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The social business model is use of social media tools and social networking behavioral standards by businesses for communication with customers, suppliers, and others.
Combining social networking etiquette [ 1 ] (being helpful, transparent and authentic) with business engagement on LinkedIn (for one-to-one interaction), Twitter (for immediacy) and Facebook (for content sharing) more fully involves employees in the organization and increases customer intimacy and trust. [ 2 ]
Traditional business models , particularly in large organizations, have had as one common characteristic careful limitation of direct contact between those within the organization and those outside of it. Only certain specific individuals (most frequently in roles such as sales, customer service and field consulting) were designated as "customer-facing" personnel.
Organizations further limited outside access to internal employees through filtering mechanisms such as publishing only a main switchboard number (whether routed through a live receptionist or an interactive voice response system) and generic "sales@" or "info@" email addresses.
The Cluetrain Manifesto (written by Rick Levine, Christopher Locke , Doc Searls , and David Weinberger and published in 1999) was among the first books to predict the demise of this old order and the emergence of more open business models, though most of the business world was slow to adopt [ 3 ] the book's recommended cultural changes.
Thirteen years later, authors Dion Hinchcliffe and Peter Kim added structural underpinnings to the cultural shifts outlined in The Cluetrain Manifesto in their book, Social Business by Design . The book details many of the ways social media tools and practices are being adopted within organizations, to support both internal employee collaboration and external customer engagement (which the authors describe as the "bigger problem"). [ 4 ]
In implementing the social business model, organizations apply social networking protocols and tools in a range of areas, [ 4 ] potentially including:
Organizations that fully adopt the social business model will exhibit four key characteristics: [ 6 ]
While much of the change inherent in adopting the social business model is cultural, [ 6 ] it also requires process changes enabled by social business technology. Functional requirements for a social business technology platform include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_business_model |
Condorcet methods
Positional voting
Cardinal voting
Quota-remainder methods
Approval-based committees
Fractional social choice
Semi-proportional representation
By ballot type
Pathological response
Strategic voting
Paradoxes of majority rule
Positive results
Empirical methods
Prescriptive and policy
Social choice theory is a branch of welfare economics that extends the theory of rational choice to collective decision-making. [ 1 ] Social choice studies the behavior of different mathematical procedures ( social welfare functions ) used to combine individual preferences into a coherent whole. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] It contrasts with political science in that it is a normative field that studies how a society can make good decisions, whereas political science is a descriptive field that observes how societies actually do make decisions. While social choice began as a branch of economics and decision theory, it has since received substantial contributions from mathematics , philosophy , political science , and game theory .
Real-world examples of social choice rules include constitutions and parliamentary procedures for voting on laws, as well as electoral systems ; [ 5 ] as such, the field is occasionally called voting theory . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] It is closely related to mechanism design , which uses game theory to model social choice with imperfect information and self-interested citizens.
Social choice differs from decision theory in that the latter is concerned with how individuals , rather than societies , can make rational decisions.
The earliest work on social choice theory comes from the writings of the Marquis de Condorcet , who formulated several key results including his jury theorem and his example showing the impossibility of majority rule . His work was prefigured by Ramon Llull 's 1299 manuscript Ars Electionis ( The Art of Elections ), which discussed many of the same concepts, but was lost in the Late Middle Ages and only rediscovered in the early 21st century. [ 8 ]
Kenneth Arrow 's book Social Choice and Individual Values is often recognized as inaugurating the modern era of social choice theory. [ 4 ] Later work has also considered approaches to legal compensation , fair division , variable populations , [ citation needed ] partial strategy-proofing of social-choice mechanisms , [ 9 ] natural resources , [ 4 ] capabilities and functionings approaches , [ 10 ] and measures of welfare . [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ]
Arrow's impossibility theorem is a key result showing that social choice functions based only on ordinal comparisons , rather than cardinal utility , will behave incoherently (unless they are dictatorial ). Such systems violate independence of irrelevant alternatives , meaning they suffer from spoiler effects —the system can behave erratically in response to changes in the quality or popularity of one of the options.
Condorcet's example demonstrates that democracy cannot be thought of as being the same as simple majority rule or majoritarianism; otherwise, it will be self-contradictory when three or more options are available. Majority rule can create cycles that violate the transitive property : Attempting to use majority rule as a social choice function creates situations where we have A better than B and B better than C, but C is also better than A.
This contrasts with May's theorem , which shows that simple majority is the optimal voting mechanism when there are only two outcomes, and only ordinal preferences are allowed.
Harsanyi 's utilitarian theorem shows that if individuals have preferences that are well-behaved under uncertainty (i.e. coherent ), the only coherent and Pareto efficient social choice function is the utilitarian rule . This lends some support to the viewpoint expressed of John Stuart Mill , who identified democracy with the ideal of maximizing the common good (or utility ) of society as a whole, under an equal consideration of interests .
Gibbard's theorem provides limitations on the ability of any voting rule to elicit honest preferences from voters, showing that no voting rule is strategyproof (i.e. does not depend on other voters' preferences) for elections with 3 or more outcomes.
The Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem proves a stronger result for ranked-choice voting systems , showing that no such voting rule can be sincere (i.e. free of reversed preferences).
The field of mechanism design , a subset of social choice theory, deals with the identification of rules that preserve while incentivizing agents to honestly reveal their preferences. One particularly important result is the revelation principle , which is almost a reversal of Gibbard's theorem: for any given social choice function, there exists a mechanism that obtains the same results but incentivizes participants to be completely honest.
Because mechanism design places stronger assumptions on the behavior of participants, it is sometimes possible to design mechanisms for social choice that accomplish apparently-"impossible" tasks. For example, by allowing agents to compensate each other for losses with transfers, the Vickrey–Clarke–Groves (VCG) mechanism can achieve the "impossible" according to Gibbard's theorem: the mechanism ensures honest behavior from participants, while still achieving a Pareto efficient outcome. As a result, the VCG mechanism can be considered a "better" way to make decisions than voting (though only so long as monetary transfers are possible).
If the domain of preferences is restricted to those that include a majority-strength Condorcet winner , then selecting that winner is the unique resolvable , neutral , anonymous , and non-manipulable voting rule. [ 5 ] [ further explanation needed ]
Social choice theory is the study of theoretical and practical methods to aggregate or combine individual preferences into a collective social welfare function. The field generally assumes that individuals have preferences , and it follows that they can be modeled using utility functions , by the VNM theorem . But much of the research in the field assumes that those utility functions are internal to humans, lack a meaningful unit of measure and cannot be compared across different individuals. [ 14 ] Whether this type of interpersonal utility comparison is possible or not significantly alters the available mathematical structures for social welfare functions and social choice theory. [ 14 ]
In one perspective, following Jeremy Bentham , utilitarians have argued that preferences and utility functions of individuals are interpersonally comparable and may therefore be added together to arrive at a measure of aggregate utility. Utilitarian ethics call for maximizing this aggregate.
In contrast many twentieth century economists, following Lionel Robbins , questioned whether such measures of utility could be measured, or even considered meaningful. Following arguments similar to those espoused by behaviorists in psychology , Robbins argued concepts of utility were unscientific and unfalsifiable . Consider for instance the law of diminishing marginal utility , according to which utility of an added quantity of a good decreases with the amount of the good that is already in possession of the individual. It has been used to defend transfers of wealth from the "rich" to the "poor" on the premise that the former do not derive as much utility as the latter from an extra unit of income. Robbins argued that this notion is beyond positive science ; that is, one cannot measure changes in the utility of someone else, nor is it required by positive theory. [ 15 ]
Apologists for the interpersonal comparison of utility have argued that Robbins claimed too much. John Harsanyi agreed that perfect comparisons of mental states are not practically possible, but people can still make some comparisons thanks to their similar backgrounds, cultural experiences, and psychologies. Amartya Sen argues that even if interpersonal comparisons of utility are imperfect, we can still say that (despite being positive for Nero ) the Great Fire of Rome had a negative overall value. Harsanyi and Sen thus argue that at least partial comparability of utility is possible, and social choice theory should proceed under that assumption.
Despite the similar names, "public choice" and "social choice" are two distinct fields that are only weakly related. Public choice deals with the modeling of political systems as they actually exist in the real world, and is primarily limited to positive economics (predicting how politicians and other stakeholders will act). It is therefore often thought of as the application of microeconomic models to political science , in order to predict the behavior of political actors . By contrast, social choice has a much more normative bent, and deals with the abstract study of decision procedures and their properties.
The Journal of Economic Literature classification codes place Social Choice under Microeconomics at JEL D71 (with Clubs, Committees, and Associations) whereas Public Choice falls under JEL D72 (Economic Models of Political Processes: Rent-Seeking , Elections, Legislatures, and Voting Behavior). [ citation needed ]
Since Arrow, social choice theory has been characterized by being predominantly mathematical and theoretical , but some research has aimed at estimating the frequency of various voting paradoxes, such as the Condorcet paradox . [ 16 ] [ 17 ] A summary of 37 individual studies, covering a total of 265 real-world elections, large and small, found 25 instances of a Condorcet paradox for a total likelihood of 9.4%. [ 17 ] : 325 While examples of the paradox seem to occur often in small settings like parliaments, very few examples have been found in larger groups (electorates), although some have been identified. [ 18 ] However, the frequency of such paradoxes depends heavily on the number of options and other factors.
Let X {\displaystyle X} be a set of possible 'states of the world' or 'alternatives'. Society wishes to choose a single state from X {\displaystyle X} . For example, in a single-winner election , X {\displaystyle X} may represent the set of candidates; in a resource allocation setting, X {\displaystyle X} may represent all possible allocations.
Let I {\displaystyle I} be a finite set, representing a collection of individuals. For each i ∈ I {\displaystyle i\in I} , let u i : X ⟶ R {\displaystyle u_{i}:X\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} } be a utility function , describing the amount of happiness an individual i derives from each possible state.
A social choice rule is a mechanism which uses the data ( u i ) i ∈ I {\displaystyle (u_{i})_{i\in I}} to select some element(s) from X {\displaystyle X} which are 'best' for society. The question of what 'best' means is a common question in social choice theory. The following rules are most common:
A social choice function, sometimes called a voting system in the context of politics, is a rule that takes an individual's complete and transitive preferences over a set of outcomes and returns a single chosen outcome (or a set of tied outcomes). We can think of this subset as the winners of an election, and compare different social choice functions based on which axioms or mathematical properties they fulfill. [ 5 ]
Arrow's impossibility theorem is what often comes to mind when one thinks about impossibility theorems in voting. There are several famous theorems concerning social choice functions. The Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem implies that the only rule satisfying non-imposition (every alternative can be chosen) and strategyproofness when there are more than two candidates is the dictatorship mechanism . That is, a voter may be able to cast a ballot that misrepresents their preferences to obtain a result that is more favorable to them under their sincere preferences. May's theorem shows that when there are only two candidates and only rankings of options are available , the simple majority vote is the unique neutral , anonymous , and positively-responsive voting rule. [ 19 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_choice_theory |
Social cognitive optimization (SCO) is a population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm which was developed in 2002. [ 1 ] This algorithm is based on the social cognitive theory , and the key point of the ergodicity is the process of individual learning of a set of agents with their own memory and their social learning with the knowledge points in the social sharing library. It has been used for solving continuous optimization , [ 2 ] [ 3 ] integer programming , [ 4 ] and combinatorial optimization problems. It has been incorporated into the NLPSolver extension of Calc in Apache OpenOffice .
Let f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} be a global optimization problem, where x {\displaystyle x} is a state in the problem space S {\displaystyle S} . In SCO, each state is called a knowledge point , and the function f {\displaystyle f} is the goodness function .
In SCO, there are a population of N c {\displaystyle N_{c}} cognitive agents solving in parallel, with a social sharing library. Each agent holds a private memory containing one knowledge point, and the social sharing library contains a set of N L {\displaystyle N_{L}} knowledge points. The algorithm runs in T iterative learning cycles. By running as a Markov chain process, the system behavior in the t th cycle only depends on the system status in the ( t − 1)th cycle. The process flow is in follows:
SCO has three main parameters, i.e., the number of agents N c {\displaystyle N_{c}} , the size of social sharing library N L {\displaystyle N_{L}} , and the learning cycle T {\displaystyle T} . With the initialization process, the total number of knowledge points to be generated is N L + N c ∗ ( T + 1 ) {\displaystyle N_{L}+N_{c}*(T+1)} , and is not related too much with N L {\displaystyle N_{L}} if T {\displaystyle T} is large.
Compared to traditional swarm algorithms, e.g. particle swarm optimization , SCO can achieving high-quality solutions as N c {\displaystyle N_{c}} is small, even as N c = 1 {\displaystyle N_{c}=1} . Nevertheless, smaller N c {\displaystyle N_{c}} and N L {\displaystyle N_{L}} might lead to premature convergence . Some variants [ 5 ] were proposed to guaranteed the global convergence. One can also make a hybrid optimization method using SCO combined with other optimizers. For example, SCO was hybridized with differential evolution to obtain better results than individual algorithms on a common set of benchmark problems. [ 6 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cognitive_optimization |
Social design is the application of design methodologies in order to tackle complex human issues, placing the social issues as the priority. Historically social design has been mindful of the designer's role and responsibility in society, and of the use of design processes to bring about social change. [ 1 ]
For good or bad, all design is social. There is a prevailing tendency to think of the ‘social’ as something that exists separate from materiality as if it is a force hovering in the ether. We speak of social problems, social good, or social decline as phenomena that are unconditionally human, negotiated, and enacted between individuals with unlimited agency. Material-oriented thinkers such as Bruno Latour, Jane Bennett, and Tim Ingold have sought to dissolve this distinction of the social from the material. They emphasise that things matter, as they are fundamental parts of the intricate and inseparable connections, webs, meshes, or networks of human-material relations. Remarkably, this mentality of seeing the social and material as distinctly separate, as if existing on different plains, also permeates in the practice of design—despite its material media. Design often treats material as exogenous to a social context, an exotic appendage, or a foreign object being introduced into a non-material milieu. This may be the result of a deep desire to elevate human affairs above that of materiality or simply from a fear of acknowledging the overwhelmingly complex set of socio-material relations in which design is embedded, and which constitutes our world. [ 2 ]
Social design—design for society and with society—is not a modern invention. And yet, it is of such great relevance today, because the global growth economy and its consequences for people and the environment are putting many societies at risk, or are even pushing them to the limits of their capacity to survive. Those who are not yet in this situation are justifiably concerned about the future. It is becoming increasingly clear that the imbalance of resources, means of production, education, and future prospects is a significant part of the problem. Thus, as in earlier times of crisis—in contrast to growing tendencies toward nationalism and isolationism—there is much discussion today about developing an open and cosmopolitan social culture, and redesigning social systems and working and living conditions in a way that bears in mind their implications for the world as a whole.
Architects, designers, craftspeople, and engineers have always played a decisive role in shaping such a social culture. Their visions for a better and more livable world have driven and continue to drive their own work and their sphere of influence, and have been a valuable reference for their successors.
The English designer, writer, publisher, and socialist activist William Morris holds a special place in this regard. The pioneer of the Arts and Crafts Movement, with his view that art and society are interconnected, left a lasting mark. He understood his work as an alternative to industrialization and its harmful effects on people and the environment, as had been described, for example, by Friedrich Engels in his 1845 essay The Condition of the Working Class in England. According to Morris, true art should be “made by the people, and for the people, as a happiness to the maker and the user.” Consequently, he himself became a craftsman, designer, and producer of wallpapers, textiles, glass, and furniture, who assumed responsibility for the entire design and production process in his collaborations with other designers. The main principles he applied to his work were beauty, quality, truth to materials, and durability. And he found inspiration in nature as an expression of vibrant growth as well as the craftsmanship of the Middle Ages and the preindustrial era. Morris’s designs marked a stark contrast to the poor quality of the industrially manufactured products of his day and were greatly influential in the evolution of the decorative arts far beyond Great Britain. His ideal of a balanced society based on communal ownership, exchange, and development opportunities for all is described in his 1890 utopian novel News from Nowhere. Although he attempted to draw closer to his vision through a number of initiatives, his artisanal and social commitments harbor an irreconcilable contradiction: the painstakingly handcrafted products were affordable only to a wealthy circle of art enthusiasts and thus inaccessible to the parts of society he intended to reach. [ 3 ]
Within the design world, social design is defined as a design process that contributes to improving human well-being and livelihood. [ 4 ]
Social design in 20th century has been inspired by Victor Papanek 's writings, he was one of the first to address issues of social design in the 1960s. He was focused on creating change within the design field and no longer tolerating misdesign, any design that does not account for the needs of all people and disregards its own environmental consequences. [ 5 ] To be a positive force in society, design and designers need to be socially and morally responsible, designers carry a serious responsibility for the consequences their designs have on society. [ 6 ] These consequences include environmental impact and designers can contribute to designing more considerate and ecological products by carefully selecting the materials they use. [ 6 ] Papanek also remarks on designing for people's needs (rather than their wants) and designers have responsibility over the choices they make in design processes. [ 5 ] Often design is detached from the real world and is focused on the commercial market by designing for luxury items or for just a few people based on aesthetics, or disposable items. Papanek emphasizes designers should have a keen eye for where the need is and often that is found by looking at marginalized populations.
Another author who contributes to the development of social design is Victor Margolin . [ 7 ] He writes in the 2002 book, The Politics of the Artificial: Essays on Design and Design Studies the "designer's ability to envision and give form on material and immaterial products that can address human problems on broad scale and contribute to social well-being." This ideology is something that social design is built on. [ 8 ] In this view social design is an activity that should not be framed with connotations of charity, aid donations, help, etc. It is not voluntary work, but it should be seen as professional contribution that plays a part in local economic development or livelihood. At the same time Social Design also challenges the conventional market model of designing. While traditionally, Design has been approached as a profession that remains strictly answerable to market forces, social design envisages the possibility of a more distributive conception of surpluses, by ensuring that the benefits of services and systems reach a wider range of user groups who may often fall outside the market system. [ 7 ] Margolin writes, "The primary purpose of design for the market is creating products for sale. Conversely, the foremost intent of social design is the satisfaction of human needs." [ 7 ]
Designer George Aye writes about the importance of acknowledging the role of power when designing for complex social sector issues, as one may do for social design projects. [ 9 ] Depending on the project, designing for user engagement in a project can be more important than designing for solutions, and it encourages the use of human-centered design methodologies. [ 9 ]
Engineer Chris Cox of Facebook used the term "social design" in 2010 and 2011 as, "[social design] defines the concept as improving how people build human-to-human, versus human-to-interface, connections online". [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]
Outside the design world social design appears in a number of professional environments, there are many artists that use the term social design or social practice to describe their work, though the work is exhibited within the contexts of the art world and have a different dialog when compared to design.
While there isn’t one “official” set of social design methods, the approaches listed below are well established in both academic and practical circles. They each offer different lenses through which designers can address societal challenges, often leading practitioners to blend methods to best suit their project’s context and objectives.
Stanford University's Hasso Plattner Institute of Design (d school) and IDEO collaboratively created interdisciplinary research in 1991 in order to improve the design process, and from that, Stanford's model of design thinking as a process emerged. [ 13 ] The Stanford model has been applied to social design, where the goal is to develop both human and social capital with new products and processes that can be profitable , a goal that the anti-capitalist magazine In These Times called "naïve, at best". [ 13 ]
Victor Margolin and Sylvia Margolin wrote in 2002 about the "social model" as a design practice and research methodology, primarily focused on social services but the ideas could be expanded in to educational systems, healthcare systems and for civic technology design. [ 7 ] The social model involves a focus on human needs by taking inspiration from core social work literature and has an ecological perspective (that is less commonly seen in modes of design). [ 7 ] Margolin suggests a multifaceted approach to solving problems, first accessing the situation by answering a few core questions, followed by survey research and interviews, content analysis of archival data, and/or participant observation. [ 7 ]
The design firm, IDEO defines social design as a process that encourages community facilitation including the sharing of conversation and ideas, beliefs and rituals. [ 14 ] The process should be supportive and empowering for those involved and offer an innovative and feasible process. [ 14 ] The designer(s) should not try to change people's behavior and they draws on the differences in cultural traditions and cultural beliefs in order to frame the problems within society. [ 14 ] Additionally there is importance of the wider influence including the environmental awareness of the design, since the environment effects everyone and is interconnected. [ 14 ]
This model seeks to break down any distinction between design and society. Boelen and Kaethler argue that all design is, for good or bad, essentially social because it is produced by, and exists in, the social realm. They observe, "A [new] materialist reading of social design on one hand complexifies the design process and on the other offers insight into meaningful forms of engagement." [ 15 ] It employs central themes developed by thinkers such as Jane Bennet , Tim Ingold and Bruno Latour and as a result it produces design that rejects the logic of solutionism and tends towards research, personal reflection and story-telling—such as auto-ethnographic design. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] It is critiqued for being 'naval gazing' and too closely resembling artist practice and production. [ 17 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_design |
Social ecology studies relationships between people and their environment, often the interdependence of people, collectives and institutions. It is the concept of how people interact with their surroundings , how they respond to it, and how these interactions impact society and the environment at large. [ 1 ] Evolving out of biological ecology , human ecology , systems theory and ecological psychology , social ecology takes a “broad, interdisciplinary perspective that gives greater attention to the social, psychological, institutional, and cultural contexts of people-environment relations than did earlier versions of human ecology.” [ 2 ] The concept has been employed to study a diverse array of social problems and policies within the behavioural and social sciences. [ 3 ]
Social ecologists examine the larger picture of our " system " by examining how individuals, collectives, and institutions interact and depend on one another. This perspective enables a more efficient method of addressing the collective issues facing society [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
As described by Stokols, [ 6 ] the core principles of social ecology include:
American environmental activist Murray Bookchin introduced the idea of social ecology. [ 5 ] He makes the case that environmentalists should be less concerned with addressing the idea that humans can and should manage nature , and more with focusing on the specific symptoms of a problem [ 5 ] [ 8 ] Social ecology was built on top of this philosophy . According to Bookchin, society's divisions are detrimental to it as a whole. Human-made hierarchies are the root cause of all social and environmental problems and dysfunctions in human society. [ 9 ] Bookchin thought that society and life should be viewed as an ecosystem , where all the components are equally vital to a stable, healthy, and sustainable environment, as opposed to a hierarchy [ 10 ]
Murray Bookchin contends that rather than existing outside of nature, humans are a part of it. Bookchin distinguished between two types of nature: the first, or biotic, and the second, or human. [ 11 ] For Bookchin, nature in its whole is an ever-evolving evolutionary process rather than a static condition like a breathtaking panorama. [ 12 ] Not only the human organism but also human civilization is the product of this continuous evolutionary endeavor. [ 11 ] It is not the intention of human reason or social structure to be freak mutations apart from the rest of nature. Rather, they are designed to interact with nature and advance its evolution in ways that other species cannot. [ 13 ] Humans can assume their proper place in the ecosystem if the desire for supremacy is subdued. [ 14 ] In a nutshell, Bookchin lays out the fundamental political framework that would enable this: a global order devoid of nation states, where political life is centered around towns linked by weak institutions that forbid them from taking advantage of one another. [ 11 ] These municipalities would foster a real type of citizenship where the barriers between individual and group interests, as well as between human and ecological interests, would be eliminated. They would also naturally become part of their local ecosystems. [ 11 ]
Bookchin's main advantage is that he provides strong arguments for why people should care about ecology in addition to self-preservation . [ 11 ] The idea of " biocentrism ," which prioritizes the needs of the environment over human needs and views humans as having equal value with non humans, and " anthropocentrism ," which places an absolute emphasis on human interests, are two main points of contention in environmental ethics . [ 15 ] Biocentrism is predicated on the idea that humans and the rest of nature are identical, whereas anthropocentrism is predicated on the idea that humans are superior to and distinct from nature. [ 5 ] According to Bookchin, although being distinct from the rest of nature, people are nevertheless an essential component of it. [ 5 ] Thus, in his opinion, neither biocentrism nor anthropocentrism is sufficient. [ 11 ] This is particularly fascinating because it eliminates any notions that humans are completely separated from the natural world, allowing humanity to still recognize something unique about itself and find value in civilization and technological advancement. It also instills a sense of duty towards the natural world. [ 11 ]
It is thought that if these values are applied to every aspect of society, there will be more equality and cooperation and hierarchies won't determine who wins and who loses. [ 5 ] An essential component of a competent social worker's perspective is appreciating the significance of each "piece" to the system as a whole. [ 16 ]
Social ecology promotes autonomous individual communities built on mutual assistance and cooperation. But Bookchin set himself apart from communalism by stressing decentralization and participatory democracy. [ 17 ] This democratic deliberation purposefully promotes autonomy and self-reliance, as opposed to centralized state politics [ 18 ]
Social class and power dynamics are the main lenses through which social ecology views society. Bookchin, however, took issue with Marxism's primary focus on economic inequality and its disregard for ecological issues. [ 19 ]
Concern for the environment and the necessity of sustainable practices are shared by social ecology and environmentalism. But social ecology goes beyond conventional environmentalism, contending that social problems such as inequality, dominance, and hierarchy cannot be solved in a vacuum when it comes to ecological issues. [ 20 ]
Deep ecology and social ecology promote a biocentric worldview and highlight the inherent value of nature. Bookchin, however, criticizes deep ecology for frequently focusing on individualistic solutions rather than taking into account the social causes of environmental problems. [ 21 ]
Anarchism and social ecology are both movements that support individual and collective autonomy while criticizing hierarchical power structures. [ 22 ] Bookchin, however, was not in agreement with many anarchists regarding the significance of democratic decision-making and social organization.
Several academic programs combine a broad definition of “environmental studies” with analyses of social processes, biological considerations, and the physical environment. A number of social ecology degree-granting programs and research institutes shape the global evolution of the social ecological paradigm. For example, see:
Most of the 120 listed programs at the link below are in human ecology, but many overlap with social ecology: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics) |
The social genome is the collection of data about members of a society that is captured in ever-larger and ever-more complex databases (e.g., government administrative data, operational data, social media data etc.). Some have used the term digital footprint to refer to individual traces.
There have been two distinct uses of the term. First, the word Social Genome was used in a letter to the editor submission to Science in response to a seminal article about using big data for social science by King. [ 1 ] The letter [ 2 ] was published, but the word social genome was edited out of the letter. The original submission states, “A well-integrated federated data system of administrative databases updated on an ongoing basis could hold a collective representation of our society, our social genome.” Kum and others continue to use the word since 2011, with it being defined in a peer reviewed article in 2013. [ 3 ] It states “Today there is a constant flow of data into, out of, and between ever-larger and ever-more complex databases about people. Together, these digital traces collectively capture our social genome, the footprints of our society.” In 2014, a vision paper [ 4 ] on population informatics was published which further elaborated on the term.
Second, separately at about the same time, a group of researchers led by the Brookings Institution started the Social Genome Project [ 5 ] which built a data-rich model to map the pathway to the Middle class by tracing the life course from birth until middle age. The first paper [ 6 ] was published in 2012. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_genome |
In discrete mathematics , the social golfer problem ( SGP ) is a combinatorial-design problem derived from a question posted in the usenet newsgroup sci.op-research in May 1998. [ 1 ] The problem is as follows: 32 golfers play golf once a week in groups of 4. Schedule these golfers to play for as many weeks as possible without any two golfers playing together in a group more than once.
More generally, this problem can be defined for any n = g × s {\displaystyle n=g\times s} golfers who play in g {\displaystyle g} groups of s {\displaystyle s} golfers for w {\displaystyle w} weeks. The solution involves either verifying or refuting the existence of a schedule and, if such a schedule exists, determining the number of unique schedules and constructing them.
The SGP is a challenging problem to solve for two main reasons: [ 2 ]
First is the large search space resulting from the combinatorial and highly symmetrical nature of the problem. There are a total of ( n ! ) w {\displaystyle (n!)^{w}} schedules in the search space. For each schedule, the weeks ( w ! ) {\displaystyle (w!)} , groups within each week ( g ! ) {\displaystyle (g!)} , players within each group ( s ! ) {\displaystyle (s!)} , and individual player ( n ! ) {\displaystyle (n!)} can all be permuted. This leads to a total of w ! × g ! × s ! × n ! {\displaystyle w!\times g!\times s!\times n!} isomorphisms, schedules that are identical through any of these symmetry operations. Due to its high symmetry, the SGP is commonly used as a standard benchmark in symmetry breaking in constraint programming ( symmetry-breaking constraints ).
Second is the choice of variables. The SGP can be seen as an optimization problem to maximize the number of weeks in the schedule. Hence, incorrectly defined initial points and other variables in the model can lead the process to an area in the search space with no solution.
The SGP is the Steiner system S(2,4,32) because 32 golfers are divided into groups of 4 and both the group and week assignments of any 2 golfers can be uniquely identified. Soon after the problem was proposed in 1998, a solution for 9 weeks was found and the existence of a solution for 11 weeks was proven to be impossible. In the case of the latter, note that each player must play with 3 unique players each week. For a schedule lasting 11 weeks, a player will be grouped with a total of 3 × 11 = 33 {\displaystyle 3\times 11=33} other players. Since there are only 31 other players in the group, this is not possible. [ 3 ] A solution for 10 weeks could be obtained from results already published in 1996. [ 4 ] It was independently rediscovered using a different method in 2004, [ 5 ] which is the solution presented below.
There are many approaches to solving the SGP, namely design theory techniques, [ 6 ] [ 7 ] SAT formulations ( propositional satisfiability problem ), constraint-based approaches , [ 8 ] metaheuristic methods, and radix approach.
The radix approach assigns golfers into groups based on the addition of numbers in base k {\displaystyle k} . [ 9 ] Variables in the general case of the SGP can be redefined as n = s k {\displaystyle n=s^{k}} golfers who play in g = s k − 1 {\displaystyle g=s^{k-1}} groups of s {\displaystyle s} golfers for any number k {\displaystyle k} . The maximum number of weeks that these golfers can play without regrouping any two golfers is ( s k − 1 ) / ( s − 1 ) {\displaystyle (s^{k}-1)/(s-1)} .
Working in groups is encouraged in classrooms because it fosters active learning and the development of critical-thinking and communication skills. The SGP has been used to assign students into groups in undergraduate chemistry classes [ 9 ] and breakout rooms in online meeting software [ 10 ] to maximize student interaction and socialization.
The SGP has also been used as a model to study tournament scheduling. [ 11 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_golfer_problem |
Social grooming is a behavior in which social animals , including humans , clean or maintain one another's bodies or appearances. A related term, allogrooming , indicates social grooming between members of the same species. Grooming is a major social activity and a means by which animals who live in close proximity may bond , reinforce social structures and family links, and build companionship. Social grooming is also used as a means of conflict resolution , maternal behavior, and reconciliation in some species. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Mutual grooming typically describes the act of grooming between two individuals, often as a part of social grooming, pair bonding , or a precoital activity .
There are a variety of proposed mechanisms by which social grooming behavior has been hypothesized to increase fitness . These evolutionary advantages may come in the form of health benefits including reduction in disease transmission and stress levels, maintenance of social structures, and direct improvement of fitness as a measure of survival.
It is often argued as to whether the overarching importance of social grooming is to boost an organism's health and hygiene or whether the social side of social grooming plays an equally or more important role. Traditionally, it is thought that the primary function of social grooming is the upkeep of an animal's hygiene. Evidence to support this statement involves the fact that all grooming concentrates on body parts that are inaccessible by autogrooming , and that the amount of time spent allogrooming regions did not vary significantly even if the body part had a more important social or communicatory function. [ 3 ]
Social grooming behavior has been shown to elicit an array of health benefits in a variety of species. For example, group member connection has the potential to mitigate the potentially harmful effects of stressors . In macaques , social grooming has been proven to reduce heart rate . [ 4 ] Social affiliation during a mild stressor was shown to correlate with lower levels of mammary tumor development and longer lifespan in rats, while lack of this affiliation was demonstrated to be a major risk factor. [ 5 ] On the other hand, it could be argued that the hygienic aspect of allogrooming does not play as important a role as the social aspect of it. Observational studies performed on 44 different primate species suggest that the number of times a species allogrooms, on average, correlates with its group size rather than with its body size. [ 6 ] If allogrooming was required from a purely hygienic standpoint, then the larger an animal, the more and more often it would be groomed by members of its group. However, it has instead been seen that when group size increases, members ensure that they spend an appropriate amount of time grooming everyone. Hence, the fact that animals, particularly primates, groom each other more frequently than necessary from a hygienic standpoint suggests that the social aspect of allogrooming plays an equally, if not more, important role. Another point of evidence for the importance of the social aspect is that in comparison to how and how much a primate grooms itself (autogrooming), allogrooming involves longer periods of time and different techniques, some of which have connotations of being affectionate gestures. [ 7 ]
One of the most critical functions of social grooming is to establish social networks and relationships. In many species, individuals form close social connections dubbed "friendships" [ 8 ] due to long periods of time spent together doing activities. In primates especially, grooming is known to have major social significance and function in the formation and maintenance of these friendships. [ 9 ] Studies performed on rhesus macaques showed that fMRI scans of the monkeys' brains lit up more significantly at the perirhinial cortex (associated with recognition and memory) and the temporal pole (associated with social and emotional processing/analysis) when the monkeys were shown pictures of their friends' faces, compared to when they were shown less familiar faces. [ 10 ] Hence, primates recognize familiar and well-liked individuals ("friends") and spend more time grooming them than less favoured partners. [ 11 ] In species with a more tolerant social style, such as Barbary macaques , it is seen that females choose their grooming mates based on whom they know better rather than on social rank. [ 11 ] In addition to primates, animals such as deer, cows, horses, voles, mice, meerkats, coatis, lions, birds, and bats also form social bonds through grooming behavior. [ 12 ]
Social grooming may also serve to establish and recognize mates or amorous partners. For example, in short-nosed fruit bats , the females initiate grooming with the males just before flight at dusk. [ 13 ] The male and his close-knit female harem release bodily secretions onto each other, which may allow them to recognize the female's reproductive status. [ 13 ] A 2016 study by Kumar et al. [ 13 ] chemically analyzed these secretions, concluding that they may be required in chemosensory mediated communication [ 14 ] and mate choice . Similarly, in the less aggressive herb-field mouse, males are observed to groom females for longer durations and even allow females to not reciprocate. [ 15 ] Since the mating demands of males are greater than those offered by females, the females use social grooming to choose mates and males use it to incite mating.
Finally, kin selection is not as important a factor as friendship or mate preference when choosing a grooming mate as previously thought. [ 16 ] In a 2018 study of captive chimpanzees, Phelps et al. found that the animals remembered interactions that were "successful" or "unsuccessful" and used these as a basis to choose grooming mates; they chose grooming mates based on who would reciprocate rather than who would not. [ 16 ] More importantly, if the delay between two chimpanzees grooming each other is very little, then the chimpanzees tend to "time match": i.e., the second groomer grooms the first for the same amount of time that he/she was groomed. This "episodic memory" requires a demanding amount of cognitive function and emotional recognition, and has been tested experimentally with respect to food preferences, [ 17 ] where apes chose between tasty perishable and non-tasty non-perishable food at shorter and longer delays respectively after trying the food. Hence, apes can distinguish between different events that occurred at different times.
In general, social grooming is an activity that is directed up-hierarchy—i.e., a lower ranking individual grooms a higher ranking individual in the group. In meerkats , social grooming has been shown to carry the role of maintaining relationships that increase fitness . [ 18 ] Researchers have observed that in this system, dominant males receive more grooming while grooming others less, thereby indicating that less dominant males groom more dominant individuals to maintain relationships. In a study conducted on rhesus monkeys , it was seen that more dominant group members were "stroked" more than they were "picked at" when being groomed, compared to lower-ranking group members. [ 7 ] From a utilitarian standpoint, stroking is a less effective technique for grooming than picking, but it is construed as being a more affectionate gesture. Hence, grooming a higher ranking individual could be done in order to placate a potential aggressor and reduce tension. [ 7 ] Moreover, individuals closer in rank tend to groom each other more reciprocally than individuals further apart in rank.
Grooming networks in black crested gibbons have been proven to contribute to greater social cohesion and stability. [ 19 ] Groups of gibbons with more stable social networks formed grooming networks that were significantly more complex, while groups with low stability networks formed far fewer grooming pairs.
Grooming is often offered by an individual in exchange for a certain behavioral response or action. Social grooming is critical for vampire bats especially, since it is necessary for them to maintain food-sharing relationships in order to sustain their food regurgitation sharing behavior. [ 20 ] In Tibetan macaques , infants are seen as a valuable commodity that can be exchanged for favours; mothers allow non-mothers to handle their infants for short durations in exchange for being groomed. [ 21 ] Tibetan macaques measure and perceive the value of the infants by noting the relative ratio of infants in the group; as the number of infants increase, their "value" decreases, and so does the amount of grooming performed by non-mothers for mothers in exchange for infant-handling.
It has been suggested that in male bonobos, grooming is exchanged in favour of some emotional component because grooming familiar individuals involves larger time differences (i.e., the duration for which each individual grooms the other is not equal) and reduced reciprocity (i.e., the likelihood of grooming the other is unpredictable). [ 22 ] Hence, the presence of some sort of social bond between individuals results in greater "generosity" and tolerance between them.
Social grooming relationships have been proven to provide direct fitness benefits to a variety of species. In particular, grooming in yellow baboons ( Papio cynocephalus ) has been studied extensively, with numerous studies showing an increase in fitness as a result of social bonds formed through social grooming behavior. One such study, which collected 16 years of behavioral data on wild baboons, highlighted the effects that sociality has on infant survival. [ 23 ] A positive relationship is established between infant survival to one year and a composite sociality index, a measure of sociality based on proximity and social grooming. Evidence has also been provided for the effect of sociality on adult survival in wild baboons. [ 24 ] Direct correlations between measures of social connectedness (which focuses on social grooming) and median survival time for both female and male baboons were modeled.
Social bonds established by grooming may provide an adaptive advantage in the form of conflict resolution and protection from aggression. In wild savannah baboons, social affiliations were shown to augment fitness by increasing tolerance from more dominant group members [ 1 ] and increasing the chance of obtaining aid from conspecifics during instances of within-group contest interactions. [ 25 ] In the yellow baboon, adult females form relationships with their kin, who offer support during times of violent conflict within social groups. [ 26 ] In Barbary macaques , social grooming results in the formation of crucial relationships among partners. These social relationships serve to aid cooperation and facilitate protection against combative groups composed of other males, which can oftentimes cause physical harm. [ 27 ] Furthermore, social relationships have also been proven to decrease risk of infanticide in several primates. [ 28 ]
Altruism in the biological sense refers to a behavior performed by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the one performing the behavior. [ 29 ] This differs from the philosophical concept of altruism , which requires the conscious intention to help another. As a behavior, altruism is not evaluated in moral terms, but rather as a consequence of an action for reproductive fitness . [ 30 ] It is often questioned why the behavior persists if it is costly to the one performing it; however, Charles Darwin proposed group selection as the mechanism behind the clear advantages of altruism. [ 31 ]
Social grooming is considered a behavior of facultative altruism—the behavior itself is a temporary loss of direct fitness (with potential for indirect fitness gain), followed by personal reproduction. [ 32 ] This tradeoff has been compared to the Prisoner's Dilemma model, and out of this comparison came Robert Trivers ' reciprocal altruism theory under the title "tit-for-tat". [ 33 ] In conjunction with altruism, kin selection bears an emphasis on favoring the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction. [ 34 ] Because of this, kin selection is an instance of inclusive fitness , which combines the number of offspring produced with the number an individual can ensure the production of by supporting others, such as siblings.
r B > C {\displaystyle rB>C}
Developed by W.D. Hamilton , this rule governs the idea that kin selection causes genes to increase in frequency when the genetic relatedness (r) of a recipient to an actor multiplied by the benefit to the recipient (B) is greater than the reproductive cost to the actor (C). [ 35 ] Thus, it is advantageous for an individual to partake in altruistic behaviors, such as social grooming, so long as the individual receiving the benefits of the behavior is related to the one providing the behavior. [ 36 ]
It has been questioned whether some animals are instead using altruistic behaviors as a market strategy to trade for something desirable. In olive baboons, Papio anubis , it has been found that individuals perform altruistic behaviors as a form of trade in which a behavior is provided in exchange for benefits, such as reduced aggression . [ 37 ] The grooming was evenly balanced across multiple rather than single bouts, suggesting that females are not constrained to complete exchanges with single transactions and use social grooming to solidify long-term relationships with those in their social groups . [ 37 ]
In addition, white-handed gibbon ( Hylobates lar) males were more attentive to social grooming during estrus of the females in their group. [ 38 ] Though the behavior of social grooming itself was not beneficial to the one providing the service, the opportunity to mate and subsequent fertilization increases the reproductive fitness of those participating in the behavior. This study also found that social grooming performance cycled with that of the females ovarian cycle , [ 38 ] similar to a courting behavior .
In most cases, allogrooming is an action that is learned from an individual's mother. [ 39 ] Infants are groomed by their mothers and mimic these actions on each other and the mothers as juveniles. This action is reciprocated on other group members (non-mother or of a different rank) more often once the individual is a fully developed adult and can follow normal grooming patterns. [ 39 ]
Male and female members of a species may differ in learning how, when, and whom to groom. In stump-tailed macaques , infant females mimic their mothers' actions by grooming their mothers more often than their male counterparts do and by grooming the same group members that their mothers groom. [ 40 ] This mimicry is suggested to indicate identification-based observational learning in infant stump-tailed macaques, and the daughters' penchants for maternal mimicry and kin-biased grooming versus the sons' penchants for rank-biased grooming falls in line with their social roles in groups, where adult males require alliances in order to gain and maintain rank. [ 40 ]
In nearly all instances of social grooming, individuals use their own body parts, such as hands, teeth, or tongue, to groom a group member or infant. It is very rare to observe instances of tool usage in social grooming in non-human animals; however, a few such instances have been observed in primates. In a 1981 observational study of Japanese macaques at Bucknell University, a mother macaque was seen to choose a stone after observing several stones on the ground, and then use this stone to groom her infant. [ 41 ] It was hypothesized that the stone was used as a distractor for the infant so that the mother could adequately clean him while his attention was occupied elsewhere. This was supported by the fact that the infant picked up the stone once the mother dropped it and allowed her to groom him while he played with it. This behavior was seen in a few other members of the colony, but not seen throughout the species. In another instance, a female chimpanzee at the Delta Regional Primate Research Center created a "toothbrush" by stripping a twig of its leaves, and used this toothbrush to groom her infant over several instances. [ 42 ] However, both examples concern tool use in primates, which is already widely studied and scientifically backed. [ 43 ] The wide working memory capacities and causal understanding capabilities of primates permit them to fashion and utilize tools far more extensively than other non-human animals. [ 44 ] Apart from physical and mental constraints, perhaps a reason allogrooming animals do not use tools is because a major purpose of social grooming is social bonding and involves emotional exchanges, much of which is conveyed by touch.
Many animals groom each other in the form of stroking, scratching, and massaging. This activity often serves to remove foreign material from the body to promote the communal success of these socially active animals. There exists a wide array of socially grooming species throughout the animal kingdom, including primates, insects, [ 45 ] birds, [ 46 ] and bats. [ 47 ] While thorough research has yet to be conducted, much has been learned about social grooming in non-human animals via the study of primates. The driving force behind mammalian social grooming is primarily believed to be rooted in adaptation to consolatory behavior as well as utilitarian purposes in the exchange of resources such as food, sex, and communal hygiene. [ 2 ] [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ]
In insects, grooming often performs the important role of removing foreign material from the body. The honey bee , for example, engages in social grooming by cleaning body parts that cannot be reached by the receiving bee. The receiving bee extends its wings perpendicular to its body while its wings, mouth parts, and antennae are cleaned in order to remove dust and pollen. This removal of dust and pollen allows for the sharpening of olfactory senses, thus contributing to the overall well-being of the group. [ 45 ]
Recent studies have determined that vampire bats engage in social grooming much more than other types of bats to promote the well-being of the group. Facing higher levels of parasitic infection, vampire bats engage in cleaning one another as well as sharing food via regurgitation. This activity prevents ongoing infection while also promoting group success. [ 51 ]
Primates provide perhaps one of the best examples of mutual grooming, due to the intensive research performed regarding their varying lifestyles and the direct variation in the means of social grooming across different species. Among primates, social grooming plays a significant role in animal consolation behavior, whereby the primates engage in establishing and maintaining alliances through dominance hierarchies and pre-existing coalitions, and for reconciliation after conflicts. Primates groom socially in moments of boredom as well, and the act has been shown to reduce tension and stress. [ 52 ] This reduction in stress is often associated with observed periods of relaxed behavior, and primates have been known to fall asleep while receiving grooming. [ 53 ] Conflict among primates has been observed by researchers as increasing stress among the group, making mutual grooming very advantageous. [ 54 ]
There are benefits to initiating grooming. The one that starts the grooming will in return be groomed themselves, getting the benefit of being cleaned. Research has found that primates lower on the social ladder may initiate grooming with a higher-ranking primate in order to increase their own position. [ 55 ] It has been found that in times of higher conflict and competition, this is less likely to occur. Researchers have suggested that primates may see a need to balance the uses of grooming, swapping between its use as a means to increase social standing and its use as a means to keep oneself clean. [ 56 ]
Grooming in primates is not only utilized for alliance formation and maintenance, but to exchange resources such as communal food, sex, and hygiene. Wild baboons have been found to utilize social grooming as an activity to remove ticks and other insects from others; in this grooming, the body areas receiving significant attention appear to be the regions where the baboons themselves cannot reach. Grooming activity in these regions is used to remove parasites, dirt, dead skin, and tangled fur in order to help keep the animal's health in good condition despite the individual's inability to reach and clean certain areas. [ 53 ]
The time primates spend grooming increases with group size, but too-large group sizes can lead to decreased group cohesion because time spent grooming is usually impacted by other factors, which include ecological, phylogenetic, and life history. For example, the article states, "Cognitive constraints and predation pressure strongly affect group sizes and thereby have an indirect effect on primate grooming time". [ 57 ] By analyzing past data and studies done on this topic, the authors found that a primate group greater than 40 will face greater ecological problems and, thus, time spent during social grooming is affected. [ 57 ]
Recent studies regarding chimpanzees have determined the direct correlation of the release of oxytocin to consolatory behavior. [ 48 ] This behavior, as well as release, has been noted in primates such as the Vervet monkey, a primate species that actively engages in social grooming from early childhood to adulthood. Vervet monkey siblings often have conflicts over grooming allocation by their mother, yet grooming remains an activity that mediates tension and is low cost for alliance formation and maintenance. This grooming occurs both between siblings and between mother and child. [ 49 ]
Recent studies of crab-eating macaques have shown that males will groom females in order to procure sex. One study found that a female has a greater likelihood of engaging in sexual activity with a male if he has recently groomed her, compared to males who have not. [ 58 ]
Birds engage in allopreening , which researchers believe builds pair bonds . [ 59 ] In 2010, researchers determined the existence of a form of social grooming as a consolation behavior within ravens via a form of bystander contact, whereby observer ravens would act to console a distressed victim via contact sitting, preening, and beak-to-beak touching. [ 60 ]
Horses engage in mutual grooming via the formation of " pair bonds " where parasites and other contaminants on the surface of the body are actively removed. This removal of foreign material is primarily performed on hard-to-reach areas, such as the neck, via nibbling. [ 61 ]
Allogrooming is a behavior commonly seen in many types of cattle, including dairy and beef breeds. The act of social licking can be seen specifically in heifers to initiate social dominance, emphasize companionship and improve hygiene of oneself or others. This behavior seen in cows may provide advantages including reduced parasite loads, social tension, and competition at the feed bunk. [ 62 ] It is understood that social licking can provide long-term benefits such as promoting positive emotions and a relaxed environment. [ 63 ]
Social grooming has been shown to be correlated with changes in endocrine levels within individuals. Specifically, there is a large correlation between the brain's release of oxytocin and social grooming. Oxytocin is hypothesized to promote prosocial behaviors due to its positive emotional response when released. [ 64 ] Further, social grooming also releases beta-endorphins which promote physiological responses in stress reduction. These responses can occur from the production of hormones and endorphins, or through the growth or reduction in nerve structures. For example, in studies of suckling rats, rats who received warmth and touch when feeding had lower blood pressure levels than rats who did not receive any touch. This was found to be the result of an increased vagal nerve tone, meaning they had had a higher parasympathetic nervous response and a lower sympathetic nervous response to stimuli, resulting in a lower stress response. [ 65 ] Social grooming is a form of innocuous sensory activation. Innocuous sensory activation, characterized by non-aggressive contact, stimulates an entirely separate neural pathway from nocuous aggressive sensory activation. [ 66 ] Innocuous sensations are transmitted through the dorsal column-medial lemniscal system .
Oxytocin is a peptide hormone known to help express social emotions such as altruism, which in turn provide a positive feedback mechanism for social behaviors. [ 64 ] For example, studies of vampire bats have shown that the intranasal injection of oxytocin increases the amount of allogrooming done by female bats. [ 47 ] The release of oxytocin, found to be stimulated by positive touches (such as allogrooming), smells, and sounds, can provide physiological benefits for the individual; these benefits can include relaxation, healing, and digestion stimulation. [ 65 ] Reproductive benefits have also been found: studies in rats have shown that the release of oxytocin can increase male reproductive success. Oxytocin plays an important role in maternal pair bonding, and is hypothesized to promote similar bonding in social groups as a result of positive feedback loops from social interactions. [ 67 ]
Grooming stimulates the release of beta-endorphins, which is one physiological reason for the relaxing effect of grooming. [ 68 ] Beta-endorphins are found in neurons in the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Beta-endorphins are found to be opioid agonists. Opioids are molecules that act on receptors to promote feelings of relaxation and reduce pain. [ 69 ] A study in monkeys found that the changes in opiate expression in the body, mirroring changes in beta-endorphin levels, influences desire for social grooming. When injected with opiate receptor blockades, which decrease the level of beta-endorphins, monkeys were observed to respond with an increased desire to be groomed; conversely, the monkeys' desire to be groomed reduced significantly when they were given morphine. [ 70 ] However, beta-endorphin levels are difficult to measure in animal species—in contrast to oxytocin, which can be measured by sampling cerebrospinal fluid—and therefore they have not been linked as strongly with social behaviors. [ 67 ]
Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones that are synthesized in the adrenal cortex and are a part of the group of corticosteroids. Glucocorticoids are involved in immune function, and are a part of the feedback system that reduces inflammation. [ 71 ] They are also involved in glucose metabolism. Studies in macaques have shown that increased social stress results in glucocorticoid resistance, further inhibiting immune function. [ 72 ] Macaques who participated in social grooming showed decreased levels of viral load, which points toward decreased levels of social stress resulting in increased immune function and glucocorticoid sensitivity. Additionally, a 1997 study concluded that an increase in maternal grooming resulted in a proportionate increase in glucocorticoid receptors on target tissue in the neonatal rat. [ 73 ] In the study on neonatal rats, it was found that the receptor number was altered due to a change in both serotonin and thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations. An increase in the number of receptors might influence the amount of negative feedback on corticosteroid secretion and prevent the undesirable side effects of an abnormal physiologic stress response. [ 74 ] Social grooming can change the number of glucocorticoid receptors, which can result in increased immune function.
Studies have also shown that male baboons who participate more in social grooming show lower basal cortisol concentrations. [ 75 ]
Faecal glucocorticoid (fGCs) is a hormone metabolite associated with stress that is seen to be present in lower levels in female baboons with stronger, well-established grooming networks. [ 76 ] When potentially infanticidal male baboons immigrate into a group, the females' fGC levels are seen to rise, indicative of higher stress; however, females with reliable and well-established grooming partners have less of a fGC rise than those with weaker grooming networks. Hence, the social support received from a "friendship" aids baboons in stress management. Similarly, fGC levels are also seen to rise in females when a close "friend" dies; however, these rising fGC levels are seen to decrease in females that form new grooming partners, replacing their deceased friends.
Endogenous opioids are chemical molecules produced in the brains of organisms that serve to create feelings of relaxation, happiness, and pain relief. In primates, laughter and social grooming trigger opioid release in the brain, which is thought to form and maintain social bonds. [ 77 ] In a study performed on rhesus monkeys , lactating females with 4- to 10-week-old infants were given low doses of naloxone , an opioid antagonist that blocks the opioid receptor and inhibits the effects of endogenous opioids. [ 78 ] In comparison to the control females, who were given saline solutions, the naloxone females groomed their infants and other members of their group less. The naloxone females were also observed to be less protective of their young, which is uncharacteristic of new mothers. This decline in social interactions upon naloxone injection suggests that opioid antagonists interfere with maternal involvement in social actions—here, social grooming. it could therefore be hypothesized that higher levels of opioids in new rhesus mothers cause increased levels of social involvement and maternal behavior, aiding the development and learning of the newborn.
Above all, the main criticism regarding studies concerning social grooming is that almost all of them focus on primates , and a narrow range of species within primates themselves. As a result, the literature does not provide a well-rounded idea of what the cognitive or behavioral basis for social grooming is, nor does it completely outline all of its effects, positive or negative. Even in well-studied species, it may be that not all the data relevant to social grooming has been collected. [ 11 ] Secondly, data for most species is derived based on the members of a single group. In primates, whose behavior is highly flexible depending on the socio-environmental conditions, this poses a particular challenge. Thirdly, most studies are short-term and observational , so the direct link between social grooming and fitness or mate choice outcomes cannot be studied directly as in long-term direct or captive studies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_grooming |
Social immunity is any antiparasite defence mounted for the benefit of individuals other than the actor. For parasites , the frequent contact, high population density and low genetic variability makes social groups of organisms a promising target for infection: this has driven the evolution of collective and cooperative anti-parasite mechanisms that both prevent the establishment of and reduce the damage of diseases among group members. Social immune mechanisms range from the prophylactic , such as burying beetles smearing their carcasses with antimicrobials or termites fumigating their nests with naphthalene , to the active defenses seen in the imprisoning of parasitic beetles by honeybees or by the miniature 'hitchhiking' leafcutter ants which travel on larger worker's leaves to fight off parasitoid flies. Whilst many specific social immune mechanisms had been studied in relative isolation (e.g. the " collective medication " of wood ants ), it was not until Sylvia Cremer et al.'s 2007 paper "Social Immunity" that the topic was seriously considered. Empirical and theoretical work in social immunity continues to reveal not only new mechanisms of protection but also implications for understanding of the evolution of group living and polyandry .
Social immunity (also termed collective immunity) describes the additional level of disease protection arising in social groups from collective disease defences, performed either jointly or towards one another. These collective defences complement the individual immunity of all group members and constitute an extra layer of protection at the group level, combining behavioural , physiological and organisational adaptations. These defences can be employed either prophylactically or on demand.
Sylvia Cremer defined social immunity in her seminal 2007 Current Biology paper 'Social Immunity' as the "collective action or altruistic behaviours of infected individuals that benefit the colony". She laid out a conceptual framework for the topic using examples from primates and eusocial insects . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Cremer's definition focused on the collective benefits of behaviours and was adopted by other behavioural ecologists (e.g. Wilson-Rich 2009 [ 3 ] ) when describing immune phenomena which were contingent on the action of multiple individuals. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Cremer went on to develop a series of comparisons between personal and social immune systems—she explained that her definition of social immunity encompassed "the nature of these defences that they cannot be performed efficiently by single individuals, but depend strictly on the cooperation of at least two individuals". [ 4 ] However, in 2010, Sheena Cotter and Rebecca Kilner proposed to widen the definition of social immunity to "any type of immune response that has been selected to increase the fitness of the challenged individual and one or more recipients", and recommended that the phenomena described by Cremer be known as collective immunity. [ 5 ] This definition places importance on the evolutionary origin of behaviours rather than on their functional role at present; Cotter and Kilner explained that their broader definition would include immune behaviours in both animal families and social microbes as well as situations where herd immunity exists due to investment in personal immunity, arguing that this allowed for investigations of the evolution of social immunity to have a "greater depth than would otherwise be possible". [ 5 ] They further suggested that the evolution of social immunity be seen as one of the major transitions in evolution . [ 5 ] Joël Meunier proposed a further redefinition in his 2015 paper on the role of social immunity in the evolution of group living, suggesting that Cotter and Kilner's definition could problematically encompass immune defences which arise not due to social life but due to shared location; Meunier defines a social immune system as "any collective and personal mechanism that has emerged and/or is maintained at least partly due to the anti-parasite defence it provides to other group members". [ 1 ]
Upon exposure to a parasite, group members must both evaluate the threat it poses and the current level of colony infection in order to respond appropriately. Mechanisms of social immunity are often categorized by the stage of the parasite attack on a group of organisms they target. [ 1 ] Some mechanisms are prophylactic (e.g. burying beetles smearing their carcasses with antimicrobials or termites fumigating their nests with naphthalene ) whilst others are activated in response to a parasite challenge (e.g. imprisoning of parasitic beetles by honeybees or by the miniature 'hitchhiking' leafcutter ants who travel on larger workers' leaves to fight off parasitoid flies). [ 6 ]
For a parasite to succeed in infecting multiple members of an insect group, it must complete three key tasks:
Mechanisms of social immunity are thus often categorized by which step(s) they hinder and/or block. [ 1 ] Levels of sociality across the class Insecta range from eusocial species (with cooperative brood care, overlapping generations within a colony of adults and a division of labour into reproductive and non-reproductive castes) to solitary living, with many intermediate systems in between which despite lacking full eusociality still may exhibit parental care or nest cohabitation. Different systems of social organization alter both the possibility and cost-benefit ratio of social immune mechanisms (e.g. guarding the entrance to the nest requires both division of labour, whilst allogrooming merely requires behavioural interactions), though the absence of many behaviours currently only recorded in eusocial taxa from non-eusocial taxa may simply be due to a lack of study of these group's social immune systems. [ 1 ] For instance it seems plausible that insects living in common nest sites could evolve to remove conspecific corpses from the nest or to isolate an infected group member - and yet these behaviours (and many more) have only been recorded in eusocial species. [ 1 ] Alternatively it may be the case that whilst the three conditions of eusociality themselves are not prerequisites for the emergence of these behaviours, secondary consequences of eusociality are. Perhaps the large number of individuals in eusocial colonies increases the efficiency of collective anti-parasite defences and thus their emergence begins to be selected for; or perhaps the preponderance of non-reproductive individuals is a necessary driver for the evolution of these behaviours, as when in a colony attacked by a parasite they can only increase their indirect fitness via social immunity directed at the queen's brood. [ 1 ]
The lack of collective defences in some eusocial taxa also shows that social immunity may also not always be adaptive (due to life history costs or ineffectiveness against a particular parasite's infective strategy), and that living in a group does not necessitate the expression of any particular suite of social immunity mechanisms. For example, worker termites ( Zootermopsiss angusticollis ) do not discriminate between infected and uninfected conspecifics, pharaoh ant colonies ( Monomorium pharaonis ) choose to move into infected nests over uninfected ones and queen wood ants ( Formica paralugubris ) are not repelled but actually attracted to habitats contaminated with entamopathogenic fungi . [ 1 ]
A parasite may be passively transported into a nest by a group member or may actively search for the nest; once inside, parasite transmission can be vertical (from mother to daughter colony into the next generation) or horizontally (between/within colonies). [ 2 ] In eusocial insects, the most frequent defence against parasite uptake into the nest is to prevent infection during and/or after foraging, [ 1 ] and a wide range of active and prophylactic mechanisms have evolved to this end. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
Aversion to consuming or coming into contact with contaminated material also exists in presocial species, e.g., the gregarious-phase migratory grasshoppers Melanoplus sanguinipes avoids consuming conspecific corpses infected by entomoparasitic fungi. Female burying beetles ( Nicrophorus vespilloides ) choose fresh carcasses over microbe-covered degraded ones to breed on - though this may have also evolved to allow a reduction in post-hatching competition between juveniles and microbes over the carcass. [ 14 ]
It is currently unclear whether these aversive behaviours evolved and/or are maintained due to social interactions - the increase in direct fitness that avoiding contaminated material confers means that more research is required to tease out the indirect fitness benefits from the direct. [ 1 ]
Once a parasite has entered the nest, colonies must now prevent the establishment of the parasite - this is particularly important for long-lived societies which without would accrue a high parasite load. [ 2 ] In eusocial insects the most common mechanisms to stop establishment involve sanitising the nest and integrating substances with antimicrobial activity into nest material - nest hygiene behaviours. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Examples include:
Some non-eusocial insects also sanitize their nests: the wood cockroach ( Cryptocercus punctulatus ) commonly defecates within the nest (this species nests in decaying wood, which often has a high microbe density), and faeces have been found to have antifungal activity against M. anisopliae, possibly mediated by microbes. [ 34 ] The galleries constructed within spruce trees by spruce beetles ( Dendroctonus rufipennis ) are under threat from multiple species of fungus which reduce spruce beetle fitness. [ 35 ] Upon fungal invasion, adults begin secreting orally and analysis of these secretions has revealed bacteria with antifungal activity; faecal pellets are used to quarantine off fungally-infested sections of the gallery. [ 35 ] A waste management strategy exists in some group living and subsocial species, such as the subsocial De Geer's short-tailed cricket ( Anurogryllus muticus ). [ 1 ] 5–10 minutes after defecating and returning to her eggs, A. muticus females return to the fecal pellets and removes them out of the chamber — note no other items are removed from the chamber. [ 36 ] Upon discovering a carcass, subsocial N. vespilloides parents upregulate the antimicrobial activity of their anal exudates and smear them over the carcass - thus sanitizing the resource their brood will soon feast on. [ 37 ]
If a parasite has entered the nest and established itself, groups must now mount defences which inhibit the spread of parasites from infected to uninfected group members. [ 2 ] The risk of infection for an uninfected individual is dependent on three factors: their susceptibility to the parasite, contact rate between infected and uninfected individuals and the infective ability (virulence) of the parasite. [ 2 ] In eusocial insects, defences include:
Allogrooming exists in presocial insects—the European earwig ( Forficula auricularia ) grooms its eggs to prevent mold growth [ 58 ] and wood roach ( Cryptocercus ) nymphs spend up to a fifth of their time grooming adults (nymphs also groom other nymphs but at a lower frequency, however allogrooming is not seen in adults)— [ 59 ] but overall the role of parasite defence in presocial taxa's allogrooming behaviour is currently unresolved. [ 1 ]
Nest abandonment is a last resort for a colony overwhelmed by an infection against which the defences listed above have not been effective—infected individuals can then be left deserted in the old nest or expelled from the group whilst the colony travels to a new nest. [ 2 ]
Social immune systems have been observed across a wide range of taxonomic groups. Allogrooming is found in many animals—for example primates frequently groom others, a behaviour which likely evolved for its hygienic function but has now been co-opted for its additional role in social bonding. [ 60 ] Allogrooming in the common vampire bat ( Desmodus rotundus ) is associated with the regurgitation of food and may allow other bats to identify which individuals are capable of supplying them with food; [ 61 ] the allogrooming behaviours of horses and birds have also been studied. [ 62 ] [ 63 ] A range of sometimes elaborate cleaning symbioses also exist between many different species, especially in marine fish with their cleaning stations . Corsican blue tits ( Parus caeruleus ) prophylactically line their nest with aromatic plants (such as Achillea ligustica , Helichrysum italicum and Lavandula stoechas ) to ward off mosquitoes and other blood-sucking ornithophillous (bird-targeting) insects. [ 64 ]
After the broader definition of social immunity by Cotter and Kilner, numerous examples of social immune behaviours within animal families can be given: túngara frogs ( Engystomops pustulosus ) create 'foam nests' during breeding in which embryogenesis occurs; these foam nests are imbued with ranaspumin proteins which provide defence against microbial attack and act as a detergent . The three-spined stickleback ( Gasterosteus aculeatus ), grass goby ( Zosterisessor ophiocephalus ), fringed darter ( Etheostoma crossopterum ) and two species of blenny also use chemical strategies to defend their eggs from microbes. [ 5 ] Intriguingly, microbes themselves have been found to have social immune systems: when a population of Staphylococcus aureus is infected with gentamicin , some individuals (called small colony variants) begin to respire anaerobically , lowering the pH of the environment and thus conferring resistance to the antibiotic to all other individuals-including those S. aureus individuals who did not switch phenotype. [ 65 ] An analogy can be drawn here with the social fever in bees described above: a subset of individuals in a population change their behaviour and in doing so provide population-wide resistance. [ 5 ]
Using Richard Dawkins 's concept of the extended phenotype , the healthcare systems developed by humans could be seen as a form of social immunity. [ 4 ]
The majority of studies on social immunity have been on eusocial insects. [ 1 ] For example, Sylvia Cremer's work uses ants as a model system whilst Rebeca Rosengaus works with termites. Outside of eusocial insects, one emerging model system is the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides . [ 66 ]
Already a model system in evolutionary ecology due to their extensive parental care , burying beetles like N. vespilloides hunt for small vertebrate carcasses which they then bury before intricately preparing it as a resource for its larvae to breed on-these carcasses are scarce and ephemeral yet are necessary for burying beetles' reproductive success . Carcasses are highly contested resources with challenges being launched by other burying beetles and other scavenging species, as well as microbial decomposers . Older carcasses have a higher microbial load and thus have a lower quality as a breeding resource: larvae raised on these carcasses are smaller and in a worse nutritional state–at adulthood these beetles were also smaller, which in N. vespilloides reduces fitness. [ 14 ] Daniel Rozen et al. demonstrated in 2008 that N. vespilloides preferentially chooses newer carcasses (which tend to have a lower microbial load) over old carcasses, and if it is not possible to acquire one of these higher quality carcasses that they use pre and post-hatching parental care to reduce the challenge posed by microbes. [ 14 ] Sheena Cotter and Rebecca Kilner demonstrated that part of this anti-microbial parental care involved both parents smearing the carcass with antibacterial anal exudates: their 2009 work demonstrated that when beetles encounter a carcass they upregulate the antibacterial activity of their anal exudate by actively altering its composition ( lysozyme -like activity increases, phenoloxidase activity decreases), and that the specifics of this social immune system differed between the sexes: female exudate has greater antibacterial activity than males; widowed males increased the antibacterial activity of their exudate whilst a reduction was seen in widowed females. [ 37 ]
Cotter et al. went on to show the costliness of this social immune response-by providing females with microbe-infested carcasses, they found that the upregulation of antibacterial activity that followed led to a 16% decrease in lifetime reproductive output. [ 67 ] This significant reduction in fitness, due to both increased mortality and age-related dropoff in fecundity , explains why the antibacterial activity of the exudate is only induced and not present constitutively. [ 67 ] Further work revealed how a trade-off existed between investment in personal immunity vs investment in social immunity, i.e., upon injury, N. vespilloides upregulates its personal immune response whilst concomitantly reducing its social immune response. [ 68 ] Recently, the Kilner Group identified a gene associated with social immunity in N. vespilloides : the expression rate of Lys6 , a lysozyme, increases 1,409 times when breeding, and goes from the 5,967th most abundant transcript in the transcriptome of gut tissue to the 14th; it was also demonstrated that expression rates of Lys6 covary with the antibacterial activity of the anal exudate. [ 69 ] Social immunity efforts peaks during middle-age, in contrast to efforts in personal immunity increasing or being maintained with age in breeding burying beetles. [ 70 ]
The exudate of the larvae themselves also contains antibacterial substances, with activity peaking at hatching and declining as the larvae age. Rfemoving parents results in a downregulation of antibacterial effort, possibly due to the need to invest energy in other more important tasks that arise due to parental absence. [ 71 ]
Many researchers have noticed marked parallels between the more familiar personal immune systems of individual organisms (e.g. T and B lymphocytes ) and the social immune systems described above, and it is generally appreciated among ecological immunologists that rigorous comparative work between these two systems will increase of understanding of the evolution of social immunity. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Whilst the specific physiological mechanisms by which immunity is produced differ sharply between the individual and society, it is thought that at a "phenomenological" level the principles of parasite threat and response are similar: parasites must be detected rapidly, responses should differ depending on the parasite in question, spread of the infection must be limited and different components of the individual/society should be afforded different levels of protection depending on their relative fitness contribution. [ 4 ] Cremer was the first to do this systematically, and partitioned immunological phenomena into three categories: border defence (intake avoidance), soma defence (avoid establishment within non-reproductive components of an individual/society) and germ-line defence (avoid infection of the reproductive components of an individual/society). Example analogies from Cremer's paper are:
Other similarities include the immunological memory of the adaptive immune system in vertebrates and the observation that a similar collective memory (operating with a yet-to-be-explained mechanism) occurs in some insect societies e.g. individual Z. angusticollis survive M. anisopliae infections significantly more when they have been in contact with a previously infected conspecific, a 'social transfer of immunity' or 'social vaccination'. [ 4 ] [ 72 ] Transplant rejection caused by non-self major histocompatibility complexes is frequently thought to be a byproduct with no evolutionary function, however Cremer cites cases (such as the colonial star ascidian ( Botryllus schlosseri )) where recognizing foreign cells may have evolved as an adaptation - if so, then this could be analogous to the self-recognition systems in social insects which prevent brood parasitism and the worker policing behaviours which suppress 'social tumours'. [ 4 ] Specific immune cells in animals 'patrol' tissues looking for parasites, as do worker-caste individuals in colonies. [ 4 ]
Cotter and Kilner argue that not only is social immunity a useful concept to use when studying the major transitions in evolution (see below), that the origin of social immune systems might be considered a major transition itself. [ 5 ]
The transition from solitary living to group living (identified by John Maynard Smith as one of the seven major transitions in evolutionary history ) brought with it many fitness benefits (increased anti-predator vigilance, foraging benefits etc.) and the opportunity to exploit a vast array of new ecological niches, but group living also has its pitfalls. [ 2 ] [ 73 ] Numerous studies have demonstrated an increase in contact-transmitted parasite load with group size increase, [ 1 ] [ 73 ] and thus research has been done on the role of social immunity in the evolution of early group living. Empirical evidence already exists, from both interspecific and intraspecific comparative studies, that an increase in population density drives an increase in personal immune effort (density-dependent prophylaxis). [ 74 ] [ 75 ] [ 76 ] However, there is also good evidence that the evolution of social immunity leads to a trade-off between effort into personal immune responses vs. effort in social immune responses - physiological and genomic studies have shown that social conditions can lead to a reduction in personal immune effort. [ 1 ] Personal immunity in the Australian plague locust ( Chortoicetes terminifera ) decreases upon an increase in population density and increases when artificially isolated. [ 77 ] Genomic studies reveal that infected solitary S. gregaria express more genes involved in immunity than infected individuals in the gregarious phase, [ 78 ] Bombus terrestris workers also upregulate immune-related genes when experimentally isolated and there are three times more immune-related gene families in solitary insects than in the eusocial honeybees. [ 79 ]
Joël Meunier argued that the two seemingly contradictory relationships between personal immune effort and population density were a function of two assumptions implicit in the prediction that there should be a negative correlation between personal immune effort and group living:
Whilst advising that further studies in lots of different eusocial and non-eusocial taxa are required to better assess the validity of these assumptions, Meunier notes that the existence of a trade-off between personal and social immunity could be masked or erroneously 'discovered' in a population/species due to individual variation (e.g. low-quality individuals may not be able to afford relatively high investment into both immune systems), and thus recommends that the intrinsic quality of individuals should be controlled for if valid conclusions are to be drawn. [ 1 ]
To assess what current knowledge of social immune systems suggested about whether social immunity was a byproduct or driver of complex group living, Meunier delineated 30 different mechanisms of social immunity found in eusocial insects and looked for counterparts to these in presocial and solitary insects. [ 1 ] Supporting the hypothesis that social immunity was a driver and not a by-product of complex group living, ten mechanisms had counterparts in presocial insects and four in solitary species (though this does not imply that some mechanisms may evolve as a byproduct). [ 1 ] Evidence that social immunity mechanisms are selected for at least somewhat due to collective benefits is lacking though – possibly due to the difficulty in isolating the immune benefits from the other benefits that social immunity mechanisms often bestow (e.g. allogrooming inhibits the establishment of ectoparasites, but also improves the accuracy of nest mate recognition due to the sharing and thus homogenization of chemical signatures between group members), and the difficulty in experimentally separating direct fitness from indirect fitness, potentiated in eusocial taxa where sterile/non-reproductive individuals predominatee. [ 1 ] More studies on presocial taxa would allow for phyletic analyses to recover the actual path of evolution that different mechanisms of social immunity took. [ 1 ]
The origin of polyandry in nature and its adaptive value is a subject of ongoing controversy in evolutionary biology , partly due to the seemingly numerous costs it places on females - additional energetic and temporal allocation to reproduction, increased risk of predation, increased risk of sexually transmitted diseases and increased risk of physical harm caused by copulation/sexual coercion – for eusocial insects, the effects polyandry has on the colony member's coefficient of relatedness is also important, as reducing the relatedness of workers limits the power of kin selection to maintain the ultracooperative behaviours which are vital to a colonies' success. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] One hypothesis for the evolution of polyandry draws on the disease resistance that increased genetic diversity supposedly brings for a group, and a growing body of evidence from insect taxa supports this hypothesis, some of it discussed above. [ 80 ] [ 82 ]
Social immunity is the evolution of an additional level of immunity in the colonies of eusocial insects (some bees and wasps , all ants and termites ). [ 83 ] [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Social immunity includes collective disease defences in other stable societies, including those of primates , [ 86 ] and has also been broadened to include other social interactions, such as parental care . [ 87 ] It is a recently developed concept. [ 88 ]
Social immunity provides an integrated approach for the study of disease dynamics in societies, combining both the behaviour and physiology (including molecular-level processes) of all group members and their social interactions. It thereby links the fields of social evolution and ecological immunology . Social immunity also affects epidemiology , as it can impact both the course of an infection at the individual level, as well as the spread of disease within the group.
Social immunity differs from similar phenomena that can occur in groups that are not truly social (e.g. herding animals). These include (i) density dependent prophylaxis, [ 89 ] which is the up regulation of the individual immunity of group members under temporal crowding, and (ii) herd immunity , which is the protection of susceptible individuals in an otherwise immune group, where pathogens are unable to spread due to the high ratio of immune to susceptible hosts. [ 84 ] Further, although social immunity can be achieved through behavioural, physiological or organisational defences, these components are not mutually exclusive and often overlap. For example, organisational defences, such as an altered interaction network that influences disease spread, emerge from chemical and behavioural processes. [ 90 ]
Sociality, although a very successful way of life, is thought to increase the per-individual risk of acquiring disease, simply because close contact with conspecifics is a key transmission route for infectious diseases . [ 91 ] As social organisms are often densely aggregated and exhibit high levels of interaction, pathogens can more easily spread from infectious to susceptible individuals. [ 92 ] The intimate interactions often found in social insects, such as the sharing of food through regurgitation, are further possible routes of pathogen transmission. [ 88 ] As the members of social groups are typically closely related, they are more likely to be susceptible to the same pathogens. [ 93 ] This effect is compounded when overlapping generations are present (such as in social insect colonies and primate groups), which facilitates the horizontal transmission of pathogens from the older generation to the next. [ 93 ] In the case of species that live in nests/burrows, stable, homeostatic temperatures and humidity may create ideal conditions for pathogen growth. [ 93 ]
Disease risk is further affected by the ecology . For example, many social insects nest and forage in habitats that are rich in pathogens, such as soil or rotting wood, exposing them to a plethora of microparasites , e.g. fungi , bacteria , viruses and macroparasites , e.g. mites and nematodes . [ 93 ] In addition, shared food resources, such as flowers, can act as disease hubs for social insect pollinators , promoting both interspecific and intraspecific pathogen transmission. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] This may be a contributing factor in the spread of emergent infectious diseases in bees.
All of these factors combined can therefore contribute to rapid disease spread following an outbreak, and, if transmission is not controlled, an epizootic (an animal epidemic ) may result. Hence, social immunity has evolved to reduce and mitigate this risk.
Social insects have evolved an array of sanitary behaviours to keep their nests clean, thereby reducing the probability of parasite establishment and spread within the colony. [ 88 ] Such behaviours can be employed either prophylactically , or actively, upon demand. For example, social insects can incorporate materials with antimicrobial properties into their nest, such as conifer resin , [ 96 ] [ 97 ] or faecal pellets that contain symbiont derived antimicrobials . [ 98 ] [ 99 ] [ 100 ] [ 101 ] These materials reduce the growth and density of many detrimental bacteria and fungi. Antimicrobial substances can also be self-produced. Secretions from the metapleural glands of ants and volatile chemical components produced by termites have been shown to inhibit fungal germination and growth. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] [ 104 ] [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Another important component of nest hygiene is waste management, which involves strict spatial separation of clean nest areas and waste dumps. [ 88 ] Social insect colonies often deposit their waste outside of the nest, or in special compartments, including waste chambers for food leftovers, “toilets” for defecation [ 107 ] and “graveyards”, where dead individuals are deposited, reducing the probability of parasite transmission from potentially infected cadavers . [ 108 ] [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] [ 112 ] Where social insects place their waste is also important. For example, leaf cutting ants living in xeric conditions deposit their waste outside the nest, whilst species living in the tropics tend to keep it in special chambers within the nest. It has been proposed that this difference is related to the likelihood that the external environment reduces or enhances microbial growth. [ 113 ] For xeric-living ants, placing waste outside will tend to inhibit infectious material, as microbes are usually killed under hot, dry conditions. On the other hand, placing waste into warm, humid environments will promote microbial growth and disease transmission, so it may be safer for ants living in the topics to contain their waste within the nest. Honeybees have evolved the ability to actively maintain a constant temperature within their hives to ensure optimal brood development. Upon exposure to Ascoshpaera apis , a heat sensitive fungal pathogen that causes chalk brood, honeybees increase the temperature of the brood combs, thereby creating conditions that disfavour the growth of the pathogen. This "social fever" is performed before symptoms of the disease are expressed and can therefore be viewed as a preventative measure to avoid chalk brood outbreaks in the colony. [ 114 ]
Sanitary care reduces the risk of infection for group members and can slow the course of disease. For example, grooming is the first line of defence against externally-infected pathogens such as entomopathogenic fungi , whose infectious conidia can be mechanically removed through self- and allogrooming (social grooming) to prevent infection. As conidia of such fungi only loosely attach to the cuticle of the host to begin with, [ 116 ] grooming can dramatically reduce the number of infective stages. [ 117 ] [ 118 ] Although grooming is also performed often in the absence of a pathogen, it is an adaptive response, with both the frequency and duration of grooming (self and allo) increasing when pathogen exposure occurs. In several species of social insect, allogrooming of contaminated workers has been shown to dramatically improve survival, compared to single workers that can only conduct self-grooming. [ 119 ] [ 120 ] [ 121 ] [ 122 ]
In the case of ants, pathogens large enough to be removed by grooming are first collected into the infrabuccal pocket (found in the mouth), which prevents the pathogens entering the digestive system. [ 118 ] In the pocket, they may be mixed labial gland secretions or with poison the ants have taken up into their mouths. These compounds reduce germination viability, rendering conidia non-infectious when later expelled as an infrabuccal pellet. [ 118 ] In the case of termites, pathogens removed during grooming are not filtered out before entering the gut, but are allowed to pass through the digestive tract. Symbiotic microorganisms in the hindgut of the termite are also able to deactivate pathogens, rendering them non-infectious when they are excreted. [ 123 ]
In addition to grooming, social insects can apply host- and symbiont-derived antimicrobial compounds to themselves and each other to inhibit pathogen growth or germination. [ 110 ] [ 118 ] [ 124 ] In ants, the application of antimicrobials is often performed in conjunction with grooming, to provide simultaneous mechanical removal and chemical treatment of pathogens. [ 118 ] [ 125 ] In ants, poison can be taken up into the mouth from the acidopore (the exit of the poison producing gland at the tip of the abdomen), and stored in the mouth, to be redistributed whilst grooming. [ 118 ] In the ant Lasius neglectus , the poison produced by the acidopore is composed largely of formic acid (60%), but also contains acetic acid (2%). Inhibition assays of the poison droplet against the fungal pathogen Metarhizium found that the formic acid alone substantially reduces fungal conidia viability, but that all poison components work synergistically to inhibit conidia viability, by as much as 96%. [ 118 ]
Infected individuals and diseased corpses pose a particular risk for social insects because they can act a source of infection for the rest of the colony. [ 117 ] [ 126 ] [ 127 ] As mentioned above, dead nestmates are typically removed from the nest to reduce the potential risk of disease transmission. [ 112 ] Infected or not, ants that are close to death can also voluntarily remove themselves from the colony to limit this risk. [ 128 ] [ 129 ] Honeybees can reduce social interactions with infected nest mates, [ 130 ] actively drag them out of the hive, [ 131 ] and may bar them from entering at all. [ 132 ] "Hygienic behaviour" is the specific removal of infected brood from the colony and has been reported in both honeybees and ants. [ 120 ] [ 133 ] In honeybees, colonies have been artificially selected to perform this behavior faster. These "hygienic" hives have improved recovery rates following brood infections, as the earlier infected brood is removed, the less likely it is to have become contagious already. [ 126 ] Cannibalism of infected nest mates is an effective behaviour in termites, as ingested infectious material is destroyed by antimicrobial enzymes present in their guts. [ 110 ] [ 123 ] [ 134 ] These enzymes function by breaking down the cell walls of pathogenic fungi, for example, and are produced both by the termite itself and their gut microbiota. [ 123 ] If there are too many corpses to cannibalise, termites bury them in the nest instead. Like removal in ants and bees, this isolates the corpses to contain the pathogen, but does not prevent their replication. [ 110 ] Some fungal pathogens (e.g. Ophiocordyceps , Pandora ) manipulate their ant hosts into leaving the nest and climbing plant stems surrounding the colony. [ 135 ] There, attached to the stem, they die and rain down new spores onto healthy foragers. [ 136 ] To combat these fungi, healthy ants actively search for corpses on plant stems and attempt to remove them before they can release their spores [ 137 ]
Immunisation is a reduced susceptibility to a parasite upon secondary exposure to the same parasite. The past decade has revealed that immunisation occurs in invertebrates and is active against a wide range of parasites. It occurs in two forms: (i) specific immune priming particular parasite or (ii) a general immune up-regulation that promotes unspecific protection against a broad range of parasites. In any case, the underlying mechanisms of immunisation in invertebrates are still mostly elusive. In social animals, immunisation is not restricted to the level of the individual, but can also occur at the society level, via 'social immunisation'. [ 84 ] Social immunisation occurs when some proportion of the group's members are exposed to a parasite, which then leads to the protection of the whole group, upon secondary contact to the same parasite. Social immunisation has been so far described in a dampwood termite -fungus system, [ 138 ] a garden ant -fungus system [ 139 ] [ 140 ] and a carpenter ant –bacterium system. [ 141 ] In all cases, social contact with pathogen-exposed individuals promoted reduced susceptibility in their nestmates (increased survival), upon subsequent exposure to the same pathogen. In the ant-fungus [ 140 ] and termite-fungus [ 142 ] systems, social immunisation was shown to be caused by the transfer of fungal conidia during allogrooming, from the exposed insects to nestmates performing grooming. This contamination resulted in low-level infections of the fungus in the nestmates, which stimulated their immune system, and protected them against subsequent lethal exposures to the same pathogen. This method of immunisation parallels variolation , an early form of human vaccination , which used live pathogens to protect patients against, for example, smallpox [ 140 ]
Organisational disease defence — or organisational immunity — refers to patterns of social interactions which could, hypothetically, mitigate disease transmission in a social group. [ 90 ] As disease transmission occurs through social interactions, changes in the type and frequency of these interactions are expected to modulate disease spread. [ 143 ] Organisational immunity is predicted to have both a constitutive and an induced component. The innate, organisational substructure of social insect colonies may provide constitutional protection of the most valuable colony members, the queens and brood, as disease will be contained within subgroups. Social insect colonies are segregated into worker groups that experience different disease hazards, where the young and reproductive individuals interact minimally with the workers performing the tasks with higher disease risk (e.g. foragers). [ 88 ] [ 144 ] This segregation can arise as a result of the physical properties of the nest [ 145 ] or the differences in space usage of the individuals. [ 146 ] It can also result from age- or task-biased interactions. [ 147 ] Distinct activity patterns between group members (e.g. individuals with relatively higher number of interactions, or high number of interaction partners) has also been hypothesized to influence disease spread. [ 148 ] It is further assumed that social insects may further modulate their interaction networks upon disease coming into the colony. However, the organisational immunity hypothesis is currently mainly supported by theoretical models and awaits empirical testing. [ 90 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_immunity |
Social information architecture , also known as social iA , [ citation needed ] is a sub-domain of information architecture which deals with the social aspects of conceptualizing, modeling and organizing information. It has become more relevant because of the rise of social media and Web 2.0 in recent times. [ 1 ]
There are different approaches to the explanation of social information architecture.
Architects designing a physical community space, have to consider how the architecture will shape social interactions. A long hallway of offices creates an utterly different dynamic than desks with arranged in an open space. One might foster individuality, privacy, propriety; the other: collaboration, distraction, communalism.
Still, physical spaces can be flexibly repurposed and worked around if the inhabitants desire a social dynamic not instantly afforded by the space. Office doors can be left open to invite easier interaction. Partitions can be raised between adjacent desks to limit distraction and increase privacy.
That's physical architecture. The information architectures of online communities are far more deterministic and far less flexible. They literally define the social architecture by pre-specifying in immutable computer code what information you have access to, who you can talk to, where you can go. In the online world, information architecture = social architecture. [ 2 ]
All major brands use information architecture to market their products online, it is then commonly wrapped under the umbrella phrase 'digital strategy'. Information architecture used for strategic purposes encompasses brand SEO , strategic placement of virals, social media presence etc.
Charities, news outlets and social dialogue forums can make a much more specific use of the same tools for positive and important social purposes. Social Information Architecture is perceived as the socially conscious wing of commercial information architecture [ 3 ] and function to exchange information and ideas between people and groups.
Social iA can pick up on conflicting issues that are treated with misunderstanding between cultures and leaves individuals and societies vulnerable to exploitation and manipulation. Since the net has such a far reach it is obvious to use it for meaningful and coordinated social dialogue.
Example of such issues are faith, environment, politics, climate change, war, injustice and other social challenges. Information architecture can help create frameworks in which sharing information brings people together, inspires and encourages them to participate in a forward thinking and unfragmented way. One of its core activities is to spread messages that bring people from opposite sites of social and cultural spectrums together and to confront uncomfortable subject head on.
Social iA utilizes a variety of Web2.0 applications to filter relevant or valuable information and weave them in appropriate information repository or provide feedback to interesting channels. Social iA makes strategic use of Search Engines, Social Media, Google Algorithms, as well as websites, video & news channels. It ‘reads’ or 'listens' to social conversations and search engine queries and engages with the net actively to gather clues about the world's pulse on the internet. It assesses data, social & political trends, and respond with targeted campaigns to give people ideas, as well as help people with making sense of information.
Dan Brown in his paper 8 Principals of Social Information Architecture [ 4 ] enlists the following principals: 1. The principle of objects: Treat content as a living, breathing thing,
with a lifecycle, behaviors and attributes. 2. The principle of choices: Create pages that offer meaningful choices to users, keeping the range of choices available focused on a particular task. 3. The principle of disclosure: Show only enough information to help
people understand what kinds of information they'll find as they dig
deeper. 4. The principle of exemplars: Describe the contents of categories by
showing examples of the contents. 5. The principle of front doors: Assume at least half of the website's
visitors will come through some page other than the home page. 6. The principle of multiple classification: Offer users several different classification schemes to browse the site's content. 7. The principle of focused navigation: Don't mix apples and oranges
in your navigation scheme. 8. The principle of growth: Assume the content you have today is a
small fraction of the content you will have tomorrow.
Social information architecture has many potentials in terms of fostering social connections and how information is shared in social spaces on the web.
Wodtke, Christina and Govella, Austin Information Architecture: Blueprints for the Web (2009) Second Edition, Published by New Riders | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_information_architecture |
Social innovations are new social practices that aim to meet social needs in a better way than the existing solutions, [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] resulting from - for example - working conditions , education , community development or health . These ideas are created with the goal of extending and strengthening civil society . Social innovation includes the social processes of innovation , such as open source methods and techniques and also the innovations which have a social purpose —like activism , crowdfunding , time-based currency , telehealth , cohousing , coworking , universal basic income , collaborative consumption , social enterprise , participatory budgeting , repair Café , virtual volunteering , microcredit , or distance learning . There are many definitions of social innovation, however, they usually include the broad criteria about social objectives, social interaction between actors or actor diversity, social outputs, and innovativeness (The innovation should be at least "new" to the beneficiaries it targets, but it does not have to be new to the world). Different definitions include different combinations and different number of these criteria (e.g. EU is using definition, stressing out social objectives and actors interaction). [ 4 ] Transformative social innovation not only introduces new approaches to seemingly intractable problems, but is successful in changing the social institutions that created the problem in the first place. [ 5 ]
According to Herrero de Egaña B., social innovation is defined as "new or novel ways that society has to deal with Relevant Social Challenges (RSCh), that are more effective, efficient and sustainable or that generate greater impact than the previous ones and that contribute to making it stronger and more articulated". [ 6 ]
Prominent innovators associated with the term include Pakistani Akhter Hameed Khan , Bangladeshi Muhammad Yunus , the founder of Grameen Bank which pioneered the concept of microcredit for supporting innovations in many developing countries such as Asia , Africa and Latin America , [ 7 ] and inspired programs like the Jindal Centre for Social Innovation & Entrepreneurship and Infolady Social Entrepreneurship Programme [ 8 ] [ 9 ] of Dnet (A Social Enterprise).
Geoff Mulgan defines social innovation as consisting of "activities and services that are motivated by the goal of meeting a social need and that are predominantly developed and diffused through organisations whose primary purposes are social." [ 10 ] Social innovation is understood in contrast to business innovation, which is aimed at profit maximization. The European Commission cites it as "another way to produce value, with less focus on financial profit and more on real demands or needs." [ 11 ] More specifically, it defines social innovation as comprising "innovations that are social in both their ends and their means. They are innovations that are not only good for society but also enhance individuals’ capacity to act." [ 12 ]
Social Innovation has an inter-sectoral approach and is universally applicable. [ 13 ] Social Innovations are launched by a variety of actors, including research institutions, companies and independent organizations, which tend to use their respective definitions of Social Innovation. Therefore, it is worth discussing what distinguishes it from other forms of social work or innovation .
Social Innovation focuses on the process of innovation, how innovation and change take shape (as opposed to the more traditional definition of innovation, giving priority to the internal organization of firms and their productivity). It likewise centers on new work and new forms of cooperation (business models), [ 14 ] especially on those that work towards the attainment of a sustainable society.
Social innovation can take place within government ; the for-profit sector, the nonprofit sector (also known as the third sector), or in the spaces between them. Higher education institutions, such as the Cambridge Centre for Social Innovation, Cambridge Judge Business School, University of Cambridge , leverage the power of research to support this aim. Research has focused on the types of platforms needed to facilitate such cross-sector collaborative social innovation. [ 15 ] Historical studies suggest that transforming any system may take many years, and requires not only the capacity for multiple partnerships, but also for engaging policy, legal and economic institutions. [ 16 ]
Social entrepreneurship , like social enterprise, is typically in the nonprofit sector excluding both for-profit and public organizations. Both social entrepreneurship and social enterprise are important contributions to social innovation by creating social value and introducing new ways of achieving goals. Social entrepreneurship brings "new patterns and possibilities for innovation" and are willing to do things that existing organizations are not willing to do. [ 17 ]
Social innovation success is often shaped by strategic alliances. [ 18 ] Those startups motivated by a social mission can improve their business performance via equity and non-equity strategic alliances, to enhance growth and foster social innovation. However, sustainable growth requires to attract the right investments at the right stage of development of the startup. Cacciolatti et al. (2020) developed a framework based on international business theory to explain the mechanisms regulating strategic alliances and firm performance in the context of startups with a social mission. [ 19 ]
Social innovation is often an effort of mental creativity which involves fluency and flexibility from a wide range of disciplines. The act of social innovation in a sector is mostly connected with diverse disciplines within the society. The social innovation theory of 'connected difference' emphasizes three key dimensions to social innovation. [ 10 ] First, innovations are usually new combinations or hybrids of existing elements, rather than completely new. Second, their practice involves cutting across organizational or disciplinary boundaries. Lastly, they leave behind compelling new relationships between previously separate individuals and groups. [ 20 ] Social innovation is also gaining visibility within academia. [ 1 ]
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, far-reaching investments in scientific research and community infrastructure laid the groundwork for many social and economic improvements in society. Despite the challenges of industrialisation , optimism about the power of technology to promote positive change created momentum for social innovation projects in healthcare, housing, sanitation, public infrastructure, communication, and transportation. [ 21 ]
Since 2014, a subdomain of social innovation has been defined in relation to the introduction of digital technologies. The subdomain is called digital social innovation and refers to "a type of social and collaborative innovation in which innovators, users and communities collaborate using digital technologies to co-create knowledge and solutions for a wide range of social needs and at a scale and speed that was unimaginable before the rise of the Internet". [ 22 ]
Social innovation was discussed in the writings of figures such as Peter Drucker and Michael Young (founder of the Open University and dozens of other organizations) in the 1960s. [ 23 ] It also appeared in the work of French writers in the 1970s, such as Pierre Rosanvallon , Jacques Fournier , and Jacques Attali . [ 24 ] However, the themes and concepts in social innovation existed long before. Benjamin Franklin , for example, talked about small modifications within the social organization of communities [ 25 ] that could help to solve everyday problems. Many radical 19th century reformers like Robert Owen , founder of the cooperative movement, promoted innovation in the social field and all of the great sociologists including Karl Marx , Max Weber and Émile Durkheim focused attention on broader processes of social change . In recent years, the work of Gabriel Tarde on the concept of imitation has been rediscovered by social scientists in order to better understand social innovation and its relation to social change. [ 26 ] Other theories of innovation became prominent in the 20th century, many of which had social implications, without putting social progress at the center of the theory. Joseph Schumpeter , for example, addressed the process of innovation directly with his theory of creative destruction and his definition of entrepreneurs as people who combined existing elements in new ways to create a new product or service. Beginning in the 1980s, writers on technological change increasingly addressed how social factors affect technology diffusion. [ 27 ]
The article "Rediscovering Social Innovation" mentions how social innovations are dependent on history and the change in institutions. The article discusses the ten recent social innovations reflecting current change to include:
Academic research, blogs and websites feature social innovation, along with organizations working on the boundaries of research and practical action. Topics include:
The United States created an Office for Social Innovation in the White House , which is funding projects that combine public and private resources. [ 42 ] with foundations that support social innovation. [ 43 ] In 2010, the US government listed 11 investments made by its ' Social Innovation Fund ', with public funding more than matched by philanthropic organizations. This fund focuses on partnerships with charities, social enterprises , and business. [ 42 ] Moreover, educational institutions are now increasingly supporting teaching and research in the area of social innovation. In addition to pioneered efforts by institutions such as the Harvard Business School's Initiative on Social Enterprise (launched 1993) [ 44 ] and Said Business School 's Skoll Centre for Social Entrepreneurship (launched 2003), [ 45 ] INSEAD [ 46 ] and other universities now offer short-term programs in Social Innovation, and a few such as Cambridge Centre for Social Innovation, Cambridge Judge Business School, University of Cambridge , and Goldsmiths, University of London [ 47 ] offer Masters courses dedicated entirely to the study of theory and practice in relation to social entrepreneurship and innovation. The Cambridge Centre for Social Innovation's aim is to build best practices across business, civil society, policy and academia for a more equitable, inclusive and sustainable world.
Public policy makers support social innovation in the UK , Australia , China and Denmark , as well. [ 48 ] The European Union 's innovation strategy [ 49 ] was the first well-funded research and development strategy to emphasize social innovation. [ 50 ]
In 2002, the South Australian government, led by Premier and Social Inclusion Minister Mike Rann , embraced a ten-year social innovation strategy with big investments and a focus on reform in areas such as homelessness , school retention, mental health and disability services.
The Common Ground [ 51 ] and Street to Home homelessness initiatives and the Australian Centre for Social Innovation [ 52 ] were established in Adelaide and many reforms trialed in South Australia have been adopted nationally throughout Australia . This initiative, headed by Monsignor David Cappo , South Australia's Social Inclusion Commissioner, was advised by 'Thinkers in Residence' Geoff Mulgan and New York social entrepreneur Rosanne Haggerty .
Lin and Chen, in "The Impact of Societal and Social innovation: a case-based approach" have argued that social innovation's goal is to produce actions that are "socially valuable and good for many". [ 53 ]
In governance, its main role is to enhance and maximize the trust of citizens through active involvement in society, whether in the public or private sphere. [ 53 ] Social innovation's role in curbing corruption is carried out through two main mediums. Firstly, it is institutionalized through actors (in the public and the private sectors), and secondly, it is executed with new tools available, specifically ICTs.
Literature on social innovation in relation to territorial/ regional development covers innovation in the social economy , i.e. strategies for satisfaction of human needs; and innovation in the sense of transforming and/or sustaining social relations , especially governance relations at the regional and local level. Beginning in the late 1980s, Jean-Louis Laville and Frank Moulaert researched social innovation. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] In Canada CRISES [ 56 ] initiated this type of research. Another, larger project was SINGOCOM [ 57 ] a European Commission Framework 5 project, which pioneered so-called "Alternative Models for Local Innovation" (ALMOLIN). These models were further elaborated through community actions covered by KATARSIS [ 58 ] and SOCIAL POLIS. [ 59 ] More recent works focus on the societal role of the economic life in terms of innovations in social practices and social relations at the local and regional levels. Social Innovation, therefore, is increasingly seen as a process and a strategy to foster human development through solidarity, cooperation, and cultural diversity . [ 60 ] [ 61 ]
The EU funded URBACT programme is designed to help cities to exchange and learn around urban policies. The URBACT methodology can be seen as a social innovation action planning approach. A typical URBACT network would have ten cities working on a specific theme such as active inclusion or regenerating disadvantaged neighbourhoods. They examine good practice and then working through a local support group use the results to inform their local action plan. [ 62 ]
The Social Innovation Europe [ 63 ] initiative, funded by the European Commission 's Directorate General for Enterprise and Industry , was set up to map social innovation at a European level, by creating a directory of grass-roots examples of social innovation from across the 27 member states.
The European Commission funded the SELUSI study between 2008 - 2013 that looked at over 550 social ventures and examined how these insights can spark change and innovation at a much larger scale. It looked at business models of social ventures in five countries - UK being one of them – identifying which specific practices evolved by social ventures are particularly successful, and how and by whom – be it social enterprise, public sector body or mainstream business – they can be most effectively scaled-up.
The European Commission has launched a new initiative (project) in 2013 under FP7 funding, with the aim to build a network of incubators for social innovation across regions and countries. This network facilitates identification of 300 social innovation examples and facilitates its scaling. The network is organised in a way to identify new models for scaling of social innovations across various geographical clusters in collaboration with each other, communicating the ideas, finding the tools and funds, developing business plans and models in order to promote the new promising ideas throughout Europe . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_innovation |
Social login is a form of single sign-on using existing information from a social networking service such as Facebook , Twitter or Google , to login to a third party website instead of creating a new login account specifically for that website. It is designed to simplify logins for end users as well as provide more reliable demographic information to web developers. [ 1 ]
Social login links accounts from one or more social networking services to a website, typically using either a plug-in or a widget . [ 2 ] By selecting the desired social networking service, the user simply uses his or her login for that service to sign on to the website. This, in turn, negates the need for the end user to remember login information for multiple electronic commerce and other websites while providing site owners with uniform demographic information as provided by the social networking service. Many sites which offer social login also offer more traditional online registration for those who either desire it or who do not have an account with a compatible social networking service (and therefore would be precluded from creating an account with the website).
Social login can be implemented strictly as an authentication system using standards such as OpenID or SAML . For consumer websites that offer social functionality to users, social login is often implemented using the OAuth standard. OAuth is a secure authorization protocol which is commonly used in conjunction with authentication to grant 3rd party applications a " session token " allowing them to make API calls to providers on the user's behalf. Sites using the social login in this manner typically offer social features such as commenting, sharing, reactions and gamification .
While social login can be extended to corporate websites, [ 3 ] the majority of social networks and consumer-based identity providers allow self-asserted identities. For this reason, social login is generally not used for strict, highly secure applications such as those in banking or health.
Studies have shown that website registration forms are inefficient as many people provide false data, forget their login information for the site or simply decline to register in the first place. A study conducted in 2011 by Janrain and Blue Research found that 77 percent of consumers favored social login as a means of authentication over more traditional online registration methods. [ 4 ] Additional benefits:
Utilizing social login through platforms such as Facebook may unintentionally render third-party websites useless within certain libraries, schools, or workplaces which block social networking services for productivity reasons. It can also cause difficulties in countries with active censorship regimes, such as China and its " Golden Shield Project ", where the third party website may not be actively censored, but is effectively blocked if a user's social login is blocked. [ 6 ]
There are several other risks that come with using social login tools. These logins are also a new frontier for fraud and account abuse as attackers use sophisticated means to hack these authentication mechanisms. [ 7 ] This can result in an unwanted increase in fraudulent account creations, or worse; attackers successfully stealing social media account credentials from legitimate users. One such way that social media accounts are exploited is when users are enticed to download malicious browser extensions that request read and write permissions on all websites. These users are not aware that later on, typically a week or so after being installed, the extensions will then download some background Javascript malware from its command and control site to run on the user's browser. From then on, these malware infected browsers can effectively be controlled remotely. These extensions will then wait until the user logs into a social media or another online account, and using those tokens or credentials will sign up for other online accounts without the rightful user's express permission.
In March 2012, a research paper [ 8 ] reported an extensive study on the security of social login mechanisms. The authors found 8 serious logic flaws in high-profile ID providers and relying party websites, such as OpenID (including Google ID and PayPal Access), Facebook , Janrain , Freelancer , FarmVille , Sears.com , etc. Because the researchers informed ID providers and the third party websites that relied on the service prior to public announcement of the discovery of the flaws, the vulnerabilities were corrected, and there have been no security breaches reported. [ 9 ] This research concludes that the overall security quality of SSO deployments seems worrisome.
Moreover, social logins are often implemented in an insecure way. Users, in this case, have to trust every application which implemented this feature to handle their identifier confidentially. [ 10 ]
Furthermore, by placing reliance on an account which is operable on many websites, social login creates a single point of failure, thus considerably augmenting the damage that would be caused were the account to be hacked.
Here is a list of services that provide social login features which they encourage other websites to use. Related are federated identity login providers . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_login |
Social motility describes the motile movement of groups of cells that communicate with each other to coordinate movement based on external stimuli. There are multiple varieties of each kingdom that express social motility that provides a unique evolutionary advantages that other species do not possess. This has made them lethal killers such as African trypanosomiasis , [ 1 ] or Myxobacteria . [ 2 ] These evolutionary advantages have proven to increase survival rate among socially motile bacteria whether it be the ability to evade predators [ 3 ] or communication within a swarm to form spores for long term hibernation in times of low nutrients or toxic environments. [ 4 ]
Motility assays can be utilized to quantitatively measure the macroscopic motility of a specimen. To perform a motility assay, semi-solid agar is inoculated with a small amount of a liquid suspension containing the specimen of interest. Over time, bacteria that are non-motile will remain near the initial inoculation site, while motile bacteria will spread along the media, forming a visible blur. The radius of the area of motility can be measured and compared between specimens, while the spatial patterns and spread of the visible area of motility can be altered by adding low concentrations of a known chemoattractant or chemorepellent to the medium. [ 5 ] The motility of a species can also be measured microscopically, giving more insight into the movement of individual cells. Colonies can be examined under a microscope by using a thin layer of solidified nutrient media and a glass coverslip to create an interstitial interface at which active colony expansion can occur. [ 6 ] This allows for the visualization of individual cells and the identification of different forms of bacterial motility present in a colony.
Bacterial cells are able to communicate with one another through the use of chemical messengers. These chemical messengers are passed from one cell to the next to control factors such as virulence, growth and nutrient conditions, etc. As first discovered in plants, diffusible signal factors (DSFs) have been found in bacteria such as Burkholderia cenocepacia and Pseudomonas aeruginosa . [ 7 ] When individual cells are stimulated by DSF, it causes them to release their own DSF to spread the signal further and also to generate a response to the DSF often seen as growth, movement, or sporulation in unfavorable growth conditions. Via these chemical messengers, swarms of bacteria are able to increase the rate of survival compared to single cell bacteria on their own.
Traveling in groups, often referred to as swarms, is beneficial to the organism. For instance, when Myxobacteria swarms and feeds on prey, all individual cells release hydrolytic enzymes. This abundance of metabolic enzymes allows the swarm to easily degrade and engulf the prey. [ 2 ] Interactions between separate species of organisms in a given environment is very common. Production of toxins, usually in the form of antibodies, allows for cells to ward off other organisms from infringing on their niche. Similar to the combined release of degrading enzymes, antibodies allow for a colony of bacteria to fight off surrounding organisms in the same habitat.
Increased survival rates are seen in motile bacteria. This can be attributed to factors such as Chemotaxis , bacteria's ability to sense and migrate towards nutrients. The Chemotaxis mechanism can be amplified by social motility to alert all cells in the cluster of bacteria to move towards nutrients. The same is true of any toxic substances and the avoidance of that toxic environment by motile bacteria.
Phototaxis is a similar intracellular process to chemotaxis, and involves the directed movement of organisms in response to light. Prokaryotes are unable to sense the exact direction of light, but have still evolved mechanisms to sense and respond to the light-intensity gradient. Some halophilic archaebacteria, such as Halobacterium salinarum , use sensory rhodopsins as receptors for light and can help direct bacterial swims in areas with steep light gradients. [ 8 ] This process is also present in eukaryotic organisms such as the green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii which using phototaxis to drive movement towards light to increase photosynthesis or away from areas of bright light to avoid damage to the molecular processes involved in photosynthesis. [ 9 ]
Some organisms use social motility as a way to reproduce. One such organism is the slime mold Dictostelium discoideum , which forms a mobile “slug” via the aggregation of many individual amoebas. This process begins by one amoeba releasing a cyclic AMP (cAMP) signal during periods of stress, resulting in neighboring amoebas moving to this higher cAMP concentration through chemotaxis and releasing their own cAMP signals. The amoebas eventually aggregate into a single “slug,” which responds to moisture and light gradients as it searches for a good place to form a reproductive stalk and produce spores. [ 10 ]
Swarming motility is the coordinated movement of bacteria along a solid/semisolid surface. Swarming motility can usually be observed in a laboratory setting, depending on the conditions of media nutrient concentration, and the viscosity of the surface of the media. More information on swarming motility can be found here. [ 11 ]
Mechanisms that drive gliding motility are still unknown. However, despite lacking flagella , pili , and fimbriae , bacteria such as Myxococcus xanthus are able to move across surfaces in a gliding motion. Close studies of the myxococcus xanthus has proposed ideas of how the bacteria are able to move across surfaces. [ 12 ] Inner membrane protein complexes, such as AgmU, propel the organism forward as these protein complexes function similar to the flagella complex of other motile organisms. These protein complexes, powered by a proton motive force, rotate within the membrane allowing cells to glide over surfaces.
Built for use by many in the bacterial world, Twitching Motility is an important tool that bacteria use to move across moist surfaces. Twitching Motility uses a type IV pili that extends, tethers to a surface, and then pulls the bacteria forward. This allows for quicker growth across biofilms and fruiting bodies. Type IV pili is run by over forty genes that regulate this type of motility. [ 13 ] Myxococcus xanthus ability to use gliding motility to move is very similar to Pseudomonas aeruginosa twitching motility. [1] Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a very motile bacteria species but it has some drawbacks, in one experiment a team of researchers discovered that if they put pressure on colonies that exhibited the quickest motility it led to decreased production of biofilm formation but drastically increased rates of motility. They then compared their quickest strain to wild type species to see if there is a need for higher rates of motility in the environment but none came close. Overall increasing speeds did not increase the chance for survival in the long run. [ 14 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_motility |
Social organism is a sociological concept, or model, wherein a society or social structure is regarded as a "living organism". Individuals interacting through the various entities comprising a society, such as law , family , crime , etc., are considered as they interact with other entities of the society to meet its needs. Every entity of a society, or social organism, has a function in helping maintain the organism's stability and cohesiveness.
The model, or concept, of society-as-organism is traced by Walter M. Simon from Plato ('the organic theory of society'), [ 1 ] and by George R. MacLay from Aristotle (384–322 BCE) through 19th-century and later thinkers, including the French philosopher and founder of sociology , Auguste Comte , the Scottish essayist, historian and philosopher Thomas Carlyle , [ 2 ] the English philosopher and polymath Herbert Spencer , [ 3 ] and the French sociologist Émile Durkheim . [ 4 ]
According to Durkheim, the more specialized the function of an organism or society, the greater its development, and vice versa. The three core activities of a society are culture , politics , and economics . Societal health depends on the harmonious interworking of these three activities. [ 4 ]
This concept was further developed beginning in 1904, over the next two decades, by the Austrian philosopher and social reformer Rudolf Steiner in his lectures, essays, and books on the Threefold Social Order . The " health " of a social organism can be thought of as a function of the interaction of culture, politics and rights, and economics, which in theory can be studied, modeled, and analyzed. [ 4 ]
During his work on social order, Steiner developed his "Fundamental Social Law" of economic systems: Most of all,... our times are suffering from the lack of any basic social understanding of how work can be incorporated into the social organism correctly, so that everything we do is truly performed for the sake of our fellow human beings. We can acquire this understanding only by learning to really insert our 'I' into the human community. New social forms will not be provided by nature but can emerge only from the human 'I' through real, person-to-person understanding—that is, when the needs of others become a matter of direct experience for us. [ 5 ]
David Sloan Wilson , in his 2002 book, Darwin's Cathedral , applies his multilevel selection theory to social groups and proposes to think of society as an organism. Human groups thus function as single units rather than mere collections of individuals. He claims that organisms survive and reproduce in their environments and that human groups in general, and religious groups in particular, qualify as organismic in this sense . [ 6 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_organism |
The social positioning method (SPM) studies space-time behaviour by analysing the location coordinates of mobile phones and the social characteristics of the people carrying them. The SPM methods and experiments were developed in Estonia by Positium and Institute of Geography University of Tartu during 2003-2006. [ 1 ]
The biggest advantage of mobile positioning-based methods is that mobile phones are widespread, positioning works inside buildings, and collection of movement data is done by a third party at regular intervals. Positioning data is digital; it is easy to trace many people at the same time and it is possible to analyse movements in real time. The disadvantage of mobile positioning today is relatively low preciseness, the boom in the generation of phones with a GPS will raise positioning accuracy.
The most important problems of SPM are related to data security, as well as concerns about non-authorized personal surveillance. These problems can be solved with further development of location-based services (LBS) and relevant legal and organisational regulation. Today mobile positioning can be applied only by obtaining participants’ personal acceptance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_positioning_method |
Within the context of law, " social purpose " is a scheme of statutory construction declaring that a statute should not be construed in a way that would violate normal societal values or good. [ 1 ] Example of cases in which this rule of construction was used include Riggs v. Palmer (1889) and Holy Trinity Church v. United States (1892).
This legal term article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_purpose |
In behavioural sciences , social rationality is a type of decision strategy used in social contexts, in which a set of simple rules is applied in complex and uncertain situations.
Social rationality is a form of bounded rationality applied to social contexts, where individuals make choices and predictions under uncertainty. [ 1 ] While game theory deals with well-defined situations, social rationality explicitly deals with situations in which not all alternatives, consequences, and event probabilities can be foreseen. The idea is that, similar to non-social environments, individuals rely, and should rely, on fast and frugal heuristics in order to deal with complex and genuinely uncertain social environments. [ 1 ] This emphasis on simple rules in an uncertain world contrasts with the view that the complexity of social situations requires highly sophisticated mental strategies, as has been assumed in primate research [ better source needed ] [ 2 ] and neuroscience, [ 3 ] among others.
Social rationality is both a descriptive program and a normative program. The descriptive program studies the repertoire of heuristics an individual or organization uses, that is, their adaptive toolbox . The normative program studies the environmental conditions to which a heuristic is adapted, that is, where it performs better than other decision strategies. This approach is called the study of the ecological rationality of social heuristics. It assumes that social heuristics are domain- and problem-specific . [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
Heuristics can be applied to social and non-social decision tasks (also called social games and games against nature), judgments, or categorizations. They can use social or non-social input. Social rationality is thus about three of the four possible combinations, excluding the case of heuristics using non-social input for non-social tasks. 'Games against nature' comprise situations where individuals face environmental uncertainty, and need to predict or outwit nature, e.g., harvest food or master hard-to-predict or unpredictable hazards. [ 6 ] 'Social games' include situations, where the decision outcome depends on the choices of others, e.g., in cooperation, competition, mate search and even in morally significant situations. [ 7 ]
Social rationality has been studied in a number of other fields than human decision-making, e.g. in evolutionary social learning, [ 8 ] and social learning in animals. [ 9 ]
An example for a heuristic that is not necessarily social but that requires social input is the imitate-the-majority heuristic , where in a situation of uncertainty, individuals follow the actions or choices of the majority of their peers regardless of their social status. The domain of pro-environmental behavior provides numerous illustrations for this strategy, such as littering behavior in public places, [ 10 ] the reuse of towels in hotel rooms, [ 11 ] and changes in private energy consumption in response to information about the consumption of the majority of neighbors. [ 12 ]
Following the equality heuristic (sometimes called 1/N rule ) people divide and invest their resources equally in a number of N different options. These options can be both social (e.g., time spent with children) and nonsocial entities (e.g., financial investments or natural resources). For example, many parents invest their limited resources, such as affection, time, and money (e.g., for education) equally into their offspring. [ 13 ] In highly uncertain environments with large numbers of assets and only few possibilities to learn, the equality heuristic can outperform optimizing strategies and yield better performance on various measures of success than optimal asset allocation strategies. [ 14 ]
Adapted from Hertwig & Herzog, 2009. [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rationality |
1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias
Social shaping of technology ( SST ) is the concept that there are choices (though not necessarily conscious choices) inherent in both the design of individual artifacts and systems, and in the direction or trajectory of innovation programs. [ 1 ]
If technology does not emerge from the unfolding of a predetermined logic or a single determinant, then innovation is a 'garden of forking paths'. Different routes are available, potentially leading to different technological outcomes. Significantly, these choices could have differing implications for society and for particular social groups.
SST is one of the models of the technology: society relationship which emerged in the 1980s with MacKenzie and Wajcman's influential 1985 collection, alongside Pinch and Bijker's social construction of technology framework and Callon and Latour's actor-network theory . These have a common feature of criticism of the linear model of innovation and technological determinism . It differs from these notably in the attention it pays to the influence of the social and technological context of development which shapes innovation choices. SST is concerned to explore the material consequences of different technical choices, but criticizes technological determinism, which argues that technology follows its own developmental path, outside of human influences, and in turn, influences society. In this way, social shaping theorists conceive the relationship between technology and society as one of ' mutual shaping '.
Some versions of this theory state that technology affects society by affordances, constraints, preconditions, and unintended consequences (Baym, 2015). Affordance is the idea that technology makes specific tasks easier in our lives, while constraints make tasks harder to complete. The preconditions of technology are the skills and resources that are vital to using technology to its fullest potential. Finally, the unintended consequences of technology are unanticipated effects and impact of technology. The cell phone is an example of the social shaping of technology (Zulto 2009). The cell phone has evolved over the years to make our lives easier by providing people with handheld computers that can answer calls, answer emails, search for information, and complete numerous other tasks (Zulto, 2009). Yet it has constraints for those that are not technologically savvy, hindering many people in society who do not understand how to utilize these devices. There are preconditions, such as monthly bills and access to electricity. There are also many unintended consequences such as the unintended distraction they cause for many people.
Not only does technology affect society, but according to SST, society affects technology by way of economics, politics, and culture (Baym, 2015). For instance, cell phones have spread in poor countries due to cell phones being more affordable than a computer and internet service (economics), government regulations which have made it fairly easy for cell phone providers to build networks (politics), and the small size of cell phones which fit easily into many cultures’ need for mobile communication (culture).
Donald A. MacKenzie , Judy Wajcman , Bruno Latour , Wiebe Bijker , Thomas P. Hughes , John Law , Trevor Pinch (also Trevor J. Pinch ), Michel Callon , Steve Woolgar , Carl May , Thomas J. Misa , Boelie Elzen , Robin Williams (academic) , Ronald R. Kline , Marlei Pozzebon , and Osman Sadeck | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology |
In philosophy and the social sciences, social software is an interdisciplinary research program that borrows
mathematical tools and techniques from game theory and computer science in order to analyze and design social procedures . The goals of research in this field are modeling social situations, developing theories of correctness, and designing social procedures. [ 1 ]
Work under the term social software has been going on since about 1996, and conferences in Copenhagen, London, Utrecht and New York, have been partly or wholly devoted to it. Much of the work is carried out at the City University of New York under the leadership of Rohit Jivanlal Parikh , who was influential in the development of the field.
Current research in the area of social software include the analysis of social procedures and examination of them for fairness, appropriateness, correctness and efficiency. For example, an election procedure could be a simple majority vote, Borda count , a Single Transferable vote (STV), or Approval voting . All of these procedures can be examined for various properties like monotonicity. Monotonicity has the property that voting for a candidate should not harm that candidate. This may seem obvious, true
under any system, but it is something which can happen in STV. [ citation needed ] Another question would be the ability to elect a Condorcet winner in case there is one.
Other principles which are considered by researchers in social software include the concept that a procedure for fair division should be Pareto optimal, equitable and envy free. A procedure for auctions should be one which would encourage bidders to bid their actual valuation – a property which holds with the Vickrey auction.
What is new in social software compared to older fields is the use of tools from computer science like program logic, analysis of algorithms and epistemic logic. Like programs, social procedures dovetail into each other. For instance an airport provides runways for planes to land, but it also provides security checks, and it must provide for ways in which buses and taxis can take arriving passengers to their local destinations. The entire mechanism can be analyzed in the way in which a complex computer program can be analyzed. The Banach-Knaster procedure for dividing a cake fairly, or the Brams and Taylor procedure for fair division have been analyzed in this way. To point to the need for epistemic logic, a building not only needs restrooms, for obvious reasons, it also needs signs indicating where they are. Thus epistemic considerations enter in addition to structural ones. For a more urgent example, in addition to medicines, physicians also need tests to indicate what a patient's problem is. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_software_(research_field) |
Social software engineering ( SSE ) is a branch of software engineering that is concerned with the social aspects of software development and the developed software.
SSE focuses on the socialness of both software engineering and developed software. On the one hand, the consideration of social factors in software engineering activities, processes and CASE tools is deemed to be useful to improve the quality of both development process and produced software. Examples include the role of situational awareness and multi-cultural factors in collaborative software development. On the other hand, the dynamicity of the social contexts in which software could operate (e.g., in a cloud environment) calls for engineering social adaptability as a runtime iterative activity. Examples include approaches which enable software to gather users' quality feedback and use it to adapt autonomously or semi-autonomously.
SSE studies and builds socially-oriented tools to support collaboration and knowledge sharing in software engineering. SSE also investigates the adaptability of software to the dynamic social contexts in which it could operate and the involvement of clients and end-users in shaping software adaptation decisions at runtime. Social context includes norms, culture, roles and responsibilities, stakeholder's goals and interdependencies, end-users perception of the quality and appropriateness of each software behaviour, etc.
The participants of the 1st International Workshop on Social Software Engineering and Applications (SoSEA 2008) [ 1 ] proposed the following characterization:
Thus, SSE can be defined as "the application of processes, methods, and tools to enable community-driven creation, management, deployment, and use of software in online environments". [ 2 ]
One of the main observations in the field of SSE is that the concepts, principles, and technologies made for social software applications are applicable to software development itself as software engineering is inherently a social activity. SSE is not limited to specific activities of software development. Accordingly, tools have been proposed supporting different parts of SSE, for instance, social system design or social requirements engineering . [ 3 ] Consequently vertical market software , such as software development tools, engineering tools, marketing tools or software that helps users in a decision making process can profit from social components. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Such vertical social software differentiates strongly in its user-base from traditional social software such as Yammer . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_software_engineering |
Social stress is stress that stems from one's relationships with others and from the social environment in general. Based on the appraisal theory of emotion, stress arises when a person evaluates a situation as personally relevant and perceives that they do not have the resources to cope or handle the specific situation. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ clarification needed ]
The activation of social stress does not necessarily have to occur linked to a specific event, the mere idea that the event may occur could trigger it. This means that any element that takes a subject out of their personal and intimate environment could become a stressful experience. This situation makes them socially incompetent individuals. [ 3 ]
There are three main categories of social stressors. [ 4 ] Life events are defined as abrupt, severe life changes that require an individual to adapt quickly (ex. sexual assault, sudden injury). [ 5 ] Chronic strains are defined as persistent events which require an individual to make adaptations over an extended period of time (ex. divorce, unemployment). [ 5 ] Daily hassles are defined as minor events that occur, which require adaptation throughout the day (ex. bad traffic, disagreements). [ 5 ] When stress becomes chronic, one experiences emotional, behavioral, and physiological changes that can put one under greater risk for developing a mental disorder and physical illness. [ 6 ]
Humans are social beings by nature , as they typically have a fundamental need and desire to maintain positive social relationships. [ 7 ] Thus, they usually find maintaining positive social ties to be beneficial. Social relationships can offer nurturance, foster feelings of social inclusion , and lead to reproductive success. [ 8 ] Anything that disrupts or threatens to disrupt their relationships with others can result in social stress. This can include low social status in society or in particular groups, giving a speech, interviewing with potential employers, caring for a child or spouse with a chronic illness, meeting new people at a party, the threat of or actual death of a loved one, divorce, and discrimination . [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Social stress can arise from one's micro-environment (e.g., family ties) and macro-environment (e.g., hierarchical societal structure ). Social stress is typically the most frequent type of stressor that people experience in their daily lives and affects people more intensely than other types of stressors. [ 13 ]
Researchers define social stress and social stressors in various ways. Wadman, Durkin, and Conti-Ramsden (2011) defined social stress as "the feelings of discomfort or anxiety that individuals may experience in social situations, and the associated tendency to avoid potentially stressful social situations". [ 14 ] Ilfield (1977) defined social stressors as "circumstances of daily social roles that are generally considered problematic or undesirable". [ 15 ] Dormann and Zapf (2004) defined social stressors as "a class of characteristics, situations, episodes, or behaviors that are related to psychological or physical strain and that are somehow social in nature". [ 16 ]
Social stress is typically measured through self-report questionnaires. In the laboratory, researchers can induce social stress through various methods and protocols.
There are several questionnaires used to assess environmental and psychosocial stress. Such self-report measures include the Test of Negative Social Exchange, [ 17 ] the Marital Adjustment Test, [ 18 ] the Risky Families Questionnaire, [ 19 ] the Holmes–Rahe Stress Inventory, [ 20 ] the Trier Inventory for the Assessment of Chronic Stress, [ 21 ] the Daily Stress Inventory, [ 22 ] the Job Content Questionnaire, [ 23 ] the Perceived Stress Scale, [ 24 ] and the Stress and Adversity Inventory. [ 25 ]
In addition to self-report questionnaires, researchers can employ structured interview assessments. The Life Events and Difficulties Schedule (LEDS) is one of the most popular instruments used in research. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] The purpose of this type of measure is to probe the participant to elaborate on their stressful life events, rather than answering singular questions. [ 26 ] The UCLA Life Stress Interview (LSI), which is similar to the LEDS, includes questions about romantic partners, closest friendships, other friendships, and family relationships. [ 28 ]
In rodent models , social disruption and social defeat are two common social stress paradigms. In the social disruption paradigm, an aggressive rodent is introduced into a cage housing male rodents that have already naturally established a social hierarchy. The aggressive "intruder" disrupts the social hierarchy, causing the residents social stress. [ 29 ] In the social defeat paradigm, an aggressive "intruder" and another non-aggressive male rodent fight. [ 30 ]
In human research, the Trier Social Stress Task (TSST) is widely used to induce social stress in the laboratory. In the TSST, participants are told that they have to prepare and give a speech about why they would be a great candidate for their ideal job. The experimenter films the participant while they give the speech and informs the participant that a panel of judges will evaluate that speech. After the public speaking component, the experimenter administers a mathematics task that involves counting backwards by certain increments. If the participant makes a mistake, the experimenter prompts them to start again. [ 31 ] The threat of negative evaluation is the social stressor. Researchers can measure the stress response by comparing pre-stress salivary cortisol levels and post-stress salivary cortisol levels. [ 31 ] Other common stress measures used in the TSST are self-report measures like the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and physiological measures like heart rate. [ 32 ]
In a laboratory conflict discussion, couples identify several specific areas of conflict in their relationship. The couples then pinpoint a couple topics to discuss later on in the experiment (ex. finances, child-rearing). Couples are told to discuss the conflict(s) for 10 minutes while being videotaped. [ 33 ]
Brouwer and Hogervorst (2014) designed the Sing-a-Song Stress Test (SSST) to induce stress in the laboratory setting. After viewing neutral images with subsequent 1-minute rest periods, the participant is instructed to sing a song after the next 1-minute rest period is complete. Researchers found that skin conductance and heart rate are significantly higher during the post-song message interval than the previous 1-minute intervals. The stress levels are comparable to that induced in the Trier Social Stress Task. [ 34 ] In 2020, a systematic review about the TSST provided several guidelines to standardize the use of the TSST across studies [ 35 ]
A statistical indicator of stress, simultaneous increase of variance and correlations , was proposed for diagnosis of stress and successfully used in physiology and finance. [ 36 ] [ 37 ] Its applicability for early diagnosis of social stress in large groups was demonstrated by the analysis of crises. It was examined in the prolonged stress period preceding the 2014 Ukrainian economic and political crisis. There was a simultaneous increase in the total correlation between the 19 major public fears in the Ukrainian society (by about 64%) and also in their statistical dispersion (by 29%) during the pre-crisis years. [ 38 ]
Research has consistently demonstrated that social stress increases risk for developing negative mental health outcomes. [ 39 ] One prospective study asked over fifteen hundred Finnish employees whether they had "considerable difficulties with [their] coworkers/superiors/inferiors during the last 6 months, 5 years, earlier, or never". [ 40 ] Information on suicides , hospitalizations due to psychosis , suicidal behavior , alcohol intoxication , depressive symptoms , and medication for chronic psychiatric disorders was then gathered from the national registries of mortality and morbidity. Those who had experienced conflict in the workplace with coworkers or supervisors in the last five years were more likely to be diagnosed with a psychiatric condition. [ 40 ]
Research on the LGBT population has suggested that people who identify as LGBT suffer more from mental health disorders, such as substance abuse and mood disorders , compared to those who identify as heterosexual. [ 41 ] Researchers deduce that the LGBT people's higher risk of mental health issues derives from their stressful social environments. Minority groups can face high levels of stigma, prejudice, and discrimination on a regular basis, therefore leading to the development of various mental health disorders. [ 41 ]
Risk for developing clinical depression significantly increases after experiencing social stress; [ 42 ] depressed individuals often experience interpersonal loss before becoming depressed. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] One study found that depressed individuals who had been rejected by others had developed depression about three times more quickly than those who had experienced stress not involving social rejection. [ 45 ] Several studies have suggested that unemployment roughly doubles the risk of developing depression. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] In non-clinically depressed populations, people with friends and family who make too many demands, criticize, and create tension and conflict tend to have more depressive symptoms. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Conflict between spouses leads to more psychological distress and depressive symptoms, especially for wives. [ 54 ] In particular, unhappy married couples are 10–25 times more at risk for developing clinical depression. [ unreliable medical source? ] [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Similarly, social stress arising from discrimination is related to greater depressive symptoms. [ 41 ] [ 57 ] In one study, African-Americans and non-Hispanic whites reported on their daily experiences of discrimination and depressive symptoms. Regardless of race, those who perceived more discrimination had higher depressive symptoms. [ 57 ] Posselt and Lipson found, in 2016, that undergraduates had a 37% higher chance of developing depression if they perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive. [ 58 ]
The biological basis for anxiety disorders is rooted in the consistent activation of the stress response. [ 59 ] Fear , which is the defining emotion of an anxiety disorder, occurs when someone perceives a situation (a stressor) as threatening. [ 60 ] This activates the stress response. If a person has difficulty regulating this stress response, it may activate inappropriately. Stress can therefore arise when a real stressor is not present or when something isn't actually threatening. This can lead to the development of an anxiety disorder ( panic attacks , social anxiety , OCD , etc.). [ 59 ] [ 61 ] Social anxiety disorder is defined as the fear of being judged or evaluated by others, even if no such threat is actually present. [ 62 ]
Research shows a connection between social stress, such as traumatic life events and chronic strains, and the development of anxiety disorders. [ 63 ] [ 64 ] A study that examined a subpopulation of adults, both young and middle-age, found that those who had diagnosed panic disorder in adulthood also experienced sexual abuse during childhood. [ 65 ] Children who experience social stressors, such as physical and psychological abuse, as well as parental loss, are also more at risk for developing anxiety disorders during adulthood than children who did not experience such stressors. [ 64 ]
In 2016, an analysis of 40,350 undergraduates from 70 institutions by Posselt and Lipson found that they had a 69% higher chance of developing anxiety if they perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive. [ 58 ]
Social stress occurring early in life can have psychopathological effects that develop or persist in adulthood. One longitudinal study found that children were more likely to have a psychiatric disorder (e.g. anxiety, depressive, disruptive, personality, and substance use disorders) in late adolescence and early adulthood when their parents showed more maladaptive child-rearing behaviors (e.g., loud arguments between parents, verbal abuse, difficulty controlling anger toward the child, lack of parental support or availability, and harsh punishment). Child temperament and parental psychiatric disorders did not explain this association. [ 66 ] Other studies have documented the robust relationships between children's social stress within the family environment and depression, aggression , antisocial behavior , anxiety , suicide , and hostile, oppositional, and delinquent behavior. [ 67 ]
Social stress can also exacerbate current psychopathological conditions and compromise recovery. For instance, patients recovering from depression or bipolar disorder are two times more likely to relapse if there is familial tension. [ 68 ] People with eating disorders are also more likely to relapse if their family members make more critical comments, are more hostile, or are over-involved. [ 69 ] Similarly, outpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder show greater psychotic symptoms if the most influential person in their life is critical [ 70 ] and are more likely to relapse if their familial relationships are marked by tension. [ 69 ]
In regard to substance abuse, cocaine-dependent individuals report greater cravings for cocaine following exposure to a social stressor. [ 71 ] Traumatic life events and social stressors can also trigger the exacerbation of the symptoms of mental health disorders. Socially phobic children who experience a stressful event can become even more avoidant and socially inactive. [ 72 ]
Research has also found a robust relationship between various social stressors and aspects of physical health. [ 73 ]
Social status, a macro-social stressor, is a robust predictor of death. In a study of over 1700 British civil servants, socioeconomic status (SES) was inversely related to mortality. Those with the lowest SES have worse health outcomes and greater mortality rates than those with the greatest SES. [ 74 ] Other studies have replicated this relationship between SES and mortality in a range of diseases, including infectious, digestive, and respiratory diseases. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] A study examining the link between SES and mortality in the elderly found that education level, household income, and occupational prestige were all related to lower mortality in men. In women, however, only household income was related to lower mortality. [ 77 ]
Similarly, social stressors in the micro-environment are also linked to increased mortality. A seminal longitudinal study of nearly 7,000 people found that socially isolated people had greater risk of dying from any cause. [ 78 ]
Social support , which is defined as "the comfort, assistance, and/or information one receives through formal or informal contacts with individuals or groups", [ 79 ] has been linked to physical health outcomes. Research shows the three aspects of social support, available attachments, perceived social support, and frequency of social interactions, can predict mortality thirty months after assessment. [ 80 ]
Social stress also makes people more sick. People who have fewer social contacts are at greater risk for developing illness, including cardiovascular disease. [ 81 ] The lower one's social status, the more likely he or she is to have a cardiovascular , gastrointestinal , musculoskeletal , neoplastic , pulmonary , renal , or other chronic diseases . These links are not explained by other, more traditional risk factors such as race, health behaviors, age, sex, or access to health care. [ 82 ]
In one laboratory study, researchers interviewed participants to determine whether they had been experiencing social conflicts with spouses, close family members and friends. They then exposed the participants to the common cold virus and found that participants with conflict-ridden relationships were two times more likely to develop a cold than those without such social stress. [ 83 ] Social support, especially in terms of support for socioeconomic stressors, is inversely related to physical morbidity. [ 84 ] A study that investigated social determinants of health in an urban slum in India found that social exclusion , stress, and lack of social support are significantly related to illnesses, such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, and diabetes. [ 85 ]
Students who are being bullied may show signs of depression, impaired academic achievement, impaired quality of sleep, and anxiety disorders. [ 86 ]
Exposure to social stress in childhood can also have long-term effects, increasing risk for developing diseases later in life. In particular, adults who were maltreated (emotionally, physically, sexually abused or neglected) as children report more disease outcomes, such as stroke , heart attack , diabetes , and hypertension [ 87 ] or greater severity of those outcomes. [ 88 ] The Adverse Childhood Experiences study (ACE), which includes over seventeen thousand adults, also found that there was a 20% increase in likelihood for experiencing heart disease for each kind of chronic familial social stressor experienced in childhood, and this was not due to typical risk factors for heart disease such as demographics, smoking, exercise, adiposity , diabetes, or hypertension. [ 89 ]
Social stress has also been tied to worse health outcomes among patients who already have a disease. Patients with end-stage renal disease faced a 46% increased risk for mortality when there was more relationship negativity with their spouse even when controlling for severity of disease and treatment. [ 90 ] Similarly, women who had experienced an acute coronary event were three times more likely to experience another coronary event if they experienced moderate to severe marital strain. This finding remained even after controlling for demographics, health behaviors, and disease status. [ 91 ]
With regard to HIV/AIDS , stress may affect the progression from the virus to the disease. [ 92 ] Research shows the HIV-positive males who have more negative life events, social stress, and lack of social support progress to a clinical AIDS diagnosis more quickly than HIV-positive males who do not have as high levels of social stress. [ 93 ] For HIV-positive females, who have also contracted the HSV virus , stress is a risk factor for genital herpes breakouts. [ 94 ]
Social stress leads to a number of physiological changes that mediate its relationship to physical health. [ 95 ] In the short term, the physiological changes outlined below are adaptive, as they enable the stressed organism to cope better. Dysregulation of these systems or repeated activation of them over the long-term can be detrimental to health. [ 96 ]
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) becomes activated in response to stress. Sympathetic arousal stimulates the medulla of the medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood stream, which facilitates the fight-or-flight response . [ 59 ] Blood pressure, heart rate, and sweating increase, veins constrict to allow the heart to beat with more force, arteries leading to muscles dilate, and blood flow to parts of the body not essential for the fight or flight response decreases. If stress persists in the long run, then blood pressure remains elevated, leading to hypertension and atherosclerosis , both precursors to cardiovascular disease . [ 95 ]
A number of animal and human studies have confirmed that social stress increases risk for negative health outcomes by increasing SNS activity. Studies of rodents show that social stress causes hypertension and atherosclerosis. [ 97 ] Studies of non-human primates also show that social stress clogs arteries. [ 98 ] [ 99 ] Although humans cannot be randomized to receive social stress due to ethical concerns, studies have nevertheless shown that negative social interactions characterized by conflict lead to increases in blood pressure and heart rate. [ 100 ] Social stress stemming from perceived daily discrimination is also associated with elevated levels of blood pressure during the day and a lack of blood pressure dipping at night. [ 101 ] [ 102 ]
In response to stress, the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), stimulating the anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids , including cortisol . [ 59 ] Social stress can lead to adverse health outcomes by chronically activating the HPA axis or disrupting the HPA system. [ 95 ] There are a number of studies that link social stress and indications of a disrupted HPA axis; for instance, monkey infants neglected by their mothers show prolonged cortisol responses following a challenging event. [ 103 ]
In humans, abused women exhibit a prolonged elevation in cortisol following a standardized psychosocial laboratory stressor compared to those without an abuse history. [ 104 ] Maltreated children show higher morning cortisol values than non-maltreated children. [ 105 ] Their HPA systems also fail to recover after a stressful social interaction with their caregiver. [ 106 ] Over time, low-SES children show progressively greater output of cortisol. [ 107 ] [ 108 ] Although these studies point to a disrupted HPA system accounting for the link between social stress and physical health, they did not include disease outcomes. Nevertheless, a dysfunctional HPA response to stress is thought to increase risk for developing or exacerbating diseases such as diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and hypertension. [ 109 ]
Inflammation is an immune response that is critical to fighting infections and repairing injured tissue. Although acute inflammation is adaptive, chronic inflammatory activity can contribute to adverse health outcomes, such as hypertension, [ 110 ] atherosclerosis, [ 111 ] coronary heart disease, [ 112 ] [ 113 ] depression, [ 114 ] diabetes, [ 115 ] and some cancers. [ 116 ] [ 117 ]
Research has elucidated a relationship between different social stressors and cytokines (the markers of inflammation). Chronic social stressors, such as caring for a spouse with dementia, lead to greater circulating levels of cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6), [ 118 ] whereas acute social stress tasks in the laboratory have been shown to elicit increases in proinflammatory cytokines . [ 119 ] Similarly, when faced with another type of social stress, namely social evaluative threat, participants showed increases in IL-6 and a soluble receptor for tumor necrosis factor-α . [ 120 ] [ 121 ] [ 122 ] Increases in inflammation may persist over time, as studies have shown that chronic relationship stress has been tied to greater IL-6 production 6 months later [ 123 ] and children reared in a stressful family environment marked by neglect and conflict tend to show elevated levels of C-reactive protein , a marker of IL-6, in adulthood. [ 124 ]
There is extensive evidence that the above physiological systems affect one another's functioning. For instance, cortisol tends to have a suppressive effect on inflammatory processes, and proinflammatory cytokines can also activate the HPA system. [ 125 ] Sympathetic activity can also upregulate inflammatory activity. [ 126 ] [ 127 ] Given the relationships among these physiological systems, social stress may also influence health indirectly via affecting a particular physiological system that in turn affects a different physiological system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stress |
1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias
Social studies of finance is an interdisciplinary research area that combines perspectives from anthropology , economic sociology , science and technology studies , international political economy , behavioral finance , and cultural studies in the study of financial markets and financial instruments . Work in social studies of finance emphasizes the social and cultural dimensions of financial activities, but focuses also on technical and economic dimensions such as pricing and trading.
Financial markets have been an object for sociological inquiry since, at least, Max Weber ’s Die Börse . The rise of quantitative financial theory in financial economics from the 1950s onwards has led to an academic specialization on financial markets rather focused on economic modeling, and poorly attentive to sociological aspects. In the 1980s, a number of economic sociologists developed empirical investigation on the social structure and cultural characteristics of financial markets, especially in the US. Such pioneering researcher included contributions from Wayne E. Baker, Mitchel Y. Abolafia and Charles W. Smith, and was based on methods such as ethnographic observation or social network analysis . In the 1990s, a number of researchers from the field of science and technology studies such as Karin Knorr-Cetina and Donald A. MacKenzie started also developing empirical research in this area, with close attention to the role of expert knowledge and technology in financial activities.
Research topics in social studies of finance include the cultural world and work habits of professionals in financial markets, the globalization and regulation of financial services, the processes of innovation in the financial industry and the problems of risk and uncertainty that characterize such processes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies_of_finance |
Social technology is a way of using human, intellectual and digital resources in order to influence social processes. [ 2 ] For example, one might use social technology to ease social procedures via social software and social hardware, which might include the use of computers and information technology for governmental procedures or business practices. It has historically referred to two meanings: as a term related to social engineering , a meaning that began in the 19th century, and as a description of social software , a meaning that began in the early 21st century. [ 3 ] Social technology is also split between human-oriented technologies and artifact-oriented technologies. [ 4 ]
The term "social technology" was first used at the University of Chicago by Albion Woodbury Small and Charles Richmond Henderson around the end of the 19th century. At a seminar in 1898, Small described social technology as the use of knowledge of the facts and laws of social life to bring about rational social aims. [ 5 ] In 1895 Henderson coined the term "social art" for the methods by which improvements to society are introduced. According to Henderson, social art gives directions. [ 6 ]
In 1901, Henderson published an article titled "The Scope of Social Technology" [ 7 ] in which he renamed this social art as 'social technology', and described it as "a system of conscious and purposeful organization of persons in which every actual, natural social organization finds its true place, and all factors in harmony cooperate to realize an increasing aggregate and better proportions of the 'health, wealth, beauty, knowledge, sociability, and rightness' desires." In 1923, the term social technology was given a wider meaning in the works of Ernest Burgess and Thomas D. Eliot , [ 8 ] [ 9 ] who expanded the definition of social technology to include the application, particularly in social work, of techniques developed by psychology and other social sciences.
In 1928, Luther Lee Bernard defined applied science as the observation and measurement of norms or standards, which control our relationship with the universe. He then separated this definition from that of social technology by explaining that social technology also "includes administration as well as the determination of the norms which are to be applied in the administration". [ 10 ] In 1935, he wrote an article called "The Place of Social Sciences in Modern Education," [ 11 ] in which he wrote about the nature of an effective education in the social sciences to reach effective education by the willing masses. It would be of three types: Firstly, "a description of present conditions and trends in society". Secondly, "the teaching of desirable social ends and ideals necessary to correct such social maladjustments as we now have". Thirdly, "a system of social technology which, if applied, might be expected to remedy existing maladjustments and realize valid social ends". Bernard explained that the aspects of social technology which lags behind are the technologies involved in the "less material forms of human welfare". These are the applied sciences of "the control of crime, abolition of poverty, the raising of every normal person to economic, political, and personal competency, the art of good government, or city, rural, and national planning". On the other hand, "the best developed social technologies, such as advertising, finance, and 'practical' politics, are used in the main for antisocial rather than for proper humanitarian ends".
After the Second World War, the term 'social technology' continued to be used intermittently, for example by the social psychologist Dorwin Cartwright for techniques developed in the science of group dynamics such as 'buzz groups' and role playing [ 12 ] and by Olaf Helmer to refer to the Delphi technique for creating a consensus opinion in a panel of experts. [ 13 ] More recent examples are Human rights & social technology by Rainer Knopff and Tom Flanagan [ 14 ] which addresses both human rights and government policies that ensure them. Another example is Theodore Caplow's Perverse incentives: the neglect of social technology in the public sector, [ 15 ] which discusses a wide range of topics, including use of the death penalty to discourage crime and the welfare system to provide for the needy.
At the current stage of social technology research, two main directions of usage of this term have emerged: (a) human-oriented technologies and (b) artifact-oriented technologies. [ 4 ]
According to the goal of social technology adaption, [ 2 ] [ 4 ] technologies oriented toward humans consist of:
Technologies oriented toward artifacts consist of:
Closely related to social technology is the term social engineering . Thorstein Veblen used 'social engineering' in 1891, but suggested that it was used earlier. [ 16 ] In the 1930s both 'social engineering and 'social technology' became associated with the large scale socio-economic policies of the Soviet Union . The Soviet economist Yvgeni Preobrazhensky wrote a book in which he defined social technology as "the science of organized production, organized labour, of organized systems of production relations, where the legality of economic existence is expressed in new forms." (p. 55 in the translation of 1963 [ 17 ] )
Karl Popper discusses social technology and social engineering in his book The Open Society and Its Enemies [ 18 ] and in the article "The Poverty of Historicism", [ 19 ] in which he criticized the Soviet political system and the Marxist theory ( Marxism ) on which it was based. Eventually he combined "The Poverty of Historicism" series in a book " The Poverty of Historicism " which he wrote "in memory of the countless men and women of all creeds or nations or races who fell victim to the fascist and communist belief in Inexorable Laws of Historical Destiny". [ 20 ] In his book " The Open Society and Its Enemies ", Popper distinguished two kinds of social engineering, and the corresponding social technology. Utopian engineering strives to reach "an ideal state, using a blueprint of society as a whole, is one which demands a strong centralized rule of a few, and which therefore is likely to lead to a dictatorship" (p. 159). Communism is an example of utopian social Technology. On the other hand, there is the piecemeal engineer with its corresponding social technology, which adopts "the method of searching for, and fighting against, the greatest and most urgent evils of society, rather than searching for, and fighting for, its greatest ultimate good" (p. 158). The use of piecemeal social technology is crucial for democratic social reconstruction.
"Social technology" has also been used as a synonym for " social software ", such as in the book Groundswell: Winning in a World Transformed by Social Technologies , by Charlene Li and Josh Bernoff. [ 21 ]
A social networking service is a platform to build social networks or social relations among people who, for example, share interests, activities, backgrounds, or real-life connections.
Corporate social media is the use of social media platforms, social media communications, and social media marketing techniques by and within corporations, ranging from small businesses and tiny entrepreneurial startups to mid-size businesses and huge multinational firms.
Within the definition of social media, there are different ways corporations utilize it. Although there is no systematic way in which social media applications can be categorized, there are various methods and approaches to having a strong social media presence. Social media currently can be crucial to the success of growing numbers in a companies value chain activities.
Of particular interest in the realm of social computing is social software for enterprise. Sometimes referred to as "Enterprise 2.0", [ 22 ] a term derived from Web 2.0 , this generally refers to the use of social computing in corporate intranets and in other medium and large-scale business environments.
"Social technology" is also used to refer to the organization and management of private companies, and is sometimes taught under the auspices of university business schools. One book with this orientation is The social technology of organization development , by Warner and Hornstein. [ 23 ] Social technology changes the way that people communicate; for instance, it enables people across the world to collaborate. This technology shapes society and thus could be considered as a disruptive technology. [ 24 ]
Chief Strategy Officer at Jive Software, Christopher Morace, explains that "social technology is changing the way businesses operate and how successful companies are leveraging it to their advantage." Some of the key drivers of a business provided by the use of social technology are collaboration, open communication, and a large network. In addition, business professionals must maintain digital literacy in order to understand the capabilities of social technologies and incorporate them into daily function. [ 25 ]
Social technology can provide opportunities for digital activism . It eliminates geographic boundaries, potentially enabling protests and revolutions to spread through social technologies. It can also be argued that digital activism through social technology does not produce concrete results, as people might lose sight of what drives the social movement and ultimately participate in "clicktivism." Due to technological advances, social technology could potentially redefine what it means to be an activist. [ 26 ]
Social technology is also a prevalent influence in the realm of e-commerce . "The development and rapid growth of mobile computing and smartphones have also facilitated social commerce." Marketing strategies have evolved over the years to conform and align with social technology. [ 27 ]
In 1985, MacKenzie published a book titled The social shaping of technology . [ 28 ] It showed that technological change is often seen as something that follows its own logic, and introduced about the relation of technology to society and different types of technology are examined: the technology of production; domestic and reproductive technology; and military technology. It moves on to the technologies of the household and biological reproduction, and it also asks what shapes the most frightening technology of all––the technology of weaponry, especially nuclear weapons.
In 2011, Leibetseder, Bettina. published her article "A Critical Review on the Concept of Social Technology". [ 29 ] She pointed that social technology provides social science knowledge for a purpose. Such a notion allows an in depth debate about the meaning of social order in modern societies. Social technology forms the basis of governmental decisions; it allows for a use of social theories and methods for a purpose in politics and introduces a specific conception of power between the individual and public powers.
Social technologies, as they are technologies dealing with social behaviors or interactions, have caused concerns among philosophers. As Vladislav A. Lektorsky pointed out in his journal, "The Russian philosopher Viacheslav Stëpin calls modern European civilization "technogenic." Initially, this meant the pursuit of technologies for the control of natural phenomena. Then projects began to be put forward for social technologies for the control of social processes. Based on this concept, impacts that social technology might have for man, like "Forcible Collectivization", or the deportation of ethnic groups are recognized because according to Vladislav, social technology blunts the individual's capacity for critical reflection, though it "presents a different possibility which be used to develop man’s creative capacities, to expand his realm of freedom and his social and interpersonal ties." [ 30 ]
Similarly, social technology also poses potential threats to human rights. These concerns are based on the notion that humans are a product of their environment. "Social technology assumes that it is possible to know the societal or 'systematic' determinants of human 'behavior' in a way that permits them to be manipulated and controlled." Technology can also overcome certain social forces. [ 31 ]
Social technologies have also caused concern among social scientists. According to a study conducted by the Cambridge University Press, it is possible for social technologies to manipulate social processes, including relationship development and group dynamics. Variables such as gender and social status can influence a person's behavior, and these behavior changes can translate to interactions through technology. Social technologies also relate to the theory of technological determinism , which states that "technology has universal effects on social processes." [ 32 ]
As the online internet presence of the general population grows, the popularity of social technology increases, which creates a culture of sharing. Internet users develop more connections online due to the global activity on the internet, and as services make it possible to upload content, they likewise facilitate widespread distribution of information. As opinions circulate online, concerns over new problems arise. [ 33 ]
In general, social technology covers many other terms in social science, as some authors use "social technique", " social pedagogy ", "administrative technique", " technocracy ", "socio-technique", "socio-technical impact", "political science engineering", "planned society", "efficiency engineer", "social (economic) planning" [ 34 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_technology |
In psychology , a social trap is a conflict of interest or perverse incentive where individuals or a group of people act to obtain short-term individual gains, which in the long run leads to a loss for the group as a whole. [ 1 ] Social traps are the cause of countless environmental issues, including overfishing , energy "brownout" and "blackout" power outages during periods of extreme temperatures, the overgrazing of cattle on the Sahelian Desert, the destruction of the rainforest by logging interests and agriculture , and, most importantly, climate change . [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
The term social trap was first introduced to the scientific community by John Platt's 1973 paper in American Psychologist , [ 1 ] and in a book developed in an interdisciplinary symposium held at the University of Michigan . [ 4 ] Building upon the concept of the " tragedy of the commons " in Garrett Hardin 's pivotal article in Science (1968), [ 5 ] Platt and others in the seminar applied behavioral psychology concepts to actions of people operating in social traps. By applying the findings of basic research on "schedules of operant reinforcement" ( B.F. Skinner 1938, 1948, 1953, 1957; Keller and Schoenfeld, 1950), Platt recognized that individuals operating for short-term positive gain (" reinforcement ") had a tendency to over-exploit a resource, which led to a long-term overall loss to society.
The application of behavioral psychology terms to behaviors in the tragedy of the commons led to the realization that the same short-term versus long-term cause-and-effect relationship also applied to other human traps, in addition to the exploitation of commonly held resources.
Besides defining this psychological phenomenon, Platt also distinguishes between social traps and social fences (countertraps) . [ 1 ] Social traps represent a behavior or action which prioritizes individual gains at the expense of collective gains. Social fence refers to a short-term avoidance behavior by individuals that leads to a long-term loss to the entire group. [ 1 ] The missing hero trap is a perfect representation of a social fence. An example is the Schelling's anecdote of a mattress that falls from a vehicle on a two lane highway. [ 6 ] Motorists tend to back up in a traffic jam behind the mattress, waiting for a break in the oncoming traffic to pass around the mattress. Each individual motorist avoids the opportunity to exit their stopped car and pull the mattress to the side of the road. The long-term consequence of this avoidance behavior is that all of the motorists (except for perhaps one) arrived at their destinations later than they would have if an individual had removed the mattress barrier.
According to Platt, social traps can be categorized into one-person traps (self-traps) and group traps. One-person traps involve the behavior of only a single person rather than a group of people. The basic concept is that an individual's behavior for short-term reinforcers leads to a long-term loss for the individual. Examples of individual traps are tobacco smoking leading to lung cancer or alcohol ingestion leading to cirrhosis of the liver.
Group traps are situations when the whole collective becomes trapped with long-term negative consequences caused by the pursuit of self-interest by many people before. [ 1 ] Such traps represent many current environmental issues worldwide, especially climate change . Group traps can also be viewed as collective-action problems , characterized by the cumulation of individual actions into outcomes shared within the group - to solve the problem, collective cooperation is necessary. [ 7 ]
Further, it is possible to differentiate between temporal and social traps. [ 8 ] Temporal traps emphasize the time dimension represented by traps: the short-term and long-term benefits and losses, only concerning individuals. In contrast, social traps highlight the individual and collective level of traps, where the time dimension is not necessarily present.
The term social trap is generally less known than social dilemma. A few years after John Platt published his article, Robyn Dawes created the term social dilemma, which resembles the definition of a group social trap in almost all aspects. [ 9 ] However, Dawes added two more characteristics: the pursuit of self-interest (defection) is more beneficial to an individual than contributing to the collective good (cooperation) regardless of other members' actions, but the overall most beneficial strategy (with the highest payoff) for everyone involved is always to cooperate. Dawes introduced the concept of social dilemmas to embrace both social traps and commons dilemmas, which have similar characteristics. [ 9 ] Various game theory models proved to be valuable tools in testing and exploring the decision-making behavior when faced with a social dilemma. The most attention so far has been given to the well-known Prisoner's Dilemma game. [ 10 ]
There are three main categories of social dilemmas: large-scale dilemmas, commons dilemmas (or resource dilemmas), and public goods dilemmas. [ 11 ] Large-scale dilemmas represent classical group social traps, where seeking short-term personal benefits lead to negative consequences for the whole group. [ 11 ] Commons dilemmas originated from Hardin 's article arise when a scarce common resource shared within a collective becomes depleted because each member desires more than is fair. [ 5 ] Lastly, the public goods dilemma describes a situation where an individual is faced with the dilemma of whether they should contribute to the shared public good (e.g., taxpayers contributing to national defense or maintenance of public parks) or free-ride on the contributions of others. [ 11 ] In this case, everyone doesn't need to contribute; only a sufficient number does. [ 12 ]
The first empirical test of the concept of social traps was by Brechner at Arizona State University , [ 13 ] [ 14 ] who operationalized the concepts underlying Platt et al.'s theoretical analysis. By creating a laboratory game, Brechner had groups of college students playing a game where they could accumulate points by pressing buttons for the individual short-term positive rewards of experimental credit in their introductory psychology classes. Players could see a lighted display that indicated the total quantity of points available at any given time in the experiment. Players were told that if they completely drained the pool of points, the game was over and they could not accumulate more points. By responding for points at a moderate rate all the players in the group could accumulate enough points to fulfill their entire semester's experimental requirements. But if one or more players took points for themselves at too fast a rate, the pool would be drained of points and none of the players would achieve the maximum potential experimental credit.
In building the laboratory analogy of social traps, Brechner introduced the concept of " superimposed schedules of reinforcement ". Skinner and Ferster (1957) [ 15 ] had demonstrated that reinforcers could be delivered on schedules ( schedule of reinforcement ), and further that organisms behaved differently under different schedules. Rather than a reinforcer, such as food or water, being delivered every time as a consequence of some behavior, a reinforcer could be delivered after more than one instance of the behavior. For example, a pigeon may be required to peck a button switch five times before food is made available to the pigeon. This is called a "ratio schedule". Also, a reinforcer could be delivered after an interval of time passed following a target behavior. An example is a rat that is given a food pellet one minute after the rat pressed a lever. This is called an "interval schedule". In addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable number of behaviors by the individual organism. Likewise, interval schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable intervals of time following a single response by the organism. Individual behaviors tend to generate response rates that differ based upon how the reinforcement schedule is created. Much subsequent research in many labs examined the effects on behaviors of scheduling reinforcers.
When an organism is offered the opportunity to choose between or among two or more simple schedules of reinforcement at the same time, the reinforcement structures are called " concurrent schedules of reinforcement ". In creating the laboratory analogy of social traps, Brechner created a situation where simple reinforcement schedules were superimposed upon each other. In other words, a single response or group of responses by an organism led to multiple consequences. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "or" schedules, and superimposed schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "and" schedules.
To simulate social traps a short-term positive reward is superimposed upon a long-term negative consequence. In the specific experiment, the short-term positive reinforcer was earning points that applied to class credits. The long-term negative consequence was that each point earned by a player also drained the pool of available points. Responding too rapidly for short-term gains led to the long-term loss of draining the resource pool. What makes the traps social is that any individual can respond in a way that the long-term consequence also comes to bear on the other individuals in the environment.
Superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications in addition to generating social traps (Brechner and Linder, 1981; Brechner, 1987; Brechner, 2010 [ 16 ] ). Many different human individual and social situations can be created by superimposing simple reinforcement schedules. For example, a human being could have simultaneous tobacco and alcohol addictions. Even more complex situations can be created or simulated by superimposing two or more concurrent schedules. For example, a high school senior could have a choice between going to Stanford University or UCLA, and at the same time have the choice of going into the Army or the Air Force, and simultaneously the choice of taking a job with an internet company or a job with a software company. That would be a reinforcement structure of three superimposed concurrent schedules of reinforcement. An example of the use of superimposed schedules as a tool in the analysis of the contingencies of rent control can be found online in the website "Economic and Game Theory Forum", (Brechner, 2003).
Subsequent empirical studies by other researchers explored aspects of social traps other than the underlying reinforcement structure. Studies tended to concentrate on manipulating social and cognitive variables. Cass and Edney (1978) created a simpler game using a bowl of nuts to simulate a commonly held resource. [ 17 ] The Nuts Game as they called it had some distinct advantages over Brechner's electronically wired laboratory simulation. The Nuts Game could be transported easily to any environment in or out of the laboratory. It was simple and required no electronics. The reinforcers used were primary food rewards rather than the secondary conditioned reinforcers of class credit used in the earlier study.
From Platt's and others' initial concept, social trap research has spread to laboratories all over the world and has expanded into the fields of sociology, economics, institutional design, and the nuclear arms race . [ 18 ] Summaries of the many other diverse studies of social traps can be found in Messick and McClelland (1983), [ 8 ] Costanza (1984), [ 18 ] Komorita and Parks (1995), [ 19 ] Rothstein (2005), [ 20 ] and in a more recent review by Van Lange et al. (2013). [ 10 ]
Social trap research continues to be an active area. Urlacher (2008) devised an iterated version of the prisoner's dilemma game using groups of people, or "agents", pitted against other groups of agents, in a variation he termed a "two-level social trap". [ 21 ] He reported that when using a democratic decision rule, larger groups behaved more cooperatively than smaller groups. Chuang, Rivoire, and Liebler (2009) constructed a non-mammalian commons dilemma using colonies of the bacteria Escherichia coli composed of strains of producer and nonproducer microbes that contribute (or do not contribute) to the common resource in an examination of the statistical concept of Simpson's paradox . [ 22 ]
In 2010, Shaimaa Lazem and Denis Gračanin, in the Department of Computer Science at Virginia Tech , took social traps to a new level: into cyberspace . They performed a replication of the original social trap experiment, but created the social trap in the internet virtual world known as Second Life . [ 23 ] They constructed a virtual experimental laboratory with the subjects responding through avatars . The findings mirrored the original study, by finding that the ability to communicate led to greater replenishment of common resources.
Social traps and dilemmas represent one of the major causes of ongoing climate change , specifically due to the conflict between self-interest and collective gain. [ 24 ] A practical example of a social trap is when people prefer cars to public transportation - the short-term personal benefit, in this case, represents the comfort and possibly a demonstration of social status, whereas the long-term outcomes of such behavior lead to the rise in the concentration of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere and thus aggravating the harmful effects of climate change . Such defecting (non-cooperative) behavior is frequently strengthened when confronted with the feeling of social and environmental uncertainty, particularly in collective social traps, large-scale dilemmas, and commons dilemmas . [ 11 ] [ 10 ] Social uncertainty, meaning the uncertainty of others actions, and environmental uncertainty, regarding the unpredictability of the resource's availability or abundance, generally prevent cooperation within groups and often lead to taking more than a fair share. [ 25 ] However, research has shown that cooperative behavior under social and environmental uncertainty can be enhanced when the group chooses a trustworthy leader who manages the shared resource justly. [ 26 ]
There appear to be many strategies to escape or avoid social traps and dilemmas, which could provide valuable input for local and global climate policies. In Platt's original article, he proposed some of those - for example, imposing rewards for proenvironmental behavior (e.g., monetary rewards) and punishments for environmentally unfriendly behavior (e.g., pollution taxes ). [ 1 ] The enforcement of pollution taxes can be very efficient, for example, in managing hazardous waste . [ 2 ] In terms of fulfilling climate agreements and global treaties, world governments must be aware of a definite threshold ( temperature , atmospheric CO 2 concentration) that cannot be crossed. [ 27 ] The lack thereof might lead to uncertainty, free riding on the contributions of other countries, and thus to the failure to comply with set agreements. [ 27 ] As for promoting cooperation and proenvironmental behavior among people, research shows that people need to believe their actions count and are significant, [ 28 ] and they should be aware of the negative consequences of their actions. [ 29 ] Also, promoting altruism and social norms can become practical tools when attempting to escape social traps and dilemmas. [ 9 ] Additionally, cooperation among group members increases when group identity is strengthened, and a leader is elected to manage a common resource. [ 30 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_trap |
In social psychology , social value orientation ( SVO ) is a person's preference about how to allocate resources (e.g. money) between the self and another person. SVO corresponds to how much weight a person attaches to the welfare of others in relation to the own. Since people are assumed to vary in the weight they attach to other peoples' outcomes in relation to their own, SVO is an individual difference variable. The general concept underlying SVO has become widely studied in a variety of different scientific disciplines, such as economics , sociology , and biology under a multitude of different names (e.g. social preferences , other-regarding preferences , welfare tradeoff ratios , social motives , etc.).
The SVO construct has its history in the study of interdependent decision making, i.e. strategic interactions between two or more people. The advent of Game theory in the 1940s provided a formal language for describing and analyzing situations of interdependence based on utility theory . As a simplifying assumption for analyzing strategic interactions, it was generally presumed that people only consider their own outcomes when making decisions in interdependent situations, rather than taking into account the interaction partners' outcomes as well. However, the study of human behavior in social dilemma situations, such as the prisoner's dilemma , revealed that some people do in fact appear to have concerns for others.
In the Prisoner's dilemma , participants are asked to take the role of two criminals. In this situation, they are to pretend that they are a pair of criminals being interrogated by detectives in separate rooms. Both participants are being offered a deal and have two options. That is, the participant may remain silent or confess and implicate his or her partner. However, if both participants choose to remain silent, they will be set free. If both participants confess they will receive a moderate sentence. Conversely, if one participant remains silent while the other confesses, the person who confesses will receive a minimal sentence while the person who remained silent (and was implicated by their partner) will receive a maximum sentence. Thus, participants have to make the decision to cooperate with or compete with their partner.
When used in the lab, the dynamics of this situation are stimulated as participants play for points or for money. Participants are given one of two choices, labeled option C or D. Option C would be the cooperative choice and if both participants choose to be cooperative then they will both earn points or money. On the other hand, Option D is the competitive choice. If just one participants chooses option D, that participant will earn points or money while the other player will lose money. However, if both participant pick D, then both of them will lose money. In addition to displaying participant's social value orientations , it also displays the dynamics of a mixed-motives situation. [ 1 ]
From behavior in strategic situations it is not possible, though, to infer peoples' motives, i.e. the joint outcome they would choose if they alone could determine it. The reason is that behavior in a strategic situation is always a function of both peoples' preferences about joint outcomes and their beliefs about the intentions and behavior of their interaction partners.
In an attempt to assess peoples' preferences over joint outcomes alone, disentangled from their beliefs about the other persons' behavior, David M. Messick and Charles G. McClintock in 1968 [ 2 ] devised what has become known as the decomposed game technique . Basically, any task where one decision maker can alone determine which one out of at least two own-other resource allocation options will be realized is a decomposed game (also often referred to as dictator game , especially in economics , where it is often implemented as a constant-sum situation).
By observing which own-other resource allocation a person chooses in a decomposed game , it is possible to infer that person's preferences over own-other resource allocations, i.e. social value orientation . Since there is no other person making a decision that affects the joint outcome, there is no interdependence, and therefore a potential effect of beliefs on behavior is ruled out.
To give an example, consider two options, A and B. If you choose option A, you will receive $100, and another (unknown) person will receive $10. If you choose option B, you will receive $85, and the other (unknown) person will also receive $85. This is a decomposed game . If a person chooses option B, we can infer that this person does not only consider the outcome for the self when making a decision, but also takes into account the outcome for the other.
When people seek to maximize their gains, they are said to be proself . But when people are also concerned with others' gains and losses, they are said to be prosocial . There are four categories within SVO. Individualistic and competitive SVOs are proself while cooperative and altruistic SVOs are prosocial : [ 1 ]
However, in 1973 Griesinger and Livingston [ 3 ] provided a geometric framework of SVO (the SVO ring , see Figure 1 ) with which they could show that SVO is in principle not a categorical, but a continuous construct that allows for an infinite number of social value orientations.
The basic idea was to represent outcomes for the self (on the x-axis ) and for the other (on the y-axis ) on a Cartesian plane , and represent own-other payoff allocation options as coordinates on a circle centered at the origin of the plane. If a person chooses a particular own-other outcome allocation on the ring, that person's SVO can be represented by the angle of the line starting at the origin of the Cartesian plane and intersecting the coordinates of the respective chosen own-other outcome allocation.
If, for instance, a person would choose the option on the circle that maximizes the own outcome, this would refer to an SVO angle of 0 ∘ {\displaystyle 0^{\circ }} , indicating a perfectly individualistic SVO. An angle of 45 ∘ {\displaystyle 45^{\circ }} would indicate a perfectly cooperative (maximizing joint outcomes) SVO, while an angle of − 45 ∘ {\displaystyle -45^{\circ }} would indicate a perfectly competitive (maximizing relative gain) SVO. This conceptualization indicates that SVO is a continuous construct, since there is an infinite number of possible SVOs, because angular degrees are continuous .
This advancement in the conceptualization of the SVO construct also clarified that SVO as originally conceptualized can be represented in terms of a utility function of the following form
U ( π s , π o ) = a ∗ π s + b ∗ π o {\displaystyle U_{(\pi _{s},\pi _{o})}=a*\pi _{s}+b*\pi _{o}} ,
where π s {\displaystyle \pi _{s}} is the outcome for the self, π o {\displaystyle \pi _{o}} is the outcome for the other, and the parameters indicate the weight a person attaches to the own outcome ( a {\displaystyle a} ) and the outcome for the other ( b {\displaystyle b} ).
Several different measurement methods exist for assessing SVO. [ 5 ] The basis for any of these measures is the decomposed game technique , i.e. a set of non-constant-sum dictator games . The most commonly used SVO measures are the following.
The Ring measure was devised by Wim B. G. Liebrand in 1984 [ 4 ] and is based on the geometric SVO framework proposed by Griesinger and Livingston in 1973. [ 3 ] In the Ring measure, subjects are asked to choose between 24 pairs of options that allocate money to the subject and the "other". The 24 pairs of outcomes correspond to equally spaced adjacent own-other-payoff allocations on an SVO ring , i.e. a circle with a certain radius centered at the origin of the Cartesian plane. The vertical axis (y) measures the number of points or amount of money allocated to the other and the horizontal axis (x) measures the amount allocated to the self. Each pair of outcomes corresponds to two adjacent points on the circle. Adding up a subject's 24 choices yields a motivational vector with a certain length and angle. The length of the vector indicates the consistency of a subject's choice behavior, while the angle indicates that subject's SVO. Subjects are then categorized into one out of eight SVO categories according to their SVO angle, given a sufficiently consistent choice pattern. This measure allows for the detection of uncommon pathological SVOs, such as masochism, sadomasochism, or martyrdom, which would indicate that a subject attaches a negative weight ( a {\displaystyle a} ) to the outcome for the self given the utility function described above.
The triple-dominance measure [ 6 ] is directly based on the use of decomposed games as suggested by Messick and McClintock (1968). [ 2 ] Concretely, the triple-dominance measure consists of nine items, each of which asks a subject to choose one out of three own-other-outcome allocations. The three options do have the same characteristics in each of the items. One option maximizes the outcome for the self, a second option maximizes the sum of the outcomes for the self and the other (joint outcome), and the third option maximizes the relative gain (i.e. the difference between the outcome for the self and the outcome for the other). If a subject chooses an option indicating a particular SVO in at least six out of the nine items, the subject is categorized accordingly. That is, a subject is categorized as cooperative/prosocial , individualistic , or competitive .
The Slider measure [ 7 ] assess SVO on a continuous scale, rather than categorizing subjects into nominal motivational groups. The instrument consists of 6 primary and 9 secondary items. In each item of the paper-based version of the Slider measure, a subject has to indicate her most preferred own-other outcome allocation out of nine options. From a subject's choices in the primary items, the SVO angle can be computed. There is also an online version of the Slider measure , where subjects can slide along a continuum of own-other payoff allocations in the items, allowing for a very precise assessment of a person's SVO. The secondary items can be used for differentiating between the motivations to maximize the joint outcome and to minimize the difference in outcomes ( inequality aversion ) among prosocial subjects. The SVO Slider Measure has been shown to be more reliable than previously used measures, and yields SVO scores on a continuous scale. [ 7 ]
Some recent papers have explored whether Social Value Orientation is somehow reflected on human brain activity. The first functional magnetic resonance imaging study [ 8 ] of Social Value Orientation revealed that response of the amygdala to economic inequity (i.e., absolute value of reward difference between self and the other) is correlated with the degree of prosocial orientation. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study [ 9 ] found that responses of Medial Prefrontal Cortex - an area that is typically associated with social cognition- mirrored preferences over competitive, individualistic and cooperative allocations. Similar findings in this or neighboring areas (ventromedial and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex) have been reported elsewhere. [ 10 ]
SVO has been shown to be predictive of important behavioral variables, such as:
Furthermore, it has been shown that individualism is prevalent among very young children, and that the frequency of expressions of prosocial and competitive SVOs increases with age. Among adults, it has been shown repeatedly that prosocial SVOs are most frequently observed (up to 60 percent), followed by individualistic SVOs (about 30-40 percent), and competitive SVOs (about 5-10 percent). Evidence also suggests that SVO is first and foremost determined by socialization , and that genetic predisposition plays a minor role in SVO development. [ 5 ]
The SVO construct is rooted in social psychology , but has also been studied in other disciplines, such as economics . [ 17 ] However, the general concept underlying SVO is inherently interdisciplinary, and has been studied under different names in a variety of different scientific fields; it is the concept of distributive preferences. Originally, the SVO construct as conceptualized by the SVO ring framework [ 3 ] did not include preferences such as inequality aversion , which is a distributive preference heavily studied in experimental economics . This particular motivation can also not be assessed with commonly used measures of SVO, except with the SVO Slider Measure . [ 7 ] The original SVO concept can be extended, though, by representing peoples' distributive preferences in terms of utility functions , as is standard in economics . For instance, a representation of SVO that includes the expression of a motivation to minimize differences between outcomes could be formalized as follows. [ 18 ]
U ( π s , π o ) = a ∗ π s + b ∗ π o − c ∗ | π s − π o | {\displaystyle U_{(\pi _{s},\pi _{o})}=a*\pi _{s}+b*\pi _{o}-c*|\pi _{s}-\pi _{o}|} .
Several utility functions as representations of peoples' concerns for the welfare of others have been devised and used (for a very prominent example, see Fehr & Schmidt, 1999 [ 19 ] ) in economics . It is a challenge for future interdisciplinary research to combine the findings from different scientific disciplines and arrive at a unifying theory of SVO. Representing SVO in terms of a utility function and going beyond the construct's original conceptualization may facilitate the achievement of this ambitious goal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_value_orientations |
Socially relevant computing ( SRC ) is a unique paradigm in computing introduced by the researchers at the University at Buffalo , Rice University and Microsoft Research . It focuses on the use of computation to solve problems that students are most passionate about. It presents computer science as a cutting-edge technological discipline that empowers them to solve problems of personal interest (socially relevant with a "little s"), as well as problems that are important to society at large (socially relevant with a "capital s").
SRC emphasizes the use of computation for solving problems of personal and societal interest to students. It offers opportunities to demonstrate that computer science is a mainstream endeavor and that it offers conceptual and technological tools for solving meaningful, real-world problems. Courses in this new framework help students identify and model tasks, and design and implement computational solutions that show deep understanding of their embedding in the real world. At the very least, SRC offers interesting examples to illustrate foundational concepts in computer science. By emphasizing problem-solving, and by giving students practice in recognizing needs and engineering solutions to them via computation , SRC at its finest promises to create a more entrepreneurial, as well as a more broadly educated computer scientist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socially_relevant_computing |
Sociedad Española de Construcciones Electromecánicas (abbreviated as SECEM ), colloquially known as " electro ", [ 1 ] was a Spanish company in the non-ferrous metals industry that operated between 1917 and 1978. Throughout its existence it was one of the most important Spanish companies in the copper sector, having its main activity in Córdoba . Among its products were copper products, brass , electrical transformers , etc.
The company was founded on June 15, 1917, with Spanish- French financial support, with a capital stock of 25 million pesetas . [ 2 ] It was born in the context of a boom in Spanish industry, in the heat of the First World War . Two foreign capital companies were involved in its creation, the Sociedad Minera y Metalúrgica de Peñarroya (SMMP) and the Rio Tinto Company Limited (RTC), [ 3 ] both of which became shareholders of the new company. [ Note 1 ] The SECEM owned an important plant in Cordoba dedicated to copper metallurgy, brass production, manufacture of motors and electric transformers, etc. [ 4 ] Over the years it ended up becoming one of the main companies in the sector, having also a great importance in the local context of Cordoba.
The company came to manufacture nearly 40% of all the electrolytic copper produced in Spain, [ 5 ] being supplied to a large extent by the material coming from the Rio Tinto-Nerva mining basin . In this sense, SECEM became an important client of the Compañía Española de Minas de Río Tinto (CEMRT), and later the companies Río Tinto Patiño [ 6 ] and Río Tinto Minera would have an important shareholding in SECEM. In spite of this privileged situation, the lack of internal competition meant that the machinery and technology of the Cordovan factory were not modernized, which in the long term would end up causing serious problems for SECEM's economic viability. Towards the end of the 1970s, the industrial crisis had a considerable impact on the copper sector. Taking advantage of this context, in May 1978 SECEM —with the financial support of Banco de Bilbao and Banco Hispano Americano — proceeded to acquire the companies Pradera Hermanos, Sociedad Industrial Asturiana and Earle; at the end of the year, all of these companies formed the conglomerate Ibercobre , which controlled 60% of the copper market. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]
The SECEM complex in Cordoba remained intact until 1989–1990, after the purchase of Ibercobre by the Finnish company Outokumpu , which decided to split it into three separate industries. [ 9 ]
The SECEM factory in Cordoba was located to the west of the city, next to the route of the Cordoba-Seville and Cordoba-Malaga railway lines, which allowed its production to be transported by rail. For this purpose, an industrial branch and several sidings were set up within the industrial complex. Eventually SECEM acquired two 0-2-0T steam locomotives to take over the shunting and traction work with the freight wagons. One of these engines, acquired in 1963, was the former RENFE 020–0212. It is currently preserved and exhibited in Cordoba. [ 10 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociedad_Española_de_Construcciones_Electromecánicas |
The Brazilian Astronomical Society (in Portuguese : Sociedade Astronômica Brasileira - SAB ) is a professional astronomical society in Brazil , founded in 1974. [ 1 ]
According to its statute, the society is obliged to fulfill certain duties:
In addition to symposia , working meetings and contact services, it also holds annual meetings, which have taken place in:
The Brazilian Astronomical Society Teaching Commission ( Comissão de Ensino da Sociedade Astronômica Brasileira - CESAB ) is assigned to analyze and correct educational books' potential inaccuracies on astronomy, in cooperation with the Ministry of Education ( Ministério da Educação - MEC ). The commission is also responsible for the organizing of the Brazilian Astronomy Olympiad and the periodic realization of astronomy courses destinated for teachers , in addition to the frequent production and publishing of articles and texts with the objective to promote and teach astronomy, such as the Brazilian Astronomy Magazine ( Revista Brasileira de Astronomia - RBA ), published quarterly. [ 7 ]
This astronomy -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociedade_Astronômica_Brasileira |
The societal effects of negligible senescence considers a scenario where negligible senescence is achieved on a societal wide level in humans. There is much controversy about the realistic timeline of such a scenario. The predictions vary in time starting from 2037 [ 1 ] till later than the 21st century. [ 2 ] The effects of negligible senescence has a profound impact on economy, climate, demographics and impacts social structures . The baseline scenario ceteris paribus of negligible senescence is more population growth while a larger healthier labor force would spur economic growth. [ 3 ]
Senescence is defined as the gradual deterioration of functional characteristics. The word senescence can either refer to cellular senescence or to senescence of a whole organism . Negligible senescence is therefore defined as the lack of senescence or a very small amount of senescence. [ 3 ] Which implies that mortality and morbidity from most causes is eliminated. The term was introduced by biogerentologist Caleb Finch to denote organisms that do not exhibit evidence of biological aging and was further popularized by gerontologist Aubrey de Grey .
The timeline wherein humanity will achieve a negligible senescence scenario is unclear. For instance, in the Worldbank projections of demographics until 2050 death rate per 1,000 is increasing year-on-year [ 4 ] thus implying no projection of negligible senescence before 2050. Although visionaries like Yuval Noah Harari do mention the possibility of a negligible senescence society Noah also remarks that he seems this is not likely to happen in the 21st century. [ 5 ] Only a few people have publicly announced that they deem negligible senescence likely in the 21st century, such as Aubrey de Grey, founder of the SENS Research Foundation .
The impact of negligible senescence on worldwide demographics is widely accepted. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Coale noted that a shift toward near- immortality would have the same long-term impact on population growth as a 10% increase in the fertility rate. As the death rate per thousand people will drop from roughly 10 per thousand (1% per year) to near zero this would thus add an extra 1% population growth each year. [ 7 ]
Although aging populations in population pyramids result in "constructive" pyramids which are narrowed at the bottom, this might not necessarily be the case in the aging population in a negligible senescence scenario. Depending on the total fertility rate (TFR) all three different shapes of population pyramids can be observed. [ 3 ]
Many questions still remain regarding demographic predictions in negligible senescence scenario's. The TFR has steadily decreased from 5 in 1950–1955 to around 2.5 in 2010–2015. The impact of negligible senescence on future TFR is unclear as there might be a reduced sense of self"replacement". However, this might be offset by no biological limitations on having an unlimited number of children (delay or complete eradication of menopause ) which in turn may or may not occur with negligible senescence. Furthermore, the age of mothers might increase or stay stable depending on a myriad of factors thus impacting TFR. [ 3 ]
The impact of negligible senescence on the economy is multi-faceted. Many developed countries face population ageing due to demographic transition whereas in the least developed countries people of old age only resembles a small part of the total population. Therefore, the development of negligible senescence therapies have profoundly different effects on the economies of countries with different demographic characteristics.
From a worldwide perspective eliminating senescence has a massive effect on the economy. As current productivity losses for employers in the US alone is calculated at 225.8 billion annually, [ 8 ] the impact can be large. Furthermore, changes in pension plans might enable unlimited perpetual productivity after childhood ceteris paribus and thus eliminating the 'Aged dependency ratio ' in the equation of dependency ratios. These effects are partly offset with the costs of providing negligible senescence therapies. [ 3 ]
As philosopher Nick Bostrom mentioned in his story " The Fable of the Dragon-Tyrant " referring to the end of senescence: " And in the coming days... I believe we have some reorganization to do! ". Humankind has experienced senescence for all its history. Therefore, major challenges are necessarily to fill the void the lack of senescence has now left behind. [ 9 ] However, he does not substantiate this any further into practical measures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societal_effects_of_negligible_senescence |
The societal impact of nanotechnology are the potential benefits and challenges that the introduction of novel nanotechnological devices and materials may hold for society and human interaction. The term is sometimes expanded to also include nanotechnology's health and environmental impact , but this article will only consider the social and political impact of nanotechnology.
As nanotechnology is an emerging field and most of its applications are still speculative, there is much debate about what positive and negative effects that nanotechnology might have.
Beyond the toxicity risks to human health and the environment which are associated with first-generation nanomaterials, nanotechnology has broader societal implications and poses broader social challenges. Social scientists have suggested that nanotechnology's social issues should be understood and assessed not simply as "downstream" risks or impacts. Rather, the challenges should be factored into "upstream" research and decision making in order to ensure technology development that meets social objectives [ 1 ]
Many social scientists and organizations in civil society suggest that technology assessment and governance should also involve public participation. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
Though the innovative part of nano-technology may excite people a lot of other worries about the societal and natural impact the advancement of nano-technology will bring. Studies have shown numerous positive results of applying nano-technology but public opinion is vital to its success at transforming society. A number of different socio and political factors will be crucial to deciding the destiny of nano-technology. [ 5 ]
Some observers suggest that nanotechnology will build incrementally, as did the 18–19th century Industrial Revolution , until it gathers pace to drive a nanotechnological revolution that will radically reshape our economies, our labor markets, international trade, international relations, social structures, civil liberties, our relationship with the natural world and even what we understand to be human. Others suggest that it may be more accurate to describe change driven by nanotechnology as a “technological tsunami ”. Just like a tsunami, analysts warn that rapid nanotechnology-driven change will necessarily have profound disruptive impacts. As the APEC Center for Technology Foresight observes:
If nanotechnology is going to revolutionize manufacturing, health care, energy supply, communications and probably defense, then it will transform labour and the workplace, the medical system, the transportation and power infrastructures and the military. None of these latter will be changed without significant social disruption. [ 6 ]
Those concerned with the negative impact of nanotechnology suggest that it will simply exacerbate problems stemming from existing socio-economic inequity and unequal distributions of power, creating greater inequities between rich and poor through an inevitable nano-divide (the gap between those who control the new nanotechnologies and those whose products, services or labour are displaced by them). Analysts suggest the possibility that nanotechnology has the potential to destabilize international relations through a nano arms race and the increased potential for bioweaponry ; thus, providing the tools for ubiquitous surveillance with significant implications for civil liberties . Also, many critics believe it might break down the barriers between life and non-life through nanobiotechnology , redefining even what it means to be human. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]
Nanotechnology has the potential to benefits all forms of work from daily life to medicine and biology. Despite these benefits, there are also health risks when it comes to human exposure to the nano material. Studies have shown that dangerous nano-particles can build up in the body after prolonged exposure. This is caused by a very complicated interaction between nano-particles and parts of the body's systems. [ 9 ]
Nanoethicists posit that such a transformative technology could exacerbate the divisions of rich and poor – the so-called “nano divide.” However nanotechnology makes the production of technology, e.g. computers, cellular phones, health technology etcetera, cheaper and therefore accessible to the poor.
In fact, many of the most enthusiastic proponents of nanotechnology, such as transhumanists, see the nascent science as a mechanism to changing human nature itself – going beyond curing disease and enhancing human characteristics. Discussions on nanoethics have been hosted by the federal government, especially in the context of “converging technologies” – a catch-phrase used to refer to nano, biotech, information technology, and cognitive science.
Possible military applications of nanotechnology have been suggested in the fields of soldier enhancement ( [1] ) and chemical weapons amongst others. However, more socially disruptive weapon systems are to be expected from molecular manufacturing , a potential future form of nanotechnology that would make it possible to build complex structures at atomic precision. [ 10 ] Molecular manufacturing requires significant advances in nanotechnology, but its supporters posit that once achieved it could produce highly advanced products at low costs and in large quantities in nanofactories weighing a kilogram or more. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] If nanofactories gain the ability to produce other nanofactories production may only be limited by relatively abundant factors such as input materials, energy and software. [ 11 ]
Military applications for nanotechnology are going to revolutionize modern warfare and while many benefits will come from the applications of such technology there are also some risks that we need to be aware of. The emergence of nanotechnology will greatly change the fields of science medicine surveillance and energy. While human engineering and arms control will be better there will also be strict regulations on all forms of nanotech especially autonomies to prevent any unfortunate incidents. All treaties will be upheld and there should under no circumstance be an arms race. Because of its constant fast growth countries should work together to solve the problem of hazard nano materials and to prevent an arms race as a result of social problems and poor communication. [ 12 ]
Molecular manufacturing might be used to cheaply produce, among many other products, highly advanced, durable weapons. Being equipped with compact computers and motors these might be increasingly autonomous and have a large range of capabilities. [ 11 ]
According to Chris Phoenix and Mike Treder from the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology as well as Anders Sandberg from the Future of Humanity Institute the military uses of molecular manufacturing are the applications of nanotechnology that pose the most significant global catastrophic risk . [ 11 ] [ 13 ] Several nanotechnology researchers state that the bulk of risk from nanotechnology comes from the potential to lead to war, arms races and destructive global government. [ 11 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Several reasons have been suggested why the availability of nanotech weaponry may with significant likelihood lead to unstable arms races (compared to e.g. nuclear arms races): (1) A large number of players may be tempted to enter the race since the threshold for doing so is low; [ 11 ] (2) the ability to make weapons with molecular manufacturing might be cheap and easy to hide; [ 11 ] (3) therefore lack of insight into the other parties' capabilities can tempt players to arm out of caution or to launch preemptive strikes; [ 11 ] [ 15 ] (4) molecular manufacturing may reduce dependency on international trade, [ 11 ] a potential peace-promoting factor; [ 16 ] (5) wars of aggression may pose a smaller economic threat to the aggressor since manufacturing is cheap and humans may not be needed on the battlefield. [ 11 ]
Self-regulation by all state and non-state actors has been called hard to achieve, [ 17 ] so measures to mitigate war-related risks have mainly been proposed in the area of international cooperation . [ 11 ] [ 18 ] International infrastructure may be expanded giving more sovereignty to the international level. This could help coordinate efforts for arms control. [ 19 ] Some have put forth that international institutions dedicated specifically to nanotechnology (perhaps analogously to the International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA ) or general arms control may also be designed. [ 18 ] One may also jointly make differential technological progress on defensive technologies. [ 11 ] The Center for Responsible Nanotechnology also suggest some technical restrictions. [ 20 ] Improved transparency regarding technological capabilities may be another important facilitator for arms-control. [ 21 ]
On the structural level, critics of nanotechnology point to a new world of ownership and corporate control opened up by nanotechnology. The claim is that, just as biotechnology 's ability to manipulate genes went hand in hand with the patenting of life, so too nanotechnology's ability to manipulate molecules has led to the patenting of matter. The last few years has seen a gold rush to claim patents at the nanoscale. Academics have warned that the resultant patent thicket is harming progress in the technology [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] and have argued in the top journal Nature that there should be a moratorium on patents on "building block" nanotechnologies. [ 26 ] Over 800 nano-related patents were granted in 2003, and the numbers are increasing year to year. Corporations are already taking out broad-ranging patents on nanoscale discoveries and inventions. For example, two corporations, NEC and IBM , hold the basic patents on carbon nanotubes , one of the current cornerstones of nanotechnology. Carbon nanotubes have a wide range of uses, and look set to become crucial to several industries from electronics and computers, to strengthened materials to drug delivery and diagnostics. Carbon nanotubes are poised to become a major traded commodity with the potential to replace major conventional raw materials. However, as their use expands, anyone seeking to (legally) manufacture or sell carbon nanotubes, no matter what the application, must first buy a license from NEC or IBM. [2] [3]
The United States' essential facilities doctrine may be of importance as well as other anti-trust laws.
Nanotechnologies may provide new solutions for the millions of people in developing countries who lack access to basic services, such as safe water, reliable energy, health care, and education. The United Nations has set Millennium Development Goals for meeting these needs. The 2004 UN Task Force on Science, Technology and Innovation noted that some of the advantages of nanotechnology include production using little labor, land, or maintenance, high productivity, low cost, and modest requirements for materials and energy.
Many developing countries, for example Costa Rica, Chile, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Malaysia, are investing considerable resources in research and development of nanotechnologies. Emerging economies such as Brazil, China, India and South Africa are spending millions of US dollars annually on R&D, and are rapidly increasing their scientific output as demonstrated by their increasing numbers of publications in peer-reviewed scientific publications.
Potential opportunities of nanotechnologies to help address critical international development priorities include improved water purification systems, energy systems , medicine and pharmaceuticals , food production and nutrition, and information and communications technologies . Nanotechnologies are already incorporated in products that are on the market. Other nanotechnologies are still in the research phase, while others are concepts that are years or decades away from development.
Applying nanotechnologies in developing countries raises similar questions about the environmental, health, and societal risks described in the previous section. Additional challenges have been raised regarding the linkages between nanotechnology and development.
Protection of the environment, human health and worker safety in developing countries often suffers from a combination of factors that can include but are not limited to lack of robust environmental, human health, and worker safety regulations; poorly or unenforced regulation which is linked to a lack of physical (e.g., equipment) and human capacity (i.e., properly trained regulatory staff). Often, these nations require assistance, particularly financial assistance, to develop the scientific and institutional capacity to adequately assess and manage risks, including the necessary infrastructure such as laboratories and technology for detection.
Very little is known about the risks and broader impacts of nanotechnology. At a time of great uncertainty over the impacts of nanotechnology it will be challenging for governments, companies, civil society organizations, and the general public in developing countries, as in developed countries, to make decisions about the governance of nanotechnology.
Companies, and to a lesser extent governments and universities, are receiving patents on nanotechnology. The rapid increase in patenting of nanotechnology is illustrated by the fact that in the US, there were 500 nanotechnology patent applications in 1998 and 1,300 in 2000. Some patents are very broadly defined, which has raised concern among some groups that the rush to patent could slow innovation and drive up costs of products, thus reducing the potential for innovations that could benefit low income populations in developing countries.
There is a clear link between commodities and poverty. Many least developed countries are dependent on a few commodities for employment, government revenue, and export earnings. Many applications of nanotechnology are being developed that could impact global demand for specific commodities. For instance, certain nanoscale materials could enhance the strength and durability of rubber , which might eventually lead to a decrease in demand for natural rubber . Other nanotechnology applications may result in increases in demand for certain commodities. For example, demand for titanium may increase as a result of new uses for nanoscale titanium oxides , such as titanium dioxide nanotubes that can be used to produce and store hydrogen for use as fuel. Various organizations have called for international dialogue on mechanisms that will allow developing countries to anticipate and proactively adjust to these changes.
In 2003, Meridian Institute began the Global Dialogue on Nanotechnology and the Poor: Opportunities and Risks (GDNP) to raise awareness of the opportunities and risks of nanotechnology for developing countries , close the gaps within and between sectors of society to catalyze actions that address specific opportunities and risks of nanotechnology for developing countries, and identify ways that science and technology can play an appropriate role in the development process. The GDNP has released several publicly accessible papers on nanotechnology and development, including "Nanotechnology and the Poor: Opportunities and Risks - Closing the Gaps Within and Between Sectors of Society" ; "Nanotechnology, Water, and Development" ; and "Overview and Comparison of Conventional and Nano-Based Water Treatment Technologies" .
Concerns are frequently raised that the claimed benefits of nanotechnology will not be evenly distributed, and that any benefits (including technical and/or economic) associated with nanotechnology will only reach affluent nations. [ 27 ] The majority of nanotechnology research and development - and patents for nanomaterials and products - is concentrated in developed countries (including the United States, Japan, Germany, Canada and France). In addition, most patents related to nanotechnology are concentrated amongst few multinational corporations, including IBM, Micron Technologies, Advanced Micro Devices and Intel. [ 28 ] This has led to fears that it will be unlikely that developing countries will have access to the infrastructure, funding and human resources required to support nanotechnology research and development, and that this is likely to exacerbate such inequalities.
Producers in developing countries could also be disadvantaged by the replacement of natural products (including rubber, cotton, coffee and tea) by developments in nanotechnology. These natural products are important export crops for developing countries, and many farmers' livelihoods depend on them. It has been argued that their substitution with industrial nano-products could negatively impact the economies of developing countries, that have traditionally relied on these export crops. [ 27 ]
It is proposed that nanotechnology can only be effective in alleviating poverty and aid development "when adapted to social, cultural and local institutional contexts, and chosen and designed with the active participation by citizens right from the commencement point" (Invernizzi et al. 2008, p. 132). [ 27 ]
Ray Kurzweil has speculated in The Singularity is Near that people who work in unskilled labor jobs for a livelihood may become the first human workers to be displaced by the constant use of nanotechnology in the workplace , noting that layoffs often affect the jobs based around the lowest technology level before attacking jobs with the highest technology level possible. [ 29 ] It has been noted that every major economic era has stimulated a global revolution both in the kinds of jobs that are available to people and the kind of training they need to achieve these jobs, and there is concern that the world's educational systems have lagged behind in preparing students for the "Nanotech Age". [ 30 ]
It has also been speculated that nanotechnology may give rise to nanofactories which may have superior capabilities to conventional factories due to their small carbon and physical footprint on the global and regional environment. The miniaturization and transformation of the multi-acre conventional factory into the nanofactory may not interfere with their ability to deliver a high quality product; the product may be of even greater quality due to the lack of human errors in the production stages. Nanofactory systems may use precise atomic positioning and contribute to making superior quality products that the " bulk chemistry " method used in 20th century and early 21st currently cannot produce. These advances might shift the computerized workforce in an even more complex direction, requiring skills in genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics. [ 31 ] [ 32 ]
The ethics of nanotechnology are hard to discuss since the risk have not been verified or quantified to great extent. But these discussions are needed to deal with the rapid and development of this new technology. Scientist must be aware of the potential risks and benefits to not just the scientific community but society as a whole. The reason behind the emergence of Nano-ethics is the idea of using nanotechnology on humans and the environment to enhance or evolve. Scientist who work in nano tech are both the most optimistic about its progress and worried for its risks on society, though most coming into nanotechnology have no introduction to the ethics. [ 33 ]
The advancement of science helped focus research into nanotechnology, soon the price of nano based material grew exponentially and funding was being given to its research. Though claims about its harmful affects also increased as did the concern of its effect on society. Laws were then made to monitor nano technology and make sure ethical, environmental and societal concerns were ingrained. Research programs and funding were encouraged internationally. [ 34 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societal_impact_of_nanotechnology |
Society 5.0 , also known as the " Super Smart Society ", is a concept proposed by the Japanese government in 2016. It aims to use advanced technologies including artificial intelligence , to address societal challenges and enhance economic productivity across various sectors of everyday life. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
Building on the Fourth Industrial Revolution , Society 5.0 was introduced by the Cabinet Office’s Council for Science, Technology , and Innovation . The initiative was formally presented by former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in 2019 as part of the Fifth Science and Technology Basic Plan. It emphasizes the integration of cyberspace and physical space.
Society 5.0 is designed to promote a shift toward a human-centered, knowledge-based, and data-driven society. The Cabinet Office of the Government of Japan describes Society 5.0 as an initiative aimed at ensuring safety, security, comfort and health for individuals, facilitating the pursuit of their preferred lifestyles. [ 4 ]
The term "Society 5.0" refers to a proposed fifth stage of human following the hunter-gatherer society (Society 1.0), the agrarian society (Society 2.0), the industrial society (Society 3.0), and the information society (Society 4.0). [ 5 ] The concept envisions a society that uses digital transformation technologies to solve social problems and improve quality of life.
In anthropology, a hunter-gatherer society is a society dependent on hunting wild animals and gathering fruits and plants for sustenance. Anthropologists propose that all human societies followed a hunter-gatherer lifestyle until the advent of agriculture during the Neolithic period. [ 6 ]
An agrarian society is a societal structure where the economy primarily relies on agriculture. The origins of agrarian societies are associated with the Neolithic Revolution , also known as the First Agricultural Revolution, which occurred during the Neolithic or Stone Age. These societies have existed in various parts of the world for thousands of years. [ 7 ]
An industrial society is one that has undergone significant industrialization. Industrial societies often develop from agrarian societies and are characterized by technological advancements across various fields. [ 8 ]
An information society is a society in which activities related to the utilization, generation, dissemination, and incorporation of information hold considerable importance. Key factors enabling this phenomenon are information and communication technologies, which have contributed to the development of automated machines and robots impacting industry and information management. [ 9 ]
A report by Japan's National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology lists the following six topics as basic technologies for realizing Society 5.0:
The Japan Business Federation (Keidanren) initiated "Society 5.0 for SDGs" in alignment with the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), citing compatibility between the concepts. [ 10 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_5.0 |
The Society of Public Analysts was formed in the United Kingdom in 1874 and subsequently became the Society for Analytical Chemistry . It was incorporated in 1907.
The chemical industry had grown rapidly in the 19th century, and developments in the alkali, explosive and agricultural chemical fields produced a growing need for analytical chemists. Many of these chemists had little or no training in chemistry, and their lack of expertise was a danger to the public. Shortly after the Adulteration of Food and Drink Act 1860 ( 23 & 24 Vict. c. 84) the society was formed. It established adulteration and food standards, and educated analysts in legal work. [ 1 ]
It published The Analyst , Analytical Abstracts and the Proceedings of the Society for Analytical Chemistry (from 1964 to 1974).
In April 1966 it presented its first Gold Medal to Herbert Newton Wilson (author of An Approach To Chemical Analysis) [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
On 15 May 1980, it amalgamated with the Chemical Society , the Royal Institute of Chemistry , and the Faraday Society to become the Royal Society of Chemistry . [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Analytical_Chemistry |
The Society for Andaman and Nicobar Ecology , also known as SANE, is an environmental organization based in the city of Port Blair , in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , India. It was formed for the preservation of the Andaman ecosystem. [ 1 ]
Due to increasingly more contact of Jarawa adivasis of the Andaman Islands , since 1996, previously who were known for their herto fiercely isolationist behaviour, started to emerged from the forest area and made contact with the non-tribal population of the andaman. Due to completion of the National Highway 223 running throughout the andaman from north to south. The organization filed a suit in Calcutta High Court , under which andamanas jurisdiction comes. The case escalated to the Supreme Court of India as a Public Interest Litigation (or PIL).
SANE joined the Bombay Natural History Society and Pune -bare Kalpavriksh in this petition, whichresulted in the High Court passing a judgment in 2001, directing the administration to take steps to protect the Jarawa from encroachment and contact, as well as preemptively ruling out any program that involved relocating the Jarawa to a new reservation. Planned extensions of the highway were also prohibited by the court. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] However the Andaman administration decided defying the order by keeping it open and continuing construction due to being the main and important highway and for its economical and social importance. [ 4 ]
This article about an Indian company is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Andaman_and_Nicobar_Ecology |
The Society for Applied Spectroscopy (SAS) is an organization promoting research and education in the fields of spectroscopy , optics , and analytical chemistry . Founded in 1958, it is currently headquartered in Albany, New York. In 2006 it had about 2,000 members worldwide.
SAS is perhaps best known for its technical conference with the Federation of Analytical Chemistry and Spectroscopy Societies and short courses on various aspects of spectroscopy and data analysis. The society publishes the scientific journal Applied Spectroscopy .
SAS is affiliated with American Institute of Physics (AIP), the Coblentz Society, the Council for Near Infrared Spectroscopy (CNIRS), Federation of Analytical Chemistry and Spectroscopy Societies (FACSS), The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society (ISA), and Optica.
SAS provides a number of awards with honoraria to encourage and recognize outstanding achievements. [ 1 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Applied_Spectroscopy |
Society for Biological Engineering Students Chapter at UIET, Panjab University (SBE UIET) is professional organisation for Biotechnology students of engineering and sciences running under the department of Biotechnology , University Institute of Engineering and Technology , [ 1 ] Panjab University , [ 2 ] located in Chandigarh , India. It is the first student chapter in India and was established in September 2009. [ 3 ]
The Society for Biological Engineering [ 4 ] (SBE), an American Institute of Chemical Engineers [ 5 ] Technological Community, is a professional organization of Biological engineers and scientists in the field of Biotechnology . Its area of working generally focuses on Bioprocessing , Biomedical and Biomolecular engineering.
SBE UIET offers membership to Biotechnology undergraduates and postgraduates, B.Sc. graduates and postgraduates and research scholars studying in tricity of Chandigarh, Mohali and Panchkula every year. SBE UIET board for a particular year is selected on the basis of several in-person and telephonic interviews.
SBE UIET holds industrial visits twice a session and an education and adventure tour once a session.
SBE UIET conducted several events in 2015-16 and yet to organize many more. Some of them are:
SBE UIET conducted several events in 2016-17 and there are many more yet to organize. Some of them are:
SBE-UIET conducted several events during 2018-19:
SBE-UIET conducted these events in 2019-20:
SBE-UIET conducted these events in 2020-21: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Biological_Engineering_(UIET) |
The Society for Cryobiology is an international scientific society that was founded in 1964. Its objectives are to promote research in low temperature biology , to improve scientific understanding in this field, and to disseminate and aid in the application of this knowledge. The Society also publishes a journal called Cryobiology . [ 1 ]
The society has hosted 60 annual meetings to date, with the 2024 annual meeting being held in Washington . The three-day event will host over 350 delegates from more than 35 countries. [ 2 ]
A list of past presidents of the society is in the following [ 3 ]
This article about a biology organization is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Cryobiology |
The Society for Developmental Biology ( SDB ), originally the Society for the Study of Development and Growth , is an organization for scientists and professionals around the world whose research is focused on the study of the developmental biology , embryology , and related disciplines.
The "Society for the Study of Development and Growth" (SDB) was founded in 1939. In August 1939, the SDB held its first conference, a symposium on Developmental and Growth, in a small village schoolhouse in North Truro, Massachusetts. [ 1 ] In 1965, it was renamed the "Society for Developmental Biology" to reflect the SDB's advocacy of developmental biology.
The Society for Developmental Biology's mission is to employ, "... an inclusive philosophy to further the study of developmental biology and related disciplines; to foster, support, and provide a forum for all investigators in these fields; to educate non-specialists, educators, the general public, and policymakers about developmental biology and related disciplines; and to promote fair, respectful, ethical and equitable practices throughout the scientific enterprise." [ 2 ]
SDB has more than 2,000 members and provides an international forum for research, education, and career development in developmental biology. Membership is open to all with discounted rates for students, postdoctoral researchers, and affiliates. [ 3 ] SDB Emerging Research Organisms Grant supports the development of techniques, approaches, community resources, collaborations, and new lines of research to study developmental mechanisms in non-traditional systems. [ 4 ]
SDB Career Awards recognize excellence in research, mentoring, education, and science communication in the developmental biology community.
SDB has made a concerted effort to diversify the pool of scientists by creating resources and professional development opportunities. In 2013, SDB created the Choose Development! Program—a two-summer immersion for undergraduate students belonging to underrepresented groups in STEM to join the research laboratory of an established SDB member. This research-intensive experience was enhanced by a multi-tier mentoring program for each student, recognition across Society, professional development activities, and networking opportunities at national conferences. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]
The Society began creating virtual career development programs geared toward early career scientists. Since 2020, SDB has developed the Ethel Browne Harvey Postdoctoral Seminar Series, [ 9 ] Science Communication Internship, [ 10 ] Get Into Grad School Webinar, Get Hired!, and New Faculty Boot Camp. [ 11 ]
SDB publishes in a monthly peer reviewed journal , Developmental Biology . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Developmental_Biology |
The Society for Health Systems ( SHS ) is a professional society within the Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers to the support the industrial engineering profession and individuals involved with improving quality and productivity within healthcare . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Health_Systems |
The International Society for Experimental Hematology (formerly the Society for Hematology and Stem Cells ) is a learned society which deals with hematology , the study of the blood system and its diseases, including those caused by exposure to nuclear radiation. It was founded in 1950, and held its first official meeting in Milwaukee in 1972. [ 1 ] Its mission statement is: "To promote the scientific knowledge and clinical application of basic hematology, immunology, stem cell research, cell and gene therapy and related aspects of research through publications, discussions, scientific meetings and the support of young investigators." [ 2 ]
The society has an official journal, Experimental Hematology .
At the opening ceremony of the 30th annual meeting of ISEH, Emperor Akihito of Japan praised the "remarkable results obtained by the ISEH today in the treatment of radiation-related disorders", by contrast to the lack of any effective treatment for such disorders in 1945 when atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . [ 3 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Hematology_and_Stem_Cells |
The Society for Imaging Science and Technology ( IS&T ) is a professional society (a type of research and education organization) in the field of photography . Founded in 1947 as the Society of Photographic Scientists and Engineers ( SPSE ), it is headquartered in Springfield, Virginia . In 2018 it had about 850 members worldwide, and 5,000 participants in its various technical and industry-related programs.
IS&T is perhaps best known for its technical conferences and courses on various aspects of imaging science and technology , including digital imaging , digital printing , color imaging, photofinishing, archiving, and digital fabrication. The society publishes The Journal of Imaging Science and Technology and, in collaboration with SPIE , The Journal of Electronic Imaging . In 2018, IS&T introduced the open access Journal of Perceptual Imaging . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Imaging_Science_and_Technology |
The Society for Research on Biological Rhythms ( SRBR ) is a learned society and professional association headquartered in the United States created to advance the interests of chronobiology in academia, industry, education, and research. Formed in 1986, the society has around 1,000 members, and runs the associated academic journal, the Journal of Biological Rhythms . [ 1 ] In addition to communicating with academic and public audiences on matters related to chronobiology, the society seeks to foster interdisciplinary exchange of ideas and advocates for the need for funding and research in biological rhythms to guide the development of related policies.
The society holds three key goals :
The society holds biennial meetings [ 2 ] and informal gatherings, and participates in peer-reviewed science and evidence-based policy making. [ 3 ] It is one of four prominent existing Chronology Research Societies [ 4 ] [ 5 ] and one of the 14 societies that make up The World Federation of Societies for Chronobiology . [ 6 ] Through its journal, the Journal of Biological Rhythms , and meetings, the society engages scientists of all backgrounds and nationalities. It advocates the need for funding in research areas in biological rhythms and supports other research efforts such as the National Institutes of Health and National Science Foundation .
In 1986, Benjamin Rusak founded the Journal of Biological Rhythms . [ 7 ] Rusak wanted an accompanying society that would hold meetings concerning research on biological rhythms, so he asked Fred W. Turek to organize the first meeting. [ 8 ] The society was officially founded on November 12, 1986 by Fred Turek, Dave Hudson, Joe Takahashi , and Gene Block . [ 9 ] The society is sometimes cited as being founded in 1988, as this was when the first meeting occurred. [ 10 ]
Colin Pittendrigh , Turek's Ph.D. adviser, and one of the fathers of the field, was initially opposed to the society, worrying that it would have an isolating effect on the field rather than connecting it to related disciplines. Pittendrigh came around to the idea after the successful first meeting. Turek, however, believed that the field had advanced and diversified enough to justify a meeting that would unify the diverse field. Turek had been involved with the Endocrine Society , a research society that was 70 years old by 1986. He thought about this well established organisation when working in the early phases of SRBR, hoping to create a society with the ability to make a lasting impact. [ 8 ] The first meeting was held at the Wild Dunes Resort and Conference Center in Charleston, SC, in May 1988. The Plenary Lecture at the first meeting was given by Michael Menaker . [ 10 ]
Meetings for the Society of Research on Biological Rhythms occur once every two years, typically in May or June. The location of the meeting is determined by the President of the SRBR with the help of existing members. Meetings typically last four or five days and are open to all registered members. The meetings serve as a forum to share the latest research in biological rhythms, with hundreds of chronobiologist from around the world presenting at poster sessions and lectures. According to 2016 President Paul Hardin, the meeting is "an exceptional forum for hearing the latest cutting-edge research, reengaging with colleagues from years past, and exchanging ideas that will shape the future of the field with a talented and diverse group of chronobiologists from around the globe." [ 11 ]
The last day of the meeting also features a keynote speaker referred to as the Pittendrigh/Aschoff speaker, named after notable chronobiologist Colin Pittendrigh and Jürgen Aschoff . Notable past Pittendrigh/Aschoff speakers include: Fred Turek, Joe Takahashi and Michael Young .
In addition to lectures and poster sessions, the meeting also serves as an opportunity to review the accomplishments of the society and its members over the previous two years, provide updates on the Journal for Biological Rhythms , introduce the incoming administration, and officially transfer the presidency to the president-elect.
The Society for Research on Biological Rhythms offers various awards and fellowships to researchers and trainees with diverse backgrounds from all over the world. Researchers and trainees must be participating in SRBR's biennial meeting to be considered.
This award is given to principal investigators, usually newly independent researchers, for their exemplary work in the chronobiology field. Those eligible must be principal investigators at the Assistant Professor level (tenure-track) and must have published at least one notable paper on their research as a corresponding author.
Only those nominated by a SRBR member, excluding oneself or former lab members, are considered for this award.
The SRBR gives Directors' Awards to honor those who have made significant contributions to the chronobiology field through their service, innovative research, and/or mentorship.
A list of notable recipients of some of the awards described above: [ 12 ]
The Society for Research on Biological Rhythms is governed by a board of directors whose members consists of the following: [ 13 ]
Current Executive Committee
Members-at-Large
This is a list of Ex Officio members associated with the society and/or are committee chairs. [ 14 ]
There are about 500 publicly listed members of the SRBR; [ 15 ] the 2016 membership reached a record high of 702. All members must engage in research or training programs involving biological rhythms. The SRBR has three tiers of membership options: [ 16 ]
Regular Members enjoy benefits such as discounted registration for the SRBR meeting, online access to the Journal of Biological Rhythms and chronobiology teaching materials, and voting rights in SRBR officer and Executive Committee elections. Trainee Members , who must be enrolled in undergraduate, graduate, or postdoctoral training programs, pay lower membership fees than Regular Members, at the cost of forfeiting SRBR voting rights. Trainee Members also have opportunities to participate in Trainee Professional Development Day, dedicated to scientific and career development, and to apply for travel awards to Trainee Day. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] Emeritus Members must be retired from full-time employment, and must have been Regular Members for at least 10 years. They enjoy similar privileges to Regular Members; however, membership fees will be waived after 10 years of Emeritus Member status.
Notable SRBR members, and their select contributions to chronobiology, include:
The Journal of Biological Rhythms has been the official journal for the Society for Research on Biological Rhythms since the founding of both in 1986. The JBR publishes scholarly articles, original research, and reviews on a variety of topics all centering around periodicity in organisms. The journal focuses on circadian and seasonal rhythms, but articles about other biological periods are published as well. A variety of approaches are explored by the journal including: genetic, behavioral, modeling, and clinical trials. In 2015 SAGE Publications gave JBR a five-year impact factor of 3.167 and a ranking of 19/86 in biology. [ 35 ] The impact rating is a measure of how frequently the average article from the journal is cited. JBR is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics . [ 1 ]
JBRish is a collection of editorials and letters written by Martin Zatz while he was editor of the Journal of Biological Rhythms . These are not scholarly articles about the science of biological rhythms; instead they focus on various aspects of life in academia and science. Some pieces are comedic or satirical in nature, and others are more serious. The collectors of the pieces, Anna Wirz-Justice and Irving Zucker, describe the selections as, “wistful, others poignant or trenchant, and an occasional one offers advice. They not infrequently document and lampoon trends and human foibles.” [ 36 ]
The Society for Research on Biological Rhythms publishes a newsletter two to three times a year. It contains a letter from the President of the society, recent developments in the field, and society business. The society business often includes programs for meetings, recent grants, and newsworthy events involving members. Recent newsletters can be viewed by non-members and can be found on the SRBR's website . [ 37 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Research_on_Biological_Rhythms |
The Society for Underwater Technology (SUT) is an international learned society for marine science and technology with headquarters in London, England that was founded in 1966. There are branches in Aberdeen (Scotland), Houston (USA), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Newcastle (England), Perth (Australia), London (England), Melbourne (Australia), Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), Singapore, Norway (Bergen), China (Beijing) West Africa (Nigeria), the Middle East (UAE) and new branches in early stages of development in St John's Newfoundland & the Eastern Mediterranean to be based in Cyprus. Membership is open to individuals, companies, and institutions with a genuine interest in the broad field of underwater technology. SUT is registered as a charity in the UK, other branches are constituted as charities or 'not-for-profits' as per local legislation. [ 1 ]
SUT promotes the further understanding of the underwater environment and encourages, for example:
SUT covers all aspects of technology applied to diving technology and physiology , submersible design and operation, naval architecture , underwater acoustics , subsea systems, geology , geophysics , marine resource exploitation, oceanography , environmental studies, pollution and marine biology . See list below for current special interest groups. Evening lectures & online webinars are organised by most of the branches. Training courses are offered to industry, in particular "Subsea Awareness" courses. Since 2021, SUT along with the Marine Technology Society have begun to offer Chartered Marine Technologist (CMarTech) professional status under license from the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology .
Education about the marine world, in particular marine industry, is a strong focus for the society and it supports a number of studentships through awards and an " Educational Support Fund ". In 2013 SUT Council voted to incorporate the Engineering Committee on Oceanic Resources (ECOR) into SUT.
SUT publishes a peer-reviewed scientific journal , Underwater Technology , and a monthly magazine UT2 .
The Society for Underwater Technology was founded in 1966 following the demise of the Underwater Equipment Research Society the previous year. This precursor society had been set up to facilitate the "interchange of information between users and suppliers of [undersea] equipment". Many of its members went on to become early members of the SUT. In 1966 a steering committee was put in place to form the society, leading directly to the first general meeting on 2 March 1967, hosted by Lord Wakefield of Kendall in the House of Lords . Lord Wakefield was elected as president, with Rear Admiral Sir Edmund Irving as the first chairman of council, Nic Flemming as honorary secretary, and V. Grimoldby as honorary treasurer. The original technical committees were "Biological Technology", "Earth Science", and "General Technology".
The first annual meeting was held 7 December 1967 at the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, where the Society had also found a home through the institute's "daughter society" scheme, paying £500 a year for office space and administrative assistance. At this time the Society's association with what was to become Oceanology International was initiated with plans to run a major international conference in 1969 alongside an existing exhibition series in Brighton.
In the early 1970s, branches were developed, mainly in the United Kingdom, while tie-ups with overseas organisations such as the Marine Technology Society in the US and the Engineering Committee for Ocean Engineering were also being sought. Branches were established in East Scotland, West Scotland, East Anglia, Southern England, and Southwest England, while overseas branch possibilities were looked at in Europe.
At the beginning of the 1980s, the branch structure was reduced to a group of regional organisers who organised activities across the United Kingdom in the Southwest, Southern England, the Midlands and Northwest, Scotland East, Scotland Northeast, and Scotland West. In the 1990s the Aberdeen Branch, Southern, and Northeastern Branches were formed.
In 1983 the Educational Support Fund was launched.
In 1990 SUT moved home to the Institute of Marine Engineers and in 2019 moved to an office located at 2 John Street, London WC1N 2ES.
In 1992, the Society merged with the Underwater Association . [ 2 ]
Cmdr Ian Gallett RN (retired) succeeded Cmdr David Wardle RN (retired) as Secretary (later Chief Executive Officer ) of SUT in 1994, with Dr Bob Allwood taking on the role in 2009.
SUT was modernised throughout the period of Ian Gallett & Bob Allwood's leadership, emerging as a modern, international marine Learned Society with updated statutes and structure by 2015. By this point over 40% of members were located outside the UK, with the strongest branches being Aberdeen, Houston, London and Perth (Australia) and smaller branches operating in Brazil, China, Malaysia, Norway & Singapore plus emerging branches in Canada and Middle East. The Engineering Committee on Oceanic Resources, based in Halifax, Nova Scotia , became a partner of SUT in 2013.
In April 2017 Stephen Hall, former vice-chair of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO became the Chief Executive on Bob Allwood's retirement, and served until December 2020. The current CEO is Cheryl Burgess, who took up duties in early 2021. The Society is governed by an elected Council, who hold annual elections in December. For 2022 the Chair is Susan John, and the Honorary President is Moya Crawford - this marks the first time in SUT's history that CEO, Chair & President of SUT have all been female. The first female president of SUT was Judith Patten MBE, who served in that role for 2021.
During 2020 as a consequence of the global coronavirus outbreak and difficulty in conducting face to face meetings, SUT began offering a weekly Underwater Technology podcast , and fortnightly webinars .
In 2021 the Society moved registered office onboard HQS Wellington on the Thames Embankment, London.
As of February 2022 the main special interest groups of SUT in the UK were as follows, note that other branches will have their own special interest groups, or work through the UK one, depending upon numbers of interested members. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Underwater_Technology |
Founded on August 31, 1881, the Deutsche Verein zur Förderung der Luftschifffahrt , [ 1 ] ( Society for the Promotion of Aeronautics ), was the first German aviation association. [ 2 ]
The motivation for the association arose from the experience of the massive French military balloon units during the Siege of Paris in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/1871. The association's objects were to promote airship flight by all means, as well as to work on solving the problem of building steerable airships, and especially to support a permanent research station. [ 2 ]
In 1882 the association started printing Zeitschrift des Deutschen Vereins zur Förderung der Luftschifffahrt , which was the first German technical aviation journal. In 1888 they printed under the title Zeitschrift für Luftschifffahrt (Journal of airshipflight) and the Vienese flight association Wiener Flugtechnische Verein became co-editors. In 1892 the title changed to Zeitschrift für Luftschifffahrt und Physik der Atmosphäre (Journal of airshipflight and atmospheric physics). In 1900 the association adopted the journal Illustrierte Aeronautische Mitteilungen (illustrated aeronautical reports), [ 3 ] with the subtitle Deutsche Zeitschrift für Luftschifffahrt (German journal of airshipflight). [ 2 ]
In 1903, after Germany saw the founding of numerous other aeronautical associations, it changed its name to Berliner Verein für Luftschifffahrt (Berlin association of airshipflight). [ 4 ]
Among the members were: the airship pioneers Paul Haenlein , Friedrich Hermann Wölfert ; the meteorologists Richard Aßmann , Arthur Berson and Reinhard Süring ; the airship constructor Hans Bartsch von Sigsfeld [ 2 ] and the flight researcher Otto Lilienthal . [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_Promotion_of_Aeronautics_(Germany) |
The Society of American Military Engineers ( SAME ) unites public and private sector individuals and organizations from across the architecture, engineering, construction, environmental, facility management, contracting and acquisition fields and related disciplines in support of the United States' national security. [ 1 ]
SAME connects architects, engineers and builders in the public sector and private industry, uniting them to improve individual and collective capabilities to provide the capability and prepare for and overcome natural and man-made disasters, acts of terrorism and to improve security at home and abroad.
That goal grew from America's experiences in World War I in which more than 11,000 civilian engineers were called to duty upon the United States entering the conflict. Returning home after " the war to end war ," many feared the sector would lose this collective knowledge and the cooperation between public and private sectors that proved vital to combat success. Industry and military leaders vowed to capitalize on the technical lessons and camaraderie shared during their battlefield experiences.
In 1919, Major General William M. Black , Chief of Engineers , appointed a nine-officer board to consider the formation of an "association of engineers" that would preserve, and expand upon, connections formed in war and promote the advancement of engineering and its related professions. Early in 1920, the first SAME posts were established, providing former colleagues and new engineers opportunities to connect face-to-face, and establishing post-to-community relationships across the United States. [ 2 ]
The original nine-member board appointed by General Black also arranged the donation of Professional Memoirs , a magazine published by the Engineer Bureau since 1909, and its assets, to SAME with the blessing of General of the Armies John J. Pershing . Those memoirs were subsequently renamed The Military Engineer , which has been continuously published since it debuted in 1920.
United States Vice President Charles G. Dawes served as SAME's 8th president. The year before assuming his role as president of SAME, Dawes was awarded the 1925 Nobel Peace Prize for his work on German reparations in 1924.
Due to its close ties with the uniformed services of the United States , several branches of the military and the Public Health Service allow its members to wear the SAME ribbon on the uniform after all military and foreign decorations and awards. Colonel, and University president Blake R. Van Leer was also a member. [ 3 ]
Headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia , SAME provides its more than 25,000 members extensive opportunities for industry-government engagement, training, education and professional development through a robust offering of conferences, workshops, networking events and publications. With a membership that includes recent service academy graduates and retired engineering officers, project managers and corporate executives, uniformed and public sector professionals and private sector experts, SAME bridges the gaps between critical stakeholders to help secure our nation.
SAME consists of 95 Posts and more than 30 student chapters and field chapters around the world along with a national office staff. Nationally, the organization is led by a volunteer board of direction that comprises six national officers, 18 regional vice presidents, the chairs of the Mission Committees & Councils and 12 elected directors who serve three-year terms and are elected in groups of four annually.
SAME membership is open to anyone in the U.S. and abroad. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_American_Military_Engineers |
The Society of Arcueil was a circle of French scientists who met regularly on summer weekends between 1806 and 1822 at the country houses of Claude Louis Berthollet and Pierre Simon Laplace at Arcueil , then a village 3 miles south of Paris .
In 1807, when the first collection of "Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie de la Société d'Arcueil" was published, a list of contributing members read:
In the course of the following years they were joined by:
Antoine Lavoisier had initiated the practice of informal deliberation with his fellow scientists, including his junior assistants, in his laboratory at the Paris Arsenal.
Laplace , and Berthollet with his open laboratory, continued this spirit of fellowship at Arcueil. They were the senior moderators in a scientific debate of novel magnitude; combining the framework of physico-mathematical model (Laplace) with experimental investigation (Berthollet).
The roots of the active progress of the Society of Arcueil lay with Napoleon Bonaparte 's special attention to sciences in general and - as an artillery officer - to mathematics in particular.
Laplace had been Bonaparte's final examiner at the Ecole Militaire (September 1785) where Gaspard Monge , his professor, had encouraged him to finish the two-year course of mathematics in one.
Napoleon became acquainted with Berthollet during his campaign in Italy, when Berthollet and Monge were part of the commission sent by the French Directory to select and dispatch Italian art treasures, manuscripts and scientific documents to Paris.
Laplace, Berthollet and Monge became instrumental in having Napoleon elected to the First Class of the Institut de France (the class directing the exact sciences) when Lazare Carnot 's place fell vacant in 1797.
Napoleon in turn invited them to follow him to Egypt (1798-1799) and instructed Berthollet to conduct the recruitment of the scientists that were to compose the "Institut d'Egypte".
The way Berthollet effectively directed the practical installation of the Institute at Qassim Bey's Palace in Caïro, cemented the friendship with Bonaparte in a way that proved its worth in the patronage of the Arcueil Society. When Berthollet, in 1807, concluded that the arrangement for research facilities at Arcueil had cost him more than he could afford, Napoleon, alerted by Laplace and Monge, immediately lend him 150.000 francs to break even.
The informality of the "Institut d'Egypte" found its continuance at Arcueil where Berthollet from his Egyptian-decorated study remained in charge of the publication of the " Description de l'Egypte (1809) " (ref: Crosland, 1967).
The quantitative applications of the new science of chemistry had important significance for the state economy.
The exploitation of beet sugar, for example, was developed with the boycott of English trade in mind. From the publication of Franz Achard 's letter on beet sugar in Annales de chimie et de physique (Bruxelles:Van Mons, 1799) and the first presentation of a sample to Napoleon during a session of the First Class of the Institute (June 25, 1800) till the first viable production by Jules Paul Benjamin Delessert in 1812, the subject was one of the scientific priorities in France (see also: Joseph Proust on grape sugar).
The industrial fabrication of dye from home grown indigo plant (distinct from woad ) at Toulouse was a direct heritage from the "Institut d'Egypte."
Mathematical instruments were a special favourite with Napoleon, and were often awarded medals at the industrial fairs held at the instigation of Chaptal . Members of the Society of Arcueil were frequently invited to judge on such occasions.
In 1806, at the third exhibition in the series, some 1.400 participants attended; up from 220 in 1801. Special attention was given to textile printing adapted by Christophe Oberkampf and his nephew Samuel Widmer with the introduction of roller instead of block printing. This particular industrial process integrated the bleaching by chlorine (eau de javel) invented by Berthollet, as well as the application of new dyeing methods (Samuel Widmers invention of a solid green dye). In 1806 Oberkampf's factory printed fabrics at the rate of 7,5 metres a minute, a viable alternative to English import.
Laplace and Monge were also instructed to supervise Robert Fulton 's experiments with the Nautilus (1800) ,subsidized in France.
Following Volta 's visit to Paris in 1801 important work on the Voltaic pile , involving the Arcueil circle, was carried out under Bonaparte's auspices rewarding Paul Erman , Humphry Davy , Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thenard in the process.
The scientific work in general was of first importance to the education at the Ecole Polytechnique , the home base of many Arcueil scientists.
The enhancing of the quality of iron and steel , with Collet-Descotils -the precursor in the discovery of iridium - in charge as chief engineer at the " Ecole des Mines ", and above all the development of gunpowder were of prime military significance.
The French expertise in explosives was well judged by the Allies when later they dispatched Jöns Jacob Berzelius to Paris to update general knowledge. In 1819 he spent two full months as a guest of Berthollet in the laboratory at Arcueil experimenting, but above all sounding Pierre Dulong whose memoir on a new detonating substance ( nitrogen trichloride ) had appeared in the 1817 volume of "Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie de la Société d'Arcueil" ( André-Marie Ampère had already briefed Humphry Davy on prior stages (1811-1813) of Dulong's invention).
There were three volumes of "Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie de la Société d'Arcueil" : 1807, 1809 and 1817 -the last date testifying to the political difficulties following the demise of Napoleon I of France .
The "Mémoires..." published some important new ideas: Malus on the polarisation of light (1809, 1817); Gay-Lussac on the free expansion of gases (1807); Humboldt and Gay-Lussac on terrestrial magnetism (1807); Gay-Lussac's law of combining volumes of gases (1809); Thenard and Biot's observation on the comparison of aragonite and calcite (one of the earliest proofs of dimorphism )(1809); Gay-Lussac and Thenard on the discovery of the amides of metal (1809); Candolle on heliotropism (1817).
Equally important was the special thread, woven into the overall discourse, that held together the brilliant cross-reference among friends.
There had often been attempts to correspond between the French and the English scientists notwithstanding the state of war between their countries.
At the first opportunity the English correspondents of Arcueil returned to Paris, among them John Leslie (1814) and Charles Blagden (1814, 1816, 1817) who died of apoplexy (1820) during a visit to Berthollet at Arcueil. Mary Somerville who wrote a popular account of Laplace's "Mécanique Céleste" dined at Arcueil with her scientific "heroes" (1817).
Jöns Jacob Berzelius had already been invited by Berthollet to come and study at Arcueil in 1810, but it was not till 1818 that the Swedish government judged it appropriate for him to travel to France. At Arcueil Berzelius engaged in a steadfast friendship with Dulong.
In 1820 Dulong wrote to Berzelius:
It was the testimony of a changing mood and when John Dalton , who had strong differences of opinion with the Society, visited Arcueil in 1822, he received a hearty welcome. It was the last major social event for the Society of Arcueil.
Berthollet died on November 6, 1822, and with him went an inspiring power of adherence.
The Society of Arcueil however, through the younger generation, was still to illuminate such work as that of Liebig , Pasteur , Fresnel , Niepce , Daguerre , Léon Foucault ... as well as many others in the field of scientific education. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Arcueil |
The Society of Biological Inorganic Chemistry is a learned society established to advance research and education in the field of biological inorganic chemistry . It holds training courses, workshops and conferences to facilitate exchange of information between scientists involved in the research and teaching of biological inorganic chemistry. It has an official journal, the Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry .
The society was founded in 1995, following discussions within the Steering Committee of the European Science Foundation program "The Chemistry of Metals in Biological Systems". The first president was C. David Garner (1995–1998). Later presidents were Elizabeth C. Theil (1998–2000), Alfred X. Trautwein (2000–2002), Harry B. Gray (2002–2004), Fraser Armstrong (2004–2006), and Jose J. G. Moura (2010–2012).
This article about a chemistry organization is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Biological_Inorganic_Chemistry |
The Society of Chemical Industry ( SCI ) is a learned society set up in 1881 "to further the application of chemistry and related sciences for the public benefit". [ 2 ]
The society's headquarters is in Belgrave Square , London . There are semi-independent branches in the United States , Canada and Australia.
The society aims to accelerate the rate of scientific innovations being commercialised by industry to benefit society. It does this through promoting collaborations between scientists and industrialists, running technical and innovation conferences, building communities across academia and industry and publishing scientific content through its journals and digital platforms.
It also promotes science education. [ 3 ]
On 21 November 1879, Lancashire chemist John Hargreaves canvassed a meeting of chemists and managers in Widnes, St Helens and Runcorn to consider the formation of a chemical society. Modelled on the successful Tyne Chemical Society already operating in Newcastle , the newly proposed South Lancashire Chemical Society held its first meeting on 29 January 1880 in Liverpool, with the eminent industrial chemist and soda manufacturer Ludwig Mond presiding.
It was quickly decided that the society should not be limited to just the local region and the title 'the Society of Chemical Industry’ was finally settled upon at a meeting in London on 4 April 1881, as being 'more inclusive'. Held at the offices of the Chemical Society, now the headquarters of the Royal Society of Chemistry , in Burlington House , this meeting was presided over by Henry Roscoe , appointed first president of SCI, [ 4 ] and attended by Eustace Carey, Ludwig Mond , FA Abel, Lowthian Bell , William H Perkin , Walter Weldon , Edward Rider Cook , Thomas Tyrer and George E Davis ; all prominent scientists, industrialists and MPs of the time.
The society grew rapidly, launching international and regional sections. In 1881 Ivan Levinstein was a founder of the Manchester Section of the Society of Chemical Industry, later following Sir Henry Roscoe as chair of the Section. Levinstein also served as president of the Society of Chemical Industry between 1901 and 1903. [ 5 ]
Prominent early members included William Lever , George Matthey , Ludwig Mond , Henry Armstrong , Leo Baekeland , Rudolph Messel , Charles Tennant , Richard Seligman , Ferdinand Hurter and Marie Stopes .
The original membership fee was very steep for the time: The first subscription fee was set at one guinea , which would be equivalent to nearly £400 today. Four grades of membership were agreed at the time: member, associate, student and honorary, with most appointments made on the basis of a review of their 'eligibility' by the SCI council. Despite the high fee, by the time of the first official meeting of the Society of Chemical Industry in June 1881, it had attracted over 300 members.
An Extraordinary General Meeting was held on 27 March 1906, under the direction of president Edward Divers and secretary C. G. Cresswell, to discuss a motion to apply for incorporation under a royal charter . The resolution was formally proposed by Sir (Thomas) Boverton Redwood. After some discussion, the motion was unanimously supported. [ 6 ] The society was formally incorporated, by Royal Charter, as of 17 June 1907, and its bylaws were published in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry . By that time, it had expanded to include a number of satellite chapters, including Canada, New South Wales, New York and New England as well as locations within Great Britain. [ 7 ]
The first headquarters of the newly fledged Society of Chemical Industry was established in 1881 at Palace Chambers, [ 8 ] Bridge Street, Westminster , London. After a series of changes of address, the society finally moved to its fifth and present location at 14/15 – and initially 16 – Belgrave Square in 1955. Owned by the Duke of Westminster , along with the rest of Belgravia , the building was and still is part of the Grosvenor Estate and had recently been commandeered by the Ministry of Defence during World War II. The former Nazi commander Rudolf Hess is believed to have been interrogated in the building after he flew to Britain late in the war.
SCI organises over 100 conferences and events per year which are focused on cutting edge scientific and special interest subjects. These are primarily organised through SCI member-led technical, international and regional interest groups. [ citation needed ]
SCI runs free Public Evening Lectures, [ 9 ] both at its headquarters as well as online, through its SCITalks! programme.
The society has an extensive awards programmes designed to raise awareness of the benefits of the practical application of chemistry and related sciences across scientific disciplines and industrial sectors. The SCI also confers scholarships and travel bursaries to student members, and celebrates accomplished scientists, educators and business people through a number of international awards, medals, and lectureships.
International groups include:
The society publishes a number of peer-reviewed scientific journals in conjunction with John Wiley & Sons :
SCI also publishes the well-established magazine Chemistry & Industry (C&I). [ 10 ]
Chemistry & Industry was launched by the society in 1923. From 1923 it has documented the advancements in chemistry and related science and the inventions being developed by large companies and start ups. It covers a diverse set of technologies and application areas and it is widely read across the community and is circulated internationally.
The society has an extensive awards and honours programme.
The Honours programme was established in 1996 and is designed to raise awareness of the benefits of the practical application of chemistry and related sciences across scientific disciplines and industrial sectors and to celebrate accomplished scientists, inventors and entrepreneurs through a number of international awards, medals, and lectureships.
The most prestigious honours are the Society Medals, of which there are around 12, and these recognise those who exhibit leadership in promoting the objectives and values of the society. The Society Medals are awarded to persons who have made significant contributions in the field of chemical sciences, innovation and entrepreneurship. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Chemical_Industry |
The Society of Chemical Industry (America Section) or SCI America is an independent learned society inspired by the creation of the Society of Chemical Industry (SCI) in London in 1881. Originally known as the New York Section, it was formed in 1894 and officially renamed the America Section in 1919. The main activity of the America Section is the awarding of several prizes in chemistry: the Perkin Medal , the Chemical Industry Medal and the Gordon E. Moore Medal . The America Section also works with the American Chemical Society (ACS) and the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) to support underserved and Black scholars in chemistry and chemical engineering.
The creation of the Society of Chemical Industry (SCI) in London in 1881 led to the eventual formation of a number of satellite groups. A number of informal meetings were held in 1894, with the goal of organizing a New York section of the Society of Chemical Industry. On May 2, 1894, analytical chemist Arthur McGeorge met with seven other members of London's Society of Chemical Industry who were active in New York. At a second meeting, with Alfred H. Mason as chairman and McGeorge as secretary, it was decided to invite all New York-based members of the London society to an organizational meeting. At this third meeting, at the College of Pharmacy, 36 members of the Society of Chemical Industry signed a petition requesting the London organization to form a New York section, the first section to be created overseas. Their proposal was enthusiastically received by London president E. C. C. Stanford , who wrote "We are pleased to add the stars and stripes to our highly respectable old colours." [ 1 ] : 9 [ 2 ]
The first official meeting of the new New York Section was held in November 1894. The new section had a membership of 350 members, about one-tenth of the entire organization. [ 1 ] : 9 The London group's president Thomas Tyrer and foreign secretary Ludwig Mond attended the October 1895 fall meeting in New York, which was rescheduled so that they could participate. [ 3 ]
In contrast to the American Chemical Society , which required its members to hold university degrees, the Society of Chemical Industry was open to a broad range of working chemists in industry, manufacturing and pharmaceuticals. Mason emphasized that the new organization did not intend to compete with the ACS, but rather to bring together academic and manufacturing chemists:
We believe there is room for our Society in America... the industrial applications of chemistry have become so numerous that the existence of a separate body to especially consider this branch is desirable." – Arthur Mason [ 1 ] : 9
Members of the America section benefited from the activities of the parent society, which held scientific conferences and published The Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry to inform chemists throughout the world about development in the field. [ 1 ] : 8 From the beginning, the America Section's focus was networking, engaging its members in collegial activities. The second chairman, Charles F. Chandler , said "It serves to bring us together, to make us acquainted, and it enables us to help each other." [ 1 ] : 11 Members of the New York section helped to establish The Chemists' Club in New York City in 1898, using it for lectures and meetings, and establishing a members' library. [ 1 ] : 12 In the beginning, talks were presented at the monthly meetings and published in the parent journal. Guest speakers included important international figures like Leo Baekeland , Carl Duisberg , and Jōkichi Takamine . [ 1 ] : 11 In 1904, the New York Section hosted the first annual meeting of its parent organization to be held in the United States. [ 4 ] [ 1 ] : 12
The New York section was briefly involved in practical work on standardization in 1902–03, when they established a Subcommittee on Uniformity of Analysis of Materials. Two samples of Portland cement were analyzed by 14 chemists, and 3 samples of zinc ore were analyzed by 42 chemists. The results were critiqued by William Francis Hillebrand , who became chief chemist at the National Bureau of Standards . The committee dissolved and was replaced in 1904 by a new committee formed by the ACS. [ 5 ] The American section also engaged in early lobbying efforts, as in 1907, when they passed a resolution protesting that Rules and Regulations published by the Department of Agriculture displayed a "lack of expert knowledge." [ 6 ] However, such activities never became a major focus of the organization. [ 1 ] : 12
In 1919, the New York group was renamed the America Section. [ 7 ]
The Society of Chemical Industry (America Section) is a registered nonprofit organization , with administrative offices in Philadelphia , PA. [ 8 ] SCI America is directed by a set of officers including a chair and vice-chair, and an executive committee. Anthony O'Donovan, President and CEO of Arkema , serves as chair. Previous chairpersons include Roger Kearns, Frank Bozich , John Paro, Max Tishler , Ralph Landau , Harold Sorgenti , Charles O. Holliday , [ 1 ] : 91–92 and Christopher D. Pappas . [ 9 ] Resa Thomason serves as the Executive Director.
The major activities of SCI America are two yearly events for the presentation of awards. SCI America presents the Perkin Medal (established 1906), [ 10 ] the Chemical Industry Medal , [ 11 ] first awarded 1933 [ 12 ] ), and the Gordon E. Moore Medal (first awarded 2004). [ 13 ] [ 14 ]
The first Perkin Medal was awarded to chemist William Henry Perkin to mark the 50th anniversary of his discovery of the aniline dye mauveine . This anniversary was celebrated internationally as the Perkin Jubilee. SCI America commemorated a visit by Perkin and his family to the United States in the fall of 1906 by inviting 400 guests to a dinner in his honor at Delmonico's and presenting him with the first Perkin Medal. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The Perkin Medal is considered the highest honor in applied chemistry to be given to a chemist residing in the United States. [ 18 ] It is administered jointly by a committee whose representatives include the chairs or presidents of the ACS, the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, the Science History Institute, and SCI America. [ 1 ] : 14
From 1920 to 1932, SCI America awarded the Grasselli Medal, on behalf of the Grasselli Chemical Company, for a paper presenting the most useful suggestions in applied chemistry before the Society. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] This award was replaced in 1933 by the Chemical Industry Medal , which was given to a person who had made a valuable contribution by applying chemical research in industry. [ 11 ]
Since 2004 SCI America has awarded a medal in honor of Gordon E. Moore , for early-career innovation involving the application of chemistry. [ 14 ]
SCI America also works with the ACS and the AIChE FOSSI program to support scholars in chemistry and chemical engineering. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Chemical_Industry_(America_Section) |
The Society of Chemical Manufacturers and Affiliates , is an international trade association that represents the interests of the batch, custom and specialty chemical industry . According to the organization's charter, SOCMA's stated mission is to "accelerat[e] the potential for members' growth," "increase[e] public confidence in the batch, custom and specialty chemical industry," and "influenc[e] the passage of rational laws and regulations." [ 1 ]
The "Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturers Association", as it was previously known, was established on September 15, 1921 at the Hotel Pennsylvania in New York City . The event was followed by an organizational meeting in Washington, DC , which included an address from Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover . In his remarks, Hoover told the chemical industry representatives that "I have a feeling that this coming together of manufacturers in the different trades for the purpose of the advancement of their industry as a whole is a profound step towards cooperation in the entire business world, and that out of it will be gained tremendous benefits to the whole business public." [ 2 ]
SOCMA members unanimously elected Charles Herty , an American chemist, to serve as the Association's first president. [ 3 ] At the time, Herty was the editor of American Chemical Society 's Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, a position he left in order to lead SOCMA. The organization was based in New York City until it relocated to Washington, DC in the 1970s.
On March 19, 2009, SOCMA members voted to formally change the organization's name to the Society of Chemical Manufacturers and Affiliates. The name change, the first in SOCMA's 88-year history, allowed the organization to retain its acronym. [ 4 ]
SOCMA member companies encompass small, medium and large chemical manufacturers engaged in batch production .
Batch manufacturers produce intermediates, specialty chemicals and ingredients used to develop a wide range of commercial and consumer products. They operate differently from larger, bulk chemical producers, which generally use continuous production .
SOCMA promotes the batch chemical manufacturing industry to the U.S. federal government and international governing bodies. SOCMA lobbies on a number of issues impacting the chemical industry , including the Toxic Substances Control Act , the Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards , and the European Union's Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals . In addition to formal lobbying , SOCMA promotes industry interests through a grassroots arm called SOCMA CONNECT. [ 5 ]
In September 2005, SOCMA introduced ChemStewards, the first environmental, health, safety and security ( EHS &S) program designed for batch chemical manufacturers. [ 6 ] The ChemStewards EHS&S program requires participants to address performance improvement with consideration for their company's policies and practices. The program offers a three-tiered approach to participation: fundamentals, enhanced performance and excellence. All tiers require adherence to a set of core principles in addition to security, metrics and a verifiable management system. [ 7 ] In April 2011, SOCMA announced a new management system database that integrates its ChemStewards® program with other government-sponsored performance improvement programs. The database, created by Gabriel Performance Products, is based on the ChemStewards Management System and complies with the requirements of ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and OHSAS 18001.
In 1977, SOCMA launched an Association Management Services Group to manage consortia formed to address specific chemical or process advocacy, regulatory, testing, stewardship, or technical issues that are of interest to a particular sector of the chemical industry. As of 2012, SOCMA has 16 active affiliate groups, including the Biphenyl Work Group, the Bulk Pharmaceutical Task Force, and the Nanotechnology SME Manufacturers Coalition. [ 8 ]
In 1984, SOCMA founded Informex, a trade show for the fine and specialty chemicals industry. In August 2005, SOCMA sold Informex to CMP Information Ltd, part of and currently known as United Business Media, PLC, headquartered in London, England. [ 9 ]
In May 2009, SOCMA acquired ChemAlliance, an online compliance assistance center formerly funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and designed to improve regulatory compliance of the chemical manufacturing industry. [ 10 ] ChemAlliance.org was launched in 1996 as part of former Vice President Al Gore's " Reinventing Government " initiative. [ 11 ] Through this acquisition, SOCMA has obtained the naming rights and full ownership of ChemAlliance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Chemical_Manufacturers_and_Affiliates |
The Society of Cosmetic Chemists ( SCC ), founded in 1945, is a learned society ( professional association ) based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry in the field of cosmetic science. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The Society publishes the bimonthly Journal of Cosmetic Science. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Together with Société Française de Cosmétologie , SCC also publishes the International Journal of Cosmetic Science. [ 2 ] [ 5 ]
Founded in May 1945 in New York (some says 1948 [ 2 ] ) following the suggestion of Mr. Maison G. de Navarre, the Society of Cosmetic Chemists (SCC) had 23 founding members with Mr. Freddie Wells being its first chairman. [ 2 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
In 1959, the SCC became a founding member of the International Federation of Societies of Cosmetic Chemists (IFSCC). [ 2 ]
As of 2023, the SCC has over 6,000 members globally at all degree-levels. [ 1 ] The Society has 19 Chapters throughout the United States and Canada which each conduct monthly meetings, hold educational seminars, and publish monthly newsletters. [ 8 ]
The primary source of income of the SCC is from membership dues, but also receives donation from stakeholders of the cosmetic and personal care industry. [ 9 ]
The SCC holds a national meeting once a year in New York City, and a national scientific meeting once a year in various cities around the country.
It publishes a scholarly bimonthly journal , the Journal of Cosmetic Science: The Official Journal of the Society of Cosmetic Chemists , as well as various monographs about cosmetic testing and cosmetic ingredient technology. [ 4 ] Together with Société Française de Cosmétologie in France, SCC also publishes the International Journal of Cosmetic Science since 1979 . [ 2 ] [ 5 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Cosmetic_Chemists |
The Society of Engineers was a British learned society established in 1854. It was the first society to issue the professional title of Incorporated Engineer. It merged with the Institution of Incorporated Engineers (IIE) in 2005, [ 1 ] and in 2006 the merged body joined with the Institution of Electrical Engineers to become the Institution of Engineering and Technology .
Established in May 1854 in The Strand , London, the Society of Engineers was one of the oldest professional engineering bodies in the United Kingdom (after the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers , 1771, the Institution of Civil Engineers , 1818, and the Institution of Mechanical Engineers , 1847)
It promoted the interests of members worldwide and was concerned with all branches of engineering. It was founded by Henry Palfrey Stephenson and Robert Monro Christie as a means of reunion for former students of Putney College (the short-lived College for Civil Engineers , 1839–c.1851) [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] — one of few institutions then giving technical and scientific training for engineers — with Stephenson serving as president in 1856 and 1859. [ 3 ]
The IET now has more than 150,000 members worldwide, and incorporates all members of the Society of Engineers.
To become a member the candidate was subjected to an examination divided into three parts: [ 5 ]
minimum age 21 years, a qualification BTEC, HND, HNC or GNVQ/NVQ/SNQ Level 4 in engineering or similar approved qualification and 3 years of engineering training. Pass Part I of SoE's Exams.
minimum age 23 years, ASE plus CertEng or BEng / BSc or GNVQ / NVQ / SNVO Level 5 in engineering or similar approved qualification and 5 years of engineering training /experience including 2 years practical or site work. Pass Part II of SoE's Exams.
minimum age 26 years AMSE plus DipEng or BEng(Hons)or similar approved qualification or MEng with approved project study at a participating university and 5 years engineering training/experience including 2 years practical or site work plus holding a position of professional responsibility for at least 3 years. Pass Part III of SoE's Exams.
Sample of the Membership Certificate: The sensible data of the holder have been deleted for privacy reasons.
See slides 7-42-43-44 http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/aSGuest141513-1498327-technicians-engineers-challenges-possibilities/ The Society of Professional Engineers-SPE (UK) is a direct emanation of the Society of Engineers ( 1969 ).
See links at the bottom of the page.
minimum age 33 years, Corporate Members of at least 7 years standing, who in the opinion of the Membership Elections Committee endorsed by the directors are deemed to have had sufficient experience (including major responsibility in the design,
research or execution of engineering works) and who can also demonstrate continued career development. Services rendered to the society in particular or to the profession of engineering generally are also taken into account.
Honorary Fellows shall be persons of distinguished position or scientific attainments nominated and elected by the directors who shall consent to become members of the society.
The society has had many eminent engineers among its membership and in receipt of its awards which include the Churchill Medal. On 27 November 1946 at the House of Commons , Sir Winston Churchill became an Honorary Fellow and approved the use of his name for the society's senior award. Another Honorary Fellow was radio pioneer Sir Guglielmo Marconi .
Churchill Medal recipients have included Sir Frank Whittle for jet engine design, Sir Christopher Hinton and Sir John Cockcroft for their work on atomic energy, Sir Geoffrey de Havilland for aircraft design, Sir Bernard Lovell for radio astronomy and Alan Wells for the Wells wave turbine .
British Qualifications
34th Edition
A Complete Guide to Educational, Technical
Professional and Academic Qualifications in Britain . https://books.google.com/books?id=-CA2-PM2OKYC&dq=British+Qualifications+%2Cthe+society+of+engineers+one&pg=PA591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Engineers_(United_Kingdom) |
The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) is an international environmental toxicology and environmental chemistry organization. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
It was set up to allow interdisciplinary communication between environmental scientists around the world. It was founded in 1979 in North America. [ citation needed ]
SETAC promotes environmental sciences through conducting meetings, workshops, and symposia; bestowing awards recognizing for excellence; promoting education in the field by organizing training courses and supporting students; and through its publication program. It holds meetings and events around the world. It produces two scientific journals; Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (ET&C), which it has produced since 1982, originally yearly and then monthly from 1986; and Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management (IEAM) [ citation needed ] . It also produces online books and easy to read Technical Issue Papers and Science Briefs, which are publicly available. [ citation needed ]
This article about a chemistry organization is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Environmental_Toxicology_and_Chemistry |
The Society of Exploration Geophysicists ( SEG ) is a learned society dedicated to promoting the science and education of exploration geophysics in particular and geophysics in general. The Society fosters the expert and ethical practice of geophysics in the exploration and development of natural resources, in characterizing the near-surface, and in mitigating earth hazards. As of November 2019, [update] SEG has more than 14,000 members working in more than 114 countries. SEG was founded in 1930 in Houston, Texas but its business office has been headquartered in Tulsa, Oklahoma since the mid-1940s. [ 1 ] While most SEG members are involved in exploration for petroleum , SEG members also are involved in application of geophysics methods to mineral exploration as well as environmental and engineering problems, archaeology, and other scientific endeavors. SEG publishes The Leading Edge ( TLE ), a monthly professional magazine, Geophysics , a peer-reviewed archival publication, and Interpretation , a peer-reviewed journal co-published by SEG and the American Association of Petroleum Geologists . [ 2 ]
SEG's Technical Standards Committee develops and maintains specifications for geophysical data. Most familiar of these standards are the SEG Y data format for storing seismic data.
SEG was founded in 1930 by 30 men and women who felt that the use of geophysical technology for petroleum exploration had matured to the point that a professional society was needed in order to facilitate the transfer of technical knowledge.
The Society started its own journal, Geophysics , in 1936. Membership grew significantly in the late 1930s and early 1940s and this required hiring a permanent staff to conduct the Society's day-to-day operations. As a result, a business office was opened in Tulsa. Further growth necessitated commissioning permanent office space for the staff. One was opened in the 1960s and another, the Cecil and Ida Green Tower, in the 1980s.
SEG has always held an annual meeting but it was in conjunction with the AAPG convention until 1955. SEG began sponsoring an independent annual meeting in that year and it quickly became the world's premier showcase for state-of-the-art geophysical instrumentation.
SEG memberships include several types to fit different needs. Members get full access to the SEG Digital Library, which includes Geophysics , The Leading Edge , SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts , and Robert E. Sheriff's Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Geophysics , fourth edition. All members also receive the SEG Yearbook on a CD that also includes the previous year's articles from Geophysics and TLE . Most members receive TLE in print, and Geophysics in print is available to members at a modest subscription rate.
In addition, members get lower pricing for reference publications at the SEG Book Mart, Annual Meeting registration, and professional development. SEG Online offers members a suite of services including an online messaging and collaboration tool, a career center, and group health and life insurance in cooperation with its partner society American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG).
SEG has hosted meetings, conferences, workshops, forums, and expositions for the geosciences community for more than 78 years. These international events have taken place in numerous locations on six continents. In addition to serving its global membership, SEG works with other organizations, associated societies, and businesses around the world to create the most comprehensive listing of meetings as possible. These SEG international events bring together a global society in ventures of education, research, collaboration, and networking.
SEG's Annual Meeting and International Exposition, held in cities including Houston, New Orleans, Las Vegas, and San Antonio, is the world's largest gathering of exploration geophysics-related activities. [ citation needed ] Six days of Annual Meeting events deliver to geoscience professionals technical paper presentations, poster presentations, an exposition showcasing the latest in geoscience-related products and services, workshops, continuing education courses, tours, networking events, career services, and student events. It regularly brings together more than 8,000 exploration industry professionals from around the globe.
In June 2013, SEG's student membership totaled more than 12,000, with 297 active student chapters in 63 countries.
In 1958, the Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) formed a trust to provide scholarships for students of geophysics. Thirty years later, in response to the needs of a growing industry, that trust was transformed into the SEG Foundation.
Beginning in 1961, the Society has annually awarded its Reginald Fessenden Award to "a person who has made a specific technical contribution to exploration geophysics". [ 3 ]
In 2008, the SEG Foundation launched a program called Geoscientists Without Borders. The program helps geoscience students and experienced geoscientists apply their knowledge and technical skills towards the mitigation of natural disasters in some of the world's neediest communities. [ 4 ]
Other programs include the Distinguished Instructor Short Course (DISC) , the Honorary Lecturer program , SEG Forums, and the newly launched SEG Online .
Since 1956, four thousand scholarships representing almost $5 million have been awarded to 1,900 individuals in the past 50 years. In addition to its ground breaking scholarship program, the SEG Foundation and its donors also fund student travel grants, leadership training, and field camps.
SEG's publications program helps the society fulfill its mission of promoting the science of geophysics and the professional development of geoscientists by disseminating information about geophysical research and applications through a variety of channels. The reference publications program publishes a wide range of books, DVDs, CDs, videos, and slide sets in several series. These can be purchased online through the SEG Book Mart .
SEG publishes three journals. Geophysics , published by SEG since 1936, is an archival journal encompassing all aspects of research, exploration, and education in applied geophysics. The Leading Edge ( TLE ) is a gateway publication introducing new geophysical theory, instrumentation, and established practices to scientists in a wide range of geoscience disciplines. Most material is presented in a semitechnical manner that minimizes mathematical theory and emphasizes practical applications. SEG's newest publication, Interpretation , launched in August 2013, is a peer-reviewed journal co-published by SEG and AAPG for advancing the practice of subsurface interpretation. [ 2 ]
The Digital Library is SEG's online resource for the SEG research collection. SEG's online offerings include electronic versions of Geophysics and TLE ; the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Geophysics , fourth edition; SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts ; the multisociety Digital Cumulative Index; SEG Technical Standards; SEG news; the SEG Extra e-mail newsletter; and the SEG Yearbook . The Digital Library also offers research collections from the Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society (EEGS) and the Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists (ASEG) societies.
SEG Professional Development consists of four programs:
The SEG Distinguished Instructor Short Course (DISC) is SEG's primary professional development program. The DISC is a one-day course taught by a prominent geophysicist on a current topic of interest to a broad audience of geoscientists. The DISC visits over 25 sites around the world each year.
The backbone of the SEG Professional Development program is Continuing Education (CE). These short courses, taught by industry experts, cover topics from the fundamental to the leading edge of geophysics. CE courses are held in one of three ways: public courses, section-sponsored courses, and contract (in-house) courses. Public courses are sponsored directly by SEG, a series of courses called an [Education Week] is offered four times per year, once in west Houston, once in New Orleans, once in Calgary, and once in north Houston. Public courses are also offered each year the weekend prior to the SEG Annual Meeting.
Section-sponsored courses are sponsored by SEG sections or affiliated societies, and contract courses are sponsored by individual companies or organizations. Generally one or two days long, most courses can be expanded up to 5 days if desired.
The Distinguished Lecturer (DL) program is offered two times per year. The Spring DL visits a minimum of 15 locations each year to present a lecture suitable for a lunch or dinner meeting of a local section or university group. Each year the DL is recorded and posted to the Distinguished Lecturers Presentation Library for free viewing by members and the public.
The Fall DL is sponsored jointly with the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG). SEG and AAPG alternate years administering the program.
SEG also offers the Honorary Lecturer (HL) program. The HL program is a companion program to the DL with a focus to transfer knowledge within a region. The regional focus strengthens services SEG provides to an expanding global membership. Lectures may be given in English or a language appropriate to the region.
The regions are Central and South America, Europe, Middle East and Africa, North America, the Pacific South, and South and East Asia.
The SEG Wiki launched in the winter of 2011, seeded with SEG's number one bestseller, Robert E. Sheriff's Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Geophysics . All entries in the SEG Wiki can be modified and improved by SEG members. All content in the wiki is published under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA), the same as Wikipedia.
Additional highlights in the SEG Wiki include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Exploration_Geophysicists |
Junior Philippine Institute of Industrial Engineers or JPIIE (former name: Society of Industrial Engineering) is an academic organization based in University of Perpetual Help System DALTA - Calamba Campus exclusive for BS Industrial Engineering students, faculty and alumni of the said university. [ 1 ] It is one of the seven student organizations under the College of Engineering of the university which includes MES (Mechanical Engineering Society) for BS Mechanical Engineering students and ACES ( Association of Civil Engineering Students) for BS Civil Engineering among others. The organization is also a member of PIIE (Philippine Institute of Industrial Engineers), [ 2 ] a premier organization of BS Industrial Engineering graduates and students, and IE professionals in the Philippines . Engr. Philip Ermita, PIE, ASEAN Engr. is the organization's adviser aside from being the Dean of College of Engineering in the university.
The society was first recognized by the University and its former school director Mr. Rey Dalde in August 2002 with the efforts of its first student officers for AY 2002-2003 being headed by the former president, Ms. Maria Fe dela Cruz.
The society's by-laws was written by Ms. Cherryl C. Marudo. According to the by-laws, the name of the organization is Society of Industrial Engineering Students (or SIES). But, for some reasons, it became locally known as SIE (without the second S which means Students) probably because its name structure has been compared to the university's College of Engineering.
By the year 2016, the SIE renamed as the Junior Philippine Institute of Industrial Engineers or JPIIE. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Industrial_Engineering |
MAES: Latinos in Science and Engineering, Inc. (MAES), originally the Mexican American Engineering Society, was founded in 1974. It organizes an annual symposium and career fair .
MAES was founded in Los Angeles in 1974 to increase the number of Mexican Americans and other Hispanics in the technical and scientific fields.
The idea to establish a professional society for Mexican American engineers originated with Robert Von Hatten, an aerospace electronics engineer with TRW Defense Space Systems in Redondo Beach , California . Mr. Von Hatten had for several years served as volunteer for programs directed at combating the alarming number of high school dropouts . He envisioned a national organization that would serve as a source for role models, address the needs of its members, and become a resource for industry and students.
In mid–1974, Mr. Von Hatten contacted Manuel Castro to join him in the campaign to form the professional organization. During a subsequent series of meetings, a cohort of individuals banded together to lay out the foundation for the “Mexican American Engineering Society.” The founders, listed below, drafted the articles of incorporation and the first bylaws of the society:
The society filed incorporation papers as a nonprofit , tax exempt organization with the California Secretary of State in October 1974, and it received its charter on March 28, 1975. The Internal Revenue Service granted the society a federal tax –exemption letter and employer identification number on January 4, 1979. Ten years later, to reflect its broader technical membership, the organization filed to change its name to the “Society of Mexican American Engineers and Scientists, Inc.” This change was granted on July 19, 1989.
MAES is one of several membership–based organizations that represent Latinos in engineering and science. As a mature organization with over 30 years of experience addressing the concerns of Latinos, MAES is a source of expertise on barriers to and methods for improving educational access and attainment. The society recognizes the importance of encouraging more youth to pursue careers in science , technology , engineering , and mathematics as a means for economic advancement and workforce development .
Many of its programs, with the financial help of members, companies, and government agencies are directed at increasing the number of students at all grade levels who will study, prepare, enter, and excel in the technical professions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Mexican_American_Engineers_and_Scientists |
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers ( SNAME ) is a global professional society that provides a forum for the advancement of the engineering profession as applied to the marine field. Although it particularly names the naval architecture and marine engineering specialties, the society includes all types of engineers and professionals amongst its members and is dedicated to advancing the art, science and practice of naval architecture and marine engineering.
The mission of the Society is to advance the art, science and practice of naval architecture, marine engineering, ocean engineering, and other marine-related professions through:
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers was organized in 1893, to advance the art, science, and practice of naval architecture, shipbuilding, and marine engineering.
In its earliest days, SNAME was incorporated and nurtured by men including William H. Webb, George E. Weed, Rear Admiral George W. Melville. Other men took the helm thereafter, including Edwin A. Stevens, David W. Taylor, Vice Admiral Land, Kenneth M Davidson, Dr. Alvin C. Purdy , and Blakely Smith. [ citation needed ]
SNAME offers various membership grades, including student, associate, full member and fellow status. Full members generally have earned a Bachelor of Science degree in naval architecture, marine engineering or hold a degree in engineering and have experience that is associated with ship design, construction or operation. However membership is open to professionals in related industries that comes from all backgrounds and experience.
Marine design is inherently a wide-ranging engineering design field and SNAME has members with wide experience ranging from electrical engineering, to weapons systems design, to racing yacht design, to deep ocean engineering, to human factors. Members can be awarded Fellow status upon review and approval of their achievements in the naval architectural or engineering profession as applied to the marine field. The society also awards the David W. Taylor Medal for "notable achievement in naval architecture and/or marine engineering." [ citation needed ]
SNAME publishes peer-reviewed technical papers and authoritative text books on engineering subjects within the marine field. The society also is a repository and forum for original research and analysis through its Technology and Research Committees which are staffed by volunteers with exceptional experience and knowledge in their chosen specialties.
The society functions under its own code of engineering ethics , which generally follows the Professional Engineers Code of Ethics. The Society also develops and supports the United States Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (NAME) Principles and Practice of Engineering Exam . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Naval_Architects_and_Marine_Engineers |
Society of Nepali Architects (SONA) is an independent non-profit association of architects in Nepal . It was established in 1990. [ 1 ] It has collaboration with the ARCASIA , SAARCH , and UIA .
This article about an organization in Nepal is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Nepali_Architects |
The Society of Petroleum Engineers ( SPE ) is a 501(c)(3) [ 1 ] [ 2 ] not-for-profit professional organization . [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
SPE provides a worldwide forum for oil and natural gas exploration and production (E&P) professionals to exchange technical knowledge and best practices. SPE manages OnePetro and PetroWiki, in addition to publishing magazines, peer-reviewed journals, and books. [ 5 ] SPE also hosts more than 100 events each year across the globe [ 6 ] as well as providing online tools and in-person training opportunities. SPE's technical library (OnePetro) contains more than 314,000 technical papers—products of SPE conferences and periodicals, made available to the entire industry.
SPE has offices in Dallas , Houston , Calgary , Dubai and Kuala Lumpur . SPE is a professional association for more than 127,000 [ 7 ] engineers , scientists , managers , and educators . There are about 59,000 student members of SPE. [ 8 ]
The history of the SPE began well before its actual establishment. During the decade after the 1901 discovery of the Spindletop field, the American Institute of Mining Engineers ( AIME ) saw a growing need for a forum in the booming new field of petroleum engineering. As a result, AIME formed a standing committee on oil and gas in 1913.
In 1922, the committee was expanded to become one of AIME's 10 professional divisions. The Petroleum Division of AIME continued to grow throughout the next three decades. By 1950, the Petroleum Division had become one of three separate branches of AIME, and in 1957 the Petroleum Branch of AIME was expanded once again to form a professional society.
SPE became tax-exempt in March 1985.
The first SPE Board of Directors meeting was held 6 October 1957. SPE continues to operate more than 100 events around the world.
SPE is a non-profit association for petroleum engineers. Petroleum engineers who become members of SPE gain access to several member benefits like a complimentary subscription to the Journal of Petroleum Technology , unlimited free webinars, and discounts on SPE events (conferences, workshops, training courses, etc.) and publications. [ 9 ] SPE Connect is a site and app for SPE members to exchange technical knowledge, answer each other's practical application questions, and share best practices.
SPE is made up of about 127,000 members in 145 countries. [ 10 ] SPE Sections are groups of SPE Professional Members, and SPE Student Chapters are groups of SPE Student Members typically named for the hosting university or a geographical region. 67,000+ professional members are affiliated with 192 SPE Sections, and about 59,000 student members are affiliated with the 392 SPE Student Chapters. [ 11 ]
SPE annually grants scholarships to student members.
Annually, SPE recognizes individuals for their contribution to the oil and gas industry at the regional and international levels. [ 12 ]
All individuals who receive SPE Awards were nominated by either an industry colleague, mentor, etc., except for recipients of the Cedric K. Ferguson Young Technical Author Medal, [ 13 ] which is awarded to SPE members who author a paper approved for publication in an SPE journal (peer-reviewed journals on oil and gas topics) before age 36. Eligibility for the awards is denoted online. [ 14 ]
SPE International Awards are announced online, featured in the Journal of Petroleum Technology , and presented at the Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. [ 15 ]
SPE grants technical and professional awards at the regional level. [ 16 ] To be considered for these awards, one must be nominated online. Regional technical award eligibility is described online. SPE regional award recipients are considered for the international level of the award they received in the following award season. Regional awards are presented at regional or section meetings.
The SPE Distinguished Lecturer Committee (DL) each year selects a group of nominees to become SPE Distinguished Lecturers. SPE Distinguished Lecturers are nominated for the program and selected by the committee to share their industry expertise by lecturing at local SPE sections across the globe. Nominees are notified of their nomination and must submit a summary of their biography, a presentation that can be given in thirty minutes or less, and additional information for the DL committee. [ 17 ] The schedule of DL talks is available online. [ 18 ] Some DL talks are very popular and are made available online as webinars. [ 19 ]
SPE publishes peer-reviewed journals, magazines, and books. [ 20 ] Technical papers presented at SPE conferences or approved for publication in SPE peer-reviewed journals are also published to OnePetro.org.
SPE Journal , a leading publication in oil, petroleum, and natural gas, offers peer-reviewed papers showcasing methods and technology solutions by industry experts. Its first issue was published in 1996.
SPE publishes five online magazines:
Launched in March 2007, OnePetro.org is a multi-society library that allows users to search for and access a broad range of technical literature related to the oil and gas exploration and production industry. OnePetro is a multi-association effort that reflects participation of many organizations. The Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) operates OnePetro on behalf of the participating organizations.
OnePetro currently contains more than 1.3 million searchable documents from 23 publishing partners. OnePetr users viewed 4.9 million items in 2023. [ 29 ] OnePetro is the first online offering of documents from some organizations, making these materials widely available for the first time.
The SPE Petroleum Engineering Certification program was instituted as a way to certify petroleum engineers by examination and experience. This certification is similar to the Registration of Petroleum Engineers by state in the United States.
Certified professionals use "SPEC" after their name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Petroleum_Engineers |
The Society of Petroleum Evaluation Engineers (SPEE) is a non-profit professional organization with the objectives to promote the profession of petroleum evaluation engineering, to foster the spirit of scientific research among its Members, and to disseminate facts pertaining to petroleum evaluation engineering among its Members and the public. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Petroleum_Evaluation_Engineers |
The Society of Pharmacovigilance, India (SoPI), is an Indian national non-profit scientific organisation, which aims at organizing training programmes and providing expertise in pharmacovigilance and enhance all aspects of the safe and proper use of medicines [ 1 ]
The International Society of Pharmacovigilance (ISoP) granted status of 'associated society' to Society of Pharmacovigilance India (SoPI). It is the second professional society in the world after ISoP.
The founder of SoPI is KC Singhal .
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The Society of Polymer Science is a Japanese non-profit organization that studies polymer science with a focus on Japan but also internationally. The Society of Polymer Science was established in 1951 and currently has about 12,000 members. [ 1 ] The society issues a monthly academic journal, the Polymer Journal .
This article about a chemistry organization is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Polymer_Science |
The Society of Professional Audio Recording Services (SPARS) is an organization that holds conferences and publishes papers about the professional audio community. Its members include many of the top audio engineers working in the industry today.
SPARS was founded in 1979 [ 1 ] as the Society of Professional Audio Recording Studios [ 2 ] by the heads of eleven leading U.S. recording facilities. Among the co-founders were Mack Emerman of Criteria Studios , Chris Stone of Record Plant Studios , Joe Tarsia of Sigma Sound Studios , Howard Schwartz and Bob Liftin of Regent Sound, and Murray Allen of Universal Recording Corporation . [ 3 ]
SPARS developed the SPARS Code , which was common on the back of CD covers from the late eighties to the mid nineties. It specified whether analogue or digital recording mediums were used in each process of the recording (recording, mixing, mastering).
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This sound technology article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Professional_Audio_Recording_Services |
The Society of Professional Engineering Employees in Aerospace (SPEEA), IFPTE Local 2001 is a professional labor union representing more than 24,000 engineers , technical workers and other professionals in the aerospace industry . SPEEA represents employees at The Boeing Company , Spirit AeroSystems , BAE Systems and Triumph Composite Systems. Members work in Washington , Kansas , Oregon , Utah , Texas , California , and Florida .
SPEEA is governed by an elected Executive Board and Council, but daily operations are handled by a professional staff and Executive Director. Union headquarters are in Seattle, with branch offices and union halls in Everett, Washington and Wichita, Kansas .
According to Richard Henning, SPEEA's co-founder and engineer, SPEEA's earliest beginnings were meetings at the Seattle YMCA in 1945 to frame its first constitution. [ 1 ]
SPEEA was formed in 1946 by a group of Boeing engineers in Seattle , Washington and is an affiliated local union of the International Federation of Professional and Technical Engineers (IFPTE). On behalf of its members, SPEEA negotiates contracts with employers ; it also provides assistance with resolving workplace and benefit issues. SPEEA originally stood for Seattle Professional Engineering Employees Association.
In an interview in February 2015, the centenarian co-founder Richard Henning, who retired in 1979 as a Boeing Executive remarked,
“ It’s a smart idea to have an organization speak for an individual instead of one on one. In the old days, if you sat down to negotiate with the chief of engineering it was pretty difficult to express ideas. Whereas in a union, there was discussion to bring out points and that happened on a daily basis. ” [ 2 ]
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The Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE) is an American non-profit technical society for the tribology and lubrication engineering sectors worldwide. [ 1 ] Its offices are in Park Ridge, Illinois . [ 2 ]
Established in 1944 as the American Society of Lubrication Engineers (ASLE), the STLE is now one of the world's largest associations solely dedicated to the advancement of the field of tribology. [ 3 ] The STLE currently has over 13,000 members. [ 4 ]
An official STLE journal, Tribology Transactions , is published by Taylor and Francis [ 5 ] and the society is also affiliated with Tribology Letters , published by Springer . [ 6 ] The STLE also publish a monthly magazine, Tribology and Lubrication Technology . [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Tribologists_and_Lubrication_Engineers |
A social-ecological system consists of 'a bio-geo-physical' unit and its associated social actors and institutions. Social-ecological systems are complex and adaptive and delimited by spatial or functional boundaries surrounding particular ecosystems and their context problems. [ 1 ]
A social-ecological system (SES) can be defined as: [ 2 ] (p. 163)
Scholars have used the concept of social-ecological systems to emphasise humans as part of nature and to stress that the delineation between social systems and ecological systems is artificial and arbitrary. [ 6 ] While resilience has somewhat different meaning in social and ecological context, [ 7 ] the SES approach holds that social and ecological systems are linked through feedback mechanisms , and that both display resilience and complexity . [ 5 ]
Social-ecological systems are based on the concept that humans are a part of—not separate from—nature. [ 8 ] This concept, which holds that the delineation between social systems and natural systems is arbitrary and artificial, was first put forth by Berkes and Folke, [ 9 ] and its theory was further developed by Berkes et al. [ 10 ] More recent research into social-ecological system theory has pointed to social-ecological keystones as critical to the structure and function of these systems, and to biocultural diversity as essential to the resilience of these systems. [ 11 ]
Through to the final decades of the twentieth century, the point of contact between social sciences and natural sciences was very limited in dealing with social-ecological systems. Just as mainstream ecology had tried to exclude humans from the study of ecology, many social science disciplines had ignored the environment altogether and limited their scope to humans. [ 5 ] Although some scholars (e.g. Bateson 1979) [ 12 ] had tried to bridge the nature-culture divide , the majority of studies focused on investigating processes within the social domain only, treating the ecosystem largely as a "black box" [ 6 ] and assuming that if the social system performs adaptively or is well organised institutionally it will also manage the environmental resource base in a sustainable fashion . [ 13 ]
This changed through the 1970s and 1980s with the rise of several subfields associated with the social sciences but explicitly including the environment in the framing of the issues. [ 5 ] These subfields are:
Each of the six areas summarised is a bridge spanning different combinations of natural science and social science thinking. [ 5 ]
Elinor Ostrom and her many co-researchers developed a comprehensive "Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework", which includes much of the theory of common-pool resources and collective self-governance. It draws heavily on systems ecology and complexity theory . The studies of SES include some central societal concerns (e.g. equity and human wellbeing) that have traditionally received little attention in complex adaptive systems theory, and there are areas of complexity theory (e.g. quantum physics ) that have little direct relevance for understanding SES. [ 19 ]
SES theory incorporates ideas from theories relating to the study of resilience, robustness , sustainability , and vulnerability (e.g. Levin 1999, [ 20 ] Berkes et al. 2003, [ 5 ] Gunderson and Holling 2002, [ 4 ] Norberg and Cumming 2008 [ 19 ] [ 21 ] ), but it is also concerned with a wider range of SES dynamics and attributes than any one of these terms implies. While SES theory draws on a range of discipline-specific theories, such as island biogeography , optimal foraging theory , and microeconomic theory , it is much broader than any of these individual theories alone. [ 19 ]
SES theory emerged from a combination of disciplines [ 19 ] and the notion of complexity developed through the work of many scholars, including the Santa Fe Institute (2002). [ 21 ] Due to the social context in which SES research was placed, and the possibility of SES research translating into recommendations that may affect real people, SES research was seen as more "self-conscious" and "pluralistic" in its perspectives than complexity theory. [ 19 ]
Studying SESs from a complex system perspective attempts to link different disciplines into a body of knowledge that is applicable to serious environmental problems. [ 19 ] Management processes in the complex systems can be improved by making them adaptive and flexible, able to deal with uncertainty and surprise, and by building capacity to adapt to change. SESs are both complex and adaptive , meaning that they require continuous testing, learning about, and developing knowledge and understanding in order to cope with change and uncertainty. [ 22 ]
A complex system differs from a simple system in that it has a number of attributes that cannot be observed in simple systems, such as nonlinearity , uncertainty , emergence , scale , and self-organisation . [ 5 ] [ 21 ]
Nonlinearity is related to fundamental uncertainty. [ dubious – discuss ] [ 5 ] It generates path dependency , which refers to local rules of interaction that change as the system evolves and develops. A consequence of path dependency is the existence of multiple basins of attraction in ecosystem development and the potential for threshold behaviour and qualitative shifts in system dynamics under changing environmental influences. [ 23 ] An example for non-linearity in socio-ecological systems is illustrated by the figure on "Conceptual Model of Socioecological Drivers of Change". [ 24 ]
Emergence is the appearance of behaviour that could not be anticipated from knowledge of the parts of the system alone. [ 25 ]
Scale is important when dealing with complex systems. In a complex system many subsystems can be distinguished; and since many complex systems are hierarchic , each subsystem is nested in a larger subsystem etc. [ 26 ] For example, a small watershed may be considered an ecosystem, but it is a part of a larger watershed that can also be considered an ecosystem and a larger one that encompasses all the smaller watersheds. [ 5 ] Phenomena at each level of the scale tend to have their own emergent properties, and different levels may be coupled through feedback relationships. [ 4 ] Therefore, complex systems should always be analysed or managed simultaneously at different scales.
Self organisation is one of the defining properties of complex systems. The basic idea is that open systems will reorganise at critical points of instability. Holling's adaptive renewal cycle is an illustration of reorganisation that takes place within the cycles of growth and renewal. [ 4 ] The self-organisation principle, operationalised through feedback mechanisms, applies to many biological systems , social systems and even to mixture of simple chemicals. High speed computers and nonlinear mathematical techniques help simulate self-organisation by yielding complex results and yet strangely ordered effects. The direction of self-organisation will depend on such things as the system's history; it is path dependent and difficult to predict. [ 5 ]
There are several conceptual frameworks developed in relation to the resilience approach.
Berkes and colleagues [ 6 ] distinguish four sets of elements which can be used to describe social-ecological system characteristics and linkages:
Knowledge acquisition of SESs is an ongoing, dynamic learning process, and such knowledge often emerges with people's institutions and organisations. To remain effective it requires institutional framework and social networks to be nested across scales. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] It is thus the communities which interact with ecosystems on the daily basis and over long periods of time that possess the most relevant knowledge of resource and ecosystem dynamics, together with associated management practices. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Some scholars have suggested that management and governance of SESs may benefit from combination of different knowledge systems; [ 34 ] [ 35 ] [ 36 ] others have attempted to import such knowledge into the scientific knowledge field [ 37 ] There also those who have argued that it would be difficult to separate these knowledge systems from their institutional and cultural contexts, [ 38 ] and those who have questioned the role of traditional and local knowledge systems in the current situation of pervasive environmental change and globalised societies. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] Other scholars have claimed that valuable lessons can be extracted from such systems for complex system management; lessons that also need to account for interactions across temporal and spatial scales and organisational and institutional levels, [ 41 ] [ 42 ] and in particular during periods of rapid change, uncertainty and system reorganisation. [ 43 ]
The adaptive cycle, originally conceptualised by Holling (1986) interprets the dynamics of complex ecosystems in response to disturbance and change. In terms of its dynamics, the adaptive cycle has been described as moving slowly from exploitation (r) to conservation (K), maintaining and developing very rapidly from K to release (Omega), continuing rapidly to reorganisation (alpha) and back to exploitation (r). [ 4 ] Depending on the particular configuration of the system, it can then begin a new adaptive cycle or alternatively it may transform into a new configuration, shown as an exit arrow. The adaptive cycle is one of the five heuristics used to understand social-ecological system behaviour. [ 44 ] The other four heuristics—resilience, panarchy , transformability, and adaptability —are of considerable conceptual appeal, and it is claimed to be generally applicable to ecological and social systems as well as to coupled social-ecological systems. [ 4 ] Adaptability is the capacity of a social-ecological system to learn and adjust to both internal and external processes. Transformability is the capacity of a system to transform into a completely new system, when ecological, economic, or social structures make the current system unsustainable. Adaptability and transformability are prerequisites for resilience. [ 45 ] [ 46 ]
The two main dimensions that determine changes in an adaptive cycle are connectedness and potential. [ 4 ] The connectedness dimension is the visual depiction of a cycle and stands for the ability to internally control its own destiny. [ 47 ] It "reflects the strength of internal connections that mediate and regulate the influences between inside processes and the outside world" [ 4 ] (p. 50). The potential dimension is represented by the vertical axis, and stands for the "inherent potential of a system that is available for change" [ 47 ] (p. 393). Social or cultural potential can be characterised by the "accumulated networks of relationships-friendship, mutual respect, and trust among people and between people and institutions of governance" [ 4 ] (p. 49). According to the adaptive cycle heuristic, the levels of both dimensions differ during the course of the cycle along the four phases. The adaptive cycle thus predicts that the four phases of the cycle can be distinguished based on distinct combinations of high or low potential and connectedness.
The notion of panarchy and adaptive cycles has become an important theoretical lens to describe the resilience of ecological systems and, more recently, social-ecological systems. Although panarchy theory originates in ecology, it has found widespread applications in other disciplines. For example, in management, Wieland (2021) describes a panarchy that represents the planetary, political-economic, and supply chain levels. [ 48 ] Hereby, the panarchical understanding of the supply chain leads to a social-ecological interpretation of supply chain resilience .
The resilience of social-ecological systems is related to the degree of the shock that the system can absorb and remain within a given state. [ 49 ] The concept of resilience is a promising tool for analysing adaptive change towards sustainability because it provides a way for analysing how to manipulate stability in the face of change.
In order to emphasise the key requirements of a social-ecological system for successful adaptive governance, Folke and colleagues [ 50 ] contrasted case studies from the Florida Everglades and the Grand Canyon . Both are complex social-ecological systems that have experiences unwanted degradation of their ecosystem services , but differ substantially in terms of their institutional make-up.
The governance structure in the Everglades is dominated by the interests of agriculture and environmentalists who have been in conflict over the need to conserve the habitat at the expense of agricultural productivity throughout history. Here, a few feedbacks between the ecological system and the social system exist, and the SES is unable to innovate and adapt (the α-phase of reorganisation and growth).
In contrast, different stakeholders have formed an adaptive management workgroup in the case of Grand Canyon, using planned management interventions and monitoring to learn about changes occurring in the ecosystem including the best ways to subsequently manage them. Such an arrangement in governance creates the opportunity for institutional learning to take place, allowing for a successful period of reorganisation and growth. Such an approach to institutional learning is becoming more common as NGOs, scientist and communities collaborate to manage ecosystems. [ 49 ]
The concept of social-ecological systems has been developed in order to provide both a promising scientific gain as well as impact on problems of sustainable development . A close conceptual and methodological relation exists between the analysis of social-ecological systems, complexity research, and transdisciplinarity . These three research concepts are based on similar ideas and models of reasoning. Moreover, the research on social-ecological systems almost always uses transdisciplinary mode of operation in order to achieve an adequate problem orientation and to ensure integrative results. [ 51 ] Problems of sustainable development are intrinsically tied to the social-ecological system defined to tackle them. This means that scientists from the relevant scientific disciplines or field of research as well as the involved societal stakeholders have to be regarded as elements of the social-ecological system in question. [ 51 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socio-ecological_system |
Socio-hydrology; socio (from the Latin word socius, meaning ‘companion) and hydrology (from the Greek: ὕδωρ, "hýdōr" meaning "water"; and λόγος, "lógos" meaning "study" [ 1 ] ) is an interdisciplinary field studying the dynamic interactions and feedbacks between water and people. Areas of research in socio-hydrology include the historical study of the interplay between hydrological and social processes, comparative analysis of the co-evolution and self-organization of human and water systems in different cultures, and process-based modelling of coupled human-water systems. [ 2 ] The first approach to socio-hydrology was the term "hydro-sociology", which arises from a concern about the scale of impact of human activities on the hydrological cycle. [ 3 ] Socio-hydrology is defined as the humans-water interaction and later as “the science of people and water”, which introduces bidirectional feedbacks between human–water systems, differentiating it from other related disciplines that deal with water. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Furthermore, socio-hydrology has been presented as one of the most relevant challenges for the Anthropocene , in relationship with its aims at unraveling dynamic cross-scale interactions and feedbacks between natural and human processes that give rise to many water sustainability challenges. [ 6 ] Socio‐hydrology is also predicted to be an important license for modellers . [ 7 ]
In traditional hydrology , human activities are typically described as boundary conditions, or external forcings, to the water systems (scenario-based approach). This traditional approach tends to make long term predictions unrealistic as interactions and bi-directional feedbacks between human and water systems cannot be captured. [ 7 ]
Following the increased hydrological challenges due to human-induced changes, hydrologists started to overcome the limitation of traditional hydrology by accounting for the mutual interactions between water and society and by advocating for greater connection between social science and hydrology. [ 8 ]
Socio-hydrologists argue that water and human systems change interdependently as well as in connection with each other and that their mutual reshaping continues and evolves over time. On the one hand, society importantly alters the hydrological regime. It modifies the frequency and severity of floods and droughts through continuous water abstraction, dams and reservoirs construction, flood protection measures, urbanization, etc. In turn, modified water regimes and hydrological extremes shape societies which respond and adapt spontaneously or through collective strategies. [ 9 ]
In general, to explain the co-evolution of human and water systems, socio-hydrology should draw on different disciplines and include historical studies, comparative analysis and process based modeling. Most of the socio-hydrological efforts to date have focused on investigating recurring social behavior and societal development resulting from their coevolution with hydrological systems. The majority of these studies have explained coupled human and water systems through quantitative approaches and dedicated efforts to capture human-water interactions and feedback through mathematical model, mostly as non-linear differential equations. [ 10 ]
Critics to socio-hydrology argue that the field does not add sufficient novelty to justify the creation of an entire new discipline. In particular, critics highlight the overlap with several areas of the study of coupled human and natural systems (CHANS) and of integrated water resource management . [ 11 ]
Building dams and reservoirs is one of the most common approaches to cope with drought and water shortage. The aim is straightforward: reservoirs can store water during wet periods, and then release it during dry periods. As such, they can stabilise water availability, thereby satisfying water demand and alleviating water shortage . However, increasing reservoir storage capacity can also lead to unintended effects in the long term, and, paradoxically, worsen water scarcity . [ 12 ]
Evidence has shown that water supply leads to higher water demand, which can quickly offset the initial benefits of reservoirs. These cycles can be seen as a rebound effect, also known in environmental economics as Jevon's paradox : as more water is available, water consumption tends to increase. This can result in a vicious cycle: a new water shortage can be addressed by further expansion of reservoir storage to increase water availability , which enables more water consumption, which then can potentially lead to conditions of water scarcity . As such, the supply-demand cycle can trigger an accelerating spiral towards unsustainable exploitation of water resources and environmental degradation . [ 13 ]
Over-reliance on reservoirs can increase the potential damage caused by drought and water shortage. The expansion of reservoirs often reduces incentives for individuals preparedness and adaptive actions, thus increasing the negative impacts of water shortage. Moreover, extended periods of abundant water supply , supported by reservoirs, can generate higher dependence on water resources, which in turn increases social vulnerability and economic damage when water shortage eventually occurs. [ 12 ]
Attempts to increase water supply to cope with growing water demand, which is fuelled by the increase in supply, has been shown to be unsustainable . Drought occurrences can trigger temporary reductions of water availability, often leading to water shortage when water demand cannot be satisfied by the available water. [ 14 ]
In Athens, the Mornos Reservoir overflow of 1985 lead to a new law in 1987 which declared water as a "natural gift" and "undeniable right" for every citizen. Two years later, a severe drought occurred the system was pushed to its limits and government responses were slow due to lack of conservation measures undertaken. [ 15 ]
Lake Mead was built in the 1930s to provide water to California, Arizona and Nevada. At that time, Las Vegas was projected to grow up to 400,000 inhabitants by the end of the century. Yet, the population of Las Vegas grew much faster than what was expected and it was about four times more than expected by the end of the century. This unexpected population growth was enabled by increased water supply secured by more and more in-take structure from Lake Mead. In the 2000s, in response to severe droughts, the city got close to water shortage and as a result, yet another water in-take structure was constructed. [ 16 ]
In Melbourne, in response to severe droughts in the 80's, water supply was increased. Yet, these increases in water capacity have been shown to only prevent water shortage during minor droughts. [ 17 ] The increase in human water use in Melbourne in fact doubled the severity of streamflows during the Millennium Drought [ 17 ] and also had the effect of making the area more vulnerable to prolonged droughts due to increase dependency on reservoirs.
An earlier example is within the Maya civilisation. Here, additional storage of water initially brought many benefits and allowed agricultural growth under normal and minor drought conditions. Yet, this also created increased reliance on water resources which made the population more vulnerable to extreme drought conditions, and might have possibly contributed to the collapse of the Maya civilisation " [ 18 ]
Socio-hydrology can be related to integrated water resources management (IWRM). In particular, while IWRM aims at controlling the water system to get desired outcomes for the environment and society, socio-hydrology aims at observing, understanding, and predicting the dynamics of coupled human-water systems. [ 19 ] Socio-hydrology can therefore be seen as the fundamental science underpinning the practice of IWRM. Socio-hydrology can also be attractive to social scientists when its focus is given to broader topics such as sustainability, resilience, and adaptive governance. Socio-hydrologists will be benefited from the wider participation of social scientists to understand and incorporate complex social processes into hydrological models. [ 20 ]
Floods can be mild, severe, or catastrophic. Human societies cope with flooding with a combination of structural (e.g. levees) and non-structural measures (e.g. resettlements). Structural measures, such as levees, change the frequency and magnitude of flooding. In areas protected by levees, for example, the frequency of flooding is lower, but this often cause a false sense of safety, thereby increasing exposure and vulnerability to rare and catastrophic floods. [ 21 ]
In socio-hydrology, it is often assumed that societies build flood memory after extreme events. Flood memory is considered as a primary mechanism explaining the emergence of levee effects. It is hyphosised to be built after flooding and proportional to associated losses. Flood memory does decay over time. It is very difficult to observe, so proxy variable such as flood insurance coverage are used. [ 22 ]
Socio-hydrological modeling aims to describe the interactions and feedback between social and hydrological systems. There are three main areas where socio-hydrological modeling is used; system understanding, forecasting and prediction, and policy and decision making. [ 23 ]
In socio-hydrological modeling, the holistic understanding the complete system is the main objective. Socio-hydrological models could be used to anticipate what trajectories might occur in the coming decades, depending on the present condition of a human-water system. Models can, later on, be used in policy formation and decision making, whereas it could be really useful. [ 23 ]
Bottom-up modeling focuses on processes to develop system behavior, whilst top-down modeling focuses on system outcomes and try to look for correlations to determine system behavior. [ 23 ]
There can also be other differences between models. Models could be physics-based, data-based or conceptual. Another difference between models is if they are distributed or lumped, where lumped models include dynamics that vary only in time and distributed models include spatial and temporal heterogeneity. [ 23 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socio-hydrology |
Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to explain social behavior in terms of evolution . It draws from disciplines including psychology , ethology , anthropology , evolution , zoology , archaeology , and population genetics . Within the study of human societies , sociobiology is closely allied to evolutionary anthropology , human behavioral ecology , evolutionary psychology , [ 1 ] and sociology . [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns , territorial fights , pack hunting , and the hive society of social insects . It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment , so also it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior. [ 4 ]
While the term "sociobiology" originated at least as early as the 1940s; the concept did not gain major recognition until the publication of E. O. Wilson 's book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis in 1975. The field quickly became the subject of scientific controversy . Critics, led by Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould , argued that genes played a role in human behavior, but that traits such as aggressiveness could be explained by social environment rather than by biology. Sociobiologists responded by pointing to the complex relationship between nature and nurture . Among sociobiologists, the controversy between laying weight to different levels of selection was settled between D.S. Wilson and E.O. Wilson in 2007. [ 5 ]
E. O. Wilson defined sociobiology as "the extension of population biology and evolutionary theory to social organization". [ 6 ]
Sociobiology is based on the premise that some behaviors (social and individual) are at least partly inherited and can be affected by natural selection . [ 7 ]
The discipline seeks to explain behavior as a product of natural selection. Behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve one's genes in the population. Inherent in sociobiological reasoning is the idea that certain genes or gene combinations that influence particular behavioral traits can be inherited from generation to generation. [ 5 ]
For example, newly dominant male lions often kill cubs in the pride that they did not sire. This behavior is adaptive because killing the cubs eliminates competition for their own offspring and causes the nursing females to come into heat faster, thus allowing more of his genes to enter into the population. Sociobiologists would view this instinctual cub-killing behavior as being inherited through the genes of successfully reproducing male lions, whereas non-killing behavior may have died out as those lions were less successful in reproducing. [ 8 ]
The philosopher of biology Daniel Dennett suggested that the political philosopher Thomas Hobbes was the first proto-sociobiologist, arguing that in his 1651 book Leviathan Hobbes had explained the origins of morals in human society from an amoral sociobiological perspective. [ 9 ]
The geneticist of animal behavior John Paul Scott coined the word sociobiology at a 1948 conference on genetics and social behavior, which called for a conjoint development of field and laboratory studies in animal behavior research. [ 10 ] With John Paul Scott's organizational efforts, a "Section of Animal Behavior and Sociobiology" of the Ecological Society of America was created in 1956, which became a Division of Animal Behavior of the American Society of Zoology in 1958. In 1956, E. O. Wilson came in contact with this emerging sociobiology through his PhD student Stuart A. Altmann, who had been in close relation with the participants to the 1948 conference. Altmann developed his own brand of sociobiology to study the social behavior of rhesus macaques, using statistics, and was hired as a "sociobiologist" at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in 1965.
Wilson's sociobiology is different from John Paul Scott 's or Altmann's, insofar as he drew on mathematical models of social behavior centered on the maximization of the genetic fitness by W. D. Hamilton , Robert Trivers , John Maynard Smith , and George R. Price . The three sociobiologies by Scott, Altmann and Wilson have in common to place naturalist studies at the core of the research on animal social behavior and by drawing alliances with emerging research methodologies, at a time when "biology in the field" was threatened to be made old-fashioned by "modern" practices of science (laboratory studies, mathematical biology, molecular biology). [ 11 ]
Once a specialist term, "sociobiology" became widely known in 1975 when Wilson published his book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis , sparking intense controversy. Since then "sociobiology" has largely been equated with Wilson's vision. The book pioneered and popularized the attempt to explain the evolutionary mechanics behind social behaviors such as altruism , aggression , and nurturance, primarily in ants (Wilson's own research specialty) and other Hymenoptera , but also in other animals. However, the influence of evolution on behavior has been of interest to biologists and philosophers from the 19th century onwards. Peter Kropotkin 's Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution , written in the early 1890s, is a popular example. The final chapter of the book is devoted to sociobiological explanations of human behavior, and Wilson later wrote a Pulitzer Prize winning book, On Human Nature , that addressed human behavior specifically. [ 12 ]
Edward H. Hagen writes in The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology that sociobiology is, despite the public controversy on its application to humans, "one of the scientific triumphs of the twentieth century." [ 13 ] He adds that "Sociobiology is now part of the core research and curriculum of virtually all biology departments, and it is a foundation of the work of almost all field biologists." [ 13 ] Sociobiological research on nonhuman organisms has increased dramatically and continuously in the world's top scientific journals such as Nature and Science . [ 13 ] The more general term behavioral ecology is commonly substituted to avoid the public controversy. [ 13 ]
Sociobiologists maintain that human and other animal behavior can be partly explained as the outcome of natural selection. They contend that in order to fully understand behavior, it must be analyzed in terms of evolution, principally by natural selection . [ 7 ] Sociobiology is based upon two fundamental premises: [ 7 ]
Sociobiology uses Nikolaas Tinbergen 's four questions to search for explanations of animal behavior. [ 14 ] Two of these categories are at the species level; two, at the individual level. The species-level categories (often called "ultimate explanations") are [ 15 ]
The individual-level categories (often called "proximate explanations") are [ 15 ]
Studies of human behavior genetics have found behavioral traits such as creativity, extroversion, aggressiveness, and IQ have high heritability . Researchers are careful to point out that heritability does not constrain the influence that environmental or cultural factors may have on these traits. [ 16 ] [ 17 ]
Various theorists have argued that in some environments criminal behavior might be adaptive. [ 18 ] The evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory , by sociologist/criminologist Lee Ellis , posits that female sexual selection has led to increased competitive behavior among men, sometimes resulting in criminality. In another theory, Mark van Vugt argues that a history of intergroup conflict for resources between men have led to differences in violence and aggression between men and women. [ 19 ] The novelist Elias Canetti also has noted applications of sociobiological theory to cultural practices such as slavery and autocracy. [ 20 ]
Genetic mouse mutants illustrate the power that genes exert on behavior. For example, the transcription factor FEV (aka Pet1), through its role in maintaining the serotonergic system in the brain, is required for normal aggressive and anxiety -like behavior. [ 21 ] Thus, when FEV is genetically deleted from the mouse genome, male mice will instantly attack other males, whereas their wild-type counterparts take significantly longer to initiate violent behavior. In addition, FEV has been shown to be required for correct maternal behavior in mice, such that offspring of mothers without the FEV factor do not survive unless cross-fostered to other wild-type female mice. [ 22 ]
A genetic basis for instinctive behavioral traits among non-human species, such as in the above example, is commonly accepted among many biologists; however, attempting to use a genetic basis to explain complex behaviors in human societies has remained extremely controversial. [ 23 ] [ 24 ]
Steven Pinker argues that critics have been overly swayed by politics and a fear of biological determinism , [ a ] accusing among others Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin of being "radical scientists", whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science, [ 26 ] while Lewontin, Steven Rose and Leon Kamin , who drew a distinction between the politics and history of an idea and its scientific validity, [ 27 ] argue that sociobiology fails on scientific grounds. Gould grouped sociobiology with eugenics , criticizing both in his book The Mismeasure of Man . [ 28 ] When Napoleon Chagnon scheduled sessions on sociobiology at the 1976 American Anthropological Association convention, other scholars attempted to cancel them with what Chagnon later described as "Impassioned accusations of racism, fascism and Nazism"; Margaret Mead 's support caused the sessions to occur as scheduled. [ 29 ]
Noam Chomsky has expressed views on sociobiology on several occasions. During a 1976 meeting of the Sociobiology Study Group , as reported by Ullica Segerstråle , Chomsky argued for the importance of a sociobiologically informed notion of human nature. [ 30 ] Chomsky argued that human beings are biological organisms and ought to be studied as such, with his criticism of the " blank slate " doctrine in the social sciences (which would inspire a great deal of Steven Pinker's and others' work in evolutionary psychology), in his 1975 Reflections on Language . [ 31 ] Chomsky further hinted at the possible reconciliation of his anarchist political views and sociobiology in a discussion of Peter Kropotkin 's Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution , which focused more on altruism than aggression, suggesting that anarchist societies were feasible because of an innate human tendency to cooperate. [ 32 ]
Wilson has claimed that he had never meant to imply what ought to be, only what is the case. However, some critics have argued that the language of sociobiology readily slips from "is" to "ought", [ 27 ] an instance of the naturalistic fallacy . Pinker has argued that opposition to stances considered anti-social, such as ethnic nepotism, is based on moral assumptions, meaning that such opposition is not falsifiable by scientific advances. [ 33 ] The history of this debate, and others related to it, are covered in detail by Cronin (1993) , Segerstråle (2000) , and Alcock (2001) . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology |
Socioecology is the scientific study of how social structure and organization are influenced by an organism's environment. Socioecology is primarily related to anthropology , geography , sociology , and ecology . Specifically, the term is used in human ecology , the study of the interaction between humans and their environment . Socioecological models of human health examine the interaction of many factors, ranging from narrowest (individual behaviors) to broadest (federal policies). The factors of socioecological models consist of individual behaviors, sociodemographic factors (race, education, socioeconomic status ), interpersonal factors (romantic, family, and coworker relationships), community factors (physical and social environment), and societal factors (local, state, and federal policies. [ 1 ]
This article about environmental social science is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioecology |
The sociology of quantification is the investigation of quantification as a sociological phenomenon in its own right. [ 1 ]
According to a review published in 2018, the sociology of quantification is an expanding field which includes the literature on the quantified self , on algorithms, and on various forms of metrics and indicators. [ 2 ] A prior review in 2016 names a similar range of topics: "quantification processes in the sciences, quantification in society driven by the sciences, quantification processes driven by other social processes, including for example implementations of numeric technologies, standardization procedures, bureaucratic management, political decision-taking and newer trends as self-quantification." [ 3 ] Older works which can be classified under the heading of the sociology of quantification are Theodore Porter ’s Trust in Numbers , [ 4 ] the works of French sociologists Pierre Bourdieu [ 5 ] [ 6 ] and Alain Desrosières , [ 7 ] and the classic works on probability by Ian Hacking [ 8 ] and Lorraine Daston . [ 9 ] The discipline gained traction due to the increasing importance and scope of quantification, [ 2 ] its relation to the economics of conventions, [ 10 ] and the perception of its dangers as a weapon of oppression [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] or as means to undesirable ends. [ 12 ] [ 14 ]
For Sally Engle Merry quantification is a technology of control, but whether it is reformist or authoritarian depends on who harnessed it and for what purpose. [ 15 ] The ‘governance by numbers’ is seen by jurist Alain Supiot as repudiating the goal of governing by just laws, advocating in its stead the attainment of measurable objectives. For Supiot the normative use of economic quantification leaves no option for countries and economic actors than to ride roughshod over social legislation, and pledge allegiance to stronger powers. [ 16 ]
The French movement of ‘ statactivisme ’ suggests fighting numbers with numbers under the slogan “a new number is possible". [ 5 ] On the other extreme, algorithmic automation is seen as an instrument of liberation by Aaron Bastani , [ 17 ] spurring a debate on digital socialism . [ 18 ] [ 19 ] According to Espeland and Stevens [ 1 ] an ethics of quantification would naturally descend from a sociology of quantification, especially at an age where democracy, merit, participation, accountability and even "fairness" are assumed to be best discovered and appreciated via numbers. Andrea Mennicken and Wendy Espeland provide a review (2019) of the main concerns about the "increasing expansion of quantification into all realms, including into people’s personal lives". [ 20 ] These authors discuss the new patterns of visibility and obscurity created by quantitative technologies, how these influence relations of power, and how neoliberal regimes of quantification favour 'economization', where "individuals, activities, and organizations are constituted or framed as economic actors and entities." Mennicken and Robert Salais have curated in 2022 a multi-author volume titled The New Politics of Numbers: Utopia, Evidence and Democracy , [ 21 ] with contributions encompassing Foucauldian studies of governmentality , which first flourished in the English-speaking world, and studies of state statistics known as ‘economics of convention’, developed mostly at INSEE in France. A theme treated by several authors is the relationship between quantification and democracy, with regimes of algorithmic governmentality [ 22 ] and artificial intelligence posing a threat to democracy and to democratic agency. [ 23 ] [ 24 ]
Mathematical modelling is a field of interest for sociology of quantification, [ 25 ] and the intensified use of mathematical models in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic has spurred a debate on how society uses models. Rhodes and Lancaster speak of 'model as public troubles' [ 26 ] and starting from models as boundary objects call for a better relation between models and society. Other authors propose five principles for making models serve society, on the premise that modelling is a social activity. [ 27 ] Models as mediators between 'theories' and 'the world' are discussed in a multi-author book edited by Mary S. Morgan and Margaret Morrison [ 25 ] that offers several examples from physics and economics. The volume provides a historical and philosophical discussion of what models are and of what models do, with contributions from the authors as well as from scholars such as Ursula Klein , Marcel Boumans, R.I.G. Hughes, Mauricio Suárez , Geert Reuten , Nancy Cartwright , Adrienne van den Boogard, and Stephan Hartmann . [ 28 ] A later work by Morgan offers elements of history, sociology and epistemology of modelling in economics and econometrics. [ 29 ] Relevant material for a sociology of mathematical models can be found in the works of Ian Scoones and Andy Stirling , [ 30 ] [ 31 ] in Mirowski ’s Machine Dreams , in Evelyn Fox Keller Making Sense of Life , Jean Baudrillard 's Simulacra and Simulation , in Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar 's Laboratory Life .
The role of quantification in historiography and macrohistory is the subject of The Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600 , a 1997 nonfiction book by Alfred W. Crosby . The book examines the origins and effects of quantitative thinking in post-medieval European history, suggesting it as a major factor in the ensuing development of European arts and techniques. [ 32 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_quantification |
Sociomateriality is a theory built upon the intersection of technology, work and organization, that attempts to understand "the constitutive entanglement of the social and the material in everyday organizational life." [ 1 ] It is the result of considering how human bodies, spatial arrangements, physical objects, and technologies are entangled with language, interaction, and practices in organizing. Specifically, it examines the social and material aspects of technology and organization, [ 2 ] [ 3 ] but also emphasizes the centrality of materials within the communicative constitution of organizations . It offers a novel way to study technology at the workplace, since it allows researchers to study the social and the material simultaneously.
It was introduced after legacies of contingency theory and structuration theory had characterized the field of Information System research in Management Studies. Early papers by Wanda Orlikowski feature structuration theory [ 4 ] and practice theory . [ 5 ] However, the key papers for sociomateriality stem from the later work of Orlikowski in collaboration with Susan Scott. [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 6 ] The concept adopted the focus on relations from Bruno Latour 's [ 7 ] and John Law 's [ 8 ] actor-network theory (ANT) and further opposes the Kantian dualism of subject and object drawing on Karen Barad 's [ 9 ] and Lucy Suchman 's [ 10 ] feminist studies. Drawing on Barad, sociomateriality proposes the concept of agential realism . Key aspects of sociomateriality are according to Matthew Jones [ 11 ] a relational understanding of the world, the observation of day-to-day technology use at the workplace during practices and the inextricability and inseparability of the social and the material.
Huber [ 12 ] made a fundamental point that as more sophisticated technologies are adopted, they will have profound effects on organizational design and decision-making. From the 1990s onward, it was clear that because of a variety of information and communication technologies being adopted in the workplace, consideration of sociality and materiality in tandem would be met with increasing significance and academic attention. As was pointedly expressed by Barad, 'Language matters. Discourse matters. Culture matters. But there is an important sense in which the only thing that does not seem to matter anymore is matter.' [ 13 ] This critical statement is representative of not only the research most scholars in this field do focus on, but pushes forward what they are missing as a result: matter, or, the material. In directing attention toward the material, the theory of sociomateriality was generated.
Early scholars like Joan Woodward and Charles Perrow were bearing a deterministic point of view in their study, and consider the materiality of technologies to be the sole cause of organizational changes. That first generation of research was conducted at a macro-level, with organizations as their unit of analysis. The following strand started looking at individuals as their subject of analysis, and as such, many informal aspects of organizational studies were also taken into account. That marked the emergence of social aspects appearing in scholarly papers about organizational technology—terms like ‘technology-in use’ [ 14 ] and ‘socio-technological ensembles’. [ 15 ] This stream of thought takes a constructivist position. This position believes that the material features of technology does not matter too much, rather, the way people interpret technology holds the most significance. Both technological determinism and constructivism falls short in describing the whole picture of the relationship between technology and organizations. Then, scholars like Poole and DeSanctis, Monteiro and Hanseth, and Griffith started drawing attention toward technology's material features. Only then did it come to the "materiality" point-of-view, which is to say, the physical properties of technology drove workplace actions. However, the sole use of materiality to describe workplace technology also falls short in describing the whole picture.
Leonardi [ 16 ] explains the reason for sociomateriality's existence: '(a) that all materiality (as defined in the prior section) is social in that it was created through social processes and it is interpreted and used in social contexts and (b) that all social action is possible because of some materiality' (p. 32). The emergence of the term “sociomateriality” is a sign of progress over "materiality", in the way that it recognizes that materiality constitutes the social world and the social world also influences technological materiality. Here, “social” could be institutions, norms, discourses, and other human intentions.
Given the growing popularity of materiality and sociomateriality in management and organization theories (e.g. Carlile, Nicolini, Langley, Tsoukas, 2013; [ 17 ] Jarzabkowski, Spee & Smets, 2013; [ 18 ] Leonardi & Barley [ 2 ] ), sociomateriality has become "trendy" for theorists and researchers within other areas such as organizational communication. This is because it imparts a deeper understanding of the contextual, and relational, factors that shape, change and organize human behavior.
Traditionally, concepts employed to study technology use at the workplace were adopted from advancements in philosophy and sociology, such as contingency theory , structuration theory and actor-network theory . However, sociomateriality is the first concept to be developed within the field of Information System (IS) studies, a division of management and organization theory. It has been argued that sociomateriality is 'the new black' of IS. [ 9 ] Barad explains that human actors and technological objects are understood to emerge in sociomaterial assemblages. Those assemblages are the results of agential cuts, which transform the boundary objects into temporally stabilized agencies.
Orlikowski [ 19 ] has studied sociomateriality by using a company's BlackBerry-addicted employees and the effects of Google's PageRank algorithm on research practices as case studies. Through interviews and her research, she exemplifies how sociomaterial practices develop both in and outside of the workplace, and how such practices have become acceptable.
Orlikowski and Scott's [ 3 ] detailed paper aimed to bridge the theoretical gap seen in organization studies and management research journals by reviewing critical works on technology in order to create two research streams, before proposing a third emerging research genre, sociomateriality. They confront the issues with the existing literature by focussing on the arguments of several scholars over a period of three decades for both research streams. The result is a thoughtful call to action for scholars to regard how understudied technologies are within organizational research, despite their omnipresent nature.
Leonardi [ 20 ] discusses the misalignment and alignment of technology's material features and social interactions. His paper sheds light on understanding how technologies are implemented in the workplace—in organizations—without dismissing the human factor. Through use and interaction with technologies, there comes new organizational structure—or, at least, an added layer into preexisting structures or norms.
Contractor, Monge and Leonardi [ 21 ] use sociomateriality combined with actor-network theory, and developed a typology that brings technology into the network study.
Existing literature already proves to be thought provoking in terms of understanding big issues, such as what is being compromised by sociomaterial practices, and how are values and assimilation procedures in organizations changing due to technological dependencies.
Even in organizational literature at-large, the ideas and issues of sociomateriality are inadvertently present—which, in itself, warrants the need for further investigations solely through a sociomaterial lens. For instance, Catherine Turco's book The Conversational Firm: Rethinking Bureaucracy in the Age of Social Media is about the transformation of a traditional firm into a more open, non-hierarchical, technology-driven, and social "conversational firm". [ 22 ] The discussions presented in her book—from online communication software to office space—intrinsically relate back to sociomaterial practices in the workplace. Most of the firm's successes, and even some failures, all reside in the relationship between the employees, their environment and the technology they use to communicate. These material practices not only change the ways in which communication happens within the firm, but it also changes the way employees behave outside of the office. Turco's ethnographic account of this firm provokes inquiry around the same separation—between technology and the process of organizing within firms—that sociomateriality seeks to bridge.
Other scholars have worked on intersection between organization studies and other, related disciplines. Migration policies, and organizational settings have been analyzed from a sociomaterial perspective, [ 23 ] and other researchers have illuminated how higher education and university settings are influenced by objects using a sociomaterial approach. [ 24 ] Outside of organization studies, technology theorists, such as Sherry Turkle, have written books that perhaps do not directly tackle sociomateriality, but have it on their horizon. Turkle's two books focus on the affordances, constraints and negative impacts of the social media age on human interactions and dialogue. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] In his book, William Mitchell proposes, the "trial separation" of bits (the elementary unit of information) and atoms (the elementary unit of matter) is over. With increasing frequency, events in physical space reflect events in cyberspace, and vice versa, rendering a new urban condition—that of ubiquitous, inescapable network interconnectivity.
From such works, it is clear that an ethnographic approach to understanding sociomaterial practices is a way forward in the field, and one can presume many qualitative, empirical studies of this nature will be conducted over the years while organizations continue to evolve and change in light of new technologies. Without a clear research stream on sociomateriality, there will inevitably be a lack of 'understanding of how work is "made to work"'. [ 3 ] Nonetheless, these authors are all adding to the new frontier in management and organization theories and research to understand the inextricable sociomaterial relationship between humans and technology.
Despite its popularity in various disciplines, the theorizing of sociomateriality has been critiqued due to its less specific definition of technology and a neglect of broader social structures. [ 27 ] In addition, it is believed that the theoretical perspective can benefit from a less obscure vocabulary and more coherent jargon use. [ 28 ] In responding to the criticism, Scott and Orlikowski maintain that sociomateriality is a novel and innovative perspective, and scholars should strive to sustain the openness and experimentation in the framing of the theory. [ 29 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociomateriality |
The Sociome is a concept used by scientists in Biology and Sociology referring to the dimensions of existence that are social. [ 1 ] The term is also an indication of the convergence of systems biology and the study of society as a complex system that has begun to occur among early 21st Century scientists. Just as the phenome is typically thought of as the set of expressed phenotypes of an organism, the sociome can be thought of as the set of observed characteristics of societies. For example, while all societies consisting of humans might be thought of as having the potential to become egalitarian social democracies , not all observed societies are egalitarian or social democracies. Thus, the sociome can also be thought of indirectly as an ideal type of the unrealized potential of any given organization of social beings.
The first known usage of the term sociome was in 2001 by Daichi Kamiyama. [ 2 ] The term has also been utilized by sociologist Adam Thomas Perzynski. [ 3 ] The two scientists differ in their usage. Kamiyama's study describes a new scientific "era of the sociome (Sociology[+ome])" characterized by the study of the social activities of molecules. This usage is an anthropomorphism of social behavior, wherein molecules are described as having the ability to socialize. Perzynski's social scientific usage varies from this considerably. While Sociology is the study of society, behavior and social relationships, the sociome is the characterization and quantification of patterns, variables, activities, relationships and attributes across all societies that exist and can be studied. The suffix -ome has been used primarily in biology, as in genome , proteome , microbiome , metabolome and phenome . Basu and colleagues have used the term sociome to refer to a sort of standardized approach to the characterization of geocoded social attributes (e.g. neighborhood level). [ 4 ] In 2014, Del Savio and colleagues discussed the blurring of the boundaries between disciplines, and increased enthusiasm for the sociome concept and its importance for research in social science, epigenetics and epidemiology, with cautionary advice about the risks rooted in the marred history of Sociobiology [ 5 ]
Still other authors have referred to sociomics as the bidirectional interplay between the field of Science and Technology Studies and all other "-omics" fields. [ 6 ]
The -omics Wikipedia entry had previously listed sociome as a proposed new name for sociology, although it is unclear whether this has ever actually been proposed by any credible source. Still others have proposed that sociome is the object of study of Sociometry . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociome |
Socionature [ 1 ] is the idea that nature and humanity are one and the same and can be thought of or referenced as a single concept. [ 2 ] An example of this perspective would be the difference in experience two cultures might have with a drought . One culture might view drought as a form of natural variability in the environment and store surplus food for these times. Another culture might be engaged in for profit farming and see the drought as a damaging natural crisis. The first culture would be an example of a socionature viewpoint.
In the Encyclopedia of Geography , [ 3 ] Christopher Bear explained:
"Socionature is a concept that is used to argue that society and nature are inseparable and should not be analyzed in abstraction from each other. The concept is rooted in – but operates as a critique of – Marxist approaches such as historical materialism and post-structural approaches such as actor-network theory . Drawing on the former, it emphasizes temporality and processes of becoming, while its engagement with post-structural thought leads to a focus on ontological hybridity . At the heart of research on socionatures is an interest in processes of their production, and especially on the labour that is involved and the uneven power relationships that emerge."
This ecology -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socionature |
Sociophysiology is the "interplay between society and physical functioning" (Freund 1988: 856) involving "collaboration of two neighboring sciences: physiology and sociology " ( Mauss 1936: 373). [ 1 ] In other words, sociophysiology is physiological sociology, a special science that studies the physiological side of human (and other animals') interrelations ( Zeliony 1912: 405–406). [ 2 ]
In addition to having been termed an "interdisciplinary area for research, an area which demonstrates the concomitant relationship between physiology and social behavior" (Di Mascio et al. 1955: 4), sociophysiology may also be described as "social ethology " and "social energetics" ( Waxweiler 1906: 62). That is, the "physiology of reactive phenomena caused by the mutual excitations of individuals of the same species" (Waxweiler 1906: 62). [ 3 ]
The interdisciplinary nature of sociophysiology largely entails a "synthesis of psychophysiology and social interaction " (Adler 2002: 884) such that a "socio-psycho-biological study" (Mauss 1936: 386) of "biologico-sociological phenomena" (Mauss 1936: 385) may ensue. [ 4 ] Such "socio-psycho-biological study" has uncovered a "sharing of physiology between people involved in a meaningful interaction" (Adler 2002: 884), as well as "mutually responsive physiologic engagement having normative function in maintaining social cohesion and well-being in higher social animals" (Adler 2002: 885). This "mutually responsive physiologic engagement" brings into play the "close links uniting social phenomena to the biological phenomena from which they immediately derive" ( Solvay 1906: 26). [ 5 ]
Furthermore, sociophysiology explores the "intimate relationship and mutual regulation between social and physiological systems that is especially vital in human groups" (Barchas 1986: 210). In other words, sociophysiology studies the "physio- and psycho-energetic phenomena at the basis of social groupings" (Solvay 1906: 25). [ 6 ] Along these lines, Zeliony (1912) noted that
The changes of society are the result of the activities of the nervous system. Excitations vary with the same animal and with the same class of animals. The problem of the socio-physiologist is to find out what are the excitors and what the inhibitors. Physiology gives the laws of the nervous system.... Thus the duty of the socio-physiologist is to give a description of the nervous processes of groups which have resulted in changes in the [physical and social] environment.
In addition, sociophysiology "describes structure-function relationships for body structures and interactive functions relevant to psychiatric illness" (Gardner 1997: 351), and also "assumes that psychiatric disorders are pathological variants of the motivation, emotions, and conflict involved in normal communicational processes" (Gardner and Price 1999: 247–248). Psychiatry , thus, involves the diagnosis and treatment of what Lilienfeld (1879: 280) termed "physiological social pathology", and may be classed as a subfield of sociophysiology, called "pathological sociophysiology" by Zeliony (1912: 405). [ 7 ] As summarized by Ellwood (1916), Zeliony thought that, in the future,
A socio-physiological pathology will become necessary. Its field of observation will be the deviations from the norm which are observed either as a result of the pathological differences in the organism or as a result of other conditions, as in the insane or those addicted to the use of alcohol.
Ellwood (1916: 298) also noted that Zeliony's future sociophysiology, being a natural biological science, must be Darwinian .
In short, sociophysiology is "reciprocal, interpersonal physiology" (Adler 2002: 885). Such interpersonal physiology may have implications in the realm of human politics. For example, the findings of a recent study "suggest that political attitudes vary with physiological traits linked to divergent manners of experiencing and processing environmental threats" (Oxley et al. 2008: 1669). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociophysiology |
Sociotechnology (short for "social technology") is the study of processes on the intersection of society and technology . [ 1 ] Vojinović and Abbott define it as "the study of processes in which the social and the technical are indivisibly combined". [ 2 ] Sociotechnology is an important part of socio-technical design, which is defined as "designing things that participate in complex systems that have both social and technical aspects". [ 3 ]
The term has been attributed to Mario Bunge . [ 4 ] He defines it as a grouping of social engineering and management science . [ 5 ] He sees it thus as a form of technology, distinguished from other branches of it such as engineering , biotechnology , information technology and general technology . Its goal is to help engineer sociosystems and evaluate their performance, while making use of social science research. [ 5 ] In short, sociotechnology can be seen as the creation, modification and maintenance of social systems. [ 4 ]
Writing on sociotechnical change, Bijker wrote: "Society is not determined by technology , nor is technology determined by society. Both emerge as two sides of the sociotechnical coin." [ 6 ]
Technology is the sum of ways in which social groups construct the material objects of their civilizations. The things made are socially constructed just as much as technically constructed. The merging of these two things, construction and insight, is sociotechnology. "For example, we typically build a bridge when there’s some expectation that people need to get from Point A to Point B, and there’s something they need to bypass along the way (e.g. a river, a canyon, another road). Failure to consider the social factors as well as the technical factors could lead to a "bridge to nowhere" – and we all know at least one person who's had a problem with those". [ 3 ]
Business use "richness and reach". The richness and reach strategy has evolved with technology. Richness is the ability to understand the information being passed; for example, calling someone is less rich than face to face contact. Reach is the number of people who exchange the information. In the past it was easier to complete richness and reach, but now with new technologies like video chatting, it is easier for business to do fulfill both richness and reach. Positive economics is the study of existing (or historical) means of exchange- a social science such as sociology, history, and political sciences. Normative economics is the social technology because it attempts to create different kinds of economic arrangements.
Accelerating growth of technology is a major problem and cause of destabilization of a communicational world. Paul Virilio believes that the "real" is being mistaken by virtual and the virtual world destroys physical presence. Marshall McLuhan wrote about the extension of human senses and the nervous system into the world through electronic media. Essentially he believes that the mind, the self, and consciousness are made from already created technology, media, and language as opposed to create naturally like those who made technology, media, and language. The image of one's self becomes aware of itself in a world of technology. Consciousness and desire become less individualistic and turns into more already constituted social forms. The response to how someone feels something, what it means, and how it feels (for example feeling "attached" to someone after losing your virginity to them) is already set up through media communication (show, music, movies, articles). People will anticipate that they will be attached because of what they already know about it, so when it happens they do feel attached because that is how they were programmed to feel. People have turned to technology to create their "self" and determine how they feel and act. The conscious mind does not move into a world-as-other mindset but into an already constituted world.
Lewis Mumford believed the world of relying on technology began with early human experiments in industrialization including coal mines because coal and iron built and powered industrialization. It has come to the point where communication is relied on technology. Conversation turned into talking through a machine (texting, phone calls, social media).
The difference between the past and present technology is the extent of social binding. The more social forces it binds together the more powerful the technology is. For example, the attack on the World Trade Center as opposed to the attack of Pearl Harbor. It took a year to see the film of the attack on the American battleships. Because of this, people were more unaware and it was less of a big deal than what 9-11 was. During the terrorist attack in 2001, everything was broadcast in the moment. People were seeing the destruction with their own eyes in the moment, causing more passion for the situation.
Furbie and Tamagotchi are electronic toys made for children that make noises and demand for care. These toys caused children to form a companionship with robots instead of human beings. Paro is a robotic baby seal that was created in Japan to perform therapeutic functions. Paro had positive psychological results for those in nursing homes. A woman constantly argued with her son and turned to the Paro for comfort and confided in the Paro instead of fixing things with her son. Society has turned to demanding more intimacy from sociable robots then from each other. People that use the robots for comfort feel like they are being comforted by someone even though they are actually alone. These robotic characters cause people to have a relationship with technology while avoiding the trouble of human interaction.
Science and technology are big contributions to the economic development, but can also lead to negative side effects as it evolves. For example, people care more about materialistic things than the negative influences they have created in human morals and education. For example, it is more important for people to know words to songs than to remember things for their test. There are other problems due to the development of new technologies such as the conservation of the environment because there is a demand for more products which leads to more destruction of environment to build more to sell from. Many social problems have appeared in society and cannot seem to be solved by natural science and technology alone. It requires the need for social sciences as well. Social technology is the strategy used to help solve the wrong behaviors in the world that are caused by social problems like how to solve the issue of people being invested in materialistic goods more than morals, so that they economy can still continue to grow, and society can be a better place.
Organizational theory borrows from sociotechnology through its use of sociotechnical systems , a subset of the concept of sociotechnology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnology |
The Société Française de Génie des Procédés (French Society of Process Engineers) or SFGP is a French organization for chemical engineers . It is a member of the European Federation of Chemical Engineering and acts as joint Secretariat, [ 1 ] and of la Fédération Française pour les sciences de la Chimie (FFC). It publishes a technical journal "Récents progrès en Génie des Procédés", and news for members "Procédique" (first published April 1988), [ 2 ] and organizes a congress every alternate year. [ 3 ] As of 2014 its membership is in excess of 600. [ 4 ]
Its history dates back to a congress in 1987, 1er Congrès Français de Génie des Procédés , and the formation the following year of a Groupe Français de Génie des Procédés (GFGP ), which in 1989 had 340 members. [ 2 ] and formally transformed into the present organization in 1997. [ 2 ] [ 5 ]
Its mission statement [ 6 ] is to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Société_Française_de_Génie_des_Procédés |
Société Royale de Chimie Belgique or the Belgian Royal Society of Chemistry , Walloon Royal Society of Chemistry , is a learned society and professional association headquartered in Brussels , Belgium. The society published the academic journal Bulletin des Sociétés Chimiques Belges from 1904 to 1987, before it was absorbed into the Europe-wide chemistry journals. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Since 1983, the society also publishes the journal Chimie Nouvelle (English: New Chemistry). [ 3 ]
The society was founded in 1887 by Edouard Hanuise as the Association Belge des Chimistes (English: Belgian Association of Chemists). In 1904, it changed its name to Société Chimique de Belgique (English: Belgian Chemical Society) until its final name change so far in 1987 at its one-hundredth anniversary to its present name. In 1939, the society split into a French-speaking and a Dutch-speaking branch. The French-speaking branch kept the existing name (later the Société Royale de Chimie Belgique) and was still based in Brussels. The Dutch-speaking branch was founded with the name Vlaamse Chemische Vereniging and later in 1987 became Koninklijke Vlaamse Chemische Vereniging (English: Royal Flemish Chemical Society), which was based in Antwerp . [ 4 ]
Its past members includes famous chemists within the country such as Ernest Solvay , Walthère Victor Spring , Theodore Swarts, Jean Timmermans , etc. [ 5 ]
Presidents of the society throughout history include early pioneers of chemistry and pharmacy in Belgium. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Société_Royale_de_Chimie_Belgique |
The Société astronomique de France ( SAF ; French: [sɔsiete astʁɔnɔmik də fʁɑ̃s] ), the French astronomical society, is a non-profit association in the public interest organized under French law ( Association loi de 1901 ). Founded by astronomer Camille Flammarion in 1887, its purpose is to promote the development and practice of astronomy. [ 1 ]
SAF was established by Camille Flammarion and a group of 11 persons on 28 January 1887 in Flammarion's apartment at 16 rue Cassini, 75014 Paris, close to the Paris Observatory . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Open to all, SAF includes both professional and amateur astronomers as members, from France and abroad. [ 4 ]
Its objective was defined at the time of its establishment as: "A Society is founded with the aim of bringing together people engaged practically or theoretically in Astronomy, or who are interested in the development of this Science and the extension of its influence for the illumination of minds. Its efforts shall support the advancement and popularization of this Science, as well as facilitating ways and means for those who wish to undertake astronomical studies. All friends of Science and Progress are invited for its establishment and development." [ 5 ]
On 4 April 1887, the headquarters was established at the Hôtel des Sociétés Savantes , 28 rue Serpente, in the 6th arrondissement of Paris . The society built an observatory on the top floor of the building for its members' use which operated from 1890 to 1968 ( Observatory of the rue Serpente ). [ 6 ] On 17 October 1966, the headquarters moved to the Maison de la Chimie at 28 rue Saint-Dominique, Paris 75007. [ 7 ] Since 1974, the headquarters has been located at 3, rue Beethoven, Paris 75016. [ 8 ]
The presidents of the Society have included many illustrious persons in astronomy and related fields. [ 4 ]
The society has offered the following awards over the years to its members and to notable personalities in the field of astronomy in France and abroad. Not all awards are given every year, and some have been discontinued.
The Parisian engraver Alphée Dubois (1831–1905) created several medals for the Société Astronomique de France, including the Medal of the Society "la Nuit étoilée" (1887), [ 20 ] the Medal of the Prix des Dames (1896), the Medal of the Prix Janssen (1896), [ 21 ] and the Society's Commemorative Medal. [ 22 ]
French astronomer André Patry of the Observatoire de Nice named Asteroid (4162) SAF in the society's honor after he discovered the body on 24 November 1940. [ 31 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Société_astronomique_de_France |
The Société Chimique de France ( SCF ) is a learned society and professional association founded in 1857 to represent the interests of French chemists in a variety of ways in local, national and international contexts. [ 1 ] Until 2009 the organization was known as the Société Française de Chimie .
The Society traces its origins back to an organization of young Parisian chemists who began meeting in May 1857 under the name Société Chimique, with the goal of self-study and mutual education. In 1858 the established chemist Adolphe Wurtz joined the society, now named the Société Chimique de Paris, and immediately transformed it into a learned society modeled after the Chemical Society of London, which was the precursor of the Royal Society of Chemistry . Like its British counterpart, the French association sought to foster the communication of new ideas and facts throughout France and across international borders. [ 2 ] In 1906, the society changed its name from Société Chimique de Paris to Société Chimique de France; in 1983 it became the Société Française de Chimie; and in 2009 it returned to the name Société Chimique de France. [ 3 ]
Support for the Bulletin de la Société Chimique de Paris began in 1858.
In the 21st century, the society has become a member of European Chemical Society , which is an organization of 16 European chemical societies. This European consortium was established in the late 1990s as many chemical journals owned by national chemical societies were amalgamated. [ 4 ] In 2010 they started ChemistryViews .org, their news and information service for chemists and other scientists worldwide.
The society acknowledges individual achievement with prizes and awards, including: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Société_chimique_de_France |
The Société d'astronomie de Montréal (Montreal Astronomy Society) is an astronomy club. It was founded in 1968 after the Montreal French Centre of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada (founded in 1947) obtained a provincial charter.
For many years, it was the largest French-language astronomy club in Quebec , until the mid-1980s, when many other clubs in the Greater Montreal area started gaining members.
The Société has published for many years an Annuaire astronomique , an ephemeris book. Its members were also being offered telescope mirror polishing courses, in the Montreal Botanical Gardens meeting room, which was occupied by the Société until 1980, where it had to move.
Nowadays, the Société is based in the Villeray—Saint-Michel—Parc-Extension borough (district Saint-Michel). It organizes every year, together with the Club d'astronomie Orion de Saint-Timothée, the Concours annuel de fabricants de télescopes amateurs (CAFTA), a telescope-making contest.
This article about an organization or institute connected with astronomy is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This Quebec -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Société_d'astronomie_de_Montréal |
The Société d'électronique et d'automatisme (SEA) was an early French computer manufacturer established in 1947 by electrical engineer François-Henri Raymond, which designed and put into operation a significant portion of the first computers in France during the 1950s. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
The SEA played a major role in driving the development of the French computer industry, training the first generation of engineers and installing about 170 computers between 1955 and its dissolution in 1966, [ 3 ] when it merged with CII .
In 1947, François-Henri Raymond is sent for a technical trip to the United States where he meets Howard H. Aiken at Harvard University , visits the MIT laboratories and comes across John von Neumann 's report on the EDVAC and the pioneering concepts of a then futuristic machine: the stored-program computer . [ 4 ] Upon returning to Paris, he shares his ideas to produce such machines with his employer, a machine tool manufacturer, but struggles to convince him. François-Henri Raymond resignes and, without a formal business plan, establishes the Society of Electronics and Automation in December 1947, in a former automobile factory bombed during World War II. The startup's initial capital is contributed by its founder, some of his friends, and Raymond's former employer. [ 2 ] The SEA first client was the Air Force's missile bureau, whose operations demanded significant computational resources.
SEA's inaugural computer, the OME 11, emerges in February 1949. This analog computer would set the stage for a series of subsequent models, including the OME 12, 15, 40, and 416 (OME is short for "Opérateurs Mathématiques Électroniques"). [ 5 ] While many were tailored for military applications, some models achieved some commercial success in the civilian sector. Notably, the OME L2 and P2 (1952), featuring vacuum tubes, and the transistor-based OME R (1959) stood out and were subsequently followed by a new generation of analog computers with the NADAC 20 (1961) and NADAC 100 (1962). [ 6 ]
SEA's analog computers enjoyed commercial success, with nearly 200 units sold and a strong international presence. They found diverse applications in fields such as physical, nuclear, and hydrodynamic simulation - these machines were notably employed for flight simulations of the future Concorde aircraft. [ 7 ] SEA also designed tailor-made analog computers for specific military applications. [ 8 ]
After securing a contract with DEFA (now known as DGA ), SEA embarked on the development of its first stored-program computer in 1951, and likely France's first as well: the Calculatrice Universelle Binaire de l'Armement (CUBA). [ 8 ] This contract provided SEA the opportunity to bring to life the digital computer plans it had been sketching since 1949. [ 4 ]
The then ambitious technological choices made for CUBA would later lead to numerous delays. Notably, the decision to utilize cutting-edge magnetic core memories instead of the more established Williams tubes or mercury delay lines proved risky, as no manufacturer in the still World War 2 recovering French industry was yet capable of producing them. This challenge of sourcing components adhering to a novel set of requirements extended to many aspects, even reaching into wiring - SEA, as stated by its founder, was the first French company to employ ribbon cables and wire wrap . [ 9 ]
Among other technological choices, SEA aimed to minimize the use of unreliable vacuum tubes , instead favoring germanium diodes for most of its logic and restricting tube usage to signal regeneration, a design first experimented with the SEAC (see diode logic ). Additionally, an auxiliary drum memory was selected to complement the system, which SEA ultimately procured from the British company Ferranti due to the lack of a French manufacturer ready in time. [ 4 ]
CUBA was eventually delivered in 1954 and put into operation in 1956 after many years of delays, but quickly became obsolete and was abandoned shortly thereafter. By that time, the French computer industry had already witnessed the emergence of other creations: SEA's own CAB 1011, a general computer which was used for cryptanalysis at SDECE (now DGSE ), its CAB series 2000 and 3000 computers, [ 10 ] and notably the Gamma 3 from Compagnie des machines Bull , introduced in 1952 and sold in quantities of around 1200 units. CAB stood for Calculatrice Automatique Binaire (Binary Automatic Calculator - the term "ordinateur", French for "computer", was coined only in 1955).
The mid-1950s then marked a turning point for SEA, as the company went on to develop two transistorized computers, constituting its two large-scale productions in this field.
Starting from 1956, SEA took an interest in the emerging potential of transistors, although their maturity at that time was yet to be proven. Among the alternatives, SEA explored magnetic logic , which was slower but notably reliable, making it suitable for a more compact-sized computer. In the same year, SEA invented the Symmag, a logic gate utilizing ferrite beads similar to those used in magnetic core memory. [ 11 ]
The Symmag would prove to be a central element in the architecture of the CAB 500 , alongside a drum memory and sixteen 32-bit registers implemented on magnetic-core memory . The CAB 500 was a compact desktop computer designed to be operated by a single unskilled person, with minimal technical requirements for installation and operation. Furthermore, it was powered by one of the first interactive high-level languages, PAF , which facilitated its usage.
The CAB 500 experienced immediate success, prompting the scaling up of production methods. Approximately a hundred units of the CAB 500 were manufactured and sold, with around a dozen units exported to countries including China and Japan. [ 4 ]
Starting from 1958, SEA became a subsidiary of Schneider-Westinghouse, affording it increased industrial resources. This was also the juncture at which the decision was made to create a business computer, leveraging the experience gained from the CAB 2124 and 3030. Although primarily designed for scientific purposes, these machines were also used for business tasks, revealing a gap in the manufacturer's offerings. [ 4 ]
In collaboration with Crédit Lyonnais , the prototype named CABAN (Banking Calculator) was developed, placing emphasis on magnetic tape storage, offering higher capacity compared to punched cards. Intending to compete with the IBM 1401 and the Bull Gamma 30, the CAB 3900 was a fully transistorized machine, featuring a magnetic-core main memory and accommodating up to nine tape drives. [ 12 ] It operated at a fairly fast 2 MHz (in contrast, the IBM 1401 was clocked at 870 kHz), which enabled SEA to devise a bit-serial processor, which was less complex and costly while maintaining adequate performance for business applications. The Symmag logic, however, was abandoned as it was deemed too slow. [ 13 ]
A programming language called PAGE (Programmation Automatique de GEstion - Automatic Business Programming) was developed for the CAB 3900. It had analogies with COBOL but more limited ambitions and greater simplicity. [ 14 ]
In 1963, the French government urged SEA to align with Bull, leading to a negotiated agreement: SEA would allow Bull to market its computer range in exchange for Bull's Andelys plant. This agreement had mixed effects for SEA. On one hand, Bull's sales representatives were not accustomed to catering to scientific needs, resulting in underwhelming sales for the CAB 500. On the other hand, they had to incorporate the competing CAB 3900 business computer into their portfolio alongside their own offerings. [ 9 ]
Nonetheless, these newfound production resources enabled SEA to expand its industrial capacity and manufacture the CAB 3900. An improved version, the CAB 4000, was introduced shortly thereafter, rectifying identified flaws from the first generation and enhancing its capabilities.
A total of 37 CAB 3900 and 4000 units were sold, marking the second-largest commercial success for SEA. [ 4 ]
In 1964, SEA entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with Control Data Corporation (CDC), granting access to the technologies and peripherals of the emerging American supercomputer specialist. However, this agreement did not progress further, as CDC subsequently established its own commercial subsidiary in France. [ 10 ] In the same year, IBM unveiled the 360 series , introducing a novel concept of both horizontal (application domains) and vertical (performance levels) compatibility within a unified family of computers. This groundbreaking concept of compatibility and interoperability greatly interested SEA, prompting an exploration of a new generation of products built on these principles. SEA drafted an architecture inspired by stack machines for its processor and Algol for its machine language, similar to Burroughs ' approach in the United States. Initially, two models were planned: a successor to the entry-level CAB 500 (CAB 1500) and a high-performance machine for the top tier (CAB 15000). With ambitious plans in mind, SEA contemplated an industrialization program to manufacture approximately a thousand of these new machines. [ 4 ]
Ultimately, compelled by the French government in December 1966 as part of Plan Calcul , SEA was forced to merge with Compagnie européenne d'automatisme électronique, a joint subsidiary of Compagnie générale d'électricité , Compagnie générale de télégraphie sans fil (CSF), and Intertechnique , forming the Compagnie internationale pour l'informatique (CII). [ 9 ]
At its peak, SEA employed up to 800 staff members and secured nearly 1000 patents. [ 15 ]
The SEA primarily produced computers in small quantities, about a couple hundreds, and occasionally as one-of-a-kind units, most notably for military clients.
Six major categories of computers stand out:
The following table provides an overview of the key digital computers constructed by SEA. [ 10 ] The analog calculators from the OME and NADAC series are not included in the representation, neither are specific, non commercial units such as the CUBA. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Société_d'électronique_et_d'automatisme |
The Société de Chimie Industrielle (American Section) is an independent learned society inspired by the creation of the Société de Chimie Industrielle in Paris in 1917. The American Section was formed on January 18, 1918, and held its first meeting on April 4, 1918.
The Société de Chimie Industrielle (American Section) hosts speakers, grants scholarships, and gives awards. It has given the International Palladium Medal roughly every second year since 1961, and helps to award the Othmer Gold Medal and the Winthrop-Sears Medal every year. The Société also hosts monthly talks, and presents scholarships to writers, educators, and historians of science.
One of the first societies for chemists was the Society of Chemical Industry , founded in London in 1881. This inspired a number of other groups, including the Société de Chimie Industrielle in Paris, France. The French Société was modeled on the British organization in 1917. [ 1 ] : 125 [ 2 ] A number of those active in forming the French Société were elected to its first set of officers, which included industrialist Paul Kestner as president,
vice-presidents Albin Haller and Henry Louis Le Châtelier , and Jean Gérard as general secretary. [ 3 ]
Creation of the French Société in turn inspired creation of a related American association in New York in 1918. This was part of an effort to rebuild international connections between individuals and institutions that had been disrupted during the First World War . [ 1 ] [ 4 ] René Laurent Engel encouraged the re-establishment of ties between chemists in the two countries in his position as the scientific representative in a French Mission to the United States. [ 5 ] Victor Grignard of the University of Nancy also encouraged the creation of an American organization. A circular appealed to the Chemists and Manufacturers of America to "extend to our French fellow chemists and manufacturers our moral and financial support and the right hand of good fellowship." [ 6 ]
The American section of the Société de Chimie Industrielle was formed on January 18, 1918, following the presentation of the Perkin Medal by the Society of Chemical Industry (American Section) at The Chemists' Club in New York. Engel, as secretary of the parent organization, addressed the meeting. Officers of the newly created American section of the Société de Chimie Industrielle included Leo Baekeland as president, Jerome Alexander as vice-president, Charles Avery Doremus as secretary, and George Frederick Kunz as treasurer. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] A report describes the Société's purpose as follows:
The outstanding objects of the new society are to aid the development of all branches of chemical industry, to co-ordinate the labours of all workers in pure and applied chemistry for their mutual advantage, and to assist the progress of industrial chemistry not only by means of science, but also from the economic and commercial points of view. [ 3 ]
The first official meeting of the American section of the Société de Chimie Industrielle was held on April 4, 1918 at The Chemists' Club in New York. William H. Nichols , president of the American Chemical Society , welcomed the new organization. Frederick J. LeMaistre reported on "Conditions in the French chemical industries during 1916". [ 9 ]
The Société de Chimie Industrielle (American Section) is now an independent organization. [ 10 ] It was granted tax status as a 501(c)(3), a registered nonprofit organization as of 1952. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] The American Section is directed by a board of officers including a president. As of 2018 [update] , the president of the Société de Chimie Industrielle (American section) is [James M. Weatherall]. [ 13 ]
The International Palladium Medal was instituted in 1958 and first awarded in 1961. [ 14 ] The first recipient was Ernest-John Solvay . [ 15 ] The medal has generally been given every two years. [ 16 ]
The Société has also been involved in nominating and choosing the recipients of the Othmer Gold Medal and the Winthrop-Sears Medal , which are given yearly. [ 14 ]
The Société supports a program of monthly speakers featuring CEOs, government leaders, and scientists. [ 17 ]
The Société funds scholarships for writers, educators, and historians who place chemistry in historical perspective and explore the influence of chemistry on everyday life. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Société_de_Chimie_Industrielle_(American_Section) |
Sock and buskin are ancient symbols of comedy and tragedy . In ancient Greek theatre , actors in tragic roles wore a boot called a buskin ( Latin cothurnus ) while the actors with comedic roles wore only a thin-soled shoe called a sock (Latin soccus ). [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
The sock and buskin, like the comedy and tragedy masks , are associated with two Greek Muses, Melpomene and Thalia . Melpomene, the Muse of tragedy, is often depicted wearing buskins and holding the mask of tragedy, while Thalia, the Muse of comedy, is often depicted wearing the comic's socks and holding the mask of comedy. [ 3 ]
This theatre-related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sock_and_buskin |
A Socolar tiling is an example of an aperiodic tiling , developed in 1989 by Joshua Socolar in the exploration of quasicrystals . [ 1 ] There are 3 tiles a 30° rhombus, square, and regular hexagon. The 12-fold symmetry set exist similar to the 10-fold Penrose rhombic tilings , and 8-fold Ammann–Beenker tilings . [ 2 ]
The 12-fold tiles easily tile periodically, so special rules are defined to limit their connections and force nonperiodic tilings. The rhombus and square are disallowed from touching another of itself, while the hexagon can connect to both tiles as well as itself, but only in alternate edges.
The dodecagonal rhomb tiling include three tiles, a 30° rhombus, a 60° rhombus, and a square. [ 3 ] Another set includes a square, a 30° rhombus and an equilateral triangle. [ 4 ]
This geometry-related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socolar_tiling |
Socrates II is a chess program that, in 1993, won the 23rd North American Computer Chess Championship . It ran on an IBM PC . This was the first and only time that a stock microcomputer won this event, finishing ahead of past winners Cray Blitz and HiTech . The authors, Don Dailey and Larry Kaufman , renewed their collaboration twenty years later to create the Komodo chess engine.
This chess-related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This software article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_II |
Socratic questioning (or Socratic maieutics ) [ 1 ] is an educational method named after Socrates that focuses on discovering answers by asking questions of students. According to Plato , Socrates believed that "the disciplined practice of thoughtful questioning enables the scholar/student to examine ideas and be able to determine the validity of those ideas". [ 2 ] Plato explains how, in this method of teaching, the teacher assumes an ignorant mindset in order to compel the student to assume the highest level of knowledge. [ 2 ] Thus, a student is expected to develop the ability to acknowledge contradictions, recreate inaccurate or unfinished ideas, and critically determine necessary thought.
Socratic questioning is a form of disciplined questioning that can be used to pursue thought in many directions and for many purposes, including: to explore complex ideas, to get to the truth of things, to open up issues and problems, to uncover assumptions, to analyze concepts, to distinguish what we know from what we do not know, to follow out logical consequences of thought or to control discussions. Socratic questioning is based on the foundation that thinking has structured logic, and allows underlying thoughts to be questioned. [ 3 ] The key to distinguishing Socratic questioning from questioning per se is that the former is systematic, disciplined, deep and usually focuses on fundamental concepts, principles, theories, issues or problems.
When teachers use Socratic questioning in teaching, their purpose may be to probe student thinking, to determine the extent of student knowledge on a given topic, issue or subject, to model Socratic questioning for students or to help students analyze a concept or line of reasoning. It is suggested that students should learn the discipline of Socratic questioning so that they begin to use it in reasoning through complex issues, in understanding and assessing the thinking of others and in following-out the implications of what they and others think. In fact, Socrates himself thought that questioning was the only defensible form of teaching.
In teaching, teachers can use Socratic questioning for at least two purposes:
Socratic questioning illuminates the importance of questioning in learning. This includes differentiating between systematic and fragmented thinking, while forcing individuals to understand the root of their knowledge and ideas. Educators who support the use of Socratic questioning in educational settings argue that it helps students become active and independent learners. Examples of Socratic questions that are used for students in educational settings: [ 4 ] [ unreliable source? ]
The art of Socratic questioning is intimately connected with critical thinking because the art of questioning is important to excellence of thought. Socrates argued for the necessity of probing individual knowledge, and acknowledging what one may not know or understand. Critical thinking has the goal of reflective thinking that focuses on what should be believed or done about a topic. [ 5 ] Socratic questioning adds another level of thought to critical thinking, by focusing on extracting depth, interest and assessing the truth or plausibility of thought. Socrates argued that a lack of knowledge is not bad, but students must strive to make known what they don't know through the means of a form of critical thinking. [ 6 ]
Critical thinking and Socratic questioning both seek meaning and truth. Critical thinking provides the rational tools to monitor, assess, and perhaps reconstitute or re-direct our thinking and action. This is what educational reformer John Dewey described as reflective inquiry : "in which the thinker turns a subject over in the mind, giving it serious and consecutive consideration." [ 7 ] Socratic questioning is an explicit focus on framing self-directed, disciplined questions to achieve that goal.
The technique of questioning or leading discussion is spontaneous, exploratory, and issue-specific. [ 8 ] The Socratic educator listens to the viewpoints of the student and considers the alternative points of view. [ 8 ] It is necessary to teach students to sift through all the information, form a connection to prior knowledge, and transform the data to new knowledge in a thoughtful way. [ 8 ] Some qualitative research shows that the use of the Socratic questioning within a traditional Yeshiva education setting helps students succeed in law school , although it remains an open question as to whether that relationship is causal or merely correlative. [ 9 ]
It has been proposed in different studies that the "level of thinking that occurs is influenced by the level of questions asked". [ 10 ] Thus, utilizing the knowledge that students don't know stimulates their ability to ask more complex questions. This requires educators to create conducive learning environments that promote and value the role of critical thinking, mobilising their ability to form complex thoughts and questions. [ 10 ]
Socratic questioning has also been used in psychotherapy , most notably as a cognitive restructuring technique in classical Adlerian psychotherapy , logotherapy , rational emotive behavior therapy , cognitive therapy , and logic-based therapy . [ 11 ] The purpose is to help uncover the assumptions and evidence that underpin people's thoughts in respect of problems. A set of Socratic questions in cognitive therapy aim to deal with automatic thoughts that distress the patient: [ 12 ]
Careful use of Socratic questioning enables a therapist to challenge recurring or isolated instances of a person's illogical thinking while maintaining an open position that respects the internal logic to even the most seemingly illogical thoughts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_questioning |
Sod Solutions , a sod company founded in 1994, develops, conducts research on, and markets patented and trademarked grasses .
The company markets various sod brands like Celebration , [ 1 ] and Discovery . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
On May 30, 2012, a partnership was announced between 21 Florida sod producers from the Florida Sod Growers Cooperative and University of Florida turfgrass researchers. To find new and improved zoysiagrass varieties. Testing will evaluate varieties for their resistance to disease, response to drought and shade, their ability to retain color in cooler weather, and their resistance to pests such as billbug , armyworm and sod webworm . The program expects to have new grasses ready by 2017.
Sod Solutions is coordinating this partnership and will license and market those new grasses. [ 6 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sod_Solutions |
The Sod shock tube problem, named after Gary A. Sod, is a common test for the accuracy of computational fluid codes , like Riemann solvers , and was heavily investigated by Sod in 1978.
The test consists of a one-dimensional Riemann problem with the following parameters, for left and right states of an ideal gas .
( ρ L P L u L ) = ( 1.0 1.0 0.0 ) {\displaystyle \left({\begin{array}{c}\rho _{L}\\P_{L}\\u_{L}\end{array}}\right)=\left({\begin{array}{c}1.0\\1.0\\0.0\end{array}}\right)} , ( ρ R P R u R ) = ( 0.125 0.1 0.0 ) {\displaystyle \left({\begin{array}{c}\rho _{R}\\P_{R}\\u_{R}\end{array}}\right)=\left({\begin{array}{c}0.125\\0.1\\0.0\end{array}}\right)}
where
The time evolution of this problem can be described by solving the Euler equations ,
which leads to three characteristics, describing the propagation speed of the
various regions of the system. Namely the rarefaction wave, the contact discontinuity and
the shock discontinuity.
If this is solved numerically, one can test against the analytical solution,
and get information how well a code captures and resolves shocks and contact discontinuities
and reproduce the correct density profile of the rarefaction wave.
NOTE: The equations provided below are only correct when rarefaction takes place on left side of domain and shock happens on right side of domain.
The different states of the solution are separated by the time evolution of the
three characteristics of the system, which is due to the finite speed
of information propagation. Two of them are equal to the speed
of sound of the left and right states
where γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is the adiabatic gamma .
The first one is the position of the beginning of the rarefaction wave while
the other is the velocity of the propagation of the shock.
Defining:
The states after the shock are connected by the Rankine Hugoniot shock jump conditions.
But to calculate the density in Region 4 we need to know the pressure in that region.
This is related by the contact discontinuity with the pressure in region 3 by
Unfortunately the pressure in region 3 can only be calculated iteratively, the right
solution is found when u 3 {\displaystyle u_{3}} equals u 4 {\displaystyle u_{4}}
This function can be evaluated to an arbitrary precision thus giving the pressure in the
region 3
finally we can calculate
and ρ 3 {\displaystyle \rho _{3}} follows from the adiabatic gas law | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sod_shock_tube |
Soda Industry Inc. ( Turkish : Soda Sanayii A.Ş. , also called Sodakrom ) is a chemical company in Mersin , Turkey producing soda ash and chromium compounds mainly for the glass industry in its parent's group of companies. It is owned and operated by the Şişecam Group.
The soda plant at 36°48′51″N 34°44′55″E / 36.81417°N 34.74861°E / 36.81417; 34.74861 is to the west of Kazanlı neighborhood in Akdeniz district of Mersin, southern Turkey.
The Soda Industry Inc. was established in 1969 as a subsidiary of the Şişecam Group, Turkey's major glass producer. Production of soda ash ( sodium carbonate , Na 2 C O 3 ), a key raw material for the glass industry , began in 1975. [ 1 ]
In 1979, the Kromsan Chromium Compounds Plant ( Turkish : Kromsan Krom Bileşikleri Fabrikası ) was founded. [ 2 ] It is situated just to the northwest of the Soda Plant. In 1982, it joined the Şişecam Chemicals Group, one of the four main businesses of Şişecam Group. [ 1 ] In 1986, Kromsan merged with the Soda Industry company. [ 2 ]
Beginning by 1997, Soda Industry began foreign investments. Soda Industry acquired 25% share of the Bulgarian Soda factory Sodi in 1997 and all shares of the Bosnian soda factory Lukavac in 2006 to increase its soda production. In 2011 Soda Industry also acquired the Italian Chromium Products factory Cromital .
The Soda Plant and the Kromsan Chromium Compounds Plant produce chemicals, which are used in a variety of industrial and consumer goods such as detergents, leather and pharmaceuticals. [ 1 ]
Soda Industry now is the leading producer of chromium compounds and the 4th greatest producer of sodium compounds (such as sodium dichromate ( Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 ), basic chromium sulfate ([ Cr 2 ( H 2 O ) 6 ( O H ) 4 ] S O 4 ) and chromic acid ( H 2 Cr O 4 ) with an annual production of 2.2 million metric tons in Europe. Vitamin K3 and sodium metabisulphite are among the other products. [ 3 ] [ 1 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_Industry_Inc. |
A soda geyser is a physical reaction between a carbonated beverage, usually Diet Coke , and Mentos mints that causes the beverage to be expelled from its container. The candies catalyze the release of gas from the beverage, which creates an eruption that pushes most of the liquid up and out of the bottle. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Lee Marek and "Marek's Kid Scientists" were the first to publicly demonstrate the experiment on the Late Show with David Letterman in 1999. [ 3 ] Steve Spangler 's televised demonstration of the eruption in 2005 became popular on YouTube , [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] launching a chain of several other Diet Coke and Mentos experiment viral videos. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Experiments carried out at altitudes ranging from below sea level in Death Valley to the summit of Pikes Peak have demonstrated that the reaction works better at higher elevations. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ]
In the 1910s, [ citation needed ] Wint-O-Green Life Savers were used to create soda geysers. The tubes of candies were threaded onto a pipe cleaner and dropped into the soft drink to create a geyser . At the end of the 1990s, the manufacturer of Wintergreen Lifesavers increased the size of the mints, and they no longer fit in the mouth of soda bottles. Science teachers found that Mentos candies had the same effect when dropped into a bottle of any carbonated soft drink. [ 1 ]
Lee Marek and "Marek's Kid Scientists" performed the Diet Coke and Mentos experiment on the Late Show with David Letterman in 1999. [ 3 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] In March 2002, Steve Spangler , a science educator, did the demonstration on KUSA-TV, an NBC affiliate, in Denver, Colorado . [ 14 ] The Diet Coke and Mentos geyser experiment became an internet sensation in September 2005. The experiment became a subject of the television show MythBusters in 2006. [ 13 ] [ 15 ] Spangler signed a licensing agreement with Perfetti Van Melle , the maker of Mentos, after inventing an apparatus aimed to make it easier to drop the Mentos into the bottle and produce a large soda geyser. [ 16 ] Amazing Toys, Spangler's toy company, released the Geyser Tube toys in February 2007. [ 17 ] In October 2010, a Guinness World Record of 2,865 simultaneous geysers was set at an event organized by Perfetti Van Melle at the SM Mall of Asia Complex, in Manila , Philippines. [ 18 ] This record was afterward beaten in November 2014 by another event organized by Perfetti Van Melle and Chupa Chups in León, Guanajuato , Mexico, where 4,334 Mentos and soda fountains were set off simultaneously. [ 19 ]
The eruption is caused by a physical reaction , rather than any chemical reaction . The addition of the Mentos leads to the rapid nucleation of carbon dioxide gas bubbles, degassing the solution: [ 2 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ]
The conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide to gaseous carbon dioxide forms rapidly expanding gas bubbles in the soda, which pushes the beverage contents out of the container. Experimental measurements suggest that as many as 14 million bubbles are produced per liter of soda in this experiment. [ 20 ]
Carbonated sodas contain elevated levels of carbon dioxide under pressure. The solution becomes supersaturated with carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, and the pressure is released. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide begins to degas from the solution, forming gas bubbles.
The activation energy for bubble nucleation (formation of bubbles) depends on where the bubble forms. It is very high for bubbles that form in the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation), and much lower if bubble growth occurs within tiny bubbles trapped in some other surface ( heterogeneous nucleation ). Bubble nucleation and growth in carbonated beverages almost always occur by heterogeneous nucleation: diffusion of carbon dioxide into pre-existing bubbles within the beverage. [ 2 ] [ 10 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] When dissolved gas diffuses into bubbles that already exist in a liquid, it is called Type IV bubble nucleation. [ 10 ] When the pressure is released from a soda bottle upon opening it, dissolved carbon dioxide can escape into any tiny bubble located within the beverage. These ready-made bubbles (which are nucleation sites) exist in things such as tiny fibers or non-wettable crevices on the sides of the bottle. [ 10 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Because there usually are very few such pre-existing bubbles, the degassing process is slow. Mentos candies contain millions of cavities, roughly 1-3 μm in size, [ 26 ] [ 10 ] that remain unwetted when added to a soda. Because of this, the addition of Mentos candies to a carbonated beverage provides enormous numbers of pre-existing bubbles into which dissolved carbon dioxide can escape. Thus, adding Mentos candies to a carbonated beverage introduces millions of nucleation sites into the drink, which allows for degassing that is rapid enough to support a jet of foam out of a bottle. While a Mentos candy contains millions of cavities, it is likely that only about 100,000 cavities actively nucleate bubbles on any single Mentos candy placed in a carbonated beverage. [ 20 ] [ 26 ]
Pre-existing bubbles provide a way for the reaction to occur without requiring bubbles to form within the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation). Because Type IV nucleation sites (such as found on Mentos) allow the reaction to proceed with substantially lower activation energy, Mentos candies can appropriately be considered a catalyst of the process. [ 10 ] As another example, dropping grains of salt or sand into the solution provides Type IV nucleation sites, lowers the activation energy compared to that of homogeneous nucleation, and increases the rate of carbon dioxide degassing.
The physical characteristics of Mentos (surface roughness) have the effect of drastically reducing the activation energy for carbon dioxide bubble formation so that the nucleation rate becomes exceedingly high. The activation energy for the release of carbon dioxide from Diet Coke by the addition of Mentos is 25 kJ mol −1 . [ 23 ] The foaming is aided by the presence of food additives such as potassium benzoate , aspartame , sugars, citric acid, and flavorings in Diet Coke, [ 21 ] all of which influence the degree to which water can foam. [ 21 ] [ 13 ] [ 15 ] [ 18 ] It has been claimed that gelatin and gum arabic in the Mentos candy enhance the fountain, [ 13 ] [ 15 ] [ 27 ] but experiments have shown that these candy additives do not affect the fountain. [ 2 ]
The nucleation reaction can start with any heterogeneous surface, such as rock salt, but Mentos have been found to work better than most. [ 1 ] [ 15 ] [ 18 ] Tonya Coffey, a physicist at Appalachian State University , suggested that aspartame in diet drinks lowers the surface tension in the water and causes a bigger reaction, but that caffeine does not accelerate the process. However, experiments have shown that some dissolved solids that increase the surface tension of water (such as sugars) also increase fountain heights. [ 21 ] Furthermore, it has also been demonstrated that addition of certain concentrations of alcohol (which lowers surface tension) to carbonated beverages decreases fountain heights. [ 26 ] These results suggest that additives serve to enhance geyser heights not by decreasing surface tension, but rather by some other mechanism. One possibility is that additives decrease bubble coalescence, which leads to smaller bubble sizes and greater foaming ability in the water. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Thus, the geyser reaction will still work even using sugared drinks, but diet is commonly used both for the sake of a larger geyser as well as to avoid having to clean up the stickier residue left by a sugared soda. [ 22 ] [ 30 ]
Additional explanations for why diet sodas outperform regular sodas in this experiment have been proposed. For example, it has been suggested that the higher viscosity of regular sodas as compared to diet sodas could inhibit the formation of the fountain in regular sodas, leading to shorter fountains. [ 21 ] [ 31 ] It has also been suggested that the more stable foams observed in diet sodas as compared to regular sodas could contribute to the taller geysers observed in diet sodas. [ 20 ]
While Diet Coke and Mentos are the most common way to make a soda geyser, they are not the only options. Many consider Diet Coke to be the optimal option. While Diet Coke has been studied and suggested that it has the strongest effect, [ 31 ] at least one other study has demonstrated that all diet sodas essentially work equally well within experimental error. [ 21 ] Nevertheless, any carbonated beverage will work. [ 32 ] As for the Mentos, many things work to nucleate carbonated beverages such as other candy, metal and ceramic spheres, [ 33 ] and even sand. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_geyser |
Soda lime , a mixture of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and calcium oxide (CaO), is used in granular form within recirculating breathing environments like general anesthesia and its breathing circuit , submarines , rebreathers , and hyperbaric chambers and underwater habitats . Its purpose is to eliminate carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) from breathing gases , preventing carbon dioxide retention and, eventually, carbon dioxide poisoning . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The creation of soda lime involves treating slaked lime with a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.
The primary components of soda lime include: calcium oxide (CaO) constituting approximately 75%, water ( H 2 O ) accounting for around 20%, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) making up about 3%, and potassium hydroxide (KOH) present at approximately 0.1%.
During general anaesthesia , a patient's exhaled gases , containing carbon dioxide, pass through an anaesthesia machine 's breathing circuit , containing a soda lime canister filled with soda lime granules. [ 1 ] Medical-grade soda lime includes an indicating dye that changes color when it reaches its carbon dioxide absorption capacity. To ensure proper functioning, a carbon dioxide scrubber (or soda lime canister) should not be used if the indicating dye is activated. Standard anesthesia machines typically contain up to 2 kilograms (4.4 lb) of soda lime granules. [ citation needed ]
Recent carbon dioxide absorbents have been developed to minimize the risk of toxic by-product formation resulting from the interaction between the absorbent and inhaled anesthetics , like halothane . Some absorbents, including those made from lithium hydroxide, are available for this purpose. [ citation needed ]
In space flights, lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is used as a carbon dioxide absorbent due to its low molecular weight (Na: 23 g/mol; Li: 7 g/mol), saving weight during launch. During the Apollo 13 flight, high carbon dioxide levels in the Lunar Module led the crew to adapt spare absorbent cartridges from the Apollo capsule to the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) system.
Exhaled gas in a breathing circuit must pass through a carbon dioxide scrubber where carbon dioxide is absorbed before the gas is circulated for breathing again. In rebreathers , this scrubber is integrated into the breathing loop. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] However, in larger settings like recompression chambers or submarines, a fan is employed to ensure a continuous flow of gas through the scrubbing canister. The use of indicating dye in United States Navy fleet applications ceased in 1996 due to concerns about potential chemical releases into the circuit. [ 4 ]
The overall chemical reaction is:
Each mole of CO 2 (44 g) reacts with one mole of calcium hydroxide (74 g) and produces one mole of water (18 g).
The reaction can be considered as a strong-base-catalysed, water-facilitated reaction. [ 5 ]
The reaction mechanism of carbon dioxide with soda lime can be decomposed in three elementary steps:
This sequence of reactions explains the catalytic role played by sodium hydroxide in the system and why soda lime is faster in chemical reactivity than calcium hydroxide alone. [ 6 ] The moist sodium hydroxide impregnates the surface and the porosity of calcium hydroxide grains with a high specific surface area . [ 7 ] It reacts much more quickly and so contributes to a faster elimination of the carbon dioxide from the rebreathing circuit. The formation of water by the reaction and the moisture from the respiration also act as a solvent for the reaction. Reactions in aqueous phase are generally faster than between a dry gas and a dry solid. Soda lime is commonly used in closed-circuit diving rebreathers and in the anesthesia breathing circuit in anesthesia systems. [ 8 ] [ 9 ]
The same catalytic effect by the alkali hydroxides (function of the Na 2 O eq content of cement ) also contributes to the carbonation of portlandite by atmospheric CO 2 in concrete although the rate of propagation of the reaction front is there essentially limited by the carbon dioxide diffusion within the concrete matrix less porous . [ 10 ]
A similar reaction to above, also catalysed by sodium hydroxide, is the alkali–silica reaction, a slow degradation process causing the swelling and the cracking of concrete containing aggregates rich in reactive amorphous silica . In a very similar way, sodium hydroxide greatly facilitates the dissolution of the amorphous silica. The produced sodium silicate then reacts with the calcium hydroxide ( portlandite ) present in the hardened cement paste to form calcium silicate hydrate (abbreviated as C-S-H in the cement chemist notation ). This silicification reaction of calcium hydroxide on its turn continuously releases again sodium hydroxide in solution, maintaining a high pH, and the cycle continues up to the total disappearance of portlandite or reactive silica in the exposed concrete. Without the catalysis of this reaction by sodium- or potassium-soluble hydroxides, the alkali–silica reaction would not proceed or would be limited to a very slow pozzolanic reaction . The alkali–silica reaction can be written like the soda lime reaction, by simply substituting carbon dioxide by silica dioxide in the reactions mentioned here above as follows: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_lime |
Soda pulping is a chemical process for making wood pulp with sodium hydroxide as the cooking chemical. In the Soda-AQ process, anthraquinone (AQ) may be used as a pulping additive to decrease the carbohydrate degradation. The soda process gives pulp with lower tear strength than other chemical pulping processes ( sulfite process and kraft process ), but has still limited use for easily pulped materials like straw and some hardwoods . [ 1 ]
A precursor to the soda pulping process was the paper making process developed by Matthias Koops in 1801 which involved washing wood shavings in limewater, adding soda crystals and then boiling the mixture. [ 2 ] Soda pulping was one of the first chemical pulping methods and was invented in 1851 by Burgess (United States) and Watts (England). In France in 1852 Coupier and Mellier patented a soda process based on an 1851 invention the patent of which preceded that of Watt and Burgess, which was filed in 1854. [ 3 ] The first mill was started in 1866 in the USA. In 1865 they patented a method for recovery of the cooking liquors by incineration of the spent liquor. Many of the early soda mills converted to kraft mills once it was discovered. [ 4 ]
Around 5%-10% of paper production worldwide is produced from agricultural crops , valuing agricultural paper production at between $5 billion and $10 billion. The most notable of these agricultural crops are wheat straw and bagasse . Using agricultural crops rather than wood has the added advantage of reducing deforestation.
Due to the ease with which bagasse can be chemically pulped, bagasse requires less bleaching chemicals than wood pulp to achieve a bright, white sheet of paper.
Most chemical bagasse pulp mills concentrate the spent reaction chemicals and combust them to power the paper-mills and to recover the reaction chemicals.
Many grasses , bagasse , bamboo and some tropical hardwoods contain much silicates that may cause sodium aluminum silicate scales . Moderate amounts of silicates can be controlled with purging lime mud or lime kiln ash. Silicate removal from green liquor in a soda mill can be achieved by lowering the pH of the liquor with CO 2 -containing flue gases from the lime kiln or other sources. No commercial silicate removal system is available for the kraft process , but it can handle the small amounts of silicates from northern woods. [ 5 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_pulping |
In geometry , Soddy's hexlet is a chain of six spheres (shown in grey in Figure 1), each of which is tangent to both of its neighbors and also to three mutually tangent given spheres. In Figure 1, the three spheres are the red inner sphere and two spheres (not shown) above and below the plane the centers of the hexlet spheres lie on. In addition, the hexlet spheres are tangent to a fourth sphere (the blue outer sphere in Figure 1), which is not tangent to the three others.
According to a theorem published by Frederick Soddy in 1937, [ 1 ] it is always possible to find a hexlet for any choice of mutually tangent spheres A , B and C . Indeed, there is an infinite family of hexlets related by rotation and scaling of the hexlet spheres (Figure 1); in this, Soddy's hexlet is the spherical analog of a Steiner chain of six circles. [ 2 ] Consistent with Steiner chains, the centers of the hexlet spheres lie in a single plane, on an ellipse. Soddy's hexlet was also discovered independently in Japan, as shown by Sangaku tablets from 1822 in Kanagawa prefecture. [ 3 ]
Soddy's hexlet is a chain of six spheres, labeled S 1 – S 6 , each of which is tangent to three given spheres, A , B and C , that are themselves mutually tangent at three distinct points. (For consistency throughout the article, the hexlet spheres will always be depicted in grey, spheres A and B in green, and sphere C in blue.) The hexlet spheres are also tangent to a fourth fixed sphere D (always shown in red) that is not tangent to the three others, A , B and C .
Each sphere of Soddy's hexlet is also tangent to its neighbors in the chain; for example, sphere S 4 is tangent to S 3 and S 5 . The chain is closed, meaning that every sphere in the chain has two tangent neighbors; in particular, the initial and final spheres, S 1 and S 6 , are tangent to one another.
The annular Soddy's hexlet is a special case (Figure 2), in which the three mutually tangent spheres consist of a single sphere of radius r (blue) sandwiched between two parallel planes (green) separated by a perpendicular distance 2 r . In this case, Soddy's hexlet consists of six spheres of radius r packed like ball bearings around the central sphere and likewise sandwiched. The hexlet spheres are also tangent to a fourth sphere (red), which is not tangent to the other three.
The chain of six spheres can be rotated about the central sphere without affecting their tangencies, showing that there is an infinite family of solutions for this case. As they are rotated, the spheres of the hexlet trace out a torus (a doughnut-shaped surface); in other words, a torus is the envelope of this family of hexlets.
The general problem of finding a hexlet for three given mutually tangent spheres A , B and C can be reduced to the annular case using inversion . This geometrical operation always transforms spheres into spheres or into planes, which may be regarded as spheres of infinite radius. A sphere is transformed into a plane if and only if the sphere passes through the center of inversion. An advantage of inversion is that it preserves tangency; if two spheres are tangent before the transformation, they remain so after. Thus, if the inversion transformation is chosen judiciously, the problem can be reduced to a simpler case, such as the annular Soddy's hexlet. Inversion is reversible; repeating an inversion in the same point returns the transformed objects to their original size and position.
Inversion in the point of tangency between spheres A and B transforms them into parallel planes, which may be denoted as a and b . Since sphere C is tangent to both A and B and does not pass through the center of inversion, C is transformed into another sphere c that is tangent to both planes; hence, c is sandwiched between the two planes a and b . This is the annular Soddy's hexlet (Figure 2). Six spheres s 1 – s 6 may be packed around c and likewise sandwiched between the bounding planes a and b . Re-inversion restores the three original spheres, and transforms s 1 – s 6 into a hexlet for the original problem. In general, these hexlet spheres S 1 – S 6 have different radii.
An infinite variety of hexlets may be generated by rotating the six balls s 1 – s 6 in their plane by an arbitrary angle before re-inverting them. The envelope produced by such rotations is the torus that surrounds the sphere c and is sandwiched between the two planes a and b ; thus, the torus has an inner radius r and outer radius 3 r . After the re-inversion, this torus becomes a Dupin cyclide (Figure 3).
The envelope of Soddy's hexlets is a Dupin cyclide , an inversion of the torus . Thus Soddy's construction shows that a cyclide of Dupin is the envelope of a 1-parameter family of spheres in two different ways, and each sphere in either family is tangent to two spheres in same family and three spheres in the other family. [ 4 ] This result was probably known to Charles Dupin , who discovered the cyclides that bear his name in his 1803 dissertation under Gaspard Monge . [ 5 ]
The intersection of the hexlet with the plane of its spherical centers produces a Steiner chain of six circles.
It is assumed that spheres A and B are the same size.
In any elliptic hexlet, such as the one shown at the top of the article, there are two tangent planes to the hexlet. In order for an elliptic hexlet to exist, the radius of C must be less than one quarter that of A . If C 's radius is one quarter of A 's, each sphere will become a plane in the journey. The inverted image shows a normal elliptic hexlet, though, and in the parabolic hexlet, the point where a sphere turns into a plane is precisely when its inverted image passes through the centre of inversion. In such a hexlet there is only one tangent plane to the hexlet. The line of the centres of a parabolic hexlet is a parabola.
If C is even larger than that, a hyperbolic hexlet is formed, and now there are no tangent planes at all. Label the spheres S 1 to S 6 . S 1 thus cannot go very far until it becomes a plane (where its inverted image passes through the centre of inversion) and then reverses its concavity (where its inverted image surrounds the centre of inversion). Now the line of the centres is a hyperbola.
The limiting case is when A , B and C are all the same size. The hexlet now becomes straight. S 1 is small as it passes through the hole between A , B and C , and grows till it becomes a plane tangent to them. The centre of inversion is now also with a point of tangency with the image of S 6 , so it is also a plane tangent to A , B and C . As S 1 proceeds, its concavity is reversed and now it surrounds all the other spheres, tangent to A , B , C , S 2 and S 6 . S 2 pushes upwards and grows to become a tangent plane and S 6 shrinks. S 1 then obtains S 6 's former position as a tangent plane. It then reverses concavity again and passes through the hole again, beginning another round trip. Now the line of centres is a degenerate hyperbola, where it has collapsed into two straight lines. [ 2 ]
Japanese mathematicians discovered the same hexlet over one hundred years before Soddy did. They analysed the packing problems in which circles and polygons, balls and polyhedrons come into contact and often found the relevant theorems independently before their discovery by Western mathematicians. They often published these as sangaku . The sangaku about the hexlet was made by Irisawa Shintarō Hiroatsu in the school of Uchida Itsumi, and dedicated to the Samukawa Shrine in May 1822. The original sangaku has been lost but was recorded in Uchida's book of Kokonsankan in 1832. A replica of the sangaku was made from the record and dedicated to the Hōtoku museum in the Samukawa Shrine in August, 2009. [ 6 ]
The sangaku by Irisawa consists of three problems. The third problem relates to Soddy's hexlet: "the diameter of the outer circumscribing sphere is 30 sun . The diameters of the nucleus balls are 10 sun and 6 sun each. The diameter of one of the balls in the chain of balls is 5 sun. Then I asked for the diameters of the remaining balls. The answer is 15 sun, 10 sun, 3.75 sun, 2.5 sun and 2 + 8/11 sun." [ 7 ]
In his answer, the method for calculating the diameters of the balls is written down and, when converted into mathematical notation , gives the following solution. If the ratios of the diameter of the outside ball to each of the nucleus balls are a 1 , a 2 , and if the ratios of the diameter to the chain balls are c 1 , ..., c 6 . we want to represent c 2 , ..., c 6 in terms of a 1 , a 2 , and c 1 . If
then,
Then c 1 + c 4 = c 2 + c 5 = c 3 + c 6 .
If r 1 , ..., r 6 are the diameters of six balls, we get the formula: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soddy's_hexlet |
Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil ; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salinization (also called salination in American English ). [ 1 ] Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salinization can be caused by natural processes such as mineral weathering or by the gradual withdrawal of an ocean. It can also come about through artificial processes such as irrigation and road salt .
Salts are a natural component in soils and water.
The ions responsible for salinization are: Na + , K + , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ and Cl − .
Over long periods of time, as soil minerals weather and release salts, these salts are flushed or leached out of the soil by drainage water in areas with sufficient precipitation. In addition to mineral weathering, salts are also deposited via dust and precipitation. Salts may accumulate in dry regions, leading to naturally saline soils. This is the case, for example, in large parts of Australia .
Human practices can increase the salinity of soils by the addition of salts in irrigation water. Proper irrigation management can prevent salt accumulation by providing adequate drainage water to leach added salts from the soil. Disrupting drainage patterns that provide leaching can also result in salt accumulations. An example of this occurred in Egypt in 1970 when the Aswan High Dam was built. The change in the level of ground water before the construction had enabled soil erosion , which led to high concentration of salts in the water table. After the construction, the continuous high level of the water table led to the salinization of arable land . [ citation needed ]
When the Na + (sodium) predominates, soils can become sodic . The pH of sodic soils may be acidic , neutral or alkaline .
Sodic soils present particular challenges because they tend to have very poor structure which limits or prevents water infiltration and drainage. They tend to accumulate certain elements like boron and molybdenum in the root zone at levels that may be toxic for plants. [ 2 ] The most common compound used for reclamation of sodic soil is gypsum , and some plants that are tolerant to salt and ion toxicity may present strategies for improvement. [ 3 ] [ failed verification ]
The term "sodic soil" is sometimes used imprecisely in scholarship. It's been used interchangeably with the term alkali soil , which is used in two meanings: 1) a soil with a pH greater than 8.2, 2) soil with an exchangeable sodium content above 15% of exchange capacity. The term "alkali soil" is often, but not always, used for soils that meet both of these characteristics. [ 4 ]
Salinity in drylands can occur when the water table is between two and three metres from the surface of the soil. The salts from the groundwater are raised by capillary action to the surface of the soil. This occurs when groundwater is saline (which is true in many areas), and is favored by land use practices allowing more rainwater to enter the aquifer than it could accommodate. For example, the clearing of trees for agriculture is a major reason for dryland salinity in some areas, since deep rooting of trees has been replaced by shallow rooting of annual crops.
Salinity from irrigation can occur over time wherever irrigation occurs, since almost all water (even natural rainfall) contains some dissolved salts. [ 5 ] When the plants use the water, the salts are left behind in the soil and eventually begin to accumulate. This water in excess of plant needs is called the leaching fraction . Salinization from irrigation water is also greatly increased by poor drainage and use of saline water for irrigating agricultural crops.
Salinity in urban areas often results from the combination of irrigation and groundwater processes. Irrigation is also now common in cities (gardens and recreation areas).
The consequences of salinity are
Salinity is an important land degradation problem. Soil salinity can be reduced by leaching soluble salts out of soil with excess irrigation water. Soil salinity control involves watertable control and flushing in combination with tile drainage or another form of subsurface drainage . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] A comprehensive treatment of soil salinity is available from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization . [ 9 ]
High levels of soil salinity can be tolerated if salt-tolerant plants are grown. Sensitive crops lose their vigor already in slightly saline soils, most crops are negatively affected by (moderately) saline soils, and only salinity-resistant crops thrive in severely saline soils. The University of Wyoming [ 10 ] and the Government of Alberta [ 11 ] report data on the salt tolerance of plants.
Field data in irrigated lands, under farmers' conditions, are scarce, especially in developing countries. However, some on-farm surveys have been made in Egypt, [ 12 ] India, [ 13 ] and Pakistan. [ 14 ] Some examples are shown in the following gallery, with crops arranged from sensitive to very tolerant. [ 15 ] [ 16 ]
Calcium has been found to have a positive effect in combating salinity in soils. It has been shown to ameliorate the negative effects that salinity has such as reduced water usage of plants. [ 17 ]
Soil salinity activates genes associated with stress conditions for plants. [ 18 ] These genes initiate the production of plant stress enzymes such as superoxide dismutase , L-ascorbate oxidase , and Delta 1 DNA polymerase . Limiting this process can be achieved by administering exogenous glutamine to plants. The decrease in the level of expression of genes responsible for the synthesis of superoxide dismutase increases with the increase in glutamine concentration. [ 18 ]
From the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World the following salinised areas can be derived. [ 19 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodication |
The sodium adsorption ratio ( SAR ) is an irrigation water quality parameter used in the management of sodium-affected soils. It is an indicator of the suitability of water for use in agricultural irrigation , as determined from the concentrations of the main alkaline and earth alkaline cations present in the water. It is also a standard diagnostic parameter for the sodicity hazard of a soil , as determined from analysis of pore water extracted from the soil. [ 1 ]
The formula for calculating the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is: [ 2 ]
where sodium , calcium , and magnesium concentrations are expressed in milliequivalents /liter.
SAR allows assessment of the state of flocculation or of dispersion of clay aggregates in a soil . Sodium and potassium ions facilitate the dispersion of clay particles while calcium and magnesium promote their flocculation. The behaviour of clay aggregates influences the soil structure and affects the permeability of the soil on which directly depends the water infiltration rate. It is important to accurately know the nature and the concentrations of cations at which the flocculation occurs: critical flocculation concentration (CFC). The SAR parameter is also used to determine the stability of colloids in suspension in water.
Although SAR is only one factor in determining the suitability of water for irrigation , in general, the higher the sodium adsorption ratio, the less suitable the water is for irrigation. Irrigation using water with high sodium adsorption ratio may require soil amendments to prevent long-term damage to the soil. [ 3 ]
If irrigation water with a high SAR is applied to a soil for years, the sodium in the water can displace the calcium and magnesium in the soil. This will cause a decrease in the ability of the soil to form stable aggregates and a loss of soil structure and tilth . This will also lead to a decrease in infiltration and permeability of the soil to water, leading to problems with crop production . Sandy soils will have less problems, but fine-textured soils will have severe problems if SAR is greater than 9. When SAR is less than 3, there will not be a problem. [ 4 ]
The concept of SAR addresses only the effects of sodium on the stability of soil aggregates. However, high K and Mg concentrations have also negative effects on soil permeability. The effect of potassium can be similarly treated by means of the potassium adsorption ratio (PAR). [ 5 ] To take into account simultaneously all major cations present in water, a new irrigation water quality parameter was defined: the cation ratio of structural stability (CROSS), a generalization of SAR. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_adsorption_ratio |
Sodium aluminium hydride or sodium alanate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula NaAlH 4 . It is a white pyrophoric solid that dissolves in tetrahydrofuran (THF) , but not in diethyl ether or hydrocarbons. It has been evaluated as an agent for the reversible storage of hydrogen and it is used as a reagent for the chemical synthesis of organic compounds . Similar to lithium aluminium hydride , it is a salt consisting of separated sodium cations and tetrahedral AlH − 4 anions . [ 1 ]
Sodium tetrahydroaluminate adopts the structure of (is isostructural with) calcium tungstate . As such, the tetrahedral AlH − 4 centers are linked with eight-coordinate Na+ cations. [ 1 ] The compound is prepared from the elements under high pressures of H 2 at 200 °C using triethylaluminium catalyst: [ 2 ]
As a suspension in diethyl ether, it reacts with lithium chloride to give the popular reagent lithium aluminium hydride :
The compound reacts rapidly, even violently, with protic reagents, such as water, as described in this idealized equation:
Sodium alanate [ 3 ] has been explored for hydrogen storage in hydrogen tanks . [ 4 ] The relevant reactions are:
Sodium tetrahydroaluminate can release up to 7.4 wt % of hydrogen when heated at 200 °C (392 °F). Absorption can be slow, with several minutes being required to fill a tank. Both release and uptake are catalysed by titanium . [ 5 ]
Sodium aluminium hydride is a strong reducing agent , very similar in reactivity to lithium aluminium hydride (LAH) and, to some extent, Diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBAL) in organic reactions. [ 6 ] It is much more powerful reducing agent than sodium borohydride due to the weaker and more polar Al-H bond compared to the B-H bond. Like LAH, it reduces esters to alcohols .
Sodium aluminium hydride is highly flammable. It does not react in dry air at room temperature but is very sensitive to moisture. It ignites or explodes on contact with water. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_aluminium_hydride |
Sodium aluminosilicate refers to compounds which contain sodium , aluminium , silicon and oxygen , and which may also contain water. These include synthetic amorphous sodium aluminosilicate, a few naturally occurring minerals and synthetic zeolites . Synthetic amorphous sodium aluminosilicate is widely used as a food additive, E 554 .
This substance is produced with a wide range of compositions and has many different applications. It is encountered as an additive E 554 in food where it acts as an anticaking (free flow) agent. As it is manufactured with a range of compositions it is not strictly a chemical compound with a fixed stoichiometry . [ 1 ] One supplier quotes a typical analysis for one of their products as 14SiO 2 ·Al 2 O 3 ·Na 2 O·3H 2 O,(Na 2 Al 2 Si 14 O 32 ·3H 2 O). [ 2 ]
The US FDA has as of April 1, 2012 approved sodium aluminosilicate (sodium silicoaluminate) for direct contact with consumable items under 21 CFR 182.2727. [ 3 ] Sodium aluminosilicate is used as molecular sieve in medicinal containers to keep contents dry.
Sodium aluminosilicate may also be listed as:
The formation of sodium aluminosilicate makes the Bayer process uneconomical for bauxites high in silica. [ citation needed ]
Naturally occurring minerals that are sometimes given the chemical name sodium aluminosilicate include albite (NaAlSi 3 O 8 , an end-member of the plagioclase series) and jadeite (NaAlSi 2 O 6 ). [ citation needed ]
Synthetic zeolites have complex structures and examples (with structural formulae) are: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_aluminosilicate |
Sodium amalgam , with the common formula Na(Hg), is an alloy of mercury and sodium . The term amalgam is used for alloys, intermetallic compounds , and solutions (both solid solutions and liquid solutions) involving mercury as a major component. Sodium amalgams are often used in reactions as strong reducing agents with better handling properties compared to solid sodium. They are less dangerously reactive toward water and in fact are often used as an aqueous suspension.
Sodium amalgam was used as a reagent as early as 1862. [ 1 ] A synthesis method was described by J. Alfred Wanklyn in 1866. [ 2 ]
No particular formula is assigned to "sodium amalgam". Na 5 Hg 8 and Na 3 Hg are well defined compounds. In sodium amalgams, the Hg-Hg distances are expanded to around 5 Å vs. about 3 Å for mercury itself. [ 3 ] Usually amalgams are classified on the weight percent of sodium. Amalgams with 2% Na are solids at room temperature, whereas some more dilute amalgams remain liquid. [ 4 ]
Metallic sodium dissolves in mercury exothermically , i.e. with the release of heat, therefore, formation of sodium amalgam is famously dangerous for generating sparks. [ 5 ] The process causes localised boiling of the mercury and for this reason the formation is usually conducted in a fume hood and often performed using air-free techniques , such as synthesis under anhydrous liquid paraffin. Sodium amalgam may be prepared in the laboratory by dissolving sodium metal in mercury or the reverse. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Sodium amalgams can be purchased from chemical supply houses.
Sodium amalgam has been used in organic chemistry as a powerful reducing agent , which is safer to handle than sodium itself. It is used in Emde degradation , and also for reduction of aromatic ketones to hydrols. [ 9 ]
A sodium amalgam is used in the design of the high pressure sodium lamp providing sodium to produce the proper color, and mercury to tailor the electrical characteristics of the lamp.
Sodium amalgam is a by-product of chlorine made by mercury cell electrolysis . In this cell, brine (concentrated sodium chloride solution) is electrolysed between a liquid mercury cathode and a titanium or graphite anode . Chlorine is formed at the anode, while sodium formed at the cathode dissolves into the mercury, making sodium amalgam. Normally this sodium amalgam is drawn off and reacted with water in a "decomposer cell" to produce hydrogen gas, concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, and mercury to be recycled through the process. In principle, all the mercury should be completely recycled, but inevitably a small portion goes missing. Because of concerns about this mercury escaping into the environment, the mercury cell process is generally being replaced by plants which use a less toxic cathode. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_amalgam |
Sodium amide , commonly called sodamide (systematic name sodium azanide ), is the inorganic compound with the formula NaNH 2 . It is a salt composed of the sodium cation and the azanide anion. This solid, which is dangerously reactive toward water, is white, but commercial samples are typically gray due to the presence of small quantities of metallic iron from the manufacturing process. Such impurities do not usually affect the utility of the reagent . [ citation needed ] NaNH 2 conducts electricity in the fused state, its conductance being similar to that of NaOH in a similar state. NaNH 2 has been widely employed as a strong base in organic synthesis .
Sodium amide can be prepared by the reaction of sodium with ammonia gas, [ 3 ] but it is usually prepared by the reaction in liquid ammonia using iron(III) nitrate as a catalyst . The reaction is fastest at the boiling point of the ammonia, c. −33 °C. An electride , [Na(NH 3 ) 6 ] + e − , is formed as a reaction intermediate . [ 4 ]
NaNH 2 is a salt-like material and as such, crystallizes as an infinite polymer. [ 5 ] The geometry about sodium is tetrahedral. [ 6 ] In ammonia, NaNH 2 forms conductive solutions, consistent with the presence of [Na(NH 3 ) 6 ] + and NH − 2 ions.
Sodium amide is mainly used as a strong base in organic chemistry, often suspended (it is insoluble [ 7 ] ) in liquid ammonia solution. One of the main advantages to the use of sodium amide is its relatively low nucleophilicity . In the industrial production of indigo , sodium amide is a component of the highly basic mixture that induces cyclisation of N -phenylglycine . The reaction produces ammonia, which is recycled typically. [ 8 ]
Sodium amide is a standard base for dehydrohalogenations. [ 9 ] It induces the loss of two equivalents of hydrogen bromide from a vicinal dibromoalkane to give a carbon–carbon triple bond , as in a preparation of phenylacetylene . [ 10 ] Usually two equivalents of sodium amide yields the desired alkyne. Three equivalents are necessary in the preparation of a terminal alkynes because the terminal CH of the resulting alkyne protonates an equivalent amount of base.
Hydrogen chloride and ethanol can also be eliminated in this way, [ 11 ] as in the preparation of 1-ethoxy-1-butyne. [ 12 ]
Where there is no β-hydrogen to be eliminated, cyclic compounds may be formed, as in the preparation of methylenecyclopropane below. [ 13 ]
Cyclopropenes , [ 14 ] aziridines [ 15 ] and cyclobutanes [ 16 ] may be formed in a similar manner.
Carbon acids which can be deprotonated by sodium amide in liquid ammonia include terminal alkynes , [ 17 ] methyl ketones , [ 18 ] cyclohexanone , [ 19 ] phenylacetic acid and its derivatives [ 20 ] and diphenylmethane . [ 21 ] Acetylacetone loses two protons to form a dianion . [ 22 ] Sodium amide will also deprotonate indole [ 23 ] and piperidine . [ 24 ]
It is however poorly soluble in solvents other than ammonia. Its use has been superseded by the related reagents sodium hydride , sodium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide (NaHMDS), and lithium diisopropylamide (LDA).
Sodium amide is a common reagent with a long history of laboratory use. [ 9 ] It can decompose violently on contact with water, producing ammonia and sodium hydroxide :
When burned in oxygen, it will give oxides of sodium (which react with the produced water, giving sodium hydroxide) along with nitrogen oxides:
In the presence of limited quantities of air and moisture, such as in a poorly closed container, explosive mixtures of peroxides may form. [ 28 ] This is accompanied by a yellowing or browning of the solid. As such, sodium amide is to be stored in a tightly closed container, under an atmosphere of an inert gas. Sodium amide samples which are yellow or brown in color represent explosion risks. [ 29 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_amide |
Sodium azide is an inorganic compound with the formula NaN 3 . This colorless salt is the gas-forming component in some car airbag systems. It is used for the preparation of other azide compounds. It is an ionic substance, is highly soluble in water , and is acutely poisonous. [ 5 ]
Sodium azide is an ionic solid . Two crystalline forms are known, rhombohedral and hexagonal. [ 1 ] [ 6 ] Both adopt layered structures. The azide anion is very similar in each form, being centrosymmetric with N–N distances of 1.18 Å. The Na + ion has an octahedral geometry. Each azide is linked to six Na + centers, with three Na–N bonds to each terminal nitrogen center. [ 7 ]
The common synthesis method is the " Wislicenus process", which proceeds in two steps in liquid ammonia . In the first step, ammonia is converted to sodium amide by metallic sodium :
It is a redox reaction in which metallic sodium gives an electron to a proton of ammonia which is reduced in hydrogen gas. Sodium easily dissolves in liquid ammonia to produce solvated electrons responsible for the blue color of the resulting liquid. The Na + and NH − 2 ions are produced by this reaction.
The sodium amide is subsequently combined with nitrous oxide :
These reactions are the basis of the industrial route, which produced about 250 tons per year in 2004, with production increasing due to the increased use of airbags . [ 5 ]
Curtius and Thiele developed another production process, where a nitrite ester is converted to sodium azide using hydrazine . This method is suited for laboratory preparation of sodium azide:
Alternatively the salt can be obtained by the reaction of sodium nitrate with sodium amide. [ 8 ]
Treatment of sodium azide with strong acids gives gaseous hydrazoic acid (hydrogen azide; HN 3 ), which is also extremely toxic:
Aqueous solutions contain minute amounts of hydrazoic acid, the formation of which is described by the following equilibrium:
Sodium azide can be destroyed by treatment with in situ prepared nitrous acid (HNO 2 ; not HNO 3 ). [ 9 ] [ 10 ] In situ preparation is necessary as HNO 2 is unstable and decomposes rapidly in aqueous solutions. This destruction must be done with great caution and within a chemical fume hood as the formed gaseous nitric oxide (NO) is also toxic, and an incorrect order of acid addition for in situ formation of HNO 2 will instead produce gaseous highly toxic hydrazoic acid (HN 3 ). [ 9 ]
Older airbag formulations contained mixtures of oxidizers, sodium azide and other agents including ignitors and accelerants. An electronic controller detonates this mixture during an automobile crash:
The same reaction occurs upon heating the salt to approximately 300 °C. The sodium that is formed is a potential hazard alone and, in automobile airbags, it is converted by reaction with other ingredients, such as potassium nitrate and silica . In the latter case, innocuous sodium silicates are generated. [ 11 ] While sodium azide is still used in evacuation slides on modern aircraft, newer-generation automotive air bags contain less sensitive explosives such as nitroguanidine or guanidine nitrate . [ 12 ]
Due to its explosion hazard, sodium azide is of only limited value in industrial-scale organic synthesis . In the laboratory, it is used to introduce the azide functional group by displacement of halides . [ 10 ] The azide functional group can thereafter be converted to an amine by reduction with either SnCl 2 in ethanol or lithium aluminium hydride or a tertiary phosphine , such as triphenylphosphine in the Staudinger reaction , with Raney nickel or with hydrogen sulfide in pyridine . Oseltamivir , an antiviral medication, is currently produced in commercial scale by a method which utilizes sodium azide. [ 13 ]
Sodium azide is a versatile precursor to other inorganic azide compounds, e.g., lead azide and silver azide , which are used in detonators as primary explosives . These azides are significantly more sensitive to premature detonation than sodium azide and thus have limited applications. Lead and silver azide can be made via double displacement reaction with sodium azide and their respective nitrate (most commonly) or acetate salts. Sodium azide can also react with the chloride salts of certain alkaline earth metals in aqueous solution, such as barium chloride or strontium chloride to respectively produce barium azide and strontium azide , which are also relatively sensitive primarily explosive materials. These azides can be recovered from solution through careful desiccation.
Sodium azide is a useful probe reagent , and an antibacterial preservative for biochemical solutions. In the past merthiolate and chlorobutanol were also used as an alternative to azide for preservation of biochemical solutions. [ 14 ]
Sodium azide is an instantaneous inhibitor of lactoperoxidase , which can be useful to stop lactroperoxidase catalyzed 125 I protein radiolabeling experiments. [ 15 ]
In hospitals and laboratories, it is a biocide ; it is especially important in bulk reagents and stock solutions which may otherwise support bacterial growth where the sodium azide acts as a bacteriostatic by inhibiting cytochrome oxidase in gram-negative bacteria; however, some gram-positive bacteria ( streptococci , pneumococci , lactobacilli ) are intrinsically resistant. [ 16 ]
It is used in agriculture for pest control of soil-borne pathogens such as Meloidogyne incognita or Helicotylenchus dihystera . [ 17 ]
It is also used as a mutagen for crop selection of plants such as rice, [ 18 ] barley [ 19 ] or oats. [ 20 ]
Sodium azide can be fatally toxic, [ 21 ] and even minute amounts can cause symptoms. The toxicity of this compound is comparable to that of soluble alkali cyanides , [ 22 ] although no toxicity has been reported from spent airbags. [ 23 ]
It produces extrapyramidal symptoms with necrosis of the cerebral cortex , cerebellum , and basal ganglia . Toxicity may also include hypotension , [ 24 ] blindness and hepatic necrosis. Sodium azide increases cyclic GMP levels in the brain and liver by activation of guanylate cyclase . [ 25 ]
Sodium azide solutions react with metallic ions to precipitate metal azides, which can be shock sensitive and explosive. This should be considered for choosing a non-metallic transport container for sodium azide solutions in the laboratory. This can also create potentially dangerous situations if azide solutions should be directly disposed down the drain into a sanitary sewer system. Metal in the plumbing system could react, forming highly sensitive metal azide crystals which could accumulate over years. Adequate precautions are necessary for the safe and environmentally responsible disposal of azide solution residues. [ 26 ]
Sodium azide has gained attention in the Netherlands [ 27 ] and abroad [ 28 ] as a chemical used for homicidal and suicidal purposes.
Sodium azide has been attributed to at least 172 deaths in the period from 2015 to 2022 as part of an illicit substance used as a suicide aid commonly called drug X (Dutch: middel X ) [ 29 ] In 2021, a review of all case reports of sodium azide intoxication indicated that 37% of cases were suicide attempts. [ 30 ] An increase in the usage of sodium azide as a suicide drug has been attributed to its availability through pyrotechnics -focused online stores . [ 31 ]
The US CDC reports that there is no specific antidote for azide poisoning. [ 32 ] A 2021 narrative review identifies several cases of survival from ingestion when the patient is treated with antidotes for cyanide poisoning . From a mechanistic standpoint, hydroxocobalamin is more likely to be helpful than other antidotes such as sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate. As a result, the recommended treatment is hemodynamic support and hydroxocobalamin. First responders should use personal protection equipment to protect themselves from azide exposure. [ 33 ]
A 2023 research article reports that hydroxocobalamin reverses azide poisoning in cell cultures, fruit flies, and mice. [ 34 ]
A potential future treatment for both azide and cyanide poisioning is trans-[14]-dienyl cobalt(II) (5,7,7,12,14,14-hexamethyl-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradeca-4,11-dienyl cobalt(II), CoN 4 [14]), which binds to the two ions with higher affinity than hydroxocobalamin in vitro and has good efficacy in mice. [ 35 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_azide |
A sodium bicarbonate rocket (sometimes called an Alka-Seltzer rocket ) is a model rocket fashioned from a 35mm film canister and propelled by the pressure of a gas, often carbon dioxide, generated from the reaction of an acid with sodium bicarbonate . Sodium bicarbonate rockets are often used in science classes to demonstrate principles of chemistry and physics .
In the experiment, a film canister is filled with water, an effervescent tablet (commonly Alka-Seltzer ) is added and the canister tightly sealed. After a short time, the pressure of the carbon dioxide is great enough to cause the body of the canister to be launched into the air with a popping sound. The canister may be embellished with paper fins to resemble more closely a real rocket. [ 1 ]
Various experiments and lessons can center around the use of a bicarbonate rocket. For example, students are sometimes asked to experiment with the amounts of water and Alka-Seltzer to find the combination which propels the rocket the greatest distance. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Alternatively they may derive equations to calculate the speed and velocity of the rocket from the distance it travels. [ 3 ]
In rocketry , a chemical reaction rapidly creates gas that is expelled in one direction from its container (the rocket engine ); momentum forces the rocket in the opposite direction. The alka-seltzer rocket experiment demonstrates Newton's third law . The film canister rocket has a buildup of gas that wants to come out of the weakest spot making all the gas come out at once through the hole at the bottom. The gas comes out from the underside and pushes the rocket up. After it gets pushed up, air resistance slows it down and gravity pulls it down to earth. The film canister accelerates quickly because it has very little mass.
The film canister rocket uses a solid fuel mixed with a liquid fuel to create a gas that escapes out of the bottom. The gas is carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), the liquid is water (H 2 O), and the solid is an effervescent tablet. When the H 2 O is mixed with an effervescent tablet, it produces the gas CO 2 . The reaction time depends on the surface area of the tablet.
This rocketry article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate_rocket |
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