceeds from their spamming operation.[58]The charges includedconspiracy,fraud,money laundering, and transportation ofobscenematerials. The trial, which began on June 5, was the first to include charges under theCAN-SPAM Act of 2003, according to a release from theDepartment of Justice. The specific law that prosecutors used under the CAN-Spam Act was designed to crack down on the transmission of pornography in spam.[59]
In 2005, Scott J. Filary and Donald E. Townsend ofTampa, Floridawere sued byFlorida Attorney GeneralCharlie Cristfor violating the Florida Electronic Mail Communications Act.[60]The two spammers were required to pay $50,000USDto cover the costs of investigation by the state ofFlorida, and a $1.1 million penalty if spamming were to continue, the $50,000 was not paid, or the financial statements provided were found to be inaccurate. The spamming operation was successfully shut down.[61]
Edna Fiedler ofOlympia, Washington, on June 25, 2008, pleaded guilty in aTacomacourt and was sentenced to two years imprisonment and five years of supervised release orprobationin an Internet $1 million "Nigerian check scam." She conspired to commit bank, wire and mail fraud, against US citizens, specifically using Internet by having had anaccomplicewho shipped counterfeit checks and money orders to her fromLagos, Nigeria, the previous November. Fiedler shipped out $609,000 fake check and money orders when arrested and prepared to send additional $1.1 million counterfeit materials. Also, the U.S. Postal Service recently intercepted counterfeit checks, lottery tickets and eBay overpayment schemes with a value of $2.1 billion.[62][63]
In a 2009 opinion,Gordon v. Virtumundo, Inc., 575 F.3d 1040, the Ninth Circuit assessed the standing requirements necessary for a private plaintiff to bring a civil cause of action against spam senders under the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003, as well as the scope of the CAN-SPAM Act's federal preemption clause.[64]
In the first successful case of its kind,Nigel Robertsfrom theChannel Islandswon £270 against Media Logistics UK who sent junk e-mails to his personal account.[65]
In January 2007, a Sheriff Court in Scotland awarded Mr. Gordon Dick £750 (the then maximum sum that could be awarded in a Small Claim action) plus expenses of £618.66, a total of £1368.66 against Transcom Internet Services Ltd.[66]for breaching anti-spam laws.[67]Transcom had been legally represented at earlier hearings, but were not represented at the proof, so Gordon Dick got his decree by default. It is the largest amount awarded in compensation in the United Kingdom since Roberts v Media Logistics case in 2005.
Despite the statutory tort that is created by the Regulations implementing the EC Directive, few other people have followed their example. As the Courts engage in active case management, such cases would probably now be expected to be settled by mediation and payment of nominal damages.
In October 2008, an international internet spam operation run from New Zealand was cited by American authorities as one of the world's largest, and for a time responsible for up to a third of all unwanted e-mails. In a statement the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) named Christchurch's Lance Atkinson as one of the principals of the operation. New Zealand's Internal Affairs announced it had lodged a $200,000 claim in the High Court against Atkinson and his brotherShane Atkinsonand courier Roland Smits, after raids in Christchurch. This marked the first prosecution since the Unsolicited Electronic Messages Act (UEMA) was passed in September 2007.
The FTC said it had received more than three million complaints about spam messages connected to this operation, and estimated that it may be responsible for sending billions of illegal spam messages. The US District Court froze the defendants' assets to preserve them for consumer redress pending trial.[68]U.S. co-defendant Jody Smith forfeited more than $800,000 and faces up to five years in prison for charges to which he pleaded guilty.[69]
Bulgariaallows spam messages as long as the message is clearly marked as spam according to the Bulgarian E-Commerce act. Spam messages can't be sent if the user opts out of them. When a user opts out of a message, their e-mail gets stored in a public registry. Companies sending spam messages to users registered in the registry have to pay a fine. Under the ECA, spam messages can't be sent if the address of the spam message is invalid or the user identity is unknown.[70][71]
This made lawsuits against Bulgarian ISP's and public e-mail providers with antispam policy possible, as they are obstructing legal commerce activity and thus violate Bulgarian antitrust acts. While there are no such lawsuits until now, several cases of spam obstruction are currently awaiting decision in the Bulgarian Antitrust Commission (Комисия за защита на конкуренцията) and can end with serious fines for the ISPs in question.[when?]
The law contains other dubious provisions — for example, the creation of a nationwide public electronic register of e-mail addresses that do not want to receive spam.[72]It is usually abused as the perfect source fore-mail address harvesting, because publishing invalid or incorrect information in such a register is a criminal offense in Bulgaria.
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Business intelligence(BI) consists of strategies, methodologies, and technologies used by enterprises fordata analysisand management of businessinformation.[1]Common functions of BI technologies includereporting,online analytical processing,analytics,dashboarddevelopment,data mining,process mining,complex event processing,business performance management,benchmarking,text mining,predictive analytics, andprescriptive analytics.
BI tools can handle large amounts of structured and sometimes unstructured data to help organizations identify, develop, and otherwise create new strategicbusiness opportunities. They aim to allow for the easy interpretation of thesebig data. Identifying new opportunities and implementing an effective strategy based oninsightsis assumed to potentially providebusinesseswith a competitive market advantage and long-term stability, and help them take strategic decisions.[2]
Business intelligence can be used by enterprises to support a wide range of business decisions ranging from operational to strategic. Basic operating decisions includeproduct positioningorpricing.Strategic businessdecisions involve priorities,goals, and directions at the broadest level. In all cases, Business Intelligence (BI) is considered most effective when it combines data from the market in which a company operates (external data) with data from internal company sources, such as financial and operational information. When integrated, external and internal data provide a comprehensive view that creates ‘intelligence’ not possible from any single data source alone.[3]
Among their many uses, business intelligence tools empower organizations to gain insight into new markets, to assess demand and suitability of products and services for differentmarket segments, and to gauge the impact of marketing efforts.[4]
BI applications use data gathered from adata warehouse(DW) or from adata mart, and the concepts of BI and DW combine as "BI/DW"[5]or as "BIDW". A data warehouse contains a copy of analytical data that facilitatesdecision support.
The earliest known use of the termbusiness intelligenceis in Richard Millar Devens'Cyclopædia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes(1865). Devens used the term to describe how the bankerSir Henry Furnesegained profit by receiving and acting upon information about his environment, prior to his competitors:
Throughout Holland, Flanders, France, and Germany, he maintained a complete and perfect train of business intelligence. The news of the many battles fought was thus received first by him, and thefall of Namuradded to his profits, owing to his early receipt of the news.
The ability to collect and react accordingly based on the information retrieved, Devens says, is central to business intelligence.[6]
WhenHans Peter Luhn, a researcher atIBM, used the termbusiness intelligencein an article published in 1958, he employed theWebster's Dictionarydefinition of intelligence: "the ability to apprehend the interrelationships of presented facts in such a way as to guide action towards a desired goal."[7]
In 1989, Howard Dresner (later aGartneranalyst) proposedbusiness intelligenceas anumbrella termto describe "concepts and methods to improve business decision making by using fact-based support systems."[8]It was not until the late 1990s that this usage was widespread.[9]
According to Solomon Negash and Paul Gray, business intelligence (BI) can be defined as systems that combine:
with analysis to evaluate complex corporate and competitive information for presentation to planners and decision makers, with the objective of improving the timeliness and the quality of the input to the decision process."[10]
According toForrester Research, business intelligence is "a set of methodologies, processes, architectures, and technologies that transform raw data into meaningful and useful information used to enable more effective strategic, tactical, and operational insights and decision-making."[11]Under this definition, business intelligence encompassesinformation management(data integration,data quality, data warehousing, master-data management, text- and content-analytics, et al.). Therefore, Forrester refers todata preparationanddata usageas two separate but closely linked segments of the business-intelligence architectural stack.
Some elements of business intelligence are:[citation needed]
Forrester distinguishes this from thebusiness-intelligence market, which is "just the top layers of the BI architectural stack, such asreporting,analytics, anddashboards."[12]
Though the term business intelligence is sometimes a synonym forcompetitive intelligence(because they both supportdecision making), BI uses technologies, processes, and applications to analyze mostly internal, structured data and business processes while competitive intelligence gathers, analyzes, and disseminates information with a topical focus on company competitors. If understood broadly, competitive intelligence can be considered as a subset of business intelligence.[13]
Business intelligence andbusiness analyticsare sometimes used interchangeably, but there are alternate definitions.[14]Thomas Davenport, professor of information technology and management atBabson Collegeargues that business intelligence should be divided intoquerying,reporting,Online analytical processing(OLAP), an "alerts" tool, and business analytics. In this definition, business analytics is the subset of BI focusing on statistics, prediction, and optimization, rather than the reporting functionality.[15]
Business operations can generate a very large amount ofdatain the form of e-mails, memos, notes from call-centers, news, user groups, chats, reports, web-pages, presentations, image-files, video-files, and marketing material. According toMerrill Lynch, more than 85% of all business information exists in these forms; a company might only use such a document a single time.[16]Because of the way it is produced and stored, this information is eitherunstructuredorsemi-structured.
The management of semi-structured data is an unsolved problem in the information technology industry.[17]According to projections from Gartner (2003), white-collar workers spend 30–40% of their time searching, finding, and assessing unstructured data. BI uses both structured and unstructured data. The former is easy to search, and the latter contains a large quantity of the information needed for analysis and decision-making.[17][18]Because of the difficulty of properly searching, finding, and assessing unstructured or semi-structured data, organizations may not draw upon these vast reservoirs of information, which could influence a particular decision, task, or project. This can ultimately lead to poorly informed decision-making.[16]
Therefore, when designing a business intelligence/DW-solution, the specific problems associated with semi-structured and unstructured data must be accommodated for as well as those for the structured data.
There are several challenges to developing BI with semi-structured data. According to Inmon & Nesavich,[19]some of those are:
To solve problems with searchability and assessment of data, it is necessary to know something about the content. This can be done by adding context through the use ofmetadata.[16][needs independent confirmation]Many systems already capture some metadata (e.g. filename, author, size, etc.), but more useful would be metadata about the actual content – e.g. summaries, topics, people, or companies mentioned. Two technologies designed for generating metadata about content areautomatic categorizationandinformation extraction.
Generative business intelligence is the application ofgenerative AItechniques, such aslarge language models, in business intelligence. This combination facilitates data analysis and enables users to interact with data more intuitively, generating actionable insights through natural language queries.Microsoft Copilotwas for example integrated into the business analytics toolPower BI.[20]
Business intelligence can be applied to the following business purposes:
Some common technical roles for business intelligence developers are:[23]
In a 2013 report,Gartnercategorized business intelligence vendors as either an independent "pure-play" vendor or a consolidated "mega-vendor".[24][non-primary source needed]In 2019, the BI market was shaken within Europe for the new legislation of GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) which puts the responsibility of data collection and storage onto the data user with strict laws in place to make sure the data is compliant. Growth within Europe has steadily increased since May 2019 when GDPR was brought. The legislation refocused companies to look at their own data from a compliance perspective but also revealed future opportunities using personalization and external BI providers to increase market share.[25]
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Corporate warfareis a form ofinformation warfarein which attacks on companies by other companies take place.[1][2]Such warfare may be part ofeconomic warfareandcyberwarfare; but can involve espionage, 'dirty' PR tactics, or physical theft.[3]The intention is largely to destabilise or sink the value of the opposing company for financial gain, or to steal trade secrets from them.
In thescience fictiongenre ofcyberpunk, corporations guard their data and hire individuals to break into the computer systems of their competitors.[4]In the genre pioneered byWilliam Gibson,poweris largely in the hands ofmegacorporationswhich often maintain their own private armies and security forces and wage corporate warfare against each other.[5]
According to Schwartau, companies are typically targeted by their competitors. Such warfare may include methods ofindustrial espionage, spreadingdisinformation,leakingconfidential informationand damaging a company's information systems.[3]
Chris Rouland of the cybersecurity &cyberarmscompanyEndgame, Inc.controversially advocated that private companies should be allowed to "hack back" against nations or criminals trying tosteal their data.[6]After a wave of high-profile attacks against US companies and government databases a panel of experts assembled by the George Washington University Center for Cyber and Homeland Security said policies should be eased to allow "active defense" measures to deter hackers and did not recommend hacking back "because [they] don't want the cure to be worse than the disease".[7]Relevantly at the February 2017RSA ConferenceMicrosoftPresident Brad Smith stated that technology companies need to preserve trust and stability online by pledging neutrality in cyber conflict.[8][9]
The dramatic increase in the use of the Internet for business purposes has exposed private entities to greater risks of cyber-attacks. Garcia and Horowitz propose agame theoreticapproach that considers economic motivations for investment inInternet securityand investigates a scenario in which firms plan for long-term security investment by considering the likelihood of cyber-attacks.[3]
Botnetsmay be used to knock business competitors offline.[10]They can be hired by corporations to disrupt the operation of competitors on the networks.[11]
Low-grade corporate warfare is constantly being waged between technology giants by "patent trolls, insider blogs and corporate talking points".[12]
Supply chain attacksin corporate warfare can be called supply chain interdiction.[13]
The term may also refer to theprivatizationof warfare mainly by the involvement ofprivate military companies.[14][15][16]
It has been speculated that the concept of "non-international armed conflict within the meaning of Article 3 GC I to IV" of theFourth Geneva Conventionwould be wide enough to allow for covering "a renaissance of corporate warfare".[2]
In 2016 a digital illustration series by the German Foreal design studio called "Corporate Warfare" visualized the power and impact of big brand corporations by branded torpedoes and atomic bombs. Dirk Schuster, cofounder of Foreal states that "big corporations can have more power than governments, so we put them in a military context".[17][18]
Sam Esmail, creator of the television seriesMr. Robot, states that "the nextworld warwon't be fought with nukes, but with information, economics and corporate warfare.[19]
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TheFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI) is the domesticintelligenceandsecurityservice of theUnited Statesandits principal federal law enforcement agency. An agency of theUnited States Department of Justice, the FBI is a member of theU.S. Intelligence Communityand reports to both theattorney generaland thedirector of national intelligence.[3]A leading Americancounterterrorism,counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, the FBI hasjurisdictionover violations of more than 200 categories offederal crimes.[4][5]
Although many of the FBI's functions are unique, its activities in support ofnational securityare comparable to those of the BritishMI5andNCA, the New ZealandGCSBand the RussianFSB. Unlike theCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA), which has no law enforcement authority and is focused on intelligence collection abroad, the FBI is primarily a domestic agency, maintaining 56field officesin major cities throughout the United States, and more than 400 resident agencies in smaller cities and areas across the nation. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the director of national intelligence.[6][7]
Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint, operating 60 Legal Attache (LEGAT) offices and 15 sub-offices inU.S. embassies and consulatesacross the globe. These foreign offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries.[8]The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas,[9]just as the CIA has alimited domestic function. These activities generally require coordination across government agencies.
The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation, the BOI or BI for short. Its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1935.[10]The FBI headquarters is theJ. Edgar Hoover BuildinginWashington, D.C.The FBI has alist of the top 10 most wanted fugitives.
The mission of the FBI is to "protect the American people and uphold theConstitution of the United States".[2][11]
Currently, the FBI's top priorities are:[11]
In the fiscal year 2019, the Bureau's total budget was approximately $9.6 billion.[12]
In the Authorization and Budget Request to Congress for fiscal year 2021,[13]the FBI asked for $9,800,724,000. Of that money, $9,748,829,000 would be used for Salaries and Expenses (S&E) and $51,895,000 for Construction.[2]The S&E program saw an increase of $199,673,000.
In 1896, theNational Bureau of Criminal Identificationwas founded, providing agencies across the country with information to identify known criminals. The1901 assassinationof PresidentWilliam McKinleycreated a perception that the United States was under threat fromanarchists. TheDepartments of JusticeandLaborhad been keeping records on anarchists for years, but PresidentTheodore Rooseveltwanted more power to monitor them.[14]
The Justice Department had been tasked withthe regulation of interstate commercesince 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until theOregon land fraud scandalat the turn of the 20th century. President Roosevelt instructed Attorney GeneralCharles Bonaparteto organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to theAttorney General.[15]
Bonaparte contacted other agencies, including theU.S. Secret Service, for personnel, investigators in particular. On May 27, 1908, Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as asecret policedepartment.[16]Again at Roosevelt's urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formalBureau of Investigation, which would then have its own staff ofspecial agents.[14]
The Bureau of Investigation (BOI) was created on July 26, 1908.[17][unreliable source?]Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds,[14]hired thirty-four people, including some veterans of the Secret Service,[18][19]to work for a new investigative agency. Its first "chief" (the title is now "director") wasStanley Finch. Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908.[14]
The bureau's first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the "White Slave Traffic Act" orMann Act, passed on June 25, 1910. In 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation.
The following year, 1933, the BOI was linked to theBureau of Prohibitionand rechristened the Division of Investigation (DOI); it became an independent service within the Department of Justice in 1935.[18]In the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
J. Edgar Hooverserved as FBI director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, and FBI. He was chiefly responsible for creating the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory, or theFBI Laboratory, which officially opened in 1932, as part of his work to professionalize investigations by the government. Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure. But as detailed below, his tenure as Bureau director proved to be highly controversial, especially in its later years. After Hoover's death, Congress passed legislation that limited the tenure of future FBI directors to ten years.
Early homicide investigations of the new agency included theOsage Indian murders. During the "War on Crime" of the 1930s, FBI agents apprehended or killed a number of notorious criminals who committed kidnappings, bank robberies, and murders throughout the nation, includingJohn Dillinger,"Baby Face" Nelson,Kate "Ma" Barker,Alvin "Creepy" Karpis, andGeorge "Machine Gun" Kelly.
Other activities of its early decades focused on the scope and influence of thewhite supremacistgroupKu Klux Klan, a group with which the FBI was evidenced to be working in theViola Liuzzolynching case. Earlier, through the work ofEdwin Atherton, the BOI claimed to have successfully apprehended an entire army of Mexican neo-revolutionaries under the leadership of GeneralEnrique Estradain the mid-1920s, east of San Diego, California.
Hoover began usingwiretappingin the 1920s duringProhibitionto arrest bootleggers.[20]In the 1927 caseOlmstead v. United States, in which a bootlegger was caught through telephone tapping, theUnited States Supreme Courtruled that FBI wiretaps did not violate theFourth Amendmentas unlawful search and seizure, as long as the FBI did not break into a person's home to complete the tapping.[20]After Prohibition's repeal,Congresspassed theCommunications Act of 1934, which outlawed non-consensual phone tapping, but did allow bugging.[20]In the 1939 caseNardone v. United States, the court ruled that due to the 1934 law, evidence the FBI obtained by phone tapping was inadmissible in court.[20]AfterKatz v. United States(1967) overturnedOlmstead, Congress passed theOmnibus Crime Control Act, allowing public authorities to tap telephones during investigations, as long as they obtained warrants beforehand.[20]
Beginning in the 1940s and continuing into the 1970s, the bureau investigated cases ofespionageagainst the United States and its allies. EightNaziagents who had plannedsabotageoperations against American targets were arrested, and six were executed (Ex parte Quirin) under their sentences. Also during this time, a joint US/UK code-breaking effort called "TheVenona Project"—with which the FBI was heavily involved—broke Soviet diplomatic and intelligence communications codes, allowing the US and British governments to read Soviet communications. This effort confirmed the existence of Americans working in the United States for Soviet intelligence.[21]Hoover was administering this project, but he failed to notify theCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA) of it until 1952. Another notable case was the arrest of Soviet spyRudolf Abelin 1957.[22]The discovery of Soviet spies operating in the US motivated Hoover to pursue his longstanding concern with the threat he perceived from theAmerican Left.
In 1939, the Bureau began compiling acustodial detention listwith the names of those who would be taken into custody in the event of war with Axis nations. The majority of the names on the list belonged toIsseicommunity leaders, as the FBI investigation built on an existingNaval Intelligenceindex that had focused onJapanese Americansin Hawaii and the West Coast, but manyGermanandItaliannationals also found their way onto theFBI Indexlist.[23]Robert Shivers, head of the Honolulu office, obtained permission from Hoover to start detaining those on the list on December 7, 1941, while bombs were still falling overPearl Harbor.[24][better source needed]Mass arrests and searches of homes, in most cases conducted without warrants, began a few hours after the attack, and over the next several weeks more than 5,500 Issei men were taken into FBI custody.[25]
On February 19, 1942, PresidentFranklin RooseveltissuedExecutive Order 9066, authorizing the removal of Japanese Americans from the West Coast. FBI Director Hoover opposed the subsequent mass removal and confinement of Japanese Americans authorized under Executive Order 9066, but Roosevelt prevailed.[26]The vast majority went along with the subsequent exclusion orders, but in a handful of cases where Japanese Americans refused to obey the new military regulations, FBI agents handled their arrests.[24]The Bureau continued surveillance on Japanese Americans throughout the war, conducting background checks on applicants for resettlement outside camp, and entering the camps, usually without the permission ofWar Relocation Authorityofficials, and grooming informants to monitor dissidents and "troublemakers". After the war, the FBI was assigned to protect returning Japanese Americans from attacks by hostile white communities.[24]
According to Douglas M. Charles, the FBI's "sex deviates" program began on April 10, 1950, when J. Edgar Hoover forwarded to the White House, to the U.S. Civil Service Commission, and to branches of the armed services a list of 393 alleged federal employees who had allegedly been arrested in Washington, D.C., since 1947, on charges of "sexual irregularities". On June 20, 1951, Hoover expanded the program by issuing a memo establishing a "uniform policy for the handling of the increasing number of reports and allegations concerning present and past employees of the United States Government who assertedly [sic] are sex deviates". The program was expanded to include non-government jobs. According toAthan Theoharis, "In 1951 he [Hoover] had unilaterally instituted a Sex Deviates program to purge alleged homosexuals from any position in the federal government, from the lowliest clerk to the more powerful position of White house aide." On May 27, 1953,Executive Order 10450went into effect. The program was expanded further by this executive order by making all federal employment of homosexuals illegal. On July 8, 1953, the FBI forwarded to the U.S. Civil Service Commission information from the sex deviates program. Between 1977 and 1978, 300,000 pages in the sex deviates program, collected between 1930 and the mid-1970s, were destroyed by FBI officials.[27][28][29]
During the 1950s and 1960s, FBI officials became increasingly concerned about the influence of civil rights leaders, whom they believed either had communist ties or were unduly influenced by communists or "fellow travelers". In 1956, for example, Hoover sent an open letter denouncing Dr.T. R. M. Howard, a civil rights leader, surgeon, and wealthy entrepreneur in Mississippi who had criticized FBI inaction in solving recent murders ofGeorge W. Lee,Emmett Till, and other blacks in the South.[30]The FBI carried out controversialdomestic surveillancein an operation it called theCOINTELPRO, from "COunter-INTELligence PROgram".[31]It was to investigate and disrupt the activities of dissident political organizations within the United States, including both militant and non-violent organizations. Among its targets was theSouthern Christian Leadership Conference, a leading civil rights organization whose clergy leadership included the Rev. Dr.Martin Luther King Jr..[32]
The FBI frequently investigated King. In the mid-1960s, King began to criticize the Bureau for giving insufficient attention to the use of terrorism by white supremacists. Hoover responded by publicly calling King the most "notorious liar" in the United States.[34]In his 1991 memoir,Washington PostjournalistCarl Rowanasserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide.[35]HistorianTaylor Branchdocuments an anonymous November 1964 "suicide package" sent by the Bureau that combined a letter to the civil rights leader telling him "You are done. There is only one way out for you." with audio recordings of King's sexual indiscretions.[36]
In March 1971, the residential office of an FBI agent inMedia, Pennsylvania, was burgled by a group calling itself theCitizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI. Numerous files were taken and distributed to a range of newspapers, includingThe Harvard Crimson.[37]The files detailed the FBI's extensiveCOINTELPROprogram, which included investigations into lives of ordinary citizens—including a black student group at a Pennsylvania military college and the daughter of CongressmanHenry S. ReussofWisconsin.[37]The country was "jolted" by the revelations, which included assassinations of political activists, and the actions were denounced by members of the Congress, including House Majority LeaderHale Boggs.[37]The phones of some members of the Congress, including Boggs, had allegedly been tapped.[37]
When PresidentJohn F. Kennedywas shot and killed, the jurisdiction fell to the local police departments until PresidentLyndon B. Johnsondirected the FBI to take over the investigation.[38]To ensure clarity about the responsibility for investigation of homicides of federal officials, Congress passed a law in 1965 that included investigations of such deaths of federal officials, especially by homicide, within FBI jurisdiction.[39][40][41]
In response to organized crime, on August 25, 1953, the FBI created the Top Hoodlum Program. The national office directed field offices to gather information onmobstersin their territories and to report it regularly to Washington for a centralized collection of intelligence onracketeers.[42]After theRacketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, for RICO Act, took effect, the FBI began investigating the former Prohibition-organized groups, which had become fronts for crime in major cities and small towns. All the FBI work was done undercover and from within these organizations, using the provisions provided in the RICO Act. Gradually the agency dismantled many of the groups. Although Hoover initially denied the existence of aNational Crime Syndicatein the United States, the Bureau later conducted operations against known organized crime syndicates and families, including those headed bySam GiancanaandJohn Gotti. The RICO Act is still used today for allorganized crimeand any individuals who may fall under the Act's provisions.
In 2003, a congressional committee called the FBI's organized crimeinformantprogram "one of the greatest failures in the history of federal law enforcement".[43]The FBI allowed four innocent men to be convicted of theMarch 1965 gangland murder of Edward "Teddy" Deeganin order to protectVincent Flemmi, an FBI informant. Three of the men were sentenced to death (which was later reduced to life in prison), and the fourth defendant was sentenced to life in prison.[43]Two of the four men died in prison after serving almost 30 years, and two others were released after serving 32 and 36 years. In July 2007, U.S. District JudgeNancy Gertnerin Boston found that the Bureau had helped convict the four men using false witness accounts given by mobsterJoseph Barboza. The U.S. Government was ordered to pay $100 million in damages to the four defendants.[44]
In 1982, the FBI formed an elite unit[45]to help with problems that might arise at the1984 Summer Olympicsto be held in Los Angeles, particularlyterrorismand major-crime. This was a result of the1972 Summer OlympicsinMunich, Germany, whenterrorists murdered the Israeli athletes. Named theHostage Rescue Team, or HRT, it acts as a dedicated FBISWATteam dealing primarily with counter-terrorism scenarios. Unlike the special agents serving on localFBI SWATteams, HRT does not conduct investigations. Instead, HRT focuses solely on additional tactical proficiency and capabilities. Also formed in 1984 was theComputer Analysis and Response Team, or CART.[46]
From the end of the 1980s to the early 1990s, the FBI reassigned more than 300 agents from foreign counter-intelligence duties to violent crime, and made violent crime the sixth national priority. With cuts to other well-established departments, and because terrorism was no longer considered a threat after the end of theCold War,[46]the FBI assisted local and state police forces in tracking fugitives who had crossed state lines, which is a federal offense. The FBI Laboratory helped developDNAtesting, continuing its pioneering role in identification that began with its fingerprinting system in 1924.
On May 1, 1992, FBI SWAT and HRT personnel inLos Angeles County, Californiaaided local officials in securing peace within the area during the1992 Los Angeles riots. HRT operators, for instance, spent 10 days conducting vehicle-mounted patrols throughoutLos Angeles, before returning to Virginia.[47]
Between 1993 and 1996, the FBI increased itscounter-terrorismrole following the first1993 World Trade Center bombinginNew York City, the 1995Oklahoma City bombing, and the arrest of theUnabomberin 1996. Technological innovation and the skills of FBI Laboratory analysts helped ensure that the three cases were successfully prosecuted.[48]However, Justice Department investigations into the FBI's roles in theRuby RidgeandWacoincidents were found to have been obstructed by agents within the Bureau. During the1996 Summer OlympicsinAtlanta, Georgia, the FBI was criticized for its investigation of theCentennial Olympic Park bombing. It has settled a dispute withRichard Jewell, who was a private security guard at the venue, along with some media organizations,[49]in regard to the leaking of his name during the investigation; this had briefly led to his being wrongly suspected of the bombing.
After Congress passed theCommunications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act(CALEA, 1994), theHealth Insurance Portability and Accountability Act(HIPAA, 1996), and theEconomic Espionage Act(EEA, 1996), the FBI followed suit and underwent a technological upgrade in 1998, just as it did with its CART team in 1991. Computer Investigations and Infrastructure Threat Assessment Center (CITAC) and the National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) were created to deal with the increase inInternet-related problems, such as computer viruses, worms, and other malicious programs that threatened U.S. operations. With these developments, the FBI increased its electronic surveillance in public safety and national security investigations, adapting to the telecommunications advancements that changed the nature of such problems.
In response to the1998 U.S. embassy bombingsin Kenya and Tanzania, the FBI developed itsStrategic Plan 1998–2003to prioritize counterterrorism and national security.[50][51]This plan introduced a three-tiered system to classify and prioritize investigative programs agency-wide. Tier one, the highest priority, included national security programs such as counterterrorism and counterintelligence; tier two encompassed major criminal investigations, such as organized crime and white-collar crime, while tier three covered lower-priority matters, including "the most significant" crimes against property and individuals.[52]
The September 11, 2001, attacks accelerated the FBI’s implementation of the tier system, leading to a significant reallocation of resources toward Tier 1 programs. A 2003 audit by the Department of JusticeOffice of the Inspector General(OIG) reported that the average number of agents assigned to terrorism-related investigations more than doubled—from 2,126 inFY2000 to 4,680 by FY 2002—largely due to the expansion of the Counterterrorism Division’s Joint Terrorism Task Forces and related initiatives.[53]
During theSeptember 11, 2001, attackson theWorld Trade Center, FBI agentLeonard W. Hatton Jr.was killed during the rescue effort while helping the rescue personnel evacuate the occupants of the South Tower, and he stayed when it collapsed. Within months after the attacks, FBI DirectorRobert Mueller, who had been sworn in a week before the attacks, called for a re-engineering of FBI structure and operations. He made countering every federal crime a top priority, including the prevention of terrorism, countering foreign intelligence operations, addressing cybersecurity threats, other high-tech crimes, protecting civil rights, combating public corruption, organized crime, white-collar crime, and major acts of violent crime.[54]
In February 2001,Robert Hanssenwas caught selling information to the Russian government. It was later learned that Hanssen, who had reached a high position within the FBI, had been selling intelligence since as early as 1979. He pleaded guilty toespionageand received alife sentencein 2002, but the incident led many to question the security practices employed by the FBI. There was also a claim that Hanssen might have contributed information that led to the September 11, 2001, attacks.[55]
The9/11 Commission's final report on July 22, 2004, stated that the FBI andCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA) were both partially to blame for not pursuing intelligence reports that could have prevented the September 11 attacks. In its most damning assessment, the report concluded that the country had "not been well served" by either agency and listed numerous recommendations for changes within the FBI.[56]While the FBI did accede to most of the recommendations, including oversight by the newdirector of National Intelligence, some former members of the 9/11 Commission publicly criticized the FBI in October 2005, claiming it was resisting any meaningful changes.[57]
On July 8, 2007,The Washington Postpublished excerpts fromUCLAProfessor Amy Zegart's bookSpying Blind: The CIA, the FBI, and the Origins of 9/11.[58]ThePostreported, from Zegart's book, that government documents showed that both the CIA and the FBI had missed 23 potential chances to disrupt the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The primary reasons for the failures included: agency cultures resistant to change and new ideas; inappropriate incentives for promotion; and a lack of cooperation between the FBI, CIA, and the rest of theUnited States Intelligence Community. The book blamed the FBI's decentralized structure, which prevented effective communication and cooperation among different FBI offices. The book suggested that the FBI had not evolved into an effective counter-terrorism or counter-intelligence agency, due in large part to deeply ingrained agency cultural resistance to change. For example, FBI personnel practices continued to treat all staff other than special agents as support staff, classifyingintelligence analystsalongside the FBI's auto mechanics and janitors.[59]
For over 40 years, the FBI crime lab in Quantico had believed that lead alloys used in bullets had unique chemical signatures. It was analyzing the bullets with the goal of matching them chemically, not only to a single batch of ammunition coming out of a factory, but also to a single box of bullets. TheNational Academy of Sciencesconducted an 18-month independent review ofcomparative bullet-lead analysis. In 2003, its National Research Council published a report whose conclusions called into question 30 years of FBI testimony. It found the analytic model used by the FBI for interpreting results was deeply flawed, and the conclusion, that bullet fragments could be matched to a box of ammunition, was so overstated that it was misleading under the rules of evidence. One year later, the FBI decided to stop conducting bullet lead analyses.[60]
After a60 Minutes/The Washington Postinvestigation in November 2007, two years later, the Bureau agreed to identify, review, and release all pertinent cases, and notify prosecutors about cases in which faulty testimony was given.[61]
In 2012, the FBI formed theNational Domestic Communications Assistance Centerto develop technology for assisting law enforcement with technical knowledge regarding communication services, technologies, and electronic surveillance.[62]
An FBI informant who participated in theJanuary 6 United States Capitol attackon democratic institutions in Washington D.C. later testified in support of theProud boys, who were part of the plot. Revelations about the informant raised fresh questions about intelligence failures by the FBI before the riot. According to theBrennan Center, andSenate committees, the FBI's response to white supremacist violence was "woefully inadequate". The FBI has long been suspected to have turned a blind eye towards right-wing extremists while disseminating "conspiracy theories" on theorigin of SARS-CoV-2.[63][64][65]
The FBI is organized into functional branches and the Office of the Director, which contains most administrative offices. An executive assistant director manages each branch. Each branch is then divided into offices and divisions, each headed by an assistant director. The various divisions are further divided into sub-branches, led by deputy assistant directors. Within these sub-branches, there are various sections headed by section chiefs. Section chiefs are ranked analogous to special agents in charge. Four of the branches report to the deputy director while two report to the associate director.
The main branches of the FBI are:[66]
Each branch focuses on different tasks, and some focus on more than one. Here are some of the tasks that different branches are in charge of:
National Security Branch (NSB)[2][67]
Intelligence Branch (IB)[2]
FBI Criminal, Cyber, Response, and Services Branch (CCRSB)[2][68]
Science and Technology Branch (STB)[2][68][70]
Information and Technology Branch (ITB)[2][71][68]
Human Resources Branch (HRB)[2][68]
Administrative and financial management support[2]
The Office of the Director serves as the central administrative organ of the FBI. The office provides staff support functions (such as finance and facilities management) to the five function branches and the various field divisions. The office is managed by the FBI associate director, who also oversees the operations of both the Information and Technology and Human Resources Branches.
Senior staff[66]
Office of the Director[66]
The following is a listing of the rank structure found within the FBI (in ascending order):[72][failed verification]
The FBI's mandate is established inTitle 28 of the United States Code(U.S. Code), Section 533, which authorizes theAttorney Generalto "appoint officials to detect and prosecute crimes against the United States".[73]Other federal statutes give the FBI the authority and responsibility to investigate specific crimes.
The FBI's chief tool againstorganized crimeis theRacketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations(RICO) Act. The FBI is also charged with the responsibility of enforcing compliance of the United StatesCivil Rights Act of 1964and investigating violations of the act in addition to prosecuting such violations with theUnited States Department of Justice(DOJ). The FBI also shares concurrent jurisdiction with theDrug Enforcement Administration(DEA) in the enforcement of theControlled Substances Actof 1970.
TheUSA PATRIOT Actincreased the powers allotted to the FBI, especially inwiretappingand monitoring of Internet activity. One of the most controversial provisions of the act is the so-calledsneak and peekprovision, granting the FBI powers to search a house while the residents are away, and not requiring them to notify the residents for several weeks afterward. Under the PATRIOT Act's provisions, the FBI also resumed inquiring into thelibraryrecords[74]of those who are suspected ofterrorism(something it had supposedly not done since the 1970s).
In the early 1980s, Senate hearings were held to examine FBI undercover operations in the wake of theAbscamcontroversy, which had allegations ofentrapmentof elected officials. As a result, in the following years a number of guidelines were issued to constrain FBI activities.
Information obtained through an FBI investigation is presented to the appropriateU.S. Attorneyor Department of Justice official, who decides if prosecution or other action is warranted.
The FBI often works in conjunction with other federal agencies, including theU.S. Coast Guard(USCG) andU.S. Customs and Border Protection(CBP) in seaport and airport security,[75]and theNational Transportation Safety Boardin investigatingairplane crashesand other critical incidents.Immigration and Customs Enforcement's Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) has nearly the same amount of investigative manpower as the FBI and investigates the largest range of crimes. In the wake of theSeptember 11 attacks, then–Attorney General Ashcroft assigned the FBI as the designated lead organization in terrorism investigations after the creation of theU.S. Department of Homeland Security. HSI and the FBI are both integral members of theJoint Terrorism Task Force.
The federal government has the primary responsibility for investigating[76]and prosecuting serious crime onIndian reservations.[77]
There are 565 federally recognized American Indian Tribes in the United States, and the FBI has federal law enforcement responsibility on nearly 200 Indian reservations. This federal jurisdiction is shared concurrently with theBureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Justice Services (BIA-OJS).Located within the FBI's Criminal Investigative Division, the Indian Country Crimes Unit (ICCU) is responsible for developing and implementing strategies, programs, and policies to address identified crime problems in Indian Country (IC) for which the FBI has responsibility.
The FBI does not specifically list crimes in Native American land as one of its priorities.[79]Often serious crimes have been either poorly investigated or prosecution has been declined. Tribal courts can impose sentences of up to three years, under certain restrictions.[80][81]
The FBI is headquartered at theJ. Edgar Hoover BuildinginWashington, D.C., with 56 field offices[82]in major cities across the United States. The FBI also maintains over 400 resident agencies across the United States, as well as over 50 legal attachés at United Statesembassiesandconsulates. Many specialized FBI functions are located at facilities inQuantico, Virginia, as well as a "data campus" inClarksburg, West Virginia, where 96 million sets of fingerprints "from across the United States are stored, along with others collected by American authorities from prisoners inSaudi ArabiaandYemen,IraqandAfghanistan".[83]The FBI is in process of moving its Records Management Division, which processesFreedom of Information Act(FOIA) requests, toWinchester, Virginia.[84]
According toThe Washington Post, the FBI "is building a vast repository controlled by people who work in a top-secret vault on the fourth floor of the J. Edgar Hoover Building inWashington. This one stores the profiles of tens of thousands of Americans and legal residents who are not accused of any crime. What they have done is appear to be acting suspiciously to a town sheriff, a traffic cop or even a neighbor."[83]
TheFBI Laboratory, established with the formation of the BOI,[85]did not appear in the J. Edgar Hoover Building until its completion in 1974. The lab serves as the primary lab for most DNA, biological, and physical work. Public tours of FBI headquarters ran through the FBI laboratory workspace before the move to the J. Edgar Hoover Building. The services the lab conducts includeChemistry,Combined DNA Index System(CODIS),Computer Analysis and Response,DNA Analysis,Evidence Response,Explosives,Firearms and Tool marks,Forensic Audio,Forensic Video,Image Analysis,Forensic Science Research,Forensic Science Training,Hazardous Materials Response,Investigative and Prospective Graphics,Latent Prints,Materials Analysis,Questioned Documents,Racketeering Records,Special Photographic Analysis,Structural Design, andTrace Evidence.[86]The services of the FBI Laboratory are used by many state, local, and international agencies free of charge. The lab also maintains a second lab at the FBI Academy.
TheFBI Academy, located inQuantico, Virginia, is home to the communications and computer laboratory the FBI utilizes. It is also where new agents are sent for training to become FBI special agents. Going through the 21-week course is required for every special agent.[87]First opened for use in 1972, the facility is located on 385 acres (156 hectares) of woodland. The Academy trains state and local law enforcement agencies, which are invited to the law enforcement training center. The FBI units that reside at Quantico are theField and Police Training Unit,Firearms Training Unit,Forensic Science Research and Training Center,Technology Services Unit(TSU),Investigative Training Unit,Law Enforcement Communication Unit,Leadership and Management Science Units(LSMU),Physical Training Unit,New Agents' Training Unit(NATU),Practical Applications Unit(PAU), theInvestigative Computer Training Unitand the "College of Analytical Studies".
In 2000, the FBI began the Trilogy project to upgrade its outdatedinformation technology(IT) infrastructure. This project, originally scheduled to take three years and cost around $380 million, ended up over budget and behind schedule.[88]Efforts to deploy modern computers and networking equipment were generally successful, but attempts to develop new investigation software, outsourced toScience Applications International Corporation(SAIC), were not.Virtual Case File, or VCF, as the software was known, was plagued by poorly defined goals, and repeated changes in management.[89]
In January 2005, more than two years after the software was originally planned for completion, the FBI abandoned the project. At least $100 million, and much more by some estimates, was spent on the project, which never became operational. The FBI has been forced to continue using its decade-old Automated Case Support system, whichITexperts consider woefully inadequate. In March 2005, the FBI announced it was beginning a new, more ambitious software project, code-named Sentinel, which they expected to complete by 2009.[90]
Carnivorewas an electronic eavesdropping software system implemented by the FBI during the Clinton administration; it was designed to monitor email and electronic communications. After prolonged negative coverage in the press, the FBI changed the name of its system from "Carnivore" to "DCS1000". DCS is reported to stand for "Digital Collection System"; the system has the same functions as before. TheAssociated Pressreported in mid-January 2005 that the FBI essentially abandoned the use of Carnivore in 2001, in favor of commercially available software, such as NarusInsight.
TheCriminal Justice Information Services(CJIS) Division[91]is located inClarksburg, West Virginia. Organized beginning in 1991, the office opened in 1995 as the youngest agency division. The complex is the length of three football fields. It provides a main repository for information in various data systems. Under the roof of the CJIS are the programs for theNational Crime Information Center(NCIC),Uniform Crime Reporting(UCR),Fingerprint Identification,Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System(IAFIS),NCIC 2000, and theNational Incident-Based Reporting System(NIBRS). Many state and local agencies use these data systems as a source for their own investigations and contribute to the database using secure communications. FBI provides these tools of sophisticated identification and information services to local, state, federal, and international law enforcement agencies.
The FBI heads theNational Virtual Translation Center, which provides "timely and accurate translations of foreign intelligence for all elements of theIntelligence Community".[92]
In June 2021, the FBI held a groundbreaking for its planned FBI Innovation Center, set to be built inHuntsville, Alabama. The Innovation Center is to be part of a large, college-like campus costing a total of $1.3 billion inRedstone Arsenaland will act as a center forcyber threat intelligence,data analytics, and emerging threat training.[93]
As of December 31, 2009[update], the FBI had a total of 33,852 employees. That includes 13,412 special agents and 20,420 support professionals, such as intelligence analysts, language specialists, scientists, information technology specialists, and other professionals.[94]
According to theOfficer Down Memorial Page87 FBI agents and 2 K9s have died in the line of duty from 1925 to February 2021.[95]
To apply to become an FBI agent, one must be between the ages of 23 and 37, unless one is a preference-eligibleveteran, in which case one may apply after age 37.[96]The applicant must also hold U.S. citizenship, be of high moral character, have a clean record, and hold at least a four-yearbachelor's degree. At least three years of professional work experience prior to application is also required. All FBI employees require a Top Secret (TS)security clearance, and in many instances, employees need a TS/SCI (Top Secret/Sensitive Compartmented Information) clearance.[97][unreliable source?]
To obtain a security clearance, all potential FBI personnel must pass a series ofSingle Scope Background Investigations(SSBI), which are conducted by theOffice of Personnel Management.[98]Special agent candidates also have to pass a Physical Fitness Test (PFT), which includes a 300-meter run, one-minute sit-ups, maximum push-ups, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Personnel must pass apolygraphtest with questions including possible drug use.[99]Applicants who fail polygraphs may not gain employment with the FBI.[100]Up until 1975, the FBI had a minimum height requirement of 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm).[101]
FBI directorsareappointed(nominated) by thepresident of the United Statesand must be confirmed by theUnited States Senateto serve a term of office of ten years, subject to resignation or removal by the president at his/her discretion before their term ends. Additional terms are allowed following the same procedure.
J. Edgar Hoover, appointed by PresidentCalvin Coolidgein 1924, was by far the longest-serving director, serving until his death in 1972. In 1968, Congress passed legislation, as part of theOmnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, requiring Senate confirmation of appointments of future directors.[102]As the incumbent, this legislation did not apply to Hoover. The last FBI director wasAndrew McCabe. The current FBI director isKash Patel, appointed by PresidentDonald Trump.
The FBI director is responsible for the day-to-day operations at the FBI. Along with thedeputy director, the director makes sure cases and operations are handled correctly. The director also is in charge of making sure the leadership in the FBIfield officesis staffed with qualified agents. Before theIntelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Actwas passed in the wake of the September 11 attacks, the FBI director would directly brief the president of the United States on any issues that arise from within the FBI. Since then, the director now reports to thedirector of national intelligence(DNI), who in turn reports to the President.
Upon qualification, an FBI special agent is issued a full-sizeGlock 22or compact Glock 23semi-automatic pistol, both of which are chambered in the.40 S&Wcartridge. In May 1997, the FBI officially adopted the Glock, in .40 S&W, for general agent use, and first issued it to New Agent Class 98-1 in October 1997. At present, the Glock 23 "FG&R" (finger groove and rail; either 3rd generation or "Gen4") is the issue sidearm.[103]
New agents are issued firearms, on which they must qualify, on successful completion of their training at theFBI Academy. The Glock 26 (subcompact 9 mm Parabellum), Glock 23 and Glock 27 (.40 S&W compact and subcompact, respectively) are authorized as secondary weapons. Special agents are also authorized to purchase and qualify with theGlock 21in.45 ACP.[104]
Special agents of the FBIHostage Rescue Team(HRT) andregional SWAT teamsare issued theSpringfield ArmoryProfessional Model 1911pistol in .45 ACP.[105][106][107]
In June 2016, the FBI awardedGlocka contract for new handguns. Unlike the currently issued .40 S&W chambered Glock pistols, the new Glocks will be chambered for 9 mm Parabellum. The contract is for the full-size Glock 17M and the compact Glock 19M. The "M" means the Glocks have been modified to meet government standards specified by a 2015 governmentrequest for proposal.[108][109][110][111][112]
TheFBI Law Enforcement Bulletinis published monthly by the FBI Law Enforcement Communication Unit,[113]with articles of interest to state and locallaw enforcementpersonnel. First published in 1932 asFugitives Wanted by Police,[114]theFBI Law Bulletincovers topics including law enforcement technology and issues, such ascrime mappinganduse of force, as well as recentcriminal justiceresearch, andViCAPalerts, on wanted suspects and key cases.
The FBI also publishes some reports for both law enforcement personnel as well as regular citizens covering topics including law enforcement,terrorism,cybercrime,white-collar crime,violent crime, and statistics.[115]The vast majority offederal governmentpublications covering these topics are published by theOffice of Justice Programsagencies of theUnited States Department of Justice, and disseminated through theNational Criminal Justice Reference Service.
During the 1920s the FBI began issuing crime reports by gathering numbers from local police departments.[116]Due to limitations of this system that were discovered during the 1960s and 1970s—victims often simply did not report crimes to the police in the first place—theDepartment of Justicedeveloped an alternative method of tallying crime, the victimization survey.[116]
The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) compile data from over 17,000 law enforcement agencies across the country. They provide detailed data regarding the volume of crimes to include arrest, clearance (or closing a case), and law enforcement officer information. The UCR focuses its data collection on violent crimes, hate crimes, and property crimes.[115]Created in the 1920s, the UCR system has not proven to be asuniformas its name implies. The UCR data only reflect the most serious offense in the case of connected crimes and has a very restrictive definition of rape. Since about 93% of the data submitted to the FBI is in this format, the UCR stands out as the publication of choice as most states require law enforcement agencies to submit this data.
Preliminary AnnualUniform Crime Reportfor 2006 was released on June 4, 2006. The report shows violent crime offenses rose 1.3%, but the number of property crime offenses decreased 2.9% compared to 2005.[117]
The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)crime statisticssystem aims to address limitations inherent in UCR data. The system is used by law enforcement agencies in the United States for collecting and reporting data on crimes. Local, state, and federal agencies generate NIBRS data from their records management systems. Data is collected on every incident and arrest in the Group A offense category. The Group A offenses are 46 specific crimes grouped in 22 offense categories. Specific facts about these offenses are gathered and reported in the NIBRS system. In addition to the Group A offenses, eleven Group B offenses are reported with only the arrest information. The NIBRS system is in greater detail than the summary-based UCR system. As of 2004[update], 5,271 law enforcement agencies submitted NIBRS data. That amount represents 20% of the United States population and 16% of the crime statistics data collected by the FBI.
eGuardian is the name of an FBI system, launched in January 2009, to share tips about possible terror threats with local police agencies. The program aims to get law enforcement at all levels sharing data quickly about suspicious activity and people.[118]
eGuardian enables near real-time sharing and tracking of terror information and suspicious activities with local, state, tribal, and federal agencies. The eGuardian system is a spin-off of a similar but classified tool called Guardian that has been used inside the FBI, and shared with vetted partners since 2005.[119]
Throughout its history, the FBI has been the subject of many controversies, both at home and abroad.
Specific practices include:
The FBI has been frequently depicted in popular media since the 1930s. The bureau has participated to varying degrees, which has ranged from direct involvement in the creative process of film or TV series development, to providing consultation on operations and closed cases.[141]A few of the notable portrayals of the FBI on television are the seriesThe X-Files, which started in 1993 and concluded its eleventh season in early 2018, and concerned investigations intoparanormalphenomena by five fictional special agents, and the fictionalCounter Terrorist Unit(CTU) agency in the TV drama24, which is patterned after theFBI Counterterrorism Division.
The 1991 moviePoint Breakdepicts an undercover FBI agent who infiltrated a gang of bank robbers. The 1997 movieDonnie Brascois based on the true story of undercover FBI agentJoseph D. Pistoneinfiltrating the Mafia. The 2005–2020 television seriesCriminal Minds, that follows the team members of the FBI'sBehavioral Analysis Unit(BAU) in the pursuit of serial killers. The 2017 TV seriesRiverdalewhere one of the main characters is an FBI agent. The 2015 TV seriesQuantico, titled after the location of the Bureau's training facility, deals with probationary and special agents, not all of whom, within the show's format, may be fully reliable or even trustworthy.
The 2018 seriesFBI, set in NYC that follows the personal and professional lives of the agents assigned to 26 Federal Plaza (NYC FBI field office).FBI'sfirst spin-off titledFBI: Most Wanted(2019), follows the FBI's Fugitive Task Force in chasing down the US's most wanted criminals, and the second spin-off,FBI: International(2021), follows the FBI's International Fly Team that goes where ever they are needed in the world to protect the US's interests.
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Genetically modified maize(corn) is agenetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have beengenetically engineeredto express agriculturally-desirabletraits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants viagene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to aseries of recalls starting in 2000.
Corn varieties resistant toglyphosateherbicides were first commercialized in 1996 byMonsanto, and are known as "Roundup Ready Corn". They tolerate the use ofRoundup.[1]Bayer CropSciencedeveloped "Liberty Link Corn" that is resistant toglufosinate.[2]Pioneer Hi-Bredhas developed and markets corn hybrids with tolerance toimidazolineherbicides under the trademark "Clearfield" – though in these hybrids, the herbicide-tolerance trait was bred using tissue culture selection and the chemical mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate, notgenetic engineering.[3]Consequently, the regulatory framework governing the approval of transgenic crops does not apply for Clearfield.[3]
As of 2011, herbicide-resistant GM corn was grown in 14 countries.[4]By 2012, 26 varieties of herbicide-resistant GM maize were authorised for import into theEuropean Union,[5]but such imports remain controversial.[6]Cultivation of herbicide-resistant corn in the EU provides substantial farm-level benefits.[7]
Bt maize/Bt cornis a variant ofmaizethat has beengenetically alteredto express one or moreproteinsfrom thebacteriumBacillus thuringiensis[8]includingDelta endotoxins. The protein is poisonous to certain insect pests. Spores of the bacillus are widely used inorganic gardening,[9]although GM corn is not considered organic. TheEuropean corn borercauses about a billion dollars in damage to corn crops each year.[10]
In recent years, traits have been added to ward offcorn ear wormsandroot worms, the latter of which annually causes about a billion dollars in damages.[11][12]
The Bt protein is expressed throughout the plant. When a vulnerable insect eats the Bt-containing plant, the protein is activated in itsgut, which isalkaline. In the alkaline environment, the protein partially unfolds and is cut by other proteins, forming atoxinthat paralyzes the insect's digestive system and forms holes in the gut wall. The insect stops eating within a few hours and eventually starves.[13][14]
In 1996, the first GM maize producing a Bt Cry protein was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae.[15]
ThePhilippine Governmenthas promoted Bt corn, hoping for insect resistance and higher yields.[16]
Approved Bt genes include single and stacked (event names bracketed) configurations of: Cry1A.105 (MON89034), CryIAb (MON810), CryIF (1507), Cry2Ab (MON89034),Cry3Bb1(MON863and MON88017), Cry34Ab1 (59122), Cry35Ab1 (59122), mCry3A (MIR604), and Vip3A (MIR162), in both corn and cotton.[17][18]: 285ffCorn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010.[19]
A 2018 study found that Bt-corn protected nearby fields of non-Bt corn and nearby vegetable crops, reducing the use of pesticides on those crops. Data from 1976 to 1996 (before Bt corn was widespread) was compared to data after it was adopted (1996–2016). They examined levels of theEuropean corn borerandcorn earworm. Their larvae eat a variety of crops, including peppers and green beans. Between 1992 and 2016, the amount of insecticide applied to New Jersey pepper fields decreased by 85 percent. Another factor was the introduction of more effective pesticides that were applied less often.[20]
GM sweet corn varieties include "Attribute", the brand name for insect-resistant sweet corn developed bySyngenta[21]andPerformance Seriesinsect-resistant sweet corn developed by Monsanto.[22]
While Cuba's agriculture is largely focused on organic production, as of 2010, the country had developed a variety of genetically modified corn that is resistant to thepalomilla moth.[23]
In 2013Monsantolaunched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids called DroughtGard.[24]The MON 87460 trait is provided by the insertion of the cspB gene from the soil microbeBacillus subtilis; it was approved by the USDA in 2011[25]and by China in 2013.[26]
In regular corn crops, insects promotefungalcolonization by creating "wounds," or holes, in corn kernels. These wounds are favored by fungalsporesforgermination, which subsequently leads tomycotoxinaccumulation in the crop that can be carcinogenic and toxic to humans and other animals. This can prove to be especially devastating in developing countries with drastic climate patterns such as high temperatures, which favor the development of toxic fungi. In addition, higher mycotoxin levels leads to market rejection or reduced market prices for the grain. GM corn crops encounter fewer insect attacks, and thus, have lower concentrations of mycotoxins. Fewer insect attacks also keep corn ears from being damaged, which increases overall yields.[27]
In 2007, South African researchers announced the production of transgenic maize resistant tomaize streak virus(MSV), although it has not been released as a product.[28]While breeding cultivars for resistance to MSV isn't done in the public, the private sector, international research centers, and national programmes have done all of the breeding.[29]As of 2014, there have been a few MSV-tolerant cultivars released in Africa. A private companySeedcohas released 5 MSV cultivars.[30]
Research has been done on adding a singleE. coligene to maize to enable it to be grown with an essential amino acid (methionine).[31][32]
USEnvironmental Protection Agency(EPA) regulations require farmers who plant Bt corn to plant non-Bt corn nearby (called a refuge), with the logic thatpestswill infest the non-Bt corn and thus will not evolve a resistance to the Bt toxin.[33]Typically, 20% of corn in a grower's fields must be refuge; refuge must be at least 0.5 miles from Bt corn forlepidopteranpests, and refuge forcorn rootwormmust at least be adjacent to a Bt field.[34]EPA regulations also require seed companies to train farmers how to maintain refuges, to collect data on the refuges and to report that data to the EPA.[33]A study of these reports found that from 2003 to 2005 farmer compliance with keeping refuges was above 90%, but that by 2008 approximately 25% of Bt corn farmers did not keep refuges properly, raising concerns that resistance would develop.[33]
Unmodified crops received most of the economic benefits of Bt corn in the US in 1996–2007, because of the overall reduction of pest populations. This reduction came because females laid eggs on modified and unmodified strains alike, but pest organisms that develop on the modified strain are eliminated.[35]
Seed bags containing both Bt and refuge seed have been approved by the EPA in the United States. These seed mixtures were marketed as "Refuge in a Bag" (RIB) to increase farmer compliance with refuge requirements and reduce additional work needed at planting from having separate Bt and refuge seed bags on hand. The EPA approved a lower percentage of refuge seed in these seed mixtures ranging from 5 to 10%. This strategy is likely to reduce the likelihood of Bt-resistance occurring forcorn rootworm, but may increase the risk of resistance forlepidopteranpests, such asEuropean corn borer. Increased concerns for resistance with seed mixtures include partially resistant larvae on a Bt plant being able to move to a susceptible plant to survive or cross pollination of refuge pollen on to Bt plants that can lower the amount of Bt expressed in kernels for ear feeding insects.[36][37]
Resistant strains of the European corn borer have developed in areas with defective or absent refuge management.[35][33]In 2012, a Florida field trial demonstrated thatarmy wormswere resistant to Bt maize produced by Dupont-Dow; armyworm resistance was first discovered in Puerto Rico in 2006, prompting Dow and DuPont to voluntarily stop selling the product on the island.[38]
Regulation of GM crops varies between countries, with some of the most-marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on intended uses.[39][40]
There is ascientific consensus[41][42][43][44]that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,[45][46][47][48][49]but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.[50][51][52]Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.[53][54][55][56]The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.[57][58][59][60]
The scientific rigor of the studies regarding human health has been disputed due to alleged lack of independence and due to conflicts of interest involving governing bodies and some of those who perform and evaluate the studies.[61][62][63][64]However, no reports of ill effects from GM food have been documented in the human population.[65][66][67]
GM crops provide a number of ecological benefits, but there are also concerns for their overuse, stalled research outside of the Bt seed industry, proper management and issues with Bt resistance arising from their misuse.[64][68][69]
Critics have objected to GM crops on ecological, economic and health grounds. The economic issues derive from those organisms that are subject to intellectual property law, mostly patents. The first generation of GM crops lose patent protection beginning in 2015. Monsanto has claimed it will not pursue farmers who retain seeds of off-patent varieties.[70]These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, protests and to restrictive legislation in most countries.[71]
Introduction of Bt maize led to significant reduction of mycotoxin-related poisoning and cancer rates, as they were significantly less prone to containmycotoxins(29%),fumonisins(31%) and thricotecens (37%), all of which are toxic andcarcinogenic.[72]
Critics claim that Bt proteins could target predatory and other beneficial or harmless insects as well as the targeted pest. These proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the USA since 1958 with no ill effects on the environment reported.[8]Whilecytproteins are toxic towards the insect orderDiptera(flies), certaincryproteins selectively targetlepidopterans(moths and butterflies), while othercytselectively targetColeoptera.[73]As a toxic mechanism,cryproteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells, resulting in rupture of those cells. Any organism that lacks the appropriate gut receptors cannot be affected by thecryprotein, and therefore Bt.[74][75]Regulatory agencies assess the potential for the transgenic plant to impact nontarget organisms before approving commercial release.[76][77]
A 1999 study found that in a lab environment, pollen from Bt maize dusted ontomilkweedcould harm themonarch butterfly.[78][79]Several groups later studied the phenomenon in both the field and the laboratory, resulting in arisk assessmentthat concluded that any risk posed by the corn to butterfly populations under real-world conditions was negligible.[80]A 2002 review of the scientific literature concluded that "the commercial large-scale cultivation of current Bt–maize hybrids did not pose a significant risk to the monarch population".[81][82][83]A 2007 review found that "nontarget invertebrates are generally more abundant in Bt cotton and Bt maize fields than in nontransgenic fields managed withinsecticides. However, in comparison with insecticide-free control fields, certain nontarget taxa are less abundant in Bt fields."[84]
Gene flowis the transfer of genes and/or alleles from one species to another. Concerns focus on the interaction between GM and other maize varieties in Mexico, and of gene flow into refuges.
In 2009 the government of Mexico created a regulatory pathway for genetically modified maize,[85]but because Mexico is thecenter of diversityfor maize, gene flow could affect a large fraction of the world's maize strains.[86][87]A 2001 report inNaturepresented evidence that Bt maize was cross-breeding with unmodified maize in Mexico.[88]The data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact.Naturelater stated, "the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper".[89]A 2005 large-scale study failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca.[90]However, other authors also found evidence of cross-breeding between natural maize andtransgenic maize.[91]
A 2004 study found Bt protein in kernels of refuge corn.[92]
In 2017, a large-scale study found "pervasive presence of transgenes and glyphosate in maize-derived food in Mexico"[93]
The French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee reviewed the 2009 Vendômoiset al.study and concluded that it "presents no admissible scientific element likely to ascribe any haematological, hepatic or renal toxicity to the three re-analysed GMOs."[94]However, the French government applies theprecautionary principlewith respect to GMOs.[95][96][97]
A review byFood Standards Australia New Zealandand others of the same study concluded that the results were due to chance alone.[98][99]
A 2011 Canadian study looked at the presence of CryAb1 protein (BT toxin) in non-pregnant women, pregnant women and fetal blood. All groups had detectable levels of the protein, including 93% of pregnant women and 80% of fetuses at concentrations of 0.19 ± 0.30 and 0.04 ± 0.04 mean ± SD ng/ml, respectively.[100]The paper did not discuss safety implications or find any health problems. FSANZ agency published a comment pointing out a number of inconsistencies in the paper, most notably that it "does not provide any evidence that GM foods are the source of the protein".[101]
In January 2013, theEuropean Food Safety Authorityreleased all data submitted by Monsanto in relation to the 2003 authorisation of maize genetically modified for glyphosate tolerance.[102]
StarLink contains Cry9C, which had not previously been used in a GM crop.[103]Starlink's creator,Plant Genetic Systems, had applied to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to market Starlink for use in animal feed and in human food.[104]: 14However, because the Cry9C protein lasts longer in the digestive system than other Bt proteins, the EPA had concerns about its allergenicity, and PGS did not provide sufficient data to prove that Cry9C was not allergenic.[105]: 3As a result, PGS split its application into separate permits for use in food and use inanimal feed.[103][106]Starlink was approved by the EPA for use in animal feed only in May 1998.[104]: 15
StarLink corn was subsequently found in food destined for consumption by humans in the US, Japan, and South Korea.[104]: 20–21This corn became the subject of the widely publicizedStarlink corn recall, which started whenTaco Bell-branded taco shells sold in supermarkets were found to contain the corn. Sales of StarLink seed were discontinued.[107][108]The registration for Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000. Pioneer had been bought by AgrEvo which then became Aventis CropScience at the time of the incident,[104]: 15–16which was later bought byBayer.[109]
Fifty-one people reported adverse effects to the FDA;US Centers for Disease Control(CDC), which determined that 28 of them were possibly related to Starlink.[110]However, the CDC studied the blood of these 28 individuals and concluded there was no evidence of hypersensitivity to the Starlink Bt protein.[111]
A subsequent review of these tests by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act Scientific Advisory Panel points out that while "the negative results decrease the probability that the Cry9C protein is the cause of allergic symptoms in the individuals examined ... in the absence of a positive control and questions regarding the sensitivity and specificity of the assay, it is not possible to assign a negative predictive value to this."[112]
The US corn supply has been monitored for the presence of the Starlink Bt proteins since 2001.[113]
In 2005, aid sent by the UN and the US to Central American nations also contained some StarLink corn. The nations involved, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala refused to accept the aid.[114]
On 19 December 2013 six Chinese citizens were indicted in Iowa on charges of plotting to steal genetically modified seeds worth tens of millions of dollars fromMonsantoandDuPont. Mo Hailong, director of international business at the Beijing Dabeinong Technology Group Co., part of the Beijing-basedDBN Group, was accused of stealingtrade secretsafter he was found digging in an Iowa cornfield.[115]
But see also:
Domingo JL, Giné Bordonaba J (May 2011). "A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants".Environment International.37(4):734–42.doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.003.PMID21296423.In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies.
Krimsky S (2015). "An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment".Science, Technology, & Human Values.40(6):883–914.doi:10.1177/0162243915598381.S2CID40855100.I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story.
And contrast:
Panchin AY, Tuzhikov AI (March 2017). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons".Critical Reviews in Biotechnology.37(2):213–217.doi:10.3109/07388551.2015.1130684.PMID26767435.S2CID11786594.Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm.The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality.
and
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_maize#Corporate_espionage
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India is one of the largest tea producers in the world, although over 70 per cent of its tea is consumed within India itself. A number of renowned teas, such asAssamandDarjeeling, also grow exclusively in India. The Indian tea industry has grown to own many global tea brands and has evolved into one of the most technologically equipped tea industries in the world. Tea production, certification, exportation and all facets of the tea trade in India are controlled by theTea Board of India. From its legendary origins to modern processing techniques, tea production in India delicately weaves together cultural heritage, economic prowess, and technological advancement.
The BritishEast India Companybegan large-scale production of tea inAssamin the early 1820s. The first tea crops grown there were of a variety traditionally brewed by theSingpho people.[1]In 1826, the East India Companytook over controlof the region in theTreaty of Yandabo. In 1837, the first British tea garden was established at Chabua in Upper Assam; in 1840, the Assam Tea Company was established, and it began the commercial production of tea in the region. Beginning in the 1850s, the tea industry rapidly expanded, consuming vast tracts of land for tea plantations. By the turn of the century, Assam became the leading tea-producing region in the world.[2]Tea became widely grown in India as both acash cropandmonocrop; academic Nayantara Arora argued that the emergence of the tea industry in India as a result of British rule led to the transformation of Indiansubsistence farmersintoindustrial agriculturalistswhose economic self-suffiency was reduced in favor of market dependence.[3]
In India, the semi-medicinal use of tea brew was noted in 1662 by Mendelslo:[4]
At our ordinary meetings every day we took only thay, which is commonly used all over the Indies, not only among those of the country, but also among the Dutch and the English, who take it as a drug that cleanses the stomach, and digests the superfluous humours, by a temperate heat particular thereto. — Indian Food A Historical Companion by Achaya KT.
In 1689,John Ovingtonsimilarly observed that tea (grown in China) was taken by theBaniasin Surat (and indeed "all the Inhabitants of India") with hot spices and either sugar-candy or conserved lemons and that this tea was used against headache, gravel and griping in the guts.[5]In pre-colonial times in South Asia, tea was used for medicinal purposes and would grow wild; the practice of drinking tea daily and having it be an aspect of social status in South Asian culture was entirely a result of British colonial influences.[6]
While experimenting to introduce tea in India, the British noticed that tea plants with thicker leaves also grew inAssam, and these, when planted in India, responded very well. The same plants had long been cultivated by the Singpho people, and chests of tea were supplied by the tribal ruler Ningroola to the British.[7]The Assamese and Chinese varieties have been regarded in the past as different related species, but are now usually classified by botanists as the same species,Camellia sinensis.
The introduction of Chinese tea plants to India is commonly credited toRobert Fortune, who spent about two and a half years, from 1848 to 1851, in China working on behalf of theRoyal Horticultural Societyof London. Fortune employed many different means to steal tea plants and seedlings, which were regarded as the property of the Chinese empire. He also usedNathaniel Bagshaw Ward's portableWardian casesto sustain the plants. Using these small greenhouses, Fortune introduced 20,000 tea plants and seedlings to theDarjeelingregion of India, on steep slopes in the foothills of theHimalayas, with theacid soilliked byCamelliaplants. He also brought a group of trained Chinese tea workers who would facilitate the production of tea leaves. Except for a few plants that survived in established Indian gardens, most of the Chinese tea plants Fortune introduced to India perished. The technology and knowledge that was brought over from China was instrumental in the later flourishing of the Indian tea industry using Chinese varieties, especiallyDarjeeling tea, which continues to use Chinese strains.
The tea industry in British India mostly employedindentured laborers, often referred to as "coolies", to work on largeplantations. Although these were in theory willing recruits, in practise many laborers were coerced or tricked by recruiters to come and work on the plantations.[8]The majority of indentured laborers on Indian tea plantations were women, as tea cutting was seen as "women’s work", though they received less pay than male laborers despite often being coerced into producing more.[8]Indian writerMulk Raj Ananddescribed the tea industry in colonial India as "The hunger, the sweat and the despair of a million Indians!"[9]
From the outset, Indian-grown tea proved extremely popular among British consumers, both for its greater strength, and for its cheaper price. Tea had been a high-status drink when first introduced, but had steadily fallen in price and increased in popularity among the working class. Thetemperance movementin Britain massively promoted tea consumption from the early 19th century onwards as an alternative to beer. Water used to make beer was of dubious quality, but the complete boiling necessary for tea rendered it safer.[10]Many men in particular found China tea insipid, and the greater strength and lower price of Indian teas appealed greatly. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, big brands such as Lyons, Liptons and Mazawattee dominated the market.[10]Tea was the dominant drink for all classes during the Victorian era, with working-class families often doing without other foods in order to afford it. This meant the potential market for Indian teas was vast. Indian tea (effectively includingCeylon teafromSri Lanka) soon came to be the "norm", with Chinese tea a minority taste. Until the 1970s and the rise of instant coffee, Indian tea had almost sole command of the hot drinks market. Its rivals were cocoa, coffee and savory drinks such asBovrilandOxo.[11]In recent decades, Asian tea has lost much ground in the cheaper end of European markets to tea from Africa, especiallyKenyan tea.
The tea industry in Assam heavily relies on the contribution of women, who constitute over fifty percent of the workforce.[12]Historically, women have played pivotal roles in Indian tea production, primarily as pickers and farmers. Despite enduring exploitation during the colonial era, characterized by low wages, long hours, and inadequate facilities, these women have displayed remarkable resilience. Their contributions have been vital in driving the industry's growth and sustainability. However, despite their significant role, women in the tea sector still face gender disparities and are often marginalized in leadership positions. This disparity reflects broader societal challenges related to gender inequality in India, as evidenced by the country's ranking of 108 out of 191 on theGender Inequality Index.[13]Despite these hurdles, women in tea plantations continue to shape the industry's trajectory and contribute significantly to its historical narrative. Their experiences shed light on the complex interplay of gender dynamics, labor practices, and social inequalities within India's tea industry.
India's tea industry is the fourth largest in the world, producing $709,000,000 worth of tea.[14]As of 2013 the consumption of green tea in India was growing by over 50% a year.[15]The major tea-producing states in India are:Assam,West Bengal,Tamil Nadu,Tripura,Arunachal Pradesh,Himachal Pradesh,Karnataka,Kerala,Sikkim,Nagaland.[16]
The expansion of the tea industry since the early 2000s has come at enormous cost to the local communities, farmers, and the land.[17]Corporations likeTetley,Typhoo,Camellia, TATA, Unilever, Taj,[18]and others have been buying out small tea growers and family-run farms. Their tea production has followedGreen Revolutionmethods, putting growth and profit over the lives of cultivators and the health of the soil. The term "neoliberal corporatization" has been used to describe these methods.[19]Although by the 1980s, tea farms and most of the agricultural land was owned by Indians who took over the British plantations post-independence, Western and Green Revolution influences shifted the tea industry from smaller farms to large corporations. Indian-owned tea corporations are supported by the World Bank and the IMF.[17]
India’s tea industry is a lucrative business, and there is especially a global demand for Assam black tea. For example, since 2006, the TATA corporation has been buying up small farms in Assam with the support of a $7 billion investment from the World Bank.[20]By 2010, they owned 24 farms in Assam and Northeast India.[21]TATA has several workers' rights abuse allegations against them, as they do not have protective measures for their farmers when spraying chemicals, they pay low wages, and demand long working hours.[17]In 2014, TATA’s tea company was in the news for worker’s rights abuses and trafficking of young girls.[22]The present-day tea industry in India is growing increasingly dominated by corporations to meet global demands.[11]
The Indian tea industry as a mass employer has enjoyed the attention of the Indian government. When export sales went down, the government was sympathetic to the demand of the industry and its cultivators. It has passed resolutions supporting the industry domestically and has also lobbied extensively with organizations like theWTOinternationally.
The Indian administration along with theEuropean Unionand six other countries (Brazil,Chile,Japan,South KoreaandMexico) filed a complaint with the WTO against theByrd Amendment, which was formally known as the Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000 legislated by the US. The essence of this act was that non-US firms that sell below cost price in the US could be fined and the money is given to the US companies who made the complaint in the first place. The act adversely affected the commodities business of the complainant states and has since been repealed after WTO ruled the act to be illegal.
Furthermore, the Indian government took cognizance of the changed tea and coffee market and set up an Inter-Ministerial Committee (IMC) to look into their problems in late 2003. The IMC has recommended that the government share the financial burden of the plantation industry on account of welfare measures envisaged for plantation workers mandated under the Plantation Labor Act 1951. Moreover, IMC has recommended to introducing means so that the agriculturalincome taxlevied by the state governments can be slashed and the tea industry be made competitive. It has recommended that sick or bankrupt plantation estates should be provided with an analogous level of relaxation for similarly placed enterprises/estates as are available to industries referred toBIFR.
A Special Tea Term Loan (STTL) for the tea sector was announced by the Indian government in 2004. It envisaged restructuring of irregular portions of the outstanding term/working capitalloans in the tea sector with repayment over five to seven years and a moratorium of one year, which was to be on a case to case basis for large growers. The STTL also provides for working capital up to Rs. 2 lakhs at a rate not exceeding 9% to small growers.
In addition to these measures, the Tea Board plans to launch a new marketing initiative, which will include a foray into new markets such asIran,Pakistan,VietnamandEgypt. It also plans to renew its efforts in traditional markets like Russia, the UK,IraqandUAE. Noteworthy is its intent to double tea exports to Pakistan within a year.
AssamOrthodox Tea is set to receive theGeographical Indications(GI) exclusivity. A GI stamp identifies a certain product as emanating from the territory of a WTO member or region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographic origin.
Darjeeling Teaalso has itsGeographical Indication(GI) registered in India in 2004 in India, in the European Union in 2007, and in other countries as well. The Darjeeling logo was registered in 1999 by the Tea Board of India in India.[23]
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs set up the Special Purpose Tea Fund (SPTF) under the Tea Board on December 29, 2006. The aim is to fund the replantation and rejuvenation (R&R) programm. In the same year,Tata Teaagreed to take over Jemca, which controls a 26 percent market share in the Czech Republic.
The CCEA gave its approval for pegging thesubsidyat 25 percent and adopting a funding pattern of 25 percent promoter's contribution, 25 percent subsidy from the government and 50 percent loan from the SPTF. Banks have also been instructed to increase the lending period to over 13 years.
Beginning in 2013, theUnion Ministry of Commerce and Industryhas been actively promoting the sale of tea in the country's top five export markets for that product: Egypt, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and the United States.[24]
Tea was important during India's struggle for independence.[25]Gandhi urged people to boycott British goods, including tea, because of poor working conditions. Advertisers also promoted tea as a patriotic drink. After independence, tea became a symbol of unity and was owned by Indians.
The introduction of[26]CTC (Crush, Tear, Curl) tea processing has had a transformative impact on the Indian tea industry. This method, known for its efficiency and consistency, revolutionized tea production by automating key stages of processing, leading to higher yields and reduced labor costs. CTC tea's uniform flavor profile and affordability have driven increased demand both domestically and internationally, allowing Indian tea producers to diversify their offerings and remain competitive in the global market. As a result, CTC processing has played a crucial role in making tea more accessible to a wider population in India and has solidified tea's status as a staple beverage, transcending barriers of class, creed, and color.
Tea gardens in Assam do not follow theIndian Standard Time(IST), which is the time observed throughout India and Sri Lanka. The local time in Assam's tea gardens, known as "Tea Garden Time" orBagantime, is an hour ahead of the IST.[27]The system was introduced during British days because of the early sunrise in this part of the country.
By and large, the system has subsequently been successful in increasing the productivity of tea garden workers as they save on daylight by finishing the work during the daytime, and vice versa. Working time for tea laborers in the gardens is generally between 9 a.m. (IST 8 a.m.) to 5 p.m. (IST 4 p.m.) It may vary slightly from garden to garden.
Film makerJahnu Baruahas been campaigning for a separate time zone for the north-east region.[27]
Sagina Mahato, a 1970 Bengali film, directed byTapan Sinha, deals with labor rights in the tea plantations in the Northeast during theBritish Raj.
Paradesi(English: Vagabond) is a 2013 Indian Tamil drama film written and directed by Bala. The film is based on real-life incidents that took place before independence in the 1930s, especially in southern tea estates.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_tea_in_India#History
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Labor spying in the United Stateshad involved people recruited or employed for the purpose ofgathering intelligence, committingsabotage, sowing dissent, or engaging in other similar activities, in the context of an employer/labor organization relationship. Spying by companies on union activities has been illegal in the United States since the National Labor Relations Act of 1935. However, non-unionmonitoring of employee activitieswhile at work is perfectly legal and, according to theAmerican Management Association, nearly 80% of major US companies actively monitor their employees.[1][2]
Statistics suggest that historicallytrade unionshave been frequent targets of labor spying.[3]Labor spying is most typically used by companies or their agents, and such activity often complementsunion busting. In at least one case, an employer hired labor spies to spy not only upon strikers, but also upon strikebreakers that he had hired.[4]
Sidney Howard observed in 1921 that the labor spy, "often unknown to the very employer who retains him through his agency, is in a position of immense strength. There is no power to hold him to truth-telling."[5]Because the labor spy operates in secret, "all [co-workers] are suspected, and intense bitterness is aroused against employers, the innocent and the guilty alike."[6]
Historically, one of the most incriminating indictments of the labor spy business may have been the testimony of Albert Balanow (some sources list the name as Ballin or Blanow) during an investigation of the detective agencies' roles during theRed Scare. Albert Balanow had worked with both theBurns Detective Agencyand theThiel Detective Agency. Balanow testified that the Red Scare was all about shaking down businessmen for protection money. "If there is no conspiracy, you've got to make a conspiracy in order to hold your job."[7][8][9]
The sudden exposure of labor spies has driven workers "to violence and unreason", includingat least one shooting war.[10][11]
Labor spies are usually agents employed bycorporations, or hired through the services ofunion bustingagencies, for the purpose of monitoring, disempowering, subverting, or destroyinglabor unions, or undermining actions taken by those unions.
[The labor spy] capitalizes the employer's ignorance and prejudice and enters the [workplace] specifically to identify the leaders of the Labor organization, to propagandize against them and blacklist them and to disrupt and corrupt their union. He is under cover, disguised as a worker, hired to betray the workers' cause.[12]
Labor spies may be referred to asspies, operatives, agents,agents provocateurs,saboteurs, infiltrators,informants, spotters,plants, special police, ordetectives. However, Dr. Richard C. Cabot, Professor of Social Ethics at Harvard, observed that labor spies are different from our normal view of detectives. While detectives investigate people suspected of crimes, the labor spy shadows and spies upon people who are not suspected of having committed any crime, nor are they suspected of planning any crime.[6]During the mid-to-late-19th century, a period during which there was intense distaste for the detective profession, thePinkertonandThieldetective agencies referred to their field agents asoperativesortesters. The Pinkerton logo inspired the expressionprivate eye.[13]
Operatives employed for labor spying may be professional, recruited from the public, or recruited from members of a particular workforce for a specific operation such asstrike breaking. They may be directly employed by the company, or they may report to the company through an agency.
Some agencies that provide such operatives to corporations offer full protective and union busting services, such assecurity guards, training, providing weaponry (including, historically, machine guns),[14]intelligence gathering, research, and strike-breaker recruitment services. Other agencies are more specialized.
Both the spy agencies and the companies that employ labor spies prefer to keep their activities secret.[15]Some labor leaders have likewise sought to downplay the extent of industrial spying.[16]This, in spite of the fact that "industrial spies have played both sides against each other, and have been at the bottom of a great deal of the violence and corruption of industrial conflict."[16]
The companies seek to avoid embarrassment and bad public relations. The spy agencies also concern themselves with "possible danger attendant upon discovery, and second, because the operative is thereafter a marked man ... his usefulness to the Agency is ended."[17]Therefore, actual labor spy reports, and even records of their existence, are a rare commodity.[18]
Corporations are not subject tofreedom of informationrequirements orsunshine laws, and therefore corporate practices such as spying are rarely subject to public scrutiny. However, historic examples of labor spying that have come to light provide a fairly substantive overview.
A letter from the Burns Detective Agency declared to the employer, "[w]ithin the heart of your business is where we operate, down in the dark corners, in out-of-the-way places that cannot be seen from your office ..."[19]
To stop a union proponent—apusher, in the anti-union lexicon—the[union] busterwill go anywhere, not just to the lunch room, but into the bedroom if necessary. The buster not only is a terrorist; he is also aspy. My team and I routinely pried into workers' police records, personnel files, credit histories, medical records, and family lives in search of a weakness that we could use to discredit union activists.
Labor spies may employ techniques of surreptitious monitoring, "missionary" work (see below), sabotage,provoking chaos or violence,frameups, intimidation, or insinuating themselves into positions of authority from which they may alter the basic goals of an organization. A National Labor Relations Board chairman testified about the results of these techniques:
The mystery and deadly certainty with which this scheme [labor spying] operated was so baffling to the men that they each suspected the others, were afraid to meet or to talk and the union was completely broken.[21]
A labor spy observed,
Those labor unions were so hot, crying about spies, that everything was at fever pitch and they look at each other with blood in their eyes.[22]
As one example of the impact of spying, a union local at the Underwood Elliot Fisher Company plant was so damaged by undercover operatives that membership dropped from more than twenty-five hundred, to fewer than seventy-five.[23]
In 1906, officers of the Corporations Auxiliary Company announced that they had labor spies at the annual convention of theAmerican Federation of Labor. For fifteen dollars, prospective clients could have a "full and complete report of the entire proceedings."[24]By 1919, spying on workers had become so common that steel company executives had accumulated six hundred spy reports. Some of them were accurate transcriptions of the secret meetings of union locals.[25]
In order to elicit business, some agencies would send secret operatives into a prospective client's factory without permission. A report would be prepared and submitted to the startled manager, revealing conspiracies of sabotage and union activities.[25]
Workers who were bribed to provide information to operatives often believed that the destination was an insurance agency, or interested stockholders. They never imagined that their reports on co-workers were destined for the corporation. Such workers were said to be "hooked," and in spy agency parlance those who reeled them in were called "hookers."[22]
Once in a while, a worker is impeccable. So some consultants resort to lies. To fell the sturdiest union supporters in the 1970s, I frequently launched rumors that the targeted worker was gay or was cheating on his wife. It was a very effective technique ...
Missionary work means deploying undercover operatives to create dissent on the picket lines and in union halls, for example, by utilizingwhispering campaignsor unfounded rumors. Missionaries frequently directed their whispering campaigns toward strikers' families and communities. For example, female operatives would visit the wives of strikers in their homes, incorporating their cover story into their spiel. They would tell the wife sad stories about how their own spouse lost a job years ago because of a strike, and hasn't found work since, and "that's why I must sell these products door to door."[27]
Another target was merchants who catered to strikers, who could be turned against the union by asserted claims of financial risks.
Missionary campaigns have been known to destroy not only strikes, but unions themselves.[28]
Undercover management agents have acted to create provocations within labor ranks. Examples include:
... historians Philip Taft and Philip Ross have pointed out that "IWW activity was virtually free of violence ... It is of some interest to note that a speaker who advocated violence at a meeting at the IWW hall in Everett [Washington, where theEverett massacreoccurred] was later exposed as a private detective.[29]
And in the aftermath of theColorado Labor Wars,
William B. Easterly, president of WFM District Union No. 1 [in theCripple Creek District], testified that the only person who discussed violence at Altman WFM meetings during the strike turned out to be a detective.[30]
Provocations also took the form of fomenting racial strife. TheSherman Service Company, Inc., of Chicago sent instructions to an operative to "stir up as much bad feeling as you possibly can between the Serbians and the Italians ... The Italians are going back to work. Call up every question you can in reference to racial hatred between these two nationalities."[31]
In 1919-1920, a religious commission investigating labor spies was itself the target of labor spying. A labor spy followed the investigators, and sent a report to United States Steel Corporation alleging that the investigators were "members of the I.W.W. and Reds."[32]One document similarly characterized them as "Pink Tea Socialists and Parlor Reds."[33]One spy report included a cover letter from Ralph M. Easley of theNational Civic Federationto the offices of United States Steel Corporation requesting that a list of clergymen "be kicked out of their positions" because of the investigation. The actual commission responded that none of the clergymen on the list were in any way connected with the investigation.[32]
In the 1930s nearly one-third of the twelve-hundred labor spies working for the Pinkerton Agency held high-level positions in the targeted unions, including one national vice-presidency, fourteen local presidencies, eight local vice-presidencies, and numerous secretary positions. Sam Brady, a veteran Pinkerton operative, held a high enough position in theInternational Association of Machiniststhat he was able to damage the union by precipitating a premature strike. Pinkerton operatives drove out all but five officers in aUnited Auto Workerslocal inLansing, Michigan. The remaining five were Pinkertons.[23]
As early as 1855, thePinkerton National Detective Agencyprovided "spotters" to expose dishonest and lazy railroad conductors. However, the program unraveled when, after a train accident in November 1872, papers found on the body of a Pinkerton operative revealed that the agency had been using deceitful practices.[34]
In 1869, garment workers formed theNoble Order of the Knights of Laboras a secret labor organization, largely in response to spying by an employer. The resultingblacklisthad been used to destroy their union.[35]
At an 1888 convention of theBrotherhood of Locomotive Engineersthat was held in Richmond, Virginia, delegates organized a special committee to search out hiding places that might be used by labor spies. They discovered a newspaper reporter, and determined to hold meetings behind closed doors. Note-taking was forbidden. Their concerns were justified, but the effort failed; two Pinkerton operatives had infiltrated the convention as delegates fromReading, Pennsylvania. They composed elaborate reports on all the issues and discussions[36]and recorded all the minutes of the meetings at the convention.[37]
Beginning in the latter decades of the 19th century, agencies that supplied security and intelligence services to business clients were essentially private police forces, and were accountable only to their clients. The private police agencies declined with the development of professional public police departments, but they continued to be employed by mine owners in "frontier environments" well into the 20th century.[38]
By the dawn of themuckraking era, employers increasingly turned to espionage services. E. H. Murphy once told a midwestern industrialist,
We have the reputation of being several jumps ahead of the old way of settling capital and labor difficulties ... Our service aims to keep our clients informed through the medium of intelligence reports.[39]
"In December [of 1920] ten important officials of the Labor unions of Akron, Ohio, were exposed as confessed and convicted spies of theCorporations Auxiliary Company, a concern whose business is the administration of industrial espionage."[12]
By the 1930s, industrial espionage had become not just an accepted part of labor relations, it was the most important form of labor discipline services that was provided by the anti-union agencies.[40]More than two hundred agencies offered undercover operatives to their clients.[41]
During the 1930s, thirty-two mining companies, twenty-eight automotive firms, and a similar number of food companies relied upon labor spies. A member of theNational Labor Relations Boardestimated that American industrialists spent eighty million dollars spying on their workers.General Motorsalone spent nearly a million dollars for undercover operatives fighting theCIOduring a two-year period. In addition to the Pinkertons, General Motors hired thirteen other spy agencies to monitor workers in its factories, and then used the Pinkertons to spy on operatives from these other agencies.[42]
Between 1933 and 1935, the Pinkerton Agency employed twelve hundred undercover operatives and operated out of twenty-seven offices. The agency assigned agents to three hundred companies during the 1930s. In 1936 Robert Pinkerton announced a change of focus for the Pinkerton Agency. The days of strike-breaking agencies marshalling large numbers of strike-breakers to defeat strikes were over. The Pinkerton Agency was determined to "place emphasis on its undercover work which, being secret, created less antagonism."[43]
While more overt forms of labor control often led to violence, the undercover operator or missionary was able to destroy unionization efforts without alarming the public.
TheNational Labor Relations Actof 1935 outlawed spying on and intimidating union activists, provoking violence, and company unions.[45]However, spying on workers and harassing them continued, according to testimony before congress in 1957. Other abuses by labor consulting firms included manipulating union elections through bribery and coercion; threatening to revoke workers' benefits if they organized; installing union officers sympathetic to management; and, offering rewards to employees who worked against unions.[46]
In 1944, historianJ. Bernard Hogg, surveying the history of labor spying, observed that Pinkerton agents were secured "by advertising, by visiting United States recruiting offices for rejectees, and by frequenting waterfronts where men were to be found going to sea as a last resort of employment,"[47]and that "[to] labor they were a 'gang of toughs and ragtails and desperate men, mostly recruited by Pinkerton and his officers from the worst elements of the community.'"[48]
At the prompting of CongressmanThomas E. Watson, the U.S. House of Representatives investigated detective agencies after theHomestead Strike. The Senate also investigated, and both houses issued reports in 1893. In addition to the Pinkertons, the Thiel Detective Agency, the U.S. Detective Agency, Mooney and Boland's Detective Agency, and the Illinois Detective Agency were involved in the hearings.[49]
TheCommission on Industrial Relationstook testimony about espionage agencies in 1915, as did a privately funded investigation of the steel strike of 1919.[40]
In 1936, a U.S. Senate Resolution called for an investigation of violations of the right tofree speechandassemblyand of interference with the right of labor to organize andbargain collectively. At the time, 30% of Pinkerton's business resulted from its industrial services.[50]Between 1936 and 1941, theLa Follette Civil Liberties Committeeof the U.S. Congress held hearings and published reports on the phenomenon of labor spying, and other aspects of industrial relations. The committee established that in some cases, a company was able tolock outits workers three days prior to astrike, based upon information that Pinkerton services provided. An example report from an informant was introduced into evidence, demonstrating that such reports singled out individual workers. TheSenate, with theHouse of Representativesconcurring, passed a resolution that, "... the so-called industrial spy system breeds fear, suspicion and animosity, tends to cause strikes and industrial warfare and is contrary to sound public policy."[51]
The La Follette Committee investigated the five largest detective agencies: the Pinkerton National Detective Agency,William J. Burns International Detective Agency, the National Corporation Service, the Railway Audit and Inspection Company, and the Corporations Auxiliary Company. Most of the agencies subpoenaed, including the Pinkerton Agency, attempted to destroy their records before receiving the subpoenas, but enough evidence remained to "piece together a picture of intrigue". It was revealed that Pinkerton had operatives "in practically every union in the country". Of 1,228 operatives, there were five in the United Mine Workers, nine in the United Rubber Workers, seventeen in the United Textile Workers, and fifty-five in the United Auto Workers that had organized General Motors.[52]
The rationale for spying on unions was detection of Communists. "Upon examination, however, superintendent Joseph Littlejohn admitted never finding any Communists. Labor spying, as it turned out, was merely an excuse to wreck unions."[53]
The La Follette Committee concluded that labor spying (espionage) was "... the most efficient method known to management to prevent unions from forming, to weaken them if they secure a foothold, and to wreck them when they try their strength."[40]
In 1957 theU.S. Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management(McClellan Committee) investigated unions for corruption. They also investigated corporations and union-busting agencies. One labor relations consultant called Labor Relations Associates was found to have committed violations of theNational Labor Relations Actof 1935, including spying on workers.[46]
One of the best known undercover agents wasJames McParlandwho, under the alias of James McKenna, infiltrated a secret society of Pennsylvania coalminers called theMolly Maguires. Debate continues over the extent of guilt on the part of the Mollies, and over the question of whether they were in some sense a labor organization, or merely a ring of assassins lashing out over unjust working conditions, inadequate pay, and the pressures of persecution against theirIrish Catholicstatus. In any event, McParland's testimony resulted in nineteen of the Molly Maguires going to the gallows.
In 1892, Pinkerton AgentCharles A. Siringo, working out of theDenverPinkerton office, played a significant role in ending theCoeur d'Alene strike. Siringo had been hired by theMine Owners' Protective Association(MOA) to work at the Gem mine in Gem, Idaho. Siringo used the alias C. Leon Allison to join the local miners' union, ingratiating himself by buying drinks and loaning money to his fellow miners. He was elected to the post of secretary, providing access to all of the union's books and records.
Siringo promptly began to report all union business to his employers, allowing the mine owners to outmaneuver the miners on a number of occasions. Strikers planned to intercept a train of incoming strike breakers, so the mine owners dropped off the replacement workers in an unexpected location. The local union president, Oliver Hughes, ordered Siringo to remove a page from the union record book that recorded a conversation about possibly flooding the mines, the agent mailed that page to the Mine Owners' Association. Siringo also "told his employer's clients what they wanted to hear," referring to union officials such asGeorge Pettiboneas "dangerous anarchists".[54]
The mine owners had locked out the strikers, and were hiring strike breakers. Meanwhile, Siringo was suspected as a spy when the MOA's newspaper, theCoeur d'Alene Barbarian, began publishing union secrets. Although the union had advised the miners against violence,[55]their anger at discovering the infiltration prompted them to blow up the Frisco mine in Gem, capturing the Gem mine, plus 150 non-union miners and company guards. Concurrent with the explosion, hundreds of miners converged on Siringo's boarding house. But Siringo had sawed a hole in the floor, and made his escape after crawling for half a block under a wooden boardwalk. He fled to thehills above Coeur d'Alene.
The miners union issued a statement deploring "the unfortunate affair at Gem and Frisco." But the governor sent in six companies of theIdaho National Guardto "suppress insurrection and violence". After the Guard secured the area, Siringo came out of the mountains to finger union leaders, and those who had participated in the attacks on the Gem and Frisco mines. He wrote that for days he was busy "putting unruly cattle in thebull pen." Siringo then returned to Denver, and the following year the miners formed theWestern Federation of Minersbecause of the disastrous events inCoeur d'Alenein 1892. The WFM immediately called for outlawing the hiring of labor spies, but their demand was ignored.[56]
During his career with Pinkerton, Charles Siringo discovered that clients were being cheated, supervisors were stealing agency funds, and operatives were inflating normal conversations with targeted radicals into conspiracies.[57]When Siringo retired from the Pinkerton Agency, he was so disenchanted with his experiences that he wrote a book entitledTwo Evil Isms. On the cover of the book, Uncle Sam was pictured in the grip of a boa constrictor with the names "Pinkertonism" and "Anarchism" on its sides. Frank Morn, author ofThe Eye That Never Sleeps, A History of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, observed the following about Siringo's attempt at a tell-all book:
Two extremes were being joined: unbridled violence by radicals was matched by unbridled violence by business interests ... Such attacks were more damaging because they came from a man who had been [a Pinkerton] operative for over two decades.[58]
But the Pinkerton Agency suppressed Siringo's book,[citation needed]and only a few copies survive.
Charlie Siringo was not the only agent to have infiltrated the Coeur d'Alene miners' unions. In his bookBig Trouble, author J. Anthony Lukas mentions thatThielOperative 53 had also infiltrated, and had been the union secretary atWardner, Idaho. in 1906 this agent "worked inside the miners union atGoldfield, Nevada. He was trusted by many union members in mining camps throughout the Northwest."[59]
Agents sometimes situate themselves into key positions from which to wreak damage on the targeted union:
One of the most efficient activities of the spy in the union during a strike is to wreck the strike relief benefit fund, upon which, of course, the success of the strike so largely depends. If the spy cannot himself have access to the fund, his next policy is to spread discontent and cause the strikers to demand higher benefits than the union is able to pay. He will frequently create the impression that the fund is dishonestly handled by the union officials.[60]
One Pinkerton spy was assigned tosabotagethe union'srelief programduring a 1903–04 strike which wreaked so significant an impact on the future of organized labor that it came to be called theColorado Labor Wars.
Bill Haywood, Secretary Treasurer of theWestern Federation of Miners, wrote in his autobiography:
I had been having some difficulty with the relief committee of the Denversmeltermen. At first we had been giving out relief at such a rate that I had to tell the chairman that he was providing the smelter men with more than they had had while at work. Then he cut down the rations until the wives of the smelter men began to complain that they were not getting enough to eat. Years later, when his letters were published inThe Pinkerton Labor Spy, I discovered that the chairman of the relief committe [sic] was a Pinkerton detective, who was carrying out the instructions of the agency ...[61]
The individual responsible for revealing this sabotage wasMorris Friedman, the former stenographer of Pinkerton agent James McParland, who had moved to Denver and managed the regional Pinkerton office. Friedman found the practices of the detective agency in general, and of McParland in particular, revolting. His views are captured in a passage from his 1907 bookThe Pinkerton Labor Spy,
The readiness of the Western Federation [of Miners] to resent the smallest encroachments on the rights of its humblest members, the generalship displayed by the organization in its struggles with different mine owners, and the fearless and vigorous campaigns of organization carried on by the Federation, have naturally aroused the fear and apprehension of mine owners; and these fears have been studiously fanned into flames of blind and furious hatred by Pinkerton's National Detective Agency, in the endeavor of the latter institution to obtain business. At the present time in many parts of the West we findCapitalopenly or secretly engaged in a bitter struggle with the Western Federation of Miners, to the satisfaction and immense profit of the Pinkerton Agency.
The Agency was the first to notice the activity of the Federation, and the great financial possibilities which might be realized by engaging in a prolonged struggle with it.
But it is perhaps a mistake to say the Agency, for it was, more properly speaking,James McParland, ofMollie Maguirenotoriety, whose sharp glance first took jealous note of the rapid growth of this labor union.[62]
In his exposé of the Pinkerton Agency, Friedman provides background on the sabotage efforts of A. W. Gratias, known to Pinkerton supervisors as "No. 42."
No. 42 was invited to join the union, and a short time after was an influential member ... Mr. McParland himself drew up the instructions for No. 42. To begin with, the operative was instructed to create trouble between the leaders of the union. This he accomplished, and soon the union was divided into a number of hostile camps ... The operative was next instructed to agitate the question of strike benefits among the men, so that they would demand financial aid from the Western Federation of Miners, and he was also told to intrigue against some of the leaders, so that the union would expel them. The chiefs being out of the way, Mr. McParland hoped that the rank and file would call the strike off.[63]
The operative became so popular with the men for demanding relief that he was appointed chairman of the Relief Committee. McParland instructed him to provide relief in such large amounts that it would drain the treasury of the Federation.
He not only supplied the men with necessities, but even with luxuries and cash to spend. The operative's extreme liberality endeared him to the men, who rewarded him by electing him president of the union. We now see the unique spectacle of a Pinkerton spy, under the direct orders of Manager McParland, as president of a Western Federation of Miners' local union, and directing a bitter strike against the smelter trust. On his elevation to the presidency the operative did not relinquish his position on the relief committee, nor would the men have permitted him to do so, as they were perfectly satisfied with the way the operative squandered the money of the Federation ...[64]
No. 42 then became a delegate and reported to the Pinkerton Agency everything that happened at the annual WFM convention.[65]The operative also reported that WFM Secretary-Treasurer Haywood objected to the enormous weekly relief bills. McParland instructed the operative to "cut the relief down to an extent that would almost starve the strikers, and while doing this, to throw the blame on Secretary Haywood." The operative, now holding the key positions of delegate to the convention, head of the relief committee, and president of the local, responded that he would cut the relief "as much as possible, so as to cause dissatisfaction, and get the men against the union ..."[66]
During the Western Federation of Miners' strike in 1903, there were several examples of labor spy activities. There is the special case ofHarry Orchard. While this WFM member confessed to numerous of the crimes committed during the Colorado Labor Wars, and toadditional crimes, including assassinating an ex-governor. He also admitted to being a Pinkerton agent, and to being in the pay of the Mine Owners' Association.
Harry Orchard was convicted of murder in the assassination ofFrank Steunenberg, an ex-governor ofIdaho. But first, at McParland's prompting, Orchard tried (and failed) to take three leaders of the WFM with him.
Testimony and allegiances in the 1907 assassination conspiracy cases against Harry Orchard's alleged WFM taskmasters remain very difficult to sort out. For example, another Pinkerton agent in theCripple Creekdistrict, "No. 28", reported that the defense was offering him money to testify. His written account, telling the Pinkerton Agency essentially what they wanted to hear—presumably as a condition of receiving money from that source—describes how he proceeded to tell the WFM defense team whattheywanted to hear; specifically, that he would attest to "the biggest collection of lies from beginning to end I ever saw on paper." However, Pinkerton Agent "No. 28" (whoever he may have been) was not called to testify for the defense.[67]Whether his mission might have been to betray the WFM defense team on the witness stand, subtly or dramatically, can only be guessed. The prosecution did not call him either, so we have only his reports to the Agency to go by.
McParland's Pinkerton Agency beat out the Thiel Detective Agency for the assignment to investigate Steunenberg's assassination. McParland believed that the Theil Agency must have been hired by the defense for, "Repeatedly in late 1906 and early 1907, he complained that Thiel Detectives were watching his every move ..."[68]
TheAmalgamated Association of Street Car Employees(AASCE) sought a contract with Boston's public transit system in 1912. Company negotiatorCyrus S. Chingasked for a pledge by both sides to discontinue the use of labor spies. The union protested, claiming they had made no such use of spies. Ching summoned one of his assistants, a young man whom Ching had observed peering into records and communications that had nothing to do with his job. Ching said that he had intentionally provided misinformation to the assistant. Ching then announced that he would not fire the employee, and also that the transit company had used both spies and provocateurs against the union, but that the company would cease that practice. Encouraged by such openness, the union promptly reached an agreement with the company.[69]
After theBattle of Matewan, testimony in the case revealed thatCharles Livelyhad infiltrated the union for the company. Lively later testified before the United States Senate that he had been a Baldwin-Felts detective since 1912 or 1913. During that time he had worked undercover, with his duties taking him to Missouri, Illinois, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Colorado. During theLudlow strikein Colorado, Lively became vice-president of the United Mine Workers' local atLa Veta. He returned toMingo County, West Virginia, in early 1920. He worked undercover at Howard Collieries, a company that had a tipple destroyed by fire. The investigation was kept secret even from the coal company, and Lively was fired when he was suspected of complicity.
Lively then traveled to Matewan, and participated in UMWA efforts to organize the War Eagle, Glen Alum, and Mohawk mines of Stone Mountain Coal Company. He reported all activities to the detective agency, and even brought his family to Matewan as part of his cover. He rented the lower floor of the UMWA union hall for a restaurant. Lively befriended members and officers of the union, and reported on their activities via mail sent on the train.
After theBattle of Matewan, Sid Hatfield and Ed Chambers were summoned from the union stronghold at Matewan to answer minor strike-related sabotage charges inMcDowell County. As they walked up the courthouse steps, accompanied by their wives, they were shot dead by Baldwin-Felts agents Charles Lively, Bill Salter, and Buster Pence on August 1, 1921. According to Mrs. Chambers, Lively placed a gun behind Ed Chambers' ear and fired the last shot even though she was pleading with him not to shoot again. Neither of the two men had been armed, but one of the women reported that upon returning to the steps after having been led off by the guards, she discovered that both men had pistols in their hands. Pence was heard to remark, "kill 'em with one gun, and hand 'em another one." Although scores of people witnessed the attack, due to its brazenness they were afraid to testify. The three agents were acquitted on grounds of self-defense.[70]The murder of Sid Hatfield and Ed Chambers led to ageneral uprising of West Virginia coal miners.
WhenColorado Fuel and Iron(CF&I) went bankrupt in 1990, an immense quantity of archives from the corporation were released.[71]Among the archives were reports of spies who were hired during a coal strike led by theIndustrial Workers of the World(IWW), also known as theWobblies. The spies were assigned "to glean intelligence on the Wobblies' strategies and tactics, to sow disinformation, to disrupt meetings and pickets, and to expose weaknesses in the IWW organization, finances, and leadership."[72]
HistorianJ. Bernard Hogg, who wrote "Public Reaction to Pinkertonism and the Labor Question", once observed:
Much of the hard feeling toward the Pinkertons was engendered by the fact that not infrequently detectives worked their way into high positions in the union and then revealed the intentions of the organization to the employer.[73]
Agents in the 1927 Columbine strike (we don't know if they were Pinkertons, or from a different agency) were able to approach and freely converse with top level strike leaders. Kristen Svanum was the "head of the IWW" in Colorado. An agent identified only as "XX" informed his employer,
Svanum stated that he had put in over $600.00 of his private funds to finance the IWW here in Colorado, stating that he was supplied with this money from a higher power; that he was working for a peaceful revolution of conditions in the U.S?A. [sic] I tried to cause him to say what this power was but could not do so.
Sometimes the efforts of agents failed. When a strike vote was pending, labor spy "XX" reported,
Smith and myself circulated through the crowd trying to get them to postpone the strike but without any success and when the vote was called it was unanimous for the strike, even the Northern Colorado delegates voting for it.[74]
Agents sought to influence the portrayal of the strikers in the media, hoping thereby to control subsequent events. Since 1900, theColorado National Guardhad a history of crushing strikes. CF&I agents knew that the threat of violence might bring the guard into the field, thus hindering the strike at taxpayer expense. Agent "XX" described himself as a strike leader when interviewed by the media, apparently seeking to bolster the credibility of his ominous message:
TheA-PandDenver Postreporters think I am a dyed-in-the-wool wobbly and have tried to interview me. In speaking about the alleged carload of arms and ammunition I did not deny this "hokum" but intimitated [sic] that if there was any violence it was against the principles of Svanum and myself and the more select class of "wobblies" but that there was an awfully rough element of "reds" coming into the field and that we might not be able to hold them in hand. Do not know if they are gullible enough to absorb this kind of stuff but can tell better when this afternoon[']s papers come out. If they play up strong that there is likely to be violence it might hasten action on part of state authorities.[74]
A different view of the "alleged carload of arms and ammunition" is offered by historian Joanna Sampson:
It was curious that an organization like the IWW with its revolutionary philosophy and its reputation for violence conducted a major strike with so little violence. Miners afterward testified that members of the automobile caravans were searched by their own leaders to be sure they did not have liquor or firearms with them. In all the arrests of strikers for picketing, there is no case where a striker was accused of carrying firearms.[75]
In fact the undercover agent got his wish for state intervention:
On November 21 [of 1927], state policemen killed six pickets and injured dozens more ... Despite the fact that the violence was the fault of the state police,Governor Adamsused the so-calledColumbine Massacreas an excuse to call out the National Guard to restore order throughout the state. With soldiers on guard at mine gates, mass picketing ceased and more and more miners returned to their jobs. The strike continued, but it lost considerable momentum.[76]
Hogg explains that agents advocating, provoking, or using violence is a common scenario:
A detective will join the ranks of the strikers and at once become an ardent champion of their cause. He is next found committing an aggravated assault
upon some man or woman who has remained at work, thereby bringing down upon the heads of the officers and members of the assembly or union directly interested, the condemnation of all honest people, and aiding very materially to demoralize the organization and break their ranks. He is always on hand in the strikers'
meeting to introduce some extremely radical measure to burn the mill or wreck a train, and when the meeting has adjourned he is ever ready to furnish the Associated Press with a full account of the proposed action, and the country is told that a "prominent and highly respected member" of the strikers' organization has just revealed a most daring plot to destroy life and property, but dare not become known in connection with the exposure for fear of his life![77]
Even ardentunion organizersmay yield to the temptation to spy on other unions during strikes, based perhaps uponmisplaced sectarian loyaltiesor ideological differences. Mike Livoda of theUnited Mine Workers(UMWA) was one of the celebrated organizers from theLudlow strikeof 1913–14. Livoda was so revered by the mineworkers that he is the only individual buried at theLudlow Monument.[78]When Professor Eric Margolis was researching the 1927 Wobbly strike, he encountered evidence that Mike Livoda "actually hired out to spy on the Wobblies and provided the Governor of Colorado with advice on strike breaking tactics."[79]
The Union Pacific Coal Company in Wyoming hired the services of Thomas J. Williams, Pinkerton Operative "No. 15".
Whenever UMWA President Mitchell sent an organizer to Wyoming, Operative Williams introduced himself as "an old, good-standing member of the United Mine Workers," and offered to help the new fellow with his tasks. Operative Williams gladly arranged all the secret meetings with Wyoming miners. After approximately fifty secret meetings in a row were broken up by mine superintendents or foremen attending unannounced, causing prospective union members to scatter, the UMWA acknowledged defeat in Wyoming.[80]
In 1903-04, the Pinkerton Agency had J. Frank Strong, operative "No. 28" inFremont County, and Robert M. Smith, operative "No. 38" inLas Animas County. The two agents performed the same work—both had infiltrated the top ranks of the UMWA—yet they did not know each other. Because of this compartmentalization, the reports of these two operatives occasionally cite intelligence on each other.[81]
The coal miners were unhappy about low wages paid inscrip. These were company-issued coupons redeemable only at the company store, where prices were exorbitant. The miners also wanted theeight-hour day, and the right to join a union. The UMWA declared a strike, and nearly all the coal miners in Colorado's Southern Field walked out.
The strike seemed destined to succeed. However, whenever the union sent an organizer to talk to miners, operative Strong would send that information to his Pinkerton handler. By chance, it seemed that groups of thugs would always obtain the same message. Morris Friedman, the former stenographer of the Pinkerton Agency in Colorado, reported:
As a result of Operative Smith's "clever and intelligent" work, a number of union organizers received severe beatings at the hands of unknown masked men, presumably in the employ of the company.[82]
Friedman offers examples of these incidents:
About February 13, 1904, William Farley, of Alabama, a member of the [UMWA] National Executive Board ... and the personal representative of [UMWA]President Mitchell... addressed coal miners' meetings ... [on their return trip] eight masked men held them up with revolvers, dragged them from their wagon, threw them to the ground, beat them, kicked them, and almost knocked them into insensibility.[82]
And,
On Saturday, April 30, 1904, W.M. Wardjon, a national organizer of the United Mine Workers, while on board a train en route toPueblo, was assaulted by three men atSargents, about thirty miles west ofSalida. Mr. Wardjon was beaten into unconsciousness.[83]
Under repeated attack, the 1903–04 UMWA strike effort failed, with both leadership and membership despondent over the turn of events.[84]
However, UMWA President Mitchell was determined to reverse the failure. He decided that one special position, that ofnational organizer, should be created to oversee all organizing efforts for the union. After considering a range of candidates, Mitchell selected for this vital position,Pinkerton Operative "No. 38," Robert M. Smith.[85]
In 1912, the United Mine Workers had discovered the extent to which CF&I relied upon spies, and union officials had learned their lesson well. The organization ended its efforts to form local unions. All membership cards were issued in secret, as members not of a local, but of the international union. Members did not know who had joined, and who had not. The company spy system was finally frustrated. Unaware that organizing was continuing, the two main coal operators in the Colorado Southern Coal Field, CF&I and the Victor-American Fuel company, believed they had won. Abusive practices which had been softened during the open organizing drives were revived. Revolt was in the air.[86]Then the United Mine Workers announced a new organizing drive in letters sent to the newspapers. But this organizing drive would be different:
Twenty-one pairs of organizers were put through a special course in the Denver [UMWA] office and then sent into the Southern Field. Their operation was simple, but effective. One member of each team was known as the active organizer; the other was the passive organizer. The so-called active organizer moved into the open and was known to everyone ... as an organizer. His passive team-mate posed as a miner looking for work. He cussed the unions and their leadership, and obtained a job in the heavily guarded mines. He made friends with officers of the company and, where possible, hired out as a coal company spotter ... Once the passive organizer was installed in the mine, his active team mate sought new members in that mine. If a miner joined, the active organizer kept the man's membership secret and sent his card directly to the Denver office ... If a working miner refused to join, his name was sent to the passive organizer who immediately reported to the company that John Cotino had joined the union. The result was always the same. The company sent John Cotino packing ... In this manner a constant stream of anti-union and non-union men, the confirmed strike breakers and scabs, were kept streaming [out]. The companies unwittingly sent the faithful out, while the active organizer sent carefully coached men of union affiliation to apply for the jobs that had to be filled.[87]
In one month, this system caused the coal operators to fire more than 3,000 non-union men. Their places were taken by 3,000 union men.[88]In September 1913 a strike was called, and twelve thousand miners laid down their tools. Only with significant brutality would this new strike be defeated.
During the first week of February 2011, the Internet hacker cooperativeAnonymousreleased e-mails which appear to show that theU.S. Chamber of Commerce, through their law firm,Hunton & Williams, contracted with three technology firms, includingHBGary,Palantir Technologies, and Berico Technologies, to spy on and discredit unions and political opponents.[89][90]Palantir received startup funds from theCIAin 2005.[91]Release of the emails appears to have caused the parties to abort the attacks.
In the bookThe Case Against Wal-Mart, author Al Norman cites many ofthe usual criticismsof the big box retail chain. He has written,
Wal-Mart is so terrified of union organizing, the company allegedly monitors some of its stores' phone calls and emails. Jon Lehman, a former Wal-Mart store manager, toldBloombergnews in February 2004 that Wal-Mart has a 60×60-foot room inBentonvillein which two dozen people with headsets conduct surveillance on calls and emails from stores, to see whether anyone is talking about union organizing.[92]
Wal-Marthas responded that they monitor stores only if there is a risk of a bomb threat. But Norman believes "... there is no more explosive issue at Wal-Mart than the feared depth-charge of union sympathizers among its own workforce."[92]
Wal-Mart's surveillance department has generated significant media attention. In a story headlined, "Wal-Mart getsgag orderagainst ex-security worker," theAssociated Pressreported on April 10, 2007, that Wal-Mart succeeded in obtaining a gag order to prevent Bruce Gabbard, a former "security operative" for the company, from discussing the company with reporters.[93]The article notes that there has been:
... a string of revelations about the retailer's large surveillance operations and its business plans ... The suit and restraining order were filed two days after Wal-Mart apologized toactivist shareholdersfor Gabbard's revelation that they were considered potential threats and ahead of a story in Monday's editions of theWall Street Journalon Gabbard's claim that Wal-Mart had a super-secret "Project Red" aimed at bolstering its stagnant share price.[93]
Gabbard has alleged that "Wal-Mart had widespread surveillance operations against targets including shareholders, critics, suppliers, the board of directors and employees,"[94]and that "most of his spying activities were sanctioned by superiors."[95]It has also been alleged that the corporation assigned a "long-haired employee" wearing a microphone[96]to infiltrate a group that is critical of Wal-Mart.[97]Wal-Mart used a surveillance van to monitor the organization from "the perimeter."[98]Wal-Mart has characterized its security operations as normal.
Labor spy agencies included theBaldwin–Felts Detective Agency,Pinkerton National Detective Agency,William J. Burns International Detective Agency,Corporations Auxiliary Company,Sherman Service Company,Mooney and Boland,Thiel Detective Service Company,Berghoff and Waddell, and numerous others. Each of the named companies had branch offices in scores of American cities, frequently under disguised names.[99]
One might question why labor spy agencies exist. A labor spy boss from Cleveland, who asserted c. 1920 that "I own every union in this town" (which is to say that he had control of the union executives), explains simply that many labor spies are ex-criminal detectives, and "[t]here's more money in industry than ever there was in crime."[100]
These are agencies which have been known to supply operatives to corporations for the purpose of establishing or maintaining control over unionization efforts, beyond simply providing security services — former agencies, current agencies, and agencies that appear to have quit the business of union-busting:
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Reverse engineering(also known asbackwards engineeringorback engineering) is a process or method through which one attempts to understand throughdeductive reasoninghow a previously made device, process, system, or piece ofsoftwareaccomplishes a task with very little (if any) insight into exactly how it does so. Depending on the system under consideration and the technologies employed, the knowledge gained during reverse engineering can help with repurposing obsolete objects, doing security analysis, or learning how something works.[1][2][3]
Although the process is specific to the object on which it is being performed, all reverse engineering processes consist of three basic steps: information extraction, modeling, and review. Information extraction is the practice of gathering all relevant information for performing the operation. Modeling is the practice of combining the gathered information into an abstract model, which can be used as a guide for designing the new object or system. Review is the testing of the model to ensure the validity of the chosen abstract.[1]Reverse engineering is applicable in the fields ofcomputer engineering,mechanical engineering,design,electricalandelectronicengineering,civil engineering,nuclear engineering,aerospace engineering,software engineering,chemical engineering,[4]systems biology[5]and more.
There are many reasons for performing reverse engineering in various fields. Reverse engineering has its origins in the analysis of hardware for commercial or military advantage.[6]: 13However, the reverse engineering process may not always be concerned with creating a copy or changing the artifact in some way. It may be used as part of ananalysistodeducedesign features from products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved in their original production.[6]: 15
In some cases, the goal of the reverse engineering process can simply be aredocumentationoflegacy systems.[6]: 15[7]Even when the reverse-engineered product is that of a competitor, the goal may not be to copy it but to performcompetitor analysis.[8]Reverse engineering may also be used to createinteroperable productsand despite some narrowly-tailored United States and European Union legislation, the legality of using specific reverse engineering techniques for that purpose has been hotly contested in courts worldwide for more than two decades.[9]
Softwarereverse engineering can help to improve the understanding of the underlying source code for the maintenance and improvement of the software, relevant information can be extracted to make a decision for software development and graphical representations of the code can provide alternate views regarding the source code, which can help to detect and fix asoftware bugor vulnerability. Frequently, as some software develops, its design information and improvements are often lost over time, but that lost information can usually be recovered with reverse engineering. The process can also help to cut down the time required to understand the source code, thus reducing the overall cost of the software development.[10]Reverse engineering can also help to detect and to eliminate a malicious code written to the software with better code detectors. Reversing a source code can be used to find alternate uses of the source code, such as detecting the unauthorized replication of the source code where it was not intended to be used, or revealing how a competitor's product was built.[11]That process is commonly used for"cracking" software and mediato remove theircopy protection,[11]: 7or to create a possibly-improvedcopyor even aknockoff, which is usually the goal of a competitor or a hacker.[11]: 8
Malwaredevelopers often use reverse engineering techniques to find vulnerabilities in anoperating systemto build acomputer virusthat can exploit the system vulnerabilities.[11]: 5Reverse engineering is also being used incryptanalysisto find vulnerabilities insubstitution cipher,symmetric-key algorithmorpublic-key cryptography.[11]: 6
There are other uses to reverse engineering:
Ascomputer-aided design(CAD) has become more popular, reverse engineering has become a viable method to create a 3D virtual model of an existing physical part for use in 3DCAD,CAM,CAE, or othersoftware.[14]The reverse-engineering process involves measuring an object and then reconstructing it as a 3D model. The physical object can be measured using3D scanningtechnologies likeCMMs,laser scanners,structured light digitizers, orindustrial CT scanning(computed tomography). Themeasureddataalone, usually represented as apoint cloud, lackstopologicalinformationand design intent. The former may be recovered by converting the point cloud to a triangular-facedmesh. Reverse engineering aims to go beyond producing such a mesh and to recover the design intent in terms of simple analytical surfaces where appropriate (planes,cylinders, etc.) as well as possiblyNURBSsurfaces to produce aboundary-representationCAD model. Recovery of such a model allows a design to be modified to meet new requirements, a manufacturing plan to be generated, etc.
Hybrid modeling is a commonly used term when NURBS andparametric modelingare implemented together. Using a combination of geometric and freeform surfaces can provide a powerful method of3D modeling. Areas of freeform data can be combined with exact geometric surfaces to create a hybrid model. A typical example of this would be the reverse engineering of a cylinder head, which includes freeform cast features, such as water jackets and high-tolerance machined areas.[15]
Reverse engineering is also used by businesses to bring existing physical geometry into digital product development environments, to make a digital 3D record of their own products, or to assess competitors' products. It is used to analyze how a product works, what it does, what components it has; estimate costs; identify potentialpatentinfringement; etc.
Value engineering, a related activity that is also used by businesses, involves deconstructing and analyzing products. However, the objective is to find opportunities for cost-cutting.
Reverse engineering ofprinted circuit boardsinvolves recreating fabrication data for a particular circuit board. This is done primarily to identify a design, and learn the functional and structural characteristics of a design. It also allows for the discovery of the design principles behind a product, especially if this design information is not easily available.
Outdated PCBs are often subject to reverse engineering, especially when they perform highly critical functions such as powering machinery, or other electronic components. Reverse engineering these old parts can allow the reconstruction of the PCB if it performs some crucial task, as well as finding alternatives which provide the same function, or in upgrading the old PCB.[16]
Reverse engineering PCBs largely follow the same series of steps. First, images are created by drawing, scanning, or taking photographs of the PCB. Then, these images are ported to suitable reverse engineering software in order to create a rudimentary design for the new PCB. The quality of these images that is necessary for suitable reverse engineering is proportional to the complexity of the PCB itself. More complicated PCBs require well lighted photos on dark backgrounds, while fairly simple PCBs can be recreated simply with just basic dimensioning. Each layer of the PCB is carefully recreated in the software with the intent of producing a final design as close to the initial. Then, the schematics for the circuit are finally generated using an appropriate tool.[17]
In 1990, theInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE) defined (software) reverse engineering (SRE) as "the process of analyzing a
subject system to identify the system's components and their interrelationships and to create representations of the system in another form or at a higher
level of abstraction" in which the "subject system" is the end product of software development. Reverse engineering is a process of examination only, and the software system under consideration is not modified, which would otherwise bere-engineeringor restructuring. Reverse engineering can be performed from any stage of the product cycle, not necessarily from the functional end product.[10]
There are two components in reverse engineering: redocumentation and design recovery. Redocumentation is the creation of new representation of the computer code so that it is easier to understand. Meanwhile, design recovery is the use of deduction or reasoning from general knowledge or personal experience of the product to understand the product's functionality fully.[10]It can also be seen as "going backwards through the development cycle".[18]In this model, the output of the implementation phase (in source code form) is reverse-engineered back to the analysis phase, in an inversion of the traditionalwaterfall model. Another term for this technique isprogram comprehension.[7]The Working Conference on Reverse Engineering (WCRE) has been held yearly to explore and expand the techniques of reverse engineering.[11][19]Computer-aided software engineering(CASE) and automated code generation have contributed greatly in the field of reverse engineering.[11]
Software anti-tampertechnology likeobfuscationis used to deter both reverse engineering and re-engineering of proprietary software and software-powered systems. In practice, two main types of reverse engineering emerge. In the first case, source code is already available for the software, but higher-level aspects of the program, which are perhaps poorly documented or documented but no longer valid, are discovered. In the second case, there is no source code available for the software, and any efforts towards discovering one possible source code for the software are regarded as reverse engineering. The second usage of the term is more familiar to most people. Reverse engineering of software can make use of theclean room designtechnique to avoid copyright infringement.
On a related note,black box testinginsoftware engineeringhas a lot in common with reverse engineering. The tester usually has theAPIbut has the goals to find bugs and undocumented features by bashing the product from outside.[20]
Other purposes of reverse engineering include security auditing, removal of copy protection ("cracking"), circumvention of access restrictions often present inconsumer electronics, customization ofembedded systems(such as engine management systems), in-house repairs or retrofits, enabling of additional features on low-cost "crippled" hardware (such as some graphics card chip-sets), or even mere satisfaction of curiosity.
Binary reverse engineering is performed if source code for a software is unavailable.[11]This process is sometimes termedreverse code engineering, or RCE.[21]For example, decompilation of binaries for theJava platformcan be accomplished by using Jad. One famous case of reverse engineering was the first non-IBMimplementation of thePCBIOS, which launched the historicIBM PC compatibleindustry that has been the overwhelmingly-dominantcomputer hardwareplatform for many years. Reverse engineering of software is protected in the US by thefair useexception incopyright law.[22]TheSamba software, which allows systems that do not runMicrosoft Windowssystems to share files with systems that run it, is a classic example of software reverse engineering[23]since the Samba project had to reverse-engineer unpublished information about how Windows file sharing worked so that non-Windows computers could emulate it. TheWineproject does the same thing for theWindows API, andOpenOffice.orgis one party doing that for theMicrosoft Officefile formats. TheReactOSproject is even more ambitious in its goals by striving to provide binary (ABI and API) compatibility with the current Windows operating systems of the NT branch, which allows software and drivers written for Windows to run on a clean-room reverse-engineeredfree software(GPL) counterpart.WindowsSCOPEallows for reverse-engineering the full contents of a Windows system's live memory including a binary-level, graphical reverse engineering of all running processes.
Reverse engineering of software can be accomplished by various methods.
The three main groups of software reverse engineering are
Software classification is the process of identifying similarities between different software binaries (such as two different versions of the same binary) used to detect code relations between software samples. The task was traditionally done manually for several reasons (such as patch analysis for vulnerability detection andcopyright infringement), but it can now be done somewhat automatically for large numbers of samples.
This method is being used mostly for long and thorough reverse engineering tasks (complete analysis of a complex algorithm or big piece of software). In general,statistical classificationis considered to be a hard problem, which is also true for software classification, and so few solutions/tools that handle this task well.
A number ofUMLtools refer to the process of importing and analysing source code to generate UML diagrams as "reverse engineering". SeeList of UML tools.
Although UML is one approach in providing "reverse engineering" more recent advances in international standards activities have resulted in the development of theKnowledge Discovery Metamodel(KDM). The standard delivers an ontology for the intermediate (or abstracted) representation of programming language constructs and their interrelationships. AnObject Management Groupstandard (on its way to becoming an ISO standard as well),[citation needed]KDM has started to take hold in industry with the development of tools and analysis environments that can deliver the extraction and analysis of source, binary, and byte code. For source code analysis, KDM's granular standards' architecture enables the extraction of software system flows (data, control, and call maps), architectures, and business layer knowledge (rules, terms, and process). The standard enables the use of a common data format (XMI) enabling the correlation of the various layers of system knowledge for either detailed analysis (such as root cause, impact) or derived analysis (such as business process extraction). Although efforts to represent language constructs can be never-ending because of the number of languages, the continuous evolution of software languages, and the development of new languages, the standard does allow for the use of extensions to support the broad language set as well as evolution. KDM is compatible with UML, BPMN, RDF, and other standards enabling migration into other environments and thus leverage system knowledge for efforts such as software system transformation and enterprise business layer analysis.
Protocolsare sets of rules that describe message formats and how messages are exchanged: the protocolstate machine. Accordingly, the problem of protocol reverse-engineering can be partitioned into two subproblems: message format and state-machine reverse-engineering.
The message formats have traditionally been reverse-engineered by a tedious manual process, which involved analysis of how protocol implementations process messages, but recent research proposed a number of automatic solutions.[24][25][26]Typically, the automatic approaches group observe messages into clusters by using variousclustering analyses, or they emulate the protocol implementation tracing the message processing.
There has been less work on reverse-engineering of state-machines of protocols. In general, the protocol state-machines can be learned either through a process ofoffline learning, which passively observes communication and attempts to build the most general state-machine accepting all observed sequences of messages, andonline learning, which allows interactive generation of probing sequences of messages and listening to responses to those probing sequences. In general, offline learning of small state-machines is known to beNP-complete,[27]but online learning can be done in polynomial time.[28]An automatic offline approach has been demonstrated by Comparetti et al.[26]and an online approach by Cho et al.[29]
Other components of typical protocols, like encryption and hash functions, can be reverse-engineered automatically as well. Typically, the automatic approaches trace the execution of protocol implementations and try to detect buffers in memory holding unencrypted packets.[30]
Reverse engineering is an invasive and destructive form of analyzing asmart card. The attacker uses chemicals to etch away layer after layer of the smart card and takes pictures with ascanning electron microscope(SEM). That technique can reveal the complete hardware and software part of the smart card. The major problem for the attacker is to bring everything into the right order to find out how everything works. The makers of the card try to hide keys and operations by mixing up memory positions, such as by bus scrambling.[31][32]
In some cases, it is even possible to attach a probe to measure voltages while the smart card is still operational. The makers of the card employ sensors to detect and prevent that attack.[33]That attack is not very common because it requires both a large investment in effort and special equipment that is generally available only to large chip manufacturers. Furthermore, the payoff from this attack is low since other security techniques are often used such as shadow accounts. It is still uncertain whether attacks against chip-and-PIN cards to replicate encryption data and then to crack PINs would provide a cost-effective attack on multifactor authentication.
Full reverse engineering proceeds in several major steps.
The first step after images have been taken with a SEM is stitching the images together, which is necessary because each layer cannot be captured by a single shot. A SEM needs to sweep across the area of the circuit and take several hundred images to cover the entire layer. Image stitching takes as input several hundred pictures and outputs a single properly-overlapped picture of the complete layer.
Next, the stitched layers need to be aligned because the sample, after etching, cannot be put into the exact same position relative to the SEM each time. Therefore, the stitched versions will not overlap in the correct fashion, as on the real circuit. Usually, three corresponding points are selected, and a transformation applied on the basis of that.
To extract the circuit structure, the aligned, stitched images need to be segmented, which highlights the important circuitry and separates it from the uninteresting background and insulating materials.
Finally, the wires can be traced from one layer to the next, and the netlist of the circuit, which contains all of the circuit's information, can be reconstructed.
Reverse engineering is often used by people to copy other nations' technologies, devices, or information that have been obtained by regular troops in the fields or byintelligenceoperations. It was often used during theSecond World Warand theCold War. Here are well-known examples from the Second World War and later:
Reverse engineering concepts have been applied tobiologyas well, specifically to the task of understanding the structure and function ofgene regulatory networks. They regulate almost every aspect of biological behavior and allow cells to carry out physiological processes and responses to perturbations. Understanding the structure and the dynamic behavior of gene networks is therefore one of the paramount challenges of systems biology, with immediate practical repercussions in several applications that are beyond basic research.[41]
There are several methods for reverse engineering gene regulatory networks by using molecular biology and data science methods. They have been generally divided into six classes:[42]
Often, gene network reliability is tested by genetic perturbation experiments followed by dynamic modelling, based on the principle that removing one network node has predictable effects on the functioning of the remaining nodes of the network.[43]Applications of the reverse engineering of gene networks range from understanding mechanisms of plant physiology[44]to the highlighting of new targets for anticancer therapy.[45]
Reverse engineering applies primarily to gaining understanding of a process or artifact in which the manner of its construction, use, or internal processes has not been made clear by its creator.
Patenteditems do not of themselves have to be reverse-engineered to be studied, for the essence of a patent is that inventors provide a detailed public disclosure themselves, and in return receivelegal protectionof theinventionthat is involved. However, an item produced under one or more patents could also include other technology that is not patented and not disclosed. Indeed, one common motivation of reverse engineering is to determine whether a competitor's product containspatent infringementorcopyright infringement.
In the United States, even if an artifact or process is protected bytrade secrets, reverse-engineering the artifact or process is often lawful if it has been legitimately obtained.[46]
Reverse engineering ofcomputer softwareoften falls under bothcontract lawas abreach of contractas well as any other relevant laws. That is because mostend-user license agreementsspecifically prohibit it, and US courts have ruled that if such terms are present, they override the copyright law that expressly permits it (seeBowers v. Baystate Technologies[47][48]). According to Section 103(f) of theDigital Millennium Copyright Act(17 U.S.C. § 1201 (f)), a person in legal possession of a program may reverse-engineer and circumvent its protection if that is necessary to achieve "interoperability", a term that broadly covers other devices and programs that can interact with it, make use of it, and to use and transfer data to and from it in useful ways. A limited exemption exists that allows the knowledge thus gained to be shared and used for interoperability purposes.[a]
EU Directive 2009/24on the legal protection of computer programs, which superseded an earlier (1991) directive,[49]governs reverse engineering in countries of theEuropean Union.[50][b]
The unauthorised reproduction, translation, adaptation or transformation of the form of the code in which a copy of a computer program has been made available constitutes an infringement of the exclusive rights of the author. Nevertheless, circumstances may exist when such a reproduction of the code and translation of its form are indispensable to obtain the necessary information to achieve the interoperability of an independently created program with other programs. It has therefore to be considered that, in these limited circumstances only, performance of the acts of reproduction and translation by or on behalf of a person having a right to use a copy of the program is legitimate and compatible with fair practice and must therefore be deemed not to require the authorisation of the rightholder. An objective of this exception is to make it possible to connect all components of a computer system, including those of different manufacturers, so that they can work together. Such an exception to the author's exclusive rights may not be used in a way which prejudices the legitimate interests of the rightholder or which conflicts with a normal exploitation of the program.
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Dirty COW(Dirty copy-on-write) is acomputer security vulnerabilityof theLinux kernelthat affected all Linux-based operating systems, includingAndroiddevices, that used older versions of the Linux kernel created before 2018. It is a localprivilege escalationbug that exploits arace conditionin the implementation of thecopy-on-writemechanism in the kernel's memory-management subsystem. Computers and devices that still use the older kernels remain vulnerable.
The original exploit sample leveraging this vulnerability was discovered byPhil Oesterduring the investigation of a compromised machine.[1][2]The author of this sample is still unknown.
Because of the race condition, with the right timing, a local attacker can exploit the copy-on-write mechanism to turn a read-only mapping of a file into a writable mapping. Although it is a localprivilege escalation, remote attackers can use it in conjunction with other exploits that allow remote execution of non-privileged code to achieve remoteroot accesson a computer.[1]The attack itself does not leave traces in the system log.[2]
The vulnerability has theCommon Vulnerabilities and ExposuresdesignationCVE-2016-5195.[3]Dirty Cow was one of the first security issues transparently fixed in Ubuntu by the Canonical Live Patch service.[4]
It has been demonstrated that the vulnerability can be utilized torootany Android device beforeAndroid version 7(Nougat).[5]
The vulnerability has existed in the Linux kernel since version 2.6.22 released in September 2007, and there is information about it being actively exploited at least since October 2016.[2]The vulnerability has been patched in Linux kernel versions 4.8.3, 4.7.9, 4.4.26 and newer.
The patch produced in 2016 did not fully address the issue and a revised patch was released on November 27, 2017, before public dissemination of the vulnerability.[6]
The Dirty COW vulnerability has many perceived use cases including proven examples, such as obtaining root permissions in Android devices, as well as several speculated implementations. There are many binaries used in Linux which are read-only, and can only be modified or written to by a user of higher permissions, such as the root. When privileges are escalated, whether by genuine or malicious means – such as by using the Dirty COW exploit – the user can modify usually unmodifiable binaries and files. If a malicious individual could use the Dirty COW vulnerability to escalate their permissions, they could change a file, such as/bin/bash, so that it performs additional, unexpected functions, such as a keylogger. When a user starts a program which has been infected, they will inadvertently allow the malicious code to run. If the exploit targets a program which is run with root privileges, the exploit will have those same privileges.
At the dawn of its discovery, anyone using a machine running Linux was susceptible to the exploit. The exploit has no preventative work around, the only cure is a patch or running a newer version which is not vulnerable anymore.Linus Torvaldscommitted a patch on October 18, 2016, acknowledging that it was an old vulnerability he had attempted to fix eleven years prior.[7]Some distributors provide patches, such asCanonical, who provided alive patch. In the absence of a patch, there are a few mitigation technologies includingSystemTap, and very little security fromSELinuxorAppArmor. Antivirus software has the potential to detect elevated permissions attacks, but it cannot prevent the attack.[8]When given the opportunity, the safest route is to upgrade the Linux kernel to the following versions:[9][10]
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Clickjacking(classified as auser interface redress attackorUI redressing) is amalicious techniqueof tricking auserinto clicking on something different from what the user perceives, thus potentially revealingconfidentialinformation or allowing others to take control of their computer while clicking on seemingly innocuous objects, includingweb pages.[1][2][3][4][5]
Clickjacking is an instance of theconfused deputy problem, wherein a computer is tricked into misusing its authority.[6]
In 2002, it had been noted that it was possible to load a transparent layer over aweb pageand have the user's input affect the transparent layer without the user noticing.[7]However, fixes only started to trickle in around 2004,[8]and the general problem was mostly ignored as a major issue until 2008.[7]
In 2008, Jeremiah Grossman and Robert Hansen (of SecTheory) had discovered thatAdobe Flash Playerwas able to be clickjacked, allowing anattackerto gain access to a user's computer without the user's knowledge.[7]Grossman and Hansen coined the term "clickjacking",[9][10]aportmanteauof the words "click" and "hijacking".[7]
As more attacks of a similar nature were discovered, the focus of the term "UI redressing" was changed to describe the category of these attacks, rather than just clickjacking itself.[7]
One form of clickjacking takes advantage of vulnerabilities that are present in applications or web pages to allow the attacker to manipulate the user's computer for their own advantage.
For example, a clickjacked page tricks a user into performing undesired actions by clicking on concealed links. On a clickjacked page, the attackers load another page over the original page in a transparent layer to trick the user into taking actions, the outcomes of which will not be the same as the user expects. The unsuspecting users think that they are clicking visible buttons, while they are actually performing actions on the invisible page, clicking buttons of the page below the layer. The hidden page may be an authentication page; therefore, the attackers can trick users into performing actions which the users never intended. There is no way of tracing such actions to the attackers later, as the users would have been genuinely authenticated on the hidden page.
Classic clickjacking refers to a situation when anattackeruses hidden layers onweb pagesto manipulate the actions a user's cursor does, resulting in misleading the user about what truly is being clicked on.[18]
A user might receive an email with a link to a video about a news item, but another webpage, say a product page onAmazon, can be "hidden" on top or underneath the "PLAY" button of the news video. The user tries to "play" the video but actually "buys" the product from Amazon. The hacker can only send a single click, so they rely on the fact that the visitor is both logged intoAmazonand has 1-click ordering enabled.
While technical implementation of these attacks may be challenging due to cross-browser incompatibilities, a number of tools such as BeEF orMetasploit Projectoffer almost fully automated exploitation of clients on vulnerable websites. Clickjacking may be facilitated by – or may facilitate – other web attacks, such asXSS.[19][20]
Likejacking is amalicious techniqueof tricking users viewing a website into "liking" aFacebookpage or othersocial mediaposts/accounts that they did not intentionally mean to "like".[21]The term "likejacking" came from a comment posted by Corey Ballou in the articleHow to "Like" Anything on the Web (Safely),[22]which is one of the first documented postings explaining the possibility of malicious activity regarding Facebook's "like" button.[23]
According to an article inIEEE Spectrum, a solution to likejacking was developed at one of Facebook'shackathons.[24]A "Like"bookmarkletis available that avoids the possibility of likejacking present in theFacebook like button.[25]
Nested clickjacking, compared to classic clickjacking, works by embedding a malicious web frame between two frames of the original, harmlessweb page: that from the framed page and that which is displayed on the top window. This works due to a vulnerability in the HTTP headerX-Frame-Options, in which, when this element has the valueSAMEORIGIN, theweb browseronly checks the two aforementioned layers. The fact that additional frames can be added in between these two while remaining undetected means thatattackerscan use this for their benefit.
In the past, withGoogle+and the faulty version ofX-Frame-Options,attackerswere able to insert frames of their choice by using the vulnerability present inGoogle's Image Search engine. In between the image display frames, which were present in Google+ as well, these attacker-controlled frames were able to load and not be restricted, allowing for theattackersto mislead whomever came upon the image display page.[13]
CursorJacking is a UI redressing technique to change the cursor from the location the user perceives, discovered in 2010 by Eddy Bordi, a researcher at vulnerability.fr.[26]Marcus Niemietz demonstrated this with a custom cursor icon, and in 2012 Mario Heiderich did so by hiding the cursor.[27]
Jordi Chancel, a researcher at Alternativ-Testing.fr, discovered a CursorJacking vulnerability using Flash, HTML and JavaScript code in Mozilla Firefox on Mac OS X systems (fixed in Firefox 30.0) which can lead to arbitrary code execution and webcam spying.[28]
A second CursorJacking vulnerability was again discovered by Jordi Chancel inMozilla FirefoxonMac OS Xsystems (fixed in Firefox 37.0) using once againFlash,HTMLandJavaScriptcode which can also lead to spying via a webcam and the execution of a malicious addon, allowing the execution of malware on the affected user's computer.[29]
Different from other clickjacking techniques that redress a UI, MouseJack is a wireless hardware-based UI vulnerability first reported by Marc Newlin of Bastille.net in 2016 which allows external keyboard input to be injected into vulnerable dongles.[30]Logitechsupplied firmware patches but other manufacturers failed to respond to this vulnerability.[31]
In Browserless clickjacking,attackersutilize vulnerabilities in programs to replicate classic clickjacking in them, without being required to use the presence of a web browser.
This method of clickjacking is mainly prevalent among mobile devices, usually onAndroid devices, especially due to the way in whichtoast notificationswork. Becausetoast notificationshave a small delay in between the moment the notification is requested and the moment the notification actually displays on-screen,attackersare capable of using that gap to create a dummy button that lies hidden underneath the notification and can still be clicked on.[7]
CookieJacking is a form of clickjacking in which cookies are stolen from the victim'sweb browsers. This is done by tricking the user into dragging an object which seemingly appears harmless but is in fact making the user select the entire content of the cookie being targeted. From there, the attacker can acquire the cookie and all of the data that it possesses.[15][clarification needed]
In fileJacking, attackers use the web browser's capability to navigate through the computer and access computer files in order to acquire personal data. It does so by tricking the user into establishing an active file server (through the file and folder selection window that browsers use). With this, attackers can now access and take files from their victims' computers.[16]
A 2014 paper from researcher at theCarnegie Mellon Universityfound that while browsers refuse to autofill if the protocol on the current login page is different from the protocol at the time the password was saved, somepassword managerswould insecurely fill in passwords for the http version of https-saved passwords. Most managers did not protect againstiFrame- andredirection-basedattacksand exposed additional passwords wherepassword synchronizationhad been used between multiple devices.[17]
Protection against clickjacking (including likejacking) can be added toMozilla Firefoxdesktop and mobile[32]versions by installing theNoScriptadd-on: its ClearClick feature, released on 8 October 2008, prevents users from clicking on invisible or "redressed" page elements of embedded documents or applets.[33]According to Google's "Browser Security Handbook" from 2008, NoScript's ClearClick is a "freely available product that offers a reasonable degree of protection" against Clickjacking.[34]Protection from the newer cursorjacking attack was added to NoScript 2.2.8 RC1.[27]
The "NoClickjack" web browser add-on (browser extension) adds client-side clickjack protection for users ofGoogle Chrome,Mozilla Firefox,OperaandMicrosoft Edgewithout interfering with the operation of legitimate iFrames. NoClickjack is based on technology developed for GuardedID. The NoClickjack add-on is free of charge.
GuardedID (a commercial product) includes client-side clickjack protection for users of Internet Explorer without interfering with the operation of legitimate iFrames.[35]GuardedID clickjack protection forces all frames to become visible. GuardedID teams[clarification needed]with the add-on NoClickjack to add protection forGoogle Chrome,Mozilla Firefox,OperaandMicrosoft Edge.
Gazelleis aMicrosoft Researchproject secure web browser based on IE, that uses anOS-like security model and has its own limited defenses against clickjacking.[36]In Gazelle, a window of different origin may only draw dynamic content over another window's screen space if the content it draws is opaque.
The Intersection Observer v2 API[37]introduces the concept of tracking the actual "visibility" of a target element as a human being would define it.[38]This allows a framed widget to detect when it's being covered. The feature is enabled by default sinceGoogle Chrome74, released in April 2019.[39]The API is also implemented by otherChromium-basedbrowsers, such as Microsoft Edge and Opera.
Web site owners can protect their users against UI redressing (frame based clickjacking) on the server side by including aframekillerJavaScript snippet in those pages they do not want to be included inside frames from different sources.[34]
Such JavaScript-based protection is not always reliable. This is especially true on Internet Explorer,[34]where this kind of countermeasure can be circumvented "by design" by including the targeted page inside an<IFRAMESECURITY=restricted>element.[40]
Introduced in 2009 inInternet Explorer8 was a new HTTP headerX-Frame-Optionswhich offered a partial protection against clickjacking[41][42]and was adopted by other browsers (Safari,[43]Firefox,[44]Chrome,[45]andOpera[46]) shortly afterwards. The header, when set by website owner, declares its preferred framing policy: values ofDENY,ALLOW-FROMorigin, orSAMEORIGINwill prevent any framing, framing by external sites, or allow framing only by the specified site, respectively. In addition to that, some advertising sites return a non-standardALLOWALLvalue with the intention to allow framing their content on any page (equivalent of not setting X-Frame-Options at all).
In 2013 the X-Frame-Options header has been officially published as RFC 7034,[47]but is not an Internet standard. The document is provided for informational purposes only. The W3C's Content Security Policy Level 2 Recommendation provides an alternative security directive, frame-ancestors, which is intended to obsolete the X-Frame-Options header.[48]
A security header like X-Frame-Options will not protect users against clickjacking attacks that are not using a frame.[49]
Theframe-ancestorsdirective ofContent Security Policy(introduced in version 1.1) canallowor disallow embedding of content by potentially hostile pages using iframe, object, etc. This directive obsoletes the X-Frame-Options directive. If a page is served with both headers, the frame-ancestors policy should be preferred by the browser.[50]—although some popular browsers disobey this requirement.[51]
Example frame-ancestors policies:
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Atechnical support scam, ortech support scam, is a type ofscamin which a scammer claims to offer a legitimatetechnical supportservice. Victims contact scammers in a variety of ways, often through fakepop-upsresemblingerror messagesor via fake "help lines" advertised onwebsitesowned by the scammers. Technical support scammers usesocial engineeringand a variety ofconfidence tricksto persuade their victim of the presence of problems on theircomputerormobile device, such as amalwareinfection, when there are no issues with the victim's device. The scammer will then persuade the victim to pay to fix the fictitious "problems" that they claim to have found. Payment is made to the scammer viagift cardsor cryptocurrency, which are hard to trace and have fewconsumer protectionsin place.
Technical support scams have occurred as early as 2008. A 2017 study of technical support scams found that of the IPs that could be geolocated, 85% could be traced to locations inIndia, 7% to locations in theUnited Statesand 3% to locations inCosta Rica. Research into tech support scams suggests thatmillennialsand those ingeneration Zhave the highest exposure to such scams; however, senior citizens are more likely to fall for these scams and lose money to them. Technical support scams were named byNortonas the topphishingthreat toconsumersin October 2021;Microsoftfound that 60% of consumers who took part in a survey had been exposed to a technical support scam within the previous twelve months. Responses to technical support scams includelawsuitsbrought against companies responsible for running fraudulent call centres andscam baiting.
The first tech support scams were recorded in 2008.[1][2]Technical support scams have been seen in a variety of countries, including theUnited States,[3]Canada,[4]United Kingdom,[1]Ireland,[5]The Netherlands,Germany,Australia,[6][7]New Zealand,[8]India, andSouth Africa.[9][10]
A 2017 study of technical support scams published at theNDSS Symposiumfound that, of the tech support scams in which the IPs involved could begeolocated, 85% could be traced to locations in India, 7% to locations in the United States and 3% to locations in Costa Rica.[11]India has millions ofEnglish speakerswho are competing for relatively few jobs. One municipality had 114 jobs and received 19,000 applicants.[12]This high level ofunemploymentserves as an incentive for tech scamming jobs, which are often well-paid.[13]Additionally, scammers exploit the levels of unemployment by offering jobs to people desperate to be employed.[12]Many scammers do not realise they are applying and being trained for tech support scam jobs,[14]but many decide to stay after finding out the nature of their job as they feel it is too late to back out of the job and change careers.[14]Scammers are forced to choose between keeping their job or becoming jobless.[12]Some scammers convince themselves that they are targeting wealthy people that have money to spare, which justifies their theft,[14]whilst others see their job as generating "easy money".[13][14]Some scammers rationalize that the victim needs an anti-virus anyway and therefore, it is acceptable to tell the victim lies and charge them for technical support or to charge them for an anti-virus.
Technical support scams rely on social engineering to persuade victims that their device is infected with malware.[15][16]Scammers use a variety of confidence tricks to persuade the victim to installremote desktop software, with which the scammer can then take control of the victim's computer. With this access, the scammer may then launch various Windows components and utilities (such as theEvent Viewer), install third-party utilities (such asrogue security software) and perform other tasks in an effort to convince the victim that the computer has critical problems that must be remediated, such as infection with avirus. Scammers target a variety of people, though research by Microsoft suggests that millennials (defined by Microsoft as age 24-37) and people part of generation Z (age 18-23) have the highest exposure to tech support scams and theFederal Trade Commissionhas found that seniors (age 60 and over) are more likely to lose money to tech support scams.[17][18]The scammer will urge the victim to pay so the "issues" can be fixed.[1][19][20]
Technical support scams can begin in a variety of ways. Some variants of the scam are initiated using pop-up advertising on infected websites or viacybersquattingof major websites. The victim is shown pop-ups which resemble legitimate error messages such as aBlue Screen of Death[21][22][23]and freeze the victim'sweb browser.[24][25]The pop-up instructs the victim to call the scammers via a phone number to "fix the error". Technical support scams can also be initiated viacold calls. These are usuallyrobocallswhich claim to be associated with a legitimate third party such asApple Inc..[26][19]Technical support scams can also attract victims by purchasingkeyword advertisingon major search engines for phrases such as "Microsoft support". Victims who click on these adverts are taken toweb pagescontaining the scammer's phone numbers.[27][28]In some cases, mass emailing is used. The email tends to state that a certain product has been purchased using their Amazon account and contact a certain telephone number if this is an error.
Once a victim has contacted a scammer, the scammer will usually instruct them to download and install aremote access programsuch asTeamViewer,AnyDesk,LogMeInorGoToAssist.[21][29]The scammer convinces the victim to provide them with the credentials required to initiate a remote-control session, giving the scammer complete control of the victim's desktop.[1]The scammer will not tell the victim that he is using a remote control software and that the purpose is to gain access to the victim’s PC. The scammer will say "this is for connecting you to our secure server" or "I am going to give you a secure code" which in reality is just an ID number used by the remote desktop software package.
After gaining access, the scammer attempts to convince the victim that the computer is suffering from problems that must be repaired. They will use several methods to misrepresent the content and significance of common Windows tools and system directories as evidence of malicious activity, such as viruses and other malware.[21]These tricks are meant to target victims who may be unfamiliar with the actual uses of these tools, such as inexperienced users and senior citizens.[1][26][30]The scammer then coaxes the victim into paying for the scammer's services and/or software, which they claim is designed to "repair" or "clean" the computer but is either malicious or simply does nothing at all.[31]
The preferred method of payment in a technical support scam is viagift cards.[41]Gift cards are favoured by scammers because they are readily available to buy and have lessconsumer protectionsin place that could allow the victim to reclaim their money back. Additionally, the usage of gift cards as payment allows the scammers to extract money quickly whilst remaining anonymous.[42][43]Tech support scammers have also been known to ask for payment in the form ofcryptocurrency,chequesand directbank transfersmade throughautomated clearing house(the latter only gives victims 60 days to recover their funds).[44]
If a victim refuses to follow the scammer's instructions or to pay them, scammers have been known to resort to insulting[45]and threatening[46][47]their victim to procure payment. Scammers may also resort tobullying,coercion,threatsand other forms ofintimidationandpsychological abusetowards their target in an effort to undermine the victim's ability to think clearly, making them more likely to be forced further into the scam.[48]Crimes threatened to be inflicted on victims or their families by scammers have ranged fromtheft,fraudandextortion,[49]to serious crimes such asrape[50]andmurder.[45]Canadiancitizen Jakob Dulisse reported toCBCin 2019 that, upon asking a scammer who made contact with him as to why he had been targeted, the scammer responded with adeath threat; 'Anglo people who travel to the country' (India) were 'cut up in little piecesand thrown in the river.'[46][51]Scammers have also been known to lock uncooperative victims out of their computer using thesyskeyutility (present only in Windows versions previous toWindows 10)[52]or third party applications which they install on the victim's computer,[49][53][54]and to delete documents and/or programs essential to the operation of the victim's computer if they do not receive payment.[32]On Windows 10 and 11, since Microsoft removed the syskey utility, scammers will change the user’s account password. The scammer will open the Control Panel, go into user settings and click on change password, and the scammer will ask the user to type in his password in the old password field. The scammer will then create a password that only he knows and will reboot the computer. The user won’t be able to log into his PC unless he pays the scammer.
Microsoftcommissioned a survey byYouGovacross 16 countries in July 2021 to research tech support scams and their impact on consumers. The survey found that approximately 60% of consumers who participated had been exposed to a technical support scam within the last 12 months.[16]Victims reported losing an average of 200USDto the scammers and many faced repeated interactions from other scammers once they had been successfully scammed.[16]Nortonnamed technical support scams as the top phishing threat to consumers in October 2021, having blocked over 12.3 million tech support scamURLsbetween July and September 2021.[55]
Legal action has been taken against some companies carrying out technical support scams.[56]In December 2014, Microsoft filed a lawsuit against aCalifornia-based company operating such scams for "misusing Microsoft's name and trademarks" and "creating security issues for victims by gaining access to their computers and installing malicious software, including a password grabber that could provide access to personal and financial information".[57]In December 2015, thestate of Washingtonsued the firmiYogifor scamming consumers and making false claims in order to scare the users into buying iYogi's diagnostic software.[58]iYogi was also accused of falsely claiming that they were affiliated with Microsoft,Hewlett-PackardandApple.[59]
In September 2011, Microsoft dropped gold partner Comantra from itsMicrosoft Partner Networkfollowing accusations of involvement in cold-call technical-support scams.[60]However, the ease with which companies that carry out technical support scams can be launched makes it difficult to prevent tech support scams from taking place.[61]
Major search engines such asBingandGooglehave taken steps to restrict the promotion of fake technical support websites through keyword advertising.[62][63]Microsoft-ownedadvertising networkBing Ads(which services ad sales on Bing andYahoo! Searchengines)[64]amended its terms of service in May 2016 to prohibit the advertising of third-party technical support services or ads claiming to "provide a service that can only be provided by the actual owner of the products or service advertised".[62][63]Google announced a verification program in 2018 in an attempt to restrict advertising for third-party tech support to legitimate companies.[65]
Tech support scammers are regularly targeted byscam baiting,[45]with individuals seeking to raise awareness of these scams by uploading recordings on platforms likeYouTube, cause scammers inconvenience by wasting their time and protect potential victims. A good example of this is the YouTube communityScammer Payback.[66][67]
Advanced scam baiters may infiltrate the scammer's computer, and potentially disable it by deployingremote access trojans,distributed denial of service attacksand destructive malware.[68]Scam baiters may also attempt to lure scammers into exposing their unethical practices by leaving dummy files or malware disguised as confidential information[69]such as credit/debit card information and passwords on avirtual machine, which the scammer may attempt to steal, only to become infected.[45]Sensitive information important to carrying out further investigations by alaw enforcement agencymay be retrieved, and additional information on the rogue firm may then be posted or compiled online to warn potential victims.[69]
In March 2020, an anonymous YouTuber under the aliasJim Browningsuccessfully infiltrated and gathereddroneandCCTVfootage of a fraudulent call centre scam operation through the help of fellow YouTube personalityKarl Rock. Through the aid of the British documentary programmePanorama, a police raid was carried out when the documentary was brought to the attention of assistant police commissioner Karan Goel,[70]leading to the arrest of call centre operator Amit Chauhan who also operated a fraudulenttravel agencyunder the name "Faremart Travels".[71]
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Watering holeis acomputer attackstrategy in which an attacker guesses or observes which websites an organization often uses and infects one or more of them withmalware. Eventually, some member of the targeted group will become infected.[1][2][3]Hacks looking for specific information may only attack users coming from a specificIP address. This also makes the hacks harder to detect and research.[4]The name is derived from predators in the natural world, who wait for an opportunity to attack their prey nearwatering holes.[5]
One of the most significant dangers of watering hole attacks is that they are executed via legitimate websites that are unable to be easily blacklisted. Also, the scripts and malware used in these attacks are often meticulously created, making it challenging for an antivirus software to identify them as threats.[6]
Websites are often infected throughzero-dayvulnerabilities on browsers or other software.[4]A defense against known vulnerabilities is to apply the latest software patches to remove the vulnerability that allowed the site to be infected. This is assisted by users to ensure that all of their software is running the latest version. An additional defense is for companies to monitor their websites and networks and then block traffic if malicious content is detected.[7]Other defense techniques include utilizing complex passwords and passkeys to access websites as well as biometric information to protect data from attacks. Utilizing web injections such asfirewallsor downloadinganti-virus softwareon to devices can also protect from attacks.[8]Additionally, websites can enhance protection by disabling or removing vulnerable software, such as Flash and Adobe Reader, which are commonly targeted in cyber attacks.
In December 2012, theCouncil on Foreign Relationswebsite was found to be infected with malware through a zero-day vulnerability in Microsoft'sInternet Explorer. In this attack, the malware was only deployed to users using Internet Explorer set to English, Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Russian.[13]
Havexwas discovered in 2013 and is one of five knownIndustrial Control System(ICS) tailored malware developed in the past decade.Energetic Bearbegan utilizing Havex in a widespread espionage campaign targeting energy, aviation, pharmaceutical, defense, and petrochemical sectors. The campaign targeted victims primarily in the United States and Europe.[14]Havexexploited supply chain and watering-hole attacks on ICS vendor software in addition to spear phishing campaigns to gain access to victim systems.[15]
In mid-early 2013, attackers used theUnited States Department of Laborwebsite to gather information on users that visited the website. This attack specifically targeted users visiting pages with nuclear-related content.[16]
In late 2016, a Polish bank discovered malware on the institution's computers. It is believed that the source of this malware was theweb serverof thePolish Financial Supervision Authority. There have been no reports on any financial losses as a result of this[17]
There was an organization-level watering-hole attack in Montreal from 2016-2017 by an unknown entity causing a data breach.[18]
From August to September 2017, the installation binary ofCCleanerdistributed by the vendor's download servers included malware. CCleaner is a popular tool used to clean potentially unwanted files from Windows computers, widely used by security-minded users. The distributed installer binaries were signed with the developer's certificate making it likely that an attacker compromised the development or build environment and used this to insert malware.[19][20]
In June 2017, theNotPetya(also known as ExPetr) malware, believed to have originated in Ukraine, compromised a Ukrainian government website. Theattack vectorwas from users of the site downloading it. The malware erases the contents of victims' hard drives.[21]
There was a country-level watering-hole attack in China from late 2017 into March 2018, by the group "LuckyMouse" also known as "Iron Tiger", "EmissaryPanda", "APT27" and "Threat Group-3390."[22]
In 2019, a watering-hole attack, called Holy Water Campaign, targeted Asian religious and charity groups.[23]Victims were prompted to updateAdobe Flashwhich triggered the attack. It was creative and distinct due to its fast evolution.[24]The motive remains unclear.[24]Experts provided a detailed technical analysis along with a long list of Indicators of Compromise (IoCs) involved in the campaign, but none could be traced back to an Advanced Persistent Threat.[25]
In the U.S. a joint civil suit filed by theAmerican Civil Liberties Union(ACLU),Civil Liberties and Transparency Clinic, andPrivacy Internationalagainst various branches of the U.S. Government alleged that the U.S. government had been using watering hole attacks in a new mass invasion of privacy of ordinary citizens. Further, the nature of the civil suit was a failure to comport relevant documents as part of a FOIA request to the various agencies.ACLU and Privacy International et al v. United States Agenciesdocket available onCourtlistener.com
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Thepoint of sale(POS) orpoint of purchase(POP) is the time and place at which a retail transaction is completed. At the point of sale, themerchantcalculates the amount owed by thecustomer, indicates that amount, may prepare aninvoicefor the customer (which may be a cash register printout), and indicates the options for the customer to make payment. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue areceipt, as proof of transaction, which is usually printed but can also be dispensed with or sent electronically.[1][2][3]
To calculate the amount owed by a customer, the merchant may use various devices such asweighing scales,barcodescanners, andcash registers(or the more advanced "POS cash registers", which are sometimes also called "POS systems"[4][5]). To make a payment,payment terminals, touch screens, and other hardware and software options are available.
The point of sale is often referred to as the point of service because it is not just a point of sale but also a point of return or customer order. POS terminal software may also include features for additional functionality, such asinventory management,CRM, financials, orwarehousing.
Businesses are increasingly adopting POS systems, and one of the most obvious and compelling reasons is that a POS system eliminates the need forprice tags. Selling prices are linked to theproduct codeof an item when adding stock, so the cashier merely scans this code to process a sale. If there is a price change, this can also be easily done through the inventory window. Other advantages include the ability to implement various types of discounts, a loyalty scheme for customers, and more efficient stock control. These features are typical of almost all modern ePOS systems.
Retailers and marketers will often refer to the area around the checkout instead as thepoint of purchase(POP) when they are discussing it from the customer's perspective. This is particularly the case when planning and designing the area as well as when considering amarketing strategyand offers.
Some point of sale vendors refer to their POS system as "retail management system" which is a more appropriate term, since this software is not just for processing sales but comes with many other capabilities, such as inventory management, membership systems, supplier records, bookkeeping, issuing of purchase orders, quotations and stock transfers, hide barcode label creation, sale reporting and in some cases remote outlet networking or linkage, to name some major ones.
Nevertheless, it is the termPOS systemrather thanretail management systemthat is in vogue among both end-users and vendors.
The basic, fundamental definition of a POS System is a system which allows the processing and recording of transactions between a company and its consumers, at the time in which goods and/or services are purchased.
Early electroniccash registers(ECR) were controlled with proprietary software and were limited in function and communication capability. In August 1973, IBM released the IBM 3650 and 3660 store systems that were, in essence, a mainframe computer used as a store controller that could control up to 128 IBM 3653/3663 point of sale registers. This system was the first commercial use of client-server technology,peer-to-peercommunications,local area network(LAN) simultaneous backup, and remote initialization. By mid-1974, it was installed inPathmarkstores in New Jersey andDillard'sdepartment stores.
One of the first microprocessor-controlled cash register systems was built by William Brobeck and Associates in 1974, forMcDonald's Restaurants.[6]It used theIntel 8008, an early microprocessor (forerunner to theIntel 8088processor used in the originalIBM Personal Computer). Each station in the restaurant had its own device which displayed the entire order for a customer — for example, [2] Vanilla Shake, [1] Large Fries, [3]Big Mac— using numeric keys and a button for every menu item. By pressing the [Grill] button, a second or third order could be worked on while the first transaction was in progress. When the customer was ready to pay, the [Total] button would calculate the bill, including sales tax for almost any jurisdiction in the United States. This made it accurate for McDonald's and very convenient for the servers and provided the restaurant owner with a check on the amount that should be in the cash drawers. Up to eight devices were connected to one of two interconnected computers so that printed reports, prices, and taxes could be handled from any desired device by putting it intoManager Mode. In addition to the error-correcting memory, accuracy was enhanced by having three copies of all important data with many numbers stored only as multiples of 3. Should one computer fail, the other could handle the entire store.
In 1986,Gene Mosherintroduced the first graphical point of sale software[7]featuring atouchscreeninterface under the ViewTouch[8]trademark on the 16-bitAtari 520STcolor computer.[9]It featured a colortouchscreenwidget-driven interface that allowed configuration of widgets representing menu items without low level programming.[10]The ViewTouch point of sale software was first demonstrated in public at Fall Comdex, 1986,[11]in Las Vegas, Nevada, to large crowds visiting the Atari Computer booth. This was the first commercially available POS system with a widget-driven color graphic touch screen interface and was installed in several restaurants in the US and Canada.
In 1986,IBMintroduced its468xseries of POS equipment based onDigital Research'sConcurrent DOS 286andFlexOS1.xx, a modular real-time multi-tasking multi-user operating system.
A wide range of POS applications have been developed on platforms such as Windows and Unix. The availability of local processing power, local data storage, networking, and graphical user interface made it possible to develop flexible and highly functional POS systems. Cost of such systems has also declined, as all the components can now be purchased off-the-shelf.
In 1993, IBM adoptedFlexOS 2.32as the basis of theirIBM 4690 OSin their 469x series of POS terminals. This was developed up to 2014 when it was sold toToshiba, who continued to support it up to at least 2017.
With increased options for commodity hardware and a more competitive market, the 1990s saw increased attention paid to the user interaction between store employees and POS systems.Touchscreensand larger displays became widely available in the 1990s, offering an alternative to limited displays like two-line VFDs used in theIBM 4683. The performance of the employees using the POS devices, a controllable cost for the business, depends upon the ease of learning, ease of use, and level of employee experience with it. Although experienced employees work more quickly withmechanically keyed entry,[12]some systems favoured adoptingGUItechnology for ease of learning or for ergonomic factors.[13]
The key requirements that must be met by modern POS systems include high and consistent operating speed, reliability, ease of use, remote supportability, low cost, and rich functionality. Retailers can reasonably expect to acquire such systems (including hardware) for about $4000 US (as of 2009) per checkout lane.
Reliability depends not wholly on the developer but at times on the compatibility between a database and an OS version. For example, the widely usedMicrosoft Accessdatabase system had a compatibility issue when Windows XP machines were updated to a newer version of Windows. Microsoft offered no immediate solution. Some businesses were severely disrupted in the process, and many downgraded back to Windows XP for a quick resolution. Other companies utilized community support, for a registry tweak solution has been found for this.[14][unreliable source]
POS systems are one of the most complex software systems available because of the features that are required by different end users. Many POS systems are software suites that include sale, inventory, stock counting, vendor ordering, customer loyalty and reporting modules. Sometimes purchase ordering, stock transferring, quotation issuing, barcode creating, bookkeeping or even accounting capabilities are included. Each of these modules is interlinked if they are to serve their practical purpose and maximize their usability.
For instance, the sale window is immediately updated on a new member entry through the membership window because of this interlinking. Similarly, when a sale transaction is made, any purchase by a member is on record for the membership window to report providing information like payment type, goods purchased, date of purchase and points accumulated. Comprehensive analysis performed by a POS machine may need to process several qualities about a single product, like selling price, balance, average cost, quantity sold, description and department. Highly complex programming is involved (and possibly considerable computer resources) to generate such extensive analyses.
POS systems are designed not only to serve the retail, wholesale and hospitality industries as historically is the case. Currently POS systems are also used in goods and property leasing businesses, equipment repair shops, healthcare management, ticketing offices such as cinemas and sports facilities and many other operations where capabilities such as the following are required: processing monetary transactions, allocation and scheduling of facilities, keeping record and scheduling services rendered to customers, tracking of goods and processes (repair or manufacture), invoicing and tracking of debts and outstanding payments.
Different customers have different expectations within each trade. The reporting functionality alone is subject to so many demands, especially from those in the retail/wholesale industry. To cite special requirements, some business's goods may include perishables and hence the inventory system must be capable of prompting the admin and cashier on expiring or expired products. Some retail businesses require the system tostore creditfor their customers, credit which can be used subsequently to pay for goods. A few companies expect the POS system to behave like a full-fledgedinventory managementsystem, including the ability to provide FIFO (First In First Out) and LIFO (Last In First Out), reports of their goods foraccountingand tax purposes.
In thehospitality industry, POS system capabilities can also diverge significantly. For instance, a restaurant is typically concerned about how the sale window functions: whether it has functionality such as creating item buttons, various discounts, adding a service charge, holding of receipts, queuing, table service as well as takeaways, merging and splitting of a receipt. These capabilities may be insufficient for a spa or slimming center which would require, in addition, a scheduling window with historical records of customers' attendance and their special requirements.
A POS system can be made to serve different purposes to different end users depending on their business processes. Often an off-the-shelf POS system is inadequate for customers. Some customization is required, and this is why a POS system can become very complex. The complexity of a mature POS system extends to remote networking or interlinking between remote outlets and the HQ such that updating both ways is possible. Some POS systems offer the linking of web-based orders to their sale window. Even when local networking is only required (as in the case of a high-traffic supermarket), there is the ever-present challenge for the developer to keep most if not all of their POS stations running. This puts high demand not just on software coding but also designing the whole system covering how individual stations and the network work together, and special consideration for the performance capability and usage of databases. Due to such complexity, bugs and errors encountered in POS systems are frequent.[15]
With regard to databases, POS systems are very demanding on their performance because of numerous submissions and retrievals of data - required for correct sequencing the receipt number, checking various discounts, membership, calculating subtotal, so forth - just to process a single sale transaction. The immediacy required of the system on the sale window such as may be observed at a checkout counter in a supermarket cannot be compromised. This places much stress on individual enterprise databases if there are just several tens of thousands of sale records in the database. Enterprise database Microsoft SQL Server, for example, has been known to freeze up (including the OS) entirely for many minutes under such conditions showing a "Timeout Expired" error message. Even a lighter database like Microsoft Access will slow to a crawl over time if the problem of database bloating is not foreseen and managed by the system automatically. Therefore, the need to do extensive testing,debuggingand improvisation of solutions to preempt failure of a database before commercial implementation complicates the development.
POS system accuracy is demanding, given that monetary transactions are involved continuously not only via the sale window but also at the back end through the receiving and inputting of goods into the inventory. Calculations required are not always straightforward. There may be many discounts and deals that are unique to specific products, and the POS machine must quickly process the differences and the effect on pricing. There is much complexity in the programming of such operations, especially when no error in calculation can be allowed.
Other requirements include that the system must have functionality for membership discount and points accumulation/usage, quantity and promotional discounts, mix and match offers, cash rounding up, invoice/delivery-order issuance with outstanding amount. It should enable a user to adjust the inventory of each product based on physical count, track expiry of perishable goods, change pricing, provide audit trail when modification of inventory records is performed, be capable of multiple outlet functionality, control of stocks from HQ, doubling as an invoicing system, just to name some.
It is clear that POS system is a term that implies a wide range of capabilities depending on the end-user requirements. POS system review websites cannot be expected to cover most let alone all the features. Unless one is a developer, it is unrealistic to expect the reviewer to know all the aspects of a POS system. For instance, a POS system might work smoothly on a test database during the review but not when the database grows significantly in size over months of usage. And this is only one among many hidden critical functionality issues of a POS system.
Vendors and retailers are working to standardize development of computerized POS systems and simplify interconnecting POS devices. Two such initiatives wereOPOSandJavaPOS, both of which conform to theUnifiedPOSstandard led byThe National Retail Foundation.
OPOS(OLEfor POS) was the first commonly adopted standard and was created byMicrosoft,NCR Corporation,EpsonandFujitsu-ICL. OPOS is aCOM-based interface compatible with all COM-enabledprogramming languagesforMicrosoft Windows. OPOS was first released in 1996.JavaPOSwas developed bySun Microsystems,IBM, andNCR Corporationin 1997 and first released in 1999. JavaPOS is forJavawhat OPOS is for Windows, and thus largely platform independent.
There are nearly as many proprietary protocols as there are companies making POS peripherals. Most POS peripherals, such as displays and printers, support several of these command protocols to work with many different brands of POS terminals and computers.
The design of the sale window is the most important one for the user. Thisuser interfaceis highly critical when compared to those in other software packages such as word editors or spreadsheet programs where the speed of navigation is not so crucial for business performance.
For businesses at prime locations where real estate is at a premium, it can be common to see a queue of customers. The faster a sale is completed the shorter the queue time which improves customer satisfaction, the less space it takes, which benefits shoppers and staff. High-traffic operations such as grocery outlets and cafes need to process sales quickly at the sales counter so the UI flow is often designed with as few popups or other interruptions to ensure the operator isn't distracted and the transaction can be processed as quickly as possible.
Although improving theergonomicsis possible, a clean, fast-paced look may come at the expense of sacrificing functions that are often wanted by end-users such as discounts, access to commission earned screens, membership and loyalty schemes can involve looking at a different function of the POS to ensure the point of sale screen contains only what a cashier needs at their disposal to serve customers.
The advent ofcloud computinghas given birth to the possibility of electronic point of sale (EPOS) systems[16]to be deployed assoftware as a service, which can be accessed directly from theInternetusing aweb browser. Using the previous advances in the communication protocols for POS's control of hardware, cloud-based POS systems are independent from platform and operating system limitations. EPOS systems based in the cloud (most small-business POS today) are generally subscription-based, which includes ongoing customer support.[17]
Compared to regularcash registers(which tend to be significantly cheaper but only process sales and prints receipts), POS systems include automatic updating of the inventory library stock levels when selling products, real-time reports accessible from a remote computer, staff timesheets and a customer library with loyalty features.[18][clarification needed][clarification needed]
Cloud-based POS systems are also created to be compatible with a wide range of POS hardware and sometimes tablets such as Apple'siPad. Thus cloud-based POS also helped expand POS systems tomobile devices, such astablet computersorsmartphones.[19]
These devices can also act asbarcode readersusing a built-in camera and aspayment terminalsusing built-inNFCtechnology or an external payment card reader. A number of POS companies built their software specifically to be cloud-based. Other businesses who launched pre-2000s have since adapted their software to evolving technology.
Cloud-based POS systems are different from traditional POS largely because user data, including sales and inventory, are not stored locally, but in a remote server. The POS system is also not run locally, so there is no installation required.
Depending on the POS vendor and the terms of contract, compared to traditional on-premises POS installation, the software is more likely to be continually updated by the developer with more useful features and better performance in terms of computer resources at the remote server and in terms of fewer bugs and errors.
Other advantages of a cloud-based POS are instant centralization of data (important especially to chain stores), ability to access data from anywhere there is internet connection, and lower start-up costs.[20]
Cloud based POS requires an internet connection. For this reason it important to use a device with3Gconnectivity in case the device's primary internet goes down. In addition to being significantly less expensive than traditional legacy point of sale systems, a notable strength of cloud-based point of sale systems is the ability to switch to a different product, by a different developer, without having to purchase new hardware. The many developers creating new software applications help to ensure that the system is supported for longer than a typical legacy POS system.
A number of noted emerging cloud-based POS systems came on the scene less than a decade or even half a decade back. These systems are usually designed for restaurants, small and medium-sized retail operations with fairly simple sale processes as can be culled from POS system review sites. It appears from such software reviews that enterprise-level cloud-based POS systems are currently lacking in the market. "Enterprise-level" here means that the inventory should be capable of handling a large number of records, such as required by grocery stores and supermarkets. It can also mean that the system software and cloud server must be capable of generating reports such as analytics of sale against inventory for both a single and multiple outlets that are interlinked for administration by the headquarters of the business operation.
POS vendors of such cloud based systems should also have a strong contingency plan for the breakdown of their remote server such as represented by fail-over server support. Sometimes a major data center can fail completely, such as in a fire.[21]On-premises installations are therefore sometimes seen alongside cloud-based implementation to preempt such incidents, especially for businesses with high traffic. The on-premises installations may not have the most up-to-date inventory and membership information.
For such contingency, a more innovative though highly complex approach for the developer is to have a trimmed down version of the POS system installed on the cashier computer at the outlet. On a daily basis the latest inventory and membership information from the remote server is automatically updated into the local database. Thus should the remote server fail, the cashier can switch over to the local sale window without disrupting sales. When the remote server is restored and the cashier switches over to the cloud system, the locally processed sale records are then automatically submitted to the remote system, thus maintaining the integrity of the remote database.
Although cloud-based POS systems save the end-user startup cost and technical challenges in maintaining an otherwise on-premises installation, there is a risk that if the cloud-based vendor closes down it may result in more immediate termination of services for the end-user compared to the case of a traditional full on-premises POS system where it can still run without the vendor.
Another consideration is that a cloud-based POS system actually exposes business data to service providers - the hosting service company and the POS vendor which have access to both the application and database. The importance of securing critical business information such as supplier names, top selling items, customer relationship processes cannot be underestimated given that sometimes the few key success factors or trade secrets of a business are actually accessible through the POS system. This security and privacy concern is an ongoing issue incloud computing.
The retail industry is one of the predominant users of POS terminals. The POS interface at a retail establishment varies greatly depending on the industry and owner of the retailer, but usually includes acash register(typically a specialized x86-based computer runningWindows EmbeddedorLinux), a method for employee input, cash drawer,receipt printer,barcode scanners(which may incorporate a scale), and an interface for processing Card payments and Processing Customer Information (aPayment Terminal). It can also include aconveyor belt,checkout divider, wireless handheld scanners, integrated card processing systems, and customer-facing displays to display totals and show advertisements. While some systems use typicalPCinterfaces (such as a keyboard & mouse), it is far more common to utilizetouchscreensas they allow for faster response and better customization for the retailer. In the past, mostIBMsystems used a primarily keyboard-based interface, andNCRpreviously used side-keys on their displays before touchscreens were widely available, similar to their ATM products.
The POS system software can typically handle a myriad of customer based functions such as sales, returns, exchanges, layaways,gift cards, gift registries, customer loyalty programs, promotions, discounts and much more. POS software can also allow for functions such as pre-planned promotional sales, manufacturer coupon validation, foreign currency handling and multiple payment types.
The POS unit handles the sales to the consumer, but it is only one part of the entire POS system used in a retail business. The controlling servers, or "Back-office" computers, typically handle other functions of the POS system such as inventory control, pricing, purchasing, receiving and transferring of products to and from other locations. Other typical functions of a POS system are: store sales information for enabling customer returns, reporting purposes, sales trends and cost/price/profit analysis. Customer information may be stored for receivables management, marketing purposes and specific buying analysis. Many retail POS systems include an accounting interface that "feeds" sales and product losses, cash drawer expected totals, and cashier productivity information to independent accounting applications.
A multi-terminal POS system used by big retailers like supermarkets and department stores has a far more demanding database and software architecture than that of a single station seen in small retail outlets. A supermarket with high traffic cannot afford a systemic failure, hence each point of sale station is designed to be robust in its operation. Most proprietary POS systems designed for large retailers use 2 servers, with one acting as a backup in case of failure. In the event that both servers fail, the individual POS systems will enter a failsafe mode, where sales data is stored locally and exported back to the servers upon a return of the connection. This may prove challenging to implement in some instances however, as many commercial POS systems do not have anyhard disksfor security purposes, and often have limited amounts ofRAM.
Performing updates between multiple stations and the back end administrative computer should be redundant, so that updates to inventory and promotions will be accurately reflected at checkout without having to restart the computer, and reflecting accurate sales records to the back-end computer at the end of the business day.
This gets even more complicated when there is a membership system requiring real-time two-way updating of membership points between sale stations and the back end administrative computer.
Retail operations such as hardware stores, lumber yards, electronics stores and so-called multifaceted superstores need specialized additional features compared to other stores. POS software in these cases handles special orders, purchase orders, repair orders, service and rental programs as well as typical point of sale functions. Rugged hardware is required for point of sale systems used in outdoor environments. Wireless devices, battery powered devices, all-in-one units, and Internet-ready machines are typical in this industry.
Recently new applications have been introduced, enabling POS transactions to be conducted using mobile phones and tablets. According to a recent study, mobile POS (mPOS) terminals are expected to replace the contemporary payment techniques because of various features including mobility, upfront low cost investment and better user experience.[22]
In the mid-2000s, the blind community in the United States engaged in structured negotiations to ensure that retail point of sale devices had tactile keypads. Without keys that can be felt, a blind person cannot independently enter his or her PIN. In the mid-2000s retailers began using "flat screen" or "signature capture" devices that eliminated tactile keypads. Blind people were forced to share their confidential PIN with store clerks to use their debit and other PIN-based cards. The blind community reached agreement with Walmart, Target, CVS and eight other retailers that required real physical keys so blind people could use the devices.
Early stores typically kept merchandise behind a counter. Staff would fetch items for customers to prevent the opportunity for theft and sales would be made at the same counter. Self-service grocery stores such asPiggly Wiggly, beginning in 1916, allowed customers to fetch their own items and pass the point of sale enroute to the exit.
Modern stores have a variety of checkout configurations, but almost all stores will have their main checkout area situated close to the entrance/exits. Smaller stores may utilize simple counters, while big-box stores will typically use a conveyor belt system spaced out in separate "lanes" to process orders. Express lanes might limit the type of payment, or number or type of goods, to expedite service. Some department stores may also have checkouts inside of the departments to allow shoppers of that section to pay without going through the main lines. If each checkout station has a separate queue, customers have to guess which line will move the fastest, to minimize their wait times. They are often frustrated to be wrong or be stuck behind another customer who encounters a problem or who takes excessive time to check out. Some stores use a single, much longer but faster-moving line, that is served by multiple registers, which produces the same average wait time, but reduces the frustration and variance in wait time from person to person.[23]Regardless of the configuration, checkout lines usually pass byimpulse buyitems to grab the attention of otherwise idle customers.
Asself-checkouttechnology has progressed, more retailers of all types have included self-checkout as an option, andin some cases, completely replace traditional cashier-operated checkout lines. Self-checkout kiosks are typically kept together in a 'corral' area adjacent to the regular registers so that shop employees can more easily monitor transactions, though they are also occasionally set up in a more typical "lane" fashion with conveyor belts for loading groceries. More modern implementations of self-checkout include scanning items and paying within a retailer's mobile app, or usingRF technologyand cameras to detect items at the door and charge the customer's account automatically.
Hospitality point of sale systems are computerized systems incorporating registers, computers and peripheral equipment, usually on a computer network to be used in restaurants, hair salons or hotels. Like other point of sale systems, these systems track sales, labor, payroll and can generate records used inaccountingandbookkeeping. They may be accessed remotely by restaurant corporate offices, troubleshooters and other authorized parties.
Point of sale systems have revolutionized the restaurant industry, particularly in the fast food sector. In the most recent technologies, registers are computers, sometimes with touch screens. The registers connect to a server, often referred to as a "store controller" or a "central control unit". Printers and monitors are also found on the network. Additionally, remote servers can connect to store networks and monitor sales and other store data.
Typical restaurant POS software is able to create and print guest checks, print orders to kitchens and bars for preparation, processcredit cardsand other payment cards, and run reports. In addition, some systems implement wireless pagers and electronic signature-capture devices.
In thefast foodindustry, displays may be at the front counter, or configured for drive-through or walk-through cashiering and order taking. Front counter registers allow taking and serving orders at the same terminal, while drive-through registers allow orders to be taken at one or more drive-through windows, to be cashiered and served at another. In addition to registers, drive-through and kitchen displays are used to view orders. Once orders appear they may be deleted or recalled by the touch interface or by bump bars. Drive-through systems are often enhanced by the use of drive-through wireless (or headset) intercoms. The efficiency of such systems allows decreased service times and increased efficiency of orders.
Another innovation in technology for the restaurant industry is wireless POS. Many restaurants with high volume use wireless handheld POS to collect orders which are sent to a server. The server sends required information to the kitchen in real time. Wireless systems consist of drive-through microphones and speakers (often one speaker will serve both purposes), which are wired to a "base station" or "center module." This, in turn, will broadcast to headsets. Headsets may be an all-in-one headset, or one connected to a belt pack.
With the development of the mobile technology, Cloud-based POS systems are also put forward to increase the efficiency of some restaurants, integrated with some latest software services such as scan QR code to order by customers themselves. It leads to a new style of offline restaurants dine-in.
In hotels, POS software allows for transfer of meal charges from dining room to guest room with a button or two. It may also need to be integrated with property management software.
Newer, more sophisticated systems are departing from the central database "file server" type system and going to what is called a "cluster database". This eliminates any crashing or system downtime that can be associated with the back office file server. This technology allows 100% of the information to not only be stored, but also pulled from the local terminal, thus eliminating the need to rely on a separate server for the system to operate.
Tablet POS systems popular for retail solutions are now available for the restaurant industry. Initially these systems were not sophisticated and many of the early systems did not support a remote printer in the kitchen. Tablet systems today are being used in all types of restaurants including table service operations. Most tablet systems upload all information to the Internet so managers and owners can view reports from anywhere with a password and Internet connection. Smartphone Internet access has made alerts and reports from the POS very accessible. Tablets have helped create the Mobile POS system, and Mobile POS applications also include payments, loyalty, online ordering, table side ordering by staff and table top ordering by customers. Regarding the payments, mobile POS can accept all kinds of payment methods from contactless cards,EMVchip-enabled cards, and mobile NFC enabled cards. Mobile POS (AKA mPOS) is growing quickly with new developers entering the market almost on a daily basis.
With the proliferation of low-priced touchscreen tablet computers, more restaurants have implemented self-ordering through a tablet POS placed permanently on every table. Customers can browse through the menu on the tablet and place their orders which are then sent to the kitchen. Most restaurants that have iPad self-order menus include photos of the dishes so guests can easily choose what they want to order. This apparently improves service and saves manpower on the part of the restaurant. However this depends on how intelligently the system has been programmed to be.
As a case in point, some self-ordering systems not requiring staff assistance may not properly recognize a subsequent order from the same customer at a table. As a result, the customer is left waiting and wondering why his second order of food and drink is not being served.
Another example of how intelligent the system can be, is whether an order that has been placed but not yet been processed by the kitchen can be modified by the customer through the tablet POS. For such an unprocessed order the customer should be given the option to easily retrieve the order and modify it on the tablet POS. When the order is being processed this function should be automatically disabled.
Self-ordering systems are not always free completely from intervention by the staff and for some good reasons. For example, some restaurants require that items selected by the customers be attended to and can only be placed by the waiter who has the password required to do so. This prevents fake orders - such as may be entered by playful kids - and subsequent dispute on the items ordered. If alcoholic beverages are ordered, it is necessary for the waiter to verify the customer's age before sending the order.
The technical specifications for implementing such self-ordering system are more demanding than a single cashier-controlled POS station. On the software and hardware side each tablet on a customer table has to be networked to the cashier POS station and the kitchen computer so that both are continually updated on orders placed. The common database that serves this network must also be capable of serving many concurrent users - cashier, customers, kitchen and perhaps a drink bar.
Some databases such as popularly-used Microsoft Access may have the specifications that it is capable of usage by multiple concurrent users.[citation needed]However, under the stress of a POS system, they can fail miserably resulting in constant errors and corruption of data.[citation needed]
POS systems are often designed for a variety of clients, and can be programmed by the end users to suit their needs. Some large clients write their own specifications for vendors to implement. In some cases, POS systems are sold and supported by third-party distributors, while in other cases they are sold and supported directly by the vendor.
The selection of a restaurant POS system is critical to the restaurant's daily operation and is a major investment that the restaurant's management and staff must endure for many years. The restaurant POS system interfaces with all phases of the restaurant operation, and with everyone that is involved with the restaurant including guests, suppliers, employees, managers and owners. The selection of a restaurant POS system is a complex process that should be undertaken by the restaurant owner and not delegated to an employee. The purchase process can be summarized in three steps: Design, Compare and Negotiate. The Design step requires research to determine which restaurant POS features are needed for the restaurant operation. With this information the restaurant owner or manager can Compare various restaurant POS solutions to determine which POS systems meet their requirements. The final step is to Negotiate the price, payment terms, included training, initial warranty and ongoing support costs.[citation needed]
POS systems record sales for business and tax purposes. Illegal software dubbed "zappers" can be used on POS devices to falsify these records with a view to evading the payment of taxes.
In some countries, legislation is being introduced to make cash register systems more secure. For example, the French treasury is estimated to be failing to collect approximately €14 billion of VAT revenue each year. The Finance Bill of 2016 was intended to address some of this loss by making it compulsory for taxpayers to operate on "secure systems". Therefore, from 1 January 2018, all retail businesses in France are required to record customer payments using certified secure accounting software or cash register systems.
A certified cash register system must provide for the (i) incommutable,[clarification needed](ii) security and (iii) storage and archiving of data. All businesses required to comply must obtain a certificate from the cash register system provider which certifies that the system meets these requirements. This is because VAT taxpayers may need to provide a certificate to the tax authorities showing that their cash management system fulfills the new requirements.
If the business cannot provide this certificate to the tax authorities, they may be fined. And, if the tax authorities can demonstrate fraudulent use of the system, both the business and the software provider can face tax penalties, fines, and criminal sanctions. Certification can be obtained either from: a body accredited by the French Accreditation Committee (Comité français d’accréditationor COFRAC) or the software provider of the cash register system.
Despite the more advanced technology of a POS system as compared to a simple cash register, the POS system is still vulnerable to employee theft through the sales window. A dishonest cashier at a retail outlet can collude with a friend who pretends to be an ordinary customer. During checkout, the cashier can bypass scanning certain items or enter a lower quantity for some items thus profiting from the "free" goods.
The ability of a POS system to void a closed sale receipt for refund purpose without needing a password from an authorized superior also represents a security loophole. Even a function to issue a receipt with a negative amount which can be useful under certain circumstances, can be exploited by a cashier to easily lift money from the cash drawer.
To prevent such employee theft, it is crucial for a POS system to provide an admin window for the supervisor or administrator to generate and inspect a daily list of sale receipts, especially pertaining to the frequency of cancelled receipts before completion, refunded receipts and negative receipts. This is one effective way to alert the company to any suspicious activity - such as a high number of cancelled sales by a certain cashier - that may be occurring, and to take monitoring action.
To further deter employee theft, the sales counter should also be equipped with aclosed-circuit televisioncamera pointed at the POS system to monitor and record all activities.
At the back end, price and other changes like discounts to inventory items through the administration module should be secured with passwords provided to trusted administrators. Any changes made should also be logged and capable of being subsequently retrieved for inspection.
The sale records and inventory are important to the business because they provide useful information to the company in terms of customer preferences, customer membership particulars, what are the top selling products, who are the vendors and what margins the company is getting from them, the company monthly total revenue and cost, among others.
It is important that reports on these matters generated at the administrative back end be restricted to trusted personnel. The database from which these reports are generated should be secured via passwords or via encryption of data stored in the database to prevent copying or tampering.
Despite all such precautions, the POS system can never be entirely watertight in security from internal misuse if a clever, dishonest employee knows how to exploit many of its otherwise useful capabilities.
News reports on POS system hacking show that hackers are more interested in stealing credit card information than anything else. The ease and advantage offered by the ability of a POS system to integrate credit card processing thus have a downside. In 2011, hackers were able to steal credit card data from 80,000 customers becauseSubway's security and POS configuration standards forPCI compliance- which governs credit card and debit card payment systems security - were "directly and blatantly disregarded" by Subway franchisees.[24]
In June 2016, several hundred ofWendy'sfast food restaurants had their POS systems hacked by illegally installed malware.[25]The report goes on to say that "the number of franchise restaurants impacted by these cyber security attacks is now expected to be considerably higher than the 300 restaurants already implicated" and that the "hackers made hundreds of thousands of fraudulent purchases on credit and debit cards issued by various financial institutions after breaching Wendy's computer systems late last year".
These exploits by hackers could only be made possible because payment cards were processed through the POS system allowing the malware to either intercept card data during processing or steal and transmit unencrypted card data that is stored in the system database.
In April 2017, security researchers identified critical vulnerabilities in point of sale systems developed bySAPandOracle[26]and commented, “POS systems are plagued by vulnerabilities, and incidents occurred because their security drawbacks came under the spotlight.”[27]If successfully exploited, these vulnerabilities provide a perpetrator with access to every legitimate function of the system, such as changing prices, and remotely starting and stopping terminals. To illustrate the attack vector, the researchers used the example of hacking POS to change the price of a MacBook to $1. The security issues were reported to the vendor, and a patch was released soon after the notification. Oracle confirmed[28]security bug affects over 300,000 Oracle POS Systems
In some countries, credit and debit cards are only processed viapayment terminals. Thus one may see quite a number of such terminals for different cards cluttering up a sale counter. This inconvenience is offset by the fact that credit anddebit carddata is far less vulnerable to hackers, unlike when payment cards are processed through the POS system where security is contingent upon the actions taken by end-users and developers.
With the launch ofmobile payment, particularlyAndroid PayandApple Payin 2015, it is expected that because of its greater convenience coupled with good security features, this would eventually eclipse other types of payment services – including the use of payment terminals. For mobile payment to go fully mainstream, mobile devices like smartphones that areNFC-enabledmust first become universal. This would be a matter of several years from the time of this writing (2017) as more and more models of new smartphones are expected to become NFC-enabled for such a purpose. For instance,iPhone 6is fully NFC-enabled for mobile payment whileiPhone 5and older models are not. The aforesaid disastrous security risks connected with processing payment card usage through a POS system would then be greatly diminished.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_of_sale
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Kasidet POS Malwareis a variant ofPoint of Sale(POS) Malware that performsDDoS attacksusing Namecoin's Dot-Bit service to scrape payment card details.[1][2]It is also known as Trojan.MWZLesson or Neutrino and was found in September 2015 by cyber security experts.[3][4]It is a combination of BackDoor.Neutrino.50 and thePOS malware.[5]
Kasidet POS Worm gets on a system along with the othermalwareor gets downloaded unknowingly when user visits malicious websites.[6][7]This malware is different from other POS malware and it scrapes data with advanced features.[8]First it scrapes the POS RAM and steals payment card details. Then the scraped information is sent to the cyber criminal with intercepted GET and POST requests from thebrowser.[9]It's very difficult to detect this bot by using security programs; sometimes it's detectable inemail spamcampaigns and exploit kits.[10]The scraping capability of Kasidet has now been enhanced by the cyber criminals and it now hidesC&C serverin theNamecoinDNS Service Dot-Bit.
Thismalware-related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasidet_POS_RAM_Scraper_Malware
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Information security standards(alsocyber security standards[1]) are techniques generally outlined in published materials that attempt to protect a user's or organization's cyber environment.[2]This environment includes users themselves, networks, devices, all software, processes, information in storage or transit, applications, services, and systems that can be connected directly or indirectly to networks.
The principal objective is to reduce the risks, including preventing or mitigatingcyber-attacks. These published materials comprise tools, policies, security concepts, security safeguards, guidelines, risk management approaches, actions, training, best practices, assurance, and technologies.
Cybersecuritystandards have existed over several decades as users and providers have collaborated in many domestic and international forums to effect the necessary capabilities, policies, and practices – generally emerging from work at the Stanford Consortium for Research on Information Security and Policy in the 1990s.[3]
A 2016 US security framework adoption study reported that 70% of the surveyed organizations use theNIST Cybersecurity Frameworkas the most popular best practice forInformation Technology(IT) computer security, but many note that it requires significant investment.[4]Cross-border, cyber-exfiltration operations by law enforcement agencies to counter international criminal activities on thedark webraise complex jurisdictional questions that remain, to some extent, unanswered.[5][6]Tensions between domestic law enforcement efforts to conduct cross-border cyber-exfiltration operations and international jurisdiction will likely continue to provide improved cybersecurity norms.[5][7]
The subsections below detail international standards related to cybersecurity.
TheISO/IEC 27000 seriesis a family of international standards jointly published by theInternational Organization for Standardization (ISO)and theInternational Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). These standards provide a globally recognized framework for establishing, implementing, maintaining, and continually improving an Information Security Management System (ISMS). The series is designed to help organizations of all sizes and industries protect their information assets systematically and cost-effectively.
At the center of the ISO/IEC 27000 series isISO/IEC 27001, which specifies the requirements for establishing and maintaining an ISMS.[8]The standard emphasizes a risk-based approach to managing information security, encouraging organizations to identify, assess, and mitigate risks specific to their operational environment. The ISO/IEC 27000 series is built upon thePlan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA)cycle, a methodology aimed at continuous improvement.
While ISO/IEC 27001 sets the baseline for ISMS requirements, other standards in the series provide complementary guidelines and sector-specific recommendations. Together, they form a comprehensive ecosystem that addresses everything from risk assessment and incident management to privacy controls and cloud security.
Supporting ISO/IEC 27001 isISO/IEC 27002, which serves as a practical guide for implementing the controls outlined in ISO/IEC 27001. It provides detailed recommendations and best practices for managing information security risks across different domains, including human resource security, physical security, and network security.[9]
For organizations focused on risk management,ISO/IEC 27005offers a dedicated framework for identifying, assessing, and treating information security risks. It complements ISO/IEC 27001 by providing a methodology specifically tailored to managing information security vulnerabilities.[10]
In recent years, cloud computing has introduced unique security challenges, andISO/IEC 27017was developed to address these concerns.[11]This standard provides guidelines for implementing cloud-specific information security controls, ensuring secure use of cloud services by both cloud providers and customers. Alongside it,ISO/IEC 27018focuses on protecting personally identifiable information (PII) in public cloud environments, helping organizations meet privacy regulations and maintain customer trust.[12]
Additionally,ISO/IEC 27035addresses incident management, offering guidance on how to effectively prepare for, detect, and respond to security incidents. It emphasizes structured incident response processes to minimize potential damage and ensure timely recovery.[13]
With the rise of data privacy regulations such as theGeneral Data Protection Regulation (GDPR),ISO/IEC 27701was introduced as an extension of ISO/IEC 27001 and ISO/IEC 27002. This standard provides guidelines for establishing and operating a Privacy Information Management System (PIMS), aligning information security management with privacy and data protection requirements.[14]
TheCommon Criteria for Information Technology Security Evaluation(Common CriteriaorCC) is an international standard (ISO/IEC 15408) used to assess and certify the security properties of IT products and systems. It provides a globally recognized framework for defining security requirements, implementing protective measures, and evaluating whether these measures meet specified criteria.
ISO/IEC 15408 is divided into five parts:
Certification under Common Criteria is facilitated by theCommon Criteria Recognition Arrangement(CCRA), ensuring mutual recognition of certifications among participating countries. This reduces duplication of effort and cost for vendors seeking global market access.[20]
The EU has adopted theEuropean Cybersecurity Certification Scheme(EUCC), which is based on ISO/IEC 15408, to align with international standards while addressing regional requirements.[21]
The IEC 62443 cybersecurity standard defines processes, techniques and requirements forIndustrial Automation and Control Systems(IACS). Its documents are the result of the IEC standards creation process where all national committees involved agree upon a common standard.
All IEC 62443 standards and technical reports are organized into six general categories:General,Policies and Procedures,System,Component, Profiles,andEvaluation.
ISO/SAE 21434 "Road vehicles - Cybersecurity engineering" is a cybersecurity standard jointly developed byISOandSAEworking groups. It proposes cybersecurity measures for the development lifecycle of road vehicles. The standard was published in August 2021.[22]
The standard is related to theEuropean Union (EU)regulation on cyber security that is currently being developed. In coordination with the EU, theUNECEhas created aCyber Security Management System(CSMS) certification mandatory forvehicle-type approval. This is defined in the overarchingUN Regulation 155;ISO/SAE 21434is a technical standard for automotive development which can demonstrate compliance with those regulations.
A derivative of this is in the work ofUNECEWP29, which provides regulations for vehicle cybersecurity and software updates.[23]
The ETSI EN 303 645 standard provides a set of baseline requirements for security in consumerInternet of Things (IoT)devices. It contains technical controls and organizational policies for developers and manufacturers of Internet-connected consumer devices. The standard was released in June 2020[24]and is intended to complement other, more specific standards. As many consumer IoT devices handlepersonally identifiable information (PII), implementing the standard helps comply with the EU'sGeneral Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)in the EU.[25]
The Cybersecurity provisions in this European standard are:
Conformance assessment of these baseline requirements is via the standard TS 103 701, which allows self-certification or certification by another group.[26]
The EN 18031 series of standards, published by theEuropean Committee for Standardization (CEN)in cooperation with theEuropean Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), outlines essential information security requirements for radio-based devices and systems. By aligning with theRadio Equipment Directive (2014/53/EU)and its accompanying Delegated Act, these standards support manufacturers and stakeholders in maintaining compliance and consistency across European markets. They also establish common testing protocols, performance criteria, and security guidelines, thereby aiding cross-border interoperability and addressing evolving industry needs.
The subsections below detail national standards and frameworks related to cybersecurity.
TheNorth American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC)is responsible for developing and enforcing cybersecurity standards to protect the reliability and security of the North American bulk power system, which spans the United States, Canada, and northern Baja California, Mexico.[27]
Its standards focus on cybersecurity measures for critical assets, including asset identification, electronic security perimeters, personnel training, incident response, and recovery planning. The key cybersecurity standards are defined in theCritical Infrastructure Protection (CIP)series, specificallyCIP-002 to CIP-014.[28]
Compliance with these standards is mandatory for power system operators and owners under NERC’s jurisdiction, with enforcement overseen by theFederal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)in the United States. Non-compliance can result in significant financial penalties.
TheNational Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a U.S. federal agency under theDepartment of Commerce, plays a central role in developing and maintaining cybersecurity standards, guidelines, and best practices. Initially created to ensure the security of federal information systems, NIST's standards have become globally influential, serving as foundational references for cybersecurity programs across industries and countries.
NIST's approach emphasizes a risk-based methodology, focusing on five core functions: Identify, Protect, Detect, Respond, and Recover. These principles form the backbone of many of its guidelines and frameworks, enabling organizations to assess and manage cybersecurity risks effectively. While federal agencies are mandated to comply with NIST standards, private organizations across finance, healthcare, manufacturing, and other sectors often adopt them voluntarily due to their clarity, flexibility, and comprehensiveness.
One of NIST's most influential contributions is theCybersecurity Framework (CSF), first published in 2014 and updated in 2024 (CSF 2.0). Developed in response to growing cyber threats and the need for standardized practices, the CSF provides a risk-based approach to managing cybersecurity risks. It is structured around five core functions:Identify, Protect, Detect, Respond, and Recover, each representing a critical phase in cybersecurity risk management.[29]
The CSF serves as a universal guide, designed to be adaptable across organizations of all sizes and sectors. Its adoption extends far beyond U.S. federal agencies, with companies worldwide leveraging the framework to improve their cybersecurity resilience.
NIST publishes a series ofSpecial Publications (SP), which provide technical guidelines for specific aspects of cybersecurity. Among the most significant isSP 800-53, titled "Security and Privacy Controls for Federal Information Systems and Organizations."[30]This publication outlines a comprehensive set of controls addressing areas such as access control, incident response, system integrity, and encryption. It serves as the cornerstone for securing federal information systems and is often referenced in audits and compliance assessments.
Another critical standard isSP 800-171, which focuses on protecting Controlled Unclassified Information (CUI) in non-federal systems. It provides detailed requirements for organizations handling sensitive federal information, such as defense contractors and private sector partners. Compliance with SP 800-171 is often a prerequisite for participating in federal contracts.[31]
For the secure development of software, NIST introducedSP 800-218, known as the "Secure Software Development Framework (SSDF)." This document emphasizes integrating security throughout all stages of the software development lifecycle, from design to deployment and maintenance.[32]
Recognizing the unique challenges posed byIndustrial Control Systems (ICS), NIST publishedSP 800-82, titled"Guide to Industrial Control Systems (ICS) Security."This guideline addresses the security of critical infrastructure systems, including SCADA systems, programmable logic controllers (PLCs), and other operational technology (OT) components.[33]
In addition to Special Publications, NIST developsFederal Information Processing Standards (FIPS). These standards are legally binding for U.S. federal agencies and cover critical areas such as cryptography and secure data handling. For example,FIPS 140-3,"Security Requirements for Cryptographic Modules,"specifies security requirements for cryptographic systems and is widely adopted by both government and private sector organizations requiring robust encryption capabilities.
FIPS standards are not limited to federal use; they are frequently referenced in international compliance frameworks and form the basis for many commercial security products.
Cyber Essentials is aUnited Kingdomgovernmentinformation assurancescheme operated by theNational Cyber Security Centre (NCSC). It encourages organizations to adopt good practices in information security. Cyber Essentials also includes an assurance framework and a simple set of security controls to protect information from threats coming from the internet.
TheAustralian Cyber Security Centrehas developed prioritised mitigation strategies, in the form of the Strategies to Mitigate Cyber Security Incidents, to help organisations protect themselves against various cyber threats. The most effective of these mitigation strategies is called the Essential Eight.[34]
TheFederal Office for Information Security(German:Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik, abbreviated as BSI) standards are an elementary component of the IT baseline protection (German:IT-Grundschutz) methodology. They contain recommendations on methods, processes, and procedures, approaches, and measures for various aspects of information security. Users from public authorities, companies, manufacturers, or service providers can use the BSI standards to make their business processes and data more secure.[35]
The subsections below detail cybersecurity standards and frameworks related to specific industries.
The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) is an information security standard for organizations that handle branded credit cards from the major card schemes. The PCI Standard is mandated by the card brands but administered by the Payment Card Industry Security Standards Council. The standard was created to increase controls around cardholder data to reduce credit card fraud.
UL 2900 is a series of standards published byUL. The standards include general cybersecurity requirements (UL 2900-1) as well as specific requirements for medical products (UL 2900-2-1), industrial systems (UL 2900-2-2), and security and life safety signalling systems (UL 2900-2-3).
UL 2900 requires manufacturers to describe and document the attack surface of the technologies used in their products. It requires threat modeling based on the intended use and deployment environment. The standard requires effective security measures that protect sensitive (personal) data and other assets, such as command and control data. It also requires that security vulnerabilities in the software have been eliminated, security principles, such as defense-in-depth have been followed, and the security of the software has been verified through penetration testing.
TheInternational Organization for Standardization(ISO) is an international standards organization organized as a consortium of national standards institutions from 167 countries, coordinated through a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO is the world's largest developer of international standards. TheInternational Electrotechnical Commission(IEC) is an international standards organization that deals with electrotechnology and cooperates closely with ISO. ISO/IEC 15443: "Information technology – Security techniques – A framework for IT security assurance",ISO/IEC 27002: "Information technology – Security techniques – Code of practice for information security management",ISO/IEC 20000: "Information technology – Service management", andISO/IEC 27001: "Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management systems – Requirements" are of particular interest to information security professionals.
The USNational Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST) is a non-regulatory federal agency within theU.S. Department of Commerce. The NIST Computer Security Division develops standards, metrics, tests, and validation programs, and it publishes standards and guidelines to increase secure IT planning, implementation, management, and operation. NIST is also the custodian of the U.S.Federal Information Processing Standardpublications (FIPS).
The Internet Societyis a professional membership society with over 100 organizations and over 20,000 individual members in over 180 countries. It provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the Internet, and it is the organizational home for the groups responsible for Internet infrastructure standards, including theInternet Engineering Task Force(IETF) and theInternet Architecture Board(IAB). The ISOC hosts the Requests for Comments (RFCs), including the Official Internet Protocol Standards and the RFC-2196Site Security Handbook.
The GermanFederal Office for Information Security(in GermanBundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI)) BSI-Standards 100–1 to 100-4 are a set of recommendations including "methods, processes, procedures, approaches, and measures relating to information security".[36]The BSI-Standard 100-2IT-Grundschutz Methodologydescribes how information security management can be implemented and operated. The standard includes a specific guide, the IT Baseline Protection Catalogs (IT-Grundschutz Catalogs). Before 2005, the catalogs were formerly known as "IT Baseline ProtectionManual". The Catalogs are documents useful for detecting and combating security-relevant weak points in the IT environment (IT cluster). As of September 2013, the collection encompasses over 4,400 pages with the introduction and catalogs. The IT-Grundschutz approach is aligned with the ISO/IEC 2700x family.
TheEuropean Telecommunications Standards Institutestandardized a catalog ofinformation security indicatorsheaded by the Industrial Specification Group (ISG) ISI.
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Acyberattack(orcyber attack) occurs when there is an unauthorized action against computer infrastructure that compromises theconfidentiality, integrity, or availabilityof its content.[1]
The rising dependence on increasingly complex and interconnected computer systems in most domains of life is the main factor that causes vulnerability to cyberattacks, since virtually all computer systems havebugsthat can beexploitedby attackers. Although it is impossible or impractical to create a perfectly secure system, there are many defense mechanisms that can make a system more difficult to attack, makinginformation securitya field of rapidly increasing importance in the world today.
Perpetrators of a cyberattack can be criminals,hacktivists, or states. They attempt to find weaknesses in a system, exploit them and createmalwareto carry out their goals, and deliver it to the targeted system. Once installed, the malware can have a variety of effects depending on its purpose. Detection of cyberattacks is often absent or delayed, especially when the malware attempts to spy on the system while remaining undiscovered. If it is discovered, the targeted organization may attempt to collect evidence about the attack, remove malware from its systems, and close the vulnerability that enabled the attack.
Cyberattacks can cause a variety of harms to targeted individuals, organizations, and governments, including significant financial losses andidentity theft. They are usually illegal both as a method of crime andwarfare, although correctly attributing the attack is difficult and perpetrators are rarely prosecuted.
A cyberattack is any attempt by an individual or organization to use computers or digital systems to steal, alter, expose, disable, or destroy information, or to breach computer systems, networks, or infrastructures..[2]Definitions differ as to the type of compromise required – for example, requiring the system to produce unexpected responses or cause injury or property damage.[3]Some definitions exclude attacks carried out by non-state actors and others require the target to be a state.[4]Keeping a system secure relies on maintaining theCIA triad: confidentiality (no unauthorized access), integrity (no unauthorized modification), and availability.[5]Although availability is less important for some web-based services, it can be the most crucial aspect for industrial systems.[6]
In the first six months of 2017, two billion data records were stolen or impacted by cyber attacks, andransomwarepayments reachedUS$2 billion, double that in 2016.[7]In 2020, with the increase of remote work as an effect of the COVID-19 global pandemic, cybersecurity statistics reveal a huge increase in hacked and breached data.[8]The worldwide information security market is forecast to reach $170.4 billion in 2022.[9]
Over time, computer systems make up an increasing portion of daily life and interactions. While the increasing complexity and connectedness of the systems increases the efficiency, power, and convenience of computer technology, it also renders the systems more vulnerable to attack and worsens the consequences of an attack, should one occur.[10]
Despite developers' goal of delivering a product that works entirely as intended, virtually allsoftwareandhardwarecontains bugs.[11]If a bug creates a security risk, it is called avulnerability.[12][13][14]Patchesare often released to fix identified vulnerabilities, but those that remain unknown (zero days) as well as those that have not been patched are still liable for exploitation.[15]The software vendor is not legally liable for the cost if a vulnerability is used in an attack, which creates an incentive to make cheaper but less secure software.[16]Vulnerabilities vary in their ability to beexploitedby malicious actors. The most valuable allow the attacker toinjectand run their own code (calledmalware), without the user being aware of it.[12]Without a vulnerability enabling access, the attacker cannot gain access to the system.[17]
The Vulnerability Model (VM) identifies attack patterns, threats, and valuable assets, which can be physical or intangible. It addresses security concerns like confidentiality, integrity, availability, and accountability within business, application, or infrastructure contexts.[18]
A system's architecture and design decisions play a major role in determining how safe it can be.[19]The traditional approach to improving security is the detection of systems vulnerable to attack andhardeningthese systems to make attacks more difficult, but it is only partially effective.[20]Formalrisk assessmentfor compromise of highly complex and interconnected systems is impractical[21]and the related question of how much to spend on security is difficult to answer.[22]Because of the ever changing and uncertain nature of cyber-threats, risk assessment may produce scenarios that are costly or unaffordable to mitigate.[23]As of 2019[update], there are no commercially available, widely usedactive defensesystems for protecting systems by intentionally increasing the complexity or variability of systems to make it harder to attack.[24]Thecyber resilienceapproach, on the other hand, assumes that breaches will occur and focuses on protecting essential functionality even if parts are compromised, using approaches such asmicro-segmentation,zero trust, andbusiness continuity planning.[25]
The majority of attacks can be prevented by ensuring all software is fully patched. Nevertheless, fully patched systems are still vulnerable to exploits usingzero-day vulnerabilities.[26]The highest risk of attack occurs just after a vulnerability has been publicly disclosed or a patch is released, because attackers can create exploits faster than a patch can be developed and rolled out.[27]
Software solutions aim to prevent unauthorized access and detect the intrusion of malicious software.[28]Training users can avoid cyberattacks (for example, not to click on a suspicious link or email attachment), especially those that depend on user error.[5][29]However, too many rules can cause employees to disregard them, negating any security improvement. Some insider attacks can also be prevented using rules and procedures.[29]Technical solutions can prevent many causes of human error that leave data vulnerable to attackers, such as encrypting all sensitive data, preventing employees from using insecure passwords, installingantivirus softwareto prevent malware, and implementing a robust patching system to ensure that all devices are kept up to date.[30]
There is little evidence about the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of different cyberattack prevention measures.[28]Although attention to security can reduce the risk of attack, achieving perfect security for a complex system is impossible, and many security measures have unacceptable cost or usability downsides.[31]For example, reducing the complexity and functionality of the system is effective at reducing theattack surface.[32]Disconnecting systems from the internetis one truly effective measure against attacks, but it is rarely feasible.[21]In some jurisdictions, there are legal requirements for protecting against attacks.[33]
Thecyber kill chainis the process by which perpetrators carry out cyberattacks.[34]
After the malware is installed, its activity varies greatly depending on the attacker's goals.[40]Many attackers try to eavesdrop on a system without affecting it. Although this type of malware can have unexpectedside effects, it is often very difficult to detect.[41]Botnetsare networks of compromised devices that can be used to sendspamor carry out[42]denial-of-serviceattacks—flooding a system with too many requests for the system to handle at once, causing it to become unusable.[36]Attackers may also use computers to minecryptocurrencies, such asBitcoin, for their own profit.[43]
Ransomwareis software used to encrypt or destroy data; attackers demand payment for the restoration of the targeted system. The advent ofcryptocurrencyenabling anonymous transactions has led to a dramatic increase in ransomware demands.[44]
The stereotype of a hacker is an individual working for themself. However, many cyber threats are teams of well-resourced experts.[45]"Growing revenues for cyber criminals are leading to more and more attacks, increasing professionalism and highly specialized attackers. In addition, unlike other forms of crime, cybercrime can be carried out remotely, and cyber attacks often scale well."[46]Many cyberattacks are caused or enabled by insiders, often employees who bypass security procedures to get their job done more efficiently.[47]Attackers vary widely in their skill and sophistication and well as their determination to attack a particular target, as opposed to opportunistically picking one easy to attack.[47]The skill level of the attacker determined which types of attacks they are prepared to mount.[48]Themost sophisticated attackerscan persist undetected on a hardened system for an extended period of time.[47]
Motivations and aims also differ. Depending whether the expected threat is passive espionage, data manipulation, or active hijacking, different mitigation methods may be needed.[41]
Software vendors and governments are mainly interested in undisclosed vulnerabilities (zero-days),[49]while organized crime groups are more interested in ready-to-useexploit kitsbased on known vulnerabilities,[50][51]which are much cheaper.[52]The lack of transparency in the market causes problems, such as buyers being unable to guarantee that the zero-day vulnerability was not sold to another party.[53]Both buyers and sellers advertise on thedark weband usecryptocurrencyfor untraceable transactions.[54][55]Because of the difficulty in writing and maintaining software that can attack a wide variety of systems, criminals found they could make more money by renting out their exploits rather than using them directly.[56]
Cybercrime as a service, where hackers sell prepacked software that can be used to cause a cyberattack, is increasingly popular as a lower risk and higher profit activity than traditional hacking.[55]A major form of this is to create a botnet of compromised devices and rent or sell it to another cybercriminal. Different botnets are equipped for different tasks such as DDOS attacks or password cracking.[57]It is also possible to buy the software used to create a botnet[58]andbotsthat load the purchaser's malware onto a botnet's devices.[59]DDOS as a service using botnets retained under the control of the seller is also common, and may be the first cybercrime as a service product, and can also be committed bySMS floodingon the cellular network.[60]Malware and ransomware as a service have made it possible for individuals without technical ability to carry out cyberattacks.[61]
Targets of cyberattacks range from individuals to corporations and government entities.[10]Many cyberattacks are foiled or unsuccessful, but those that succeed can have devastating consequences.[21]Understanding the negative effects of cyberattacks helps organizations ensure that their prevention strategies are cost-effective.[28]One paper classifies the harm caused by cyberattacks in several domains:[62]
Thousands ofdata recordsare stolen from individuals every day.[10]According to a 2020 estimate, 55 percent of data breaches were caused byorganized crime, 10 percent bysystem administrators, 10 percent byend userssuch as customers or employees, and 10 percent by states or state-affiliated actors.[67]Opportunistic criminals may cause data breaches—often usingmalwareorsocial engineering attacks, but they will typically move on if the security is above average. More organized criminals have more resources and are more focused in theirtargeting of particular data.[68]Both of them sell the information they obtain for financial gain.[69]Another source of data breaches arepolitically motivated hackers, for exampleAnonymous, that target particular objectives.[70]State-sponsored hackers target either citizens of their country or foreign entities, for such purposes aspolitical repressionandespionage.[71]
After a data breach, criminals make money by selling data, such as usernames, passwords,social mediaorcustomer loyaltyaccount information,debitandcredit cardnumbers,[69]and personal health information (seemedical data breach).[72]This information may be used for a variety of purposes, such asspamming, obtaining products with a victim's loyalty or payment information,prescription drug fraud,insurance fraud,[73]and especiallyidentity theft.[43]Consumer losses from a breach are usually a negativeexternalityfor the business.[74]
Critical infrastructureis that considered most essential—such as healthcare, water supply, transport, and financial services—which has been increasingly governed bycyber-physical systemsthat depend on network access for their functionality.[75][76]For years, writers have warned of cataclysmic consequences of cyberattacks that have failed to materialize as of 2023[update].[77]These extreme scenarios could still occur, but many experts consider that it is unlikely that challenges in inflicting physical damage or spreading terror can be overcome.[77]Smaller-scale cyberattacks, sometimes resulting in interruption of essential services, regularly occur.[78]
There is little empirical evidence of economic harm (such asreputational damage) from breaches except the direct cost[79]for such matters as legal, technical, and public relations recovery efforts.[80]Studies that have attempted to correlate cyberattacks to short-term declines instock priceshave found contradictory results, with some finding modest losses, others finding no effect, and some researchers criticizing these studies on methodological grounds. The effect on stock price may vary depending on the type of attack.[81]Some experts have argued that the evidence suggests there is not enough direct costs or reputational damage from breaches to sufficientlyincentivizetheir prevention.[82][83]
Government websites and services are among those affected by cyberattacks.[78]Some experts hypothesize that cyberattacks weaken societal trust or trust in the government, but as of 2023[update]this notion has only limited evidence.[77]
Responding quickly to attacks is an effective way to limit the damage. The response is likely to require a wide variety of skills, from technical investigation to legal and public relations.[84]Because of the prevalence of cyberattacks, some companies plan their incident response before any attack is detected, and may designate acomputer emergency response teamto be prepared to handle incidents.[85][86]
Many attacks are never detected. Of those that are, the average time to discovery is 197 days.[87]Some systems can detect and flag anomalies that may indicate an attack, using such technology asantivirus,firewall, or anintrusion detection system. Once suspicious activity is suspected, investigators look forindicators of attackandindicators of compromise.[88]Discovery is quicker and more likely if the attack targets information availability (for example with adenial-of-service attack) rather than integrity (modifying data) or confidentiality (copying data without changing it).[89]State actors are more likely to keep the attack secret. Sophisticated attacks using valuable exploits are more less likely to be detected or announced – as the perpetrator wants to protect the usefulness of the exploit.[89]
Evidence collection is done immediately, prioritizingvolatileevidence that is likely to be erased quickly.[90]Gathering data about the breach can facilitate later litigation or criminal prosecution,[91]but only if the data is gathered according to legal standards and thechain of custodyis maintained.[92][90]
Containing the affected system is often a high priority after an attack, and may be enacted by shutoff, isolation, use of a sandbox system to find out more about the adversary[90]patchingthe vulnerability, andrebuilding.[93]Once the exact way that the system was compromised is identified, there is typically only one or two technical vulnerabilities that need to be addressed in order to contain the breach and prevent it from reoccurring.[94]Apenetration testcan then verify that the fix is working as expected.[95]Ifmalwareis involved, the organization must investigate and close all infiltration and exfiltration vectors, as well as locate and remove all malware from its systems.[96]Containment can compromise investigation, and some tactics (such as shutting down servers) can violate the company's contractual obligations.[97]After the breach is fully contained, the company can then work on restoring all systems to operational.[98]Maintaining abackupand having tested incident response procedures are used to improve recovery.[25]
Attributing a cyberattack is difficult, and of limited interest to companies that are targeted by cyberattacks. In contrast,secret servicesoften have a compelling interest in finding out whether a state is behind the attack.[99]Unlike attacks carried out in person, determining the entity behind a cyberattack is difficult.[100]A further challenge in attribution of cyberattacks is the possibility of afalse flag attack, where the actual perpetrator makes it appear that someone else caused the attack.[99]Every stage of the attack may leaveartifacts, such as entries in log files, that can be used to help determine the attacker's goals and identity.[101]In the aftermath of an attack, investigators often begin by saving as many artifacts as they can find,[102]and then try to determine the attacker.[103]Law enforcement agencies may investigate cyber incidents[104]although the hackers responsible are rarely caught.[105]
Most states agree that cyberattacks are regulated under the laws governing theuse of force in international law,[106]and therefore cyberattacks as a form of warfare are likely to violate the prohibition of aggression.[107]Therefore, they could be prosecuted as acrime of aggression.[108]There is also agreement that cyberattacks are governed byinternational humanitarian law,[106]and if they target civilian infrastructure, they could be prosecuted as awar crime,crime against humanity, or act ofgenocide.[108]International courts cannot enforce these laws without sound attribution of the attack, without which countermeasures by a state are not legal either.[109]
In many countries, cyberattacks are prosecutable under various laws aimed atcybercrime.[110]Attribution of the attackbeyond reasonable doubtto the accused is also a major challenge in criminal proceedings.[111]In 2021,United Nations member statesbegan negotiating adraft cybercrime treaty.[112]
Many jurisdictions havedata breach notification lawsthat require organizations to notify people whose personal data has been compromised in a cyberattack.[113]
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Crypto-anarchy,crypto-anarchism,cyberanarchyorcyberanarchism[1]is a political ideology focusing on the protection ofprivacy,political freedom, andeconomic freedom, the adherents of which usecryptographic softwarefor confidentiality and security while sending and receiving information overcomputer networks.[2][3]In his 1988 "Crypto Anarchist Manifesto",Timothy C. Mayintroduced the basic principles of crypto-anarchism, encrypted exchanges ensuring totalanonymity, totalfreedom of speech, and totalfreedom to trade. In 1992, he read the text at the founding meeting of the cypherpunk movement.[4]
The prefix "crypto-" originates from theAncient Greekwordκρυπτόςkruptós, meaning "hidden" or "secret".[5]This differs from its use in terms like 'crypto-fascist' or 'crypto-Jew' where it signifies that an identity is concealed from the world; rather, many crypto-anarchists are open about their anarchism and promotion of tools based incryptology.
One motive of crypto-anarchists is to defend againstsurveillanceof computer networks communication. Crypto-anarchists try to protect against governmentmass surveillance, such asPRISM,ECHELON,Tempora,telecommunications data retention, theNSA warrantless surveillance controversy,Room 641A, theFRAand so on. Crypto-anarchists consider the development and use ofcryptographyto be the main defense against such problems.[6]
A 2022 study examined whether crypto-anarchism can be a useful tool in addressing socio-political issues. Their findings revealed that crypto-anarchism does not have a significant influence on actual politics, but studying it can be useful for creating political movements geared toward Internet users.[7]
Bitcoinis a currency generated and secured by peer-to-peer networked devices that maintain a communal record of all transactions within the system that can be used in a crypto-anarchic context. Adrian Chen, writing forThe New York Times, says the idea behind bitcoin can be traced toThe Crypto Anarchist Manifesto.[8]Silk Roadwas an example of an illegal drug market on which bitcoin was the only accepted currency.[8]
Assassination Marketwas aTor-baseddarknet marketoperated by a self-described crypto-anarchist going by the pseudonym Kuwabatake Sanjuro.[9]
InThe Cyphernomicon, Timothy C. May suggests that crypto-anarchism qualifies as a form ofanarcho-capitalism:
What emerges from this is unclear, but I think it will be a form of anarcho-capitalist market system I call "crypto-anarchy."[10]
Another quote inThe Cyphernomicondefines crypto-anarchism. Under the title "What is Crypto Anarchy?", May writes:
Some of us believe various forms of strong cryptography will cause the power of the state to decline, perhaps even collapse fairly abruptly. We believe the expansion into cyberspace, with secure communications, digital money, anonymity and pseudonymity, and other crypto-mediated interactions, will profoundly change the nature of economies and social interactions. Governments will have a hard time collecting taxes, regulating the behavior of individuals and corporations (small ones at least), and generally coercing folks when it can't even tell whatcontinentfolks are on![11]
A network state is a theoretical community of users—called “subscriber citizens”—connected via the internet, who accumulate enough capital, territory, or political clout to achieve diplomatic recognition as a state.[12]
For crypto-anarchists, creating such a virtual or network state to increase freedom and reduce physical coercion has been a consistent talking point since at least 1992, when Timothy May initially discussed a version of these ideas in his article,Libertaria in Cyberspace.[13]May said:
This is the most compelling advantage of "Crypto Libertaria": an arbitrarily large number of separate "nations" can simultaneously exist. This allows for rapid experimentation, self-selection, and evolution. If folks get tired of some virtual community, they can leave. The cryptographic aspects mean their membership in some community is unknown to others (vis-a-vis the physical or outside world, i.e., their "true names") and physical coercion is reduced.[13]
In his 1999 book,Virtual States, cypherpunk Jerry Everard explored these ideas through the lens ofFoucauldianphilosophy, especially in the context ofdiscourse formation. His discourse analysis focused on the interrelationship between objects and statements describing the state. He acknowledged the state exists as a monopoly on violence in relation to its subjects. In other words, the state enjoys a power imbalance between itself and its citizenry.[14]
Everard formulated the idea of disaggregating various elements of the nation state while considering what voluntarily procured "virtual states" in a market environment would look like. He suggests that virtual states based in cyberspace will take over the “goods and services economy” aspect of the state apparatus. In the final treatment, he did not believe the "state" would face an extinction-level event, only that its power may be diminished in some areas but strengthened in others.[14]
Technologist, angel investor, and formerCoinbaseCTO,Balaji Srinivasan, has fully fleshed out the idea of network states. In his 2022 book,The Network State: How to Start Your Own Country, he details how a non-territorial affiliation of like-minded individuals could join to enact a covenant to share, build, and distribute power in the form of a network state.[12]Srinivasan articulated the definition concisely:
A network state is a highly aligned online community with a capacity for collective action that crowdfunds territory around the world and eventually gains diplomatic recognition from pre-existing states.[12]
He furnished a fuller, more complex articulation as well:
A network state is a social network with a moral innovation, a sense of national consciousness, a recognized founder, a capacity for collective action, an in-person level of civility, an integrated cryptocurrency, a consensual government limited by a social smart contract, an archipelago of crowdfunded physical territories, a virtual capital, and an on-chain census that proves a large enough population, income, and real-estate footprint to attain a measure of diplomatic recognition.[12]
The "moral innovation" piece of Srinivasan's crypto-anarchist articulation underlies the goal of a network state. His motivation is to align ideologies more cohesively, disrupt political infighting, and institute a freer human future. Throughout the book, he expresses the problems with traditionalnation statesand emphasizes their territorial, coercive nature. In the section on nation states, he says, "(State) refers to the entity that governs these people, that commands the police and the military, and that holds the monopoly of violence over the geographic area that the nation inhabits."[12]
In one prominent section, Srinivasan argues for a modern variation ofFrederick Jackson Turner'sFrontier Thesis. He makes the case that frontiers throughout history have been open, uncontested territories allowing exploration, experimentation, and settlement. In his modern take on the thesis, cyberspace represents the crypto-anarchist new frontier for social creativity and growth. It is only through these new frontiers, he claims, can people secure greater sovereignty and build saner, more voluntary governance mechanisms.[12]
The Frontier Thesis is reminiscent of John Perry Barlow's famous,A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, where he eschews the domination of nation states by comparing cyberspace to a frontier inhabited by the "virus" of freedom.[15]
Some scholars criticize that crypto-anarchism is referencing the term "anarchism" in its regards to freedom as a primary value in them, whereas the political thoughts of crypto-anarchism are closer tied tolibertarianismas to anarchism:
However, it is different in the case of crypto-anarchism. It is a thought and activity not based on anarchism of the turn of the 20th century, in which the idea of freedom had a social dimension. Freedom in anarchism of that time was treated as a value manifested in and towards other people, rather than in competition between individuals. Crypto-anarchism therefore has a different – libertarian – genesis, and libertarianism is not treated by social anarchists as anarchism. Nevertheless, the idea of freedom can be treated as a primary value in crypto-anarchism, and although it would be realised in the virtual world, it could also be realised in the real world.[16]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypto-anarchism
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Cyberterrorismis the use of theInternetto conduct violent acts that result in, or threaten, the loss of life or significant bodily harm, in order to achieve political or ideological gains throughthreatorintimidation. Emerging alongside the development of information technology,[1]cyberterrorism involves acts of deliberate, large-scale disruption ofcomputer networks, especially of personal computers attached to the Internet by means of tools such ascomputer viruses,computer worms,phishing,malicious software, hardware methods, and programming scripts can all be forms of internet terrorism.[2]Some authors opt for a very narrow definition of cyberterrorism, relating to deployment by known terrorist organizations of disruption attacks against information systems for the primary purpose of creating alarm, panic, or physical disruption. Other authors prefer a broader definition, which includescybercrime. Participating in acyberattackaffects the terror threat perception, even if it isn't done with a violent approach.[3]By some definitions, it might be difficult to distinguish which instances of online activities are cyberterrorism or cybercrime.[4]
Cyberterrorism can be also defined as the intentional use of computers, networks, and public internet to cause destruction and harm for personal objectives. Experienced cyberterrorists, who are very skilled in terms ofhackingcan cause massive damage to government systems and might leave a country in fear of further attacks.[5]The objectives of such terrorists may be political or ideological since this can be considered a form of terror.[6]
There is muchconcernfrom government and media sources about potential damage that could be caused by cyberterrorism, and this has prompted efforts by government agencies such as theFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI),National Security Agency(NSA), and theCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA) to put an end tocyber attacksand cyberterrorism.[5]
There have been several major and minor instances of cyberterrorism.Al-Qaedautilized the internet to communicate with supporters and even to recruit new members.[7]Estonia, a Baltic country which is constantly evolving in terms of technology, became a battleground for cyberterrorism inApril 2007after disputes regarding the relocation of a WWII soviet statue located in Estonia's capital Tallinn.[4]
There is debate over the basic definition of the scope of cyberterrorism. These definitions can be narrow such as the use of Internet to attack other systems in the Internet that result to violence against persons or property.[8]They can also be broad, those that include any form of Internet usage by terrorists to conventional attacks on information technology infrastructures.[8]There is variation in qualification by motivation, targets, methods, and centrality of computer use in the act. U.S. government agencies also use varying definitions and that none of these have so far attempted to introduce a standard that is binding outside of their sphere of influence.[9]
Depending on context, cyberterrorism may overlap considerably withcybercrime,cyberwaror ordinaryterrorism.[10]Eugene Kaspersky, founder ofKaspersky Lab, now feels that "cyberterrorism" is a more accurate term than "cyberwar". He states that "with today's attacks, you are clueless about who did it or when they will strike again. It's not cyber-war, but cyberterrorism."[11]He also equates large-scale cyber weapons, such as theFlame Virusand NetTraveler Virus which his company discovered, tobiological weapons, claiming that in an interconnected world, they have the potential to be equally destructive.[11][12]
If cyberterrorism is treated similarly to traditionalterrorism, then it only includes attacks that threaten property or lives, and can be defined as the leveraging of a target's computers and information, particularly via theInternet, to cause physical, real-world harm or severe disruption of infrastructure.
Many academics and researchers who specialize in terrorism studies suggest that cyberterrorism does not exist and is really a matter ofhackingorinformation warfare.[13]They disagree with labeling it as terrorism because of the unlikelihood of the creation of fear, significant physical harm, or death in a population using electronic means, considering current attack and protective technologies.
If death or physical damage that could cause human harm is considered a necessary part of the cyberterrorism definition, then there have been few identifiable incidents of cyberterrorism, although there has been much policy research and public concern. Modern terrorism and political violence is not easily defined, however, and some scholars assert that it is now "unbounded" and not exclusively concerned with physical damage.[14]
There is an old saying that death or loss of property are the side products of terrorism, the main purpose of such incidents is tocreate terrorin peoples' minds and harm bystanders. If any incident incyberspacecancreate terror, it may be rightly called cyberterrorism. For those affected by such acts, the fears of cyberterrorism are quite real.[15]
As with cybercrime in general, the threshold of required knowledge and skills to perpetrate acts of cyberterrorism has been steadily diminishing thanks to freely available hacking suites and online courses.[16]Additionally, the physical and virtual worlds are merging at an accelerated rate, making for many more targets of opportunity which is evidenced by such notable cyber attacks asStuxnet, the Saudi petrochemical sabotage attempt in 2018 and others.[17]
Assigning a concrete definition to cyberterrorism can be hard, due to the difficulty of defining the term terrorism itself. Multiple organizations have created their own definitions, most of which are overly[quantify]broad. There is also controversy concerning overuse of the term,hyperbolein the media and by security vendors trying to sell "solutions".[18]
One way of understanding cyberterrorism involves the idea that terrorists could cause massive loss of life, worldwide economic chaos and environmental damage by hacking into critical infrastructure systems.[19]The nature of cyberterrorism covers conduct involving computer or Internet technology that:[20]
The term "cyberterrorism" can be used in a variety of different ways, but there are limits to its use. An attack on anInternet businesscan be labeled cyberterrorism, however when it is done for economic motivations rather than ideological it is typically regarded ascybercrime.[20]Convention also limits the label "cyberterrorism" to actions by individuals, independent groups, or organizations. Any form ofcyberwarfareconducted by governments and states would be regulated and punishable under international law.[20]
The Technolytics Institute defines cyberterrorism as
[t]he premeditated use of disruptive activities, or the threat thereof, against computers and/or networks, with the intention to cause harm or further social, ideological, religious, political or similar objectives. Or to intimidate any person in furtherance of such objectives.[21]
The term appears first in defense literature, surfacing (as "cyber-terrorism") in reports by theU.S. Army War Collegeas early as 1998.[22]
TheNational Conference of State Legislatures, an organization of legislators created to help policymakers in theUnited Stateswith issues such as economy andhomeland securitydefines cyberterrorism as:
[T]he use of information technology by terrorist groups and individuals to further their agenda. This can include use of information technology to organize and execute attacks against networks, computer systems and telecommunications infrastructures, or for exchanging information or making threats electronically. Examples are hacking into computer systems, introducing viruses to vulnerable networks, web site defacing,Denial-of-service attacks, or terroristic threats made via electronic communication.[23]
The American Federal Emergency Management agency defines cyberterrorism as:
[T]he illegal threat and the attack against computers, networks, and information stored, where it is carried out to frighten and force the government or its people ti achieve political or social objectives.[24]
NATOdefines cyberterrorism as "[a] cyberattack using or exploiting computer or communication networks to cause sufficient destruction or disruption to generate fear or to intimidate a society into an ideological goal".[25]
The United StatesNational Infrastructure Protection Centerdefined cyberterrorism as:
A criminal act perpetrated by the use of computers and telecommunications capabilities resulting in violence, destruction, and/or disruption of services to create fear by causing confusion and uncertainty within a given population, with the goal of influencing a government or population to conform to a political, social, or ideological agenda.[26]
The FBI, another United States agency, defines "cyber terrorism" as "premeditated, politically motivated attack against information, computer systems, computer programs, and data which results in violence against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents".[27]
These definitions tend to share the view of cyberterrorism as politically and/or ideologically inclined. One area of debate is the difference between cyberterrorism andhacktivism. Hacktivism is "the marriage of hacking with political activism".[28]Both actions are politically driven and involve using computers, however cyberterrorism is primarily used to cause harm. It becomes an issue because acts of violence on the computer can be labeled[by whom?]either[citation needed]cyberterrorism or hacktivism.
In 1999 the Center for the Study of Terrorism and Irregular Warfare at theNaval Postgraduate Schoolin Monterey, California, defined three levels of cyberterror capability:[29]
Cyberterrorism is becoming more and more prominent onsocial mediatoday.[30][need quotation to verify]As the Internet becomes more pervasive, individuals or groups can use the anonymity afforded bycyberspaceto threaten other individuals, specific groups (with membership based, for example, on ethnicity or belief), communities and entire countries, without the inherent threat of identification, capture, injury, or death of the attacker that being physically present would bring.
Many[quantify]groups such asAnonymous, use tools such asdenial-of-service attacksto attack and censor groups which oppose them, creating many concerns for freedom and respect for differences of thought.
Many believe that cyberterrorism is an extreme threat to countries' economies,[citation needed]and fear an attack could potentially lead to another Great Depression.[citation needed]Severalleadersagree that cyberterrorism has the highest percentage of threat over other possible attacks on U.S. territory. Although natural disasters are considered[by whom?]a top threat and have proven to be devastating to people and land, there is ultimately little that can be done to prevent such events from happening. Thus, the expectation is to focus more on preventative measures that will make Internet attacks impossible for execution.[citation needed]
As the Internet continues to expand, and computer systems continue to be assigned increased responsibility while becoming more complex and interdependent, sabotage or terrorism via the Internet may become a more serious threat and is possibly one of the top 10 events to "end the human race."[31][better source needed]People have much easier access to illegal involvement within cyberspace by the ability to access a part of the internet known as theDark Web.[32](registration required)TheInternet of Thingspromises to further merge the virtual and physical worlds, which some[quantify]experts[which?]see as a powerful incentive for states to use terrorist proxies in furtherance of objectives.[33]
Dependence on the Internet is rapidly increasing on a worldwide scale, creating a platform for international cyber-terror plots to be formulated and executed as a direct threat to national security.[20][need quotation to verify]For terrorists, cyber-based attacks have distinct advantages over physical attacks. They can be conducted remotely, anonymously, and relatively cheaply, and they do not require significant investment in weapons, explosives or personnel.[34]The effects can be widespread and profound. Incidents of cyberterrorism are likely to increase. They can be expected to take place through denial-of-service attacks, malware, and other methods that are difficult to envision today.[35][need quotation to verify]One example involves the deaths involving the Islamic State and the online social networks Twitter, Google, and Facebook – leading to legal action being taken against them, that ultimately resulted in them being sued.[36][need quotation to verify]
In an article about cyber attacks by Iran and North Korea,The New York Timesobserves:
The appeal of digital weapons is similar to that of nuclear capability: it is a way for an outgunned, outfinanced nation to even the playing field. "These countries are pursuing cyberweapons the same way they are pursuing nuclear weapons," said James A. Lewis, a computer security expert at theCenter for Strategic and International Studiesin Washington. "It's primitive; it's not top of the line, but it's good enough and they are committed to getting it."[37]
In addition, Cyberterrorism has also been documented to arouse negative emotions. Recent studies have suggested that Cyberterrorism produces heightened levels of anger and stress, which do not differ drastically from the effects of conventional terrorism.[38]Researchers also noted that Cyberterrorism produced higher levels of stress than anger, and the responses are not dependent on the lethality of the attack.[38]
Public interest in cyberterrorism began in the late 1990s, when the term was coined by Barry C. Collin.[39]As 2000 approached, the fear and uncertainty about themillennium bugheightened, as did the potential for attacks by cyber terrorists. Although the millennium bug was by no means a terrorist attack or plot against the world or the United States, it did act as a catalyst in sparking the fears of a possibly large-scale devastating cyber-attack. Commentators noted that many of the facts of such incidents seemed to change, often with exaggerated media reports.
The high-profile terrorist attacks in the United States on 11 September 2001, and the ensuingWar on Terrorby the US led to further media coverage of the potential threats of cyberterrorism in the years following. Mainstream media coverage often discusses the possibility of a large attack making use of computer networks to sabotage critical infrastructures with the aim of putting human lives in jeopardy or causing disruption on a national scale either directly or by disruption of the national economy.[40]
Authors such asWinn SchwartauandJohn Arquillaare reported to have had considerable financial success selling books which described what were purported to be plausible scenarios of mayhem caused by cyberterrorism. Many critics claim that these books were unrealistic in their assessments of whether the attacks described (such as nuclear meltdowns and chemical plant explosions) were possible. A common thread throughout what critics perceive as cyberterror-hype is that of non-falsifiability; that is, when the predicted disasters fail to occur, it only goes to show how lucky we've been so far, rather than impugning the theory.
In 2016, for the first time ever, the Department of Justice charged Ardit Ferizi with cyberterrorism. He is accused of allegedly hacking into a military website and stealing the names, addresses, and other personal information of government and military personnel and selling it to ISIS.[41]
On the other hand, it is also argued that, despite substantial studies on cyberterrorism, the body of literature is still unable to present a realistic estimate of the actual threat.[42]For instance, in the case of a cyberterrorist attack on a public infrastructure such as a power plant or air traffic control through hacking, there is uncertainty as to its success because data concerning such phenomena are limited.[42]
Cyberterrorism ranks among the highest potential security threats in the world. It has become more critical than the development of nuclear weapons or the current conflicts between nations. Due to the pervasiveness of the internet and the amount of responsibility assigned to this technology, digital weapons pose a threat to entire economic or social systems. Some of the most critical international security concerns include:
DDoS Attacks – Millions of Denial of Service attacks occur every year and the service disruption can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars each hour they are down. It is important to keep critical systems secured and redundant to remain online during these attacks.
Social Engineering – In 1997 an experiment conducted by the NSA concluded that thirty-five hackers were able to access critical pentagon computer systems and could easily edit accounts, reformat data and even shut down entire systems. Often they used phishing tactics such as calling offices and pretending to be technicians to gain passwords.
Third Party Software – The top retailers are connected with thousands of separate third-party recourses and at least 23% of those assets have at least one critical vulnerability. These companies need to manage and reevaluate their network security in order to keep personal data safe.
As technology becomes more and more integrated into society, new vulnerabilities and security threats are opened up on these complex networks that we have set up. If an intruder was to gain access to these networks they have the potential to threaten entire communities or economic systems. There is no certainty for what events will take place in the future, which is why it is important that there are systems build to adapt to the changing environment.
The most apparent cyberterrorism threat in our near future will involve the state of remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic. Companies cannot expect that every home office is up to date and secure so they must adopt a zero-trust policy from home devices. This means that they must assume corporate resources and unsecured devices are sharing the same space and they must act accordingly.
The rise of cryptocurrency has also sparked some additional threats in the realm of security. Cyber Criminals are now hijacking home computers and company networks in order to mine certain cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin. This mining process requires an immense amount of computer processing power which can cripple a business’ network and lead to severe downtime if the issue is not resolved.
As of 2016 there have been eighteen conventions and major legal instruments that specifically deal with terrorist activities and cyber terrorism.
There are many different motives for cyberattacks, with the majority being for financial reasons. However, there is increasing evidence that hackers are becoming more politically motivated. Cyberterrorists are aware that governments are reliant on the internet and have exploited this as a result. For example, Mohammad Bin Ahmad As-Sālim's piece "39 Ways to Serve and Participate in Jihad" discusses how an electronic jihad could disrupt the West through targeted hacks of American websites, and other resources seen as anti-Jihad, modernist, or secular in orientation (Denning, 2010; Leyden, 2007).[44]
Many of the cyberattacks are not conducted for money, rather the cyberattacks are conducted due to different ideological beliefs and due to wanting to get personal revenge and outrage towards company or individual, the cybercriminal is attacking.[45]An employee might want to get revenge on a company if they were mistreated or wrongfully terminated.[citation needed]
Other motivations for cybercriminals include:
Political goals motivate cyber-attackers because they are not happy with candidates and they might want certain candidates to win the election, therefore, they might alter the election voting to help their preferred candidate win.
Competition between two companies can also stir up a cyberattack, as one company can hire a hacker to conduct the attack on a company as they might want to test the rival company's security. This will also benefit a company because it will force their competitor's customers to think that the company is not secure due to them getting cyber attacked effortlessly and they don't want any of their personal credentials getting leaked.
Cyberwarfare is motivation for countries that are fighting each other. This is mainly used to weaken the opposing country by compromising its core systems and the countries data and other vulnerable information.
Money is motivating for cyber attacks for ransomware, phishing, and data theft as the cyber criminals can differently contact the victims and ask for money and in return the data stays safe.[46]
The United Nations has several agencies that seek to address in cyberterrorism, including,the United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism,the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime,the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs,the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research,the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, and theInternational Telecommunication Union. BothEUROPOLandINTERPOLalso notably specialize on the subject.
Both Europol and Interpol specialize in operations against cyberterrorism as they both collaborate on different operations together and host a yearly joint cybercrime conference. While they both fight against cybercrime, both institutions operate differently. Europol sets up and coordinates cross-border operations against cybercriminals in the EU, while Interpol helps law enforcement and coordinates operations against cyber criminals globally.[47]
The Baltic state of Estonia was the target of a massivedenial-of-serviceattack that ultimately rendered the country offline and shut out from services dependent on Internet connectivity in April 2007. The infrastructure of Estonia including everything from online banking and mobile phone networks to government services and access to health care information was disabled for a time. The tech-dependent state experienced severe turmoil and there was a great deal of concern over the nature and intent of the attack.
The cyber attack was a result of an Estonian-Russian dispute over the removal of a bronze statue depicting a World War II-era Soviet soldier from the center of the capital, Tallinn.[4]In the midst of the armed conflict with Russia, Georgia likewise was subject to sustained and coordinated attacks on its electronic infrastructure in August 2008. In both of these cases, circumstantial evidence point to coordinated Russian attacks, but attribution of the attacks is difficult; though both the countries blame Moscow for contributing to the cyber attacks, proof establishing legal culpability is lacking.
Estonia joined NATO in 2004, which prompted NATO to carefully monitor its member states' response to the attack. NATO also feared escalation and the possibility of cascading effects beyond Estonia's border to other NATO members. In 2008, directly as a result of the attacks, NATO opened a new center of excellence on cyberdefense to conduct research and training on cyber warfare in Tallinn.[48]
The chaos resulting from the attacks in Estonia illustrated to the world the dependence countries had on information technology. This dependence then makes countries vulnerable to future cyber attacks and terrorism.[4]
Quick information on the cyber attack on Estonia and its effects on the country.[49]
As cyberattacks continue to increase around the world, countries still look at the attacks on Estonia in the 2007 as an example of how countries can fight future cyberattacks and terrorism. As a result of the attacks, Estonia is now currently one of the top countries in cyber defence and online safety and its capital city of Tallinn is home to NATO's cyber defense hub. The government of Estonia continues to update there cyber defence protocols and national cybersecurity strategies. NATO's Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre in Tallinn also conducts research and training on cyber security to not just help Estonia but other countries that are in the alliance.[50]
The Chinese Defense Ministry confirmed the existence of an online defense unit in May 2011. Composed of about thirty elite internet specialists, the so-called "Cyber Blue Team", or "Blue Army", is officially claimed to be engaged in cyber-defense operations, though there are fears the unit has been used to penetrate secure online systems of foreign governments.[51][52]China's leaders have invested in its foundations of cyber defense and quantum computing and artificial intelligence. 39 Chinese soldiers were chosen to strengthen China's cyber defenses. The reason given by Spokesman for the Ministry of National Defense, Geng Yansheng was that their internet protection was currently weak. Geng claimed that the program was only temporary to help improve cyber defenses.[53]
To counter the cyber terrorists, also called "white-collar jihadis", the police inIndiahas registered private citizens as volunteers who patrol the internet and report the suspected cyber terrorists to the government. These volunteers are categorised in three categories, namely "Unlawful Content Flaggers", "Cyber Awareness Promoters" and "Cyber Experts". In August 2021, police arrested five suspected white-collar jihadis who were preparing a hit list of officers, journalists, social activists, lawyers and political functionaries to create fear among people. The white-collar jihadis are considered "worst kind of terrorists" as they remain anonymous and safe in other nations, but inflict "immeasurable" amount of damage and brainwashing.[54]
In India, the demand for cyber security professionals has increased over 100 per cent in 2021 and will rise 200 per cent by 2024.[55]
Eighty two percent of companies in India had a ransomware attack in the year 2020. The cost it takes to recover from a ransomware attack in India has gone from $1.1 million in 2020 to $3.38 million in 2021.[56]India is at the top of the list of 30 countries for ransomware attacks.
A cyber-attack took place on the electricity grid in Maharashtra that resulted in a power outage. This occurred in October 2020 and the authorities believe China was behind it.[57]
Important information like dates of birth and full names were leaked for thousands of patients who were tested for COVID-19. This information was made accessible on Google and was leaked from government websites. The job portal IIMjobs was attacked and the information of 1.4 million people looking for jobs was leaked. The information leaked was quite extensive including the location of users and their names and phone numbers. The information for 500,000 Indian police personal was sold on a forum in February 2021. The information contained much personal information. The data was from a police exam taken in December 2019.[58]
According to 2016 Deloitte Asia-Pacific Defense Outlook,[59]South Korea's 'Cyber Risk Score' was 884 out of 1,000 and South Korea is found to be the most vulnerable country to cyber attacks in the Asia-Pacific region. Considering South Korea's high speed internet and cutting-edge technology, its cyber security infrastructure is relatively weak.[60]The2013 South Korea cyberattacksignificantly damaged the Korean economy. This attack wounded the systems of two banks and the computer networks of three TV broadcasters. The incident was a massive blow, and the attacker was never identified. It was theorized to be North Korea. The week before North Korea accused the United States and South Korea of shutting down their internet for two days.[61]In 2017, aransomwareattack harassed private companies and users, who experienced personal information leakage. Additionally, there were North Korea's cyber attacks which risked national security of South Korea.[62]
In response to this, South Korean government's countermeasure is to protect theinformation securitycentres the National Intelligence Agency. Currently, 'cyber security' is one of the major goals of NIS Korea.[63]Since 2013, South Korea had established policies related to National cyber security and trying to prevent cyber crises via sophisticated investigation on potential threats. Meanwhile, scholars emphasize on improving the national consciousness towards cyber attacks as South Korea had already entered the so-called 'hyper connected society'.
North Korea's cyberwarfare is incredibly efficient and the best of state-sponsored hackers. Those who are chosen to be hackers are selected when they are young and trained specifically in cyberwarfare. Hackers are trained to steal money from ATMs but not enough to be reported. North Korea is great at zero-day exploits. The country will hack anyone they chose to. They steal secrets from companies and government agencies and steal money from financial systems to fund their hacking operations.[64]
PakistaniGovernment has also taken steps to curb the menace of cyberterrorism and extremist propaganda.National Counter Terrorism Authority (Nacta)is working on joint programs with different NGOs and other cyber security organizations in Pakistan to combat this problem. Surf Safe Pakistan[65]is one such example. Now people in Pakistan can report extremist and terrorist related content online on Surf Safe Pakistan portal. The National Counter Terrorism Authority (NACTA) provides the Federal Government's leadership for the Surf Safe Campaign.
A series ofpowerful cyber attacksbegan 27 June 2017, that swamped websites of Ukrainian organizations, including banks, ministries, newspapers and electricity firms.
TheUS Department of Defense(DoD) charged theUnited States Strategic Commandwith the duty of combating cyberterrorism. This is accomplished through theJoint Task Force-Global Network Operations, which is the operational component supportingUSSTRATCOMin defense of the DoD'sGlobal Information Grid. This is done by integratingGNOcapabilities into the operations of all DoD computers, networks, and systems used by DoD combatant commands, services and agencies.
On 2 November 2006, the Secretary of the Air Force announced the creation of the Air Force's newestMAJCOM, theAir Force Cyber Command, which would be tasked to monitor and defend American interest in cyberspace. The plan was however replaced by the creation ofTwenty-Fourth Air Forcewhich became active in August 2009 and would be a component of the plannedUnited States Cyber Command.[66]
On 22 December 2009, the White House named its head ofcomputer securityasHoward Schmidtto coordinate U.S Government, military and intelligence efforts to repel hackers. He left the position in May 2012.[67]Michael Daniel was appointed to the position of White House Coordinator of Cyber Security the same week[68]and continues in the position during the second term of the Obama administration.[69]
Obama signed an executive order to enable the US to impose sanctions on either individuals or entities that are suspected to be participating in cyber related acts. These acts were assessed to be possible threats to US national security, financial issues or foreign policy issues.[70]U.S. authorities indicted a man over 92 cyberterrorism hacks attacks on computers used by the Department of Defense.[71]A Nebraska-based consortium apprehended four million hacking attempts in the course of eight weeks.[72]In 2011 cyberterrorism attacks grew 20%.[73]
In May 2021, President Joe Biden announced an executive order aiming to improve America's cybersecurity. It came about after an increase in cybersecurity attacks aimed at the country's public and private sector. The plan aims to improve the government's cyberdefense by working on its ability to identify, deter, protect against, detect, and respond to attacks. The plan has 10 sections written into the document that include, to name a few, improving sharing of threat information, modernizing the government's cybersecurity, and establishing a Cybersecurity Review Board.[74]
An operation can be done by anyone anywhere in the world, for it can be performed thousands of miles away from a target. An attack can cause serious damage to a critical infrastructure which may result in casualties.[75]
Some attacks are conducted in furtherance of political and social objectives, as the following examples illustrate:
Non-political acts ofsabotagehave caused financial and other damage. In 2000, disgruntled employee Vitek Boden caused the release of 800,000 litres of untreated sewage into waterways inMaroochy Shire, Australia.[105][106]
More recently, in May 2007Estoniawas subjected to a mass cyber-attackin the wake of the removal of a Russian World War II war memorial from downtown Tallinn. The attack was a distributeddenial-of-service attackin which selected sites were bombarded with traffic to force them offline; nearly all Estonian government ministry networks as well as two major Estonian bank networks were knocked offline; in addition, the political party website of Estonia's Prime Minister Andrus Ansip featured a counterfeit letter of apology from Ansip for removing the memorial statue.[citation needed]In January 2008 a man from Estonia was convicted for launching the attacks against theEstonian Reform Partywebsite and fined.[107][108]
During theRusso-Georgian War, on 5 August 2008, three days before Georgia launched its invasion of South Ossetia, the websites forOSInform News AgencyandOSRadiowere hacked. The OSinform website at osinform.ru kept its header and logo, but its content was replaced by a feed to theAlania TVwebsite content. Alania TV, a Georgian government-supported television station aimed at audiences in South Ossetia, denied any involvement in the hacking of the websites.Dmitry Medoyev, at the time the South OssetianenvoytoMoscow, claimed that Georgia was attempting to cover up information on events which occurred in the lead-up to the war.[109]One such cyber attack caused theParliament of GeorgiaandGeorgian Ministry of Foreign Affairswebsites to be replaced by images comparing Georgian presidentMikheil SaakashvilitoAdolf Hitler.[110]Other attacks involveddenials of serviceto numerous Georgian and Azerbaijani websites,[111]such as when Russian hackers allegedly disabled the servers of the Azerbaijani Day.Az news agency.[112]
In June 2019,Russiahas conceded that it is "possible" itselectrical gridis under cyber-attack by theUnited States.[113]TheNew York Timesreported that American hackers from theUnited States Cyber Commandplanted malware potentially capable of disrupting the Russian electrical grid.[114]
Even more recently, in October 2007, the website of Ukrainian presidentViktor Yushchenkowas attacked by hackers. A radical Russian nationalist youth group, theEurasian Youth Movement, claimed responsibility.[115][116]
In 1999 hackers attackedNATOcomputers. The computers flooded them with email and hit them with adenial-of-service attack. The hackers were protesting against theNATO bombings of the Chinese embassyin Belgrade. Businesses, public organizations and academic institutions were bombarded with highly politicized emails containing viruses from other European countries.[117]
In December 2018,Twitterwarned of "unusual activity" fromChinaandSaudi Arabia. A bug was detected in November that could have revealed the country code of users' phone numbers. Twitter said the bug could have had ties to "state-sponsored actors".[118][119]
In May 2021 successive waves of DDOS attacks aimed atBelnet, Belgium's public sector ISP, took down multiple government sites in Belgium. 200 sites were affected leaving public offices, universities, and research centers unable to access the internet fully or partially.[120]
Washington DC, 2003
Press, New York, 1999
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Open-source governance(also known asopen governanceandopen politics) is apolitical philosophywhich advocates the application of the philosophies of theopen-sourceandopen-contentmovements todemocraticprinciples to enable any interested citizen to add to the creation of policy, as with awikidocument. Legislation is democratically opened to the general citizenry, employing theircollective wisdomto benefit the decision-making process and improve democracy.[1]
Theories on how to constrain, limit or enable this participation vary. Accordingly, there is no one dominant theory of how to go about authoring legislation with this approach. There are a wide array of projects and movements which are working on building open-source governance systems.[2]
Manyleft-libertarianandradical centristorganizations around the globe have begun advocating open-source governance and its related political ideas as a reformist alternative to current governance systems. Often, these groups have their origins indecentralizedstructures such as the Internet and place particular importance on the need for anonymity to protect an individual's right to free speech in democratic systems. Opinions vary, however, not least because the principles behind open-source government are still very loosely defined.[3]
In practice, several applications have evolved and been used by democratic institutions:[4]
Some models are significantly more sophisticated than a plain wiki, incorporating semantic tags, levels of control or scoring to mediate disputes – however this always risks empowering a clique of moderators more than would be the case given their trust position within the democratic entity – a parallel to the common wiki problem ofofficial vandalismby persons entrusted with power by owners or publishers (so-called "sysop vandalism" or "administrative censorship").
Some advocates of these approaches, by analogy to software code, argue[citation needed]for a "central codebase" in the form of a set of policies that are maintained in a public registry and that areinfinitely reproducible. "Distributions" of this policy-base are released (periodically or dynamically) for use in localities, which can apply "patches" to customize them for their own use. Localities are also able to cease subscribing to the central policy-base and "fork" it or adopt someone else's policy-base. In effect, the government stems from emergent cooperation and self-correction among members of a community. As the policies are put into practice in a number of localities, problems and issues are identified and solved, and where appropriate communicated back to the core.
These goals for instance were cited often during theGreen Party of Canada's experiments with open-political-platform development.[citation needed]As one of over a hundred nationalGreen partyentities worldwide and the ability to co-ordinate policy among provincial and municipal equivalents within Canada, it was in a good position to maintain just such a central repository of policy, despite being legally separate from those other entities.
Open-source governance differs from previous open-government initiatives in its broader emphasis on collaborative processes. After all...
...simply publishing snapshots of government information is not enough to make it open.
The "Imagine Halifax" (IH) project was designed to create a citizens' forum for elections inHalifax, Nova Scotiain fall 2004. Founded by Angela Bischoff, the widow ofTooker Gomberg, a notable advocate of combiningdirect actionwith open politics methods, IH brought a few dozen activists together to compile a platform (using live meetings and email and seedwiki followup). When it became clear that candidates could not all endorse all elements of the platform, it was then turned into questions for candidates in the election. The best ideas from candidates were combined with the best from activists – the final scores reflected a combination of convergence and originality. In contrast to most such questionnaires, it was easier for candidates to excel by contributing original thought than by simply agreeing. One high scorer,Andrew Younger, had not been involved with the project originally but was elected and appeared on TV with project leaderMartin Willison. The project had not only changed its original goal from a partisan platform to a citizen questionnaire, but it had recruited a previously uninvolved candidate to its cause during the election. A key output of this effort was aglossaryof about 100 keywords relevant to municipal laws.
The 2004–05Green Party of Canada Living Platformwas a much more planned and designed effort at open politics. As it prepared itself for an electoral breakthrough in the2004 federal election, theGreen Party of Canadabegan to compile citizen, member and expert opinions in preparation of its platform. During the election, it gathered input even fromInternet trollsincluding supporters of other parties, with no major problems:anonymitywas respected and, if they were within the terms of use, comments remained intact. Despite, or perhaps because of, its early success, it was derailed byJim Harris, the party's leader, when he discovered that it was a threat to his status as aparty boss.[citation needed]The Living Platform split off as another service entirely out of GPC control and eventually evolved into OpenPolitics.ca[11]and a service to promote wiki usage among citizens and political groups.
TheLiberal Party of Canadaalso attempted a deep policy renewal effort in conjunction with its leadership race in 2006.[12][13]While candidates in that race, notablyCarolyn Bennett,Stéphane DionandMichael Ignatieff, all made efforts to facilitate web-threaded policy-driven conversations between supporters, all failed to create lateral relationships and thus also failed to contribute much to the policy renewal effort.
Numerous very different projects related to open-source governance collaborate under the umbrella of theMetagovernmentproject;[14]Metagovernment uses the term "collaborative governance",[15]most of which are building platforms of open-source governance.
Future Melbourne is a wiki-based collaborative environment for developing Melbourne's 10-year plan. During public consultation periods, it enables the public to edit the plan with the same editing rights as city personnel and councilors.[21]
The New Zealand Police Act Review was a wiki used to solicit public commentary during the public consultation period of the acts review.[22]
Atlinux.conf.auon January 14, 2015, inAuckland,New Zealand,AustralianAudrey Lobo-PulopresentedEvaluating Government Policies Using Open Source Models, agitating for government policy related knowledge, data and analysis to be freely available to everyone to use, modify and distribute without restriction — "a parallel universe where public policy development and analysis is a dynamic, collaborative effort between government and its citizens". Audrey reported that the motivation for her work was personal uncertainty about the nature and accuracy of models, estimates and assumptions used to prepare policies released with the 2014 Australian Federal Government Budget, and whether and to what extent their real world impact is assessed following implementation.[23]A white paper on "Evaluating Government Policies using Open Source Models" was released on September 10, 2015.[24]
The open-politics theory, a narrow application of open-source governance, combines aspects of thefree softwareandopen-contentmovements, promotingdecision-makingmethods claimed to be more open, less antagonistic, and more capable of determining what is in thepublic interestwith respect topublic policyissues. It takes special care for instance to deal with equity differences, geographic constraints, defamation versus free political speech, accountability to persons affected by decisions, and the actual standing law and institutions of a jurisdiction. There is also far more focus on compiling actual positions taken by real entities than developing theoretical "best" answers or "solutions". One example,DiscourseDB, simply lists articles pro and con a given position without organizing their argument or evidence in any way.
While some interpret it as an example of "open-source politics", open politics is not a top–down theory but a set of best practices fromcitizen journalism,participatory democracyanddeliberative democracy, informed bye-democracyandnetrootsexperiments, applying argumentation framework for issue-based argument as they evolved in academic and military use through the 1980s to present. Some variants of it draw on the theory ofscientific methodandmarket methods, includingprediction marketsandanticipatory democracy.
Its advocates often engage in legal lobbying and advocacy to directly change laws in the way of the broader application of the technology, e.g. opposingpolitical libelcases in Canada, fightinglibel chillgenerally, and calling for clarification of privacy and human rights law especially as they relate to citizen journalism. They are less focused on tools although thesemantic mediawikiandtikiwikiplatforms seem to be generally favored above all others.
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Patriotic hackingis a term forcomputer hackingorsystem crackingin which citizens or supporters of a country, traditionally industrialized Western countries but increasingly developing countries, attempt to perpetrate attacks on, or block attacks by, perceivedenemies of the state.
Recent media attention has focused on efforts related to terrorists and their own attempts to conduct an online or electronicintifada-cyberterrorism. Patriot hacking is illegal in countries such as theUnited Statesyet is on the rise elsewhere. "The FBI said that recent experience showed that an increase in international tension was mirrored in the online world with a rise in cyber activity such as web defacements and denial of service attacks," according to theBBC.[1]
At the onset of theWar in Iraqin 2003, the FBI was concerned about the increase in hack attacks as the intensity of the conflict grew.[2]Since then, it has been becoming increasingly popular in theNorth America,Western EuropeandIsrael.[citation needed]These are the countries which have the greatest threat toIslamic terrorismand its aforementioned digital version.[3]
Around the time of the2008 Summer Olympics torch relay, which was marred byunrest in Tibet, Chinese hackers claim to have hacked the websites ofCNN(accused of selective reporting on the2008 Lhasa riots[4]) andCarrefour(a French shopping chain, allegedly supporting Tibetan independence),[5]while websites and forums gave tutorials on how to launch aDDoSattack specifically on the CNN website.[citation needed][2]
Indian hackers in 2015 took down thousands of Pakistani websites including pakistan.gov.pk and Right To Information Pakistan under the attack named as #OPvijaya under the leadership of In73ct0r d3vil. This attack is considered to be a patriotic move by Indian hackers. Government of India and India's NSA Ajit Dhoval showed support to the attack on hisTwitteraccount.[6][7]
The official websites of 10 different Indian universities were hacked and defaced in 2017. A group going by the name of ‘PakistanHaxorCrew’ (PFC) claimed responsibility for the breach, saying it was retaliation forPakistan’s railwayministry website being hacked by an Indian crew few days before this breach.[8][9]
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Tactical mediais a term coined in 1996,[1][2]to denote a form ofmedia activismthat privileges temporary interventions in the media sphere over the creation of permanent andalternative mediaoutlets.
Tactical media projects are often a mix between art and activism, which explains why many of its roots can be traced to various art movements. It has been suggested by tactical media theoristGeert Lovinkthat "discourse plus art equals spectacle",[3]reflecting its striking and memorable nature. Although there are no strict mediums through which it operates, tactical media can often have very high aesthetic value, adding to its "spectacle" and reinforcing some of its artistic roots.
In 1998, computer programmer and political activistZack Exleypurchased a domain and created a website titled GWbush.com.[4]He invited the groupRTMark(pronounced Art Mark) to build a copy ofGeorge W. Bush's official website, as they had done for some corporate websites.
Later, Zack Exley changed the website to be a more mainstream satire (drawing criticism from RTMark),[5]posting a fake press release from the Bush campaign announcing a promise to "pardon all drug prisoners as long as they've learned from their past mistakes". In the midst of Bush's campaign for office, the website not only received millions of hits, but also received coverage from such organizations asABC News,USA TodayandNewsweek.[6]This phenomenon can be classified as tactical media because of its conformance to its corresponding criteria.
In 2000,Mexico'sZapatista Army of National Liberationsocial movement decided to launch a "tactical air force". The Zapatistas' air force consisted of hundreds of paper airplanes. After throwing the planes over the fence of a federal barrack, confused troops were quick to point their rifles at the paper intruders, creating an image that conveyed a very strong message of peace versus war—the target ultimately being the government.[7]
It has often been compared toculture jamming, as both use many of the same techniques in an attempt to occupy the public space controlled by mass media. Where the two practices differ is in their way to obtain this public space; while culture jamming consists of a response to the dominant practices within it, tactical media uses the dominant practices in order to penetrate it and become part of it. Tactical media has also been compared toalternative media. It differs from the latter by its manner in dealing with mass media where alternative media does not seek to infiltrate the dominant by a quick tactic; it attempts to oppose it by proposing what its name suggests: an alternative to the dominant.[8]
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1984 Network Liberty Allianceis a loose group of software programmers, artists, social activists and militants, interested in computers and networks and considering them tools to empower and link the various actors of the social movement around the world. They are part of thehacktivismmovement.
The group was formed in November 1984, during a "debriefing" workshop of theEuropean Peace Marcheson theHartmannswillerkopfinAlsace, France, following the struggle against the installation ofPershing IIandSS-20nuclear missiles in Germany (Mutlangen). From 1978 to 1985, this European-wide peace movement had mobilized millions of citizens, protesting the arms race, the growth of military spending and joining in theCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament.
In reference toGeorge Orwell's novel1984and to theRebel Allianceof the movieStar Wars, the group chose the (ironic) name1984 Network Liberty Alliance. Founders areAndré Gorz, French philosopher,Dov Lerner,MITcomputer graduate and disciple ofSaul Alinsky, as well asGregoire Seither, free radio activist,Frauke Hahnwho had led the woman's resistance ('Commons Women') atGreenham Common Women's Peace Camp,David Szwarcfrom the IsraeliPeace movementandAdama Drasiweni, computer graduate from theUniversity of London, future founder ofN'DA, Africa's first independent telecom company.
Other members, like Australian co-founder ofIndymediaMatthew Arnison, south-African anti-apartheid militantPeter Makemaand Israeli peace activistsUri AvneryandMichel Warchawsky, joined later on. All were active in various social movements and peace initiatives in Europe and the USA.
WhenRichard Stallmanpublished theGNU Manifestoin March 1985 and called for participation and support, Dov Lerner and Gregor Seither started organizing regular meetings and workshops in order to train activists in the use ofinformation technologyand gather support for theFree Softwaremovement. Adama Drasiweni, owner of a computer business in London, set up similar workshops inKibera, a giant slum outside ofNairobi,Kenya.
In France, the Alliance used the network of theMaisons de l'Informatiquethat had been set up under the presidency ofFrançois Mitterrandas well as the computer labs of Paris University, who access to academic networks and Billboard Systems. The group ran a number of BBS, among them 'Pom-Pom', devoted to the Apple Macintosh and 'PeaceNet', an "electronic pow-wow" to help social activists and community organizers exchange information around the world, offering free mail accounts and file hosting services.
Very soon the issues of free speech, software patents, civil rights and surveillance became some of the major topics addressed by the Alliance, the group being accused ofhackingandforkingsoftware. One of the BBS run by the group'Gaia rising', was accused by the German government of being a meeting point for radical environmental activists as well as anarchists.
The Liberty Alliance was particularly active in the popular worldwide resistance toMultilateral Agreement on Investments(MAI) in the mid-1990s, networking multiple groups and providing "open cyberspaces" for activists to share information and experience.
In the summer of 1998 the firstalternative media centrewas set up in a bus inBirmingham, United Kingdom during theGlobal Street Party, an international day of protest and festive actions coinciding with the 24th G8 Summit. The alternative media centres also provided interpretation and language services to international militant meetings, like during the July 1999GlobalCarnival against Capitalism, orJ18 London, a giant rally and party in the heart of the London City, meant as a counter-summit to the 25th G8 Summit in Köln, Germany.
Members of the team travelled to theWTO Ministerial Conference of 1999in Seattle to set up analternative media centreduring theWTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity. The project joined with that of other media activists and, out of the necessity to bypass the corporate media and report on a WTO conference but also to show how one could bypass corporate software (Windows), the independent media agencyIndymediawas born.
Language diversity and the lack of interpreters led a number of activists to start thinking about a way to help militants from around the world to bridge the language barrier. Three years later, during the27th G8 summitin Genoa, Italy, this would lead to the creation of theBabelsnetwork of volunteer interpreters and translators for linguistic diversity and social change.
Members of the Network Liberty Alliance have worked on social IT projects in North America (San Francisco Free Softwaremovement, Chicago community cybercenter), Central America (Nicaragua,Guatemala,Panama), the Middle-East (Egypt,Israeli Civil Administrationarea) as well as in the Asia Pacific region (Indonesia,Nouvelle-Calédonie, Australia,Papua Niugini) and Africa (Malawi,Mali,Cameroon).
When theBerlin Wallfell in 1989, another member of the Alliance, Stefan Ostrowsky, transferred "NET(te) Bude" (a play on the word NET like network, and 'Nette Bude', nice crashpad in German), a community IT training centre to East-Berlin, thus becoming the first 'Cybercafe' behind the iron curtain.
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TheEuropean Climate Exchange(ECX) managed the product development and marketing for ECX Carbon Financial Instruments (ECX CFIs), listed and admitted for trading on the ICE Futures Europeelectronic platform. For a time it was a subsidiary of theChicago Climate Exchange, but eventually became a sister company. Both companies as well as IFEX were owned by Climate Exchange Plc, aholding companylisted on theLondon Stock Exchange'sAlternative Investment Market, founded byRichard Sandor.[1][2]A chief executive was Patrick Birley, son of archaeologistRobin Birley.[3][4]While products were listed on the London Stock Exchange, the sales and marketing team was initially based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, under its first CEO, Peter Koster,[5]before moving to London in 2007. Climate Exchange Plc was bought in April 2010 byIntercontinental Exchange.[1]
ECX provided a pan-European platform forcarbon emissions trading, with itsfutures contractbased on the underlyingEU Allowances(EUAs) and Certified Emissions Allowances (CERs), which had attracted over 80% of the exchange-traded volume in the European market. ECX contracted (EUA and CER Futures, options andspot contracts) were standardised exchange-traded products.LCH.Clearnetwas the designated clearing house prior to 2008; later, all trades were cleared by ICE Clear Europe.
More than 100 businesses, including companies such asBarclays,BP,Newedge,E. ON UK,Endesa,Fortis,Goldman Sachs,Morgan StanleyandShell, signed up for membership to trade ECX products. Using a process called 'order routing, ' several hundred clients could access the market via banks and brokers without having to be members.
ECX was bought out by its partner ICE Futures Europe in 2008.
On 1 April 2009,Camp for Climate Actionprotesters set up a campsite and farmers' market outside the European Climate Exchange in Hasilwood House in Bishopsgate, City of London, to protest againstcarbon tradingas a "false solution" to the problem ofclimate change.[6][7]
On 23 July 2010, European Climate Exchange'swebsitewas targeted byhacktivistsoperating under the name ofdecocidio #ϴ. The website showed aspoofhomepagefor around 22 hours in an effort to promote the contention thatcarbon tradingis a false solution to theclimate crisis.[8]
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The Jester(also known by theleetspeakhandleth3j3st3r[1]) is a self-identifiedgrey hathacktivist. He claims to be responsible for attacks onWikiLeaks[2]andIslamistwebsites.[3]He claims to be acting out of American patriotism.[2]
The Jester has stated that he was a former soldier and had served inAfghanistanand elsewhere.[3]A former defense operative claimed that The Jester was a former military contractor involved inUS Special Operations Commandprojects.[2]
On January 1, 2010, The Jester began a campaign againstJihadistwebsites. His first target was alemarah.info, which was theTaliban's website at the time.[4][5]The Jester posted several tweets claiming to be responsible for the downtime WikiLeaks was experiencing.[2]
On November 29, 2010, someone claiming to be The Jester stated that he had been raided by the U.S. and attempted to solicit money for legal fees. The Jester purported that the person was an impostor, though writers at InfoSecIsland believe the hoax was created by The Jester himself.[6][self-published source][7]
In February 2011, The Jester claimed credit for a DoS attack on several sites belonging to theWestboro Baptist Churchfor celebrating the death of homosexual U.S. servicemen.[8]
In June 2011 The Jester vowed to find and expose members ofLulzSec.[9]He attempted to obtain and publishpersonally identifiable informationof key members within the group, whom he described as "childish".[10]In March 2011,Barrett Brownsaid The Jester was trying to identify members ofAnonymouswithBacktrace Security, a group of former members of Anonymous who disagreed with the current Anonymous.[11][12][13]On June 24, 2011, he incorrectly claimed to have revealed the identity of LulzSec leader Sabu as aninformation technology consultantpossibly fromNew York City.[14]In July of the same year, he falsely accused a Portuguese IT professional of also being Sabu, leaving The Jester's outing claims to be considered suspect.[15]However, in a post on his blog in November 2011, The Jester retracted his prior identifications for "Sabu", issued an apology and correctly identified "Sabu" as Hector Xavier Monsegur, 28, of New York.[16]Sabu's identity was confirmed on March 6, 2012, when Monsegur was arrested by the FBI and it was revealed that he had been acting as an FBI informant in the interim.[17][18]
On March 5, 2012, The Jester changed his Twitter account avatar from his signature Jester icon to aQR codewithout comment or explanation.[19]Scanning a QR code redirects a browser to a website. Scanning The Jester's icon led to a URL where he had an image of his signature Jester icon and an embedded, hidden code that allegedly exploited a vulnerability that affectsSafari,ChromeandAndroidbrowsers.[19]"When anyone scanned the original QR code using aniPhoneor Android device, their device would silently make aTCPshell connection back to my remote server," The Jester wrote.[19][20]This was however exposed to be fake[21]and the exploit was stolen from a 2-year-old CVE advisory.[22]
On May 14, 2012, The Jester's Twitter account appeared to have been deleted, along with all posts on hisWordPressblog.[23]However, the Twitter account and WordPress blog were merely temporarily deactivated and were subsequently restored May 16, 2012.[24]
On July 2, 2013, The Jester took responsibility for a series of DoS cyberattacks against theEcuadoreanstock exchange and the country's tourism website, and promised to attack any other governments considering granting asylum toNSAleakerEdward Snowden. In tweets, The Jester also alluded to a plan to seize control of the fire alarms at the Ecuadorean embassy inLondon, which would force WikiLeaks founderJulian Assangeto set foot on UK soil and face potential extradition toSwedento face sexual assault charges.[25]
On October 21, 2016, The Jester took responsibility for "defacing" the official website of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The "hack" was later shown to be fake.[26]
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Internet vigilantismis the act of carrying outvigilanteactivities through theInternet. The term encompasses vigilantism against allegedscams,crimes, and non-Internet-related behavior.
The expanding scope of media savvy and online interaction has enabled vigilantes to utilize methods specific to the Internet in order to distribute justice to parties they consider to be corrupt, but who have not committed a formal crime or have not been held accountable by thecriminal justice system.[1]
Internet vigilantism originated in the early 2000s and has since evolved to include a variety of methods such ashacking, baiting, andpublic shaming. Internet vigilantism changes in cultural and political drive depending on location, and has varying relationships to state authority depending on context. There are many internet vigilante groups as well as individuals.
The term internet vigilantism describes punitive public denunciations, aimed at swaying public opinion in order to “take justice into one's own hands” by engaging in forms of targeted surveillance, unwanted attention, negative publicity, repression, coercion or dissuasion. Associate professor in sociology Benjamin Loveluck identifies the four main forms of internet vigilantism as: flagging, investigation, hounding, and organized denunciation. Also referred to by Steve Man asSousveillance, meaning "to watch from below", internet vigilantism can work as a type of peer surveillance. This is based on the premise that shame can be used as a form of social control.[2]Augustė Dementavičienė defines the phenomena through the concept ofSwarms, which are "Short term relationships between consumers formed for the purpose of achieving a goal".[3]There are muddied overlaps between internet vigilantism andcyberbullying, as both utilize public shaming methods, and cyberbullying may sometimes be conducted under the guise of internet vigilantism. This is in the case that the vigilante "realizes they aren't achieving social justice but utilize it as a means of rationalizing their acts".[4]Cyberbullying often involves publishing of private information to publicly humiliate the target, but is typically driven by the bully's ability to get away with harassment, rather than a desire for social change.[5]Digital vigilantism can also overlap with digital activism, as the awareness of a social issue may increase due to the dissemination of information and weaponization of visibility associated with digital vigilante tactics. Visibility enables the broadening of social outrage,[6]and is used in digital social justice campaigns such as #MiTuInChina.[7]
The following are methods of internet vigilantism that have been used or proposed for use:
The act of publicly shaming other internet users online. Those who are shamed online have not necessarily committed any social transgression. Online shaming may be used to getrevenge(for example, in the form ofrevenge pornography),stalk,blackmail, or to threaten other internet users.[8]Emotions, social media as a cultural product, and the mediascape, are all important factors as to how online shaming is perceived.[9]
The act of publishing personal details online to incur social punishment of the target.[10]In 2019, the Kentucky Senate proposed a bill to ban the doxxing of children after a teenager, Nick Sandmann and a Native American activist, Nathan Phillips were filmed in a confrontation at a protest rally which went viral.[11]Sandmann's father claimed his son endured "The most sensational Twitter attack on a minor child in the history of the Internet."[12]
Public shaming based on the perspective that the act is meant to shame the behavior rather than the target, and that the target can be redeemed and reintegrated into society. This approach utilizes shame as a means of social control and deterrent from deviating from social norms.[2]
A method originating in China in the early 2000s, which works as a cyber manhunt. It consists of crowdsourcing and pooling together information from the public via online forums to conduct vigilante justice through the Internet.[13]
In the field of internet vigilantism, information entropy is an act intended to disrupt online services.[10]
DoS and DDoS attacks, a form of information entropy, involve a widespread effort to make a website inaccessible to legitimate users. The method is to overwhelm the website with traffic so that it crashes.[10]DoS attacks grew in popularity due toLow Orbit Ion Cannon(LOIC), which is an open source application that enables denial of service attacks.[14]
Hacking which is used as a form of political activism.[15]
When vigilantes interact with scammers simply to waste their time and resources.[6]Others, such as Northern Irish scam baiterJim Browning, carry out investigative operations infiltrating call centres and intervening in the case of victims who are scammed out of their money.[16]
Identity theftactivism is similar to scam baiting but deals with identity theft.[clarification needed][6]
In 2002 in theUnited States,RepresentativeHoward Bermanproposed thePeer to Peer Piracy Prevention Act, which would have protected copyright holders from liability for taking measures to prevent the distribution, reproduction or display of their copyrighted works onpeer-to-peercomputer networks.[17]Berman stated that the legislation would have given copyright holders "both carrots and sticks" and said that "copyright owners should be free to use reasonable, limited self-help measures to thwart P2P piracy if they can do so without causing harm."[18]Smith Collegeassistant professor James D. Miller acknowledged the threats to the privacy of legitimate internet users that such actions would pose, but drew comparisons with other successful crime-fighting measures that can invade privacy, such asmetal detectorsatairports.[19]
Internet vigilantism originated in the early 2000s. It gained traction as a widespread social phenomena in China, where it has been used as a method of exposing government corruption and utilizing civic engagement. It is also a means of sharing previously censored or unavailable information. The popularity of these activities arose due to theHuman flesh search engine, which enables the conduction of cyber manhunts. The first of these manhunts was conducted in 2006, when a video surfaced online of a woman killing a kitten with her high heels.[13]A similar example can be seen in the Netflix TV showDon't F**k with Cats: Hunting an Internet Killer, in which a widespread effort by internet vigilantes is made to track down a serial cat murderer on the Internet, who had been posting anonymous videos of their activities. In 2008, cyber vigilantism was used inShenzhen, China to expose a government official for attempted child molestation. Surveillance videos from the restaurant in which the assault took place were released on the Internet to expose the official, as he had previously claimed his government position would protect him from incurring any punishment.[13]
Internet vigilantism has also been used to punish online bullies. For example, the case ofMegan Meier, a teenager who committed suicide due to online bullying. The perpetrators weredoxxedby bloggers who committed themselves to ensuring their social punishment and loss of employment.[6]
InSingapore, cyber vigilantism became a popular form of peer surveillance and is largely viewed as a form of civic engagement. Whereas acts of online vigilantism in China have largely been used as a means of punishment and exposing social corruption, cases inSingaporerevolve mainly around exposing fellow citizens for inconsiderate behavior such as not cleaning up after one's dog. Online shaming is viewed by the vigilantes asreintegrative shaming, as they claim their actions are a means of shaming the behavior rather than the perpetrator. This brand of vigilantism is seen as being in line with the morals of a largely collectivist society.[2]
Digital vigilantism can be viewed as a menace to the authorities, or an expression of digital citizenship, depending on the context. Vigilantes may view their actions as digital citizenship if they are seeking to improve the safety of online interaction.
According to K.K. Silva, "Vigilantes' responses to perceived malicious activity have reportedly caused the loss of digital evidence, thereby obstructing law enforcement's effort in ascertaining attribution and jurisdiction over cybercrime offences."[20]Therefore internet vigilantism is generally in opposition to legitimate criminal investigations, and viewed as tampering with evidence.[20]However, there are cases in which internet vigilantism is legally protected, such as when it falls under laws relating to protection of the other.[20]There have also been cases in which vigilantes have cooperated with criminal justice investigations, such as the cases ofBrickerBotandWannaCry ransomware attack.[20]In both of these cases, vigilantes cooperated with authorities, utilizingcybercrimemethods to fight cybercrime and prevent further damage.[20]
Conversely, internet vigilantism can also work for the interests of the Government or for the government, as is sometimes the case inRussia. Two non profit groups practicing internet vigilantism,Safe Internet League, and Molodezhnaia Sluzhba Bezopasnosti (Youth Security Service), attempted to pass a bill that would enable unpaid volunteers to regulate the Internet, also known as the Cyber Cossak movement.[21]These groups argue that their aim is to identify content that is extreme or dangerous for children such as child porn, and track down the creators of the content", however, the bill has drawn high amounts of skepticism from those who argued that it is reminiscent of Soviet peer surveillance and a breach ofdata privacyrights.[21]
The Russian youth groupNashi, who conducted a vigilante project calledStopXam, had been publicly supported byVladimir Putin, who had posed for a picture with them. The group became prominent in the Russian media through publicly shaming bad drivers and filming their (often violent) altercations with them. The group fell out of favor with the Russian government and was liquidated after targeting an Olympic athlete.[22]
In the case of theUnite the Right rallyinCharlottesville,Virginia, internet vigilantism was used to help police track down violent protestors, as well as bring justice when the police were considered by the public to be doing so inadequately. This includeddoxingand public shaming of the protestors via Twitter.[11]
There are many internet vigilante groups permeating the Internet, with different motivations and levels of anonymity.
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The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartzis a 2014 Americanbiographicaldocumentary filmaboutAaron Swartzwritten, directed, and produced byBrian Knappenberger.[3][4]The filmpremieredin theUS Documentary Competition programcategory at the2014 Sundance Film Festivalon January 20, 2014.[5]
After its premiere at Sundance,Participant Mediaand FilmBuff acquired distribution rights of the film. The film was released to theatres andVODon June 27, 2014, in United States.[6]It was followed by a broadcast television premiere on Participant's network Pivot in late 2014.[7][8][9][10]
The film also played at the 2014SXSWon March 15, 2014.[11]It served as the opening film at the 2014Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festivalon April 24, 2014.[12]
The film's UK premiere took place atSheffield Doc/Festin June 2014 and won the Sheffield Youth Jury Award that year.[13]In August 2014, the film was screened at theBarbican Centrein London as part ofWikimania 2014. TheBBCalso aired the film in January 2015 as part of itsStoryvilledocumentary brand. It was also released on the Internet with aCreative CommonsBY-NC-SA 4.0license.[14]
The film depicts the life of American computer programmer, writer, political organizer, and Internet activistAaron Swartz. Footage of Swartz as a child is featured at the start and end of the film. The film is narrated by figures from Swartz's life, including his parents, brothers, girlfriends, and co-workers....
The film received positive response from critics.[15]Review aggregatorRotten Tomatoesgives the film a 93% rating based on reviews from 57 critics, with an average score of 7.3/10.[16]
Geoffrey Berkshire in his review forVarietydescribed it as "A spellbinding portrait of the Internet whiz kid's life and political convictions, which were cut short by his suicide in early 2013."[17]John DeFore ofThe Hollywood Reportergave the film a positive review and said that it was an "Excellent newbie-friendly account of a story that rocked the Web's cognoscenti."[18]Katherine Kilkenny fromIndiewiresaid that "The Internet's Own Boyaspires to provokeCapitol Hillby educating its viewers to inspire questions. Questions for those revered leaders inSilicon Valley– and for a government whose restrictions of the internet have been applied with a sledgehammer, as one source of the film says, instead of a scalpel."[19]In her review forThe Daily Telegraph, Amber Wilkinson gave the film three stars out of five and said that "Knappenberger's film is a heavy watch, mostly using talking heads and footage of Swartz before his death to tell a story which comes to question the state of civil liberties in the US."[20]
In December 2014 the film was listed among 15 films on a "short list" to advance to a round of voting for Documentary Feature in the87th Academy Awards,[21]however it did not advance to a nomination. The film later won the award forBest Documentary Screenplayfrom theWriters Guild of America.[22]
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Milw0rmis a group ofhacktivists[1]best known for penetrating the computers of theBhabha Atomic Research Centre(BARC) inMumbai, the primary nuclear research facility ofIndia, on June 3, 1998.[2]The group conducted hacks for political reasons,[3]including the largest mass hack up to that time, inserting ananti-nuclearweapons agenda and peace message on its hacked websites.[4][5]The group's logo featured the slogan "Putting the power back in the hands of the people."[6]
The BARC attack generated heated debate on the security of information in a world prevalent with countries developing nuclear weapons and the information necessary to do so, the ethics of "hacker activists" or "hacktivists," and the importance of advanced security measures in a modern world filled with people willing and able to break into insecure international websites.
The exploit site milw0rm.com and str0ke are unaffiliated with the milw0rm hacker group.
Little is known about the members of milw0rm, which is typical of hacking groups, which often conceal members' identities to avoid prosecution.[7]The international hacking team "united only by theInternet"[citation needed][8]was composed of teenagers[9]who went by the aliases of JF, Keystroke, ExtreemUK, savec0re, and VeNoMouS.[10]VeNoMouS, 18, hailed from New Zealand, ExtreemUK and JF, 18, from England, Keystroke, 16, from the US and Savec0re, 17, from the Netherlands.
JF went on to achieve a modicum of notoriety whenMTV"hacked" its own website intentionally and graffitied the words "JF Was Here" across the page,[11]at the same time that JF was under investigation for the milw0rm attacks byScotland Yard.[12]Hundreds of pages hosted on MTV.com sported the new JF logo, including one page that read, "JF was here, greets to milw0rm".[13]MTV later confirmed that the alleged JF "hack" was a publicity stunt to promote the appearance of a commentator named Johnny Fame at the1998 MTV Video Music Awards.[12]Many were puzzled by the apparent hack committed by JF since the hacker was "known for relatively high ethical standards."[12]
VeNoMouS claimed that he learned to crack into systems fromEhud Tenenbaum, an Israeli hacker known as The Analyzer.[14]
On the night of June 3, 1998, the group used a US military.milmachine to break into theLANof BARC and gainedroot access. The group gained access to five megabytes of confidential emails and documents. These emails included correspondence between the center's scientists relating to the development of nuclear weapons. Savec0re erased all the data on two servers as a protest against the center's nuclear capabilities. They changed the center's webpage to display a mushroom cloud along with an anti-nuclear message and the phrase "Don't think destruction is cool, coz its not".[14][15]
The group of teenagers were from theUnited States,United KingdomandNew Zealand.[16]
Milw0rm then came forward with the security flaws they exploited in BARC's system, along with some of the thousands of pages of documents they had lifted from the server, concerning India's last five nuclear detonations.
After the attack Keystroke claimed that the breach had taken "13 minutes and 56 seconds" to execute. Though it was later reported that Keystroke meant this as a lighthearted answer. The invasion took careful planning, routing through servers throughout the world from three different continents, and took days to execute.[17]
The security breach was first reported byWiredNews. JF and VeNoMouS claimed credit by emailingWiredreporterJames Glavewith documents they had obtained from the BARC servers as proof.[15]
After first denying that any incident had occurred, BARC officials admitted that the center had indeed been hacked and emails had been downloaded. It was reported that the security flaw resulted from "a very normal loophole in Sendmail".Forbeswrote that perhaps up to 100 hackers had followed milw0rm's footsteps into the BARC servers once they were revealed as insecure.[18]The website was shut down while its security was upgraded.[15]BARC officials said that none of the emails contained confidential information, the group did not destroy data, and that the computers they have that contain important data were isolated from the ones broken into.[17]
The milw0rm attack caused other groups to heighten their security to prevent invasion by hackers. The U.S. Army announced, without giving evidence as to why they believed this to be the case, that the hacks might have originated inTurkey.[15]
Later,Khalid Ibrahimapproached members of milw0rm and attempted to buy classified documents from them. According to savec0re, Ibrahim threatened to kill him if the hacker did not turn over the classified documents in question.[19]Savec0re toldKevin Mitnickthat Ibrahim first approached him posing as a family member of anFBIagent who could grant immunity to the members of milw0rm.[20]
TheElectronic Disturbance Theaterreleased a statement in support of JF, applauding him for his hacktivism and maintaining that computer break-ins of this sort were not cyber-terrorism as some claim.[21]
One month after the BARC incident, in July 1998, milw0rm hacked the British web hosting companyEasyspace, putting their anti-nuclear mushroom cloud message on more than 300 of Easyspace's websites,[22]along with text that read: "This mass takeover goes out to all the people out there who want to see peace in this world."[23]
Wiredreported that this incident was perhaps the "largest 'mass hack' ever undertaken."[23]TheUnited States Department of DefenseadviserJohn Arquillalater wrote that it was one of the largest hacks ever seen.[24]Some of the sites hacked in the incident were for theWorld Cup,Wimbledon, the Ritz Casino,Drew Barrymore, and theSaudiroyal family.[23]The text placed on the sites read in part, "This mass takeover goes out to all the people out there who want to see peace in this world... This tension is not good, it scares you as much as it scares us. For you all know that this could seriously escalate into a big conflict between India and Pakistan and possibly even World War III, and this CANNOT happen... Use your power to keep the world in a state of PEACE."[25]
While scanning a network for weaknesses, members of the group came across EasySpace, a British company which hosted many sites on one server. Along with members of the fellow hacking group Ashtray Lumberjacks,[6]milw0rm had the revised mushroom cloud image and text on all of Easyspace's websites in less than one hour.[23]Vranesevich said that the mass hack was rare in its effect and its intention: the hackers seemed to be more interested in political purposes than exposing computer security flaws.[23]
It was also reported that milw0rm broke into a Turkish nuclear facility in addition to BARC.[26]
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TheCitizen Labis an interdisciplinary laboratory based at theMunk School of Global Affairsat theUniversity of Toronto, Canada. It was founded byRonald Deibertin 2001. The laboratory studies information controls that impact the openness and security of the Internet and that pose threats tohuman rights.[1]The organization uses a "mixed methods" approach which combines computer-generated interrogation,data mining, and analysis with intensivefield research, qualitativesocial science, and legal andpolicy analysismethods. The organization has played a major role in providing technical support to journalists investigating the use ofNSO Group'sPegasus spywareon journalists, politicians and human rights advocates.
The Citizen Lab was a founding partner of theOpenNet Initiative(2002–2013) and theInformation Warfare Monitor(2002–2012) projects. The organization also developed the original design of thePsiphoncensorship circumvention software, which was spun out of the Lab into a private Canadian corporation (Psiphon Inc.) in 2008.
In a 2009 report "TrackingGhostNet", researchers uncovered a suspectedcyber espionagenetwork of over 1,295 infected hosts in 103 countries between 2007 and 2009, a high percentage of which were high-value targets, includingministries of foreign affairs, embassies, international organizations, news media, and NGOs. The study was one of the first public reports to reveal a cyber espionage network that targetedcivil societyand government systems internationally.[2]
InShadows in the Cloud(2010), researchers documented a complex ecosystem of cyber espionage that systematically compromised government, business, academic, and other computer network systems inIndia, the offices of theDalai Lama, theUnited Nations, and several other countries.[3]
InMillion Dollar Dissident, published in August 2016, researchers discovered thatAhmed Mansoor, one of theUAE Five, a human rights defender in the United Arab Emirates, was targeted withPegasussoftware developed by Israeli cyber-intelligence firmNSO Group. Prior to the releases of the report, researchers contacted Apple who released a security update that patched the vulnerabilities exploited by the spyware operators.[4]Mansoor was imprisoned one year later and as of 2021, is still in jail.[5]
Researchers reported in October 2018, that NSO Group surveillance software was used to spy on the "inner circle" ofJamal Khashoggijust before his murder, "are being targeted in turn by international undercover operatives." A Citizen Lab October report revealed that NSO's "signature spy software" which had been placed on the iPhone of Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, one of Khashoggi's confidantes, months before. Abdulaziz said that Saudi Arabia spies used the hacking software to reveal Khashoggi's "private criticisms of the Saudi royal family". He said this "played a major role" in his death.[6][7]
According to a January 24, 2019AP Newsreport, Citizen Lab researchers were "being targeted" by "international undercover operatives" for its work onNSO Group.[6]
In January 2019, Citizen Lab invited theAssociated Pressto help reveal an undercover spy operation targeting reporters at Citizen Lab carried out by the firmBlack Cube.[8]Ronan Farrowadded to this reporting through interviews with a source of his who was involved in that espionage incident, among others.[9]
In March 2019,The New York Timesreported that Citizen Lab had been a target of the UAE contractorDarkMatter.[10]
A major international investigation conducted from 2020 to 2022 into the use ofPegasus spywareon journalists, politicians and human rights activists around the world relied on Citizen Lab andAmnesty International's Security Lab for technical support.[11]
In 2021, Citizen Lab along with Amnesty International's Security Lab analysedFront Line Defenders' report on the hacking of devices of six Palestinianhuman rights defenders(two were dual nationals; one French, one American) working for civil society organisations based in theWest Bank. Four of the hacked devices used IsraeliSIM cards(which NSO Group claimed was not allowed).[12]
In 2023, Citizen Lab found evidence ofNSO Group's hacking toolPegasusin a war setting for the first time[13]as well as in the device of a lead investigator of a Mexican human rights investigation.[14]
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HackThisSite.org(HTS) is an online hacking and security website founded byJeremy Hammond. The site is maintained by members of the community after he left the organization.[1]It aims to provide users with a way to learn and practice basic and advanced "hacking" skills through a series of challenges in a safe and legal environment. The organization has a user base of over a million,[2]though the number of active members is believed to be much lower. The most users online at the same time was 19,950 on February5, 2018 at2:46 a.m.CT.[2]
HackThisSite involves a small, loose team of developers and moderators who maintain its website, IRC server, and related projects. It produces ane-zinewhich it releases at varioushacker conventionsand through its hackbloc portal. Hard copies of the magazine are published byMicrocosmand Quimbys. It also has a short news/blog section run bydevelopers.
HackThisSite is known for itsIRCnetwork, where many users converse on a plethora of topics ranging from current events to technical issues with programming andUnix-based operating systems. Mostly, the HackThisSite IRC network serves as a social gathering of like-minded people to discuss anything. Although there are many channels on the IRC network, the main channel, #hackthissite, has a +R flag which requires users to register their nick (username) before they may join the channel. This requirement helps reduce botnets in the main channel, because they would have to register every nick.
Following the split[citation needed]from its former sister siteCriticalSecurity.Net, HackThisSite retained one main set offorums. The Hackbloc forums also had many HackThisSite users involved, but they were taken down. Before the split, theCriticalSecurity.netforums had most HTS discussion, specifically related to help with the challenges on the site as well as basic hacking questions. TheHackblocforums were more for focused hacktivist discussion as well as a place for people to discuss news and plan future projects. Many people[who?]criticize the forums as being too beginner-focused compared to IRC, most likely because many new users visit the forums to ask for help with the challenges. HackThisSite is taking steps to try to attract more qualified users to its forums.
Members contribute original texts to the articles area of the site. This area is broken down into different sections on a range of topics. Some of these sections include Ethics, HTS Challenge Tutorials, and Political Activism. The topics covered in these articles range widely in complexity. Topics range fromwalkthroughsfor the missions provided by HackThisSite, to articles regarding advanced techniques in a plethora of programming languages.
HackThisSiteis also host to a series of "missions" aimed at simulating real world hacks. These range from ten basic missions where one attempts to exploit relatively simpleserver-side scriptingerrors, to difficultprogrammingandapplicationcracking missions. The missions work on a system of points where users are awarded scores based on their completion of missions.
In general, the missions become steadily more difficult as the user advances through a particular mission category.
The Web hacking challenges includes eleven Basic Web Challenges. Each challenge consists of an authentication page with a password entry box, plus other files which are to be exploited or attacked in order to gain the correct password. Successful authentication to the main challenge page will advance the user to the next challenge. These challenges are typically considered simple and are used as an introduction to hacking.
There are sixteen Realistic Missions which attempt to mimic real, moderate to difficult hacking, in real life situations. Each mission is a complete web site featuring multiple pages and scripts. Users must successfully exploit one or more of the web sites pages to gain access to required data or to produce changes.
A Programming Challenges section also exists. This section currently consists of twelve challenges charging the user to write a program which will perform a specified function within a certain number of seconds after activation. These programming challenges range from simple missions such as parsing the contents, to reverse-engineering an encryption algorithm. These help users develop and practice on-the-go programming skills.
The goal of application challenges is generally to extract a key from an application, which usually involves some form of reverse-engineering. Other challenges involve program manipulation.
More recently, HTS came out with logic challenges, which moo, HTS's official bot, proclaimed were "not meant as a challenge to overcome like the rest of HTS challenges." Instead, the logic challenges were meant to be overcome by the participant alone from solving. In April 2009, they were disabled and all points earned from logic challenges were removed. Reasons included concern that the answers could have been easily found elsewhere on the internet.[3]
Likewise, the "extended basic" missions are of recent creation. These are designed to be code review missions where partakers learn how to read code and search for flaws.
A set of 10 easter eggs hidden around HTS were known as the "HTS missions." For example, one of these "missions" was the fake Admin Panel. Developers later decided to remove HTS easter eggs, as some allowed XSS and SQL exploits and many members submitted false bug reports as a result.
Steganographymissions are also available on the website. The goal in these missions is to extract the hidden message from the media file provided. There are 17 steganography missions available.[4]
There has been criticism that HackThisSite's self-description as a "hacker training ground" encourages people to break the law. Many people related to the site state that although some of the skills taughtcanbe used for illegal activities, HackThisSite does not participate in or support such activities. Despite this, several individual members have been arrested and convicted for illegal activity (most notablyJeremy Hammond, founder of HackThisSite).[5]
In November 2004 the (now defunct) HackThisSite-basedHowDarkSecurity Group notified the phpBB Group, makers of the phpBB bulletin software, of a serious vulnerability[6][7][8]in the product. The vulnerability was kept under wraps while it was brought to the attention of the phpBB admins, who after reviewing, proceeded to downplay its risks.[9]Unhappy with the Groups' failure to take action,HowDarkthen published the bug on thebugtraqmailing-list. Malicious users found and exploited the vulnerability which led to the takedown of several phpBB-based bulletin boards and websites. Only then did the admins take notice[10]and release a fix.[11][12][13]Slowness to patch the vulnerability by end-users led to an implementation of theexploitin thePerl/Santyworm (readfull article) which defaced upwards of 40,000 websites and bulletin boards within a few hours of its release.
On March 17, 2005,Jeremy Hammond, the founder of HackThisSite, was arrested following anFBIinvestigation into an alleged hacking of conservative political activist groupProtest Warrior. His apartment was raided by the Chicago FBI, and all electronic equipment was seized. The federal government claimed that a select group of HackThisSite hackers gained access to the Protest Warrior user database, procured user credit-card information and conspired to run scripts that would automatically wire money to a slew of non-profit organizations. The plot was uncovered when a hacker said to have been disgruntled with the progress of the activity's turned informant.[14][15]
Administrators, developers, and moderators on HackThisSite are arranged in a democratic but highly anarchical fashion. This structure appears to work at most times. When disputes arise, however, loyalties tend to become very confusing. Therefore, HackThisSite has had a long history of administrators, developers, and moderators turningdarksideor severely impairing or completely taking down the site.[16][17]In the last major attack to occur, several blackhatdissidentsgained root-level access to the website and proceeded to "rm -rf" the entire site. Subsequently, HTS was down for months as a result.
[[Category:Hacking (computer security baypas
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Jeremy Alexander Hammond(born January 8, 1985), also known by his online monikersup_g,[1]is an Americananarchistactivist and former computer hacker fromChicago. He founded the computer security training websiteHackThisSite[2]in 2003.[3]He was first imprisoned over theProtest Warriorhack in 2005 and was later convicted ofcomputer fraudin 2013 forhacking the private intelligence firm Stratforand releasing data toWikiLeaks,[4]and sentenced to 10 years in prison.[5]
In 2019, he was summoned before a Virginiafederal grand jurywhich was investigatingWikiLeaksand its founderJulian Assange. He was held incivil contempt of courtafter refusing to testify on the principle of grand jury resistance.[6][7]
He was released from prison in November 2020.[8]
Jeremy Alexander Hammond[9]was born and raised in theChicagosuburb ofGlendale Heights, Illinois, with his twin brother Jason.[2][10]Hammond became interested in computers at an early age, programming video games inQBasicby age eight, and building databases by age thirteen.[2][11]As a student atGlenbard East High Schoolin the nearby suburb ofLombard, Hammond won first place in a district-wide science competition for a computer program he designed.[2]While inhigh school, he became a peace activist, organizing a student walkout on the day of theIraq invasionand starting a student newspaper to oppose theIraq War. His high school principal described Hammond as "old beyond his years".[2]
Hammond attended theUniversity of Illinois at Chicago. In the spring of 2004, during his freshman year, he exploited a security flaw on the computer science department's website and went to department administrators, offering to help fix the security flaws on the site and looking to get a job.[3]For inserting thebackdoor, Hammond was called before the department chair and ultimately banned from returning for his sophomore year.[2][11]
Jeremy, along with his brother Jason, has had a lifelong interest in music, performing in numerous bands through the years. Before Jeremy's arrests, they were both actively performing in the Chicagoskaband Dirty Surgeon Insurgency.[11]
Hammond worked as aMac technicianinVilla Park, Illinois.[3]He also worked as a web developer for Chicago-based Rome & Company. His boss at Rome & Company wrote in 2010 that Hammond is "friendly, courteous and polite and while we suspect he has a low tolerance for corporate posturing, he has never demonstrated any contempt for business in the workplace".[12]
Hammond founded the computer security training website HackThisSite at age 18, during the summer after his high school graduation.[3]The website describes itself as "a non-profit organization that strives to protect a good security culture and learning atmosphere".[13]In its first two years the site received 2.5 million hits and acquired 110,000 members and a volunteer staff of 34.[3]
During the 2004DEF CONevent inLas Vegas, Hammond delivered a talk that encouraged "electronic civil disobedience" as a means of protest against the2004 Republican National Conventionand its supporters.[3][14]
In February 2005, Hammond, with others, hacked the website of pro-warcounterprotestinggroupProtest Warriorand accessed thousands of credit card numbers, intending to use them to donate to left-wing groups. Although no charges were ever made against the cards, Hammond confessed and was sentenced to two years in federal prison for the crime. Freed after 18 months, Hammond was radicalized by the experience, although the terms of his probation prohibited him from associating with HackThisSite or anarchist groups for another three years.[15]
On March 5, 2012, Hammond was arrested byFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI) agents in theBridgeportneighborhood ofChicago[16][17][18]for his involvement in theDecember 2011 cyberattack on Stratfor, a private intelligence firm.[14]The intrusion compromised 60,000 credit card numbers, $700,000 in fraudulent charges, and involved the download of 5 million emails, some of which were subsequently published byWikiLeaks.[14]The indictment was unsealed the following day in theManhattan federal district court.[19]He was one of six individuals from the United States, England and Ireland indicted.[20]
The FBI was led to Hammond through information given by computer hackerHector Xavier Monsegur("Sabu"), who became a government informant immediately after his arrest in early 2011, and subsequently pleaded guilty in August 2011 to twelve counts of hacking, fraud, andidentity theft. Although Monsegur could have received a sentence of more than 20 years in prison, prosecutors asked that he be sentenced to time served, which was seven months in prison.[21][22][23][24]Information from Monsegur helped lead the authorities to at least eight co-conspirators, including Hammond,[21]and helped to disrupt at least 300 cyberattacks.[22]
The case was prosecuted by the office ofPreet Bharara, theUnited States Attorney for the Southern District of New York.[25][26]Hammond was represented byElizabeth Fink.[27]
Sabu wasdetained pending trial; in denying bail, JudgeLoretta A. Preskadescribed Hammond as "a very substantial danger to the community."[28]In February 2013, the defense filed a motion asking presiding Judge Preska to recuse herself from the case on the basis that Preska's husband, Thomas Kavaler, had an email address released in the Stratfor disclosure and worked with Stratfor clients that were affected by the hack. Hammond's legal team argued that this created "appearance of partiality too strong to be disregarded".[29][30]Preska denied the motion, claiming that the connections were inconsequential or unimportant.[31]
In May 2013, Hammond pleaded guilty[14]to one count of violating theComputer Fraud and Abuse Act(CFAA).[32]Upon his guilty plea, Hammond issued a statement saying, "I did work withAnonymousto hack Stratfor, among other websites" and "I did what I believe is right."[14]He maintained that he had no profit motive for the cyberattack.[14]Hammond has insisted that he would not have carried out the breach of Stratfor's systems without the involvement of Sabu. Hammond was sentenced on November 15, 2013, to the maximum of ten years in prison, followed by three years of supervised release.[32]He described his prosecution and sentence as a "vengeful, spiteful act."[32]On November 17, 2020, Hammond was released from theMemphis Federal Correctional Institutionand was transferred to a recovery house to serve the rest of his sentence.[8]
In October 2019, Hammond was summoned before a Virginiafederal grand jurywhich was investigatingWikiLeaksand its founderJulian Assange. He was held incivil contempt of courtby JudgeAnthony Trengaafter refusing to testify.[6][7]Prosecutors granted Hammondimmunity from prosecutionbased on any grand jury testimony, so Hammond could not refuse to testify on the ground of hisright against self-incrimination.[6]LikeChelsea Manning(who was also held in contempt for refusing to testify), Hammond said he was ideologically opposed to any grand jury probe which was not being conducted in "good faith" as the government already had the information it needed.[6]In making his contempt ruling, Trenga stated that Hammond's arguments against testifying were "self-serving assertions … without support."[6]Trenga ordered Hammond released in March 2020 after the conclusion of the grand jury, saying that prosecutors no longer required his testimony. Hammond was returned to federal prison to serve the balance of his 10 year sentence. Hammond may have received an early release in December 2019 had the grand jury not intervened.[7]
Hammond was released from prison in November 2020.[8]
In August 2024, Hammond was charged with spray painting an anarchist symbol on a police car during pro-Palestinian protests at theDemocratic National Conventionin Chicago.[33]
He frequently identifies as ananarchistand has a shoulder tattoo of theanarchy symbolwith the words: "Freedom, equality, anarchy."[32]Writing after his arrest, Hammond said, "I have always made it clear that I am ananarchist-communist– as in I believe we need to abolishcapitalismand the state in its entirety to realize a free,egalitariansociety. I'm not into watering down or selling out the message or making it more marketable for the masses."[34]
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Mr. Robotis an Americandrama thrillertelevision series created bySam EsmailforUSA Network. It starsRami Malekas Elliot Alderson, acybersecurityengineer andhackerwithsocial anxiety disorder,clinical depression, anddissociative identity disorder. Elliot is recruited by aninsurrectionary anarchistknown as "Mr. Robot", played byChristian Slater, to join a group ofhacktivistscalled "fsociety". The group aims to destroy all debt records byencryptingthe financial data of E Corp, the largestconglomeratein the world.
Thepilotpremiered via online andvideo on demandservices on May 27, 2015. In addition to Malek and Slater, the series stars an ensemble cast featuringCarly Chaikin,Portia Doubleday,Martin Wallström,Michael Cristofer,Stephanie Corneliussen,Grace Gummer,BD Wong,Bobby Cannavale,Elliot Villar, andAshlie Atkinson. The first season debuted on USA Network on June 24, 2015; the second season premiered on July 13, 2016; and the third season premiered on October 11, 2017. The fourth and final season premiered on October 6, 2019, and concluded on December 22, 2019.
Mr. Robotreceived critical acclaim, particularly for the performances of Malek and Slater, its story and visual presentation andMac Quayle's musical score. The series has gained acult following. Esmail has received praise for his direction of the series, having directed three episodes in the first season before serving as the sole director for the remainder of the show. The show receivednumerous accolades, including twoGolden Globe Awards, threePrimetime Emmy Awards, and aPeabody Award.
The series follows Elliot Alderson, a young man living inNew York City, who works at the cybersecurity company Allsafe as acybersecurity engineer. Constantly struggling withsocial anxiety,dissociative identity disorder,clinical depressionanddrug abuse, Elliot's thought process seems heavily influenced byparanoiaanddelusion.[1]He connects with people byhackingthem, which often leads him to act as a cyber-vigilante. He is recruited by a mysteriousinsurrectionary anarchistknown as Mr. Robot and joins his team ofhacktivistsknown as fsociety.[2]One of their missions is to cancel allconsumer debtby encrypting all the data of one of the largest corporations in the world, E Corp (which Elliot perceives as Evil Corp), which also happens to be Allsafe's biggest client.[3]
The series is described as atechno-thriller[4][5]andpsychological thriller.[6][7][8]
Sam Esmail, the show's creator and showrunner, is the credited writer on the vast majority of the episodes.[39]In an interview, Esmail shared that he is fascinated byhacker cultureand wanted to make a film about it for around 15 years.[40]In the production, Esmail consulted experts to give a realistic picture of hacking activities.[41]Another inspiration for Esmail, who is of Egyptian descent, was the2011 Arab Spring, mainly theEgyptian Revolution, where young people who were angry at society usedsocial mediato bring about a change.[42][43]He has said that Elliot is a "thinly-veiled version" of himself.[44]
Esmail had originally intendedMr. Robotto be afeature film, with the end of the first act being someone finding out that he had a mental disorder while enacting a greater scheme.[45]However, midway through writing the first act, he found that the script had expanded considerably, and that it had become better-suited for a television show.[46]He removed 20 of around 89 pages of the script then written, and used it as the pilot for the series,[47]and what was to have been the end of the first act became the finale of the first season.[45]Esmail took the script to film and television production companyAnonymous Contentto see if it could be developed into a television series, which was then picked up by USA Network. USA gave a pilot order toMr. Robotin July 2014.[48]After an exhaustive search to cast the lead role, it was announced in September 2014 thatRami Malekhad been cast as Elliot;[49]the remainder of the roles in the pilot were cast later in September and October.[50][51]
USA picked it up to series with a 10-episode order in December 2014.[52]Production began in New York on April 13, 2015.[53]The pilot premiered on multiple online and video on demand services on May 27, 2015,[54]and the series was renewed for a second season before the first season premiered on USA on June 24, 2015.[55]In December 2015, it was announced that Esmail would direct all episodes in the second season.[56]In June 2016, it was announced that the second season's episode order was increased from 10 to 12 episodes.[57]The 12-episode second season premiered on July 13, 2016.[57]On August 16, 2016, USA renewedMr. Robotfor a third season to air in 2017.[58][59]The third season debuted in October 2017 and consisted of 10 episodes. All episodes were directed by Esmail, just as in the second season.[28][60]On December 13, 2017, USA renewedMr. Robotfor a fourth season.[61]In August 2018, it was confirmed that the fourth season would be the final season.[62]
Originally, the show planned to dress Elliot in a worn sweatshirt and colorful backpack; however, Malek suggested a black backpack and wore his own B:Scott black hoodie to set.[63]The outfit became the signature look for the character, and the costume designer ordered 20 more of them, despite the item having been discontinued years earlier.[63]To portray the unusual, often confused worldview of lead character Elliot Alderson, Franklin Peterson, who edited threeMr. Robotepisodes in the first season and six in the second season, used creative editing styles that includedjump cuts, varied lengths of takes and shuffling scenes around within an episode and sometimes even between episodes. Esmail encouraged the experimentation as Peterson and his team explored the personality of each character in the editing suite, finding creative ways to tell their stories and maintain their humanity.[64]
The show'scinematographerTod Campbell is known for helping craft "a distinct moody and disruptive" feel to the scenes' atmosphere through stylistic lighting and camera choices.[65]The unorthodox approach taken involves characters "placed at the very bottom of the frame" which in turn "leaves massive amounts of headroom that suggests a great weight hanging over their heads, and echoes their isolation." The intended effect for audiences is to feel a sense of "mounting paranoia and dissociation" of the protagonist.[66]
FuseFXwas hired to provide the visual effects for episode "eps3.4_runtime-error.r00" of season 3, in which they took 40 shots and stitched them together to appear as one seamless shot for the entire episode.[67][68]
ComposerMac Quaylecreated the soundtrack.[69][70]
Mr. Robothas been widely praised for its technical accuracy by numerouscybersecurityfirms and services such asAvast,[71]Panda Security,[72]Avira,[73]Kaspersky,[74]Proton Mail,[75]and bloggers[76][77][78][79]who analyzed and dissected the technical aspects of the show after episodes containing hacking scenes. Aside from the pilot episode, Esmail hired Kor Adana (former network security analyst and forensics manager forToyota Motor Sales), Michael Bazzell (security consultant and formerFBICyber Crimes Task Force agent and investigator) and James Plouffe (lead solutions architect atMobileIron) as his advisors to oversee the technical accuracy of the show. By the second season, Adana assembled a team of hackers and cybersecurity experts includingJeff Moss(founder and director ofBlack HatandDEF CONcomputer security conferences),[80]Marc Rogers(principal security researcher forCloudflareand head of security for DEF CON),[81]Ryan Kazanciyan (chief security architect forTanium) and Andre McGregor (director of security forTaniumand formerFBICyber Special agent) to assist him with the authenticity of the hacks and the technology being used.[82]Hacking scenes were performed by members of the technical team in real life, recorded and rebuilt usingFlash animation. Animation process is carried out by animator Adam Brustein under the direct supervision of Adana himself.[83][84]Kali Linuxand its tools were used in multiple episodes.[85][86][87]
The show has also attempted to accurately represent Elliot's mental health issues. In an interview withTerry Grossfor the radio showFresh Air, Malek recounted contacting a psychologist to learn aboutschizophrenia,dissociative identity disorder, andsocial anxiety. When in meetings with Esmail, Malek's knowledge on the topics led Esmail to bring the psychologist on as a consultant for the show.[88]Subsequently, the show has been widely praised by critics, viewers and psychiatrists as being one of the most accurate representations of mental health issues ever portrayed on TV or film, especially for its depictions of dissociative identity disorder, social anxiety, panic disorders andchronic depression.[89][90][91]Malek and Chaikin's performances have been further singled out for their "raw and authentic depictions of mental illness [which] makes it more relatable to those who haven't experienced it firsthand" while also representing a "kindred spirit" to viewers who do have mental health issues.[89]InversedescribedMr. Robotas "setting a new standard for depictions of mental illness [in media] ... without ending up exploitative."[92]
Sam Esmail has acknowledged several major influences on the show, such asAmerican Psycho,Taxi Driver,A Clockwork Orange,[93]andThe Matrix.[94]In particular, Esmail creditedFight Clubas the inspiration for a main character who hasdissociative identity disordercreating a new manifestation of his deceased father in the form of a hacker,[94][95][96]as well as for theanti-consumerist,anti-establishment, andanti-capitalistspirit of its characters.[97]Commentators have also noted the parallel in its plot on the erasing of consumer debt records to the film.[98][99]Even so, Lauren Lawson forGQremarked, "Mr. Robotelevates theFight Clubformula: the show's mindfuckery lubes us up to think about society (Elliot's and ours) in a discerning way, but it's not the main event. You can seeFight Clubonce and pretty much get the picture, but it will take years of scholarly binge-watching to answer the questionsMr. Robotraises."[100]In an interview, Esmail explains how playing the song thatDavid Fincherused to underscore the climax ofFight Club("Where Is My Mind?") when Elliot initiates the hack in episode nine is intended as a message to the audience that he is aware of the inspiration they took from the film.[101]The narration by the protagonist was influenced byTaxi Driver,[102]and other influences mentioned includedRisky Businessfor its music score,Blade Runnerfor the character development, and the television seriesBreaking Badfor thestory arc.[93]
The series was filmed inNew York. Filming locations includeSilvercup Studios,Queens CollegeandConey Island, which serves as the exterior of the base of operations for the hacking group fsociety.[103]As the production crew was unable to shut downTimes Squarefor filming, the scenes at Times Square in the first-season finale were shot late at night just before theJuly 4holiday weekend to catch the area at its emptiest while other shots were done on sets.[104]Production on the second season began on March 7, 2016, resuming filming in New York City.[37]
In June 2016, USA Network announcedHacking Robot, a liveaftershowhosted byAndy Greenwaldto air during the second season.[105]Hacking Robotdebuted after the second-season premiere and aired again following the tenth episode. In addition, a weekly web-only aftershow titledMr. Robot Digital After Showpremiered onThe VergeandUSA Network's websites after the third episode, and continued through the third season.[106]
The first season ofMr. Robotreceived critical acclaim. OnRotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 98%, based on 146 reviews, with an average rating of 8.35/10. The site's consensus reads, "Mr. Robotis a suspenseful cyber-thriller with timely stories and an intriguing, provocative premise."[107]It set a record on Rotten Tomatoes as the only show to earn perfect episode scores for an entire season since the site began tracking television episodes.[108]OnMetacritic, the first season scored 79 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[109]
Merrill Barr ofForbesgave it a very positive review, writing, "Mr. Robothas one of the best kick-offs to any series in a while" and that it "could be the series that finally, after years of ignorance, puts a deserving network among the likes ofHBO,AMCandFXin terms of acclaim."[110]
InThe New York Times,Alessandra Stanleynoted that "Occupy Wall Street, the protest movement that erupted in 2011, didn't do much to curb the financial industry. It didn't die out, though. It went Hollywood", before findingMr. Robotto be, "an intriguing new series ... a cyber-age thriller infused with a dark, almost nihilistic pessimism about the Internet, capitalism and income inequality. And that makes it kind of fun".[111]The UKThe Daily Telegraphreviewer Michael Hogan gave the show five stars, finding it to be "The MatrixmeetsFight ClubmeetsRobin Hood", noting that, "bafflingly, it took months for a UK broadcaster to snap up the rights". Although Hogan found too much attention was devoted to Elliot's social anxiety, he eventually decided that "this alienated anti-hero was a brilliant, boldly complex character." Overall, Hogan concluded that the show deserved to find an audience in the UK.[112]
Mr. Robotmade several critics' list for the best TV shows of 2015. Three critics,Jeff JensenofEntertainment Weekly,Rob SheffieldofRolling Stone, and the staff ofTV Guide, named it the best show of the year. The series was also placed second on the list from three other critics, and was named among the best of the year from four other critics.[113]
The second season also received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a score of 90%, based on 241 reviews, with an average rating of 7.85/10. The site's consensus reads: "Unique storytelling, a darker tone, and challenging opportunities for its tight cast pushMr. Roboteven further into uncharted television territory."[114]On Metacritic, it has a score of 81 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[115]
Sonia Saraiya ofVarietypraisedRami Malek's performance and wrote, "It's Malek's soulful eyes and silent pathos that giveMr. Robotits unexpected warmth, as the viewer is lured into Elliot's chaos and confusion."[116]Tim Goodman ofThe Hollywood ReporterlaudedSam Esmail's direction, writing "Esmail's camerawork—characters tucked into corners of the frame, among other nontraditional compositions—continues to give the sense of disorientation and never feels tired" and "there are some flourishes in the first two hours that are brilliantly conceived and [...] contribute to what is one of the most visually remarkable hours on television."[117]
The third season also received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a score of 92%, based on 143 reviews, with an average rating of 8.25/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Mr. Robot's striking visuals and bold narrative fuel its seductive blend of reality and fantasy."[118]On Metacritic, it has a score of 82 out of 100, based on 9 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[119]
Based on six episodes for review, Darren Franich ofEntertainment Weeklygave it an "A" grade, calling it a "noir masterpiece", and overall, wrote that "Season 3 ofMr. Robotis a masterpiece, ballasting the global ambitions of season 2 while sharpening back to the meticulous build of season 1."[120]
As with previous seasons, the fourth and final season was met with acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a score of 96% with an average rating of 8.95/10, based on 115 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, "Mr. Robotreturns with a thrilling final season that is sure to surprise and satisfy its audience."[121]On Metacritic, it has a score of 81 out of 100, based on 5 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[122]
The episode "407 Proxy Authentication Required" specifically gained exceptional acclaim byDecider, who called it "among the best individual TV episodes of 2019, and possibly one of the best of all time."[123]Varietylisted it as the 22nd best show of the 2010s,[124]andEmily St. JamesofVoxnamed it among "shows that help explain the decade".[125]Emma Garland ofVicedescribed the show as defining the 2010s and post-Occupyworld as one of vast inequality: "Even if you don't buy into its earnestness, you can't argue with its bittersweet irony."[126]
The series has gained acult following.[127]
Mr. Robothas spawned a variety of video games. Its mobile game, titled:Mr. Robot:1.51exfiltrati0n.apk(for Android) andMr. Robot:1.51exfiltrati0n.ipa(for iOS) are set during the first season of the series and was published byTelltale Games. Users play as a fictional character who has stumbled upon the phone of an important member of fsociety and takes it upon themselves to assist them in bringing down E Corp.[172]TheMr. RobotVirtual Reality Experience, written and directed by Sam Esmail, is a 13-minute video viewable usingvirtual reality headsetsthat explores Elliot's past.[173]Mr. Robotalso features severalEaster eggs, including websites related to the show or IP addresses used within the series that redirect to real websites.[174]
A book tie-in,Mr. Robot: Red Wheelbarrow (eps1.91_redwheelbarr0w.txt)written by Esmail and Courtney Looney, was released on November 1, 2016.[175]
Mr. Robotpremiered in the United States onUSA Networkon June 24, 2015, and in Canada onShowcaseon September 4, 2015.[176]Before USA Network's broadcast release, the pilot had a "pre-release" with a live stream onTwitchon May 27, 2015. USA Network's partnership with Twitch continued with a live stream starting on June 16, 2015, where the in-universe group "fsociety" broadcast them "hacking" Mr. Robot's Twitch account and sending cash prizes throughPayPalto viewers under the guise of "cancelling $100k in consumer debt". The broadcast continued until June 24, during which viewers could watch the pilot on various streaming services before the official broadcast.[177]Amazon.comsecured international broadcasting rights in the United Kingdom, with the first season added onAmazon Primeon October 16, 2015, and second-season episodes to be released immediately after initial broadcast in the United States.[178][179]InAustralia, the series premiered onPrestoon August 14, 2015.[180]After Presto shut down, the series moved toFox Showcasefor its third season and toFoxtel On Demandfor the fourth season.[181][182]The show aired in theRepublic of IrelandonTG4.[183]
Universal Pictures Home Entertainmentreleased all four seasons on DVD andBlu-ray. The first season was released on January 12, 2016. It contains all 10 episodes, plus deleted scenes, gag reel, making-of featurette, andUltraVioletdigital copies of the episodes.[184]The second season was released on January 10, 2017.[185]The third season was released on March 27, 2018, in the United States.[186]The fourth season as well as a complete series collection was released on March 31, 2020.[187]
In September 2015,Amazon.comacquired exclusive streaming VOD rights toMr. Robotin several countries. The first season became available to stream in June 2016 for U.S. Amazon Prime subscribers.[188]
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Incomputing, the termremote desktoprefers to asoftware- oroperating systemfeature that allows apersonal computer'sdesktop environmentto be run remotely from one system (usually a PC, but the concept applies equally to aserveror asmartphone), while being displayed on a separateclient device. Remote desktop applications have varying features. Some allow attaching to an existing user'ssessionand "remote controlling", either displaying the remote control session or blanking the screen. Taking over a desktop remotely is a form of remote administration.
Remote access can also be explained as the remote control of a computer by using another device connected via the internet or another network. This is widely used by many computer manufacturers and large businesses help desks for technical troubleshooting of their customer's problems.
Remote desktop software captures the mouse and keyboard inputs from the local computer (client) and sends them to theremote computer(server).[1]The remote computer in turn sends the display commands to the local computer. When applications with many graphics including video or 3D models need to be controlled remotely, a remote workstation software that sends the pixels rather than the display commands must be used to provide a smooth, like-local experience.
Remote desktop sharing is accomplished through a common client/server model. The client, orVNCviewer, is installed on a local computer and then connects via a network to a server component, which is installed on the remote computer. In a typical VNC session, all keystrokes and mouse clicks are registered as if the client were actually performing tasks on the end-user machine.[2]
Remote desktops also have a major advantage for security development, companies are able to permit software engineers who may be dispersed geographically to operate and develop from a computer which can be held within the companies office or cloud environment.
The target computer in a remote desktop scenario is still able to access all of its core functions. Many of these core functions, including the mainclipboard, can be shared between the target computer and remote desktop client.
Following the onset ofCOVID-19, the shift to remote-work environments has led many to work from home with devices without enterprise IT support. As a result, these workers ware reliant on remote desktop software to collaborate and keep their systems available and secure.[3]
A main use of remote desktop software is remote administration and remote implementation. This need arises when software buyers are far away from their software vendor. Most remote access software can be used for "headless computers": instead of each computer having its own monitor, keyboard, and mouse, or using aKVM switch, one computer can have a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and remote control software, and control many headless computers. The duplicate desktop mode is useful for user support and education. Remote control software combined with telephone communication can be nearly as helpful for novice computer-users as if the support staff were actually there.
Remote desktop software can be used to access a remote computer: a physical personalcomputerto which a user does not have physical access, but that can be accessed or interacted with.[4]Unlikeservers, remote computers are mainly used for peer to peer connections, where one device is unattended. A remote computer connection is generally only possible if both devices have anetworkconnection.
Since the advent ofcloud computingremote desktop software can be housed onUSB hardware devices, allowing users to connect the device to any PC connected to their network or the Internet and recreate their desktop via a connection to the cloud. This model avoids one problem with remote desktop software, which requires the local computer to be switched on at the time when the user wishes to access it remotely. (It is possible with a router with C2S VPN support, andwake on LANequipment, to establish avirtual private network(VPN) connection with the router over the Internet if not connected to theLAN, switch on a computer connected to the router, then connect to it.)
Remote desktop products are available in three models: hosted service, software, and appliance.
Tech support scammersuse remote desktop software to connect to their victim's computer and will often lock out the computer if the victim does not cooperate.
Remote desktopprotocolsinclude the following:
Aremote access trojan(RAT, sometimes calledcreepware)[6]is a type ofmalwarethat controls a system through a remote network connection. Whiledesktop sharingandremote administrationhave many legal uses, "RAT" connotes criminal or malicious activity. A RAT is typically installed without the victim's knowledge, often as payload of aTrojan horse, and will try to hide its operation from the victim and fromcomputer security softwareand other anti-virus software.[7][8][9][10][11][12]
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Anadvance-fee scamis a form offraudand is a commonconfidence trick. The scam typically involves promising the victim a significant share of a large sum of money, in return for a small up-front payment, which the fraudster claims will be used to obtain the large sum.[1][2]If a victim makes the payment, the fraudster either invents a series of further fees for the victim to pay or simply disappears.[3][4]
TheFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI) states that "An advance fee scheme occurs when the victim pays money to someone in anticipation of receiving something of greater value – such as a loan, contract, investment, or gift - and then receives little or nothing in return."[3]There are many variations of this type ofscam, including theNigerian prince scam, also known as a419 scam. The number "419" refers to the section of theNigerian Criminal Codedealing with fraud and the charges and penalties for such offenders.[5]The scam has been used withfaxand traditionalmailand is now prevalent in online communications such asemails.[6]Other variations include theSpanish Prisonerscam and theblack money scam.
AlthoughNigeriais most often the nation referred to in these scams, they mainly originate in other nations. Other nations known to have a high incidence of advance-fee fraud includeIvory Coast,[7]Togo,[8]South Africa,[9]theNetherlands,[10]Spain,[11]andJamaica.[12][13]
The modern scam is similar to theSpanish Prisonerscam that dates back to the late 18th century.[14][15]In that con, businessmen were contacted by an individual allegedly trying to smuggle someone who is connected to a wealthy family out of a prison in Spain. In exchange for assistance, the scammer promised to share money with the victim in exchange for a small amount of money to bribe prison guards.[16]
One variant of the scam may date back to the 18th or 19th century, as a very similar letter, entitled "The Letter from Jerusalem". This is illustrated in the memoirs ofEugène François Vidocq, a former French criminal andprivate investigator.[17]Another variant of the scam, dating back to ca. 1830, appears very similar to emails today: "Sir, you will doubtlessly be astonished to be receiving a letter from a person unknown to you, who is about to ask a favour from you..." and goes on to talk of a casket containing 16,000 francs in gold and the diamonds of a late marchioness.[18]
The modern-day transnational scam can be traced back to Germany in 1922[19]and became popular during the 1980s. There are many variants of the template letter. One of these, sent via postal mail, was addressed to a woman's husband to inquire about his health. It then asked what to do with profits from a $24.6 million investment and ended with a telephone number.[20]
Other official-looking letters were sent from a writer who said he was a director of the state-ownedNigerian National Petroleum Corporation. He said he wanted to transfer $20 million to the recipient's bank account—money that was budgeted but was never spent. In exchange for transferring the funds out ofNigeria, the recipient would keep 30% of the total. To get the process started, the scammer asked for a few sheets of the company's letterhead, bank account numbers, and other personal information.[21][22]Yet other variants have involved mention of aNigerian princeor other member of a royal family seeking to transfer large sums of money out of the country—thus, these scams are sometimes called "Nigerian Prince emails".[23][24]
The spread ofe-mailandemail harvestingsoftware significantly lowered the cost of sending scam letters by using the Internet in lieu of international post.[25][26]Although Nigeria is most often the nation referred to in these scams, they may originate in other nations as well.[27]For example, in 2007, the head of theEconomic and Financial Crimes Commissionstated that scam emails more frequently originated in African countries or inEastern Europe.[28]Within theEuropean Union, there is a high incidence of advance-fee fraud in theNetherlands[10]andSpain.[11]
The emails sent invariably feature a large number of implausible claims, as well as numerous spelling and grammatical mistakes. According to Cormac Herley, aMicrosoftresearcher, "By sending an email that repels all but the most gullible, the scammer gets the most promising marks to self-select."[29]Responding to Herley, a director at Nigeria's National Security Adviser said that there are more non-Nigerian scammers claiming to be Nigerian, and suggested that Nigeria's reputation for corruption is part of the allure that makes scams seem more plausible.[30]Nigeria has a reputation for being at the center of email scamming.[31][32]
Modern variations include “sugar daddy/sugar momma” schemes, some of which involve advance-fee scamming,[33]and money flipping, whereby the mark is promised a large amount of money in exchange for sending a small amount of money.[34]
A 2018 study of Nigerian hip-hop culture found that glamorization of cyber-fraud is prevalent in such music.[35]Some scammers have accomplices in the United States and abroad who move in to finish the deal once the initial contact has been made.[36]
Many scammers tend to come from poorer and more-educated backgrounds, where Internet access and better education, along with inability to afford basic necessities, drive people into committing online fraud. They could also have been influenced by social media celebrities and artists who promote scamming as a "cool" trend to quickly gain access to luxury items like sports cars and fashion.[37]
In the case of Nigeria, the rise in scamming cases was due to a boom in cybercafes, a series of economic crashes from the 1980s, and the resulting joblessness among young people in Nigeria.[38][39]
This scam usually begins with the perpetrator contacting the victim viaemail,instant messaging, orsocial mediausing a fake email address or a fake social media account.[40]The fraudster then makes an offer that would allegedly result in a large payoff for the victim.[16][41]An email subject line may say something like "From the desk of barrister [Name]", "Your assistance is needed", "Important", "Dear Sir or Madam" and so on. The details vary, but the usual story is that a person, often a government or bank employee, knows of a large amount of unclaimed money or gold that they cannot access directly, usually because they have no right to it.[6][42][43]
Such people, who may be real people being impersonated by the scammer or fictitious characters played by thecon artist, could include, for example, the wife or son of a deposed African leader who has amassed a stolen fortune, a bank employee who knows of a terminally ill wealthy person with no relatives or a wealthy foreigner who deposited money in the bank just before dying in a traffic accident or a plane crash (leaving nowillor knownnext of kin),[44]a US soldier who has stumbled upon a hidden cache of gold in Iraq, a business being audited by the government, a disgruntled worker or corrupt government official who has embezzled funds, a refugee,[45]and similar characters.[43]
The money could be in the form ofgold bullion, gold dust, money in a bank account,blood diamonds, a series of cheques or bank drafts, so on and so forth.[46]The sums involved are usually in the millions of dollars, and the investor is promised a large share, typically ten to fifty percent, in return for assisting the fraudster to retrieve or expatriate the money. Although the vast majority of recipients do not respond to these emails, a small percentage do, enough to make the scam worthwhile as many millions of messages can be sent daily.[47]
To help persuade the victim to agree to the deal, the scammer often sends one or more false documents that bear official governmentstamps, andseals.[48]419 scammers also often utilize fake websites and addresses to present themselves as more legitimate.[49]Multiple "people" may write or be involved in schemes as they continue, but they are often fictitious; in many cases, one person controls all the fictitious personae used in scams.[7]
Once the victim's confidence has been gained, the scammer then introduces a delay or monetary hurdle that prevents the deal from occurring as planned, such as "To transmit the money, we need to bribe a bank official. Could you help us with a loan?" or "For you to be a party to the transaction, you must have holdings at a Nigerian bank of $100,000 or more" or similar.[46]This is the money being stolen from the victim; the victim willingly transfers the money, usually through some irreversible channel such as awire transfer, and the scammer receives and pockets it.[7]
Often but not always, delays and additional costs are added by the fraudster, always keeping the promise of an imminent large transfer alive, convincing the victim that the money the victim is currently paying would be covered several times over by the payoff.[50]The implication that these payments will be used for white-collar crime, such as bribery, and even that the money they are being promised is being stolen from a government or royal/wealthy family, often prevents the victim from telling others about the "transaction", as it would involve admitting that they intended to be complicit in an international crime.[7]
Sometimes psychological pressure is added by claiming that the scammers' side, to pay certain fees, had to sell belongings andmortgagea house or by comparing the salary scale and living conditions in their country to those in the West.[51][52]Much of the time, however, the needed psychological pressure is self-applied: once the victims have provided money toward the payoff, they feel they have a vested interest in seeing the "deal" through. Some victims even believe they can cheat the other party, and walk away with all the money instead of just the percentage they were promised.[7]
The essential fact in all advance-fee fraud operations is that the promised money transfer to the victim never happens because the money does not exist. The perpetrators rely on the fact that, by the time the victim realizes this (often only after being confronted by a third party who has noticed the transactions or conversation and recognized the scam), the victim may have sent thousands of dollars of their own money, sometimes thousands more that was borrowed or stolen, to the scammer via an untraceable and/or irreversible means such as wire transfer.[7]The scammer disappears, and the victim is left on the hook for the money sent to the scammer.
During the course of many schemes, scammers ask victims to supply bank account information. Usually this is a "test" devised by the scammer to gauge the victim'sgullibility;[10]the bank account information is not used directly by the scammer, because a fraudulent withdrawal from the account is more easily detected, reversed, and traced. Scammers instead usually request that payments be made using a wire transfer service likeWestern UnionandMoneyGram.[53]The reason given by the scammer usually relates to the speed at which the payment can be received and processed, allowing quick release of the supposed payoff. The real reason for using such money-sending services is that such wire transfers are irreversible and often untraceable. Further, these services are ideal because identification beyond knowledge of the details of the transaction is often not required, making receipt of such funds almost or entirely anonymous.[7]However, bank account information obtained by scammers is sometimes sold in bulk to other fraudsters who wait a few months for the victim to repair the damage caused by the initial scam before raiding any accounts that the victim did not close.
Telephone numbers used by scammers tend to come fromburner phones. InIvory Coast, a scammer may purchase an inexpensive mobile phone and a pre-paid SIM card without submitting any identifying information. If the scammers believe they are being traced, they discard their mobile phones and purchase new ones.[7]
The spam emails used in these scams are often sent fromInternet cafésequipped with satellite internet connection.[citation needed]Recipient addresses and email content are copied and pasted into a webmail interface using a stand-alone storage medium, such as a memory card.[citation needed]Certain areas ofLagos, such asFestac Town, contain many cyber cafés that serve scammers; cyber cafés often lock their doors during certain times, e.g. 10:30pm to 7:00am, so that scammers inside may work without fear of discovery.[54]
Nigeria also contains many businesses that provide false documents used in scams. After a scam involving a forged signature of Nigerian PresidentOlusegun Obasanjoin summer 2005, Nigerian authorities raided a market in the Oluwole section of Lagos.[55]There, police seized thousands of Nigerian and non-Nigerian passports, 10,000 blankBritish Airwaysboarding passes, 10,000 United States Postalmoney orders, customs documents, false university certificates, 500 printing plates, and 500 computers.[54]
The "success rate" of the scammers is also hard to gauge, since they operate illegally and do not keep track of specific numbers. One individual estimated that he sent 500 emails per day and received about seven replies, citing that when he received a reply, he was 70 percent certain he would get the money.[36]If tens of thousands of emails are sent every day by thousands of individuals, it does not take a very high success rate to be worthwhile.[56]
The success of advance fee crimes is based on the initial persuading of the victim. TheFBIrecently reported that in 2019 there were 14,607 US citizens that were victims of advance fee scams. The complaints that they received totaled in losses of more than $3.5 billion.[57]
In recent years, efforts have been made by governments, internet companies, and individuals to combat scammers involved in advance-fee fraud and 419 scams. In 2004, the Nigerian government formed theEconomic and Financial Crimes Commission(EFCC) to combat economic and financial crimes, such as advanced-fee fraud.[59]In 2009, Nigeria's EFCC announced that they had adopted smart technology developed byMicrosoftto track down fraudulent emails. They hoped to have the service, dubbed "Eagle Claw", running at full capacity to warn a quarter of a million potential victims.[31]
Some individuals participate in a practice known asscam baiting, in which they pose as potential targets and engage the scammers in lengthy dialogue so as to waste the scammer's time and decrease the time they have available for actual victims.[60]Likewise, the websiteArtists Against 419, set-up by volunteers, offers a public database with information on scam websites. They work closely together withAPWGto share their data with financial institutions and cybersecurity companies.
A central element of advance-fee fraud is that the transaction from the victim to the scammer must be untraceable and irreversible. Otherwise, the victim, once they become aware of the scam, could successfully retrieve their money and alert officials who could track the accounts used by the scammer.[citation needed]
Wire transfers viaWestern UnionandMoneyGramare ideal for this purpose. International wire transfers cannot be cancelled or reversed, and the person receiving the money cannot be tracked. Other non-cancellable forms of payment include postal money orders and cashier's cheques, but wire transfer via Western Union or MoneyGram is more common.[citation needed]
Since the scammer's operations must be untraceable to avoid identification, and because the scammer is often impersonating someone else, any communication between the scammer and his victim must be done through channels that hide the scammer's true identity.[citation needed]The following options in particular are widely used.
Because many free email services do not require valid identifying information and also allow communication with many victims in a short span of time, they are the preferred method of communication for scammers.[61]Some services go so far as to mask the sender's source IP address (Gmailbeing a common choice), making the scammer's country of origin more difficult to trace. While Gmail does indeed strip headers from emails, it is possible to trace an IP address from such an email. Scammers can create as many accounts as they wish and often have several at a time. In addition, if email providers are alerted to the scammer's activities and suspend the account, it is a trivial matter for the scammer to simply create a new account to resume scamming.[citation needed]
Some fraudsters hijack existing email accounts and use them for advance-fee fraud purposes. For instance, with social engineering, the fraudster impersonates associates, friends, or family members of the legitimate account owner in an attempt to defraud them.[62]A variety of techniques such asphishing,keyloggers, andcomputer virusesare used to gain login information for the email address.
Facsimile machinesare commonly used tools of business whenever a client requires a hard copy of a document.[citation needed]They can also be simulated using web services and made untraceable by the use of prepaid phones connected to mobile fax machines or by use of a public fax machine such as one owned by a document processing business likeFedEx Office/Kinko's. Thus, scammers posing as business entities often use fax transmissions as an anonymous form of communication. This is more expensive, as the prepaid phone and fax equipment cost more than email, but to a skeptical victim, it can be more believable.[citation needed]
AbusingSMSbulk senders such asWASPs, scammers subscribe to these services using fraudulent registration details and paying either via cash or with stolen credit card details.[citation needed]They then send out masses of unsolicited SMS messages to victims stating they have won a competition, lottery, reward, or an event and that they have to contact somebody to claim their prize. Typically, the details of the party to be contacted will be an equally untraceable email address or avirtual telephone number.[citation needed]
These messages may be sent over a weekend when the staff at the service providers are not working, enabling the scammer to be able to abuse the services for a whole weekend. Even when traceable, they give out long and winding procedures for procuring the reward (real or unreal) and that too with the impending huge cost of transportation and tax or duty charges. The origin of such SMS messages is often from fake websites/addresses.[citation needed]
A contemporary (mid-2011) innovation is the use of a Premium Rate 'call back' number (instead of a website or email) in the SMS. On calling the number, the victim is first reassured that 'they are a winner' and then subjected to a long series of instructions on how to collect their 'winnings'. During the message, there will be frequent instructions to 'ring back in the event of problems'. The call is always 'cut off' just before the victim has the chance to note all the details. Some victims call back multiple times in an effort to collect all the details. The scammer thus makes their money out of the fees charged for the calls.[citation needed]
Many scams use telephone calls to convince the victim that the person on the other end of the deal is a real, truthful person. The scammer, possibly impersonating a person of a nationality or gender other than their own, would arouse suspicion by telephoning the victim. In these cases, scammers useTRS, a US federally funded relay service where an operator or a text/speech translation program acts as an intermediary between someone using an ordinary telephone and a deaf caller usingTDDor otherteleprinterdevice. The scammer may claim they are deaf, and that they must use a relay service. The victim, possibly drawn in by sympathy for a disabled caller, might be more susceptible to the fraud.[citation needed]
FCC regulations and confidentiality laws require operators to relay calls verbatim and adhere to a strict code of confidentiality and ethics. Thus, no relay operator may judge the legality and legitimacy of a relay call and must relay it without interference. This means the relay operator may not warn victims, even when they suspect the call is a scam.MCIsaid about one percent of their IP Relay calls in 2004 were scams.[63]
Tracking phone-based relay services is relatively easy, so scammers tend to prefer Internet Protocol–based relay services such asIP Relay. In a common strategy, they bind their overseas IP address to a router or server located on US soil, allowing them to use US-based relay service providers without interference.
TRS is sometimes used to relay credit card information to make a fraudulent purchase with a stolen credit card. In many cases however, it is simply a means for the con artist to further lure the victim into the scam.
Sometimes, victims are invited to a country to meet government officials, an associate of the scammer, or the scammer themselves. Some victims who travel are instead held for ransom. Scammers may tell a victim that they do not need avisaor that the scammers will provide one.[64]If the victim does this, the scammers have the power to extort money from the victim.[64]
Sometimes victims are ransomed,kidnapped, or murdered. According to a 1995 U.S. State Department report, over fifteen persons were murdered between 1992 and 1995 in Nigeria after following through on advance-fee frauds.[64]In 1999 Norwegian millionaire Kjetil Moe was lured to South Africa by scammers and was murdered.[65][66]George Makronalli was lured to South Africa and was killed in 2004.[67][68]
There are many variations on the most common stories, and also many variations on the way the scam works. Some of the more commonly seen variants involve employment scams,lottery scams, online sales and rentals, andromance scams. Many scams involve online sales, such as those advertised on websites such asCraigslistandeBay, or property rental. This article cannot list every known and future type of advanced fee fraud or 419 scheme; only some major types are described. Additional examples may be available in theexternal linkssection at the end of this article.
This scam targets people who have posted their résumés on job sites. The scammer sends a letter with a falsified company logo. The job offer usually indicates exceptional salary and benefits, and requests that the victim needs a "work permit" for working in the country, and includes the address of a (fake) "government official" to contact. The "government official" then proceeds to fleece the victim by extracting fees from the unsuspecting user for the work permit and other fees. A variant of the job scam recruits freelancers seeking work, such as editing or translation, then requires some advance payment before assignments are offered.[69]
Many[quantify]legitimate (or at least fully registered) companies work on a similar basis, using this method as their primary source of earnings. Some modelling and escort agencies tell applicants that they have a number of clients lined up, but that they require some sort of prior "registration fee", usually paid in by an untraceable method, e.g. by Western Union transfer; once the fee is paid, the applicant is informed the client has cancelled, and not contacted again.[citation needed]
The scammer contacts the victim to interest them in a "work-from-home" opportunity, or asks them to cash a cheque or money order that for some reason cannot be redeemed locally. In one cover story, the perpetrator of the scam wishes the victim to work as a "mystery shopper", evaluating the service provided by MoneyGram or Western Union locations within major retailers such asWal-Mart.[70]The scammer sends the victim a forged or stolen cheque or money orderas described above, the victim deposits it—banks will often credit an account with the value of a cheque not obviously false— and sends the money to the scammer via wire transfer. Later the cheque is not honoured ("bounces") and the bank debits the victim's account. Schemes based solely on cheque cashing usually offer only a small part of the cheque's total amount, with the assurance that many more cheques will follow; if the victim buys into the scam and cashes all the cheques, the scammer can steal a lot in a very short time.[citation needed]
More sophisticated scams advertise jobs with real companies and offer lucrative salaries and conditions with the fraudsters pretending to be recruitment agents. A bogus telephone or online interview may take place and after some time the applicant is informed that the job is theirs. To secure the job they are instructed to send money for their work visa or travel costs to the agent, or to a bogus travel agent who works on the scammer's behalf. No matter what the variation, they always involve the job seeker sending them or their agent money, credit card or bank account details.[71]A newer form of employment scam has arisen in which users are sent a bogus job offer but are not asked to give financial information. Instead, their personal information is harvested during the application process and then sold to third parties for a profit, or used foridentity theft.[72][73]
Another form of employment scam involves making people attend a fake "interview" where they are told the benefits of the company. The attendees are then made to assist to a conference where a scammer will use elaborate manipulation techniques to convince the attendees to purchase products, in a similar manner to the catalog merchant business model, as a hiring requisite. Quite often, the company lacks any form of the physical catalog to help them sell products (e.g. jewelry). When "given" the job, the individual is then asked to promote the scam job offer on their own. They are also made to work for the company unpaid as a form of "training".[74]Similar scams involve making alleged job candidates pay money upfront in person for training materials or services, with the claim that upon successful completion, they will be offered a guaranteed job, which never materializes.[75]
The lottery scam involves fake notices of lottery wins, although the intended victim has not entered the lottery. The "winner" is usually asked to send sensitive information such as name, residential address, occupation/position, lottery number etc. to a free email account which is at times untraceable or without any link. In addition to harvesting this information, the scammer then notifies the victim that releasing the funds requires some small fee (insurance, registration, or shipping). Once the victim sends the fee, the scammer invents another fee.
Thefake chequetechnique described above is also used. Fake or stolen cheque, representing a part payment of the winnings, being sent; then a fee, smaller than the amount received, is requested. The bank receiving the bad cheque eventually reclaims the funds from the victim.[citation needed]
In 2004, a variant of the lottery scam appeared in the United States: a scammer phones a victim purporting to be speaking on behalf of the government about a grant they qualify for, subject to an advance fee of typically US$250.[76]
Typical lottery scams address the person as some variation ofLucky Winner. This is a red flag, as if someone entered an actual lottery and won, the organization would know their name, and not simply call themLucky Winner.
Many scams involve the purchase of goods and services via classified advertisements, especially on sites likeCraigslist,eBay, orGumtree. These typically involve the scammer contacting the seller of a particular good or service via telephone or email expressing interest in the item. They will typically then send a fakechequewritten for an amount greater than the asking price, asking the seller to send the difference to an alternate address, usually bymoney orderorWestern Union. A seller eager to sell a particular product may not wait for the cheque to clear, and when the bad cheque bounces, the funds wired have already been lost.[77]
Some scammers advertise phony academic conferences in exotic or international locations, complete with fake websites, scheduled agendas and advertising experts in a particular field that will be presenting there. They offer to pay the airfare of the participants, but not the hotel accommodations. They will extract money from the victims when they attempt to reserve their accommodations in a non-existent hotel.[78]
Sometimes, an inexpensive rental property is advertised by a fake landlord, who is typically out of state (or the country) and asking for the rent and/or deposit to be wired to them.[79]Or thecon artistfinds a property, pretends to be the owner, lists it online, and communicates with the would-be renter to make a cash deposit.[80]The scammer may also be the renter as well, in which case they pretend to be a foreign student and contact a landlord seeking accommodation. They usually state they are not yet in the country and wish to secure accommodations prior to arriving. Once the terms are negotiated, a forged cheque is forwarded for a greater amount than negotiated, and the fraudster asks the landlord to wire some of the money back.[81]
This is a variation of the online sales scam where high-value, scarce pets are advertised as bait on online advertising websites using little real seller verification likeCraigslist,Gumtree, and JunkMail. The pet may either be advertised as being for-sale or up for adoption. Typically, the pet is advertised on online advertising pages complete with photographs taken from various sources such as real advertisements, blogs or wherever else an image can be stolen. Upon the potential victim contacting the scammer, the scammer responds by asking for details pertaining to the potential victim's circumstances and location under the pretense of ensuring that the pet would have a suitable home.[82]
By determining the location of the victim, the scammer ensures he is far enough from the victim so as to not allow the buyer to physically view the pet. Should the scammer be questioned, as the advertisement claimed a location initially, the scammer will claim work circumstances having forced him to relocate. This forces a situation whereby all communication is either via email, telephone (normally untraceable numbers) and SMS.[82]
Upon the victim deciding to adopt or purchase the pet, a courier has to be used which is in reality part of the scam. If this is for an adopted pet, typically the victim is expected to pay some fee such as insurance, food or shipping. Payment is via MoneyGram, Western Union or money mules' bank accounts where other victims have been duped into work from home scams.[82]
Numerous problems are encountered in the courier phase of the scam. The crate may be said to be too small, and the victim has the option of either purchasing a crate with air conditioning or renting one while also paying a deposit, typically called a caution or cautionary fee. The victim may also have to pay for insurance if such fees have not been paid yet. If the victim pays these fees, the pet may be said to have become sick, and a veterinarian's assistance is sought for which the victim has to repay the courier.[83]
Additionally, the victim may be asked to pay for a health certificate needed to transport the pet, and for kennel fees during the recuperation period. The further the scam progresses, the more similar the fictitious fees are to those of typical 419 scams. It is not uncommon to see customs or like fees being claimed if such charges fit into the scam plot.[83]
Numerous scam websites may be used for this scam.[84]This scam has been linked to the classical 419 scams in that the fictitious couriers used are also used in other types of 419 scams such as lotto scams.
One of the variants is theRomance Scam, a money-for-romance angle.[85]The con artist approaches the victim on anonline dating service, aninstant messenger, or a social networking site. The scammer claims an interest in the victim, and posts pictures of an attractive person.[86]The scammer uses this communication to gain confidence, then asks for money.[85]A very common example of romance scams is depicted in the fraudulent activities of these boys, popularly known as Yahoo boys in Nigeria.[87]
The con artist may claim to be interested in meeting the victim but needs cash to book a plane, buy a bus ticket, rent a hotel room, pay for personal-travel costs such as gasoline or a vehicle rental, or to cover other expenses.[88]In other cases, they claim they're trapped in a foreign country and need assistance to return, to escape imprisonment by corrupt local officials, to pay for medical expenses due to an illness contracted abroad, and so on.[86]The scammer may also use the confidence gained by the romance angle to introduce some variant of the original Nigerian Letter scheme,[86]such as saying they need to get money or valuables out of the country and offer to share the wealth, making the request for help in leaving the country even more attractive to the victim.
Scams often involve meeting someone on an online match-making service.[85]The scammer initiates contact with their target who is out of the area and requests money for transportation fare.[86]Scammers will typically ask for money to be sent via amoney orderorwire transferdue to the need to travel, or for medical or business costs.[89]
An extreme example of this is the case of a 67-year-old Australian woman, Jette Jacobs. In 2013, she traveled to South Africa to supposedly marry her scammer, Jesse Orowo Omokoh, 28, after having sent more than $90,000 to him over a three-year period.[90]Her body was discovered on February 9, 2013, under mysterious circumstances, two days after meeting up with Omokoh, who then fled to Nigeria, where he was arrested. He was found to have had 32 fake online identities. Due to lack of evidence he was not charged with murder, but was charged with fraud.[91][92]
This variant of advance-fee fraud is widespread in India and Pakistan.[93][94]The fraudster uses Internet classified websites and print media to lure the public into installing a mobile phone tower on their property, with the promise of huge rental returns. The fraudster also creates fake websites to appear legitimate. The victims part with their money in pieces to the fraudster on account of the Government Service Tax, government clearance charges, bank charges, transportation charges, survey fee etc. The Indian government is issuing public notices in media to spread awareness among the public and warn them against mobile tower fraudsters.[95][96]
Other scams involve unclaimed property, also called "bona vacantia" in theUnited Kingdom. InEngland and Wales(other than theDuchy of Lancasterand theDuchy of Cornwall), this property is administered by the Bona Vacantia Division of the Treasury Solicitor's Department.[citation needed]Fraudulent emails and letters claiming to be from this department have been reported, informing the recipient they are the beneficiary of a legacy but requiring the payment of a fee before sending more information or releasing the money.[97]In theUnited States, messages are falsely claimed to be from the National Association of Unclaimed Property Administrators (NAUPA), a real organization, but one that does not and cannot by itself make payments.[98]
In one variant of 419 fraud, an allegedhitmanwrites to someone explaining he has been targeted to kill them. He tells them he knows the allegations against them are false, and asks for money so the target can receive evidence of the person who ordered the hit.[99]
Another variant of advanced fee fraud is known as a pigeon drop. This is aconfidence trickin which themark, or "pigeon", is persuaded to give up a sum of money in order to secure the rights to a larger sum of money, or more valuable object.[citation needed]In reality, the scammers make off with the money and the mark is left with nothing. In the process, the stranger (actually a confidence trickster) puts his money with the mark's money (in an envelope, briefcase, or bag) which the mark is then apparently entrusted with; it is actually switched for a bag full of newspaper or other worthless material. Through various theatrics, the mark is given the opportunity to leave with the money without the stranger realizing. In reality, the mark would be fleeing from his own money, which the con man still has (or has handed off to anaccomplice).[100]
Some scammers go after the victims of previous scams; known as areloading scam. For example, they may contact a victim saying they can track and apprehend the scammer and recover the money lost by the victim for a price. Or they may say a fund has been set up by the Nigerian government to compensate victims of 419 fraud, and all that is required is proof of the loss, personal information, and a processing and handling fee. The recovery scammers obtain lists of victims by buying them from the original scammers.[101]
Estimates of the total losses due to scams are uncertain and vary widely, since many people may be too embarrassed to admit that they were gullible enough to be scammed to report the crime. A United States government report in 2006 indicated that Americans lost $198.4 million to Internet fraud in 2006, averaging a loss of $5,100 per incident.[28]That same year, a report in the United Kingdom claimed that these scams cost the economy£150 million per year, with the average victim losing £31,000.[102]As of 2019, Nigerian letter scams still annually collect $700,000 ($860,901 in 2024 dollars[103]) or $2,133 ($2,623 in 2024 dollars[103]) per person.[104]
In addition to the financial cost, many victims also suffer a severe emotional and psychological cost, such as losing their ability to trust people. One man fromCambridgeshire, UKburnt himself to deathwith petrol after realizing that the $1.2 million "internet lottery" that he had won was actually a scam.[105]In 2007, a Chinese student at theUniversity of Nottinghamkilled herself after she discovered that she had fallen for a similar lottery scam.[106]
Other victims lose wealth and friends, become estranged from family members, deceive partners, get divorced, or commit criminal offenses in the process of either fulfilling their "obligations" to the scammers or obtaining more money.[107]In 2008, an Oregon woman lost $400,000 to a Nigerian advance-fee fraud scam, after an email told her she had inherited money from her long-lost grandfather. Her curiosity was piqued because she actually had a grandfather with whom her family had lost touch, and whose initials matched those given in the email. She sent hundreds of thousands of dollars over a period of more than two years, despite her family, bank staff and law enforcement officials all urging her to stop.[108]The elderly are particularly susceptible to online scams such as this, as they typically come from a generation that was more trusting,[109]and are often too proud to report the fraud. They also may be concerned that relatives might see it as a sign of declining mental capacity, and they are afraid to lose their independence.[110]
Victims can be enticed to borrow or embezzle money to pay the advance fees, believing that they will shortly be paid a much larger sum and be able to refund what they had misappropriated. Crimes committed by victims includecredit-card fraud,check kiting, andembezzlement.[111][112][113]San Diego–based businessman James Adler lost over $5 million in a Nigeria-based advance-fee scam. Whilea courtaffirmed that various Nigerian government officials (including a governor of theCentral Bank of Nigeria) were directly or indirectly involved, and that Nigerian government officials could be sued in U.S. courts under the "commercial activity" exception to theForeign Sovereign Immunities Act, Adler was unable to get his money back due to the doctrine ofunclean handsbecause he had knowingly entered into a contract that was illegal.[114][115]
Some 419 scams involve even more serious crimes, such askidnappingormurder. One such case, in 2008, involves Osamai Hitomi, a Japanese businessman who was lured toJohannesburg, South Africa and kidnapped on September 26, 2008. The kidnappers took him toAlberton, south of Johannesburg, and demanded a $5 million ransom from his family. Seven people were ultimately arrested.[116]In July 2001, Joseph Raca, a former mayor ofNorthampton, UK, was kidnapped by scammers inJohannesburg, South Africa, who demanded a ransom of £20,000. The captors released Raca after they became nervous.[117]One 419 scam that ended in murder occurred in February 2003, when Jiří Pasovský, a 72-year-old scam victim from the Czech Republic, shot and killed 50-year-old Michael Lekara Wayid, an official at the Nigerian embassy inPrague, and injured another person, after the NigerianConsul Generalexplained he could not return the $600,000 that Pasovský had lost to a Nigerian scammer.[118][119][120]
The international nature of the crime, combined with the fact that many victims do not want to admit that they bought into an illegal activity, has made tracking down and apprehending these criminals difficult. Furthermore, the government of Nigeria has been slow to take action, leading some investigators to believe that some Nigerian government officials are involved in some of these scams.[121]The Nigeria government's establishment of theEconomic and Financial Crimes Commission(EFCC) in 2004 helped with the issue to some degree, although issues with corruption remain.[59][122]
Despite this, there have been some recent successes in apprehending and prosecuting these criminals. In 2004, 52 suspects were arrested inAmsterdamafter an extensive raid, after which almost no 419 emails were reported being sent by localinternet service providers.[123]In November 2004, Australian authorities apprehended Nick Marinellis ofSydney, the self-proclaimed head of Australian 419ers who later boasted that he had "220 African brothers worldwide" and that he was "the Australian headquarters for those scams".[124]In 2008 US authorities inOlympia, Washington, sentenced Edna Fiedler to two years in prison with five years of supervisedprobationfor her involvement in a $1 million Nigerian cheque scam. She had an accomplice inLagos, Nigeria, who shipped her up to $1.1 million worth ofcounterfeitcheques and money orders with instructions on where to ship them.[125]
Research suggests that some Nigerian hip-hop musicians have strong connections with some Yahoo Boys (cybercriminals).[52][126]Due to the increased use of the 419 scams on the Internet, it has been used as aplot devicein manyfilms,television showsandbooks. A song, "I Go Chop Your Dollar", performed byNkem Owoh, also became internationally known as ananthemfor 419 scammers using the phrases "419 is just a game, I am the winner, you are the loser".[127]Other appearances in popular media include:
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Pretextingis a type ofsocial engineeringattack that involves a situation, orpretext, created by an attacker in order to lure a victim into a vulnerable situation and to trick them into giving private information, specifically information that the victim would typically not give outside the context of the pretext.[1]In its history, pretexting has been described as the first stage of social engineering, and has been used by theFBIto aid in investigations.[2]A specific example of pretexting is reverse social engineering, in which the attacker tricks the victim into contacting the attacker first.
A reason for pretexting's prevalence among social engineering attacks is its reliance on manipulating the human mind in order to gain access to the information the attacker wants, versus manipulating a technological system. When looking for victims, attackers can watch out for a variety of characteristics, such as ability to trust, low perception of threat, response to authority, and susceptibility to react with fear or excitement in different situations.[3][4]Throughout history, pretexting attacks have increased in complexity, having evolved from manipulating operators over the phone in the 1900s to theHewlett Packard scandalin the 2000s, which involved the use ofsocial security numbers,phones, andbanks.[5]Current education frameworks on social engineering are used in organizations, although researchers in academia have suggested possible improvements to those frameworks.[6]
Social engineeringis apsychological manipulationtactic that leads to the unwilling or unknowing response of the target/victim.[7]It is one of the topinformation securitythreats in the modern world, affecting organizations, business management, and industries.[7]Social engineering attacks are considered difficult to prevent due to its root in psychological manipulation.[8]These attacks can also reach a broader scale. In other security attacks, a company that holds customer data might be breached. With social engineering attacks, both the company (specifically workers within the company) and the customer directly are susceptible to being targeted.[8]
An example would be in the banking industry, where not only bank employees can be attacked, but the customers as well. Social engineering culprits directly target customers or employees to work around trying to hack a purely technological system and exploit human vulnerabilities.[8]
Though its definition in relation tocybersecurityhas been skewed across different literature, a common theme is that social engineering (in cybersecurity) exploits human vulnerabilities in order to breach entities such as computers and information technology.[2]
Social engineering has little literature and research done on it currently. However, a main part of the methodology when researching social engineering is to set up a made-up pretext. When assessing which social engineering attacks are the most dangerous or harmful, (e.g.,phishing,vishing,water-holing), the type of pretext is a largely insignificant factor, seeing as some attacks can have multiple pretexts. Thus, pretexting itself is widely used, not just as its own attack, but as a component of others.[9]
In cybersecurity, pretexting can be considered one of the earliest stages of evolution for social engineering. For example, while the social engineering attack known asphishingrelies on modern items such as credit cards and mainly occurs in the electronic space, pretexting was and can be implemented without technology.[10]
Pretexting was one of the first examples of social engineering. Coined by theFBIin 1974, the concept of pretexting was often used to help in their investigations. In this phase, pretexting consisted of an attacker calling the victim simply asking for information.[2]Pretexting attacks usually consist of persuasion tactics. After this beginning phase of social engineering's evolution (1974–83), pretexting changed from not only persuasion tactics, but deception tactics as well. As technology developed, pretexting methods developed alongside it. Soon,hackershad access to a wider audience of victims due to the invention of social media.[2]
Reverse social engineering is a more specific example of pretexting.[11]It is a non-electronic form of social engineering where the attacker creates a pretext where the user is manipulated into contacting the attacker first, versus the other way around.
Typically, reverse engineering attacks involve the attacker advertising their services as a type of technical aid, establishing credibility. Then, the victim is tricked into contacting the attacker after seeing advertisements, without the attacker directly contacting the victim in the first place. Once an attacker successfully accomplishes a reverse social engineering attack, then a wide range of social engineering attacks can be established due to the falsified trust between the attacker and the victim (for example, the attacker can give the victim a harmful link and say that it is a solution to the victim's problem. Due to the connection between the attacker and the victim, the victim will be inclined to believe the attacker and click on the harmful link).[12]
Pretexting was and continues to be seen as a useful tactic in social engineering attacks. According to researchers, this is because they don't rely on technology (such as hacking into computer systems or breachingtechnology). Pretexting can occur online, but it is more reliant on the user and the aspects of their personality the attacker can utilize to their advantage.[13]Attacks that are more reliant on the user are harder to track and control, as each person responds to social engineering and pretexting attacks differently. Directly attacking a computer, however, can take less effort to solve, since computers relatively work in similar ways.[13]There are certain characteristics of users that attackers pinpoint and target. In academia, some common characteristics[14]are:
If the victim is "prized", it means that one has some type of information that the social engineer desires.[3]
Trustworthinessgoes along with likability, as typically the more someone is liked, the more they are trusted.[14]Similarly, when trust is established between the social engineer (the attacker) and the victim, credibility is also established. Thus, it is easier for the victim to divulge personal information to the attacker if the victim is more easily able to trust.[4]
How easily a person reacts to events and to what degree can be used in a social engineer's favor. Particularly, emotions like excitement and fear are often used to persuade people to divulge information. For example, a pretext could be established wherein the social engineer teases an exciting prize for the victim if they agree to give the social engineer their banking information. The feeling of excitement can be used to lure the victim into the pretext and persuade them to give the attacker the information being sought after.[14]
Despite understanding that threats exist when doing anything online, most people will perform actions that are against this, such as clicking on random links or accepting unknown friend requests.[14]This is due to a person perceiving the action as having a low threat or negative consequence. This lack of fear/threat, despite an awareness of its presence, is another reason why social engineering attacks, especially pretexting, are prevalent.[15]
If the victim is submissive and compliant, then an attacker is more likely to be successful in the attack if a pretext is set where the victim thinks the attacker is posed as some type of authoritative figure.[14]
The October 1984 articleSwitching centres and Operatorsdetailed a common pretexting attack at the time. Attackers would often contact operators who specifically operated for deaf people using Teletypewriters. The logic was that these operators were often more patient than regular operators, so it was easier to manipulate and persuade them for the information the attacker desired.[2]
A notable example is theHewlett Packard scandal. The companyHewlett Packardwanted to know who was leaking out information to journalists. In order to do so, they provided private investigators with employees' personal information (such as social security numbers), and the private investigators in turn called phone companies impersonating those employees in hopes of obtaining call records. When the scandal was discovered, the CEO resigned.[16]
In general,socialbotsare machine-operated fake social media profiles employed by social engineering attackers. On social media sites like Facebook, socialbots can be used to send mass friend requests in order to find as many potential victims as possible.[5]Using reverse social engineering techniques, attackers can use socialbots to gain massive amounts of private information on many social media users.[17]In 2018, a fraudster impersonated entrepreneurElon MuskonTwitter, altering their name and profile picture. They proceeded to initiate a deceptive giveaway scam, promising to multiply the cryptocurrency sent by users. Subsequently, the scammer retained the funds sent to them. This incident serves as an example of how pretexting was employed as a tactic in a social engineering attack.[18]
Current education frameworks on the topic of social engineering fall in between two categories: awareness and training. Awareness is when the information about social engineering is presented to the intended party to inform them about the topic. Training is specifically teaching necessary skills that people will learn and use in case they are in a social engineering attack or can encounter one.[6]Awareness and training can be combined into one intensive process when constructing education frameworks.
While research has been done on the successfulness and necessity of training programs in the context of cybersecurity education,[19]up to 70% of information can be lost when it comes to social engineering training.[20]A research study on social engineering education in banks across theAsian Pacific, it was found that most frameworks only touched upon either awareness or training. Also, the only type of social engineering attack that was taught was phishing. By looking at and comparing the security policies on these banks' websites, the policies contain generalized language such as "malware" and "scams", while also missing the details behind the different types of social engineering attacks and examples of each one of those types.[6]
This generalization does not benefit the users being educated by these frameworks, as there is considerable depth missing when the user is only educated on broad terms like the examples above. As well, purely technical methods of combatting against social engineering and pretexting attacks, such asfirewallsandantiviruses, are ineffective. This is because social engineering attacks typically involve exploiting the social characteristic of human nature, thus purely combatting technology is ineffective.[21]
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CrimeinIndiahas been recorded since theBritish Raj, with comprehensive statistics now compiled annually by theNational Crime Records Bureau(NCRB), under theMinistry of Home Affairs (India).
In 2021, a total of 60,96,310 crimes, comprising 36,63,360Indian Penal Code(IPC) crimes and 24,32,950 Special and Local Laws (SLL) crimes were registered nationwide. It is a 7.65% annual decrease from 66,01,285 crimes in 2020; the crime rate (per 100,000 people) has decreased from 487.8 in 2020 to 445.9 in 2021, but still significantly higher from 385.5 in 2019.[2][3]In 2021, offences affecting the human body contributed 30%, offences against property contributed 20.8%, and miscellaneous IPC crimes contributed 29.7% of all cognizable IPC crimes.[2]Murder rate was 2.1 per 100,000, kidnapping rate was 7.4 per 100,000, and rape rate was 4.8 per 100,000 in 2021.[2]According to the UN, the homicide rate was 2.95 per 100,000 in 2020 with 40,651 recorded, down from a peak of 5.46 per 100,000 in 1992 and essentially unchanged since 2017, higher than most countries in Asia and Europe and lower than most in the Americas and Africa although numerically one of the highest due to the large population.[4]
Investigation rate is calculated as all cases disposed, quashed or withdrawn by police as a percentage of total cases available for investigation. The investigation rate of IPC crimes in India was 64.9% in 2021.[5]Charge-sheeting rate is calculated as all cases, where charges were framed against accused, as a percentage of total cases disposed after investigation. The charge-sheeting rate of IPC crimes in India was 72.3% in 2021.[2]Conviction rate is calculated as all cases, where accused was convicted by court after completion of a trial, as a percentage of total cases where trial was completed. The conviction rate of IPC crimes in India was 57.0% in 2021.[5]In 2021, 51,540 murders were under investigation by police, of which charges were framed in 26,382; and 46,127 rapes were under investigation by police, of which charges were framed in 26,164.[2]In 2021, 2,48,731 murders were under trial in courts, of which conviction was given in 4,304; and 1,85,836 rapes were under trial in courts, of which conviction was given in 3,368.[2]The murder conviction rate was 42.4 and the rape conviction rate was 28.6 in 2021.[2]
A report published by the NCRB compared the crime rates of 1953 and 2006. The report noted that burglary (known as house-breaking[7]in India) declined over a period of 53 years by 79.84% (from 147,379, a rate of 39.3/100,000 in 1953 to 91,666, a rate of 7.9/100,000 in 2006), murder has increased by 7.39% (from 9,803, a rate of 2.61 in 1953 to 32,481, a rate of 2.81/100,000 in 2006).[8]
Kidnappingincreased by 47.80% (from 5,261, a rate of 1.40/100,000 in 1953 to 23,991, a rate of 2.07/100,000 in 2006), robbery declined by 28.85% (from 8,407, rate of 2.24/100,000 in 1953 to 18,456, rate of 1.59/100,000 in 2006) andriotshave declined by 10.58% (from 20,529, a rate of 5.47/100,000 in 1953 to 56,641, a rate of 4.90/100,000 in 2006).[8]
In 2006, 5,102,460 cognisable crimes were committed including 1,878,293 (IPC) crimes and 3,224,167 Special & Local Laws (SLL) crimes, with an increase of 1.5% over 2005 (50,26,337).[9]IPC crime rate in 2006 was 167.7 compared to 165.3 in 2005 showing an increase of 1.5% in 2006 over 2005.[9]SLL crime rate in 2006 was 287.9 compared to 290.5 in 2005 showing a decline of 0.9% in 2006 over 2005.[9]
SOURCE: National Crime Records Bureau[8]
As of 2019,Delhihad the highest crime rate (incidence of crime per 100,000 population) among allStatesofIndiaat 1586.1, rising steeply from 1342.5.[2][10]Delhi's crime rate was 4.1 times higher than the national average of 385.5 that year. States inNortheast Indiahave consistently reported much lower crime rates, with 4 of the 5 states having the lowest crime in being from the region in 2018.
In terms of the absolute number of crimes in 2018, Uttar Pradesh reported the most (12.2% of nationally reported crime). Maharashtra, after topping the list over the previous 4-years, Kerala dropped to the third-position in absolute numbers, accounting for 10.1% of all crimes.
Theviolent crimerate (per 100,000 population) was highest in Assam (86.4), Tripura (62), Haryana (49.4), West Bengal (46.1) and Arunachal Pradesh (41.7). However, in terms of absolute number of cases, Uttar Pradesh reported the highest incidence of violent crimes accounting for 15.2% of total violent crimes in India (65,155 out of 428,134) followed by Maharashtra (10.7%), and Bihar and West Bengal each accounting for 10.4% of such cases.
Sources :[2][3]
Amongmetropolitan cities,Kolkata(103.4 in 2021) was the safest city, however, the experts doubted the accuracy of the data. After Kolkata,Pune(256.8) andHyderabad(259.9) had the lowest crime rates (per 1 lakh urban population) among the 19-cities with more than two million inhabitants in India.[11]While almost all major cities have historically had a crime rate higher than that of their domain states, since 2018, Kolkata[12]and Mumbai (309.9) have been the only mega cities to have a lower crime rate than their states, West Bengal and Maharashtra respectively. Among other metropolises,Kozhikode(523.2) and Pune were the only ones to have a lower crime rate than their states.[13]It is generally acknowledged that cities have a greater propensity to crime and that megacities have a higher crime rate than smaller cities.
Delhi (1906.8)[14]remained the most crime ridden urban area in India for the fourth-year as of 2019. Over 82% of the 290,000 crimes in Delhi were thefts which jumped by more than 25% in 2019. In sharp contrast, thefts accounted for just a little over 20% of the 3.2 million crimes registered nationwide. Crime in the capital city has incrementally expanded over the previous years and jumped from 2018 when the rime rate was 1385.1.[15]Despite significantly reducing in scale, the crime rate inKochiremained the second-highest at 1711.2, mainly due toKochi Policebooking the highest number of rash driving cases in their jurisdiction, 10508 separate cases in 2019.[16]Jaipur (1392.5) had the third-highest crime rate for the second-year, with crimes against women rising fast. The city had the highest rape rate of 35.6 per 100,000 population.[2][17]
Police records shows high incidence of crimes against women in India.[18]Sexual assault against women in India is increasingly common. Despite a large population, statistically sexual assault in India is not rampant.[18]According to the NCRB, as of 2018, the majority of crimes against women were registered under 'Cruelty by Husband or His Relatives' (31.9%) followed by 'Assault on Women with Intent to Outrage her Modesty' (27.6%), 'Kidnapping & Abduction of Women' (22.5%) and 'Rape' (10.3%). The crime rate per lakh women population was 58.8 in 2018, as compared to 57.9 in 2017.
Rape in India has been described byRadha Kumaras one of India's most common crimes against women.[19]Official sources show that rape cases in India have doubled between 1990 and 2008.[20]While already on an upward curve, rape cases suddenly spiked in 2013.[21]Disturbing incidents of rape on senior citizens[22]and infants[23]are increasingly common. The incidence of rape had gone up significantly during theCOVID-19 pandemic in India.[24]
As of 2018, rape was the fourth most common crime against women with the number of registered rape cases rising from 32,559 in 2017 to 33,356. Of these, 31,320 cases (93.9%) had a culprit who was known to the victim. The states which saw the highest absolute number of rapes wereMadhya Pradesh(5,433 or 16.3% of all cases),[25]Rajasthan(4,355 or 13%),Uttar Pradesh(3,946 or 11.8%),Maharashtra(2,142 or 6.4%) andChhattisgarh(2,091 or 6%).
In 2018, the national average rape rate (per 1,00,000 population) was 5.2, same as the previous year.Tamil Nadu(0.9),Nagaland(1.0) andBihar(1.1) had the lowest rape rates whileChhattisgarh(14.7) had the highest rape rate.
Dowriesare considered a major contributor towards theviolence against women in India. Some of these offences include physical violence, emotional abuses, and murder of brides and girls.[26][27][28]
Most dowry deaths occur when the young woman, unable to bear the harassment and torture, commits suicide. Most of these suicides are by hanging, poisoning or by fire. Sometimes the woman is killed by setting her on fire – this is known asbride burning, and is sometimes disguised as suicide or accident.[29]In 2012, 8,233 dowry death cases were reported across India.[30]Dowry issues caused 1.4 deaths per year per 100,000 women in India.[31][32]
Domestic violence in Indiais endemic.[33]Around 70% of women in India are victims of domestic violence, according toRenuka Chowdhury, former Union minister for Women and Child Development.[34]
The National Crime Records Bureau reveals that a crime against a woman is committed every three minutes, a woman is raped every 29 minutes, adowrydeath occurs every 77 minutes, and one case of cruelty committed by either the husband or relative of the husband occurs every nine minutes.[35]This occurs despite the fact that women in India are legally protected from domestic abuse under theProtection of Women from Domestic Violence Act.[35]
Human trafficking in Indiais a serious issue. It usually comes in the form of offering employment to the poor and uneducated. Women are sold to brothels or families as maids, where they are usually raped, tortured and sexually assaulted. In 2021, India has passed a bill for fighting human trafficking.[36]According toNational Crime Records Bureau, 2,189 cases of human trafficking were registered in 2021 as compared to 1,714 in 2020. Among states,Telangana(347) reported highest number of cases, followed byMaharashtra(320) andAssam(203). 1,21,351 children were missing as of 2021 data, many of them potential victims of human trafficking.[37]
India is located between two major illicitopiumproducing centres in Asia – theGolden CrescentcomprisingPakistan,AfghanistanandIranand theGolden TrianglecomprisingBurma, Thailand andLaos.[38]Because of such geographical location, India experiences large amount of drug trafficking through the borders.[39]India is the world's largest producer of licit opium for the pharmaceutical trade.[40]But an undetermined quantity of opium is diverted to illicit international drug markets.[40]
India is a transshipment point for heroin fromSouthwest Asiancountries likeAfghanistanandPakistanand from Southeast Asian countries like Burma, Laos, and Thailand.[41]Heroin is smuggled fromPakistanand Burma, with some quantities transshipped through Nepal.[41]Most heroin shipped from India are destined for Europe.[41]There have been reports of heroin smuggled fromMumbaitoNigeriafor further export.[41]
InMaharashtra,Mumbaiis an important centre for distribution of drug.[42]The most commonly used drug in Mumbai is Indian heroin (calleddesi malby the local population).[42]Both public transportation (road and rail transportation) and private transportation are used for this drug trade.[42]
Drug trafficking affects the country in many ways.
A survey conducted in 2003–2004 by Narcotics Control Bureau found that India has at least four million drug addicts.[46]The most common drugs used in India arecannabis,hashish,opiumand heroin.[46]In 2006 alone, India's law enforcing agencies recovered 230 kg heroin and 203 kg ofcocaine.[47]In an annual government report in 2007, the United States named India among 20 major hubs for trafficking of illegal drugs along with Pakistan, Afghanistan and Burma. However, studies reveal that most of the criminals caught in this crime are either Nigerian orUSnationals.[48]
Several measures have been taken by theGovernment of Indiato combat drug trafficking in the country. India is a party of theSingle Convention on Narcotic Drugs(1961), theConvention on Psychotropic Substances(1971), theProtocol Amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs(1972) and theUnited Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances(1988).[49]An Indo-Pakistani committee was set up in 1986 to prevent trafficking in narcotic drugs.[50]India signed a convention with theUnited Arab Emiratesin 1994 to control drug trafficking.[50]In 1995, India signed an agreement withEgyptfor investigation of drug cases and exchange of information and amemorandum of understandingof the Prevention of Illicit Trafficking in Drugs withIran.[50]
According to a joint report published byOxfam,Amnesty Internationaland theInternational Action Network on Small Arms(IANSA) in 2006, there are around 40 million illegal small arms in India out of approximately 75 million in worldwide circulation.[51]Majority of the illegal small arms make its way into the states ofBihar,Chhattisgarh,Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand,OrissaandMadhya Pradesh.[51]In UP, a usedAK-47costs $3,800 in black market.[52]Large amount of illegal small arms are manufactured in various illegal arms factories in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and sold on the black market for as little as $5.08.[51]
Chinese pistols are in demand in the illegal small arms market in India because they are easily available and cheaper.[51]This trend poses a significant problem for the states ofBihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Maharashtra,West Bengal, Karnataka andAndhra Pradeshwhich have influence ofNaxalism.[51]The porous Indo-Nepal border is an entry point for Chinese pistols, AK-47 andM-16 riflesinto India as these arms are used by the Naxalites who have ties to Maoists in Nepal.[51]
InNorth-East India, there is a huge influx of small arms due to the insurgent groups operating there.[53]The small arms in North-East India come from insurgent groups in Burma, black markets inSoutheast Asia,Pakistan, Bangladesh,NepalandSri Lanka, black market inCambodia, the People's Republic of China, insurgent groups like theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, theCommunist Party of India (Maoist), theCommunist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre), Indian states likeUttar Pradeshand pilferages from legal gun factories,
criminal organisations operating in India and South Asian countries and
other international markets likeRomania, Germany etc.[54]Illegal weaponry found in North-East India includes small arms such as theM14,M16,AK-47,AK-56, and theAK-74, but alsolight machine guns, Chinesehand grenades,mines,rocket-propelled grenade launchersandsubmachine gunsetc.[55]
TheMinistry of External AffairsandMinistry of Home Affairsdrafted a joint proposal to the United Nations, seeking a global ban on small-arms sales to non-state users.[51]
Illegal wildlife trade in India has increased.[56][57]
According to a report published by theEnvironmental Investigation Agency(EIA) in 2004, India is the chief target for the traders of wildlife skin.[58]Between 1994 and 2003, there have been 784 cases where the skins of tiger, leopard orotterhave been seized.[58]Leopards,rhinoceros,reptiles, birds, insects, rare species of plants are being smuggled into the countries in Southeast Asia and the People's Republic of China.[56]Between 1994 and 2003, poaching and seizure of 698 otters have been documented in India.[58]
Kathmanduis a key staging point for illegal skins smuggled from India bound forTibetand PRC.[58]The report by EIA noted there has been a lack of cross-border cooperation between India,Nepaland the People's Republic ofChinato coordinate enforcement operations and lack of political will to treat wildlife crime effectively.[58]The poaching ofelephantsis a significant problem in Southern India[59]and in the North-Eastern states ofNagalandandMizoram.[60]In 2015-17,Operation Shikkarled to the arrest of 72 individuals and the seizure of 464 kg of ivory.
The majority of tigerpoachinghappen inMadhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,Orissa, West Bengal,AssamandArunachal Pradesh.[61]There was a famous leopard poaching case atMankulamin Kerala in 2021.[62][63]Following is a comparison of reported cases of tiger and leopard poaching from 1998 to 2003:
Samir Sinha, head ofTRAFFIC India, the wildlife trade monitoring arm of theWorld Wide Fund for Nature(WWF) and theWorld Conservation Union(IUCN), toldReutersin an interview "The situation regarding the illegal trade in wildlife parts in India is very grim. It is a vast, a varied trade ranging from smuggling of rare medicinal plants to butterflies to peafowl to tigers and it is difficult to predict how big it is, but the threats and dimensions suggest that the trade is increasing".[56]
Project Tiger, a wildlife conservation project, was initiated in 1972 and was launched byIndira Gandhion 1 April 1973.[65]With 23 tiger reserves, Project Tiger claimed to have succeeded.[65]But according to critics like conservationist Billy Arjan Singh, temporary increases in tiger population were caused by immigration due to destruction of habitat in Nepal, not because of the widely acclaimed success of wildlife policy in India.[65]
The Information Technology Act 2000 was passed by theParliament of Indiain May 2000, aiming to curb cyber crimes and provide a legal framework fore-commercetransactions.[66]However Pavan Duggal, lawyer ofSupreme Court of Indiaand cyber law expert, viewed "The IT Act, 2000, is primarily meant to be a legislation to promote e-commerce. It is not very effective in dealing with several emerging cyber crimes likecyber harassment,defamation, stalking and so on". Although cyber crime cells have been set up in major cities, Duggal noted the problem is that most cases remain unreported due to a lack of awareness.[67]
In 2001, India and United States had set up an India-US cyber security forum as part of a counter-terrorism dialogue.[68][69]
In 2021, according toNCRBdata, 52,974 cyber crime cases were registered in India, a rise of 5% compared to 2020 (50,035) cases.Telanganareported highest number of cyber crimes in India with 10,303 cases, followed by Uttar Pradesh (8,829) and Karnataka (8,136) in the number of cyber crimes reported, while Karnataka registered highest number of cyber crimes against women.[70]
In 2021, the motive behind 60.8% of the cyber crimes was fraud, followed by sexual exploitation in 8.6% (4,555) cases and extortion in 5.4% (2,883) cases.[71]
India ranked second globally in terms of cyber crimes on health systems in 2021, according to a report by CloudSEK, a company which predicts cyber threats. The breached data included vaccination records, personally identifiable information, like name, address, email, contact number, and gender, and log in details of hospitals. Such attacks can also shut down equipment during surgery or in intensive care units.[72]
Corruption is widespread in India. It is prevalent within every section and every level of the society.[73]Corruption has taken the role of a pervasive aspect of Indian politics. In India, corruption takes the form of bribes, evasion oftaxandexchange controls,embezzlement, etc.[74]
Despite state prohibitions against torture and custodialmisconductby the police,torture is widespreadin police custody, which is a major reason behinddeaths in custody.[75][76]The police often torture innocent people until a 'confession' is obtained to save influential and wealthy offenders.[77][74]G.P. Joshi, the programme coordinator of the Indian branch of theCommonwealth Human Rights InitiativeinNew Delhicomments that the main issue at hand concerning police violence is a lack of accountability of the police.[78]
In 2006, theSupreme Court of Indiain a judgment in thePrakash Singh vs. Union of Indiacase, ordered central and state governments with seven directives to begin the process of police reform. The main objectives of this set of directives was twofold, providing tenure to and streamlining the appointment/transfer processes of policemen, and increasing the accountability of the police.[79]
In 2006, seven policemen were charge sheeted and eleven were convicted[9]for custodial misconduct.Jan Lokpal Billis being planned to reduce the corruption.[80]
Petty crime, likepickpocketing, theft of valuables from luggage on trains and buses have been reported. Travellers who are not in groups become easy victims of pickpockets and purse snatchers. Purse snatchers work in crowded areas.[81]
Many scams are perpetrated against foreign travellers, especially inJaipur, the capital ofRajasthan.[82]Scammers usually target younger foreign tourists and suggest to them that money can be made by privately transporting gems or gold, or by taking delivery abroad of expensive carpets, avoiding customs duties.[82]
Such incidents occupy the traveller for several days. The traveller is then passed to a new scam artist who offers to show the foreign traveller the sights. Scam artists also offer cheap lodgings and meals to foreign travellers so they can place him or her in the scam artist's physical custody and thus make the foreigner vulnerable to threats and physical coercion. In the process, the foreigner loses his passport.[82]
Besides these, there are also unofficial guides to watch out for. They can be found all over India such as at crowded transportation hubs and at tourist attractions. A common ruse at transportation hubs is to claim that there is no train to your destination or to claim that a place is closed. The aim is to get you to take their expensive private transport or to an expensive hotel where they get a cut. As for the guides at tourist attractions, these could be temples, mosques, or places such as the Varanasi Ghat. You will end up receiving unsolicited services and then asked to pay a big tip for them.[83]
There are also taxi scams present in India, whereby a foreign traveller, who is not aware of the locations around Indian airports, is taken for a ride round the whole airport and charged for full-fare taxi ride while the terminal is only few hundred yards away.[81]Overseas Security Advisory Council in a report mentioned the process about how to avoid taxi-scam. This crime is known in other areas of the world as "long-hauling".[81]
Crime prevention is critical to maintain law and order in the country. Deterring criminals through deployment of more police is one of the major strategy practised. However, their relationship is very complex. There are also other reasons such as unemployment, poverty, a lower per capita income which can affect the crime rates in India.[84]
IPC-Indian Penal Notes
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AnIRS impersonation scamis a class of telecommunications fraud andscamwhich targets Americantaxpayersby masquerading asInternal Revenue Service(IRS) collection officers.[1]The scammers operate by placing disturbing official-sounding calls to unsuspecting citizens, threatening them with arrest andfrozen assetsif thousands of dollars are not paid immediately, usually viagift cardsor money orders.[2]According to the IRS, over 1,029,601 Americans have received threatening calls, and $29,100,604 has been reported lost to these call scams as of March 2016.[3]The problem has been assigned to theTreasury Inspector General for Tax Administration.[4]Studies highlight that most victims of these scams are aged 20-29 years old and women are more affected than men. One way to decrease the risks of an individual falling victim to IRS impersonation scams is through awareness programs.[5]
The scammers often request payment in the form ofgift cardssuch asGoogle PlayoriTunescards, wire transfer,MoneyGram, or credit card.[6]
As of September 2017[update], several people from India have been arrested for impersonating IRS employees.[7]
Variations on this scam have targeted British taxpayers, pretending to be fromHM Revenue and Customs(HMRC). Sometimes the scammers usetelephone calls,[8]sometimesSMS text messages, and sometimes emails.[9]Versions include:
Another variation similarly targets Canadians by impersonating theCanada Revenue Agencyand utilizing aggressive fear tactics, with at least 60,000 Canadian residents filing complaints from 2013 to 2018.[11]
Variations of this scam are common in Malaysia, where they are known as 'Macau scams'. In addition to posing as tax agents, these scams can involvefraudstersposing as police officers or bank workers.[12]
In response to a modus operandi by scammers where they coax victims into buying prepaid cards or gift cards for online services, companies such asApple, along with theFederal Trade Commission, have posted advisories warning customers over the illicit use of gift cards by scammers, and not to give out the code to anyone they do not know.[13][14]Retailers and supermarkets have also followed suit by putting up similar warnings on prepaid and gift card sections.[15]Amazonhas also warned of the dangers of these scams by advising customers not to use Amazon.com Gift Cards for payment outside of Amazon or its affiliated properties and not to use gift cards for other retailers and brands outside of the intended brand.[16]Google Playhas also published a similar warning on their website.[17]
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AnSSA impersonation scam, orSSA scam, is a class of telecommunicationsscamtargeting citizens of the United States by impersonatingSocial Security Administrationemployees. SSA scams are typically initiated through pre-recorded messages, orrobocalls, that usesocial engineeringto make victims panic and ensure they follow instructions given to them. In 2018, over 35,000 instances of SSA scam robocalls were reported to theBetter Business Bureauwith over $10 million lost by victims.[1]Approximately 47% of Americans were subject to an SSA scam robocall during a three-month period between mid- to late 2020, and 21% of seniors were subject to at least three robocalls during the same time period.[2][3]
The majority of SSA scams begin by sending outrobocallsin large quantities to potential victims, though some useemailandtext messaging.[4]Social engineeringin used to panic recipients so a greater number will respond to the scammer.[5]The calls purport to originate from theSocial Security Administrationand claim that the victim's Social Security number (SSN) has been or will shortly be suspended for reasons includingmoney laundering, drug dealing andfraudlinked to the SSN.[6]Some variations threaten monetary or legal consequences for failing to comply with the call's instructions, such asfreezingor seizure of money from bank accounts, the cancellation ofstate benefits, andarrest.[3]The call subsequently demands the recipient call a "helpline" to prevent these actions.Caller ID spoofingis often employed, which makes the call appear to come from legitimate SSA phone numbers thus boosting its credibility.[7][8][9][10]
Once a potential victim calls the "helpline", scammers attempt to persuade them of the legitimacy of the call with help from a pre–written script.[11]The scammers sometimes identify themselves using the real names and badge numbers of SSA employees, and spoof their phone numbers so the victim believes they are talking to a legitimate official.[4][12]It has been suggested that scammers take advantage ofdata breachesin order to persuade the victim that they are speaking to government employees by relaying information gained from data breaches back to the victim.[13]During this phase scammers also aim to gain as much personal information as possible, including the victim's name name, a partial or full SSN, and their date of birth, under the guise of "verifying the caller's identity."[14]Victims may also be added to asucker listif the scam is successful so they can be targeted with other scams.[15]The scammer will eventually ask the victim to pay to correct issues and prevent the consequences threatened in the original robocall.[16]
SSA scammers request payment from victims through untraceable routes, such as throughgift cards, pre-paiddebit cards,wire transfers,cryptocurrency, and sending packages of cash through apostal service.[17][18][19]The payment will undergomoney launderingbefore it is claimed by the scammers. In response to the increased usage of gift cards as a means of payment to scammers, multiple companies have posted advisories warning about the cards' potential fraudulent uses,[20]however victims who have been successfully convinced by scammers often overlook warning signs and proceed to purchase them regardless.[21]
Since 2017, there has been a rapid increase in the number of SSA impersonation scam robocalls reported to theFederal Trade Commission. In 2017, 3,200 incidents of SSA scam robocalls were reported to the FTC. In comparison, in 2018 over 35,000 instances were reported.[1]In the first three months of 2019, over 65,000 instances of attempted SSA scams were reported.[22]
It is believed that fraudulentcall centresnow prefer to run SSA scams overIRS impersonation scams, the latter undergoing a sharp decline in late 2016.[23][24]
According to the FTC, over $10 million was lost to SSA scammers in 2018 with an average loss of $1,500 per victim.[24]A citizen in Ohio reportedly lost over $4,000 after falling for an SSA impersonation scam.[25]A retired professor in San Francisco fell victim to the scam and sent $4,000 in gift cards to the scammers, before posting a package consisting of $20,000 via delivery courierFedExto amoney muleworking for the same group of scammers. The package, along with another sent by a victim living inBoston, has since been seized by authorities inFairfax County, Virginia, and returned to their owners.[26]In 2019, $153 million was lost to scams impersonating government agencies, and according to the Federal Trade Commission, $37 million of that was attributed to Social Security scams.[27]
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Telemarketing fraudisfraudulentselling conducted over the telephone. The term is also used for telephone fraudnotinvolving selling.
Telemarketing fraud is one of the most persuasive deceptions identified by theFederal Trade Commission(FTC).[1]Telemarketing fraud often involves some sort of victim compliance whether it involves the victim initiating contact with the perpetrator or voluntarily providing their private information to the offender; thus, fraud victims may experience feelings of shame and embarrassment that may prevent them from reporting their victimization.[2]
Older people are disproportionately targeted by fraudulent telemarketers and make up 80% of victims affected by telemarketing scams alone. Older people may be targeted more because the scammer assumes they may be more trusting, too polite to hang up, or have a nest egg.[3]Many older people have money to invest and are in need of profit. Also, they are less likely to report the fraud because they don't believe that consumer complaints would be solved.[4]
Scam Likely[26]is a term used for scam call identification, the term was originally coined by T-Mobile for the scam ID technology created by First Orion.[27]First Orion's scam blocking technology uses a combination of known bad actors, AI powered blocking including neighborhood spoofing and unusual calling pattern.
Scam Identification is a feature of the T-Mobile and Metro carrier network which can be controlled by the app Scam Shield,[28]customer care or dialing the short code #664 to turn on or off scam blocking.[29]
There are a number of phone apps which try to identify, screen, send to voicemail or otherwise deter telemarketing calls with most major carriers providing some level of free scam call screening."Call Blocking".Federal Trade Commission. Retrieved2021-08-04.Additionally both iOS[30]and Android[31]operating systems offer scam screening options.
In addition phone carriers may provide caller authentication usingSTIR/SHAKENa caller authentication protocol designed to stop caller id spoofing by exchanging tokens between cellular carriers.[32]
Grandparent scam
A telephone call is made to an elderly person with a family member who is supposedly in some kind of trouble, usually claiming to be a grandson or granddaughter. These calls are often placed late at night or early in the morning when most people are not thinking as clearly. Callers assume that their targets have grandchildren and will usually have several other people in on the scam, such as a bail bondsman, the arresting police officer, a lawyer, a doctor at a hospital, or some other person.[33]The first voice on the phone is usually by the scammer pretending to be the grandchild sounding upset and typically stating that there are only a few moments to talk. The caller may say that they have a cold if the victim does not recognize their voice. Their story generally follows a familiar line: they were traveling in another country with a friend, and after a car accident or legal infraction, they are in jail and need bail money wired to a Western Union account as soon as possible for their quick release.[34]The caller does not want anyone told about the incident, especially not family. Before the victim can ask too much about the situation the phony child will hand the phone over to the accomplice who will then request money to be transferred to release the grandchild from jail. While this is commonly called the grandparent scam, criminals may also claim to be a family friend, a niece or nephew, or another family member.[33]
Microsoft scam
A telephone call is made saying typically that virus activity has been detected on the victim's computer; the overseas caller then states they are from Microsoft or a Microsoft certified technician. Callers assume that the victim has a computer running a Microsoft Windows operating system (users of other operating systems, such as Linux, are a minority and are likely to be technically knowledgeable). They will get the computer owner to give the caller remote access using a genuine networking service or website like ammyy.com orTeamViewer. They will use the ‘Event Viewer’ tool on the computer to highlight the Red-X Errors and Yellow Warnings which are supposedly signs of an infection,[9]when in fact these are normal and harmless logs[35]They also encrypt the owner's password database, preventing access to the computer without the scammers' password, essentially locking the victim out of their own computer and ensuring that they themselves will be paid. At this stage the caller then has complete control over the computer, and can display further alarming displays, as well as installing malware. The cold caller will then offer to remove the viruses and malicious malware (some of which they have installed themselves) and install security software and provide an ongoing support service costing up to $500.[36]The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has reported a huge crackdown on tech support scams and ordered a halt to several alleged tech support scams.[37]
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Acomputer virus hoaxis a message warning the recipients of a non-existentcomputer virusthreat. The message is usually achain e-mailthat tells the recipients to forward it to everyone they know, but it can also be in the form of a pop-up window.[1][2]
Most hoaxes are sensational in nature and easily identified by the fact that they indicate that the virus will do nearly impossible things, like blow up the recipient's computer and set it on fire, or less sensationally, delete everything on the user's computer. They often include fake announcements claimed to originate from reputable computer organizations together with mainstream news media. These bogus sources are quoted in order to give the hoax more credibility. Typically, the warnings use emotive language, stress the urgent nature of the threat and encourage readers to forward the message to other people as soon as possible.[2]
Virus hoaxes are usually harmless and accomplish nothing more than annoying people who identify it as a hoax and wasting the time of people who forward the message. Nevertheless, a number of hoaxes have warned users that vital system files are viruses and encourage the user to delete the file, possibly damaging the system. Examples of this type include thejdbgmgr.exe virus hoaxand theSULFNBK.EXEhoax.[3][4]
Some consider virus hoaxes and other chain e-mails to be acomputer wormin and of themselves. They replicate bysocial engineering—exploiting users' concern, ignorance, and disinclination to investigate before acting.
Hoaxes are distinct from computer pranks, which are harmless programs that perform unwanted and annoying actions on a computer, such as randomly moving the mouse, turning the screen display upside down, etc.
Anti-virus specialists agree that recipients should delete virus hoaxes when they receive them, instead of forwarding them.[5][6]
McAfeesays:
We are advising users who receive the email to delete it and DO NOT pass it on as this is how an email HOAX propagates.[5]
F-Securerecommends:
Do not forward hoax messages.
Hoax warnings are typically scare alerts started by malicious people – and passed on by innocent individuals that think they are helping the community by spreading the warning.
Corporate users can get rid of the hoax problem by simply setting a strict company guideline: End users must not forward virus alarms. Ever. It's not the job of an end user anyway. If such message is received, end users could forward it to the IT department but not to anyone else.[6]
A telephone scam, commonly operated from call centres based inIndia, has been active since 2008. The victim is quoted his or her name and address, and is told: "I'm calling for Microsoft (or an entity that sounds like it is connected to Microsoft, such as the "Windows Service Center" or "Windows Technical Department"). We've had a report from your internet service provider of serious virus problems from yourWindowscomputer." The victim is then directed to open theWindows event viewer, which displays apparently critical warnings, and is directed to a website to download an application to allow the scammer to control his or her computer remotely. The caller supposedly fixes the problems and demands a fee for the service. In addition to the fraudulent fee, the process usually enablesmalwareto be uploaded to the victim's computer.[15]
The virus hoax has become part of the culture of the twenty-first century and thegullibilityof novice computer users convinced to delete files on the basis of hoaxes has been parodied in several popular jokes and songs.
One such parody is"Weird Al" Yankovic's song "Virus Alert" from the albumStraight Outta Lynwood. The song makes fun of the exaggerated claims that are made in virus hoaxes, such as legally changing your name or opening a rift intime and space.[16]
Another parody of virus hoaxes is thehonor system viruswhich has been circulated under the nameAmishComputer Virus, manual virus, the Blond Computer Virus, theIrishComputer Virus, theSyrianComputer Virus, theNorwegianComputer Virus,AlbanianVirus,NewfieVirus, theUnixComputer Virus, theMac OS 9virus, Discount virus and many others. This joke email claims to be authored by theAmishor other similar low-technology populations who have no computers, programming skills or electricity to create viruses and thus ask users to delete their own hard drive contents manually after forwarding the message to their friends.[17]
TheTuxissavirus is another parody of the virus hoax, originating on Humorix, a humor website aboutLinux. The parody claims to be based on the concept of theMelissa virus, but with the aim of installing Linux on the victim's computer without the owner's permission. The story says that it was spread via e-mail, contained in a message titled "Important Message AboutWindowsSecurity". It was supposed to first spread the virus to other computers, then download a stripped-down version ofSlackwareand uncompress it onto the hard disk. The Windows Registry is finally deleted and the boot options changed. The virus then reboots the computer, leaving the user facing the Linux login prompt with all their Windows security problems solved.[18]
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Scamsand confidence tricks are difficult to classify, because they change often and often contain elements of more than one type. Throughout this list, the perpetrator of the confidence trick is called the "con artist" or simply "artist", and the intended victim is the "mark". Particular scams are mainly directed toward elderly people, as they may be gullible and sometimes inexperienced or insecure, especially when the scam involves modern technology such as computers and the internet. This list should not be considered complete but covers the most common examples.
Get-rich-quick schemesare extremely varied; these include fakefranchises,real estate"sure things", get-rich-quick books, wealth-building seminars,self-helpgurus, sure-fire inventions, useless products,chain letters,fortune tellers,quackdoctors, miraclepharmaceuticals,foreign exchange fraud,Nigerian money scams, fraudulenttreasure hunts, andcharms and talismans. Variations include thepyramid scheme, thePonzi scheme, and thematrix scheme.
Victor Lustig, a con artist born in Austria-Hungary, designed and sold a "money box" which he claimed could print $100 bills using blank sheets of paper.[1][self-published source]A victim, sensing huge profits and untroubled by ethical implications, would buy the machine for a high price—from $25,000 to $102,000.[1]Lustig stocked the machine with six to nine genuine $100 bills for demonstration purposes, but after that it produced only blank paper.[2]By the time victims realized that they had been scammed, Lustig was long gone.[1][2]
Saltingor "salting the mine" are terms for a scam in whichgemstonesorgold oreare planted in amineor on the landscape, duping the mark into purchasing shares in a worthless or non-existent mining company.[3]Duringgold rushes, scammers would loadshotgunswith gold dust and shoot into the sides of the mine to give the appearance of a rich ore, thus "salting the mine". Examples include thediamond hoax of 1872and theBre-Xgold fraud of the mid-1990s.
This trick was featured in theHBOseriesDeadwood, whenAl SwearengenandE. B. Farnumtrick Brom Garret into believing gold is to be found on the claim Swearengen intends to sell him. This con was also featured inSneaky Pete. In season 3 of the TV seriesLeverage, the team salts a mine withcoltanin order to run a con on two greedy and corrupt luminaries.
TheSpanish Prisonerscam—and its modern variant, theadvance-fee scamor "Nigerian letter scam"—involves enlisting the mark to aid in retrieving some stolen money from its hiding place. The victim sometimes believes they can cheat the con artists out of their money, but anyone trying this has already fallen for the essential con by believing that the money is there to steal (see alsoBlack money scam). The classic Spanish Prisoner trick also contains an element of the romance scam (see below).
Many con artists employ extra tricks to keep the victim from going to the police. A common ploy of investment scammers is to encourage a mark to use money concealed from tax authorities. The mark cannot go to the authorities without revealing that they have committedtax fraud. Many swindles involve a minor element of crime or some other misdeed. The mark is made to think that they will gain money by helping fraudsters get huge sums out of a country (the classic advance-fee fraud/Nigerian scam); hence a mark cannot go to the police without revealing that they planned to commit a crime themselves.
In a twist on the Nigerian fraud scheme, the mark is told they are helping someone overseas collect debts from corporate clients. Largechequesstolen from businesses are mailed to the mark. These cheques are altered to reflect the mark's name, and the mark is then asked to cash them and transfer all but a percentage of the funds (theircommission) to the con artist. The cheques are often completely genuine, except that the "pay to" information has been expertly changed. This exposes the mark not only to enormous debt when the bank reclaims the money from their account, but also to criminal charges formoney laundering. A more modern variation is to uselaser-printedcounterfeit cheques with the proper bank account numbers and payer information.
This scam can be seen in the filmThe Spanish Prisoner.
Persuasion fraud, when fraudsters persuade people only to target their money, is an old-fashioned type of fraud.
A grandparent gets a call or e-mail from someone claiming to be their grandchild, saying that they are in trouble. For example, the scammer may claim to have been arrested and require money wired, or gift cards purchased for bail, and asks the victim not to tell the grandchild's parents, as they would "only get upset". The call is fraudulent impersonation, the name of the grandchild typically obtained fromsocial mediapostings as well as obituaries listed either in newspapers or from a funeral home's website. Any moneywiredout of the country is gone forever.[4]
The traditionalromance scamhas now moved intoInternet datingsites, gaining a new name ofcatfishing.[5]The con actively cultivates aromantic relationshipwhich often involves promises of marriage. However, after some time, it becomes evident that this Internet "sweetheart" is stuck in their home country, lacking the money to leave and therefore unable to be united with the mark. The scam then becomes anadvance-fee fraudor acheck fraud. A wide variety of reasons can be offered for the trickster's lack of cash, but rather than just borrow the money from the victim (advance fee fraud), the con-artist normally declares that they have checks which the victim can cash on their behalf and remit the money via a non-reversible transfer service to help facilitate the trip (check fraud). Of course, the checks are forged or stolen and the con-artist never makes the trip: the hapless victim ends up with a large debt and anaching heart. This scam can be seen in the movieNights of Cabiria.
Variants of these employ bots or even live people who offer to go to live cam sites to video chat with the mark. The sites almost always require a credit card to be entered. The scammer insists the site is free and the card is only for purposes of age verification. The scammer will aggressively push using the site instead of a more well-known service like Skype, Zoom, or Discord or using more rational ways to obtain age verification (such as asking to see a driver's license orpassport). Typically these sites charge a relatively low fee, often close to US$25–$50. After the fee has been paid the scammer vanishes and the site ceases to exist shortly thereafter. This is common on quick dating sites likeTinderor free ones likeOkCupid, but has been seen on ones that require payment as well.
In some cases, an online dating siteis itself engaged in fraud, posting profiles of fictional persons or persons which the operator knows are not currently looking for a date in the advertised locality.[6]
One traditional swindle involvesfortune-telling. In this scam, a fortune teller usescold readingskills to detect that a client is genuinely troubled rather than merely seeking entertainment; or is a gambler complaining of badluck. The fortune teller informs the mark that they are the victim of acurse, and that for a fee a spell can be cast to remove the curse. InRomany, this trick is calledbujo("bag") after one traditional format: the mark is told that the curse is in their money; they bring money in a bag to have the spell cast over it, and leaves with a bag of worthless paper.[7]Fear of this scam has been one justification for legislation that makes fortune-telling a crime.[8]See the "Blessing Scam" below.
This scam got a new lease on life in the electronic age with thevirus hoax.Fake anti-virus softwarefalsely claims that a computer is infected with viruses, and renders the machine inoperable with bogus warnings unless blackmail is paid. In the Datalink Computer Services incident, a mark was fleeced of several million dollars by a firm that claimed that his computer was infected with viruses, and that the infection indicated an elaborate conspiracy against him on the Internet.[9][10][11]The alleged scam lasted from August 2004 through October 2010 and is estimated to have cost the victim $6–20 million.[9][12]
Gold brick scams involve selling a tangible item for more than it is worth; they are named for the scam of selling the victim an allegedly golden ingot which turns out to be gold-coated lead.
Thegreen goods scam, also known as the "green goods game", was a scheme popular in the 19th-century United States in which people were duped into paying for worthlesscounterfeitmoney. It is a variation on thepig-in-a-pokescam using money instead of other goods like a pig. The mark, or victim, would respond to flyers circulated throughout the country by the scammers ("green goods men") which claimed to offer "genuine" counterfeit currency for sale. This currency was sometimes alleged to have been printed with stolen engraving plates. Victims, usually living outside major cities, would be enticed to travel to the location of the green goods men to complete the transaction. Victims were guided by a "steerer" to be shown large amounts of genuine currency—represented to be counterfeit—which was then placed in a bag orsatchel. Victims then received offers to purchase the money at a price much less than face value. While a victim negotiated a price or was otherwise distracted, another accomplice (the "ringer") would switch the bag of money for a bag containing sawdust, green paper, or other worthless items. Victims would leave unaware of the switch, and were unwilling to report the crime, as attempting to purchase counterfeit currency was itself a crime and the victim accordingly riskedarrest.
Pig in a pokeoriginated in the lateMiddle Ages. The con entails a sale of what is claimed to be a small pig, in a poke (bag). The bag actually contains a cat (not particularly prized as a source of meat). If one buys the bag without looking inside it, the person has bought something of less value than was assumed, and has learned first-hand the lessoncaveat emptor.[citation needed]"Buying a pig in a poke" has become acolloquial expressionin many European languages, including English, for when someone buys something without examining it beforehand.[13]In some regions the "pig" in the phrase is replaced by "cat", referring to the bag's actual content, but the saying is otherwise identical.[citation needed]This is also said to be where the phrase "letting the cat out of the bag" comes from, although there may be other explanations.[citation needed]
In Portuguese or Spanish speaking countries, the "pig" in the phrase is replaced by a hare or jackrabbit. A victim thinks he is buying a hare, when in reality he is buying a cat, hence the expression "gato por lebre" (inPortuguese) or "gato por liebre" (inSpanish).[citation needed]
The Thaigem scaminvolves layers of con men and helpers who tell a tourist inBangkokof an opportunity to earn money by buyingduty-freejewelry and having it shipped back to the tourist's home country. The mark is driven around the city in atuk-tukoperated by one of the con men, who ensures that the mark meets one helper after another, until the mark is persuaded to buy the jewelry from a store also operated by the swindlers. The gems are real but significantly overpriced. This scam has been operating for twenty years in Bangkok, and is said to be protected by Thai police and politicians. A similar scam usually runs in parallel for custom-made suits. Many tourists are hit by con men touting both goods.[citation needed]
A similar trick in Thailand involves lying about the presence ofivoryin ornaments. Tricksters offer a non-ivory ornament for sale next to a sign in English reading "It is strictly forbidden to transport ivory into the United States, and the seller assumes no responsibility". This may make the buyer believe he or she has stumbled upon "forbidden fruit", tempting him to purchase the ornament, usually small and easy to hide, and smuggle it out of the country. The buyer would later discover that the ornament is made out of bone matter with no trace of ivory whatsoever.[citation needed]
In twists on the Gold-Brick Scam and the False Documents Scam, in the Financial Condition Scam the con artist convinces the mark through purported objective evidence that con artist is wealthier than he is. The 'gold brick' the scammer sells is himself.
The trick was common in Manhattan commercial banking and insurance circles between the 1980s and the 2020s. The con relies upon the truth that commercial lending and insurance, despite third-party appraisals anddue diligenceresearch, are based ultimately on trust between lender and borrower. The function of the scam is simple -- the grifters generate phony documents that show the applicant borrower meets or exceedscapital liquidityrequirements needed to qualify for multi-million-dollar financing or insurance.
However, banks and insurance companies expect some documents in their business to be fraudulent. The difficult part of the scam is to do many other things over long years that imbue the con artist and the documents he generates with an aura of wealth around the frontman. In the case of theTrump Organization, the phony financial documents were provided first to independent auditors who themselves then generated third-party documents based on those false representations.
Meanwhile, much time and energy goes into "salting" the public sphere with purported soft evidence (in a version of theSalt the Mine scam) of wealth — including feeding phony information to financial journalists (even through phony press agents) in order to have the front-man ranked highly on lists of the nation's wealthiest people. The listing is then used to "prove" that the frontman is financially liquid enough. Other tactics include placing phony items with tabloid gossip columns that note the frontman's lavish lifestyle and profligate spending, and ensuring company "stores" where marks are fleeced have expensive-seeming "fits and finishes" (in reality, cheap carpet, tile, paint, countertops, lighting fixtures, etc.).
In the Trump case, evidence in a trial at equity held in the Manhattan New York State Supreme Court showed that the operation had reported that one of its chief "stores," a tri-plex residential unit inTrump Tower, while legitimately owned, was three times the square footage that it had in reality.[14]The lie was key to the grift because that "proof point" was also part of pressure campaigns on financial journalists working on lists of the wealthiest people.
In thewhite van speaker scam, low-qualityloudspeakersare sold—stereotypically from a white van—as expensive units that have been greatly discounted. The salesmen explain the ultra-low price in a number of ways; for instance, that their employer is unaware of having ordered too many speakers, so they are sneakily selling the excess behind the boss's back. The "speakermen" are ready to be haggled down to a seemingly minuscule price, because the speakers they are selling, while usually functional, actually cost only a tiny fraction of their "list price" to manufacture. The scam may extend to the creation of Web sites for the bogus brand, which usually sounds similar to that of a respected loudspeaker company. They will often place an ad for the speakers in the "For sale" Classifieds of the local newspaper, at the exorbitant price, and then show the mark a copy of this ad to "verify" their worth.[citation needed]
A "trade show" variation of a similar scam might involve a scammer pretending to have car troubles on the side of a highway, trying to hail passing vehicles. When a good Samaritan pulls over, the person claims to be a foreign citizen visiting the country to participate in some local trade show. The person claims that they are about to leave the country after the show (e.g., are on their way to the airport), but their car has run out of fuel and they have no local currency to refill it or hire a taxi. At the same time they demonstrate that the trunk of their car is full of goods, which they claim have been taken from their just-dismantled company booth after the show. These goods are typically compact popular items like electronics or power tools. They offer these items to the mark at a "significantly reduced" price, allegedly just to raise some local cash in order to "get to the airport". (Sometimes the scammer tries to sell a valuable personal jewelry item, like a gold ring off his finger.) In most cases the items are technically genuine, but worth incomparably less than what the scammer attempts to sell them for. In a well-prepared version of this scam the scammer is often a true foreigner, speaking with genuine accent and possessing good mastery of their respective foreign language.
People shopping forbootleg software, illegal pornographic images, bootleg music, drugs, firearms or other forbidden or controlled goods may be legally hindered from reporting swindles to the police. An example is the "big screen TV in the back of the truck": the TV is touted as "hot" (stolen), so it will be sold for a very low price. The TV is in fact defective or broken; it may in fact not even be a television at all, since some scammers have discovered that a suitably decorated oven door will suffice.[15]The buyer has nolegal recoursewithout admitting to the attempted purchase ofstolen goods.
Iraqi currencyis sold to would-be investors with the belief that economic/financial circumstances will drastically increase the value of their investment. In fact there is no credible rationale or information to indicate that those circumstances will materialize or, if they do materialize, that they will have significant effect on the value of the currency. Moreover, the dealers sell currency to these investors at substantial mark-up such that a significant appreciation of the currency would be required just to make their investment break even.[16][17]
Thebadger gameextortion was perpetrated largely upon married men. The mark is deliberately coerced into a compromising position, a supposed affair for example, then threatened with public exposure of his acts unless blackmail money is paid.[18]
Amail fraudthat is typically perpetrated onrestaurateurs, this scheme takes a receipt from a legitimatedry cleanerin the target city, duplicates it thousands of times, and sends it to every upscale eatery in town. An attached note claims a server in the victim's restaurant spilled food, coffee, wine or salad dressing on a diner's expensive suit of clothes, and demands reimbursement for dry cleaning costs. As the amount fraudulently claimed from each victim is relatively low, some will give the scammers the benefit of the doubt, or simply seek to avoid the nuisance of further action, and pay the claim.
The scam's return address is a drop box; the rest of the contact information is fictional or belongs to an innocent third party. The original dry cleaning shop, which has nothing to do with the scheme, receives multiple irate enquiries from victimised restaurateurs.[19][20]
Aclip jointor "fleshpot" is an establishment, usually astrip clubor entertainment bar, typically one claiming to offeradult entertainmentorbottle service, in which customers are tricked into paying money and receive poor, or no, goods or services in return. Typically, clip joints suggest the possibility of sex, charge excessively high prices for watered-down drinks, then eject customers when they become unwilling or unable to spend more money. The product or service may be illicit, offering the victim no recourse through official or legal channels.[21]
Also called acoin smack or smack game, two operators trick a victim during a game where coins are matched. One operator begins the game with the victim, then the second joins in. When the second operator leaves briefly, the first colludes with the victim to cheat the second operator. After rejoining the game, the second operator, angry at "losing," threatens to call the police. The first operator convinces the victim to pitch inhush money, which the two operators later split.[22]
A consumer inquires about a payday loan or short-term credit online and is asked for a long list of personal information. The lender is a shell firm; the loan might never be made, but the victim's personal information is now in the hands of scammers who sell it to a fraudulent collection agency.[23][24]That agency then launches into a series of harassing phone calls at all hours (often to the victim's workplace), attempting to obtain bank account numbers (allowing the account to be drained through direct withdrawal)[25]or impersonating police (sometimes withcaller ID spoofing) to threaten the victim with arrest.[26][27][28]Fake debt collectors often refuse to provide a legally required written "validation notice" of the debt, provide no evidence a debt is actually owed and demand payment using a money transfer service likeMoneyGramorWestern Unionwith poor traceability and no chargeback protection.[29]The underlying debt either does not exist, is not valid due to astatute of limitationsor does not lawfully belong to the entity making the calls; in some cases, the victim is a target ofidentity theft.[30][31]
The scammers operate under multiple names, many of which are intended to be mistaken for official or government agencies.[32]The fraudulent calls often originate from abroad; any money extorted is immediately taken out of the country.[33]
A bogus or dishonest law firm is a valuable tool to a scammer in various ways. It can send requests for upfront payments in relation to inheritances coming from unknown relatives, a form ofadvance fee fraud.[34]It also makes an effective fraudulent collection agency, as victims fear having to pay their own counsel hundreds of dollars per hour to defend against frivolous, vexatious or completely unfounded claims.[35]
In some cases, the dishonest lawyer is merely part of a larger fraudulent scheme.[36]A real estate fraud may involve taking deposits for a project under construction where,[37]in theory, the lawyer is holding the money inescrow, guardingdown paymentsastrust fundassets until areal estatedeal closes.[38]When the project is never completed, investors seek their money back but find the supposed trust fund is empty, as both lawyer and real estate developer are fraudulent.
Insurance fraudincludes a wide variety of schemes in which insureds attempt to defraud their own insurance carriers, but when the victim is a private individual, the con artist tricks the mark into damaging, for example, the con artist's car, or injuring the con artist, in a manner that the con artist can later exaggerate. One relatively common scheme involves two cars, one for the con artist, and the other for theshill. The con artist will pull in front of the victim, and the shill will pull in front of the con artist before slowing down. The con artist will then slam on his brakes to "avoid" the shill, causing the victim to rear-end the con artist. The shill will accelerate away, leaving the scene. The con artist will then claim various exaggerated injuries in an attempt to collect from the victim's insurance carrier despite having intentionally caused the accident. Insurance carriers, who must spend money to fight even those claims they believe are fraudulent, frequently pay out thousands of dollars—a tiny amount to the carrier despite being a significant amount to an individual—to settle these claims instead of going to court.[39]
A variation of this scam occurs in countries where insurance premiums are generally tied to abonus–malusrating: the con artist will offer to avoid an insurance claim, settling instead for a cash compensation. Thus, the con artist is able to evade a professional damage assessment, and get an untraceable payment in exchange for sparing the mark the expenses of a lowered merit class.[citation needed]
The melon drop is a scam similar to the Chinese versionPèngcíin which a scammer will cause an unsuspecting mark to bump into them, causing the scammer to drop an item of alleged value. The scam originally targeted Japanese tourists due to the high price of honeymelon (cantaloupe) in Japan. The scammer may receive upwards of $100 for "compensation".[40][41]The scam has also been calledbroken glasses scamorbroken bottle scamwhere the scammer will pretend the mark broke a pair of expensive glasses or use a bottle of cheap wine, liquor or a bottle filled with water and demand compensation. Asian tourists are often the primary target.[42]
Pèngcí is a scam originating in China in which scammers feign injury intraffic accidentsin order toextortmoney from drivers.[43][44]Scammers also may place ostensibly expensive, fragile items (usually porcelain) in places where they may easily be knocked over, allowing them to collect damages when the items are damaged.[45]
The Baltimore Stockbroker scam relies on mass-mailing or emailing. The scammer begins with a large pool of marks, numbering ideally apower of twosuch as 1024 (210). The scammer divides the pool into two halves, and sends all the members of each half a prediction about the future outcome of an event with a binary outcome (such as a stock price rising or falling, or the win/loss outcome of a sporting event). One half receives a prediction that the stock price will rise (or a team will win, etc.), and the other half receives the opposite prediction. After the event occurs, the scammer repeats the process with the group that received a correct prediction, again dividing the group in half and sending each half new predictions. After several iterations, the "surviving" group of marks has received a remarkable sequence of correct predictions, whereupon the scammer then offers these marks another prediction, this time for a fee. The next prediction is, of course, no better than a random guess, but the previous record of success makes it seem to the mark to be a prediction worth great value.
For gambling propositions with more than two outcomes, for example in horse racing, the scammer begins with a pool of marks with number equal to a power of the number of outcomes, and divides the marks at each step into the corresponding number of groups, thus insuring that one group receives a correct prediction at each step. This requires a larger number of marks at the beginning, but fewer steps are required to gain the confidence of the marks who receive successful predictions, because the probability of a correct prediction is lower at each step, and thus it seems more remarkable.
The scam relies onselection biasandsurvivorship biasand is similar topublication bias(the file-drawer effect) in scientific publishing (whereby successful experiments are more likely to be published, rather than failures).
This particular scam received its name as a result ofFrank Deford's novelCut 'n' Run(1973), in which a stockbroker in Baltimore goes to several different bars and predicts the outcome of the upcomingJohnny Unitas-eraBaltimore Colts' next game. He makes an equal number of win/lose predictions and never returns to the bars where he is wrong. For the final bet, he predicts in one bar that the Colts will lose, and they do. After seeing him correctly predict six football games in a row, the patrons are enamored when he returns to the bar the next week and claims "football is a hobby, my real business is the stock market". He receives an influx of new business and tells his new customers that the market is "adjusting" any time theDow-Jones Industrial Averagedrops.
Several authors mention the scam:Daniel C. DennettinElbow Room(where he calls it the touting pyramid);David HandinThe Improbability Principle; andJordan EllenberginHow Not to Be Wrong.[46]
Ellenberg reports often hearing of the scam told as an illustrative parable, but he could not find a real-world example of anyone carrying it out as an actual scam. The closest he found was when illusionistDerren Brownpresented it in his television specialThe Systemin 2008. Brown's intent was merely to convince his mark that he had a foolproof horse race betting system rather than to scam the mark out of money. However, Ellenberg goes on to describe how investment firms do something similar by starting many in-house investment funds, and closing the funds that show the lowest returns before offering the surviving funds (with their record of high returns) for sale to the public. The selection bias inherent in the surviving funds makes them unlikely to sustain their previous high returns.
The fiddle game uses thepigeon droptechnique. A pair of con men work together, one going into an expensive restaurant in shabby clothes, eating, and claiming to have left his wallet at home, which is nearby. As collateral, the con man leaves his only worldly possession, theviolinthat provides his livelihood. After he leaves, the second con man swoops in, offers an outrageously large amount (for example $50,000) for what he calls a rare instrument, then looks at his watch and runs off to an appointment, leaving his card for the mark to call him when the fiddle-owner returns. The "poor man" comes back, having gotten the money to pay for his meal and redeem his violin. The mark, thinking he has an offer on the table from the second conspirator, then buys the violin from thefiddle playerwho "reluctantly" agrees to sell it for a certain amount that still allows the mark to make a "profit" from the valuable violin. The result is the two con men are richer (less the cost of the violin), and the mark is left with a cheap instrument.[citation needed]
The fiddle game may be played with any sufficiently valuable-seeming piece of property; a common variation known as the pedigreed-dog swindle uses amongrel dogupsold as a rare breed but is otherwise identical.[47]
Lottery fraud by proxy is a scam in which the scammer buys a lottery ticket with old winning numbers. He or she then alters the date on the ticket so that it appears to be from the day before, and therefore a winning ticket. He or she then sells the ticket to the mark, claiming it is a winning ticket, but for some reason, he or she is unable to collect the prize (not eligible, etc.). The particular cruelty in this scam is that if the mark attempts to collect the prize, the fraudulently altered ticket will be discovered and the mark held criminally liable.[citation needed]This con was featured in the movieMatchstick Men, whereNicolas Cageteaches it to his daughter.[citation needed]A twist on the con was shown inGreat Teacher Onizuka, where the more-than-gullible Onizuka was tricked into getting a "winning ticket". The ticket was not altered, but thedaily newspaperreporting the day's winning numbers was altered with a black pen.[citation needed]
In the USSR this scam left three people dead in 1977, after a mark re-sold a fraudulent ticket and the second buyer engaged a criminal to "clear the issue", leading to the murder of the original mark and two family members. The investigations using a fake lottery uncovered a large group of marks all targeted by a single artist, a disgruntled former employee of the Mint who used his insider knowledge and skills to produce the high-quality forged tickets.
Three-card Monte, "find the queen", the "three-card trick", or "follow the lady" is essentially the same as the centuries-oldershell gameorthimblerig(except for theprops).[48]The trickster shows threeplaying cardsto the audience, one of which is a queen (the "lady"), then places the cards face-down, shuffles them around, and invites the audience to bet on which one is the queen. At first the audience is skeptical, so theshillplaces a bet, and the scammer allows him to win. In one variation of the game, the shill will (apparently surreptitiously) peek at the lady, ensuring that the mark also sees the card. This is sometimes enough to entice the audience to place bets, but the trickster usessleight of handto ensure that he always loses, unless the con man decides to let him win, hoping to lure him into betting much more. The mark loses whenever the dealer chooses to make him lose.[49]
A variation on this scam exists inBarcelona,Spain, but with the addition of a pickpocket.[citation needed]The dealer and shill behave in an overtly obvious manner, attracting a larger audience. When the pickpocket succeeds in stealing from a member of the audience, he signals the dealer. The dealer then shouts the word "aguas" – colloquial for "Watch Out!" – and the three split up. The audience is left believing that the police are coming, and that the performance was a failed scam.[citation needed]
A variant of this scam exists in Mumbai, India.[citation needed]The shill says loudly to the dealer that his cards are fake and that he wants to see them. He takes the card and folds a corner and says in a hushed voice to the audience that he has marked the card. He places a bet and wins. Then he asks the others to place bets as well. When one of the audience bets a large sum of money, the cards are switched.[citation needed]
Governmental bodies maintain a list of entities whichaccredit educational institutions. The US Department of Education, for instance, overseeshigher education accreditation in the United States.
Mostdiploma millsare not accredited by such an entity, although many obtain accreditation from other organizations (such asaccreditation millsor corrupt foreign officials) to appear legitimate. Graduates of these institutions risk that the qualifications gained at these institutions may not be sufficient for further study, lawful employment or professional licensure as their issuers do not hold locally-valid accreditation to grant the degrees.[citation needed]
Some diploma mills perform no instruction or examination, instead issuing credentials based on payment and "life experience".[citation needed]A few have unknowingly issued degrees and credentials to companion animals.[50]
TheDoctor of Divinitytitle is particularly prone to misuse.[according to whom?]In theUnited Kingdomit is an earned postdoctoral credential which requires a string of publications, but in theUnited Statesany church may confer it as an honorary title;ordination millsreadily grant this doctorate for a moderate fee and token amount of study.[51]
Avanity pressis a pay-to-publish scheme where a publishing house, typically anauthor mill, obtains the bulk of its revenues from authors who pay to have their books published[52]instead of from readers purchasing the finished books. As the author bears the entire financial risk, the vanity press profits even if the books are not promoted (or badly promoted) and do not sell. The growth ofprint on demand, which allows small quantities of books to be printed cheaply, has accelerated this trend.[citation needed]
Vanity publishing is not the same asself-publishing, in that self-published authors own their finished books and control their distribution, relying on aprint shopsolely to turn camera-ready content into printed volumes. In a vanity press, the author takes the financial risk while the publisher owns the printed volumes.[citation needed]
Avanity awardis an award which the recipient purchases, giving the false appearance of a legitimate honour.[53][54]These are closely related to theWho's Who scam, where a biographic subject pays for a vanity listing in a printed directory.[citation needed]
Operators offraudulent "Who's Who"-type directorieswould offer listings or "membership" to purchasers who are often unaware of the low rates the directories in question are consulted.[citation needed]
TheWorld Luxury Associationis a self-proclaimed international organisation based inChinathat offers "official registration" for luxury brands, and inclusion in an "official list" of luxury brands, in return for a fee.[55]
Computer users unwittingly download and installrogue security software,malwaredisguised asantivirus software, by following the messages which appear on their screen. The software then pretends to find multiple viruses on the victim's computer, "removes" a few, and asks for payment in order to take care of the rest. They are then linked to con artists' websites, professionally designed to make their bogus software appear legitimate, where they must pay a fee to download the "full version" of their "antivirus software".
Phishingis a modern scam in which the artist communicates with the mark, masquerading as a representative of an official organization with which the mark is doing business, in order to extract personal information which can then be used, for example, to steal money. In a typical instance, the artist sends the mark an email pretending to be from a company, such aseBay. It is formatted exactly like email from that business, and will ask the mark to "verify" some personal information at the website, to which a link is provided, in order to "reactivate" his blocked account. The website is fake but designed to look exactly like the business' website. The site contains aformasking for personal information such ascredit card numbers, which the mark feels compelled to give or lose all access to the service. When the mark submits the form (without double-checking thewebsite address), the information is sent to the swindler.
A similarcaller ID spoofingscheme exists with misleading telephone calls ("vishing") facilitated byInternet telephony. A fraudster can make calls through an Internet-PSTNgateway to impersonate banks, police, schools or other trusted entities. A random dialer computer or auto-dialer can impersonate healthcare providers to get Social Security numbers and birthdates from elderly patients recently released from the hospital. The auto-dialer call states it is from a reputable hospital or a pharmacy and the message explains the need to "update records" to be from the hospital or a pharmacy.
Other online scams includeadvance-fee fraud,bidding fee auctions("penny auctions"),click fraud,domain slamming, variousspoofing attacks,web-cramming, and online versions ofemployment scams,romance scams, and fake rewards.
Unsuspecting computer owners and users are targeted by people claiming to be fromWindows, i.e.,Microsoftor from theirinternet providerand then telling them that their computer/machine is creating errors and they need to correct the faults on their computers. Scammers persuade people to go to one site or another to see these so-called errors. They are then required to give their credit card details in order to purchase some form of support, after which they are asked to allow remote connection to the "error-laden" computer so that the problem(s) may be fixed. At this point the victim's computer is infected withmalware,spyware, or remote connection software.[56]
Call Forwarding Scam involves a fraudster tricking the victim into dialing a specific phone number, which then reroutes all incoming calls and text messages victim receives to the scammer's device.[57]Scammers in-turn intercepts bank messages and OTPs, while the victim remains unaware.
A scammer convinces a victim to log in to a bank and convince them that they are receiving money. Some victims of the technical support scam may have their information sold or traded to a new organization that will cold-call them and tell them that they are entitled to a refund for the support they have previously paid for. Alternatively, the scammer may impersonate a security company and convince the victim that hackers are manipulating their bank account. The goal is for the scammer to transfer money between the user's accounts and to use HTML editing in the browser to make it appear as though new money has been transferred into the account by a legitimate company. The scammer "makes a mistake" and sends a larger amount of money than what he initially said he would send, then convinces the victim that they must refund the mistakenly sent extra money to the scammer via a wire transfer, money order, or gift cards.
Claiming to share someone else's viewpoint is the sneaky cover many church scam artists use. Pretending to share their faith lulls members of religious organizations into thinking a scammer is genuine. Often claiming some kind of divine guidance, using religious slogans, or claiming to be raising funds for a worthy cause, church scammers invite their new friends to invest in what turns out to be nothing more than aPonzi scheme. This is such a common crime that the state of Arizona listed affinity scams of this type as its number one scam for 2009. In one recent nationwide religious scam, churchgoers are said to have lost more than $50 million in a phony gold bullion scheme, promoted on daily telephone prayer chains, in which they thought they could earn a huge return.[58]
The bar bill scam is common in Europe,[59]especiallyBudapest, Hungary.[60][61][62]A mark, usually a man who is a tourist, is approached by an attractive woman or pair of women who start a conversation, such as asking for directions (pretending to have mistaken the tourist for a local). After a bit of conversation, the women will suggest that they go to a bar that they know of. While there, they order many entrées and drinks and encourage the mark to do the same. Either the menu does not have prices on it or the menu is later switched with one that has higher prices.
When the bill comes, it is many times larger than expected. The women have only a small amount of cash on them, and ask the mark to pay for the bill. The mark is forced to pay before leaving (sometimes with threats of violence), and directed to an ATM on the premises where they can withdraw cash. The women apologize profusely for the situation and arrange to meet the next day to pay them back, but they do not show. In truth, the women are working with the bar and receive a cut of the payment.[60]
The con can also be performed with a well-dressed man or a gregarious local rather than an attractive woman. A variation on this is to have a taxi driver recommend the bar to the passenger, who enters alone and orders, not realizing that they will be charged an exorbitant bill. The taxi driver receives a cut of the payment.[60]
The Beijing tea scam is a famous variation of theclip jointscam practised in and aroundBeijingand some other large Chinese cities. The artists (usually female and working in pairs) will approach tourists and try to make friends. After chatting, they will suggest a trip to see atea ceremony, claiming that they have never been to one before. The tourist is never shown a menu, but assumes that this is how things are done in China. After the ceremony, the bill is presented to the tourist, sometimes charging upwards of $100 per head. The artists will then hand over their bills, and the tourists are obliged to follow suit. Similar scams involving restaurants, coffee shops and bars also take place.[63][64]
The Big Store is a technique for convincing the mark of the legitimacy of the grifters' operation. The store is filled with elaborate sets and is run by a large team of con artists. Often a building is rented and furnished to seem like a substantial business.[65]The "betting parlor" setup inThe Stingis an example.
In 2014, a rural co-operative inNanjing, Chinaconstructed an entire brick-and-mortar fake bank with uniformed clerks behind counters. The unlicensed bank operated for a little over a year, then defaulted on its obligations, swindling Chinese savers out of 200 millionChinese yuan.[66]The fraudulentcryptocurrencyscheme,OneCoin, is a European example.
Theblessing scamtargets elderly Chinese immigrant women, convincing them that an evil spirit threatens their family and that this threat can be removed by a blessing ceremony involving a bag filled with their savings, jewelry or other valuables. During the ceremony, the con artists switch the bag of valuables with an identical bag with valueless contents and make off with the victim's cash or jewelry.
Change raising, also known as a quick change[67]or short change[68]scam, is a common short con and involves an offer to change an amount of money with someone, while at the same time taking change or bills back and forth to confuse the person as to how much money is actually being changed. The most common form, "the Short Count", has been featured prominently in several movies about grifting, notablyThe Grifters,Criminal,Nine Queens, andPaper Moon. For example, a con artist targeting acashierapologetically uses a ten-dollar bill to pay for an item costing less than a dollar, claiming not to have any smaller bills; the change of over nine dollars will include either nine singles or a five and four singles. The con artist then claims to have found that he had a dollar bill, after all, and offers to change it and the nine dollars for the original ten. If the con artist can manipulate the clerk into handing over the ten-dollar bill first, the con artist can then give it back to the clerk in place of one of the singles the con artist was expected to give the clerk. The con artist then pretends to notice he has "mistakenly" given the clerk nineteen dollars instead of ten; producing another single, the con artist suggests he add this to the nineteen and let the clerk give him back an even twenty.
The scam relies on the cashier placing small bills in the register where they will be mixed with existing bills, and the cashier's failure to notice that the nineteen dollars given by the con artist included ten dollars that belonged to the store in the first place (the money that should've been given back for the $10 that was handed over early). Thus the con artist has stolen ten dollars, minus the cost of the cheap item that was purchased (effectively stealing over nine dollars). The con artist starts with twelve dollars (the original ten-dollar bill and two singles), then leaves with a twenty and also keeps one of the singles (the one that was "mistakenly" switched with the $10). (The cashier should have noticed that the con artist overpaid by $9, not $19, and thus when the con artist produces the second $1 bill, the cashier should hand back $10, not $20.) To avoid this con, clerks should keep each transaction separate and never permit the customer to take change before handing over the original payment.
Another variation is to flash a $20 bill to the clerk, then ask for something behind the counter. When the clerk turns away, the con artist can swap the bill he is holding to a lesser bill. The clerk might then make change for the larger bill, without noticing it has been swapped. The technique may work better when bills are the same color at a glance like, for instance,U.S. dollar bills. A similar technique exists when a con artist asks to use a very large denomination bill to purchase a cheap item. The con artist distracts the clerk with conversation while the clerk is preparing the change, in hopes that the clerk will hand over the large amount of change without realizing that the con artist never actually handed over the large bill.[citation needed]Sometimes cab drivers in India try a similar con, when customers require some change back. For example, they may pay $100 for a $60 ride and expect a return of $40. But the con would say that he only received $10 and in fact needs $50 more. The mark is baffled, trying to remember and of course, the con has swiftly switched the $100 bill with a $10 one, waving it to show that this was really what the mark gave to him. Since the con has now made the mark look suspicious, the mark feels guilty and pays up. This scenario can also be created in markets, when vendors sometimes team up and support each other's cons, if the mark tries to resist.
Another variant is to use confusing or misdirected language.
The dropped wallet scam usually targets tourists. The con artist pretends to accidentally drop his wallet in a public place. After an unsuspecting victim picks up the wallet and offers it to the con artist, the scam begins. The artist accuses the victim of stealing money from the wallet and threatens to call the police, scaring the victim into returning the allegedly stolen money. Cases have been reported in eastern Europe and major cities or railway stations in China.[citation needed]
A variation of thepigeon dropis also based around a dropped wallet.[69]
In this scam, the confidence artist poses as acasting agentfor amodeling agencysearching for new talent. The aspiring model is told that he will need a portfolio orcomp card. The mark will pay an upfront fee to have photos and create his portfolio, after which he will be sent on his way in the hope that his agent will find him work in the following weeks.[70]Of course, he never hears back from the confidence artist.
The fake-agent scam is often targeted against industry newcomers, since they will often lack the experience required to spot such tricks. Legitimate talent agencies advise that a genuine talent agent will never ask for money up-front, as they make their entire living from commissions on their clients' earnings.
This scam is portrayed inThat '70s Showwith Donna proving to Jackie that "anyone can be a model".
Very similar to the casting agent scam is the "job offer" scam in which a victim receives an unsolicited e-mail claiming that they are in consideration for hiring to a new job. The confidence artist will usually obtain the victim's name from social networking sites, such asLinkedInandMonster.com. In many cases, those running the scams will create fake websites listing jobs which the victim is seeking, then contact the victim to offer them one of the positions.
If the victim responds to the initial e-mail, the scammer will send additional messages to build up the victim's assurance that they are in the running, or have already been selected, for a legitimate job. This will include asking for the victim's resume as well as assurances that a phone interview will be the "next step in the hiring process".
The goal of the job offer scam is to convince the victim to release funds or bank account information to the scammer. There are two common methods. The first is to tell the victim that they must take a test to qualify for the job and then send links to training sites which sell testing material ande-booksfor a fee. Or, the victim is provided with an actual online test, which is usually a fake website created by copying questions from actual certification examinations, such as theProfessional in Human Resources(PHR) certification or theproject manager's exam. If the victim pays for the study material, that will usually be the end of the scam and the scammer will break off further contact.[71]
In a second, more sinister variation, the scammer will tell the victim they have been hired for a job and request access to bank accounts and routing numbers in order to enter the "new hire" into the company's payroll system. This may also involve emails containing fake tax forms attempting to gain the victim's Social Security number and otherpersonally identifiable information. If the victim complies, their bank account will be emptied and their personal information used to commit identity theft.
In this scam, tens of thousands of solicitations in the guise of an invoice are mailed to businesses nationwide. They may contain a disclaimer such as "This is a solicitation for the order of goods or services, or both, and not a bill, invoice, or statement of account due. You are under no obligation to make any payments on account of this offer unless you accept this offer." (from39 U.S.C.§ 3001(d)(2)(A)) or "THIS IS NOT A BILL. THIS IS A SOLICITATION. YOU ARE UNDER NO OBLIGATION TO PAY THE AMOUNT STATED ABOVE UNLESS YOU ACCEPT THIS OFFER." (from U.S. Postal Service Domestic Mail Manual §CO31, Part 1.2) The disclaimers are otherwise designed to appear to be invoices or renewals of existingdisplay advertisingin a trade directory or publication. The correspondence is formatted like an invoice, often with a sequential identification number, date, personalized description of the information to be published, payment details and total amount due, which includes a token discount if paid within a specified time period.[72]In some cases, the company's current advertisement clipped from an existing publication (such asThomas Register, Hotel and Travel Index or Official Meeting Facilities Guide) is attached to a solicitation for advertising in an unaffiliated, rival publication[73]that operates from adrop box.[74]
One variant sends a "Final Notice of Domain Listing" from an entity calling itself "Domain Services", which claims "Failure to complete your Domain name search engine registration by the expiration date may result in cancellation of this offer making it difficult for your customers to locate you on the web." The list of prospective victims is obtained from Internet domainWHOISlistings, and the solicitations look like a renewal of an existing domain name registration or listing. The "registration" actually offers nothing beyond a vague claim that the entity sending the solicitation will submit the victim's domain name to existing search engines for an inflated fee. It does not obligate the vendor to publish a directory, renew the underlying domain in any ICANN-based registry or deliver any tangible product.[75]
A similar scheme uses solicitations which appear to be invoices for localyellow pageslistings or advertisements. As anyone can publish a yellow page directory, the promoted book is not theincumbent local exchange carrier's local printed directory but a rival, which may have limited distribution if it appears at all.[76]Instead of clearly statingaudited circulation, the solicitations will confusingly claim to "offer 50000 copies" or claim "thousands of readers" without indicating whether the inferred quantity of directories was actually printed, let alone sold.
Public records listing legal owners of newregistered trademarksare also mined as a source of addresses for fraudulent directory solicitations.
The intent is that a small fractional percentage of businesses either mistake the solicitations for invoices (paying them) or mistake them for a request for corrections and updates to an existing listing (a tactic to obtain a businessperson's signature on the document, which serves as a pretext to bill the victim).
One such vendor, World Trade Register (aka European Trade Register, World Company Register, World Business Directory, all related to EU Business Services Ltd), claims "To update your company profile, please print, complete and return this form. Updating is free of charge. Only sign if you want to place an insertion." Only later does it become clear that signing the form incurs a nearly €1000/year fee for an advertisement of questionable value.[77]
In this scam, the confidence artist poses as a retail sales promoter, representing a manufacturer, distributor, or set of stores. The scam requires assistants to manage the purchases and money exchanges while the pitchman maintains a high energy level. Passersby are enticed to gather and listen to a pitchman standing near a mass of appealing products. The trickster entices by referring to the high-end products, but claims to be following rules that he must start with smaller items. The small items are described, and "sold" for a token dollar amount – with as many audience participants as are interested each receiving an item.
The pitchman makes an emotional appeal such as saying "Raise your hand if you're happy with your purchase", and when hands are raised, directs his associates to return everyone's money (they keep the product). This exchange is repeated with items of increasing value to establish the expectation of a pattern. Eventually, the pattern terminates by ending the "auction" without reaching the high-value items, and stopping midway through a phase where the trickster retains the collected money from that round of purchases. Marks feel vaguely dissatisfied, but they have goods in their possession and the uplifting feeling of having demonstrated their own happiness several times. The marks do not realize that the total value of goods received is significantly less than the price paid in the final round. Auction/refund rounds may be interspersed with sales rounds that are not refunded, keeping marks off-balance and hopeful that the next round will refund. The jam auction has its roots incarnyculture.
This scam occurs when exchanging foreign currency. If a large amount of cash is exchanged the victim will be told to hide the money away quickly before counting it ("You can't trust the locals"). A substantial amount will be missing.
In some cases, insisting on counting to make sure the money is all there is the basis for a clever scam. The scam is sometimes called the Santo Domingo Sting, after an incident that took place in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. A journalist, Joe Harkins, reported his involvement in the early 1990s.[78]It works in countries where only banks and other designated parties are allowed to hold and exchange the local currency for US dollars at an "official" rate that is significantly lower than the "street" rate. It also requires a greedy tourist who wants to beat the official rate by dealing with illegal money changers. A person posing as an illegal money changer will approach the tourist with an offer to buy dollars at an illegal rate that may be even higher than the street rate. The changer offers to buy only large US currency, typically, a 100 dollar bill. As soon as the victim (the "mark") shows his $100 bill, the changer will actually count out and clearly show the promised amount of local currency. He then will push the local currency into the hands of the "mark" and urge they be counted as he takes the $100. "See, you've got the money. I'll wait while you make sure. Count it out loud so there is no mistake." And as the mark's careful count exceeds "street" rate, the changer pretends to realise he has overpaid the mark, and he becomes irrationally agitated and angry, accusing the mark of cheating. He grabs his money back, pushes the mark's bill back into his hands and takes back the pesos. The scam has been completed. The tourist has just lost $99. The mark has been handed back a prefolded $1 bill that has been swapped for the mark's $100 bill while he was distracted counting the local currency. (Until recently, US currency was largely uniform in size and color, meaning that when folded, a $1 and a $100 bill were almost indistinguishable. Even in 2014, careful folding of a US$100 bill easily conceals the switch).[citation needed]The money changer's pretended, but very credible, anger is a ruse to confuse the mark and delay his unfolding of the single bill until the scammer has departed.
This trick, a form ofadvance-fee scam, is perpetrated on people who wish to bemystery shoppers. A person is sent amoney order, often fromWestern Union,[79]or a check for a larger sum than a mystery purchase he is required to make, with a request to deposit it into hisbank account, use a portion for a mystery purchase and fee, and wire the remainder through awire transfercompany such as Western Union or MoneyGram; the money is to be wired immediately as response time is being evaluated. The cheque is fraudulent, and is returned unpaid by the victim's bank, after the money has been wired.[80]One scam involved fraudulentwebsitesusing a misspelledURLto advertise online and in newspapers under a legitimate company's name.[81]It should be remembered that this is not the only type of mystery shopping scam taking place which involves money being paid, as it has been widely reported in the UK that shoppers should "Watch out for some online mystery shopping scams which will cost you money for either training or for signing up without the promise of any work."[82]
Valid mystery shopping companies do not normally send their clients cheques prior to work being completed, and theiradvertisementsusually include a contact person and phone number. Some fraudulent cheques can be identified by a financial professional. On February 3, 2009, theInternet Crime Complaint Centerissued a warning on this scam.[83]A legitimate company that occasionally sends prepayment for large transactions says "We do occasionally fund upfront for very large spend purchases but we use cheques or direct bank transfers which should mean you can see when they are cleared and so can be sure you really do have the money."[79]It is standard practice for mystery shopping providers evaluating services such as airlines to arrange for the airfare to be issued beforehand at their own expenses (usually by means of afrequent flyerreward ticket). In any case, it is unlikely that any bona-fide provider would allocate a high-value assignment to a new shopper or proactively recruit new ones for that purpose, preferring instead to work with a pool of existing pre-vetted experienced shoppers.
In this scam, done by phone, the caller threatens the victim with a fictitious arrest warrant. To make this threat seem real, thecaller IDidentifies the caller as that of local law enforcement. Victims are told they must pay afineto avoid arrest. Fines are in the hundreds, or sometimes thousands, of dollars. The payment is requested throughWestern Union,Green Dotprepaid card, or a similar form of untraceable currency exchange.
Cases have been reported inFlorida,Georgia,KansasandOregon.[84]
Thepigeon drop(also called the Jamaican Switch), which is depicted early in the filmThe Sting, involves the mark or pigeon assisting an elderly, weak or infirm stranger to keep a large sum of money safe for him.[85][86]In the process, the stranger (actually a confidence trickster) puts his money with the mark's money in an envelope or briefcase, with which the mark is then to be entrusted. The container is first switched for an identical one which contains no money, and a situation is engineered giving the mark the opportunity to escape, with the money, from a perceived threat (e.g., local police or rowdies). If the mark does so, he is fleeing from his own money, which the con artist will have kept or handed off to an accomplice.
The pizza delivery scam firstly involves the scammer, who pretends to be a person who ordered the pizza. This scammer will then claim they are unable to pay for the pizza and will ask a stranger for help. The scammer will say that the delivery driver does not accept cash and only accepts cards. When the victim offers to pay, their card is skimmed and the PIN is captured. This scam is known to happen in theGreater Toronto Area.[87]
A number ofpredatory journalstarget academics to solicit manuscripts for publication. The journals charge high publication fees but do not perform the functions of legitimate academic journals—editorial oversight and peer review—they simply publish the work for cash. In this case, the mark's need for publications is the incentive for them to pay the fees. In some cases, predatory journals will use fictional editorial boards or use respected academics' names without permission to lend a veneer of credibility to the journal.
The victim is sent a document which looks, on its face, to be acouponor achequefor some small amount as "prize winnings".[88]Buried in the fine print is something entirely different; an authorisation toslamthe victim to an alternative telephone provider or even an authorisation for monthly direct withdrawals from the victim's bank account for "services" which were neither used nor desired.
Psychic surgeryis a con game in which the trickster usessleight of handto apparently remove malignant growths from the mark's body. A common form of medical fraud inunderdeveloped countries, it imperils victims who may fail to seek competent medical attention. The movieMan on the Moondepicts comedianAndy Kaufmanundergoing psychic surgery. It can also be seen in an episode ofJonathan Creekand the moviePenn and Teller Get Killed.
In this scam, the artists pose as ticket control staff on public transport connections. They tend to look for tourists as easy marks, and therefore target train connections from the airport. They will ask to see the passenger's tickets, and once they have found a suitable mark, will claim that something is wrong with the ticket they hold. They will then claim that an instant payment is required to avoid further legal troubles. In some cases, this scam is even committed by actual public transport staff seeking to rip off tourists.[89]
In a variant on the scheme, the artists target tourists who are struggling with a ticketing machine, and offer to buy them the ticket they need. They select a relatively expensive ticket from the machine (for example a subscription) and pretend to buy that for the tourist with their own credit card, after which they ask the tourist to reimburse. However, in reality artists cancel the payment at the last moment and the ticket they 'take from the machine' is already in their hands. This ticket is usually a children's ticket, which opens the turnstiles, but will lead to the tourist running the risk of getting a fine in addition to being scammed.[90]
Rainmaking is a simple scam in which the trickster promises to use their power or influence over a complex system to make it do something favourable for the mark.
Classically this was promising to make it rain,[91]but more modern examples include getting someone's app "featured" on anapp store, obtaining pass marks in a university entrance exam, or obtaining a job. It may be a politician implying that they can use their influence to get a contract awarded to the mark.
The trickster has no actual influence on the outcome, but if the favourable outcome happens anyway, they will then claim credit. If the event does not happen, the trickster may be able to claim they need more money until the event does happen.
A recovery room scam is a form ofadvance-fee fraudwhere the scammer (sometimes posing as a law enforcement officer or attorney) calls investors who have been sold worthless shares (for example in aboiler-room scam), and offers to buy them, to allow the investors to recover their investments.[92]A Nigerian419 scamvictim might receive a solicitation claiming to be from the Nigeria Economic and Financial Crimes Commission or another government agency.[93]
The scam involves requiring an advance fee before the payment can take place, for example a "court fee".[94]
The red flag in the 'recovery scam' is that the supposed investigative agency, unsolicited, approaches the victim.[95]A legitimate law enforcement agency would normally allow the victim to make the first contact, and will not solicit an advance fee. The recovery scam has the victim's number only because it is operated by an accomplice of the original scammer, using a "sucker list" from the earlier fraud.[96]
An apartment is listed for rent, often on an online forum such asCraigslistorKijiji, at or just below market value.[97]The vendor asks for first and last month's rent upfront, sometimes also asking for references or personal information from the prospective tenants. The rent payment clears the bank, the new tenants arrive with a truckload of worldly possessions on moving day to find that the same unit has been rented to multiple other new tenants and that the supposed "landlord" is not the owner of the property and is nowhere to be found.[98]This kind of scam is often performed online on students planning to study abroad and seeking accommodation, as their means of checking the property are limited.[99]
The Rip Deal is a swindle very popular inEuropeand is essentially apigeon dropconfidence trick. In a typical variation scammers will target a vendor such as a jeweler and offer to buy a substantial amount of wares at a large markup,providedthey perform some type of under-the-table cash deal, originally exchanging Swiss francs for euros. This exchange goes through flawlessly, at considerable profit for the mark. Some time later the scammers approach the mark with a similar proposition, but for a larger amount of money (and thus a larger return for the mark). Inspired by the confidence of the previous deal, the mark agrees—only to have his money and goods taken, by sleight-of-hand or violence, at the point of exchange.[citation needed]This scam was depicted in the movieMatchstick Men.
The same term is used to describe a crime where a vendor (especially a drug dealer) is killed to avoid paying for goods.[100]
Various schemes exist to bill victims for unsolicited goods or services.[101]
A common scam targeting businesses is thetoner banditswindle; an unsolicited caller attempts to trick front-office personnel into providing manufacturer/model or serial numbers for office equipment and/or the name of the employee answering the call. Often, the call will be misrepresented as a "survey" or a "prize" award.[102]The business then receives inflated invoices for unsolicited copy paper, copy machine toner, cleaning supplies, light bulbs, trash bags or other supplies, using the name of the person who answered the call to falsely claim this person ordered the items. When the business objects, the workers are threatened with lawsuits or harassed by bogus collection agencies.[103]
Another, targeting the elderly, claims afree medical alert devicehas been ordered for a patient by a family member or medical doctor. An automated message says "that someone has ordered a free medical alert system for you, and this call is to confirm shipping instructions" before the call is transferred to a live operator who requests the elderly patient's credit card and identity card numbers. The device is not free; there is a high monthly charge for "monitoring". The family did not buy or order it, nor did a practitioner; the call is fraudulent.[104][105]
Wedding planner scams prey on the vulnerability of young couples, during a time when they are generally distracted, to embezzle funds for the planner's personal use. In the first type of fraud, the wedding planner company may offer a free wedding in a tie-up with a media station for a couple in need of charity, and collect the donations from the public that were meant for the wedding. In a second type of fraud, the planner asks couples to write checks to vendors (tents, food, cakes) but leave the name field empty, which the planner promises to fill in. As most vendors were never hired nor paid, the scam would then be exposed on the day of the wedding. A real life example is a Kansas TV station story of a wedding planner, Caitlin Hershberger Theis, who scammed three couples through her wedding planner consultancy,Live, Love and be Marriedusing these two schemes.[106]
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Acommunications satelliteis anartificial satellitethat relays and amplifiesradiotelecommunication signals via atransponder; it creates acommunication channelbetween a sourcetransmitterand areceiverat different locations onEarth. Communications satellites are used fortelevision,telephone,radio,internet, andmilitaryapplications.[1]Many communications satellites are ingeostationary orbit22,236 miles (35,785 km) above theequator, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky; therefore thesatellite dishantennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track the satellite. Others formsatellite constellationsinlow Earth orbit, where antennas on the ground have to follow the position of the satellites and switch between satellites frequently.
Theradio wavesused for telecommunications links travel byline of sightand so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points.[2]Communications satellites use a wide range of radio andmicrowavefrequencies. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use. This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference.[3]
In October 1945,Arthur C. Clarkepublished an article titled "Extraterrestrial Relays" in the British magazineWireless World.[4]The article described the fundamentals behind the deployment ofartificial satellitesin geostationary orbits to relay radio signals. Because of this, Arthur C. Clarke is often quoted as being theinventorof the concept of the communications satellite, and the term 'Clarke Belt' is employed as a description of the orbit.[5]
The firstartificial Earth satellitewasSputnik 1, which was put into orbit by theSoviet Unionon 4 October 1957. It was developed byMikhail TikhonravovandSergey Korolev, building on work byKonstantin Tsiolkovsky.[6]Sputnik 1 was equipped with an on-boardradiotransmitterthat worked on two frequencies of 20.005 and 40.002 MHz, or 7 and 15 meters wavelength. The satellite was not placed in orbit to send data from one point on Earth to another, but the radio transmitter was meant to study the properties of radio wave distribution throughout the ionosphere. The launch of Sputnik 1 was a major step in the exploration of space and rocket development, and marks the beginning of theSpace Age.[7]
There are two major classes of communications satellites,passiveandactive. Passive satellites onlyreflectthe signal coming from the source, toward the direction of the receiver. With passive satellites, the reflected signal is not amplified at the satellite, and only a small amount of the transmitted energy actually reaches the receiver. Since the satellite is so far above Earth, the radio signal is attenuated due tofree-space path loss, so the signal received on Earth is very weak. Active satellites, on the other hand, amplify the received signal before retransmitting it to the receiver on the ground.[3]Passive satellites were the first communications satellites, but are little used now.
Work that was begun in the field of electrical intelligence gathering at theUnited States Naval Research Laboratoryin 1951 led to a project namedCommunication Moon Relay. Military planners had long shown considerable interest in secure and reliable communications lines as a tactical necessity, and the ultimate goal of this project was the creation of the longest communications circuit in human history, with the Moon, Earth's natural satellite, acting as a passive relay. After achieving the first transoceanic communication betweenWashington, D.C., and Hawaii on 23 January 1956, this system was publicly inaugurated and put into formal production in January 1960.[8]
The first satellite purpose-built to actively relay communications wasProject SCORE, led byAdvanced Research Projects Agency(ARPA) and launched on 18 December 1958, which used a tape recorder to carry a stored voice message, as well as to receive, store, and retransmit messages. It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U.S. PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower. The satellite also executed several realtime transmissions before the non-rechargeable batteries failed on 30 December 1958 after eight hours of actual operation.[9][10]
The direct successor to SCORE was another ARPA-led project called Courier.Courier 1Bwas launched on 4 October 1960 to explore whether it would be possible to establish a global military communications network by using "delayed repeater" satellites, which receive and store information until commanded to rebroadcast them. After 17 days, a command system failure ended communications from the satellite.[11][12]
NASA's satellite applications program launched the first artificial satellite used for passive relay communications inEcho 1on 12 August 1960. Echo 1 was an aluminizedballoon satelliteacting as a passivereflectorofmicrowavesignals. Communication signals were bounced off the satellite from one point on Earth to another. This experiment sought to establish the feasibility of worldwide broadcasts of telephone, radio, and television signals.[12][13]
Telstarwas the first active, direct relay communications commercial satellite and marked the first transatlantic transmission of television signals. Belonging toAT&Tas part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T,Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the BritishGeneral Post Office, and theFrench National PTT(Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA fromCape Canaveralon 10 July 1962, in the first privately sponsored space launch.[14][15]
Another passive relay experiment primarily intended for military communications purposes wasProject West Ford, which was led byMassachusetts Institute of Technology'sLincoln Laboratory.[16]After an initial failure in 1961, a launch on 9 May 1963 dispersed 350 million copper needle dipoles to create a passive reflecting belt. Even though only about half of the dipoles properly separated from each other,[17]the project was able to successfully experiment and communicate using frequencies in theSHFX bandspectrum.[18]
An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was theHughes Aircraft Company'sSyncom 2, launched on 26 July 1963. Syncom 2 was the first communications satellite in ageosynchronous orbit. It revolved around the Earth once per day at constant speed, but because it still had north–south motion, special equipment was needed to track it.[19]Its successor,Syncom 3, launched on 19 July 1964, was the first geostationary communications satellite. Syncom 3 obtained a geosynchronous orbit, without a north–south motion, making it appear from the ground as a stationary object in the sky.[20]
A direct extension of the passive experiments of Project West Ford was theLincoln Experimental Satelliteprogram, also conducted by the Lincoln Laboratory on behalf of theUnited States Department of Defense.[16]TheLES-1active communications satellite was launched on 11 February 1965 to explore the feasibility of active solid-state X band long-range military communications. A total of nine satellites were launched between 1965 and 1976 as part of this series.[21][22]
In the United States, 1962 saw the creation of theCommunications Satellite Corporation(COMSAT) private corporation, which was subject to instruction by the US Government on matters of national policy.[23]Over the next two years, international negotiations led to the Intelsat Agreements, which in turn led to the launch of Intelsat 1, also known as Early Bird, on 6 April 1965, and which was the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit.[24][25]Subsequent Intelsat launches in the 1960s provided multi-destination service and video, audio, and data service to ships at sea (Intelsat 2 in 1966–67), and the completion of a fully global network with Intelsat 3 in 1969–70. By the 1980s, with significant expansions in commercial satellite capacity, Intelsat was on its way to become part of the competitive private telecommunications industry, and had started to get competition from the likes ofPanAmSatin the United States, which, ironically, was then bought by its archrival in 2005.[23]
When Intelsat was launched, the United States was the only launch source outside of theSoviet Union, who did not participate in the Intelsat agreements.[23]The Soviet Union launched its first communications satellite on 23 April 1965 as part of theMolniyaprogram.[26]This program was also unique at the time for its use of what then became known as theMolniya orbit, which describes ahighly elliptical orbit, with two high apogees daily over the northern hemisphere. This orbit provides a long dwell time over Russian territory as well as over Canada at higher latitudes than geostationary orbits over the equator.[27]
In the 2020s, the popularity oflow Earth orbitsatellite internet constellationsproviding relatively low-cost internet services led to reducing demand for newgeostationary orbitcommunications satellites.[28]
Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types oforbit, while otherorbital classificationsare used to further specify orbital details. MEO and LEO are non-geostationary orbit (NGSO).
As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and "set" when they go behind the Earth beyond the visible horizon. Therefore, to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so that one of these satellites will always be visible in the sky for transmission of communication signals. However, due to their closer distance to the Earth, LEO or MEO satellites can communicate to ground with reduced latency and at lower power than would be required from a geosynchronous orbit.[29]
Alow Earth orbit(LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above the Earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the Earth) of about 90 minutes.[30]
Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the sub-satellite point. In addition, satellites in low Earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position quickly. So even for local applications, many satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity.
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as highsignal strength(signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is considerable). Thus there is a trade off between the number of satellites and their cost.
In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions.
A group of satellites working in concert is known as asatellite constellation. Two such constellations, intended to providesatellite phoneand low-speed data services, primarily to remote areas, are theIridiumandGlobalstarsystems. The Iridium system has 66 satellites, whichorbital inclinationof 86.4° and inter-satellite links provide service availability over the entire surface of Earth.Starlinkis asatellite internet constellationoperated bySpaceX, that aims for globalsatellite Internet accesscoverage.
It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit satellite capable of storing data received while passing over one part of Earth and transmitting it later while passing over another part. This will be the case with the CASCADE system of Canada'sCASSIOPEcommunications satellite. Another system using this store and forward method isOrbcomm.
A medium Earth orbit is a satellite in orbit somewhere between 2,000 and 35,786 kilometres (1,243 and 22,236 mi) above the Earth's surface. MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality. MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 and 8 hours. MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites. A MEO satellite's longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network. One disadvantage is that a MEO satellite's distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, although these limitations are not as severe as those of a GEO satellite.
Like LEOs, these satellites do not maintain a stationary distance from the Earth. This is in contrast to the geostationary orbit, where satellites are always 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) from Earth.
Typically the orbit of a medium Earth orbit satellite is about 16,000 kilometres (10,000 mi) above Earth.[31]In various patterns, these satellites make the trip around Earth in anywhere from 2 to 8 hours.
To an observer on Earth, a satellite in a gestationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky. This is because it revolves around the Earth at Earth's ownangular velocity(one revolution persidereal day, in anequatorial orbit).
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion. This is relatively inexpensive.
In applications that require many ground antennas, such asDirecTVdistribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit.
By 2000, Hughes Space and Communications (nowBoeing Satellite Development Center) had built nearly 40 percent of the more than one hundred satellites in service worldwide. Other major satellite manufacturers includeSpace Systems/Loral,Orbital Sciences Corporationwith theStar Busseries,Indian Space Research Organisation,Lockheed Martin(owns the former RCA Astro Electronics/GE Astro Space business),Northrop Grumman, Alcatel Space, nowThales Alenia Space, with theSpacebusseries, andAstrium.
Geostationary satellites must operate above the equator and therefore appear lower on the horizon as the receiver gets farther from the equator. This will cause problems for extreme northerly latitudes, affecting connectivity and causingmultipath interference(caused by signals reflecting off the ground and into the ground antenna).
Thus, for areas close to the North (and South) Pole, a geostationary satellite may appear below the horizon. Therefore, Molniya orbit satellites have been launched, mainly in Russia, to alleviate this problem.
Molniya orbits can be an appealing alternative in such cases. The Molniya orbit is highly inclined, guaranteeing good elevation over selected positions during the northern portion of the orbit. (Elevation is the extent of the satellite's position above the horizon. Thus, a satellite at the horizon has zero elevation and a satellite directly overhead has elevation of 90 degrees.)
The Molniya orbit is designed so that the satellite spends the great majority of its time over the far northern latitudes, during which its ground footprint moves only slightly. Its period is one half day, so that the satellite is available for operation over the targeted region for six to nine hours every second revolution. In this way a constellation of three Molniya satellites (plus in-orbit spares) can provide uninterrupted coverage.
The first satellite of theMolniyaseries was launched on 23 April 1965 and was used for experimentaltransmissionof TVsignalsfrom a Moscowuplinkstation todownlinkstations located inSiberiaand the Russian Far East, inNorilsk,Khabarovsk,MagadanandVladivostok. In November 1967 Soviet engineers created a uniquesystemof national TVnetworkofsatellite television, calledOrbita, that was based on Molniya satellites.
In the United States, the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) was established in 1994 to consolidate the polar satellite operations of
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). NPOESS manages a number of satellites for various purposes; for example, METSAT for meteorological satellite, EUMETSAT for the European branch of the program, and METOP for meteorological operations.
These orbits are Sun synchronous, meaning that they cross the equator at the same local time each day. For example, the satellites in the NPOESS (civilian) orbit will cross the equator, going from south to north, at times 1:30 P.M., 5:30 P.M., and 9:30 P.M.
There are plans and initiatives to bring dedicated communications satellite beyond geostationary orbits.
NASA proposedLunaNetas a data network aiming to provide a "Lunar Internet" forcis-lunarspacecraft and Installations.
TheMoonlight Initiativeis an equivalent ESA project[33][34]that is stated to be compatible and providing navigational services for the lunar surface. Both programmes are satellite constellations of several satellites in various orbits around the Moon.
Other orbits are also planned to be used. Positions in theEarth-Moon-Libration pointsare also proposed for communication satellites covering the Moon alike communication satellites ingeosynchronous orbitcover the Earth.[35][36]Also, dedicated communication satellites in orbits aroundMarssupporting different missions on surface and other orbits are considered, such as theMars Telecommunications Orbiter.
Communications Satellites are usually composed of the following subsystems:
The bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of transponders provided by the satellite. Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio) requires a different amount of bandwidth for transmission. This is typically known as link budgeting and anetwork simulatorcan be used to arrive at the exact value.
Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international coordination and planning. This is carried out under the auspices of theInternational Telecommunication Union(ITU).
To facilitate frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions:
Within these regions, frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services, although a given service may be allocated different frequency bands in different regions. Some of the services provided by satellites are:
The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinentallong distance telephony. The fixedPublic Switched Telephone Networkrelaystelephone callsfromland linetelephones to anEarth station, where they are then transmitted to a geostationary satellite. The downlink follows an analogous path. Improvements insubmarine communications cablesthrough the use offiber-opticscaused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century.
Satellite communications are still used in many applications today. Remote islands such asAscension Island,Saint Helena,Diego Garcia, andEaster Island, where no submarine cables are in service, need satellite telephones. There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to non existent, for example large regions of South America, Africa, Canada, China, Russia, and Australia. Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges ofAntarcticaandGreenland. Other land use for satellite phones are rigs at sea, a backup for hospitals, military, and recreation. Ships at sea, as well as planes, often use satellite phones.[37]
Satellite phone systems can be accomplished by a number of means. On a large scale, often there will be a local telephone system in an isolated area with a link to the telephone system in a main land area. There are also services that will patch a radio signal to a telephone system. In this example, almost any type of satellite can be used. Satellite phones connect directly to a constellation of either geostationary or low-Earth-orbit satellites. Calls are then forwarded to a satelliteteleportconnected to the Public Switched Telephone Network .
As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively few signals of largebandwidthto many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities ofgeosynchronouscomsats. Two satellite types are used for North American television and radio:Direct broadcast satellite(DBS), andFixed Service Satellite(FSS).
The definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe, are a bit more ambiguous. Most satellites used for direct-to-home television in Europe have the same high power output as DBS-class satellites in North America, but use the same linear polarization as FSS-class satellites. Examples of these are theAstra,Eutelsat, andHotbirdspacecraft in orbit over the European continent. Because of this, the terms FSS and DBS are more so used throughout the North American continent, and are uncommon in Europe.
Fixed Service Satellitesuse theC band, and the lower portions of theKuband. They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming,live shots, andbackhauls), as well as being used fordistance learningby schools and universities,business television(BTV),Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications. FSS satellites are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends.
Free-to-airsatellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the Kuband. TheIntelsat Americas 5,Galaxy 10RandAMC 3satellites over North America provide a quite large amount of FTA channels on their Kubandtransponders.
The AmericanDish NetworkDBSservice has also recently used FSS technology as well for their programming packages requiring theirSuperDishantenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per theFCC's "must-carry" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carryHDTVchannels.
Adirect broadcast satelliteis a communications satellite that transmits to small DBSsatellite dishes(usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter). Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the microwaveKuband. DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such asDirecTV, DISH Network and Orby TV[38]in the United States,Bell Satellite TVandShaw Directin Canada,FreesatandSkyin the UK, Ireland, and New Zealand andDSTVin South Africa.
Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2.5 m) in diameter for Kuband, and 12 feet (3.6 m) or larger for C band). They uselinear polarizationfor each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed tocircular polarizationused by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice. FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form ofTVRO(Television Receive Only) receivers and dishes. It was also used in its Kuband form for the now-defunctPrimestarsatellite TV service.
Some satellites have been launched that have transponders in theKaband, such as DirecTV'sSPACEWAY-1satellite, andAnik F2. NASA andISRO[39][40]have also launched experimental satellites carrying Kaband beacons recently.[41]
Some manufacturers have also introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television. UsingGlobal Positioning System (GPS)technology as a reference, these antennas automatically re-aim to the satellite no matter where or how the vehicle (on which the antenna is mounted) is situated. These mobile satellite antennas are popular with somerecreational vehicleowners. Such mobile DBS antennas are also used byJetBlue Airwaysfor DirecTV (supplied byLiveTV, a subsidiary of JetBlue), which passengers can view on-board on LCD screens mounted in the seats.
Satellite radio offers audiobroadcastservices in some countries, notably the United States. Mobile services allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere.
A satellite radio or subscription radio (SR) is a digital radio signal that is broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio signals.
Amateur radiooperators have access to amateur satellites, which have been designed specifically to carry amateur radio traffic. Most such satellites operate as spaceborne repeaters, and are generally accessed by amateurs equipped withUHForVHFradio equipment and highly directionalantennassuch asYagisor dish antennas. Due to launch costs, most current amateur satellites are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited number of brief contacts at any given time. Some satellites also provide data-forwarding services using theX.25or similar protocols.
After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to connect to theInternetvia broadband data connections. This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and cannot access abroadbandconnection, or require high availability of services.
Communications satellites are used formilitary communicationsapplications, such asGlobal Command and Control Systems. Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are theMILSTAR, theDSCS, and theFLTSATCOMof the United States,NATOsatellites, United Kingdom satellites (for instanceSkynet), and satellites of the formerSoviet Union. India has launched its first Military Communication satelliteGSAT-7, its transponders operate inUHF,F,CandKubandbands.[42]Typically military satellites operate in the UHF,SHF(also known asX-band) orEHF(also known asKaband) frequency bands.
Near-groundin situenvironmental monitoringequipment (such astide gauges,weather stations,weather buoys, andradiosondes), may use satellites for one-waydata transmissionor two-waytelemetryandtelecontrol.[43][44][45]It may be based on a secondary payload of aweather satellite(as in the case ofGOESandMETEOSATand others in theArgos system) or in dedicated satellites (such asSCD). The data rate is typically much lower than insatellite Internetaccess.
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Instrumentationis a collective term formeasuring instruments, used for indicating, measuring, and recordingphysical quantities. It is also a field of study about the art and science about makingmeasurementinstruments, involving the related areas ofmetrology,automation, andcontrol theory. The term has its origins in the art and science ofscientific instrument-making.
Instrumentation can refer to devices as simple as direct-readingthermometers, or as complex as multi-sensorcomponents ofindustrial control systems. Instruments can be found inlaboratories,refineries,factoriesandvehicles, as well as in everyday household use (e.g.,smoke detectorsandthermostats).
Instrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values), including:
The history of instrumentation can be divided into several phases.
Elements of industrial instrumentation have long histories. Scales for comparing weights and simple pointers to indicate position are ancient technologies. Some of the earliest measurements were of time. One of the oldestwater clockswas found in the tomb of theancient EgyptianpharaohAmenhotep I, buried around 1500 BCE.[1]Improvements were incorporated in the clocks. By 270 BCE they had the rudiments of an automatic control system device.[2]
In 1663Christopher Wrenpresented the Royal Society with a design for a "weather clock". A drawing shows meteorological sensors moving pens over paper driven by clockwork. Such devices did not become standard in meteorology for two centuries.[3]The concept has remained virtually unchanged as evidenced by pneumatic chart recorders, where a pressurized bellows displaces a pen. Integrating sensors, displays, recorders, and controls was uncommon until the industrial revolution, limited by both need and practicality.
Early systems used direct process connections to local control panels for control and indication, which from the early 1930s saw the introduction of pneumatictransmittersand automatic3-term (PID) controllers.
The ranges of pneumatic transmitters were defined by the need to control valves and actuators in the field. Typically, a signal ranged from 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100kPa or 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2) as a standard, was standardized with 6 to 30 psi occasionally being used for larger valves.
Transistor electronics enabled wiring to replace pipes, initially with a range of 20 to 100mA at up to 90V for loop powered devices, reducing to 4 to 20mA at 12 to 24V in more modern systems. Atransmitteris a device that produces an output signal, often in the form of a 4–20mAelectricalcurrentsignal, although many other options usingvoltage,frequency,pressure, orethernetare possible. Thetransistorwas commercialized by the mid-1950s.[4]
Instruments attached to a control system provided signals used to operatesolenoids,valves,regulators,circuit breakers,relaysand other devices. Such devices could control a desired output variable, and provide either remote monitoring or automated control capabilities.
Each instrument company introduced their own standard instrumentation signal, causing confusion until the 4–20 mA range was used as the standard electronic instrument signal for transmitters and valves. This signal was eventually standardized as ANSI/ISA S50, "Compatibility of Analog Signals for Electronic Industrial Process Instruments", in the 1970s. The transformation of instrumentation from mechanical pneumatic transmitters, controllers, and valves to electronic instruments reduced maintenance costs as electronic instruments were more dependable than mechanical instruments. This also increased efficiency and production due to their increase in accuracy. Pneumatics enjoyed some advantages, being favored in corrosive and explosive atmospheres.[5]
In the early years ofprocess control, process indicators and control elements such as valves were monitored by an operator, that walked around the unit adjusting the valves to obtain the desired temperatures, pressures, and flows. As technology evolved pneumatic controllers were invented and mounted in the field that monitored the process and controlled the valves. This reduced the amount of time process operators needed to monitor the process. Latter years, the actual controllers were moved to a central room and signals were sent into the control room to monitor the process and outputs signals were sent to the final control element such as a valve to adjust the process as needed. These controllers and indicators were mounted on a wall called a control board. The operators stood in front of this board walking back and forth monitoring the process indicators. This again reduced the number and amount of time process operators were needed to walk around the units. The most standard pneumatic signal level used during these years was 3–15 psig.[6]
Process control of large industrial plants has evolved through many stages. Initially, control would be from panels local to the process plant. However, this required a large manpower resource to attend to these dispersed panels, and there was no overall view of the process. The next logical development was the transmission of all plant measurements to a permanently staffed central control room. Effectively this was the centralization of all the localized panels, with the advantages of lower manning levels and easy overview of the process. Often the controllers were behind the control room panels, and all automatic and manual control outputs were transmitted back to plant.
However, whilst providing a central control focus, this arrangement was inflexible as each control loop had its own controller hardware, and continual operator movement within the control room was required to view different parts of the process. With coming of electronic processors and graphic displays it became possible to replace these discrete controllers with computer-based algorithms, hosted on a network of input/output racks with their own control processors. These could be distributed around plant, and communicate with the graphic display in the control room or rooms. The distributed control concept was born.
The introduction of DCSs andSCADAallowed easy interconnection and re-configuration of plant controls such as cascaded loops and interlocks, and easy interfacing with other production computer systems. It enabled sophisticated alarm handling, introduced automatic event logging, removed the need for physical records such as chart recorders, allowed the control racks to be networked and thereby located locally to plant to reduce cabling runs, and provided high level overviews of plant status and production levels.
In some cases, the sensor is a very minor element of the mechanism. Digital cameras and wristwatches might technically meet the loose definition of instrumentation because they record and/or display sensed information. Under most circumstances neither would be called instrumentation, but when used to measure the elapsed time of a race and to document the winner at the finish line, both would be called instrumentation.
A very simple example of an instrumentation system is a mechanicalthermostat, used to control a household furnace and thus to control room temperature. A typical unit senses temperature with abi-metallic strip. It displays temperature by a needle on the free end of the strip. It activates the furnace by amercury switch. As the switch is rotated by the strip, the mercury makes physical (and thus electrical) contact between electrodes.
Another example of an instrumentation system is ahome security system. Such a system consists of
sensors (motion detection, switches to detect door openings), simple algorithms to detect intrusion, local control (arm/disarm) and remote monitoring of the system so that the police can be summoned. Communication is an inherent part of the design.
Kitchen appliances use sensors for control.
Modern automobiles have complex instrumentation. In addition to displays of engine rotational speed and vehicle linear speed, there are also displays of battery voltage and current, fluid levels, fluid temperatures, distance traveled, and feedback of various controls (turn signals, parking brake, headlights, transmission position). Cautions may be displayed for special problems (fuel low, check engine, tire pressure low, door ajar, seat belt unfastened). Problems are recorded so they can be reported todiagnostic equipment. Navigation systems can provide voice commands to reach a destination. Automotive instrumentation must be cheap and reliable over long periods in harsh environments. There may be independentairbagsystems that contain sensors, logic and actuators.Anti-skidbraking systems use sensors to control the brakes, whilecruise controlaffects throttle position. A wide variety of services can be provided via communication links on theOnStarsystem.Autonomous cars(with exotic instrumentation) have been shown.
Early aircraft had a few sensors.[7]"Steam gauges" converted air pressures into needle deflections that could be interpreted as altitude and airspeed. A magnetic compass provided a sense of direction. The displays to the pilot were as critical as the measurements.
A modern aircraft has a far more sophisticated suite of sensors and displays, which are embedded intoavionicssystems. The aircraft may containinertial navigation systems,global positioning systems,weather radar, autopilots, and aircraft stabilization systems. Redundant sensors are used for reliability. A subset of the information may be transferred to acrash recorderto aid mishap investigations. Modern pilot displays now include computer displays includinghead-up displays.
Air traffic control radaris a distributed instrumentation system. The ground part sends an electromagnetic pulse and receives an echo (at least). Aircraft carry transponders that transmit codes on reception of the pulse. The system displays an aircraft map location, an identifier and optionally altitude. The map location is based on sensed antenna direction and sensed time delay. The other information is embedded in the transponder transmission.
Among the possible uses of the term is a collection of laboratory test equipment controlled by a computer through an IEEE-488 bus (also known as GPIB for General Purpose Instrument Bus or HPIB for Hewlitt Packard Instrument Bus). Laboratory equipment is available to measure many electrical and chemical quantities. Such a collection of equipment might be used to automate the testing of drinking water for pollutants.
Instrumentation engineeringis the engineering specialization focused on the principle and operation of measuring instruments that are used in design and configuration of automated systems in areas such as electrical and pneumatic domains, and the control of quantities being measured.
They typically work for industries withautomatedprocesses, such aschemicalormanufacturingplants, with the goal of improving systemproductivity, reliability, safety, optimization and stability.
To control the parameters in a process or in a particular system, devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs are used, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system.
Instrumentation engineering is loosely defined because the required tasks are very domain dependent. An expert in the biomedical instrumentation of laboratory rats has very different concerns than the expert in rocket instrumentation. Common concerns of both are the selection of appropriate sensors based on size, weight, cost, reliability, accuracy, longevity, environmental robustness, and frequency response. Some sensors are literally fired in artillery shells. Others sense thermonuclear explosions until destroyed. Invariably sensor data must be recorded, transmitted or displayed. Recording rates and capacities vary enormously. Transmission can be trivial or can be clandestine, encrypted and low power in the presence of jamming. Displays can be trivially simple or can require consultation withhuman factorsexperts. Control system design varies from trivial to a separate specialty.
Instrumentation engineers are responsible for integrating the sensors with the recorders, transmitters, displays or control systems, and producing thePiping and instrumentation diagramfor the process. They may design or specify installation, wiring and signal conditioning. They may be responsible for commissioning, calibration, testing and maintenance of the system.
In a research environment it is common for subject matter experts to have substantial instrumentation system expertise. An astronomer knows the structure of the universe and a great deal about telescopes – optics, pointing and cameras (or other sensing elements). That often includes the hard-won knowledge of the operational procedures that provide the best results. For example, an astronomer is often knowledgeable of techniques to minimize temperature gradients that cause air turbulence within the telescope.
Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in troubleshooting, repairing and maintaining instruments and instrumentation systems.
Ralph Müller (1940) stated, "That the history of physical science is largely the history of instruments and their intelligent use is well known. The broad generalizations and theories which have arisen from time to time have stood or fallen on the basis of accurate measurement, and in several instances new instruments have had to be devised for the purpose. There is little evidence to show that the mind of modern man is superior to that of the ancients. His tools are incomparably better."[8][9]: 290
Davis Baird has argued that the major change associated withFloris Cohen's identification of a "fourth big scientific revolution" afterWorld War IIis the development of scientific instrumentation, not only inchemistrybut across the sciences.[9][10]In chemistry, the introduction of new instrumentation in the 1940s was "nothing less than a scientific and technological revolution"[11]: 28–29in which classical wet-and-dry methods of structural organic chemistry were discarded, and new areas of research opened up.[11]: 38
As early as 1954, W. A. Wildhack discussed both the productive and destructive potential inherent in process control.[12]The ability to make precise, verifiable and reproducible measurements of the natural world, at levels that were not previously observable, using scientific instrumentation, has "provided a different texture of the world".[13]This instrumentation revolution fundamentally changes human abilities to monitor and respond, as is illustrated in the examples ofDDTmonitoring and the use ofUV spectrophotometryandgas chromatographyto monitorwater pollutants.[10][13]
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Machine to machine(M2M) is direct communication between devices using anycommunications channel, includingwiredandwireless.[1][2]Machine to machine communication can include industrial instrumentation, enabling a sensor or meter to communicate the information it records (such as temperature, inventory level, etc.) to applicationsoftwarethat can use it (for example, adjusting an industrial process based on temperature or placing orders to replenish inventory).[3]Such communication was originally accomplished by having a remote network of machines relay information back to a central hub for analysis, which would then be rerouted into a system like apersonal computer.[4]
More recent machine to machine communication has changed into a system of networks that transmits data to personal appliances. The expansion ofIPnetworks around the world has made machine to machine communication quicker and easier while using less power.[5]These networks also allow new business opportunities for consumers and suppliers.[6]
Wired communication machines have been usingsignalingto exchange information since the early 20th century. Machine to machine has taken more sophisticated forms since the advent of computer networking automation[7]and predatescellular communication. It has been utilized in applications such astelemetry,industrial,automation, andSCADA.
Machine to machine devices that combined telephony and computing were first conceptualized byTheodore Paraskevakoswhile working on hisCaller IDsystem in 1968, later patented in the U.S. in 1973. This system, similar but distinct from thepanel call indicatorof the 1920s andautomatic number identificationof the 1940s, which communicated telephone numbers to machines, was the predecessor to what is nowcaller ID, which communicates numbers to people.
After several attempts and experiments, he realized that in order for the telephone to be able to read the caller's telephone number, it must possess intelligence so he developed the method in which the caller's number is transmitted to the called receiver's device. His portable transmitter and receiver were reduced to practice in 1971 in aBoeingfacility inHuntsville, Alabama, representing the world's first working prototypes of caller identification devices (shown at right). They were installed at Peoples' Telephone Company inLeesburg, Alabamaand inAthens, Greecewhere they were demonstrated to several telephone companies with great success. This method was the basis for modern-dayCaller IDtechnology. He was also the first to introduce the concepts of intelligence, data processing and visual display screens into telephones which gave rise to thesmartphone.[8]
In 1977, Paraskevakos started Metretek, Inc. inMelbourne, Floridato conduct commercialautomatic meter readingand load management for electrical services which led to the "smart grid" and "smart meter". To achieve mass appeal, Paraskevakos sought to reduce the size of the transmitter and the time of transmission through telephone lines by creating a single chip processing and transmission method.Motorolawas contracted in 1978 to develop and produce the single chip, but the chip was too large for Motorola's capabilities at that time. As a result, it became two separate chips (shown at right).
While cellular is becoming more common, many machines still uselandlines(POTS, DSL, cable) to connect to the IP network. The cellular M2M communications industry emerged in 1995 whenSiemensset up a department inside its mobile phones business unit to develop and launch a GSM data module called "M1"[9]based on the Siemens mobile phone S6 for M2M industrial applications, enabling machines to communicate over wireless networks. In October 2000, the modules department formed a separate business unit inside Siemens called "Wireless Modules" which in June 2008 became a standalone company calledCinterion Wireless Modules. The first M1 module was used for earlypoint of sale(POS) terminals, invehicle telematics, remote monitoring and tracking and tracing applications. Machine to machine technology was first embraced by early implementers such asGMandHughes Electronics Corporationwho realized the benefits and future potential of the technology. By 1997, machine to machine wireless technology became more prevalent and sophisticated as ruggedized modules were developed and launched for the specific needs of different vertical markets such as automotive telematics.
21st century machine to machine data modules have newer features and capabilities such as onboardglobal positioning(GPS) technology, flexible land grid array surface mounting, embedded machine to machine optimized smart cards (like phoneSIMs) known as MIMs or machine to machine identification modules, and embeddedJava, an important enabling technology to accelerate theInternet of things(IOT). Another example of an early use isOnStar's system of communication.[10]
The hardware components of a machine to machine network are manufactured by a few key players. In 1998,Quake Globalstarted designing and manufacturing machine to machine satellite and terrestrial modems.[11]Initially relying heavily on theOrbcommnetwork for its satellite communication services,Quake Globalexpanded its telecommunication product offerings by engaging both satellite and terrestrial networks, which gave Quake Global an edge in offering network-neutral[12]products.
In 2004,Digi Internationalbegan producing wireless gateways and routers. Shortly after in 2006, Digi purchased Max Stream, the manufacturer ofXBeeradios. These hardware components allowed users to connect machines no matter how remote their location. Since then, Digi has partnered with several companies to connect hundreds of thousands of devices around the world.[citation needed]
In 2004, Christopher Lowery, a UK telecoms entrepreneur, founded Wyless Group, one of the firstMobile Virtual Network Operators(MVNO) in the M2M space. Operations began in the UK and Lowery published several patents introducing new features in data protection & management, including Fixed IP Addressing combined with Platform Managed Connectivity over VPNs. The company expanded to the US in 2008 and became T-Mobile's largest partners on both sides of the Atlantic.[citation needed]
In 2006, Machine-to-Machine Intelligence (M2Mi) Corp started work withNASAto develop automated machine to machine intelligence. Automated machine to machine intelligence enables a wide variety of mechanisms including wired or wireless tools, sensors, devices, server computers, robots, spacecraft and grid systems to communicate and exchange information efficiently.[13]
In 2009,AT&TandJasper Technologies, Inc.entered into an agreement to support the creation of machine to machine devices jointly. They have stated that they will be trying to drive further connectivity betweenconsumer electronicsand machine to machine wireless networks, which would create a boost in speed and overall power of such devices.[14]2009 also saw the introduction of real-time management of GSM and CDMA network services for machine to machine applications with the launch of the PRiSMPro™ Platform from machine to machine network providerKORE Telematics. The platform focused on making multi-network management a critical component for efficiency improvements and cost-savings in machine to machine device and network usage.[15]
Also in 2009, Wyless Group introduced PORTHOS™, its multi-operator, multi-application, device agnostic Open Data Management Platform. The company introduced a new industry definition, Global Network Enabler, comprising customer-facing platform management of networks, devices and applications.[citation needed]
Also in 2009, the Norwegian incumbentTelenorconcluded ten years of machine to machine research by setting up two entities serving the upper (services) and lower (connectivity) parts of the value-chain.Telenor Connexion[16]inSwedendraws onVodafone's former research capabilities in subsidiary Europolitan and is in Europe's market for services across such typical markets as logistics,fleet management, car safety, healthcare, andsmart meteringof electricity consumption.[17]Telenor Objectshas a similar role supplying connectivity to machine to machine networks across Europe. In the UK, Business MVNOAbica, commenced trials withTelehealthand Telecare applications which required secure data transit via Private APN andHSPA+/4G LTEconnectivity with static IP address.
In early 2010 in the U.S.,AT&T,KPN,Rogers,Telcel/America Moviland Jasper Technologies, Inc. began to work together in the creation of a machine to machine site, which will serve as a hub for developers in the field of machine to machine communication electronics.[18]In January 2011,Aeris Communications, Inc.announced that it is providing machine to machine telematics services for Hyundai Motor Corporation.[19]Partnerships like these make it easier, faster and more cost-efficient for businesses to use machine to machine. In June 2010,mobile messagingoperatorTyntecannounced the availability of its high-reliability SMS services for M2M applications.
In March 2011, machine to machine network service provider KORE Wireless teamed with Vodafone Group and Iridium Communications Inc., respectively, to make KORE Global Connect network services available via cellular and satellite connectivity in more than 180 countries, with a single point for billing, support, logistics and relationship management. Later that year, KORE acquired Australia-based Mach Communications Pty Ltd. in response to increased M2M demand within Asia-Pacific markets.[20][21]
In April 2011, Ericsson acquired Telenor Connexion's machine to machine platform, in an effort to get more technology and know-how in the growing sector.[22]
In August 2011, Ericsson announced that they have successfully completed the asset purchase agreement to acquire Telenor Connexion's (machine to machine) technology platform.[23]
According to the independent wireless analyst firmBerg Insight, the number of cellular network connections worldwide used for machine to machine communication was 47.7 million in 2008. The company forecasts that the number of machine to machine connections will grow to 187 million by 2014.[24]
A research study from the E-Plus Group[25]shows that in 2010 2.3 million machine to machine smart cards will be in the German market. According to the study, this figure will rise in 2013 to over 5 million smart cards. The main growth driver is segment "tracking and tracing" with an expected average growth rate of 30 percent. The fastest growing M2M segment in Germany, with an average annual growth of 47 percent, will be the consumer electronics segment.
In April 2013,OASISMQTTstandards group is formed with the goal of working on a lightweight publish/subscribe reliable messaging transport protocol suitable for communication in M2M/IoT contexts.[26]IBMand StormMQ chair this standards group and Machine-to-Machine Intelligence (M2Mi) Corp is the secretary.[27]In May 2014, the committee published the MQTT and NIST Cybersecurity Framework Version 1.0 committee note to provide guidance for organizations wishing to deploy MQTT in a way consistent with the NIST Framework for Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity.[28]
In May 2013, machine to machine network service providers KORE Telematics, Oracle,Deutsche Telekom,Digi International,Orbcommand Telit formed the International Machine to Machine Council (IMC). The first trade organization to service the entire machine to machine ecosystem, the IMC aims at making machine to machine ubiquitous by helping companies install and manage the communication between machines.[29][30]
Wireless networks that are all interconnected can serve to improve production and efficiency in various areas, including machinery that works on building cars and on letting the developers of products know when certain products need to be taken in for maintenance and for what reason. Such information serves to streamline products that consumers buy and works to keep them all working at highest efficiency.[6]
Another application is to use wireless technology to monitor systems, such asutility meters. This would allow the owner of the meter to know if certain elements have been tampered with, which serves as a quality method to stop fraud.[citation needed]In Quebec,Rogerswill connect Hydro Quebec's central system with up to 600 Smart Meter collectors, which aggregate data relayed from the province's 3.8-million Smart Meters.[citation needed]In the UK, Telefónica won on a €1.78 billion ($2.4 billion) smart-meter contract to provide connectivity services over a period of 15 years in the central and southern regions of the country. The contract is the industry's biggest deal yet.[31]Some companies, such asM-kopain Kenya, are using M2M to enforce a payment plan, by turning off its customers' solar devices remotely for non-payment.[32]"Our loan officer is that SIM card in the device that can shut it off remotely," says Chad Larson, M-Kopa's finance director and its third co-founder, when describing the technology.
A third application is to use wireless networks to update digital billboards. This allows advertisers to display different messages based on time of day or day-of-week, and allows quick global changes for messages, such as pricing changes for gasoline.[citation needed]
The industrial machine to machine market is undergoing a fast transformation as enterprises are increasingly realizing the value of connecting geographically dispersed people, devices, sensors and machines to corporate networks. Today, industries such as oil and gas,precision agriculture,military, government,smart cities/municipalities,manufacturing, andpublic utilities, among others, utilize machine to machine technologies for a myriad of applications. Many companies have enabled complex and efficientdata networkingtechnologies to provide capabilities such as high-speeddata transmission,mobile mesh networking, and 3G/4Gcellular backhaul.
Telematicsand in-vehicle entertainment is an area of focus for machine to machine developers. Recent examples includeFord Motor Company, which has teamed with AT&T to wirelessly connect Ford Focus Electric with an embedded wireless connection and dedicated app that includes the ability for the owner to monitor and control vehicle charge settings, plan single- or multiple-stop journeys, locate charging stations, pre-heat or cool the car.[citation needed]In 2011,Audipartnered withT-MobileandRACO Wirelessto offer Audi Connect. Audi Connect allows users access to news, weather, and fuel prices while turning the vehicle into a secure mobile Wi-Fi hotspot, allowing passengers access to the Internet.[33]
Machine to machine wireless networks can serve to improve the production and efficiency of machines, to enhance the reliability and safety of complex systems, and to promote the life-cycle management for key assets and products. By applying Prognostic and Health Management (PHM) techniques in machine networks, the following goals can be achieved or improved:
The application of intelligent analysis tools and Device-to-Business (D2B) TM informatics platform form the basis of e-maintenance machine network that can lead to near-zero downtime performance of machines and systems.[34]The e-maintenance machine network provides integration between the factory floor system and e-business system, and thus enables the real time decision making in terms of near-zero downtime, reducing uncertainties and improved system performance.[35]In addition, with the help of highly interconnected machine networks and advance intelligent analysis tools, several novel maintenance types are made possible nowadays. For instance, the distant maintenance without dispatching engineers on-site, the online maintenance without shutting down the operating machines or systems, and thepredictive maintenancebefore a machine failure become catastrophic. All these benefits of e-maintenance machine network add up improve the maintenance efficiency and transparency significantly.
As described in,[36]The framework of e-maintenance machine network consists of sensors, data acquisition system, communication network, analytic agents, decision-making support knowledge base, information synchronization interface and e-business system for decision making. Initially, the sensors, controllers and operators with data acquisition are used to collect the raw data from equipment and send it out to Data Transformation Layer automatically via internet or intranet. The Data Transform Layer then employs signal processing tools and feature extraction methods to convert the raw data into useful information. This converted information often carries rich information about the reliability and availability of machines or system and is more agreeable for intelligent analysis tools to perform subsequent process. The Synchronization Module and Intelligent Tools comprise the major processing power of the e-maintenance machine network and provide optimization, prediction, clustering, classification, bench-marking and so on. The results from this module can then be synchronized and shared with the e-business system on for decision making. In real application, the synchronization module will provide connection with other departments at the decision making level, like enterprise resource planning (ERP), customer relation management (CRM) and supply chain management (SCM).
Another application of machine to machine network is in the health management for a fleet of similar machines using clustering approach. This method was introduced to address the challenge of developing fault detection models for applications with non-stationary operating regimes or with incomplete data. The overall methodology consists of two stages: 1) Fleet Clustering to group similar machines for sound comparison; 2) Local Cluster Fault Detection to evaluate the similarity of individual machines to the fleet features. The purpose of fleet clustering is to aggregate working units with similar configurations or working conditions into a group for sound comparison and subsequently create local fault detection models when global models cannot be established. Within the framework of peer to peer comparison methodology, the machine to machine network is crucial to ensure the instantaneous information share between different working units and thus form the basis of fleet level health management technology.
The fleet level health management using clustering approach was patented for its application in wind turbine health monitoring[37]after validated in a wind turbine fleet of three distributed wind farms.[38]Different with other industrial devices with fixed or static regimes, wind turbine's operating condition is greatly dictated by wind speed and other ambient factors. Even though the multi-modeling methodology can be applicable in this scenario, the number of wind turbines in a wind farm is almost infinite and may not present itself as a practical solution. Instead, by leveraging on data generated from other similar turbines in the network, this problem can be properly solved and local fault detection models can be effective built. The results of wind turbine fleet level health management reported in[37][39]demonstrated the effectiveness of applying a cluster-based fault detection methodology in the wind turbine networks.
Fault detectionfor a horde of industrial robots experiences similar difficulties as lack of fault detection models and dynamic operating condition.Industrial robotsare crucial inautomotive manufacturingand perform different tasks as welding, material handling, painting, etc. In this scenario, robotic maintenance becomes critical to ensure continuous production and avoid downtime. Historically, the fault detection models for all the industrial robots are trained similarly. Critical model parameters like training samples, components, and alarming limits are set the same for all the units regardless of their different functionalities. Even though these identical fault detection models can effectively identify faults sometimes, numerous false alarms discourage users from trusting the reliability of the system. However, within a machine network, industrial robots with similar tasks or working regimes can be group together; the abnormal units in a cluster can then be prioritized for maintenance via training based or instantaneous comparison. This peer to peer comparison methodology inside a machine network could improve the fault detection accuracy significantly.[38]
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MQTT(originally aninitialismofMQ Telemetry Transport[a]) is a lightweight,publish–subscribe,machine-to-machinenetworkprotocolformessage queue/message queuing service. It is designed for connections with remote locations that have devices with resource constraints or limited networkbandwidth, such as in theInternet of things(IoT). It must run over a transport protocol that provides ordered,lossless, bi-directional connections—typically,TCP/IP.[1]It is an openOASISstandard and anISOrecommendation (ISO/IEC 20922).
Andy Stanford-Clark(IBM) and Arlen Nipper (then working forEurotech, Inc.) authored the first version of the protocol in 1999.[5]It was used to monitor oil pipelines within theSCADAindustrial control system.[6]The goal was to have a protocol that is bandwidth-efficient, lightweight and uses little battery power, because the devices were connected via satellite link, which was extremely expensive at that time.[7]
Historically, the "MQ" in "MQTT" came from theIBM MQ(then "MQSeries") product line, where it stands for "Message Queue". However, the protocol providespublish-and-subscribe messaging(no queues, in spite of the name).[8]In the specification opened by IBM, as version 3.1, the protocol was referred to as "MQ Telemetry Transport".[9][10]Subsequent versions released by OASIS strictly refer to the protocol as just "MQTT", although the technical committee itself is named "OASIS Message Queuing Telemetry Transport Technical Committee".[3]Since 2013, "MQTT" does not stand for anything.[11][8]
In 2013, IBM submitted MQTT v3.1 to theOASISspecification body with a charter that ensured only minor changes to the specification could be accepted.[3]After taking over maintenance of the standard from IBM, OASIS released version 3.1.1 on October 29, 2014.[12][13]A more substantial upgrade to MQTT version 5, adding several new features,[14]was released on March 7, 2019.[1]
MQTT-SN (MQTT for Sensor Networks) is a variation of the main protocol aimed at battery-powered embedded devices on non-TCP/IP networks,[15]such asZigbee.[16]
The MQTT protocol defines two types of network entities: amessage brokerand a number of clients. An MQTT broker is a server that receives all messages from the clients and then routes the messages to the appropriate destination clients.[17]An MQTT client is any device (from a microcontroller up to a full-fledged server) that runs an MQTT library and connects to an MQTT broker over a network.[18]
Information is organized in a hierarchy of topics. When a publisher has a new item of data to distribute, it sends a control message with the data to the connected broker. The broker then distributes the information to any clients that have subscribed to that topic. The publisher does not need to have any data on the number or locations of subscribers; and subscribers, in turn, do not have to be configured with any data about the publishers.
If a broker receives a message on a topic for which there are no current subscribers, the broker discards the message unless the publisher of the message designated the message as a retained message. A retained message is a normal MQTT message with the retained flag set to true. The broker stores the last retained message and the correspondingquality of service(QoS) for the selected topic. Each client that subscribes to a topic pattern that matches the topic of the retained message receives the retained message immediately after they subscribe. The broker stores only one retained message per topic.[19]This allows new subscribers to a topic to receive the most current value rather than waiting for the next update from a publisher.
When a publishing client first connects to the broker, it can set up a default message to be sent to subscribers if the broker detects that the publishing client has unexpectedly disconnected from the broker.
Clients only interact with a broker, but a system may contain several broker servers that exchange data based on their current subscribers' topics.
A minimal MQTT control message can be as little as two bytes of data. A control message can carry nearly 256 megabytes of data if needed. There are fourteen defined message types used to connect and disconnect a client from a broker, to publish data, to acknowledge receipt of data, and to supervise the connection between client and server.
MQTT relies on the TCP protocol for data transmission. A variant, MQTT-SN, is used over other transports such asUDPorBluetooth.
MQTT sends connection credentials in plain text format and does not include any measures for security or authentication. This can be provided by usingTLSto encrypt and protect the transferred information against interception, modification or forgery.
The default unencrypted MQTT port is 1883. The encrypted port is 8883.[20]
The MQTT broker is a piece of software running on a computer (running on-premises or in the cloud), and could be self-built or hosted by a third party. It is available in both open source and proprietary implementations.
The broker acts as a post office. MQTT clients don't use a direct connection address of the intended recipient, but use the subject line called "Topic". Anyone who subscribes receives a copy of all messages for that topic. Multiple clients can subscribe to a topic from a single broker (one to many capability), and a single client can register subscriptions to topics with multiple brokers (many to one).
Each client can both produce and receive data by both publishing and subscribing, i.e. the devices can publish sensor data and still be able to receive the configuration information or control commands (MQTT is a bi-directional communication protocol). This helps in both sharing data, managing and controlling devices. A client cannot broadcast the same data to a range of topics, and must publish multiple messages to the broker, each with a single topic given.
With the MQTT broker architecture, the client devices and server application become decoupled. In this way, the clients are kept unaware of each other's information. MQTT, if configured to, can use TLS encryption with certificate, username and password protected connections. Optionally, the connection may require certification, in the form of a certificate file that a client provides and must match with the server's copy.
In case of failure, the broker software and clients can automatically hand over to a redundant/automatic backup broker. Backup brokers can also be set up to share the load of clients across multiple servers on site, in the cloud, or a combination of these.
The broker can support both standard MQTT and MQTT for compliant specifications such as Sparkplug.[21]This can be done with the same server, at the same time and with the same levels of security.
The broker keeps track of all the session's information as the device goes on and off, in a function called "persistent sessions". In this state, a broker will store both connection info for each client, topics each client has subscribed to, and any messages for a topic with a QoS of 1 or 2.[22]
The main advantages of an MQTT broker are:
Waits for a connection to be established with the server and creates a link between the nodes.
Waits for the MQTT client to finish any work it must do, and for theTCP/IPsession to disconnect.
Returns immediately to the application thread after passing the request to the MQTT client.
In 2019, OASIS released the official MQTT 5.0 standard.[1]Version 5.0 includes the following major new features:[23]
Each connection to the broker can specify a QoS measure.[24]These are classified in increasing order of overhead:
This field does not affect handling of the underlying TCP data transmissions; it is only used between MQTT senders and receivers.
Security of the MQTT protocol was compromised[25]in 2020 by Italian researchers, executingslow DoS attackson such protocol.[26]
MQTT clustering is a technique employed to ensure high availability, fault tolerance, and scalability in MQTT deployments.[27]As an efficient and lightweight messaging protocol, MQTT clustering allows for the creation of a resilient network of interconnected broker nodes, ensuring continuous and reliable message delivery even in the face of hardware failures or network disruptions.
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The portable system fortelemetryapplications is a solution that gathers in aportable computerfull functionalities and performances. Based onData acquisitionsoftware,Portable Telemetryis an essential tool for thetest engineerto run tests on-site.[1]
Portable Telemetry system acquires, analyzes and visualizes data fromPCMtelemetry signal, whatever the format (IRIG,CCSDS,CE83). Portable Telemetry is defined in various configuration : laptop withPCMCIA cards, withPCI cards, or externalUSBmodules. It provides all the functionality in the same working environment.[2]
Portable Telemetry can be used in various applications such as:
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Areconnaissance satelliteorintelligence satellite(commonly, although unofficially, referred to as aspy satellite) is anEarth observation satelliteorcommunications satellitedeployed formilitaryorintelligenceapplications.
The first generation type (i.e.,Corona[1][2]andZenit) took photographs, then ejected canisters ofphotographic filmwhich would descend back down into Earth's atmosphere. Corona capsules wereretrieved in mid-airas they floated down onparachutes. Later, spacecraft had digital imaging systems and downloaded the images viaencryptedradio links.
In the United States, most information available about reconnaissance satellites is on programs that existed up to 1972, as this information has beendeclassifieddue to its age. Some information about programs before that time is stillclassified information, and a small amount of information is available on subsequent missions.
A few up-to-date reconnaissance satellite images have been declassified on occasion, or leaked, as in the case ofKH-11photographs which were sent toJane's Defence Weeklyin 1984,[3]or US PresidentDonald Trumptweetinga classified image of the aftermath of a failed test of Iran'sSafirrocket in 2019.[4][5]
On 16 March 1955, theUnited States Air Forceofficially ordered the development of an advanced reconnaissance satellite to provide continuous surveillance of "preselected areas of the Earth" in order "to determine the status of a potential enemy's war-making capability".[6]
During the mid-late 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union took interest into reconnaissance satellites. The United States began theCORONAproject, which encompassed several series of launches starting in 1959 and ending in 72. This program was made a priority to photograph denied areas, replace theU-2, and due to public concern about a technological gap between the West and the Soviet Union.[7][8]It was expedited significantly after the shooting of a U-2 in 1960.[9]
Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, a decree that authorized the development of sputnik apparently authorized a program for a satellite to be used for photo reconnaissance. This design evolved into Vostok, while another version became Zenit, which was an unmanned reconnaissance satellite. Zenit was launched from 1961 to 1994, however the last flight in 1994 was as a test payload.
Both the CORONA and Zenit satellites had to be recovered in order to access the used film, making them distinct from future reconnaissance satellites that could transmit photos without returning film to earth.[10][11]
There are several major types of reconnaissance satellite.[12]
Examples of reconnaissance satellite missions:
On 28 August 2013, it was thought that "a $1-billion high-powered spy satellite capable of snapping pictures detailed enough to distinguish the make and model of an automobile hundreds of miles below"[14]was launched from California's Vandenberg Air Force Base using a Delta IV Heavy launcher, America's highest-payload space launch vehicle at the time.
On 17 February 2014, a Russian Kosmos-1220 originally launched in 1980 and used for naval missile targeting until 1982, made an uncontrolledatmospheric entry.[15]
During the 1950s, a Soviet hoax had led to American fears of abomber gap. In 1968, after gaining satellite photography, the United States' intelligence agencies were able to state with certainty that "No newICBMcomplexes have been established in the USSR during the past year". PresidentLyndon B. Johnsontold a gathering in 1967:[16]
I wouldn't want to be quoted on this ... We've spent $35 or $40 billion on the space program. And if nothing else had come out of it except the knowledge that we gained from space photography, it would be worth ten times what the whole program has cost. Because tonight we know how many missiles the enemy has and, it turned out,our guesses were way off. We were doing things we didn't need to do. We were building things we didn't need to build. We were harboring fears we didn't need to harbor.
During his1980 State of the Union Address, PresidentJimmy Carterargued that all of humanity benefited from the presence of American spy satellites:[17]
...photo-reconnaissance satellites, for example, are enormously important in stabilizing world affairs and thereby make a significant contribution to the security of all nations.
Reconnaissance satellites have been used to enforce human rights, through theSatellite Sentinel Project, which monitors atrocities inSudanandSouth Sudan.
Additionally, companies such asGeoEyeandDigitalGlobehave provided commercial satellite imagery in support of natural disaster response and humanitarian missions.[18]
Spy satellites are commonly seen inspy fictionandmilitary fiction. Some works of fiction that focus specifically on spy satellites include:
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ECHELON, originally a secret governmentcode name, is asurveillanceprogram (signals intelligence/SIGINT collection and analysis network) operated by the five signatory states to theUKUSA Security Agreement:[1]Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, also known as theFive Eyes.[2][3][4]
Created in the late 1960s to monitor themilitaryanddiplomaticcommunications of theSoviet Unionand itsEastern Blocallies during theCold War, the ECHELON project became formally established in 1971.[5][6]By the end of the 20th century, it had greatly expanded.[7]
TheUKUSA intelligence communitywas assessed by theEuropean Parliament(EP) in 2000 to include thesignals intelligenceagencies of each of the member states:
16°28'31.6"N 102°50'39.2"E
LEMONWOOD[14]
Former NSA analystPerry Fellwock, under the pseudonym Winslow Peck, first blew the whistle on ECHELON toRampartsin 1972,[21]when he revealed the existence of a global network of listening posts and told of his experiences working there. He also revealed the existence ofnuclear weapons in Israelin 1972, the widespread involvement ofCIAand NSA personnel in drugs and human smuggling, and CIA operatives leading Nationalist Chinese (Taiwan) commandos in burning villages insidePRCborders.[22]
In 1982, investigative journalist and authorJames BamfordwroteThe Puzzle Palace, an in-depth history of the NSA and its practices, which notably leaked the existence of the eavesdropping operationProject SHAMROCK. Project SHAMROCK ran from 1945 to 1975, after which it evolved into ECHELON.[23][24]
In 1988, Margaret Newsham, aLockheedemployee under NSA contract, disclosed the ECHELONsurveillancesystem to members of Congress. Newsham told a member of theUS Congressthat the telephone calls ofStrom Thurmond, aRepublicanUS senator, were being collected by the NSA. Congressional investigators determined that "targeting of US political figures would not occur by accident, but was designed into the system from the start."[25]
Also in 1988, an article titled "Somebody's Listening", written by investigative journalistDuncan Campbellin theNew Statesman, described thesignals intelligencegathering activities of a program code-named "ECHELON".[25]Bamford described the system as the software controlling the collection and distribution of civiliantelecommunicationstraffic conveyed using communication satellites, with the collection being undertaken by ground stations located in the footprint of the downlink leg.[26]
A detailed description of ECHELON was provided by the New Zealand journalistNicky Hagerin his 1996 bookSecret Power: New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network.[27]Two years later, Hager's book was cited by theEuropean Parliamentin a report titled "An Appraisal of the Technology of Political Control" (PE 168.184).[28]
In March 1999, for the first time in history, theAustralian governmentadmitted that news reports about the top secretUKUSA Agreementwere true.[29]Martin Brady, the director of Australia'sDefence Signals Directorate(DSD, now known as Australian Signals Directorate, or ASD) told the Australian broadcasting channelNine Networkthat the DSD "does co-operate with counterpartsignals intelligenceorganisations overseas under theUKUSA relationship."[30]
In 2000,James Woolsey, the former Director of the USCentral Intelligence Agency, confirmed that US intelligence uses interception systems and keyword searches to monitorEuropeanbusinesses.[31]
Lawmakers in the United States feared that the ECHELON system could be used to monitor US citizens.[32]According toThe New York Times, the ECHELON system has been "shrouded in such secrecy that its very existence has been difficult to prove."[32]Critics said the ECHELON system emerged from theCold Waras a "Big Brother without a cause".[33]
The program's capabilities and political implications were investigated by a committee of the European Parliament during 2000 and 2001 with a report published in 2001.[7]In July 2000, the Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System was established by the European parliament to investigate thesurveillancenetwork.[35]It was chaired by the Portuguese politicianCarlos Coelho, who was in charge of supervising investigations throughout 2000 and 2001.
In May 2001, as the committee finalised its report on the ECHELON system, a delegation travelled toWashington, D.C.to attend meetings with US officials from the following agencies and departments:
All meetings were cancelled by the US government and the committee was forced to end its trip prematurely.[36]According to aBBCcorrespondent in May 2001, "The US Government still refuses to admit that Echelon even exists."[5]
In July 2001, the Committee released its final report.[37]The EP report concluded that it seemed likely that ECHELON is a method of sorting captured signal traffic, rather than a comprehensive analysis tool.[7]On 5 September 2001, the European parliament voted to accept the report.[38]
The European Parliament stated in its report that the term ECHELON is used in a number of contexts, but that the evidence presented indicates that it was the name for a signals intelligence collection system.[7]The report concludes that, on the basis of information presented, ECHELON was capable of interception and content inspection of telephone calls, fax, e-mail and other data traffic globally through the interception of communication bearers including satellite transmission,public switched telephone networks(which once carried most Internet traffic), andmicrowavelinks.[7]
Two internal NSA newsletters from January 2011 and July 2012, published as part ofEdward Snowden's leaksby the websiteThe Intercepton 3 August 2015, for the first time confirmed that NSA used the code word ECHELON and provided some details about the scope of the program: ECHELON was part of an umbrella program with the code name FROSTING, which was established by the NSA in 1966 to collect and process data fromcommunications satellites. FROSTING had two sub-programs:[39]
TheEuropean Parliament'sTemporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception Systemstated, "It seems likely, in view of the evidence and the consistent pattern of statements from a very wide range of individuals and organisations, including American sources, that its name is in factECHELON, although this is a relatively minor detail".[7]The US intelligence community uses many code names (see, for example,CIA cryptonym).
Former NSA employeeMargaret Newshamsaid that she worked on the configuration and installation of software that makes up the ECHELON system while employed atLockheed Martin, from 1974 to 1984 inSunnyvale, California, in theUnited States, and inMenwith Hill,England, in theUK.[40]At that time, according to Newsham, the code name ECHELON was NSA's term for the computer network itself. Lockheed called itP415. The software programs were calledSILKWORTHandSIRE. AsatellitenamedVORTEXintercepted communications. An image available on the internet of a fragment apparently torn from a job description shows Echelon listed along with several other code names.[41][42]
Britain'sThe Guardiannewspaper summarized the capabilities of the ECHELON system as follows:
A global network of electronic spy stations that can eavesdrop on telephones, faxes and computers. It can even track bank accounts. This information is stored in Echelon computers, which can keep millions of records on individuals.
Officially, however, Echelon doesn't exist.[43]
Documents leaked by the former NSA contractorEdward Snowdenrevealed that the ECHELON system's collection of satellite data is also referred to asFORNSAT- an abbreviation for "Foreign Satellite Collection".[44][45]
First revealed by theEuropean Parliamentreport (p. 54 ff)[7]and confirmed later by theEdward Snowden disclosuresthe following ground stations presently have, or have had, a role in intercepting transmissions from Satellite and other means of communication:[7]
The ability to intercept communications depends on the medium used, be itradio,satellite,microwave,cellularorfiber-optic.[7]DuringWorld War IIand through the 1950s,high-frequency("short-wave") radio was widely used for military and diplomatic communication[57]and could be intercepted at great distances.[7]The rise ofgeostationarycommunications satellitesin the 1960s presented new possibilities for intercepting international communications.[58]In 1964, plans for the establishment of the ECHELONnetworktook off after dozens of countries agreed to establish theInternational Telecommunications Satellite Organization(Intelsat), which would own and operate a global constellation ofcommunications satellites.[29]
In 1966, the firstIntelsatsatellitewas launched into orbit. From 1970 to 1971, theGovernment Communications Headquarters(GCHQ) ofBritainbegan to operate a secret signal station atMorwenstow, nearBudeinCornwall, England. The station interceptedsatellite communicationsover theAtlanticandIndian Oceans. Soon afterwards, the USNational Security Agency(NSA) built a second signal station atYakima, nearSeattle, for the interception of satellite communications over thePacific Ocean.[29]In 1981,GCHQand the NSA started the construction of the first globalwide area network(WAN). Soon after Australia, Canada, and New Zealand joined the ECHELON system.[29]The report to the European Parliament of 2001 states: "IfUKUSAstates operate listening stations in the relevant regions of the earth, in principle they can intercept all telephone, fax, and data traffic transmitted via such satellites."[7]
Most reports on ECHELON focus on satellite interception. Testimony before theEuropean Parliamentindicated that separate but similar UKUSA systems are in place to monitor communication through undersea cables, microwave transmissions, and other lines.[59]The report to theEuropean Parliamentpoints out that interception of private communications by foreign intelligence services is not necessarily limited to the US or British foreign intelligence services.[7]The role of satellites in point-to-point voice and data communications has largely been supplanted byfiber optics. In 2006, 99% of the world's long-distance voice and data traffic was carried overoptical-fiber.[60]The proportion of international communications accounted for by satellite links is said to have decreased substantially to an amount between 0.4% and 5% in Central Europe.[7]Even in less-developed parts of the world,communications satellitesare used largely for point-to-multipoint applications, such as video.[61]Thus, the majority of communications can no longer be intercepted by earth stations; they can only be collected by tapping cables and intercepting line-of-sight microwave signals, which is possible only to a limited extent.[7]
BritishjournalistDuncan CampbellandNew Zealandjournalist Nicky Hager said in the 1990s that the United States was exploiting ECHELON traffic forindustrial espionage, rather than military and diplomatic purposes.[59]Examples alleged by the journalists include the gear-less wind turbine technology designed by theGermanfirmEnercon[7][62]and the speech technology developed by theBelgianfirmLernout & Hauspie.[63]
In 2001, the Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System recommended to theEuropean Parliamentthat citizens of member states routinely usecryptographyin their communications to protect their privacy, becauseeconomic espionagewith ECHELON has been conducted by the US intelligence agencies.[7]
American authorJames Bamfordprovides an alternative view, highlighting that legislation prohibits the use of intercepted communications for commercial purposes, although he does not elaborate on how intercepted communications are used as part of an all-source intelligence process.[64]
In its report, the committee of the European Parliament stated categorically that the Echelon network was being used to intercept not only military communications, but also private and business ones. In its epigraph to the report, the parliamentary committee quotedJuvenal, "Sed quis custodiet ipsos custodes."("But who will watch the watchers").[7]James Bamford, inThe Guardianin May 2001, warned that if Echelon were to continue unchecked, it could become a "cyber secret police, without courts, juries, or the right to a defence".[65]
Alleged examples of espionage conducted by the members of the "Five Eyes" include:
The first United Statessatelliteground station for the ECHELON collection program was built in 1971 at a military firing and training center nearYakima, Washington. The facility, which was codenamed JACKKNIFE, was an investment of ca. 21.3 million dollars and had around 90 people.Satellitetraffic was intercepted by a 30-meter single-dish antenna. The station became fully operational on 4 October 1974. It was connected with NSA headquarters at Fort Meade by a 75-baud secure Teletype orderwire channel.[39]
In 1999 theAustralian SenateJoint Standing Committee on Treatieswas told by ProfessorDesmond Ballthat thePine Gapfacility was used as a ground station for a satellite-based interception network. The satellites were said to be large radio dishes between 20 and 100 meters in diameter ingeostationary orbits. The original purpose of the network was to monitor thetelemetryfrom 1970sSoviet weapons, air defence and other radars' capabilities, satellites' ground stations' transmissions and ground-basedmicrowave communications.[77]
In 1999, Enercon, aGermancompany and leading manufacturer of wind energy equipment, developed a breakthrough generator for wind turbines. After applying for a US patent, it had learned that Kenetech, an American rival, had submitted an almost identical patent application shortly before. By the statement of a formerNSAemployee, it was later claimed that the NSA had secretly intercepted and monitoredEnercon's data communications and conference calls and passed information regarding the new generator to Kenetech.[78]However, later German media reports contradicted this story, as it was revealed that the American patent in question was actually filed three years before the alleged wiretapping was said to have taken place.[79]As German intelligence services are forbidden from engaging in industrial or economic espionage, German companies have complained that this leaves them defenceless against industrial espionage from the United States or Russia. According to Wolfgang Hoffmann, a former manager atBayer, German intelligence services know which companies are being targeted by US intelligence agencies, but refuse to inform the companies involved.[80]
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Remote monitoring and control(M&C) systems are designed to control large or complex facilities such asfactories,power plants,network operations centers,airports, andspacecraft, with some degree ofautomation.
M&C systems may receive data fromsensors,telemetrystreams, user inputs, and pre-programmed procedures. The software may sendtelecommandstoactuators, computer systems, or other devices.
M&C systems may performclosed-loop control.
Once limited toSCADAin industrial settings, remote monitoring and control is now applied in numerous fields, including:
While this field overlaps withmachine to machinecommunications, the two are not completely identical.
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Remote sensingis the acquisition ofinformationabout anobjectorphenomenonwithout making physical contact with the object, in contrast toin situor on-siteobservation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information aboutEarthand otherplanets. Remote sensing is used in numerous fields, includinggeophysics,geography, landsurveyingand mostEarth sciencedisciplines (e.g.exploration geophysics,hydrology,ecology,meteorology,oceanography,glaciology,geology). It also has military, intelligence, commercial, economic, planning, and humanitarian applications, among others.
In current usage, the termremote sensinggenerally refers to the use ofsatellite- or aircraft-basedsensortechnologies to detect and classify objects on Earth. It includes the surface and theatmosphereandoceans, based onpropagated signals(e.g.electromagnetic radiation). It may be split into "active" remote sensing (when a signal is emitted by a satellite or aircraft to the object and its reflection is detected by the sensor) and "passive" remote sensing (when the reflection of sunlight is detected by the sensor).[1][2][3][4][5]
Remote sensing can be divided into two types of methods:Passive remote sensingandActive remote sensing.Passive sensors gather radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding areas. Reflectedsunlightis the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include filmphotography,infrared,charge-coupled devices, andradiometers. Active collection, on the other hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target.RADARandLiDARare examples of active remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, speed and direction of an object.
Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data of dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoringdeforestationin areas such as theAmazon Basin,glacialfeatures in Arctic and Antarctic regions, anddepth soundingof coastal and ocean depths. Military collection during theCold Warmade use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border areas. Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground, ensuring in the process that areas or objects are not disturbed.
Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of theelectromagnetic spectrum, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides researchers with enough information to monitor trends such asEl Niñoand other natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include different areas of theearth sciencessuch asnatural resource management, agricultural fields such as land usage and conservation,[6][7]greenhouse gas monitoring,[8]oil spill detection and monitoring,[9]and national security and overhead, ground-based and stand-off collection on border areas.[10]
The basis for multispectral collection and analysis is that of examined areas or objects that reflect or emit radiation that stand out from surrounding areas. For a summary of major remote sensing satellite systems see the overview table.
To coordinate a series of large-scale observations, most sensing systems depend on the following: platform location and the orientation of the sensor. High-end instruments now often use positional information fromsatellite navigation systems. The rotation and orientation are often provided within a degree or two with electronic compasses. Compasses can measure not just azimuth (i. e. degrees to magnetic north), but also altitude (degrees above the horizon), since the magnetic field curves into the Earth at different angles at different latitudes. More exact orientations requiregyroscopic-aided orientation, periodically realigned by different methods including navigation from stars or known benchmarks.
The quality of remote sensing data consists of its spatial, spectral, radiometric and temporal resolutions.
In order to create sensor-based maps, most remote sensing systems expect to extrapolate sensor data in relation to a reference point including distances between known points on the ground. This depends on the type of sensor used. For example, in conventional photographs, distances are accurate in the center of the image, with the distortion of measurements increasing the farther you get from the center. Another factor is that of the platen against which the film is pressed can cause severe errors when photographs are used to measure ground distances. The step in which this problem is resolved is calledgeoreferencingand involves computer-aided matching of points in the image (typically 30 or more points per image) which is extrapolated with the use of an established benchmark, "warping" the image to produce accurate spatial data. As of the early 1990s, most satellite images are sold fully georeferenced.
In addition, images may need to be radiometrically and atmospherically corrected.
Interpretation is the critical process of making sense of the data. The first application was that of aerial photographic collection which used the following process; spatial measurement through the use of alight tablein both conventional single or stereographic coverage, added skills such as the use of photogrammetry, the use of photomosaics, repeat coverage, Making use of objects' known dimensions in order to detect modifications. Image Analysis is the recently developed automated computer-aided application that is in increasing use.
Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) is a sub-discipline of GIScience devoted to partitioning remote sensing (RS) imagery into meaningful image-objects, and assessing their characteristics through spatial, spectral and temporal scale.
Old data from remote sensing is often valuable because it may provide the only long-term data for a large extent of geography. At the same time, the data is often complex to interpret, and bulky to store. Modern systems tend to store the data digitally, often withlossless compression. The difficulty with this approach is that the data is fragile, the format may be archaic, and the data may be easy to falsify. One of the best systems for archiving data series is as computer-generated machine-readableultrafiche, usually in typefonts such asOCR-B, or as digitized half-tone images. Ultrafiches survive well in standard libraries, with lifetimes of several centuries. They can be created, copied, filed and retrieved by automated systems. They are about as compact as archival magnetic media, and yet can be read by human beings with minimal, standardized equipment.
Generally speaking, remote sensing works on the principle of theinverse problem: while the object or phenomenon of interest (thestate) may not be directly measured, there exists some other variable that can be detected and measured (theobservation) which may be related to the object of interest through a calculation. The common analogy given to describe this is trying to determine the type of animal from its footprints. For example, while it is impossible to directly measure temperatures in the upper atmosphere, it is possible to measure the spectral emissions from a known chemical species (such as carbon dioxide) in that region. The frequency of the emissions may then be related viathermodynamicsto the temperature in that region.
To facilitate the discussion of data processing in practice, several processing "levels" were first defined in 1986 by NASA as part of itsEarth Observing System[31]and steadily adopted since then, both internally at NASA (e. g.,[32]) and elsewhere (e. g.,[33]); these definitions are:
A Level 1 data record is the most fundamental (i. e., highest reversible level) data record that has significant scientific utility, and is the foundation upon which all subsequent data sets are produced. Level 2 is the first level that is directly usable for
most scientific applications; its value is much greater than the lower levels. Level 2 data sets tend to be less voluminous than Level 1 data because they have been reduced temporally, spatially, or spectrally. Level 3 data sets are generally smaller than lower level data sets and thus can be dealt with without incurring a great deal of data handling overhead. These data tend to be generally more useful for many applications. The regular spatial and temporal organization of Level 3 datasets makes it feasible to readily combine data from different sources.
While these processing levels are particularly suitable for typical satellite data processing pipelines, other data level vocabularies have been defined and may be appropriate for more heterogeneous workflows.
Satellite imagesprovide very useful information to produce statistics on topics closely related to the territory, such as agriculture, forestry or land cover in general. The first large project to apply Landsata 1 images for statistics was LACIE (Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment), run by NASA,NOAAand theUSDAin 1974–77.[34][35]Many other application projects on crop area estimation have followed, including the Italian AGRIT project and the MARS project of theJoint Research Centre(JRC) of theEuropean Commission.[36]Forest area and deforestation estimation have also been a frequent target of remote sensing projects,[37][38]the same as land cover and land use[39]
Ground truthor reference data to train and validate image classification require a field survey if we are targetingannual cropsor individual forest species, but may be substituted byphotointerpretationif we look at wider classes that can be reliably identified onaerial photosor satellite images. It is relevant to highlight that probabilistic sampling is not critical for the selection of training pixels for image classification, but it is necessary for accuracy assessment of the classified images and area estimation.[40][41][42]Additional care is recommended to ensure that training and validation datasets are not spatially correlated.[43]
We suppose now that we have classified images or aland cover mapproduced by visual photo-interpretation, with a legend of mapped classes that suits our purpose, taking again the example of wheat. The straightforward approach is counting the number of pixels classified as wheat and multiplying by the area of each pixel. Many authors have noticed thatestimatoris that it is generallybiasedbecausecommission and omission errorsin aconfusion matrixdo not compensate each other[44][45][46]
The main strength of classified satellite images or other indicators computed on satellite images is providing cheap information on the whole target area or most of it. This information usually has a good correlation with the target variable (ground truth) that is usually expensive to observe in an unbiased and accurate way. Therefore, it can be observed on aprobabilistic sampleselected on anarea sampling frame. Traditionalsurvey methodologyprovides different methods to combine accurate information on a sample with less accurate, but exhaustive, data for a covariable orproxythat is cheaper to collect. For agricultural statistics, field surveys are usually required, while photo-interpretation may better for land cover classes that can be reliably identified on aerial photographs or high resolution satellite images. Additional uncertainty can appear because of imperfect reference data (ground truth or similar).[47][48]
Some options are:ratio estimator,regression estimator,[49]calibration estimators[50]andsmall area estimators[39]
If we target other variables, such ascrop yieldorleaf area, we may need different indicators to be computed from images, such as theNDVI, a good proxy tochlorophyllactivity.[51]
The modern discipline of remote sensing arose with the development of flight. The balloonist G. Tournachon (aliasNadar) made photographs of Paris from his balloon in 1858.[52]Messenger pigeons, kites, rockets and unmanned balloons were also used for early images. With the exception of balloons, these first, individual images were not particularly useful for map making or for scientific purposes.
Systematicaerial photographywas developed for military surveillance and reconnaissance purposes beginning inWorld War I.[53]After WWI, remote sensing technology was quickly adapted to civilian applications.[54]This is demonstrated by the first line of a 1941 textbook titled "Aerophotography and Aerosurverying," which stated the following:
"There is no longer any need to preach for aerial photography-not in the United States- for so widespread has become its use and so great its value that even the farmer who plants his fields in a remote corner of the country knows its value."
The development of remote sensing technology reached a climax during theCold Warwith the use of modified combat aircraft such as theP-51,P-38,RB-66and theF-4C, or specifically designed collection platforms such as theU2/TR-1,SR-71,A-5and theOV-1series both in overhead and stand-off collection.[55]A more recent development is that of increasingly smaller sensor pods such as those used by law enforcement and the military, in both manned and unmanned platforms. The advantage of this approach is that this requires minimal modification to a given airframe. Later imaging technologies would include infrared, conventional, Doppler and synthetic aperture radar.[56]
The development of artificial satellites in the latter half of the 20th century allowed remote sensing to progress to a global scale as of the end of the Cold War.[57]Instrumentation aboard various Earth observing and weather satellites such asLandsat, theNimbusand more recent missions such asRADARSATandUARSprovided global measurements of various data for civil, research, and military purposes.Space probesto other planets have also provided the opportunity to conduct remote sensing studies in extraterrestrial environments, synthetic aperture radar aboard theMagellanspacecraft provided detailed topographic maps ofVenus, while instruments aboardSOHOallowed studies to be performed on theSunand thesolar wind, just to name a few examples.[58][59]
Recent developments include, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, the development ofimage processingofsatellite imagery. The use of the term "remote sensing" began in the early 1960s whenEvelyn Pruittrealized that advances in science meant that aerial photography was no longer an adequate term to describe the data streams being generated by new technologies.[60][61]With assistance from her fellow staff member at the Office of Naval Research, Walter Bailey, she coined the term "remote sensing".[62][63]Several research groups inSilicon ValleyincludingNASA Ames Research Center,GTE, andESL Inc.developedFourier transformtechniques leading to the first notable enhancement of imagery data. In 1999 the first commercial satellite (IKONOS) collecting very high resolution imagery was launched.[64]
Remote sensing has a growing relevance in the modern information society. It represents a key technology as part of the aerospace industry and bears increasing economic relevance – new sensors e.g.TerraSAR-XandRapidEyeare developed constantly and the demand for skilled labour is increasing steadily. Furthermore, remote sensing exceedingly influences everyday life, ranging fromweather forecaststo reports onclimate changeornatural disasters. As an example, 80% of the German students use the services ofGoogle Earth; in 2006 alone the software was downloaded 100 million times. But studies have shown that only a fraction of them know more about the data they are working with.[65]There exists a hugeknowledge gapbetween the application and the understanding of satellite images.
Remote sensing only plays a tangential role in schools, regardless of the political claims to strengthen the support for teaching on the subject.[66]A lot of the computer software explicitly developed for school lessons has not yet been implemented due to its complexity. Thereby, the subject is either not at all integrated into the curriculum or does not pass the step of an interpretation of analogue images. In fact, the subject of remote sensing requires a consolidation of physics and mathematics as well ascompetencesin the fields of media and methods apart from the mere visual interpretation of satellite images.
Many teachers have great interest in the subject "remote sensing", being motivated to integrate this topic into teaching, provided that the curriculum is considered. In many cases, this encouragement fails because of confusing information.[67]In order to integrate remote sensing in a sustainable manner organizations like theEGUorDigital Earth[68]encourage the development oflearning modulesandlearning portals. Examples include:FIS – Remote Sensing in School Lessons,[69]Geospektiv,[70]Ychange,[71]or Spatial Discovery,[72]to promote media and method qualifications as well as independent learning.
Remote sensing data are processed and analyzed with computer software, known as aremote sensing application. A large number of proprietary and open source applications exist to process remote sensing data.
There are applications of gamma rays to mineral exploration through remote sensing. In 1972 more than two million dollars were spent on remote sensing applications with gamma rays to mineral exploration. Gamma rays are used to search for deposits of uranium. By observing radioactivity from potassium, porphyry copper deposits can be located. A high ratio of uranium to thorium has been found to be related to the presence of hydrothermal copper deposits. Radiation patterns have also been known to occur above oil and gas fields, but some of these patterns were thought to be due to surface soils instead of oil and gas.[73]
AnEarth observation satelliteor Earth remote sensing satellite is asatelliteused or designed forEarth observation(EO) fromorbit, includingspy satellitesand similar ones intended for non-military uses such asenvironmental monitoring,meteorology,cartographyand others. The most common type are Earth imaging satellites, that takesatellite images, analogous toaerial photographs; some EO satellites may perform remote sensing without forming pictures, such as inGNSS radio occultation.
The first occurrence of satellite remote sensing can be dated to the launch of the first artificial satellite,Sputnik 1, by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957.[74]Sputnik 1 sent back radio signals, which scientists used to study theionosphere.[75]The United States Army Ballistic Missile Agency launched the first American satellite,Explorer 1, for NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory on January 31, 1958. The information sent back from its radiation detector led to the discovery of the Earth'sVan Allen radiation belts.[76]TheTIROS-1spacecraft, launched on April 1, 1960, as part of NASA'sTelevision Infrared Observation Satellite(TIROS) program, sent back the first television footage of weather patterns to be taken from space.[74]
In 2008, more than 150 Earth observation satellites were in orbit, recording data with both passive and active sensors and acquiring more than 10 terabits of data daily.[74]By 2021, that total had grown to over 950, with the largest number of satellites operated by US-based companyPlanet Labs.[77]
MostEarthobservation satellites carry instruments that should be operated at a relatively low altitude. Most orbit at altitudes above 500 to 600 kilometers (310 to 370 mi). Lower orbits have significantair-drag, which makes frequent orbitreboostmaneuvers necessary. The Earth observation satellitesERS-1, ERS-2andEnvisatofEuropean Space Agencyas well as theMetOpspacecraft ofEUMETSATare all operated at altitudes of about 800 km (500 mi). TheProba-1,Proba-2andSMOSspacecraft of European Space Agency are observing the Earth from an altitude of about 700 km (430 mi). The Earth observation satellites of UAE,DubaiSat-1&DubaiSat-2are also placed inLow Earth orbits(LEO) orbits and providingsatellite imageryof various parts of the Earth.[78][79]
To get global coverage with a low orbit, apolar orbitis used. A low orbit will have an orbital period of roughly 100 minutes and the Earth will rotate around its polar axis about 25° between successive orbits. Theground trackmoves towards the west 25° each orbit, allowing a different section of the globe to be scanned with each orbit. Most are inSun-synchronous orbits.
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Aremote terminal unit(RTU) is amicroprocessor-controlled electronic device that interfaces objects in the physical world to adistributed control systemorSCADA(supervisory control and data acquisition) system by transmittingtelemetrydata to a master system, and by using messages from the master supervisory system to control connected objects.[1]Other terms that may be used for RTU areremote telemetry unitandremote telecontrol unit.
An RTU monitors the field digital and analog parameters and transmits data to a SCADA Master Station. It runs setup software to connect data input streams to data output streams, define communication protocols, and troubleshoot installation problems in the field.
An RTU may consist of one complex circuit card consisting of various sections needed to do a custom-fitted function, or may consist of many circuit cards including a CPU or processing with communications interface(s), and one or more of the following: (AI) analog input, (DI) digital (status) input, (DO/CO) digital (or control relay) output, or (AO) analog output card(s).
An RTU might even be a small process control unit with a small database for PID, Alarming, Filtering, Trending and other functions complemented with someBASIC(programming language) tasks. Modern RTUs typically support theIEC 61131-3programming standard for programmable logic controllers. Since RTUs may be routinely deployed in pipeline and grid guarding systems, or in other hard-to-reach or extreme environments (for example in theBiosphere 2project), they are required to operate under harsh conditions, and implement energy-saving measures (such as switching off IO modules when not in use). For example, it communicates via RS485 or wireless communication links in a multi-drop configuration. In this type of configuration it is a remote unit that collects data and performs simple control tasks. It does not have moving parts and uses extremely low power and is often solar powered.
A form of power supply will be included for operation from the AC mains for various CPU, status wetting voltages and other interface cards. This may consist of AC to DC converters where operated from a station battery system.
RTUs may include a battery and charger circuitry to continue operation in event of AC power failure for critical applications where a station battery is not available.
Most RTUs incorporate an input section or input status cards to acquire two state real-world information. This is usually accomplished by using an isolated voltage or current source to sense the position of a remote contact (open or closed) at the RTU site. This contact position may represent many different devices, including electrical breakers, liquid valve positions, alarm conditions, and mechanical positions of devices. Counter inputs are optional.
An RTU can monitor analog inputs of different types including 0-1 mA,4–20 mA current loop, 0–10 V., ±2.5 V, ±5.0 V etc.
Many RTU inputs buffer larger quantities via transducers to convert and isolate real-world quantities from sensitive RTU input levels.
An RTU can also receive analog data via a communication system from a master or IED (intelligent electronic device) sending data values to it.
The RTU or host system translates and scales this raw data into the appropriate units such as the quantity of water left, temperature degrees, or Megawatts, before presenting the data to the user via thehuman–machine interface.
RTUs may drive high current capacity relays to a digital output (or "DO") board to switch power on and off to devices in the field. The DO board switches voltage to the coil in the relay, which closes the high current contacts, which completes the power circuit to the device.
RTU outputs may also consist of driving a sensitive logic input on an electronicPLC, or other electronic device using a sensitive 5 V input.
While not as commonly used, analog outputs may be included to control devices that require varying quantities, such as graphic recording instruments (strip charts). Summed or processed data quantities may be generated in a master SCADA system and output for display locally or remotely, wherever needed.
Modern RTUs are usually capable of executing simple programs autonomously without involving the host computers of theDCSorSCADAsystem to simplify deployment and to provide redundancy for safety reasons. An RTU in a modern water management system will typically have code to modify its behavior when physical override switches on the RTU are toggled during maintenance by maintenance personnel. This is done for safety reasons; a miscommunication between the system operators and the maintenance personnel could cause system operators to mistakenly enable power to a water pump when it is being replaced, for example.
Maintenance personnel should have any equipment they are working on disconnected from power and locked to prevent damage and/or injury.
An RTU may be interfaced to multiple master stations and IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Devices) with different communication protocols (usually serial (RS-232,RS-485,RS-422) orEthernet). An RTU may support standard protocols (Modbus,IEC 60870-5-101/103/104,DNP3,IEC 60870-6-ICCP,IEC 61850etc.) to interface any third party software.
Data transfer may be initiated from either end using various techniques to ensure synchronization with minimal data traffic. The master may poll its subordinate unit (Master to RTU or RTU to IED) for changes of data on a periodic basis. Analog value changes will usually be reported only on changes outside a set limit from the last transmitted value. Digital (status) values observe a similar technique and only transmit groups (bytes) when one included point (bit) changes. Another method used is where a subordinate unit initiates an update of data upon a predetermined change in analog or digital data. Complete data transmission must be performed periodically, with either method, to ensure full synchronization and eliminate stale data. Most communication protocols support both methods, programmable by the installer.
Multiple RTUs or IEDs may share a communications line, in amulti-drop scheme, as units are addressed uniquely and only respond to their own polls and commands.
IED communications transfer data between the RTU and an IED (Intelligent Electronic Devices) . This can eliminate the need for many hardware status inputs, analog inputs, and relay outputs in the RTU. Communications are accomplished by copper orfibre optics lines.
Master communications usually occur between an RTU and a larger control system or a data collection system (incorporated into a larger system). Data may be moved using a copper, fibre optic or radio frequency communication system.
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SBMV Protocolis an advanced encryptedtelemetrythat uses short-burst, multi-version technology.[1]
Telemetrytechnology enables “the remote measurement and reporting of information”.
Telemetry is also a “highly automated communications process by which measurements are made and other data collected at remote or inaccessible points and transmitted to receiving equipment for monitoring, display, and recording.”[2][3]
SBMV technology is based onquantum cryptography, "an emerging technology in which two parties may simultaneously generate shared, secretcryptographickey material using the transmission ofquantum statesoflight. The security of these transmissions is based on the inviolability of the laws ofquantum mechanicsand information-theoretically secure post-processing methods."[4]
SBMV Protocolencryptsdata by quickly breaking text, numerical, and/or image data into tens of thousands of smallpacketsthat are then copied into hundreds of thousands of slightly altered versions. This technology renders interception useless because it becomes statistically impossible for the intercepting party to have enough time and computing resources to select which version is the true and correct version among millions of versions of the data.[5]
SBMV Protocol was first created in 1971 forspacecraft, missile, RPV, oil rig, and chemical planttelemetryand telecommand links by mathematiciansDavid YeedaandAndrei Krolovich, who formedThe Aeorads Companyfor commercial and military aerospace applications of SBMV technology. New Methods, op cit.
SBMV technology was further developed withInternet Protocolapplications atWright-Patterson Air Force Base(United States Air Force Research Laboratory) in Ohio, where defense contractor Aeorads Company refined the technology for web-based uses in aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles. A non-classified civilian version of SBMV technology was also created for chemical plants and remote oil rigs and alternative energy wind farms (primarily for offshore and very remote facilities).[6][7]
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SCADA(an acronym forsupervisory control and data acquisition) is acontrol systemarchitecture comprisingcomputers, networkeddata communicationsandgraphical user interfacesforhigh-levelsupervision of machines and processes. It also covers sensors and other devices, such asprogrammable logic controllers, also known as a DCS (Distributed Control System), which interface with process plant or machinery.
The operator interfaces, which enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, such as controllersetpointchanges, are handled through the SCADA computer system. The subordinated operations, e.g. the real-time control logic or controller calculations, are performed by networked modules connected to the fieldsensorsandactuators.
The SCADA concept was developed to be a universal means of remote-access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from different manufacturers and allowing access through standard automationprotocols. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become similar todistributed control systemsin function, while using multiple means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale processes spanning multiple sites, and work over large distances. It is one of the most commonly-used types ofindustrial control systems.
The key attribute of a SCADA system is its ability to perform a supervisory operation over a variety of other proprietary devices.
Level 1 contains theprogrammable logic controllers(PLCs) orremote terminal units(RTUs).
Level 2 contains the SCADA to readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to level 2 SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using thehuman-machine interface(HMI) can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to ahistorian, often built on a commoditydatabase management system, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.
SCADA systems typically use atag database, which contains data elements calledtagsorpoints, which relate to specific instrumentation or actuators within the process system. Data is accumulated against these unique process control equipment tag references.
A SCADA system usually consists of the following main elements:
An important part of most SCADA implementations isalarm handling. The system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.
Alarm conditions can be explicit—for example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital points—or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and low- limit values associated with that point.
Examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the "fuel tank empty" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken.
"Smart" RTUs, or standard PLCs, are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the supervisory computer. They employ standardized control programming languages (such as those underIEC 61131-3, a suite of five programming languages including function block, ladder, structured text, sequence function charts and instruction list), that are frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language likeCorFORTRAN, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC.
Aprogrammable automation controller(PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In manyelectrical substationSCADA applications, "distributed RTUs" use information processors or station computers to communicate withdigital protective relays, PACs, and other devices for I/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU.
Since about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI/SCADA systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software programmer. The Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment.
SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct wired connections, althoughSONET/SDHis also frequently used for large systems such as railways and power stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to astelemetry. Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.
SCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to send information only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols includeModbusRTU,RP-570,Profibusand Conitel. These communication protocols, with the exception of Modbus (Modbus has been made open by Schneider Electric), are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols areIEC 60870-5-101 or 104,IEC 61850andDNP3. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate overTCP/IP. Although the use of conventional networking specifications, such asTCP/IP, blurs the line between traditional and industrial networking, they each fulfill fundamentally differing requirements.[3]Network simulationcan be used in conjunction with SCADA simulators to perform various 'what-if' analyses.
With increasing security demands (such asNorth American Electric Reliability Corporation(NERC) andcritical infrastructure protection(CIP) in the US), there is increasing use of satellite-based communication. This has the key advantages that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using circuits from the public telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to the availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier experiences using consumer-gradeVSATwere poor. Modern carrier-class systems provide the quality of service required for SCADA.[4]
RTUs and other automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their own protocol to "lock in" their customer base. Alist of automation protocolsis compiled here.
An example of efforts by vendor groups to standardize automation protocols is the OPC-UA (formerly "OLE for process control" nowOpen Platform Communications Unified Architecture).
SCADA systems have evolved through four generations as follows:[5][6][7][8]
Early SCADA system computing was done by largeminicomputers. Common network services did not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used were strictly proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was achieved using a back-up mainframe system connected to all theRemote Terminal Unitsites and was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system.[9]Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as "turn key" operations that ran on minicomputers such as thePDP-11series.[10]
SCADA information and command processing were distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task, which reduced the cost as compared to First Generation SCADA. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since these protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually overlooked.
Similar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to the simplest components and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked design, the system may be spread across more than one LAN network called aprocess control network (PCN)and separated geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost-effective solution in very large scale systems.
The growth of the internet has led SCADA systems to implement web technologies allowing users to view data, exchange information and control processes from anywhere in the world through web SOCKET connection.[11][12]The early 2000s saw the proliferation of Web SCADA systems.[13][14][15]Web SCADA systems use web browsers such as Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox as the graphical user interface (GUI) for the operators HMI.[16][13]This simplifies the client side installation and enables users to access the system from various platforms with web browsers such as servers, personal computers, laptops, tablets and mobile phones.[13][17]
SCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, gas pipelines, water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to be open, robust, and easily operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure.[18][19]The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems, office networks and theInternethas made them more vulnerable to types ofnetwork attacksthat are relatively common incomputer security. For example,United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT)released a vulnerability advisory[20]warning that unauthenticated users could download sensitive configuration information includingpassword hashesfrom anInductive AutomationIgnitionsystem utilizing a standardattack typeleveraging access to theTomcatEmbedded Web server. Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding abuffer overflowvulnerability[21]in aWonderwareInBatchClientActiveX control. Both vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations were standardpatchingpractices and requiringVPNaccess for secure connectivity. Consequently, the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially vulnerable tocyber attacks.[22][23][24]
In particular, security researchers are concerned about:
SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen.
There are many threat vectors to a modern SCADA system. One is the threat of unauthorized access to the control software, whether it is human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Another is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, the control protocol lacks any form ofcryptographic security, allowing an attacker to control a SCADA device by sending commands over a network. In many cases SCADA users have assumed that having a VPN offered sufficient protection, unaware that security can be trivially bypassed with physical access to SCADA-related network jacks and switches. Industrial control vendors suggest approaching SCADA security likeInformation Securitywith adefense in depthstrategy that leverages common IT practices.[25]Apart from that, research has shown that the architecture of SCADA systems has several other vulnerabilities, including direct tampering with RTUs, communication links from RTUs to the control center, and IT software and databases in the control center.[26]The RTUs could, for instance, be targets of deception attacks injecting false data[27]ordenial-of-service attacks.
The reliable function of SCADA systems in our modern infrastructure may be crucial to public health and safety. As such, attacks on these systems may directly or indirectly threaten public health and safety. Such an attack has already occurred, carried out onMaroochy ShireCouncil's sewage control system inQueensland,Australia.[28]Shortly after a contractor installed a SCADA system in January 2000, system components began to function erratically. Pumps did not run when needed and alarms were not reported. More critically, sewage flooded a nearby park and contaminated an open surface-water drainage ditch and flowed 500 meters to a tidal canal. The SCADA system was directing sewage valves to open when the design protocol should have kept them closed. Initially this was believed to be a system bug. Monitoring of the system logs revealed the malfunctions were the result of cyber attacks. Investigators reported 46 separate instances of malicious outside interference before the culprit was identified. The attacks were made by a disgruntled ex-employee of the company that had installed the SCADA system. The ex-employee was hoping to be hired by the utility full-time to maintain the system.
In April 2008, the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States fromElectromagnetic Pulse(EMP) Attack issued a Critical Infrastructures Report which discussed the extreme vulnerability of SCADA systems to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) event. After testing and analysis, the Commission concluded: "SCADA systems are vulnerable to EMP insult. The large numbers and widespread reliance on such systems by all of the Nation’s critical infrastructures represent a systemic threat to their continued operation following an EMP event. Additionally, the necessity to
reboot, repair, or replace large numbers of geographically widely dispersed systems will considerably impede the Nation’s recovery from such an assault."[29]
Many vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address the risks posed by unauthorized access by developing lines of specialized industrialfirewallandVPNsolutions for TCP/IP-based SCADA networks as well as external SCADA monitoring and recording equipment.
TheInternational Society of Automation(ISA) started formalizing SCADA security requirements in 2007 with a working group, WG4. WG4 "deals specifically with unique technical requirements, measurements, and other features required to evaluate and assure security resilience and performance of industrial automation and control systems devices".[30]
The increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability researchers discovering vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more general offensive SCADA techniques presented to the general security community.[31]In electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the vulnerability of the large installed base of wired and wireless serial communications links is addressed in some cases by applyingbump-in-the-wiredevices that employ authentication andAdvanced Encryption Standardencryption rather than replacing all existing nodes.[32]
In June 2010, anti-virus security companyVirusBlokAdareported the first detection of malware that attacks SCADA systems (Siemens'WinCC/PCS 7 systems) running on Windows operating systems. The malware is calledStuxnetand uses fourzero-day attacksto install arootkitwhich in turn logs into the SCADA's database and steals design and control files.[33][34]The malware is also capable of changing the control system and hiding those changes. The malware was found on 14 systems, the majority of which were located in Iran.[35]
In October 2013National Geographicreleased a docudrama titledAmerican Blackoutwhich dealt with an imagined large-scale cyber attack on SCADA and the United States' electrical grid.[36]
Both large and small systems can be built using the SCADA concept. These systems can range from just tens to thousands ofcontrol loops, depending on the application. Example processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below:
However, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks.[37]
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Atelecommandortelecontrolis acommandsent to control a remote system or systems not directly connected (e.g. via wires) to the place from which the telecommand is sent. The word is derived fromtele= remote (Greek), andcommand= to entrust/order (Latin). Systems that need remote measurement and reporting of information of interest to the system designer or operator require the counterpart of telecommand,telemetry. Thetelecommandcan be done inreal timeor not depending on the circumstances (in space, delay may be of days), as was the case ofMarsokhod.[1]
For a Telecommand (TC) to be effective, it must be compiled into a pre-arranged format (which may follow a standard structure), modulated onto a carrier wave which is then transmitted with adequate power to the remote system. The remote system will then demodulate the digital signal from the carrier, decode the TC, and execute it. Transmission of the carrier wave can be by ultrasound, infra-red or other electromagnetic means.
Infraredlight makes up the invisible section of theelectromagnetic spectrum.[2]This light, also classified as heat, transmits signals between the transmitter and receiver of the remote system.[2]Telecommand systems usually include a physical remote, which contains four key parts: buttons,integrated circuit, button contacts, and alight-emitting diode.[3]When the buttons on a remote are pressed they touch and close their corresponding contacts below them within the remote.[3]This completes the necessary circuit on the circuit board along with a change inelectrical resistance, which is detected by the integrated circuit. Based on the change in electrical resistance, the integrated circuit distinguishes which button was pushed and sends a correspondingbinary codeto the light-emitting diode (LED) usually located at the front of the remote.[3]To transfer the information from the remote to the receiver, the LED turns the electrical signals into an invisible beam of infrared light that corresponds with the binary code and sends this light to the receiver.[3]The receiver then detects the light signal via aphotodiodeand it is transformed into an electrical signal for the command and is sent to the receiver’s integrated circuit/microprocessorto process and complete the command.[3]The strength of the transmitting LED can vary and determines the required positioning accuracy of the remote in relevance to the receiver.[2]Infrared remotes have a maximum range of approximately 30 feet and require the remote control or transmitter and receiver to be within aline of sight.[2]
Ultrasonic is a technology used more frequently in the past for telecommand. InventorRobert Adleris known for inventing theremote controlwhich did not require batteries and used ultrasonic technology.[4]There are four aluminum rods inside the transmitter that produce high frequency sounds when they are hit at one end. Each rod is a different length, which enables them to produce varying sound pitches, which control the receiving unit.[5]This technology was widely used but had certain issues such as dogs being bothered by the high frequency sounds.[6]
Often the smaller new remote controlled airplanes and helicopters are incorrectly advertised as radio controlled devices (seeRadio control) but they are either controlled via infra-red transmission or electromagnetically guided. Both of these systems are part of the telecommand area.
To prevent unauthorised access to the remote system, TCencryptionmay be employed.Secret sharingmay be used.
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Telematicsis an interdisciplinary field encompassingtelecommunications, vehicular technologies (road transport,road safety, etc.), electrical engineering (sensors, instrumentation,wireless communications, etc.), andcomputer science(multimedia,Internet, etc.). Telematics can involve any of the following:
Telematics is a translation of theFrenchwordtélématique,which was firstcoinedbySimon NoraandAlain Mincin a 1978 report to the French government on thecomputerizationof society. It referred to the transfer of information over telecommunications and was aportmanteaublending the French wordstélécommunications("telecommunications") andinformatique("computing science"). The original broad meaning of telematics continues to be used in academic fields, but in commerce it now generally meansvehicle telematics.[1]
Telematics can be described as thus:
Vehicle telematics can help improve the efficiency of an organization.[2]
Vehicle trackingis monitoring the location, movements, status, and behavior of a vehicle or fleet of vehicles. This is achieved through a combination of aGPS(GNSS) receiver and an electronic device (usually comprising aGSMGPRSmodem orSMSsender) installed in each vehicle, communicating with the user (dispatching, emergency, or co-ordinating unit) and PC-based or web-based software. The data is turned into information by management reporting tools in conjunction with a visual display on computerizedmappingsoftware. Vehicle tracking systems may also useodometryordead reckoningas an alternative or complementary means of navigation.[citation needed]
GPS trackingis usually accurate to around 10–20 meters,[3]but theEuropean Space Agencyhas developed theEGNOStechnology to provide accuracy to 1.5 meters.[4]
Trailer trackingrefers to the tracking of movements and position of an articulated vehicle'strailer unitthrough the use of a location unit fitted to the trailer and a method of returning the position data via mobile communication network, IOT (Internet of things), or geostationary satellite communications for use through either PC- or web-based software.[citation needed]
Cold-store freight trailers that deliver fresh or frozen foods are increasingly incorporating telematics to gathertime-seriesdata on the temperature inside the cargo container, both totrigger alarms and record an audit trailfor business purposes. An increasingly sophisticated array of sensors, many incorporatingRFIDtechnology, is being used to ensure thecold chain.[citation needed]
Freight containers can be tracked by GPS using a similar approach to that used for trailer tracking (i.e. a battery-powered GPS device communicating its position via mobile phone or satellite communications). Benefits of this approach include increased security and the possibility to reschedule the container transport movements based on accurate information about its location. According to Berg Insight, the installed base of tracking units in the intermodal shipping container segment reached 190,000 at the end of 2013.[5]Growing at a compound annual growth rate of 38.2 percent, the installed base reached 960,000 units at the end of 2018.[citation needed]
Fleet managementis the management of a company'sfleetand includes the management of ships and/or motor vehicles such as cars, vans, and trucks. Fleet (vehicle) management can include a range of functions, such as vehicle financing, vehicle maintenance, vehicle telematics (tracking and diagnostics), driver management, fuel management, health and safety management, and dynamic vehicle scheduling. Fleet management is a function which allows companies that rely on transport in their business to remove or minimize the risks associated with vehicle investment, improving efficiency and productivity while reducing overall transport costs and ensuring compliance with government legislation andDuty of Careobligations. These functions can either be dealt with by an in-house fleet management department or an outsourced fleet management provider.[6]
The Association of Equipment Management Professionals (AEMP)[7]developed the industry's first telematics standard.[citation needed]
In 2008, AEMP brought together the major construction equipment manufacturers and telematics providers in the heavy equipment industry to discuss the development of the industry's first telematics standard.[8]Following agreement fromCaterpillar,VolvoCE,Komatsu, andJohn DeereConstruction & Forestry to support such a standard, the AEMP formed a standards development subcommittee chaired by Pat Crail CEM to develop the standard.[9]This committee consisted of developers provided by the Caterpillar/Trimble joint venture known as Virtual Site Solutions, Volvo CE, and John Deere. This group worked from February 2009 through September 2010 to develop the industry's first standard for the delivery of telematics data.[10]
The result, the AEMP Telematics Data Standard V1.1,[10]was released in 2010 and officially went live on October 1, 2010. As of November 1, 2010, Caterpillar, Volvo CE, John Deere Construction & Forestry, OEM Data Delivery, andNavmanWireless are able to support customers with delivery of basic telematics data in a standard xml format. Komatsu,Topcon, and others are finishing beta testing and have indicated their ability to support customers in the near future.[10]
The AEMP's telematics data standard was developed to allow end users to integrate key telematics data (operating hours, location,fuel consumed, andodometerreading where applicable) into their existing fleet management reporting systems. As such, the standard was primarily intended to facilitate importation of these data elements intoenterprise softwaresystems such as those used by many medium-to-large construction contractors. Prior to the standard, end users had few options for integrating this data into their reporting systems in a mixed-fleet environment consisting of multiple brands of machines and a mix of telematics-equipped machines and legacy machines (those without telematics devices where operating data is still reported manually via pen and paper). One option available to machine owners was to visit multiple websites to manually retrieve data from each manufacturer's telematics interface and then manually enter it into their fleet management program's database. This option was cumbersome and labor-intensive.[11]
A second option was for the end user to develop an API (Application Programming Interface), or program, to integrate the data from each telematics provider into their database. This option was quite costly as each telematics provider had different procedures for accessing and retrieving the data and the data format varied from provider to provider. This option automated the process, but because each provider required a unique, custom API to retrieve and parse the data, it was an expensive option. In addition, another API had to be developed any time another brand of machine or telematics device was added to the fleet.[11]
A third option for mixed-fleet integration was to replace the various factory-installed telematics devices with devices from a third party telematics provider. Although this solved the problem of having multiple data providers requiring unique integration methods, this was by far the most expensive option. In addition to the expense, many third-party devices available for construction equipment are unable to access data directly from the machine'selectronic control modules(ECMs), or computers, and are more limited than the device installed by the OEM (Cat, Volvo, Deere, Komatsu, etc.) in the data they are able to provide. In some cases, these devices are limited to location and engine runtime, although they are increasingly able to accommodate a number of add-on sensors to provide additional data.[11]
The AEMP Telematics Data Standard provides a fourth option. By concentrating on the key data elements that drive the majority of fleet management reports (hours, miles, location, fuel consumption), making those data elements available in a standardized xml format, and standardizing the means by which the document is retrieved, the standard enables the end user to use one API to retrieve data from any participating telematics provider (as opposed to the unique API for each provider that was required previously), greatly reducing integration development costs.[10]
The current draft version of the AEMP Telematics Data Standard is now called the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard, which expands the original standard Version 1.2 to include 19 data fields (with fault code capability). This new draft standard is a collaborative effort of AEMP and the Association of Equipment Manufacturers (AEM), working on behalf of their members and the industry. This Draft API replaces the current version 1.2 and does not currently cover some types of equipment, e.g., agriculture equipment, cranes, mobile elevating work platforms, air compressors, and other niche products.
In addition to the new data fields, the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard changes how data is accessed in an effort to make it easier to consume and integrate with other systems and processes. It includes standardized communication protocols for the ability to transfer telematics information in mixed-equipment fleets to end user business enterprise systems, enabling the end user to employ their own business software to collect and then analyze asset data from mixed-equipment fleets without the need to work across multiple telematics provider applications.
To achieve a globally recognized standard for conformity worldwide, the AEM/AEMP Draft Telematics API Standard will be submitted for acceptance by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Final language is dependent upon completion of the ISO acceptance process.
Satellite navigation in the context of vehicle telematics is the technology of using a GPS and electronic mapping tool to enable a driver to locate a position, plan a route, and navigate a journey.[12]
Mobile datais the use of wirelessdata communicationsusingradio wavesto send and receive real-time computer data to, from, and between devices used by field-based personnel. These devices can be fitted solely for use while in the vehicle (Fixed Data Terminal) or for use in and out of the vehicle (Mobile Data Terminal). Seemobile Internet.
The common methods for mobile data communication for telematics were based on private vendors' RF communication infrastructure. During the early 2000s, manufacturers of mobile data terminals/AVL devices moved to try cellular data communication to offer cheaper ways to transmit telematics information and wider range based on cellular provider coverage. Since then, as a result of cellular providers offering low GPRS (2.5G) and later UMTS (3G) rates, mobile data is almost totally offered to telematics customers via cellular communication.
Wireless vehicle safety communicationstelematics aid in car safety and road safety. It is an electronic subsystem in a vehicle used for exchanging safety information about road hazards and the locations and speeds of vehicles overshort-range radio links. This may involve temporary ad hoc wireless local area networks.
Wireless units are often installed in vehicles and fixed locations, such as near traffic signals and emergency call boxes along the road. Sensors in vehicles and at fixed locations, as well as in possible connections to wider networks, provide informationdisplayed to drivers. The range of the radio links can be extended by forwarding messages along multi-hop paths. Even without fixed units, information about fixed hazards can be maintained by moving vehicles by passing it backwards. It also seems possible for traffic lights, which one can expect to become smarter, to use this information to reduce the chance of collisions.
In the future, it may connect directly to theadaptive cruise controlor other vehicle control aids. Cars and trucks with the wireless system connected to their brakes may move in convoys to save fuel and space on the roads. When a column member slows down, those behind it will automatically slow also. Certain scenarios may required less engineering effort, such as when a radio beacon is connected to a brake light.
In fall 2008, network ideas were tested in Europe, where radio frequency bandwidth had been allocated. The 30 MHz allocated is at 5.9 GHz, and unallocated bandwidth at 5.4 GHz may also be used. The standard is IEEE 802.11p, a low-latency form of the Wi-Fi local area network standard. Similar efforts are underway in Japan and the USA.[13]
Telematics technologies are self-orientating opennetwork architecturestructures of variable programmable intelligent beacons developed for application in the development of intelligent vehicles with the intent to accord (blend or mesh) warning information with surrounding vehicles in the vicinity of travel, intra-vehicle, and infrastructure. Emergency warning systems for vehicle telematics are developed particularly for international harmonization and standardization of vehicle-to-vehicle, infrastructure-to-vehicle, and vehicle-to-infrastructure real-time Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC) systems.
Telematics most commonly relate to computerized systems that update information at the same rate they receive data, enabling them to direct or control a process such as an instantaneous autonomous warning notification in a remote machine or group of machines. In the use of telematics relating to intelligent vehicle technologies, instantaneous direction travel cognizance of a vehicle may be transmitted in real-time to surrounding vehicles traveling in the local area of vehicles equipped (with EWSV) to receive said warning signals of danger.
Telematics comprise electronic, electromechanical, and electromagnetic devices—usually silicon micro-machined components operating in conjunction with computer-controlled devices and radio transceivers to provide precision repeatability functions (such as in robotics artificial intelligence systems) emergency warning validation performance reconstruction.
Intelligent vehicle technologiescommonly apply to car safety systems and self-contained autonomous electromechanicalsensorsgenerating warnings that can be transmitted within a specified targeted area of interest, i.e. within 100 meters of the emergency warning system for the vehicle's transceiver. In ground applications, intelligent vehicle technologies are utilized for safety and commercial communications between vehicles or between a vehicle and a sensor along the road.
On November 3, 2009, the most advancedIntelligent Vehicleconcept car was demonstrated in New York City when a 2010 Toyota Prius became the first LTEconnected car. The demonstration was provided by the NG Connect project, a collaboration of automotive telematic technologies designed to exploit in-car 4G wireless network connectivity.[14]
Telematics technology has enabled the emergence ofcarsharingservices such as Local Motion,Uber, Lyft, Car2Go,Zipcarworldwide, orCity Car Clubin theUK. Telematics-enabled computers allow organizers to track members' usage and bill them on apay-as-you-drivebasis. Some systems show users where to find an idle vehicle.[15]Car Clubs such as Australia'sCharter Driveuse telematics to monitor and report on vehicle use within predefinedgeofenceareas to demonstrate thereachof theirtransit mediacar club fleet.
The general idea of telematicsauto insuranceis that a driver's behavior is monitored directly while the person drives and this information is transmitted to an insurance company. The insurance company then assesses the risk of that driver having an accident and charges insurance premiums accordingly. A driver who drives less responsibly will be charged a higher premium than a driver who drives smoothly and with less calculated risk of claim propensity. Other benefits can be delivered to end users withTelematics2.0-based telematics ascustomer engagementcan be enhanced with direct customer interaction.
Telematics auto insurance was independently invented and patented[16]by a major U.S. auto insurance company,Progressive Auto InsuranceU.S. patent 5,797,134, and a Spanish independent inventor, Salvador Minguijon Perez (European Patent EP0700009B1). The Perez patents cover monitoring the car'sengine control computerto determine distance driven, speed, time of day, braking force, etc. Progressive is currently developing the Perez technology in the U.S. and European auto insurerNorwich Unionis developing the Progressive technology for Europe. Both patents have since been overturned in courts due to prior work in the commercial insurance sectors.[17]
Trials conducted by Norwich Union in 2005 found that young drivers (18- to 23-year-olds) signing up for telematics auto insurance have had a 20% lower accident rate than average.[18]
In 2007, theoretical economic research on the social welfare effects of Progressive's telematics technology business process patents questioned whether the business process patents areparetoefficient for society. Preliminary results suggested that it was not, but more work is needed.[19][20]In April 2014, Progressive patents were overturned by the U.S. legal system on the grounds of "lack of originality."
Thesmartphoneas the in-vehicle device for insurance telematics has been discussed in great detail[21]and the instruments are available for the design of smartphone-driven insurance telematics.
Several universities provide two-year Telematics Master of Science programs:
In 2007, a project entitled the European Automotive Digital Innovation Studio (EADIS) was awarded 400,000 Euros from theEuropean Commissionunder itsLeonardo da Vinci program. EADIS used a virtual work environment called the Digital Innovation Studio to train and develop professional designers in the automotive industry in the impact and application of vehicle telematics so they could integrate new technologies into future products within the automotive industry. Funding ended in 2013.[35]
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Bitsquattingis a form ofcybersquattingwhich relies onbit-flip errorsthat occur during the process of making aDNSrequest. These bit-flips may occur due to factors such as faulty hardware orcosmic rays. When such an error occurs, the user requesting the domain may be directed to a website registered under adomain namesimilar to a legitimate domain, except with one bit flipped in their respective binary representations.
A 2011Black Hatpaper detailed an analysis where eight legitimate domains were targeted with thirty one bitsquat domains. Over the course of about seven months, 52,317 requests were made to the bitsquat domains.[1]
Thiscomputer securityarticle is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
This Internet-related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitsquatting
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Early research and development:
Merging the networks and creating the Internet:
Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:
Examples of Internet services:
TheDomain Name System]](DNS) is a hierarchical and distributedname servicethat provides a naming system forcomputers, services, and other resources on the Internet or otherInternet Protocol(IP) networks. It associates various information withdomain names(identificationstrings) assigned to each of the associated entities. Most prominently, it translates readily memorized domain names to the numericalIP addressesneeded for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the underlyingnetwork protocols.[1]The Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985.
The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to Internet resources by designatingauthoritative name serversfor each domain. Network administrators may delegate authority oversubdomainsof their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed andfault-tolerantservice and was designed to avoid a single large central database. In addition, the DNS specifies the technical functionality of thedatabaseservice that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures anddata communicationexchanges used in the DNS, as part of theInternet protocol suite.
The Internet maintains two principalnamespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the IPaddress spaces.[2]The Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and acommunication protocolimplement the Domain Name System. A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain; a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database.
The most common types of records stored in the DNS database are for start of authority (SOA), IP addresses (AandAAAA),SMTPmail exchangers(MX), name servers (NS), pointers forreverse DNS lookups(PTR), anddomain name aliases(CNAME). Although not intended to be a general-purpose database, DNS has been expanded over time to store records for other types of data for either automatic lookups, such asDNSSECrecords, or for human queries such asresponsible person(RP) records. As a general-purpose database, the DNS has also been used in combatingunsolicited email(spam) by storingblocklists. The DNS database is conventionally stored in a structured text file, thezone file, but other database systems are common.
The Domain Name System originally used theUser Datagram Protocol(UDP) as transport over IP. Reliability, security, and privacy concerns spawned the use of theTransmission Control Protocol(TCP) as well as numerous other protocol developments.
An often-used analogy to explain the DNS is that it serves as thephone bookfor the Internet by translating human-friendly computerhostnamesinto IP addresses. For example, the hostnamewww.example.comwithin the domain nameexample.comtranslates to the addresses93.184.216.34(IPv4) and2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946(IPv6). The DNS can be quickly and transparently updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same hostname. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) ande-mail addresseswithout having to know how the computer actually locates the services.
An important andubiquitousfunction of the DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such ascloud servicesandcontent delivery networks.[3]When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL, the domain name of theURLis translated to the IP address of a server that is proximal to the user. The key functionality of the DNS exploited here is that different users cansimultaneouslyreceive different translations for thesamedomain name, a key point of divergence from a traditional phone-book view of the DNS. This process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services.[4]
The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility on the Internet.[5]Each subdomain is azoneof administrative autonomy delegated to a manager. For zones operated by aregistry, administrative information is often complemented by the registry'sRDAPandWHOISservices. That data can be used to gain insight on, and track responsibility for, a given host on the Internet.[6]
Using a simpler, more memorable name in place of a host's numerical address dates back to theARPANETera. The Stanford Research Institute (nowSRI International) maintained a text file namedHOSTS.TXTthat mapped host names to the numerical addresses of computers on the ARPANET.[7][8]Elizabeth Feinlerdeveloped and maintained the first ARPANET directory.[9][10]Maintenance of numerical addresses, called the Assigned Numbers List, was handled byJon Postelat theUniversity of Southern California'sInformation Sciences Institute(ISI), whose team worked closely with SRI.[11]
Addresses were assigned manually. Computers, including their hostnames and addresses, were added to the primary file by contacting the SRINetwork Information Center(NIC), directed by Feinler, viatelephoneduring business hours.[12]Later, Feinler set up aWHOISdirectory on a server in the NIC for retrieval of information about resources, contacts, and entities.[13]She and her team developed the concept of domains.[13]Feinler suggested that domains should be based on the location of the physical address of the computer.[14]Computers at educational institutions would have the domainedu, for example.[15]She and her team managed the Host Naming Registry from 1972 to 1989.[16]
By the early 1980s, maintaining a single, centralized host table had become slow and unwieldy and the emerging network required an automated naming system to address technical and personnel issues. Postel directed the task of forging a compromise between five competing proposals of solutions toPaul Mockapetris. Mockapetris instead created the Domain Name System in 1983 while at theUniversity of Southern California.[12][17]
TheInternet Engineering Task Forcepublished the original specifications in RFC 882 and RFC 883 in November 1983.[18][19]These were updated in RFC 973 in January 1986.[20]
In 1984, fourUC Berkeleystudents, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle, and Songnian Zhou, wrote the firstUnixname serverimplementation for the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, commonly referred to asBIND.[21]In 1985, Kevin Dunlap ofDECsubstantially revised the DNS implementation.Mike Karels, Phil Almquist, andPaul Vixiethen took over BIND maintenance.Internet Systems Consortiumwas founded in 1994 byRick Adams,Paul Vixie, andCarl Malamud, expressly to provide a home for BIND development and maintenance. BIND versions from 4.9.3 onward were developed and maintained by ISC, with support provided by ISC's sponsors. As co-architects/programmers, Bob Halley and Paul Vixie released the first production-ready version of BIND version 8 in May 1997. Since 2000, over 43 different core developers have worked on BIND.[22]
In November 1987, RFC 1034[23]and RFC 1035[5]superseded the 1983 DNS specifications. Several additionalRequest for Commentshave proposed extensions to the core DNS protocols.[24]
The domain name space consists of atree data structure. Each node or leaf in the tree has alabeland zero or moreresource records(RR), which hold information associated with the domain name. The domain name itself consists of the label, concatenated with the name of its parent node on the right, separated by a dot.[23]: §3.1
The tree sub-divides intozonesbeginning at theroot zone. ADNS zonemay consist of as many domains and subdomains as the zone manager chooses. DNS can also be partitioned according toclasswhere the separate classes can be thought of as an array of parallel namespace trees.[23]: §4.2
Administrative responsibility for any zone may be divided by creating additional zones. Authority over the new zone is said to bedelegatedto a designated name server. The parent zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.[23]: §4.2
The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, RFC 2181, and RFC 5892. Adomain nameconsists of one or more parts, technically calledlabels, that are conventionallyconcatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.
The right-most label conveys thetop-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domaincom.
The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, orsubdomainof the domain to the right. For example, the labelexamplespecifies a subdomain of thecomdomain, andwwwis a subdomain of example.com. This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels.[25]
A label may contain zero to 63 characters, because the length is only allowed to take 6 bits. The null label of length zero is reserved for the root zone. The full domain name may not exceed the length of 253 characters in its textual representation (or 254 with the trailing dot).[23]In the internal binary representation of the DNS this maximum length of 253 requires 255 octets of storage, as it also stores the length of the first of many labels and adds last null byte.[5]255 length is only achieved with at least 6 labels (counting the last null label).[citation needed]
Although no technical limitation exists to prevent domain name labels from using any character that is representable by an octet, hostnames use a preferred format and character set. The characters allowed in labels are a subset of theASCIIcharacter set, consisting of charactersathroughz,AthroughZ, digits0through9, and hyphen. This rule is known as theLDH rule(letters, digits, hyphen). Domain names are interpreted in a case-independent manner.[26]Labels may not start or end with a hyphen.[27]An additional rule requires that top-level domain names should not be all-numeric.[27]
The limited set of ASCII characters permitted in the DNS prevented the representation of names and words of many languages in their native alphabets or scripts. To make this possible,ICANNapproved theInternationalizing Domain Names in Applications(IDNA) system, by which user applications, such as web browsers, mapUnicodestrings into the valid DNS character set usingPunycode. In 2009, ICANN approved the installation of internationalized domain namecountry code top-level domains (ccTLDs). In addition, manyregistriesof the existing top-level domain names (TLDs) have adopted the IDNA system, guided by RFC 5890, RFC 5891, RFC 5892, RFC 5893.
The Domain Name System is maintained by adistributed databasesystem, which uses theclient–server model. The nodes of this database are thename servers. Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is served by theroot name servers, the servers to query when looking up (resolving) aTLD.
Anauthoritativename server is a name server that only givesanswersto DNS queries from data that have been configured by an original source, for example, the domain administrator or by dynamic DNS methods, in contrast to answers obtained via a query to another name server that only maintains a cache of data.
An authoritative name server can either be aprimaryserver or asecondaryserver. Historically the termsmaster/slaveandprimary/secondarywere sometimes used interchangeably[28]but the current practice is to use the latter form. A primary server is a server that stores the original copies of all zone records. A secondary server uses a specialautomatic updating mechanismin the DNS protocol in communication with its primary to maintain an identical copy of the primary records.
Every DNS zone must be assigned a set of authoritative name servers. This set of servers is stored in the parent domain zone with name server (NS) records.
An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemedauthoritative, by setting a protocol flag, called the "Authoritative Answer" (AA)bitin its responses.[5]This flag is usually reproduced prominently in the output of DNS administration query tools, such asdig, to indicatethat the responding name server is an authority for the domain name in question.[5]
When a name server is designated as the authoritative server for a domain name for which it does not have authoritative data, it presents a type of error called a "lame delegation" or "lame response".[29][30]
Domain name resolvers determine the domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label.
For proper operation of its domain name resolver, a network host is configured with an initial cache (hints) of the known addresses of the root name servers. The hints are updated periodically by an administrator by retrieving a dataset from a reliable source.
Assuming the resolver has no cached records to accelerate the process, the resolution process starts with a query to one of the root servers. In typical operation, the root servers do not answer directly, but respond with a referral to more authoritative servers, e.g., a query for "www.wikipedia.org" is referred to theorgservers. The resolver now queries the servers referred to, and iteratively repeats this process until it receives an authoritative answer. The diagram illustrates this process for the host that is named by thefully qualified domain name"www.wikipedia.org".
This mechanism would place a large traffic burden on the root servers, if every resolution on the Internet required starting at the root. In practicecachingis used in DNS servers to off-load the root servers, and as a result, root name servers actually are involved in only a relatively small fraction of all requests.
In theory, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at theroot zoneof the Domain Name System and each user system would have to implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.[31]
To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the Internet, and increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (time-to-live) of the domain name record in question.
Typically, such caching DNS servers also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain. With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation.
The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory; the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes.
Internet service providerstypically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers. In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursion to improve efficiency in the local network.
Theclient sideof the DNS is called a DNS resolver. A resolver is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address. DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query methods, such asrecursive,non-recursive, anditerative. A resolution process may use a combination of these methods.[23]
In anon-recursive query, a DNS resolver queries a DNS server that provides a record either for which the server is authoritative, or it provides a partial result without querying other servers. In case of acaching DNS resolver, the non-recursive query of its localDNS cachedelivers a result and reduces the load on upstream DNS servers by caching DNS resource records for a period of time after an initial response from upstream DNS servers.
In arecursive query, a DNS resolver queries a single DNS server, which may in turn query other DNS servers on behalf of the requester. For example, a simple stub resolver running on ahome routertypically makes a recursive query to the DNS server run by the user'sISP. A recursive query is one for which the DNS server answers the query completely by querying other name servers as needed. In typical operation, a client issues a recursive query to a caching recursive DNS server, which subsequently issues non-recursive queries to determine the answer and send a single answer back to the client. The resolver, or another DNS server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver, negotiates use of recursive service using bits in the query headers. DNS servers are not required to support recursive queries.
Theiterative queryprocedure is a process in which a DNS resolver queries a chain of one or more DNS servers. Each server refers the client to the next server in the chain, until the current server can fully resolve the request. For example, a possible resolution of www.example.com would query a global root server, then a "com" server, and finally an "example.com" server.
Name servers in delegations are identified by name, rather than by IP address. This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS request to find out the IP address of the server to which it has been referred. If the name given in the delegation is a subdomain of the domain for which the delegation is being provided, there is acircular dependency.
In this case, the name server providing the delegation must also provide one or more IP addresses for theauthoritative name servermentioned in the delegation. This information is calledglue. The delegating name server provides this glue in the form of records in theadditional sectionof the DNS response, and provides the delegation in theauthority sectionof the response. A glue record is a combination of the name server and IP address.
For example, if theauthoritative name serverfor example.org is ns1.example.org, a computer trying to resolve www.example.org first resolves ns1.example.org. As ns1 is contained in example.org, this requires resolving example.org first, which presents a circular dependency. To break the dependency, the name server for thetop level domainorg includes glue along with the delegation for example.org. The glue records are address records that provide IP addresses for ns1.example.org. The resolver uses one or more of these IP addresses to query one of the domain's authoritative servers, which allows it to complete the DNS query.
A common approach to reduce the burden on DNS servers is to cache the results of name resolution locally or on intermediary resolver hosts. Each DNS query result comes with a time to live (TTL), which indicates how long the information remains valid before it needs to be discarded or refreshed. This TTL is determined by the administrator of the authoritative DNS server and can range from a few seconds to several days or even weeks.[32]
As a result of this distributed caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and to be refreshed after the TTL. RFC 1912 conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values.
Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to sixty-eight years or no caching at all.Negative caching, i.e. the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include theStart of Authority(SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists. The value of theminimumfield of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer.
Areverse DNS lookupis a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known. Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address. The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (PTR) records within the infrastructure top-level domainarpa. For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa. The IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6.
When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats before querying the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, assuming the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is assigned to Wikimedia, it is represented as a DNS name in reverse order: 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa. When the DNS resolver gets a pointer (PTR) request, it begins by querying the root servers, which point to the servers ofAmerican Registry for Internet Numbers(ARIN) for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone. ARIN's servers delegate 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa to Wikimedia to which the resolver sends another query for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response.
Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such asweb browsers,e-mail clients, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to theDNS resolverin the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.
The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowedDHCPto set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained name servers of the organization. In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlinedabove, until it either successfully finds a result or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.
Some large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules, such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.[33]
Some applications such as web browsers maintain an internal DNS cache to avoid repeated lookups via the network. This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues as it obscures the history of such data. These caches typically use very short caching times on the order of one minute.[34]
Internet Explorerrepresents a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default. Internet Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default timeout value to half an hour, which may be changed by modifying the default configuration.[35]
WhenGoogle Chromedetects issues with the DNS server it displays a specific error message.
The Domain Name System includes several other functions and features.
Hostnames and IP addresses are not required to match in a one-to-one relationship. Multiple hostnames may correspond to a single IP address, which is useful invirtual hosting, in which many web sites are served from a single host. Alternatively, a single hostname may resolve to many IP addresses to facilitatefault toleranceandload distributionto multiple server instances across an enterprise or the global Internet.
DNS serves other purposes in addition to translating names to IP addresses. For instance,mail transfer agentsuse DNS to find the best mail server to delivere-mail: AnMX recordprovides a mapping between a domain and a mail exchanger; this can provide an additional layer of fault tolerance and load distribution.
The DNS is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of block-listed email hosts. A common method is to place the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and to resolve that name to a record that indicates a positive or a negative indication.
For example:
E-mail servers can query blocklist.example to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the block list. Many such block lists, either subscription-based or free of cost, are available for use by email administrators and anti-spam software.
To provide resilience in the event of computer or network failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain. At the top level of global DNS, thirteen groups ofroot name serversexist, with additional "copies" of them distributed worldwide viaanycastaddressing.
Dynamic DNS(DDNS) updates a DNS server with a client IP address on-the-fly, for example, when moving between ISPs or mobilehot spots, or when the IP address changes administratively.
The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS messages, queries and responses; both have the same format. Each message consists of a header and four sections: question, answer, authority, and an additional space. A header field (flags) controls the content of these four sections.[23]
The header section consists of the following fields:Identification,Flags,Number of questions,Number of answers,Number of authority resource records(RRs), andNumber of additional RRs. Each field is 16 bits long, and appears in the order given. The identification field is used to match responses with queries.
After the flags word, the header ends with four 16-bit integers which contain the number of records in each of the sections that follow, in the same order.
The question section has a simpler format than the resource record format used in the other sections. Each question record (there is usually just one in the section) contains the following fields:
The domain name is broken into discrete labels which are concatenated; each label is prefixed by the length of that label.[37]
The Domain Name System specifies a database of information elements for network resources. The types of information elements are categorized and organized with alist of DNS record types, the resource records (RRs). Each record has a type (name and number), an expiration time (time to live), a class, and type-specific data. Resource records of the same type are described as aresource record set(RRset), having no special ordering. DNS resolvers return the entire set upon query, but servers may implementround-robin orderingto achieveload balancing. In contrast, theDomain Name System Security Extensions(DNSSEC) work on the complete set of resource record in canonical order.
When sent over anInternet Protocolnetwork, all records (answer, authority, and additional sections) use the common format specified in RFC 1035:[38]: §3
NAMEis the fully qualified domain name of the node in the tree.[clarification needed]On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name.
TYPEis the record type. It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use. For example, theArecord is used to translate from a domain name to anIPv4 address, theNSrecord lists which name servers can answer lookups on aDNS zone, and theMXrecord specifies the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an e-mail address.
RDATAis data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records. Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but "unknown" record types must not (RFC 3597).
TheCLASSof a record is set to IN (forInternet) for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses. In addition, the classesChaos(CH) andHesiod(HS) exist.[38]: 11Each class is an independent name space with potentially different delegations of DNS zones.
In addition to resource records defined in azone file, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes (on the wire), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or forEDNS(OPT).
The domain name system supportswildcard DNS recordswhich specify names that start with theasterisk label,*, e.g.,*.example.[23][39]DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants. For example, in the following configuration, the DNS zonex.examplespecifies that all subdomains, including subdomains of subdomains, ofx.exampleuse the mail exchanger (MX)a.x.example. The AAAA record fora.x.exampleis needed to specify the mail exchanger IP address. As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, an additional MX record for the subdomaina.x.example, as well as a wildcarded MX record for all of its subdomains, must also be defined in the DNS zone.
The role of wildcard records was refined inRFC4592, because the original definition inRFC1034was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers.[39]
The original DNS protocol had limited provisions for extension with new features. In 1999, Paul Vixie published in RFC 2671 (superseded by RFC 6891) an extension mechanism, calledExtension Mechanisms for DNS(EDNS) that introduced optional protocol elements without increasing overhead when not in use. This was accomplished through the OPT pseudo-resource record that only exists in wire transmissions of the protocol, but not in any zone files. Initial extensions were also suggested (EDNS0), such as increasing the DNS message size in UDP datagrams.
Dynamic DNS updatesuse the UPDATE DNS opcode to add or remove resource records dynamically from a zone database maintained on an authoritative DNS server.[40]This facility is useful to register network clients into the DNS when they boot or become otherwise available on the network. As a booting client may be assigned a different IP address each time from aDHCPserver, it is not possible to provide static DNS assignments for such clients.
From the time of its origin in 1983 the DNS has used theUser Datagram Protocol(UDP) for transport over IP. Its limitations have motivated numerous protocol developments for reliability, security, privacy, and other criteria, in the following decades.
DNS over TLSemerged as an IETF standard for encrypted DNS in 2016, utilizing Transport Layer Security (TLS) to protect the entire connection, rather than just the DNS payload. DoT servers listen on TCP port 853.RFC7858specifies that opportunistic encryption and authenticated encryption may be supported, but did not make either server or client authentication mandatory.
DNS over HTTPSwas developed as a competing standard for DNS query transport in 2018, tunneling DNS query data over HTTPS, which transports HTTP over TLS. DoH was promoted as a more web-friendly alternative to DNS since, like DNSCrypt, it uses TCP port 443, and thus looks similar to web traffic, though they are easily differentiable in practice without proper padding.[42]
RFC 9250, published in 2022 by theInternet Engineering Task Force, describes DNS overQUIC. It has "privacy properties similar to DNS over TLS (DoT) [...], and latency characteristics similar to classic DNS over UDP". This method is not the same as DNS overHTTP/3.[43]
Oblivious DNS (ODNS) was invented and implemented by researchers atPrinceton Universityand theUniversity of Chicagoas an extension to unencrypted DNS,[44]before DoH was standardized and widely deployed. Apple and Cloudflare subsequently deployed the technology in the context of DoH, as Oblivious DoH (ODoH).[45]ODoH combines ingress/egress separation (invented in ODNS) with DoH's HTTPS tunneling and TLS transport-layer encryption in a single protocol.[46]
DNS may be run overvirtual private networks(VPNs) andtunneling protocols. The privacy gains of Oblivious DNS can be garnered through the use of the preexistingTornetwork of ingress and egress nodes, paired with the transport-layer encryption provided by TLS.[47]
TheDNSCryptprotocol, which was developed in 2011 outside theIETFstandards framework, introduced DNS encryption on the downstream side of recursive resolvers, wherein clients encrypt query payloads using servers' public keys, which are published in the DNS (rather than relying upon third-party certificate authorities) and which may in turn be protected byDNSSECsignatures.[48]DNSCrypt uses either TCP port 443, the same port asHTTPSencrypted web traffic, or UDP port 443. This introduced not only privacy regarding the content of the query, but also a significant measure of firewall-traversal capability. In 2019, DNSCrypt was further extended to support an "anonymized" mode, similar to the proposed "Oblivious DNS", in which an ingress node receives a query which has been encrypted with the public key of a different server, and relays it to that server, which acts as an egress node, performing the recursive resolution.[49]Privacy of user/query pairs is created, since the ingress node does not know the content of the query, while the egress nodes does not know the identity of the client. DNSCrypt was first implemented in production byOpenDNSin December 2011. There are several free and open source software implementations that additionally integrate ODoH.[50]It is available for a variety of operating systems, including Unix, Apple iOS, Linux, Android, and Windows.
Originally, security concerns were not major design considerations for DNS software or any software for deployment on the early Internet, as the network was not open for participation by the general public. However, the expansion of the Internet into the commercial sector in the 1990s changed the requirements for security measures to protectdata integrityand userauthentication.
Several vulnerability issues were discovered and exploited by malicious users. One such issue isDNS cache poisoning, in which data is distributed to caching resolvers under the pretense of being an authoritative origin server, thereby polluting the data store with potentially false information and long expiration times (time-to-live). Subsequently, legitimate application requests may be redirected to network hosts operated with malicious intent.
DNS responses traditionally do not have acryptographic signature, leading to many attack possibilities; theDomain Name System Security Extensions(DNSSEC) modify DNS to add support for cryptographically signed responses.[51]DNSCurvehas been proposed as an alternative to DNSSEC. Other extensions, such asTSIG, add support for cryptographic authentication between trusted peers and are commonly used to authorize zone transfer or dynamic update operations.
Techniques such asforward-confirmed reverse DNScan also be used to help validate DNS results.
DNS can also "leak" from otherwise secure or private connections, if attention is not paid to their configuration, and at times DNS has been used to bypass firewalls by malicious persons, andexfiltratedata, since it is often seen as innocuous.
Some domain names may be used to achieve spoofing effects. For example,paypal.comandpaypa1.comare different names, yet users may be unable to distinguish them in a graphical user interface depending on the user's chosentypeface. In many fonts the letterland the numeral1look very similar or even identical. This problem, known as theIDN homograph attack, is acute in systems that supportinternationalized domain names, as many character codes inISO 10646may appear identical on typical computer screens. This vulnerability is occasionally exploited inphishing.[52]
DNSMessenger[53][54][55][56]is a type of cyber attack technique that uses the DNS to communicate and control malware remotely without relying on conventional protocols that might raise red flags. The DNSMessenger attack is covert because DNS is primarily used for domain name resolution and is often not closely monitored by network security tools, making it an effective channel for attackers to exploit.
This technique involves the use of DNS TXT records to send commands to infected systems. Once malware has been surreptitiously installed on a victim's machine, it reaches out to a controlled domain to retrieve commands encoded in DNS text records. This form of malware communication is stealthy, as DNS requests are usually allowed through firewalls, and because DNS traffic is often seen as benign, these communications can bypass many network security defenses.
DNSMessenger attacks can enable a wide array of malicious activities, from data exfiltration to the delivery of additional payloads, all while remaining under the radar of traditional network security measures. Understanding and defending against such methods are crucial for maintaining robust cybersecurity.
Originally designed as a public, hierarchical, distributed and heavily cached database, the DNS protocol has no confidentiality controls. User queries and nameserver responses are sent unencrypted, enablingnetwork packet sniffing,DNS hijacking,DNS cache poisoningandman-in-the-middle attacks. This deficiency is commonly used by cybercriminals and network operators for marketing purposes, user authentication oncaptive portalsandcensorship.[57]
User privacy is further exposed by proposals for increasing the level of client IP information in DNS queries (RFC 7871) for the benefit ofcontent delivery networks.
The main approaches that are in use to counter privacy issues with DNS include:
Solutions preventing DNS inspection by the local network operator have been criticized for thwarting corporate network security policies and Internet censorship. Public DNS servers are also criticized for contributing to the centralization of the Internet by placing control over DNS resolution in the hands of the few large companies which can afford to run public resolvers.[57]
Google is the dominant provider of the platform inAndroid, the browser in Chrome, and the DNS resolver in the 8.8.8.8 service. Would this scenario be a case of a single corporate entity being in a position of overarching control of the entire namespace of the Internet?Netflixalready fielded an app that used its own DNS resolution mechanism independent of the platform upon which the app was running. What if theFacebookapp included DoH? What ifApple'siOSused a DoH-resolution mechanism to bypass local DNS resolution and steer all DNS queries from Apple's platforms to a set of Apple-operated name resolvers?
The right to use a domain name is delegated bydomain name registrarswhich are accredited by theInternet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN) or other organizations such asOpenNIC, that are charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization, operating a registry. Aregistryis responsible for operating the database of names within its authoritative zone, although the term is most often used for TLDs. Aregistrantis a person or organization who asked for domain registration.[24]The registry receives registration information from each domain nameregistrar, which is authorized (accredited) to assign names in the corresponding zone and publishes the information using theWHOISprotocol. As of 2015, usage ofRDAPis being considered.[58]
ICANN publishes the complete list of TLDs, TLD registries, and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS service. For most of the more than 290country code top-level domains(ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information. For instance,DENIC, Germany NIC, holds the DE domain data. From about 2001, mostGeneric top-level domain(gTLD) registries have adopted this so-calledthickregistry approach, i.e. keeping the WHOIS data in central registries instead of registrar databases.
For top-level domains on COM and NET, athinregistry model is used. The domain registry (e.g.,GoDaddy,BigRock and PDR,VeriSign, etc., etc.) holds basic WHOIS data (i.e., registrar and name servers, etc.). Organizations, or registrants using ORG on the other hand, are on thePublic Interest Registryexclusively.
Some domain name registries, often callednetwork information centers(NIC), also function as registrars to end-users, in addition to providing access to the WHOIS datasets. The top-level domain registries, such as for the domains COM, NET, and ORG use a registry-registrar model consisting of many domain name registrars.[59]In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. Theregistrants(users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional subcontracting of resellers.
These RFCs are advisory in nature, but may provide useful information despite defining neither a standard or BCP.[1]
These RFCs have an official status ofUnknown, but due to their age are not clearly labeled as such.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System
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In theInternet, adomain nameis astringthat identifies a realm of administrative autonomy, authority or control. Domain names are often used to identify services provided through the Internet, such aswebsites,emailservices and more. Domain names are used in various networking contexts and for application-specific naming and addressing purposes. In general, a domain name identifies anetwork domainor anInternet Protocol(IP) resource, such as a personal computer used to access the Internet, or a server computer.
Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of theDomain Name System(DNS). Any name registered in the DNS is a domain name. Domain names are organized in subordinate levels (subdomains) of theDNS rootdomain, which is nameless. The first-level set of domain names are thetop-level domains(TLDs), including thegeneric top-level domains(gTLDs), such as the prominent domainscom,info,net,edu, andorg, and thecountry code top-level domains(ccTLDs). Below these top-level domains in the DNS hierarchy are the second-level and third-level domain names that are typically open for reservation by end-users who wish to connect local area networks to the Internet, create other publicly accessible Internet resources or run websites, such as "wikipedia.org".
The registration of a second- or third-level domain name is usually administered by adomain name registrarwho sell its services to the public.
Afully qualified domain name(FQDN) is a domain name that is completely specified with all labels in the hierarchy of the DNS, having no parts omitted. Traditionally a FQDN ends in a dot (.) to denote the top of the DNS tree.[1]Labels in the Domain Name System arecase-insensitive, and may therefore be written in any desired capitalization method, but most commonly domain names are written in lowercase in technical contexts.[2]Ahostnameis a domain name that has at least one associatedIP address.
Domain names serve to identify Internet resources, such as computers, networks, and services, with a text-based label that is easier to memorize than the numerical addresses used in the Internet protocols. A domain name may represent entire collections of such resources or individual instances. Individual Internet host computers use domain names as host identifiers, also calledhostnames. The termhostnameis also used for the leaf labels in the domain name system, usually without further subordinate domain name space. Hostnames appear as a component inUniform Resource Locators(URLs) for Internet resources such aswebsites(e.g., en.wikipedia.org).
Domain names are also used as simple identification labels to indicate ownership or control of a resource. Such examples are the realm identifiers used in theSession Initiation Protocol(SIP), theDomain Keysused to verify DNS domains ine-mailsystems, and in many otherUniform Resource Identifiers(URIs).
An important function of domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable names to numericallyaddressedInternet resources. This abstraction allows any resource to be moved to a different physical location in the address topology of the network, globally or locally in anintranet. Such a move usually requires changing the IP address of a resource and the corresponding translation of this IP address to and from its domain name.
Domain names are used to establish a unique identity. Organizations can choose a domain name that corresponds to their name, helping Internet users to reach them easily.
A generic domain is a name that defines a general category, rather than a specific or personal instance, for example, the name of an industry, rather than a company name. Some examples of generic names arebooks.com,music.com, andtravel.info. Companies have created brands based on generic names, and such generic domain names may be valuable.[3]
Domain names are often simply referred to asdomainsand domain name registrants are frequently referred to asdomain owners, although domain name registration with a registrar does not confer any legal ownership of the domain name, only an exclusive right of use for a particular duration of time. The use of domain names in commerce may subject them totrademark law.
The practice of using a simple memorable abstraction of a host's numerical address on a computer network dates back to theARPANETera, before the advent of today's commercial Internet. In the early network, each computer on the network retrieved the hosts file (host.txt) from a computer at SRI (nowSRI International),[4][5]which mapped computer hostnames to numerical addresses. The rapid growth of the network made it impossible to maintain a centrally organized hostname registry and in 1983 the Domain Name System was introduced on the ARPANET and published by theInternet Engineering Task Forceas RFC 882 and RFC 883.
The following table shows the first five.comdomains with the dates of their registration:[6]
and the first five.edudomains:[7]
Today, theInternet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN) manages the top-level development and architecture of the Internet domain name space. It authorizesdomain name registrars, through which domain names may be registered and reassigned.
The domain name space consists of atreeof domain names. Each node in the tree holds information associated with the domain name. The tree sub-divides intozonesbeginning at theDNS root zone.
A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically calledlabels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such asexample.com.
When the Domain Name System was devised in the 1980s, the domain name space was divided into two main groups of domains.[9]Thecountry code top-level domains(ccTLD) were primarily based on the two-character territory codes ofISO-3166country abbreviations. In addition, a group of sevengeneric top-level domains(gTLD) was implemented which represented a set of categories of names and multi-organizations.[10]These were the domainsgov,edu,com,mil,org,net, andint. These two types oftop-level domains(TLDs) are the highest level of domain names of the Internet. Top-level domains form theDNS root zoneof the hierarchicalDomain Name System. Every domain name ends with a top-level domain label.
During the growth of the Internet, it became desirable to create additional generic top-level domains. As of October 2009, 21 generic top-level domains and 250 two-letter country-code top-level domains existed.[11]In addition, theARPAdomain serves technical purposes in the infrastructure of the Domain Name System.
During the 32nd International Public ICANN Meeting in Paris in 2008,[12]ICANN started a new process of TLD naming policy to take a "significant step forward on the introduction of new generic top-level domains." This program envisions the availability of many new or already proposed domains, as well as a new application and implementation process.[13]Observers believed that the new rules could result in hundreds of new top-level domains to be registered.[14]In 2012, the program commenced, and received 1930 applications.[15]By 2016, the milestone of 1000 live gTLD was reached.
TheInternet Assigned Numbers Authority(IANA) maintains an annotated list of top-level domains in theDNS root zonedatabase.[16]
For special purposes, such as network testing, documentation, and other applications, IANA also reserves a set of special-use domain names.[17]This list contains domain names such asexample,local,localhost, andtest. Other top-level domain names containing trade marks are registered for corporate use. Cases include brands such asBMW,Google, andCanon.[18]
Below the top-level domains in the domain name hierarchy are thesecond-level domain(SLD) names. These are the names directly to the left of .com, .net, and the other top-level domains. As an example, in the domainexample.co.uk,cois the second-level domain.
Next are third-level domains, which are written immediately to the left of a second-level domain. There can be fourth- and fifth-level domains, and so on, with virtually no limitation. Each label is separated by afull stop(dot). An example of an operational domain name with four levels of domain labels issos.state.oh.us. 'sos' is said to be a sub-domain of 'state.oh.us', and 'state' a sub-domain of 'oh.us', etc. In general,subdomainsare domains subordinate to their parent domain. An example of very deep levels of subdomain ordering are theIPv6reverse resolutionDNS zones, e.g., 1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa, which is the reverse DNS resolution domain name for the IP address of aloopbackinterface, or thelocalhostname.
Second-level (or lower-level, depending on the established parent hierarchy) domain names are often created based on the name of a company (e.g.,bbc.co.uk), product or service (e.g.hotmail.com). Below these levels, the next domain name component has been used to designate a particular host server. Therefore,ftp.example.commight be an FTP server,www.example.comwould be aWorld Wide Webserver, andmail.example.comcould be an email server, each intended to perform only the implied function. Modern technology allows multiple physical servers with either different (cf.load balancing) or even identical addresses (cf.anycast) to serve a single hostname or domain name, or multiple domain names to be served by a single computer. The latter is very popular inWeb hosting servicecenters, where service providers host the websites of many organizations on just a few servers.
The hierarchicalDNS labelsor components of domain names are separated in a fully qualified name by thefull stop(dot,.).
The character set allowed in the Domain Name System is based onASCIIand does not allow the representation of names and words of many languages in their native scripts or alphabets.ICANNapproved theInternationalized domain name(IDNA) system, which mapsUnicodestrings used in application user interfaces into the valid DNS character set by an encoding calledPunycode. For example, københavn.eu is mapped to xn--kbenhavn-54a.eu. Manyregistrieshave adopted IDNA.
The first commercial Internet domain name, in the TLDcom, was registered on 15 March 1985 in the namesymbolics.comby Symbolics Inc., a computer systems firm in Massachusetts.[19][20]
By 1992, fewer than 15,000comdomains had been registered.
In the first quarter of 2015, 294 million domain names had been registered.[21]A large fraction of them are in thecomTLD, which as of December 21, 2014, had 115.6 million domain names,[22]including 11.9 million online business and e-commerce sites, 4.3 million entertainment sites, 3.1 million finance related sites, and 1.8 million sports sites.[23]As of July 15, 2012, thecomTLD had more registrations than all of the ccTLDs combined.[24]
As of December 31, 2023,[update]359.8 million domain names had been registered.[25]
The right to use a domain name is delegated bydomain name registrars, which are accredited by theInternet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN), the organization charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization operating a registry. A registry is responsible for maintaining the database of names registered within the TLD it administers. The registry receives registration information from each domain name registrar authorized to assign names in the corresponding TLD and publishes the information using a special service, theWHOISprotocol.
Registries and registrars usually charge an annual fee for the service of delegating a domain name to a user and providing a default set of name servers. Often, this transaction is termed a sale or lease of the domain name, and the registrant may sometimes be called an "owner", but no such legal relationship is actually associated with the transaction, only the exclusive right to use the domain name. More correctly, authorized users are known as "registrants" or as "domain holders".
ICANN publishes the complete list of TLD registries and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS protocol. For most of the 250country code top-level domains(ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information.
Some domain name registries, often callednetwork information centers(NIC), also function as registrars to end-users. The major generic top-level domain registries, such as for thecom,net,org,infodomains and others, use a registry-registrar model consisting of hundreds of domain name registrars (see lists at ICANN[26]or VeriSign).[27]In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. Theregistrants(users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional layers of resellers.
There are also a few otheralternative DNS rootproviders that try to compete or complement ICANN's role of domain name administration, however, most of them failed to receive wide recognition, and thus domain names offered by those alternative roots cannot be used universally on most other internet-connecting machines without additional dedicated configurations.
In the process of registering a domain name and maintaining authority over the new name space created, registrars use several key pieces of information connected with a domain:
A domain name consists of one or more labels, each of which is formed from the set of ASCII letters, digits, and hyphens (a–z, A–Z, 0–9, -), but not starting or ending with a hyphen. The labels are case-insensitive; for example, 'label' is equivalent to 'Label' or 'LABEL'. In the textual representation of a domain name, the labels are separated by afull stop(period).
Domain names are often seen in analogy toreal estatein that domain names are foundations on which a website can be built, and the highestqualitydomain names, like sought-after real estate, tend to carry significant value, usually due to their online brand-building potential, use in advertising,search engine optimization, and many other criteria.
A few companies have offered low-cost, below-cost, or even free domain registration with a variety of models adopted to recoup the costs to the provider. These usually require that domains be hosted on their website within a framework or portal that includes advertising wrapped around the domain holder's content, revenue from which allows the provider to recoup the costs. Domain registrations were free of charge when the DNS was new. A domain holder may provide an infinite number ofsubdomainsin their domain. For example, the owner of example.org could provide subdomains such as foo.example.org and foo.bar.example.org to interested parties.
Many desirable domain names are already assigned and users must search for other acceptable names, using Web-based search features, orWHOISanddigoperating system tools. Many registrars have implementeddomain name suggestiontools which search domain name databases and suggest available alternative domain names related to keywords provided by the user.
The business of resale of registered domain names is known as thedomain aftermarket. Various factors influence the perceived value or market value of a domain name. Most of the high-prize domain sales are carried out privately.[28]Also, it is called confidential domain acquiring or anonymous domain acquiring.[29]
Intercappingis often used to emphasize the meaning of a domain name, because DNS names are not case-sensitive. Some names may be misinterpreted in certain uses of capitalization. For example:Who Represents, a database of artists and agents, chosewhorepresents.com,[30]which can be misread. In such situations, the proper meaning may be clarified by placement of hyphens when registering a domain name. For instance,Experts Exchange, a programmers' discussion site, usedexpertsexchange.com, but changed its domain name toexperts-exchange.com.[31]
The domain name is a component of auniform resource locator(URL) used to accesswebsites, for example:
A domain name may point to multipleIP addressesto provide server redundancy for the services offered, a feature that is used to manage the traffic of large, popular websites.
Web hosting services, on the other hand, run servers that are typically assigned only one or a few addresses while serving websites for many domains, a technique referred to asvirtual web hosting. Such IP address overloading requires that each request identifies the domain name being referenced, for instance by using theHTTP request header fieldHost:, orServer Name Indication.
Critics often claim abuse of administrative power over domain names. Particularly noteworthy was the VeriSignSite Findersystem which redirected all unregistered .com and .net domains to a VeriSign webpage. For example, at a public meeting withVeriSignto air technical concerns aboutSite Finder,[32]numerous people, active in theIETFand other technical bodies, explained how they were surprised by VeriSign's changing the fundamental behavior of a major component of Internet infrastructure, not having obtained the customary consensus. Site Finder, at first, assumed every Internet query was for a website, and it monetized queries for incorrect domain names, taking the user to VeriSign's search site. Other applications, such as many implementations of email, treat a lack of response to a domain name query as an indication that the domain does not exist, and that the message can be treated as undeliverable. The original VeriSign implementation broke this assumption for mail, because it would always resolve an erroneous domain name to that of Site Finder. While VeriSign later changed Site Finder's behaviour with regard to email, there was still widespread protest about VeriSign's action being more in its financial interest than in the interest of the Internet infrastructure component for which VeriSign was the steward.
Despite widespread criticism, VeriSign only reluctantly removed it after theInternet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN) threatened to revoke its contract to administer the root name servers. ICANN published the extensive set of letters exchanged, committee reports, and ICANN decisions.[33]
There is also significant disquiet regarding the United States Government's political influence over ICANN. This was a significant issue in the attempt to create a.xxxtop-level domainand sparked greater interest inalternative DNS rootsthat would be beyond the control of any single country.[34]
Additionally, there are numerous accusations ofdomain name front running, whereby registrars, when given whois queries, automatically register the domain name for themselves. Network Solutions has been accused of this.[35]
In the United States, theTruth in Domain Names Actof 2003, in combination with thePROTECT Act of 2003, forbids the use of a misleading domain name with the intention of attracting Internet users into visitingInternet pornographysites.
The Truth in Domain Names Act follows the more generalAnticybersquatting Consumer Protection Actpassed in 1999 aimed at preventingtyposquattingand deceptive use of names and trademarks in domain names.
In the early 21st century, the US Department of Justice (DOJ) pursued theseizureof domain names, based on the legal theory that domain names constitute property used to engage in criminal activity, and thus are subject toforfeiture. For example, in the seizure of the domain name of a gambling website, the DOJ referenced18 U.S.C.§ 981and18 U.S.C.§ 1955(d).[36][1]In 2013 the US government seizedLiberty Reserve, citing18 U.S.C.§ 982(a)(1).[37]
The U.S. Congress passed theCombating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Actin 2010. Consumer Electronics Association vice president Michael Petricone was worried that seizure was ablunt instrumentthat could harm legitimate businesses.[38][39]After a joint operation on February 15, 2011, the DOJ and the Department of Homeland Security claimed to have seized ten domains of websites involved in advertising and distributing child pornography, but also mistakenly seized the domain name of a large DNS provider, temporarily replacing 84,000 websites with seizure notices.[40]
In theUnited Kingdom, thePolice Intellectual Property Crime Unit(PIPCU) has been attempting to seize domain names from registrars without court orders.[41]
PIPCU and other UK law enforcement organisations make domain suspension requests toNominetwhich they process on the basis of breach of terms and conditions. Around 16,000 domains are suspended annually, and about 80% of the requests originate from PIPCU.[42]
Because of the economic value it represents, theEuropean Court of Human Rightshas ruled that the exclusive right to a domain name is protected as property under article 1 of Protocol 1 to theEuropean Convention on Human Rights.[43]
ICANNBusiness Constituency (BC) has spent decades trying to make IDN variants work at the second level, and in the last several years at the top level. Domain name variants are domain names recognized in different character encodings, like a single domain presented intraditional Chineseandsimplified Chinese. It is anInternationalization and localizationproblem. Under Domain Name Variants, the different encodings of the domain name (in simplified and traditional Chinese) would resolve to the same host.[44][45]
According toJohn Levine, an expert on Internet related topics, "Unfortunately, variants don't work. The problem isn't putting them in the DNS, it's that once they're in the DNS, they don't work anywhere else."[44]
Afictitious domain nameis a domain name used in a work of fiction or popular culture to refer to a domain that does not actually exist, often with invalid or unofficialtop-level domainssuch as ".web", a usage exactly analogous to the dummy555 telephone number prefixused in film and other media. The canonical fictitious domain name is "example.com", specifically set aside by IANA in RFC 2606 for such use, along with the.exampleTLD.
Domain names used in works of fiction have often been registered in the DNS, either by their creators or bycybersquattersattempting to profit from it. This phenomenon promptedNBCto purchase the domain nameHornymanatee.comafter talk-show hostConan O'Brienspoke the name while ad-libbing onhis show. O'Brien subsequently created a website based on the concept and used it as arunning gagon the show.[46]Companies whose works have used fictitious domain names have also employed firms such asMarkMonitorto park fictional domain names in order to prevent misuse by third parties.[47]
Misspelled domain names, also known astyposquattingorURL hijacking, are domain names that are intentionally or unintentionally misspelled versions of popular or well-known domain names. The goal of misspelled domain names is to capitalize on internet users who accidentally type in a misspelled domain name, and are then redirected to a different website.
Misspelled domain names are often used for malicious purposes, such asphishingscams or distributingmalware. In some cases, the owners of misspelled domain names may also attempt to sell the domain names to the owners of the legitimate domain names, or to individuals or organizations who are interested in capitalizing on the traffic generated by internet users who accidentally type in the misspelled domain names.
To avoid being caught by a misspelled domain name, internet users should be careful to type in domain names correctly, and should avoid clicking on links that appear suspicious or unfamiliar. Additionally, individuals and organizations who own popular or well-known domain names should consider registering common misspellings of their domain names in order to prevent others from using them for malicious purposes.
The termDomain name spoofing(or simply though less accurately,Domain spoofing) is used generically to describe one or more of a class ofphishingattacks that depend on falsifying or misrepresenting an internet domain name.[48][49]These are designed to persuade unsuspecting users into visiting a web site other than that intended, or opening an email that is not in reality from the address shown (or apparently shown).[50]Although website and email spoofing attacks are more widely known, any service that relies ondomain name resolutionmay be compromised.
There are a number of better-known types of domain spoofing:
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Adoppelganger domainis adomainthat is spelled identically to a legitimatefully qualified domain name(FQDN) but missing the dot betweenhost/subdomainand domain, to be used for malicious purposes.
Typosquatting's traditionalattack vectoris through the web to distributemalwareor harvest credentials. Other vectors such as email andremote access servicessuch asSSH,RDP, andVPNalso can be leveraged. In awhitepaperby Godai Group on doppelganger domains, they demonstrated that numerous emails can be harvested without anyone noticing.[1]
For example, foremail address"ktrout@finance.corpudyne.com", the doppelganger domain would be "financecorpudyne.com"; hence, anemailaccidentally addressed to "ktrout@financecorpudyne.com" (i.e.with the dot between "finance" and "corpudyne" having accidentally been omitted) would go to the doppelganger domain rather than to the legitimate user.
This Internet-related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
Thismalware-related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
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Amisdialed callorwrong numberis atelephone callortext messageto an incorrecttelephone number. This may occur because the number has been physically misdialed, the number is simply incorrect, or because thearea codeor ownership of the number has changed. InNorth America,toll-free numbersare a frequent source of wrong numbers because they often have a history of prior ownership.[1]In theUnited Kingdom, many misdialed calls have been due topublic confusionover the dialing codes for some areas.[2][3]
Therecipientof a wrong number is usually unknown to thecaller. This aspect has been used insocial scienceexperiments designed to study the willingness of people to help strangers, and the extent to which this is affected by characteristics such asrace. This experimental method is known as the "wrong-number technique".[4]
The Emily Post Instituterecommends that the recipient of atext messageto a misdialed number respond with, "Sorry, wrong number."[5]A fraud expert recommends not responding or engaging at all with messages from unknown numbers, to avoidtext message scamsthat start with an innocent-looking message from a stranger.[6]
On alandline, wrong numbers incur no toll for the recipient but do represent the annoyance of answering an unwanted call. This may be problematic forshift workerswho are asleep during the day. Oncellphonesin countries where mobile plans charge for incoming calls, a wrong number may cost the subscriber one or more minutes.
Sources of misdialled calls are similar to sources oftypographical error:
The use of local telephone numbers in mainstream fictional works is problematic as the number will often belong to one or more real subscribers in various otherarea codes. Well-known fictional numbers like867-5309(Jenny's number, from a popular 1982 song) and 776-2323 (God's number in the 2003 cinema release ofBruce Almighty) continue to receive misdialled calls years later.
This is often avoided by using reserved or invalid numbers (such as555 (telephone number)), or by displaying a real area code and number which belongs to the publisher of the fictional work.
Inadvertent calls toemergency telephone numbersare problematic as, if the dispatcher is uncertain of the nature of a presumed emergency, police are rapidly dispatched to the address on anenhanced 9-1-1or 1-1-2 call.[7]Most often, these calls tie up resources which need to be available for emergency response - especially if the caller is silent or disconnects the call without acknowledging the error. InRaleigh, North Carolina, a 2012 change which forced subscribers to dialthe 919 area codeon local calls caused a 20% increase in total calls to9-1-1, a result of frequent misdials.[8]
Misdialled calls are problematic fortoll-free telephone numbersubscribers, who must pay long-distance tolls to receive the calls and pay staff to answer misdirected enquiries. A small, local business whose toll-free number differs in one digit from a large national franchise will typically receive multiple misdialled calls daily.
In some cases, commercial rivals have engaged in wilfultyposquattingto profit from misdial traffic. If 1-800-HOLIDAY (+1-800-465-4329) isHoliday Inn, an unscrupulous vendor could register 1-800-H0LIDAY (+1-800-405-4329, the same number with 'o' replaced by 'zero'), resell bookings for rooms in the same or a rival hotel and collect a profitabletravel agent's commission.[9]
Some franchise chains have resorted to the defensive registration of complementary numbers, the commonly misdialled variants of their main number, as a defense against the typosquatters.
A similar issue exists with toll-free number hoarding. One marketer can create multiple shell companies to operate asRespOrgsand register toll-free numbers as soon as their previous users disconnect service. Callers to millions of these numbers are connected not to the desired party but to an advertisement, such as thePrimeTel Communicationspromotions for costlyphone sexnumbers.[10]By tying up millions of easily remembered numbers, these schemes force businesses to useoverlay planarea codes or numbers withoutmnemonicphonewords.
Deployment of multiple toll-free area codes further increases the probability of misdial calls as a common wrong number pattern is to call the +1-800- version of a number which is actually in another area code. In 2009,General Motorsadvertised +1-877-CLUNKER (1-877-258-6537) to promote a $3 billion U.S. federal"cash for clunkers"program. Judy Van Fossan of The Flower Corner inClinton, Illinois, a tiny local shop which owned 1-800-CLUNKER (+1-800-258-6537), was inundated with more than 150 wrong numbers daily.[11]As of 2013, this florist is advertising a local number only;[12]as the vehiclescrappage programended in 2009, the abandoned +1-800/888/877 CLUNKERphonewordsare now typosquatted as Primetel numbers.[13]
While prohibitions on hoarding, brokering and warehousing numbers exist both in the US (under FCC regulations) and Australia (under ACMA) enforcement has been non-existent except in the most egregious cases, such as registering distinctive phone-words (like +1-800-RED-CROSS) in order to attempt to sell or lease the numbers to the named organization or its local chapters.[14]
In the 2020s,mobile phone spammershave used ostensibly misdirectedtext messagesto attractpig butchering scamvictims. A con artist sends out a large number of apparently innocent messages to a large number of people. When a person responds saying that the message was sent in error, the con artist apologizes, then introduces themselves, and begins along conto gain the text recipient's confidence. Between late 2021 and mid-2022, the FBI estimates that text message scams had cost 244 victims a total of US$42.7 million tocryptocurrency fraud.[15]Some wrong-number text message scammers areforced laborers in Southeast Asia.[16]
Misdialled calls serve as a plot device in 1948 filmSorry, Wrong Number, in television such as in theDad's Armyepisode "Sorry, Wrong Number" and in theSeinfeldepisode "The Pool Guy". They are also used on theTouch-Tone Terroristsprank call CD series. They also figure in the name ofHotline Miami 2: Wrong Numbertop-down action game byDennaton Games.
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Phonewordsaremnemonicphrases represented asalphanumericequivalents of atelephone number.[1]In many countries, the digits on thetelephone keypadalso have letters assigned. By replacing the digits of a telephone number with the corresponding letters, it is sometimes possible to form a whole or partial word, anacronym, abbreviation, or some other alphanumeric combination.
Phonewords are the most commonvanity numbers, although a few all-numeric vanity phone numbers are used.Toll-free telephone numbersare often branded using phonewords; some firms use easily memorable vanity telephone numbers like1-800 Contacts,1-800-Flowers, 1-866-RING-RING, or1-800-GOT-JUNK?as brands for flagship products or names for entire companies.
Local numbers are also occasionally used, such as +1-514-AUTOBUS orSTM-INFOto reach theSociété de transport de Montréal,[2]but are constrained by the fact that the first few digits are tied to a geographic location, potentially limiting the available choices based on whichtelephone exchangesserve a local area.
The main advantages of phonewords over standard phone numbers include increased memorability and increased response rates to advertising. They are easier to remember than numeric phone numbers; thus, when businesses use them as a direct response tool in their advertising (radio, television, print, outdoor, etc.), their memorability tends to have a favorable effect on response rates. Regular side-by-side testing of phonewords and phone numbers in TV and radio advertising in Australia has shown that phonewords generate up to twice as many calls as standard phone numbers.[citation needed]A study conducted byRoy Morgan Researchin February 2006 indicated that 92% of Australians were familiar with alphanumeric dialling.[3]
In the age of advanced mobile devices, there is some disadvantage in using phonewords. Devices with physical keyboards such asBlackBerryand some othersmartphonesdo not have the apportioned letters on the keys used for dialing, so one is unable to do alphabetic dialing without some other cross-reference to the actual phone number. This can be overcome by phonewords also being accompanied by the actual numeric phone number, allowing users of such smartphones to dial using the numeric phone number.
However, devices which have virtual keyboards, includingiOSandAndroiddevices, will translate phoneword phone numbers in webpages andSMSmessages to their proper digits within ahyperlinkleading to that device's phone app, and their keypads show the appropriate local mapping of letters within their virtual dialpad.
Some models of smartphones allow the user to enter letters into the device’s dialing window to allow the completion of phonewords. Numerous Blackberry models allow this feature by using the ALT key when pressing a key to select the letter, and not the number on the key.
On older landline telephones, the O, Q and Z sometimes vary in placement or are omitted entirely; this is not an issue for most mobile telephones as all 26 letters must be provided to supportshort message servicetransmission.
The dialing of 1 or 0 instead of I or O in phonewords can lead tomisdialed calls; one suchtyposquattingincident targeted 1-800-HOLIDAY (+1-800-465-4329, the toll-free direct reservations line forHoliday Inn) by subscribing 1-800-H0LIDAY (+1-800-405-4329, the same number with 'o' replaced by 'zero') to a rival vendor which stood to collect a profitabletravel agent's commission.[4]
Phonewords were officially introduced into Australia following the release of the appropriate number ranges by theAustralian Communications and Media Authority[5]in August 2004.[6]The ACMA markets the rights of use to the phonewords (also referred to as smartnumbers) via an online auction.[7]
Some phonewords have sold for as much as A$1 million with 13TAXI raising A$1,005,000. Proposed ranges for reserve prices for SmartNumbersTM are listed by Australian Communications Authority
The types of numbers that are most commonly used include those beginning with the prefixes '1300', and '1800', which are ten digits long, and numbers beginning with '13', which are six digits.
The differences between the prefixes are the length of the number (six or ten digits), the license cost to use them each year (approximately A$1 for 1800 and 1300, A$10,000 for 13 numbers) and the call cost model. 1300 numbers[8]and 13 numbersshare call costsbetween the caller and call recipient, whereas the 1800 model offers a national free call to the caller, with total costs of the call borne by the recipient.
Numbers can be used to spell out words in theJapanese language, a practice calledgoroawase. Most services are used by commercial establishments as an attempt to make their numbers easier to remember.Toll free numbersin Japan are prefixed with 0120. Examples include 0120-363963, where the numbers 3963 can also be read as サンキューローソン (sankyuu rooson, "Thank you,Lawson"), and 0120-026-999 in which 026-999 can be read as オフロでキュッキュッキュ (お風呂で急々々ofuro de kyukkyukkyu), which literally means "bath - quick, quick, quick".[9]
Phonewords have been widely used for both local and toll-free numbers, with significant growth in the 1980s and 1990s.
Local telephone numbers have always been subject to the constraint that the first digits must identify a geographic location, leaving less flexibility to select digits which spell specific phonewords. Toll-free numbering, as originally introduced by AT&T in 1967, was initially even more limited, as each geographic area code was hardwired to one or two specific exchanges in the +1-800 toll-free area code. This changed after Roy P. Weber ofBell Labspatented a "Data base communication call processing method"[10]which laid the initial blueprint for construction of theSMS/800database in 1982 and the portableRespOrgstructure in 1993. A toll-free number, instead of indicating a geographic location, was merely a pointer to a database record; any number could geographically be reassigned anywhere andported to any carrier. All seven digits were available to construct vanity numbers or phonewords.
Astoll-free telephone numbers, vanity 800 numbers support flexiblecall trackingwhich allows businesses to determine where their incoming call traffic is coming from, build a database of leads, access demographic information on callers, allocate personnel based on calling patterns, analyze ad campaign results and export data to other programs. The reports help to fine-tune advertising plans and media budgets by providing detailed information on specific media buys (such as radio, television or outdoor media).
Some companies also match domain names to phone words (for instance, 1800-THRIFTY and the web sitewww.1800thrifty.com) to target phone and web users together.
One brief practice was when the successive toll-free area codes were introduced (888, 877, 866, etc.), a business word or phrase would actually use one or more of the numbers in the area code. Examples of this wereRent-A-Wreck(1-87-RENT-A-WRECK or 1-US-RENT-A-WRECK),Speedpass(1-87-SPEEDPASS), and one of the firstVonagenumbers (1-VONAGE-HELP). However, these proved to be more confusing than helpful to the callers, so the practice is not often used.
When the telephone appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, telephone numbers mixed letters and numbers. In 1968, the letters were replaced by numbers, but recently phonewords have returned to popularity in Russia. Many ISPs offer customers vanity numbers.
Until about 1966 UK phones used a different scheme than currently used for relating letter to number keys. While generally similar, the scheme did not include the letters "O" and "Q" on the "6" and "7" keys to avoid confusion between the digit "0" and the letters; the zero key was used for "O" and "Q". "Z" was not included, and no symbols were associated with the "1" key.[note 1]In earlier times exchange names were used and spoken to the operator; with the introduction of dialling, exchange names were used starting with three letters not used by any other exchange. A number would be published asWHItehall 1212, and dialled 944 1212.[11]
Although businesses typically choose phone numbers so as to correspond to particular phonewords, it is also possible to go in the other direction, and generate phonewords corresponding to given numbers.[12]
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