page_content stringlengths 12 2.63M | metadata unknown |
|---|---|
**Figure 10.1** Siblings within a family share some genes with each other and with each parent. Identical twins, however, are genetically identical. Bacteria like *Escherichia coli* may acquire genes encoding virulence factors, converting them into pathogenic strains, like this uropathoge... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"token_count": 223,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Children inherit some characteristics from each parent. Siblings typically look similar to each other, but not exactly the same—except in the case of identical twins. How can we explain these phenomena? The answers lie in heredity (the transmission of traits from one generation to the next) and genetics (the science of... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 277,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the discovery of nucleic acid and nucleotides
- Explain the historical experiments that led to the characterization of DNA
- Describe how microbiology and microorganisms have been used to discover the biochemistry of genes
- Explain how scientists established the link between D... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"token_count": 315,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Modern understanding of DNA has evolved from the discovery of nucleic acid to the development of the doublehelix model. In the 1860s, Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895), a physician by profession, was the first person to isolate phosphorus-rich chemicals from leukocytes (white blood cells) from the pus on used bandages fro... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"Header 3": "**Discovery and Characterization of DNA**",
"token_count": 380,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Despite the discovery of DNA in the late 1800s, scientists did not make the association with heredity for many more decades. To make this connection, scientists, including a number of microbiologists, performed many experiments on plants, animals, and bacteria.
#### **Mendel's Pea Plants**
While Miescher was isolat... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"Header 3": "**Foundations of Genetics**",
"token_count": 2040,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
mediterranea* (**[Figure 10.4](#page-417-0)**). He cut the caps from both types of cells and then grafted the stalk from an *A. crenulata* onto an *A. mediterranea* foot, and vice versa. Over time, he observed that the grafted cell with the *A. crenulata* foot and *A. mediterranea* stalk developed a cap with the *A. cr... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"Header 3": "**Foundations of Genetics**",
"token_count": 1409,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the beginning of the 20th century, a great deal of work had already been done on characterizing DNA and establishing the foundations of genetics, including attributing heredity to chromosomes found within the nucleus. Despite all of this research, it was not until well into the 20th century that these lines of resea... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"Header 3": "**DNA as the Molecule Responsible for Heredity**",
"token_count": 1940,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the biochemical structure of deoxyribonucleotides
- Identify the base pairs used in the synthesis of deoxyribonucleotides
- Explain why the double helix of DNA is described as antiparallel
In **[Microbial Metabolism](#page-324-1)**, we discussed three classes of macromolecule... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.2 Structure and Function of DNA**",
"token_count": 285,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The building blocks of nucleic acids are nucleotides. Nucleotides that compose DNA are called **deoxyribonucleotides**. The three components of a deoxyribonucleotide are a five-carbon sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a **nitrogenous base**, a nitrogen-containing ring structure that is responsible for co... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.2 Structure and Function of DNA**",
"Header 3": "**DNA Nucleotides**",
"token_count": 841,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the early 1950s, considerable evidence had accumulated indicating that DNA was the genetic material of cells, and now the race was on to discover its three-dimensional structure. Around this time, Austrian biochemist Erwin Chargaff[5] (1905–2002) examined the content of DNA in different species and discovered that a... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.2 Structure and Function of DNA**",
"Header 3": "**Discovering the Double Helix**",
"token_count": 2050,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
(credit: modification of work by Hernández-Lemus E, Nicasio-Collazo LA, Castañeda-Priego R)
View an **[animation \(https://www.openstax.org/l/22dnastruanim\)](https://www.openstax.org/l/22dnastruanim)** on DNA structure from the DNA Learning Center to lea... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.2 Structure and Function of DNA**",
"Header 3": "**Discovering the Double Helix**",
"token_count": 1955,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the biochemical structure of ribonucleotides
- Describe the similarities and differences between RNA and DNA
- Describe the functions of the three main types of RNA used in protein synthesis
- Explain how RNA can serve as hereditary information
Structurally speaking, **ribonu... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.3 Structure and Function of RNA**",
"token_count": 534,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Cells access the information stored in DNA by creating RNA to direct the synthesis of proteins through the process of translation. Proteins within a cell have many functions, including building cellular structures and serving as enzyme catalysts for cellular chemical reactions that give cells their specific characteris... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**Functions of RNA in Protein Synthesis**",
"token_count": 1296,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
All cellular activities are encoded within a cell's DNA. The sequence of bases within a DNA molecule represents the genetic information of the cell. Segments of DNA molecules are called **gene**s, and individual genes contain the instructional code necessary for synthesizing various proteins, enzymes, or stable RNA mol... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 3": "**Genotype versus Phenotype**",
"token_count": 487,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The vast majority of an organism's genome is organized into the cell's **chromosomes**, which are discrete DNA structures within cells that control cellular activity. Recall that while eukaryotic chromosomes are housed in the membrane-bound nucleus, most prokaryotes contain a single, circular chromosome that is found i... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 3": "**Organization of Genetic Material**",
"token_count": 975,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In addition to genes, a genome also contains many regions of **noncoding DNA** that do not encode proteins or stable RNA products. Noncoding DNA is commonly found in areas prior to the start of coding sequences of genes as well as in intergenic regions (i.e., DNA sequences located between genes) (**[Figure 10.25](#page... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 3": "**Noncoding DNA**",
"token_count": 2026,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
They should also avoid use of water that has not been treated; this includes drinking water, ice cubes, and even water used for brushing teeth. Using bottled water for these purposes is a good alternative. Good hygiene (handwashing) can also aid the prevention of an ETEC infection. Alex had not been careful about his f... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 3": "**Noncoding DNA**",
"token_count": 236,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Viral genomes exhibit significant diversity in structure. Some viruses have genomes that consist of DNA as their genetic material. This DNA may be single stranded, as exemplified by human parvoviruses, or double stranded, as seen in the herpesviruses and poxviruses. Additionally, although all cellular life uses DNA as ... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 3": "**Viral Genomes**",
"token_count": 2005,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
It is the base pairing between the tRNA and mRNA that allows for the correct amino acid to be inserted in the polypeptide chain being synthesized.
- Although RNA is not used for long-term genetic information in cells, many viruses do use RNA as their genetic material.
#### **[10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular G... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 3": "**Viral Genomes**",
"token_count": 480,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** Frederick Griffith infected mice with a combination of dead R and live S bacterial strains. What was the outcome, and why did it occur?
- a. The mice will live. Transformation was not required.
- b. The mice will die. Transformation of genetic material from R to S was required.
- c. ... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1870,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Why was it important to use a bacteriophage in the Hershey–Chase experiment rather than an animal virus?
- **35.** What is the role of phosphodiester bonds within the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA?
- **36.** What is meant by the term "antiparallel?"
- **37.** Why is DNA with a high GC content more difficult to denatu... | {
"Header 1": "**Biochemistry of the Genome**",
"Header 2": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 714,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 11.1** *Escherichia coli* (left) may not appear to have much in common with an elephant (right), but the genetic blueprints for these vastly different organisms are both encoded in DNA. (credit left: modification of work by NIAID; credit right: modification of work by Tom Lubboc... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"token_count": 242,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In 1954, French scientist and future Nobel laureate Jacques Monod (1910–1976) famously said, "What is true in *E. coli* is true in the elephant," suggesting that the biochemistry of life was maintained throughout evolution and is shared in all forms of known life. Since Monod's famous statement, we have learned a great... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 233,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the two functions of the genome
- Explain the meaning of the central dogma of molecular biology
- Differentiate between genotype and phenotype and explain how environmental factors influence phenotype
DNA serves two essential functions that deal with cellular information. Firs... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.1 The Functions of Genetic Material**",
"token_count": 1626,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the meaning of semiconservative DNA replication
- Explain why DNA replication is bidirectional and includes both a leading and lagging strand
- Explain why Okazaki fragments are formed
- Describe the process of DNA replication and the functions of the enzymes involved
- Identify... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.2 DNA Replication**",
"token_count": 1130,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
DNA replication has been well studied in bacteria primarily because of the small size of the genome and the mutants that are available. *E. coli* has 4.6 million base pairs (Mbp) in a single circular chromosome and all of it is replicated in approximately 42 minutes, starting from a single origin of replication and pro... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.2 DNA Replication**",
"Header 3": "**DNA Replication in Bacteria**",
"token_count": 2030,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
This is accomplished through the activity of bacterial topoisomerase IV, which introduces double-stranded breaks into DNA molecules, allowing them to separate from each other; the enzyme then reseals the circular chromosomes. The resolution of concatemers is an issue unique to prokaryotic DNA replication because of the... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.2 DNA Replication**",
"Header 3": "**DNA Replication in Bacteria**",
"token_count": 525,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Eukaryotic genomes are much more complex and larger than prokaryotic genomes and are typically composed of multiple linear chromosomes (**[Table 11.2](#page-463-0)**). The human genome, for example, has 3 billion base pairs per haploid set of chromosomes, and 6 billion base pairs are inserted during replication. There ... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.2 DNA Replication**",
"Header 3": "**DNA Replication in Eukaryotes**",
"token_count": 1737,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain how RNA is synthesized using DNA as a template
- Distinguish between transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
During the process of **transcription**, the information encoded within the DNA sequence of one or more genes is transcribed into a strand of RNA, also called an **... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.3 RNA Transcription**",
"token_count": 269,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Bacteria use the same RNA polymerase to transcribe all of their genes. Like DNA polymerase, **RNA polymerase** adds nucleotides one by one to the 3'-OH group of the growing nucleotide chain. One critical difference in activity between DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase is the requirement for a 3'-OH onto which to add nu... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.3 RNA Transcription**",
"Header 3": "**Transcription in Bacteria**",
"token_count": 2032,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Based on the putrid smell of the pus draining from one of the blisters, the rapid progression of the infection, and the visual appearance of the affected skin, the physician immediately began treatment for necrotizing fasciitis. Mark's physician ordered a culture of the fluid draining from the blister and also ordered ... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.3 RNA Transcription**",
"Header 3": "**Transcription in Bacteria**",
"token_count": 255,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the genetic code and explain why it is considered almost universal
- Explain the process of translation and the functions of the molecular machinery of translation
- Compare translation in eukaryotes and prokaryotes
The synthesis of proteins consumes more of a cell's energy t... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.4 Protein Synthesis (Translation)**",
"token_count": 1238,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In addition to the mRNA template, many molecules and macromolecules contribute to the process of translation. The composition of each component varies across taxa; for instance, ribosomes may consist of different numbers of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and polypeptides depending on the organism. However, the general structur... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**The Protein Synthesis Machinery**",
"token_count": 1336,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Translation is similar in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Here we will explore how translation occurs in *E. coli*, a representative prokaryote, and specify any differences between bacterial and eukaryotic translation.
#### **Initiation**
The **initiation of protein synthesis** begins with the formation of an initiatio... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis**",
"token_count": 1663,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
During and after translation, polypeptides may need to be modified before they are biologically active. Posttranslational modifications include:
- 1. removal of translated signal sequences—short tails of amino acids that aid in directing a protein to a specific cellular compartment
- 2. proper "folding" of the polype... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis**",
"Header 3": "**Protein Targeting, Folding, and Modification**",
"token_count": 219,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare point mutations and frameshift mutations
- Describe the differences between missense, nonsense, and silent mutations
- Describe the differences between light and dark repair
- Explain how different mutagens act
- Explain why the Ames test can be used to detect carcinogens
- Anal... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.5 Mutations**",
"token_count": 2034,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Other chemical mutagens can modify normal DNA bases, resulting in different base-pairing rules. For example, nitrous acid deaminates cytosine, converting it to uracil. Uracil then pairs with adenine in a subsequent round of replication, resulting in the conversion of a GC base pair to an AT base pair. Nitrous acid also... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.5 Mutations**",
"token_count": 2051,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
DNA pol I replaces the missing nucleotides with the correct ones and DNA ligase seals the gap in the sugar-phosphate backbone.
The **direct repair** (also called light repair) of thymine dimers occurs through the process of **photoreactivation** in the presence of visible light. An enzyme called photolyase recognizes... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.5 Mutations**",
"token_count": 1259,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare the processes of transformation, transduction, and conjugation
- Explain how asexual gene transfer results in prokaryotic genetic diversity
- Explain the structure and consequences for bacterial genetic diversity of transposons
Typically, when we consider genetic transfer, we ... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.6 How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity**",
"token_count": 1437,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages) may also move short pieces of chromosomal DNA from one bacterium to another in a process called **transduction** (see **[Figure 6.9](#page-263-0)**). Recall that in generalized transduction, any piece of chromosomal DNA may be transferred to a new host cell by accidental pa... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.6 How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity**",
"Header 3": "**Transduction**",
"token_count": 2022,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Chromosomal genes closest to the integration site (gene 1) that are first displaced during rolling circle replication will be transferred more quickly than genes far away from the integration site (gene 4). Hence, they are more likely to be recombined into the recipient F<sup>−</sup> cell's chromosome. (b) The time it ... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.6 How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity**",
"Header 3": "**Transduction**",
"token_count": 661,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Genetic elements called **transposons** (transposable elements), or "jumping genes," are molecules of DNA that include special inverted repeat sequences at their ends and a gene encoding the enzyme transposase (**[Figure 11.31](#page-494-1)**). Transposons allow the entire sequence to independently excise from one loca... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.6 How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity**",
"Header 3": "**Transposition**",
"token_count": 873,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare inducible operons and repressible operons
- Describe why regulation of operons is important
Each nucleated cell in a multicellular organism contains copies of the same DNA. Similarly, all cells in two pure bacterial cultures inoculated from the same starting colony contain the... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.7 Gene Regulation: Operon Theory**",
"token_count": 472,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In bacteria and archaea, structural proteins with related functions are usually encoded together within the genome in a block called an **operon** and are transcribed together under the control of a single promoter, resulting in the formation of a polycistronic transcript (**[Figure 11.32](#page-496-0)**). In this way,... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.7 Gene Regulation: Operon Theory**",
"Header 3": "**Prokaryotic Gene Regulation**",
"token_count": 2032,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
However, because glucose is usually preferable to other substrates, bacteria have mechanisms to ensure that alternative substrates are only used when glucose has been depleted. Additionally, bacteria have mechanisms to ensure that the genes encoding enzymes for using alternative substrates are expressed only when the a... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.7 Gene Regulation: Operon Theory**",
"Header 3": "**Prokaryotic Gene Regulation**",
"token_count": 1202,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In prokaryotes, there are also several higher levels of gene regulation that have the ability to control the transcription of many related operons simultaneously in response to an environmental signal. A group of operons all controlled simultaneously is called a regulon.
#### **Alarmones**
When sensing impending st... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**11.7 Gene Regulation: Operon Theory**",
"Header 3": "**Global Responses of Prokaryotes**",
"token_count": 443,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although most gene expression is regulated at the level of transcription initiation in prokaryotes, there are also mechanisms to control both the completion of transcription as well as translation concurrently. Since their discovery, these mechanisms have been shown to control the completion of transcription and transl... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Additional Methods of Regulation in Bacteria: Attenuation and Riboswitches**",
"token_count": 598,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although the focus on our discussion of transcriptional control used prokaryotic operons as examples, eukaryotic transcriptional control is similar in many ways. As in prokaryotes, eukaryotic transcription can be controlled through the binding of transcription factors including repressors and activators. Interestingly,... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Additional Methods of Regulation in Bacteria: Attenuation and Riboswitches**",
"Header 3": "**Other Factors Affecting Gene Expression in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes**",
"token_count": 965,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiolo... |
#### **[11.1 The Functions of Genetic Material](#page-453-0)**
- DNA serves two important cellular functions: It is the genetic material passed from parent to offspring and it serves as the information to direct and regulate the construction of the proteins necessary for the cell to perform all of its functions.
- Th... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Additional Methods of Regulation in Bacteria: Attenuation and Riboswitches**",
"Header 3": "**Summary**",
"token_count": 1980,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Bacteria and other organisms may also use **direct repair**, in which the photolyase enzyme, in the presence of visible light, breaks apart the pyrimidines.
- Through comparison of growth on the complete plate and lack of growth on media lacking specific nutrients, specific loss-of-function mutants called **auxotrophs*... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Additional Methods of Regulation in Bacteria: Attenuation and Riboswitches**",
"Header 3": "**Summary**",
"token_count": 1169,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** DNA does all but which of the following?
- a. serves as the genetic material passed from parent to offspring
- b. remains constant despite changes in environmental conditions
- c. provides the instructions for the synthesis of messenger RNA
- d. is read by ribosomes during the proces... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Additional Methods of Regulation in Bacteria: Attenuation and Riboswitches**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1959,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
| The third position within a codon, in which changes often result in the incorporation of the same amino acid into<br>the growing polypeptide, is called the |
| 42.<br>A chemical mutagen that is structurally similar to a nucleotide but has different base-pairing rules is called a<br> ... | {
"Header 1": "**Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Additional Methods of Regulation in Bacteria: Attenuation and Riboswitches**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1689,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 12.1** A thermal cycler (left) is used during a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR amplifies the number of copies of DNA and can assist in diagnosis of infections caused by microbes that are difficult to culture, such as *Chlamydia trachomatis* (right). *C. trachomatis* causes... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"token_count": 237,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Watson and Crick's identification of the structure of DNA in 1953 was the seminal event in the field of genetic engineering. Since the 1970s, there has been a veritable explosion in scientists' ability to manipulate DNA in ways that have revolutionized the fields of biology, medicine, diagnostics, forensics, and indust... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 253,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Identify tools of molecular genetics that are derived from microorganisms
- Describe the methods used to create recombinant DNA molecules
- Describe methods used to introduce DNA into prokaryotic cells
- List the types of genomic libraries and describe their uses
- Describe the methods ... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**12.1 Microbes and the Tools of Genetic Engineering**",
"token_count": 629,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen first demonstrated the complete **molecular cloning** process in 1973 when they successfully cloned genes from the African clawed frog (*Xenopus laevis*) into a bacterial plasmid that was then introduced into the bacterial host *Escherichia coli*. Molecular cloning is a set of methods us... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**12.1 Microbes and the Tools of Genetic Engineering**",
"Header 3": "**Molecular Cloning**",
"token_count": 1990,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
• In blue-white screening, what does a blue colony mean and why is it blue?
#### **Molecular Cloning Using Conjugation or Transduction**
The bacterial process of conjugation (see **[How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity](#page-487-0)**) can also be manipulated for molec... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**12.1 Microbes and the Tools of Genetic Engineering**",
"Header 3": "**Molecular Cloning**",
"token_count": 1609,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The use of bacterial hosts for genetic engineering laid the foundation for recombinant DNA technology; however, researchers have also had great interest in genetically engineering eukaryotic cells, particularly those of plants and animals. The introduction of recombinant DNA molecules into eukaryotic hosts is called **... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**12.1 Microbes and the Tools of Genetic Engineering**",
"Header 3": "**Introducing Recombinant Molecules into Eukaryotic Hosts**",
"token_count": 1565,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the use of nucleic acid probes to visualize specific DNA sequences
- Explain the use of gel electrophoresis to separate DNA fragments
- Explain the principle of restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and its uses
- Compare and contrast Southern and northern blots
- Ex... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**12.2 Visualizing and Characterizing DNA, RNA, and Protein**",
"token_count": 348,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In this subsection, we will outline some of the basic methods used for separating and visualizing specific fragments of DNA that are of interest to a scientist. Some of these methods do not require knowledge of the complete sequence of the DNA molecule. Before the advent of rapid DNA sequencing, these methods were the ... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**12.2 Visualizing and Characterizing DNA, RNA, and Protein**",
"Header 3": "**Molecular Analysis of DNA**",
"token_count": 2049,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In the **Southern blot** technique, developed by Sir Edwin Southern in 1975, DNA fragments within a sample are first separated by agarose gel electrophoresis and then transferred to a membrane through capillary action (**[Figure 12.16](#page-533-0)**). The DNA fragments that bind to the surface of the membrane are then... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**12.2 Visualizing and Characterizing DNA, RNA, and Protein**",
"Header 3": "**Molecular Analysis of DNA**",
"token_count": 2018,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Various methods can be used for obtaining sequences of DNA, which are useful for studying disease-causing organisms. With the advent of rapid sequencing technology, our knowledge base of the entire genomes of pathogenic organisms has grown phenomenally. We start with a description of the polymerase chain reaction, whic... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Amplification-Based DNA Analysis Methods**",
"token_count": 2029,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 12.23** This diagram summarizes the Sanger sequencing method using fluorochrome-labeled ddNTPs and capillary gel electrophoresis.
Since 2005, automated sequencing techniques used by laboratories fall under the umbrella of **next generation sequencing**, which is a group of au... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Amplification-Based DNA Analysis Methods**",
"token_count": 1535,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The study and comparison of entire genomes, including the complete set of genes and their nucleotide sequence and organization, is called **genomics**. This field has great potential for future medical advances through the study of the human genome as well as the genomes of infectious organisms. Analysis of microbial g... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**12.3 Whole Genome Methods and Pharmaceutical Applications of Genetic Engineering**",
"Header 3": "**Genomics, Transcriptomics, and Proteomics**",
"token_count": 1959,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Genetic engineering has provided a way to create new pharmaceutical products called **recombinant DNA pharmaceuticals**. Such products include antibiotic drugs, vaccines, and hormones used to treat various diseases. **[Table 12.1](#page-548-0)** lists examples of recombinant DNA products and their uses.
For example, ... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Recombinant DNA Technology and Pharmaceutical Production**",
"token_count": 1005,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In **[Structure and Function of RNA](#page-434-0)**, we described the function of mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. In addition to these types of RNA, cells also produce several types of small noncoding RNA molecules that are involved in the regulation of gene expression. These include **antisense RNA** molecules, which are comple... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Recombinant DNA Technology and Pharmaceutical Production**",
"Header 3": "**RNA Interference Technology**",
"token_count": 594,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Human diseases that result from genetic mutations are often difficult to treat with drugs or other traditional forms of therapy because the signs and symptoms of disease result from abnormalities in a patient's genome. For example, a patient may have a genetic mutation that prevents the expression of a specific protein... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Mechanisms and Risks of Gene Therapy**",
"token_count": 2028,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Faced with a life-threatening disease and no reasonable treatments available, it is easy to see why a patient might be eager to participate in a clinical trial no matter the risks. It is also easy to see how a researcher might view the short-term risks for a small group of study participants as a small price to pay for... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Mechanisms and Risks of Gene Therapy**",
"token_count": 1352,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** Which of the following is required for repairing the phosphodiester backbone of DNA during molecular cloning?
- a. cDNA
- b. reverse transcriptase
- c. restriction enzymes
- d. DNA ligase
- **2.** All of the following are processes used to introduce DNA molecules into bacterial cells... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Mechanisms and Risks of Gene Therapy**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1441,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
| Location | Average<br>number CFUs<br>per 6.5 × 6.5 cm<br>area | | |
|-------------------------|----------------------------------------------------|--|--|
| Door latch | 256 — | | |
| Door lock | 14 ... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"token_count": 425,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
How clean is clean? People wash their cars and vacuum the carpets, but most would not want to eat from these surfaces. Similarly, we might eat with silverware cleaned in a dishwasher, but we could not use the same dishwasher to clean surgical instruments. As these examples illustrate, "clean" is a relative term. Car wa... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 320,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare disinfectants, antiseptics, and sterilants
- Describe the principles of controlling the presence of microorganisms through sterilization and disinfection
- Differentiate between microorganisms of various biological safety levels and explain methods used for handling microbes at ... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.1 Controlling Microbial Growth**",
"token_count": 299,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
For researchers or laboratory personnel working with pathogens, the risks associated with specific pathogens determine the levels of cleanliness and control required. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) have established four classification levels, called "bio... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.1 Controlling Microbial Growth**",
"Header 3": "**Laboratory Biological Safety Levels**",
"token_count": 1576,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The most extreme protocols for microbial control aim to achieve **sterilization**: the complete removal or killing of all vegetative cells, endospores, and viruses from the targeted item or environment. Sterilization protocols are generally reserved for laboratory, medical, manufacturing, and food industry settings, wh... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.1 Controlling Microbial Growth**",
"Header 3": "**Sterilization**",
"token_count": 732,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The Association of Surgical Technologists publishes **[standards](https://openstax.org/l/22ASTstanasepte) [\(https://openstax.org/l/22ASTstanasepte\)](https://openstax.org/l/22ASTstanasepte)** for aseptic technique, including creating and maintaining a sterile field.
#### **Other Metho... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.1 Controlling Microbial Growth**",
"Header 3": "**Link to Learning**",
"token_count": 1555,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Physical and chemical methods of microbial control that kill the targeted microorganism are identified by the suffix *-cide* (or *-cidal*). The prefix indicates the type of microbe or infectious agent killed by the treatment method: **bactericides** kill bacteria, **viricides** kill or inactivate viruses, and **fungici... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.1 Controlling Microbial Growth**",
"Header 3": "**Measuring Microbial Control**",
"token_count": 1106,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
• Understand and compare various physical methods of controlling microbial growth, including heating, refrigeration, freezing, high-pressure treatment, desiccation, lyophilization, irradiation, and filtration
For thousands of years, humans have used various physical methods of microbial... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 2036,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Pasteurization is a form of microbial control for food that uses heat but does not render the food sterile. Traditional **pasteurization** kills pathogens and reduces the number of spoilage-causing microbes while maintaining food quality. The process of pasteurization was first developed by Louis Pasteur in the 1860s a... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 457,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Just as high temperatures are effective for controlling microbial growth, exposing microbes to low temperatures can also be an easy and effective method of microbial control, with the exception of psychrophiles, which prefer cold temperatures (see **[Temperature and Microbial Growth](#page-395-0)**). Refrigerators used... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 3": "**Refrigeration and Freezing**",
"token_count": 1863,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Drying, also known as **desiccation** or dehydration, is a method that has been used for millennia to preserve foods such as raisins, prunes, and jerky. It works because all cells, including microbes, require water for their metabolism and survival. Although drying controls microbial growth, it might not kill all micro... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 3": "**Desiccation**",
"token_count": 2009,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Application of ultrasound waves causes rapid changes in pressure within the intracellular liquid; this leads to cavitation, the formation of bubbles inside the cell, which can disrupt cell structures and eventually cause the cell to lyse or collapse. Sonication is useful in the laboratory for efficiently lysing cells t... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 3": "**Desiccation**",
"token_count": 892,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
This **[video \(https://openstax.org/l/22BSCsdesvideo\)](https://openstax.org/l/22BSCsdesvideo)** shows how BSCs are designed and explains how they protect personnel, the environment, and the product.
#### **Filtration in Hospitals**
HEPA filters are also commonly used in hospitals a... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 3": "**Link to Learning**",
"token_count": 1627,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
• Understand and compare various chemicals used to control microbial growth, including their uses, advantages and disadvantages, chemical structure, and mode of action
In addition to physical methods of microbial control, chemicals are also used to control microbial growth. A wide varie... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 2026,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
"Triclosan: Environmental Exposure, Toxicity and Mechanisms of Action." *Journal of Applied Toxicology* 31 no. 4 (2011):285–311.
- 13. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Triclosan Fact Sheet." 2013. http://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/ Triclosan\_FactSheet.html. Accessed June 9, 2016.
- 14. EM Clayton et al. ... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 2039,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Chloramines are derivatives of ammonia by substitution of one, two, or all three hydrogen atoms with chlorine atoms (**[Figure 13.23](#page-589-1)**).
**Figure 13.23** Monochloroamine, one of the chloramines, is derived from ammonia by the replacement of one hydrogen atom with a chlori... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 601,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Alcohols make up another group of chemicals commonly used as disinfectants and antiseptics. They work by rapidly denaturing proteins, which inhibits cell metabolism, and by disrupting membranes, which leads to cell lysis. Once denatured, the proteins may potentially refold if enough water is present in the solution. Al... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 3": "**Alcohols**",
"token_count": 2003,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Bisbiguanides**
Bisbiguanides were first synthesized in the 20th century and are cationic (positively charged) molecules known for their antiseptic properties (**[Figure 13.28](#page-594-0)**). One important **bisbiguanide** antiseptic is chlorhexidine. It has broad-spectrum activity against yeasts, gram-pos... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 3": "**Alcohols**",
"token_count": 406,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **alkylating agent**s are a group of strong disinfecting chemicals that act by replacing a hydrogen atom within a molecule with an alkyl group (CnH2n+1), thereby inactivating enzymes and nucleic acids (**[Figure 13.29](#page-596-0)**). The alkylating agent formaldehyde (CH2OH) is commonly used in solution at a conc... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**Alkylating Agents**",
"token_count": 1463,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Peroxygens are strong oxidizing agents that can be used as disinfectants or antiseptics. The most widely used **peroxygen** is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which is often used in solution to disinfect surfaces and may also be used as a gaseous agent. Hydrogen peroxide solutions are inexpensive skin antiseptics that break ... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**Alkylating Agents**",
"Header 3": "**Peroxygens**",
"token_count": 687,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Within the last 15 years, the use of **supercritical fluids**, especially supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2), has gained popularity for certain sterilizing applications. When carbon dioxide is brought to approximately 10 times atmospheric pressure, it reaches a supercritical state that has physical properties between... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**Alkylating Agents**",
"Header 3": "**Supercritical Fluids**",
"token_count": 1399,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe why the phenol coefficient is used
- Compare and contrast the disk-diffusion, use-dilution, and in-use methods for testing the effectiveness of antiseptics, disinfectants, and sterilants
The effectiveness of various chemical disinfectants is reflected in the terms used to des... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"token_count": 326,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The effectiveness of a disinfectant or antiseptic can be determined in a number of ways. Historically, a chemical agent's effectiveness was often compared with that of phenol, the first chemical agent used by Joseph Lister. In 1903, British chemists Samuel Rideal (1863–1929) and J. T. Ainslie Walker (1868–1930) establi... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"Header 3": "**Phenol Coefficient**",
"token_count": 380,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **disk-diffusion method** involves applying different chemicals to separate, sterile filter paper disks (**[Figure](#page-601-0) [13.31](#page-601-0)**). The disks are then placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the targeted bacterium and the chemicals diffuse out of the disks into the agar where the... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"Header 3": "**Disk-Diffusion Method**",
"token_count": 405,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Other methods are also used for measuring the effectiveness of a chemical agent in clinical settings. The **use-dilution test** is commonly used to determine a chemical's disinfection effectiveness on an inanimate surface. For this test, a cylinder of stainless steel is dipped in a culture of the targeted microorganism... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"Header 3": "**Use-Dilution Test**",
"token_count": 1865,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **[13.1 Controlling Microbial Growth](#page-561-0)**
- Inanimate items that may harbor microbes and aid in their transmission are called **fomites**. The level of cleanliness required for a fomite depends both on the item's use and the infectious agent with which the item may be contaminated.
- The CDC and the N... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"Header 3": "**Summary**",
"token_count": 2014,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** Which of the following types of medical items requires sterilization?
- a. needles
- b. bed linens
- c. respiratory masks
- d. blood pressure cuffs
- **2.** Which of the following is suitable for use on tissues for microbial control to prevent infection?
- a. disinfectant
- b. antise... | {
"Header 1": "**Control of Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1868,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 14.1** First mass produced in the 1940s, penicillin was instrumental in saving millions of lives during World War II and was considered a wonder drug.[1] Today, overprescription of antibiotics (especially for childhood illnesses) has contributed to the evolution of drug-resistan... | {
"Header 1": "**Antimicrobial Drugs**",
"token_count": 276,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although the discovery of antimicrobials and their subsequent widespread use is commonly associated with modern medicine, there is evidence that humans have been exposed to antimicrobial compounds for millennia. Chemical analyses of the skeletal remains of people from Nubia[2] (now found in present-day Sudan) dating fr... | {
"Header 1": "**Antimicrobial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**Discovery**",
"Header 3": "**Use of Antimicrobials in Ancient Societies**",
"token_count": 722,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Societies relied on traditional medicine for thousands of years; however, the first half of the 20th century brought an era of strategic drug discovery. In the early 1900s, the German physician and scientist Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915) set out to discover or synthesize chemical compounds capable of killing infectious micr... | {
"Header 1": "**Antimicrobial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**The First Antimicrobial Drugs**",
"token_count": 1605,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Contrast bacteriostatic versus bactericidal antibacterial activities
- Contrast broad-spectrum drugs versus narrow-spectrum drugs
- Explain the significance of superinfections
- Discuss the significance of dosage and the route of administration of a drug
- Identify factors and variables... | {
"Header 1": "**Antimicrobial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**14.2 Fundamentals of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy**",
"token_count": 800,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.