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**Figure 5.9** (a) The cellular slime mold *Dictyostelium discoideum* can be grown on agar in a Petri dish. In this image, individual amoeboid cells (visible as small spheres) are streaming together to form an aggregation that is beginning to rise in the... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**5.1 Unicellular Eukaryotic Parasites**",
"Header 3": "**Taxonomy of Protists**",
"token_count": 2026,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
(credit: modification of work by Thomas Bresson)
#### **Link to Learning**
Explore the procedures for detecting the presence of an apicomplexan in a public water supply, at **[this \(https://openstax.org/l/22detpreapicom\)](https://openstax.org/l/22detpreapicom)** website.
This **[... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**5.1 Unicellular Eukaryotic Parasites**",
"Header 3": "**Taxonomy of Protists**",
"token_count": 1526,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain why we include the study of parasitic worms within the discipline of microbiology
- Compare the basic morphology of the major groups of parasitic helminthes
- Describe the characteristics of parasitic nematodes, and give an example of infective eggs and infective larvae
- Descri... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**5.2 Parasitic Helminths**",
"token_count": 403,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Phylum **Nematoda** (the roundworms) is a diverse group containing more than 15,000 species, of which several are important human parasites (**[Figure 5.19](#page-221-1)**). These unsegmented worms have a full digestive system even when parasitic. Some are common intestinal parasites, and their eggs can sometimes be id... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**5.2 Parasitic Helminths**",
"Header 3": "**Nematoda (Roundworms)**",
"token_count": 944,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Phylum **Platyhelminthes** (the platyhelminths) are flatworms. This group includes the flukes, tapeworms, and the turbellarians, which include planarians. The flukes and tapeworms are medically important parasites (**[Figure 5.20](#page-223-0)**).
The **flukes** (trematodes) are nonsegmented flatworms that have an or... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**5.2 Parasitic Helminths**",
"Header 3": "**Platyhelminths (Flatworms)**",
"token_count": 2038,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
(credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
An eradication campaign led by WHO, the CDC, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and the Carter Center (founded by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter) has been extremely successful in reducing cases of dracunculiasis. This has been possible because diagnos... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**5.2 Parasitic Helminths**",
"Header 3": "**Platyhelminths (Flatworms)**",
"token_count": 328,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain why the study of fungi such as yeast and molds is within the discipline of microbiology
- Describe the unique characteristics of fungi
- Describe examples of asexual and sexual reproduction of fungi
- Compare the major groups of fungi in this chapter, and give examples of each
-... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**5.3 Fungi**",
"token_count": 294,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Fungi have well-defined characteristics that set them apart from other organisms. Most multicellular fungal bodies, commonly called molds, are made up of filaments called **hyphae**. Hyphae can form a tangled network called a **mycelium** and form the **thallus** (body) of fleshy fungi. Hyphae that have walls between t... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**Characteristics of Fungi**",
"token_count": 2030,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The fungus *Aspergillus flavus,* a contaminant of nuts and stored grains, produces an **aflatoxin** that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen. *Neurospora crassa* is of particular use in genetics research because the spores produced by meiosis are kept inside the ascus in a row that reflects the... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**Characteristics of Fungi**",
"token_count": 2049,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The doctor cleans and then carefully scrapes the lesion to place a specimen on a slide. By looking at it under a microscope, the physician is able to confirm that a fungal infection is responsible for Sarah's lesion. In **[Figure](#page-238-1) [5.34](#page-238-1)**, it is possible to see macro- and microconidia in *T... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**Characteristics of Fungi**",
"token_count": 307,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain why algae are included within the discipline of microbiology
- Describe the unique characteristics of algae
- Identify examples of toxin-producing algae
- Compare the major groups of algae in this chapter, and give examples of each
- Classify algal organisms according to major g... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**5.4 Algae**",
"token_count": 643,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although the algae and protozoa were formerly separated taxonomically, they are now mixed into supergroups. The algae are classified within the Chromalveolata and the Archaeplastida. Although the Euglenozoa (within the supergroup Excavata) include photosynthetic organisms, these are not considered algae because they fe... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**5.4 Algae**",
"Header 3": "**Algal Diversity**",
"token_count": 1572,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain why lichens are included in the study of microbiology
- Describe the unique characteristics of a lichen and the role of each partner in the symbiotic relationship of a lichen
- Describe ways in which lichens are beneficial to the environment
No one has to worry about getting s... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**5.5 Lichens**",
"token_count": 644,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Lichens are classified as fungi and the fungal partners belong to the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Lichens can also be grouped into types based on their morphology. There are three major types of lichens, although other types exist as well. Lichens that are tightly attached to the substrate, giving them a crusty appea... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**Lichen Diversity**",
"token_count": 609,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **[5.1 Unicellular Eukaryotic Parasites](#page-205-0)**
- **Protists** are a diverse, **polyphyletic** group of eukaryotic organisms.
- Protists may be unicellular or multicellular. They vary in how they get their nutrition, morphology, method of locomotion, and mode of reproduction.
- Important structures of ... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**Lichen Diversity**",
"Header 3": "**Summary**",
"token_count": 738,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** Which genus includes the causative agent for malaria?
- a. *Euglena*
- b. *Paramecium*
- c. *Plasmodium*
- d. *Trypanosoma*
- **2.** Which protist is a concern because of its ability to contaminate water supplies and cause diarrheal illness?
- a. *Plasmodium vivax*
- b. *Toxoplasma g... | {
"Header 1": "**The Eukaryotes of Microbiology**",
"Header 2": "**Lichen Diversity**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1837,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Public health measures in the developed world have dramatically reduced mortality from viral epidemics. But when epidemics do occur, they can spread quickly with global air travel. In 2009, an outbreak of H1N1 influenza spread across various continents. In early 2014, cases of Ebola in Guinea led to a massive epidemic ... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 345,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the general characteristics of viruses as pathogens
- Describe viral genomes
- Describe the general characteristics of viral life cycles
- Differentiate among bacteriophages, plant viruses, and animal viruses
- Describe the characteristics used to identify viruses as obligate i... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.1 Viruses**",
"token_count": 2044,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Some consumers have concerns about the use of phages on foods, however, especially given the rising popularity of organic products. Foods that have been treated with phages must declare "bacteriophage preparation" in the list of ingredients or include a label declaring that the meat has been "treated with antimicrobial... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.1 Viruses**",
"token_count": 384,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In general, virions (viral particles) are small and cannot be observed using a regular light microscope. They are much smaller than prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; this is an adaptation allowing viruses to infect these larger cells (see **[Figure 6.3](#page-254-0)**). The size of a virion can range from 20 nm for sma... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.1 Viruses**",
"Header 3": "**Viral Structures**",
"token_count": 1488,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although viruses are not classified in the three domains of life, their numbers are great enough to require classification. Since 1971, the International Union of Microbiological Societies Virology Division has given the task of developing, refining, and maintaining a universal virus taxonomy to the International Commi... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**Classification and Taxonomy of Viruses**",
"token_count": 1907,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the lytic and lysogenic life cycles
- Describe the replication process of animal viruses
- Describe unique characteristics of retroviruses and latent viruses
- Discuss human viruses and their virus-host cell interactions
- Explain the process of transduction
- Describe the repl... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.2 The Viral Life Cycle**",
"token_count": 200,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The life cycle of bacteriophages has been a good model for understanding how viruses affect the cells they infect, since similar processes have been observed for eukaryotic viruses, which can cause immediate death of the cell or establish a latent or chronic infection. **Virulent phages** typically lead to the death of... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**The Life Cycle of Viruses with Prokaryote Hosts**",
"token_count": 1729,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Lytic animal viruses follow similar infection stages to bacteriophages: attachment, penetration, biosynthesis, maturation, and release (see **[Figure 6.10](#page-264-0)**). However, the mechanisms of penetration, nucleic-acid biosynthesis, and release differ between bacterial and animal viruses. After binding to host r... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**The Life Cycle of Viruses with Prokaryote Hosts**",
"Header 3": "**Life Cycle of Viruses with Animal Hosts**",
"token_count": 2036,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Most plant viruses are transmitted by contact between plants, or by fungi, nematodes, insects, or other arthropods that act as mechanical vectors. However, some viruses can only be transferred by a specific type of insect vector; for example, a particular virus might be transmitted by aphids but not whiteflies. In some... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**The Life Cycle of Viruses with Prokaryote Hosts**",
"Header 3": "**Life Cycle of Viruses with Animal Hosts**",
"token_count": 1756,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Discuss why viruses were originally described as filterable agents
- Describe the cultivation of viruses and specimen collection and handling
- Compare in vivo and in vitro techniques used to cultivate viruses
At the beginning of this chapter, we described how porcelain Chamberland fi... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.3 Isolation, Culture, and Identification of Viruses**",
"token_count": 2036,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
According to Lacks's husband, neither Henrietta nor the family gave the hospital permission to collect her tissue specimen. Indeed, the family was not aware until 20 years after Lacks's death that her cells were still alive and actively being used for commercial and research purposes. Yet HeLa cells have been pivotal... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.3 Isolation, Culture, and Identification of Viruses**",
"token_count": 2014,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Row B: Many viruses have hemagglutinins that causes agglutination of erythrocytes; the resulting hemagglutination forms a lattice structure that results in red color throughout the well. Row C: Virus-specific antibody, the viruses, and the erythrocytes are added to the well plate. The virus-specific antibodies inhibit ... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.3 Isolation, Culture, and Identification of Viruses**",
"token_count": 1230,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In 1971, Theodor Diener, a pathologist working at the Agriculture Research Service, discovered an acellular particle that he named a viroid, meaning "virus-like." **Viroids** consist only of a short strand of circular RNA capable of selfreplication. The first viroid discovered was found to cause potato tuber spindle di... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.4 Viroids, Virusoids, and Prions**",
"Header 3": "**Viroids**",
"token_count": 954,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
At one time, scientists believed that any infectious particle must contain DNA or RNA. Then, in 1982, Stanley Prusiner, a medical doctor studying scrapie (a fatal, degenerative disease in sheep) discovered that the disease was caused by proteinaceous infectious particles, or **prions**. Because proteins are acellular a... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.4 Viroids, Virusoids, and Prions**",
"Header 3": "**Prions**",
"token_count": 1973,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The lytic cycle leads to the death of the host, whereas the lysogenic cycle leads to integration of phage into the host genome.
- Bacteriophages inject DNA into the host cell, whereas animal viruses enter by endocytosis or membrane fusion.
- Animal viruses can undergo **latency**, similar to lysogeny for a bacteriophag... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.4 Viroids, Virusoids, and Prions**",
"Header 3": "**Prions**",
"token_count": 437,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** The component(s) of a virus that is/are extended from the envelope for attachment is/are the:
- a. capsomeres
- b. spikes
- c. nucleic acid
- d. viral whiskers
- **2.** Which of the following does a virus lack? Select all that apply.
- a. ribosomes
- b. metabolic processes
- c. nucle... | {
"Header 1": "**Acellular Pathogens**",
"Header 2": "**6.4 Viroids, Virusoids, and Prions**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1537,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 7.1** Scientist Stanley Miller (pictured) and Harold Urey demonstrated that organic compounds may have originated naturally from inorganic matter. The Miller-Urey experiment illustrated here simulated the effects of lightning on chemical compounds found in the earth's early atmos... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"token_count": 205,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The earth is estimated to be 4.6 billion years old, but for the first 2 billion years, the atmosphere lacked oxygen, without which the earth could not support life as we know it. One hypothesis about how life emerged on earth involves the concept of a "primordial soup." This idea proposes that life began in a body of w... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 289,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The most abundant element in cells is hydrogen (H), followed by carbon (C), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and sulfur (S). We call these elements **macronutrients**, and they account for about 99% of the dry weight of cells. Some elements, such as sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), iron ... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.1 Organic Molecules**",
"Header 3": "**Elements in Living Cells**",
"token_count": 771,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Organic molecules in organisms are generally larger and more complex than inorganic molecules. Their carbon skeletons are held together by covalent bonds. They form the cells of an organism and perform the chemical reactions that facilitate life. All of these molecules, called **biomolecules** because they are part of ... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.1 Organic Molecules**",
"Header 3": "**Organic Molecules and Isomerism**",
"token_count": 1249,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In addition to containing carbon atoms, biomolecules also contain **functional groups**—groups of atoms within molecules that are categorized by their specific chemical composition and the chemical reactions they perform, regardless of the molecule in which the group is found. Some of the most common functional groups ... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**Biologically Significant Functional Groups**",
"token_count": 1298,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Give examples of monosaccharides and polysaccharides
- Describe the function of monosaccharides and polysaccharides within a cell
The most abundant biomolecules on earth are **carbohydrates**. From a chemical viewpoint, carbohydrates are primarily a combination of carbon and water, an... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.2 Carbohydrates**",
"token_count": 933,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Polysaccharides, also called glycans, are large polymers composed of hundreds of monosaccharide monomers. Unlike mono- and disaccharides, **polysaccharides** are not sweet and, in general, they are not soluble in water. Like disaccharides, the monomeric units of polysaccharides are linked together by glycosidic bonds. ... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**Polysaccharides**",
"token_count": 532,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **fatty acid**s are lipids that contain long-chain hydrocarbons terminated with a carboxylic acid functional group. Because the long hydrocarbon chain, fatty acids are **hydrophobic** ("water fearing") or nonpolar. Fatty acids with hydrocarbon chains that contain only single bonds are called **saturated fatty acid*... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.3 Lipids**",
"Header 3": "**Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerides**",
"token_count": 407,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Triglycerides are classified as simple lipids because they are formed from just two types of compounds: glycerol and fatty acids. In contrast, complex lipids contain at least one additional component, for example, a phosphate group (**phospholipids**) or a carbohydrate moiety (**glycolipids**). **[Figure 7.13](#page-30... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.3 Lipids**",
"Header 3": "**Phospholipids and Biological Membranes**",
"token_count": 866,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **isoprenoids** are branched lipids, also referred to as terpenoids, that are formed by chemical modifications of the isoprene molecule (**[Figure 7.15](#page-306-0)**). These lipids play a wide variety of physiological roles in plants and animals, with many technological uses as pharmaceuticals (capsaicin), pigmen... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.3 Lipids**",
"Header 3": "**Isoprenoids and Sterols**",
"token_count": 1993,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
An **amino acid** is an organic molecule in which a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group (–COOH), and an amino group (–NH2) are all bonded to the same carbon atom, the so-called α carbon. The fourth group bonded to the α carbon varies among the different amino acids and is called a residue or a **side chain**, represented i... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.4 Proteins**",
"Header 3": "**Amino Acids and Peptide Bonds**",
"token_count": 802,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
$$H_2N$$
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$... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.4 Proteins**",
"Header 3": "**Amino Acids and Peptide Bonds**",
"token_count": 2018,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In the **β-pleated sheet**, the pleats are formed by similar hydrogen bonds between continuous sequences of carbonyl and amino groups that are further separated on the backbone of the polypeptide chain (**[Figure 7.20](#page-311-0)**).
The next level of protein organization is the **tertiary structure**, which is the... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.4 Proteins**",
"Header 3": "**Amino Acids and Peptide Bonds**",
"token_count": 1397,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
• Describe examples of biosynthesis products within a cell that can be detected to identify bacteria
Accurate identification of bacterial isolates is essential in a clinical microbiology laboratory because the results often inform decisions about treatment that directly affect patient o... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.5 Using Biochemistry to Identify Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 1977,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 7.28** Exposure to *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* in the water of a pool or hot tub can sometimes cause a skin infection that manifests as "hot tub rash." (credit: modification of work by "Lsupellmel"/Wikimedia Commons)
*Go back to the [previous](#page-307-1) Clinical Focus box.* ... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.5 Using Biochemistry to Identify Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 1721,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** Which of these elements is *not* a micronutrient?
- a. C
- b. Ca
- c. Co
- d. Cu
- **2.** Which of the following is the name for molecules whose structures are nonsuperimposable mirror images?
- a. structural isomers
- b. monomers
- c. polymers
- d. enantiomers
- **3.** By definition... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Biochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**7.5 Using Biochemistry to Identify Microorganisms**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1974,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 8.1** Prokaryotes have great metabolic diversity with important consequences to other forms of life. Acidic mine drainage (left) is a serious environmental problem resulting from the introduction of water and oxygen to sulfideoxidizing bacteria during mining processes. These bac... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Metabolism**",
"token_count": 348,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Throughout earth's history, microbial metabolism has been a driving force behind the development and maintenance of the planet's biosphere. Eukaryotic organisms such as plants and animals typically depend on organic molecules for energy, growth, and reproduction. Prokaryotes, on the other hand, can metabolize a wide ra... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Metabolism**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 206,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Define and describe metabolism
- Compare and contrast autotrophs and heterotrophs
- Describe the importance of oxidation-reduction reactions in metabolism
- Describe why ATP, FAD, NAD<sup>+</sup> , and NADP<sup>+</sup> are important in a cell
- Identify the structure and structural comp... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Metabolism**",
"Header 2": "**8.1 Energy, Matter, and Enzymes**",
"token_count": 593,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Organisms can be identified according to the source of carbon they use for metabolism as well as their energy source. The prefixes auto- ("self") and hetero- ("other") refer to the origins of the carbon sources various organisms can use. Organisms that convert inorganic carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic carbon compound... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Metabolism**",
"Header 2": "**8.1 Energy, Matter, and Enzymes**",
"Header 3": "**Classification by Carbon and Energy Source**",
"token_count": 547,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The energy released from the breakdown of the chemical bonds within nutrients can be stored either through the reduction of electron carriers or in the bonds of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In living systems, a small class of compounds functions as mobile **electron carriers**, molecules that bind to and shuttle high-... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "Energy Carriers: NAD<sup>+</sup>, NADP<sup>+</sup>, FAD, and ATP",
"token_count": 921,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A substance that helps speed up a chemical reaction is a **catalyst**. Catalysts are not used or changed during chemical reactions and, therefore, are reusable. Whereas inorganic molecules may serve as catalysts for a wide range of chemical reactions, proteins called **enzyme**s serve as catalysts for biochemical react... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**Enzyme Structure and Function**",
"token_count": 1198,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Enzymes can be regulated in ways that either promote or reduce their activity. There are many different kinds of molecules that inhibit or promote enzyme function, and various mechanisms exist for doing so (**[Figure 8.8](#page-331-0)**). A **competitive inhibitor** is a molecule similar enough to a substrate that it c... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**Enzyme Inhibitors**",
"token_count": 664,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe why glycolysis is not oxygen dependent
- Define and describe the net yield of three-carbon molecules, ATP, and NADH from glycolysis
- Explain how three-carbon pyruvate molecules are converted into two-carbon acetyl groups that can be funneled into the Krebs cycle.
- Define and ... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.2 Catabolism of Carbohydrates**",
"token_count": 453,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
For bacteria, eukaryotes, and most archaea, **glycolysis** is the most common pathway for the catabolism of glucose; it produces energy, reduced electron carriers, and precursor molecules for cellular metabolism. Every living organism carries out some form of glycolysis, suggesting this mechanism is an ancient universa... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.2 Catabolism of Carbohydrates**",
"Header 3": "**Glycolysis**",
"token_count": 795,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
When we refer to glycolysis, unless otherwise indicated, we are referring to the EMP pathway used by animals and many bacteria. However, some prokaryotes use alternative glycolytic pathways. One important alternative is the **Entner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway**, named after its discoverers Nathan Entner and Michael Doudoro... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.2 Catabolism of Carbohydrates**",
"Header 3": "**Other Glycolytic Pathways**",
"token_count": 327,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Glycolysis produces pyruvate, which can be further oxidized to capture more energy. For pyruvate to enter the next oxidative pathway, it must first be decarboxylated by the enzyme complex pyruvate dehydrogenase to a two-carbon acetyl group in the **transition reaction**, also called the **bridge reaction** (see **[Appe... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**Transition Reaction, Coenzyme A, and the Krebs Cycle**",
"token_count": 931,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare and contrast the electron transport system location and function in a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell
- Compare and contrast the differences between substrate-level and oxidative phosphorylation
- Explain the relationship between chemiosmosis and proton motive force
- Des... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.3 Cellular Respiration**",
"token_count": 287,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **electron transport system (ETS)** is the last component involved in the process of cellular respiration; it comprises a series of membrane-associated protein complexes and associated mobile accessory electron carriers (**[Figure 8.15](#page-340-0)**). Electron transport is a series of chemical reactions that rese... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.3 Cellular Respiration**",
"Header 3": "**Electron Transport System**",
"token_count": 1873,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
| Source | Carbon Flow | Molecules<br>of Reduced<br>Coenzymes<br>Produced | Net ATP<br>Molecules<br>Made by<br>Substrate-<br>Level<br>Phosphory-<br>lation | Net ATP<br>Molecules<br>Made by<br>Oxidative<br>Phosphory-<br>lation | Theoretical<br>Maximum<br>Yield of<b... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.3 Cellular Respiration**",
"Header 3": "**Electron Transport System**",
"token_count": 419,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Define fermentation and explain why it does not require oxygen
- Describe the fermentation pathways and their end products and give examples of microorganisms that use these pathways
- Compare and contrast fermentation and anaerobic respiration
Many cells are unable to carry out respi... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.4 Fermentation**",
"token_count": 2003,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Common Fermentation Pathways**
| Pathway | End Products | Example Microbes | Commercial Products |
|-----------------------------------------... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.4 Fermentation**",
"token_count": 1279,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe how lipids are catabolized
- Describe how lipid catabolism can be used to identify microbes
- Describe how proteins are catabolized
- Describe how protein catabolism can be used to identify bacteria
Previous sections have discussed the catabolism of glucose, which provides en... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.5 Catabolism of Lipids and Proteins**",
"token_count": 251,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Triglycerides are a form of long-term energy storage in animals. They are made of glycerol and three fatty acids (see **[Figure 7.12](#page-303-1)**). Phospholipids compose the cell and organelle membranes of all organisms except the archaea. Phospholipid structure is similar to triglycerides except that one of the fat... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.5 Catabolism of Lipids and Proteins**",
"Header 3": "**Lipid Catabolism**",
"token_count": 1404,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the function and locations of photosynthetic pigments in eukaryotes and prokaryotes
- Describe the major products of the light-dependent and light-independent reactions
- Describe the reactions that produce glucose in a photosynthetic cell
- Compare and contrast cyclic and nonc... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.6 Photosynthesis**",
"token_count": 416,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In all phototrophic eukaryotes, photosynthesis takes place inside a **chloroplast**, an organelle that arose in eukaryotes by endosymbiosis of a photosynthetic bacterium (see **[Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells](#page-131-0)**). These chloroplasts are enclosed by a double membrane with inner and outer layers.... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**Photosynthetic Structures in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes**",
"token_count": 1008,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
For photosynthesis to continue, the electron lost from the reaction center pigment must be replaced. The source of this electron ( $H_2A$ ) differentiates the **oxygenic photosynthesis** of plants and cyanobacteria from **anoxygenic photosynthesis** carried out by other types of bacterial phototrophs (**Figure 8.22**).... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**Photosynthetic Structures in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes**",
"Header 3": "Oxygenic and Anoxygenic Photosynthesis",
"token_count": 1446,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Define and describe the importance of microorganisms in the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur
- Define and give an example of bioremediation
Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight for phototrophs or as inorganic molecules for chemoautot... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.7 Biogeochemical Cycles**",
"token_count": 326,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Carbon is one of the most important elements to living organisms, as shown by its abundance and presence in all organic molecules. The carbon cycle exemplifies the connection between organisms in various ecosystems. Carbon is exchanged between heterotrophs and autotrophs within and between ecosystems primarily by way o... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.7 Biogeochemical Cycles**",
"Header 3": "**Carbon Cycle**",
"token_count": 537,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Many biological macromolecules, including proteins and nucleic acids, contain nitrogen; however, getting nitrogen into living organisms is difficult. Prokaryotes play essential roles in the nitrogen cycle (**[Figure 8.25](#page-356-0)**), transforming nitrogen between various forms for their own needs, benefiting other... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.7 Biogeochemical Cycles**",
"Header 3": "**Nitrogen Cycle**",
"token_count": 732,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Sulfur is an essential element for the macromolecules of living organisms. As part of the amino acids cysteine and methionine, it is involved in the formation of proteins. It is also found in several vitamins necessary for the synthesis of important biological molecules like coenzyme A. Several groups of microbes are r... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.7 Biogeochemical Cycles**",
"Header 3": "**Sulfur Cycle**",
"token_count": 288,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Beyond their involvement in the carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles, prokaryotes are involved in other biogeochemical cycles as well. Like the carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles, several of these additional biogeochemical cycles, such as the iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and chromium (Cr) cycles, also involve redox chemi... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.7 Biogeochemical Cycles**",
"Header 3": "**Other Biogeochemical Cycles**",
"token_count": 1374,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **[8.1 Energy, Matter, and Enzymes](#page-325-0)**
- **Metabolism** includes chemical reactions that break down complex molecules (**catabolism**) and those that build complex molecules (**anabolism**).
- Organisms may be classified according to their source of carbon. **Autotrophs** convert inorganic carbon dio... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.7 Biogeochemical Cycles**",
"Header 3": "**Summary**",
"token_count": 2013,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Lipases and phospholipases act as virulence factors for certain pathogenic microbes.
- Fatty acids can be further degraded inside the cell through **β-oxidation**, which sequentially removes twocarbon acetyl groups from the ends of fatty acid chains.
- Protein degradation involves extracellular **proteases** that degra... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.7 Biogeochemical Cycles**",
"Header 3": "**Summary**",
"token_count": 791,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** Which of the following is an organism that obtains its energy from the transfer of electrons originating from chemical compounds and its carbon from an inorganic source?
- a. chemoautotroph
- b. chemoheterotroph
- c. photoheterotroph
- d. photoautotroph
- **2.** Which of the followin... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.7 Biogeochemical Cycles**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 2000,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
| | Processes in which cellular energy is used to make complex molecules from simpler ones are described as |
| 37. | The loss of an electron from a molecule is called | ... | {
"Header 1": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 2": "**8.7 Biogeochemical Cycles**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1118,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 9.1** Medical devices that are inserted into a patient's body often become contaminated with a thin biofilm of microorganisms enmeshed in the sticky material they secrete. The electron micrograph (left) shows the inside walls of an in-dwelling catheter. Arrows point to the round... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"token_count": 285,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
We are all familiar with the slimy layer on a pond surface or that makes rocks slippery. These are examples of biofilms—microorganisms embedded in thin layers of matrix material (**[Figure 9.1](#page-368-1)**). Biofilms were long considered random assemblages of cells and had little attention from researchers. Recently... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 276,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Define the generation time for growth based on binary fission
- Identify and describe the activities of microorganisms undergoing typical phases of binary fission (simple cell division) in a growth curve
- Explain several laboratory methods used to determine viable and total cell counts... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.1 How Microbes Grow**",
"token_count": 229,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The most common mechanism of cell replication in bacteria is a process called **binary fission**, which is depicted in **[Figure 9.2](#page-370-0)**. Before dividing, the cell grows and increases its number of cellular components. Next, the replication of DNA starts at a location on the circular chromosome called the o... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.1 How Microbes Grow**",
"Header 3": "**Binary Fission**",
"token_count": 2044,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
During the log phase, the relationship between time and number of cells is not linear but exponential; however, the growth curve is often plotted on a semilogarithmic graph, as shown in **[Figure 9.6](#page-374-0)**, which gives the appearance of a linear relationship.
**Figure 9.6** Bo... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.1 How Microbes Grow**",
"Header 3": "**Binary Fission**",
"token_count": 2022,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
(credit: modification of work by Panseri S, Cunha C, D'Alessandro T, Sandri M, Giavaresi G, Maracci M, Hung CT, Tampieri A)
Another technique uses an electronic cell counting device (Coulter counter) to detect and count the changes in electrical resistance in a saline solution. A glass tube with a small opening is im... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.1 How Microbes Grow**",
"Header 3": "**Binary Fission**",
"token_count": 435,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **viable plate count**, or simply plate count, is a count of viable or live cells. It is based on the principle that viable cells replicate and give rise to visible colonies when incubated under suitable conditions for the specimen. The results are usually expressed as **colony-forming unit**s per milliliter (CFU/m... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.1 How Microbes Grow**",
"Header 3": "**Plate Count**",
"token_count": 2035,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In a spectrophotometer, a light beam is transmitted through a bacterial suspension, the light passing through the suspension is measured by a detector, and the amount of light passing through the sample and reaching the detector is converted to either percent transmission or a logarithmic value called absorbance (optic... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.1 How Microbes Grow**",
"Header 3": "**Plate Count**",
"token_count": 2038,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
(credit: modification of work by Public Library of Science and American Society for Microbiology)
Within a biofilm, different species of microorganisms establish metabolic collaborations in which the waste product of one organism becomes the nutrient for another. For example, aerobic microorganisms consume oxygen, cr... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.1 How Microbes Grow**",
"Header 3": "**Plate Count**",
"token_count": 918,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Interpret visual data demonstrating minimum, optimum, and maximum oxygen or carbon dioxide requirements for growth
- Identify and describe different categories of microbes with requirements for growth with or without oxygen: obligate aerobe, obligate anaerobe, facultative anaerobe, aero... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.2 Oxygen Requirements for Microbial Growth**",
"token_count": 406,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Many ecosystems are still free of molecular oxygen. Some are found in extreme locations, such as deep in the ocean or in earth's crust; others are part of our everyday landscape, such as marshes, bogs, and sewers. Within the bodies of humans and other animals, regions with little or no oxygen provide an anaerobic envir... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**Oxygen Requirements of Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 2031,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A surgeon examines the ulcer and radiographs of Charles's foot and determines that the bone is not yet infected. The wound will have to be surgically debrided (debridement refers to the removal of dead and infected tissue) and a sample sent for microbiological lab analysis, but Charles will not have to have his foot ... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**Oxygen Requirements of Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 241,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Aerobic respiration constantly generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), byproducts that must be detoxified. Even organisms that do not use aerobic respiration need some way to break down some of the ROS that may form from atmospheric oxygen. Three main enzymes break down those toxic byproducts: superoxide dismutase, pe... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**Detoxification of Reactive Oxygen Species**",
"token_count": 1220,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Illustrate and briefly describe minimum, optimum, and maximum pH requirements for growth
- Identify and describe the different categories of microbes with pH requirements for growth: acidophiles, neutrophiles, and alkaliphiles
- Give examples of microorganisms for each category of pH re... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.3 The Effects of pH on Microbial Growth**",
"token_count": 2014,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Illustrate and briefly describe minimum, optimum, and maximum temperature requirements for growth
- Identify and describe different categories of microbes with temperature requirements for growth: psychrophile, psychrotrophs, mesophile, thermophile, hyperthermophile
- Give examples of m... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.4 Temperature and Microbial Growth**",
"token_count": 2012,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
For example, amplification of nucleic acids in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) depends on the thermal stability of *Taq* polymerase, an enzyme isolated from *T. aquaticus*. Degradation enzymes from thermophiles are added as ingredients in hot-water detergents, increasing their effectiveness.
![](_page_398_Picture... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.4 Temperature and Microbial Growth**",
"token_count": 881,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Most natural environments tend to have lower solute concentrations than the cytoplasm of most microorganisms. Rigid cell walls protect the cells from bursting in a dilute environment. Not much protection is available against high osmotic pressure. In this case, water, following its concentration gradient, flows out of ... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.5 Other Environmental Conditions that Affect Growth**",
"Header 3": "**Osmotic and Barometric Pressure**",
"token_count": 784,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Photoautotrophs, such as cyanobacteria or green sulfur bacteria, and photoheterotrophs, such as purple nonsulfur bacteria, depend on sufficient light intensity at the wavelengths absorbed by their pigments to grow and multiply. Energy from light is captured by pigments and converted into chemical energy that drives car... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.5 Other Environmental Conditions that Affect Growth**",
"Header 3": "**Light**",
"token_count": 362,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
• Identify and describe culture media for the growth of bacteria, including examples of all-purpose media, enriched, selective, differential, defined, and enrichment media
The study of microorganisms is greatly facilitated if we are able to culture them, that is, to keep reproducing pop... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.6 Media Used for Bacterial Growth**",
"token_count": 1602,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **[9.1 How Microbes Grow](#page-369-0)**
- Most bacterial cells divide by **binary fission**. **Generation time** in bacterial growth is defined as the **doubling time** of the population.
- Cells in a closed system follow a pattern of growth with four phases: **lag**, **logarithmic (exponential)**, **stationary... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.6 Media Used for Bacterial Growth**",
"Header 3": "**Summary**",
"token_count": 1303,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** Which of the following methods would be used to measure the concentration of bacterial contamination in processed peanut butter?
- a. turbidity measurement
- b. total plate count
- c. dry weight measurement
- d. direct counting of bacteria on a calibrated slide under the microscope
-... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.6 Media Used for Bacterial Growth**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 2020,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Stationary phase | |
| | Binary fission is occurring at maximum rate | D. Death phase | |
| | | | |
**28.** Four tubes are illustrated with cultures grown in a medium that sl... | {
"Header 1": "**Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**9.6 Media Used for Bacterial Growth**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 2002,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
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