page_content stringlengths 12 2.63M | metadata unknown |
|---|---|
| First derivative titration curve, 291, 291t, 292f | Freedom, degrees of, 80 |
| See EDTA | First-order reactions, 751β752, 753f | Free ions, versus complexed ions, in |
| Excitation ... | {
"Header 1": "**A**",
"Header 3": "**786** Index",
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*See* Precipitation gravimetry thermogravimetry, 255β257, 256*f* as total analysis technique, 38 types of, 234 volatilization. *See* Volatilization gravimetry Gross sample, 193 Guard columns, 579 **H** Half-life, 643 Hanging mercury drop electrode (HMDE), 509, 509*f* Headspace sampling, 567 Heat, SI and non-SI units fo... | {
"Header 1": "**A**",
"Header 3": "**786** Index",
"token_count": 2013,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Modern analytical chemistry by David Harvey.pdf"
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See Electromagnetic radiation |
| Interference | radioactive | Limiting current, 514 |
| chemical, 438, 440 | half-life of, 643 | Limit of identifica... | {
"Header 1": "**A**",
"Header 3": "**786** Index",
"token_count": 1967,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Modern analytical chemistry by David Harvey.pdf"
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*See* Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy Maleic acid acid dissociation constant for, 736*t* titration curve for, 288, 288*f* Malic acid, acid dissociation constant for, 736*t* Malonic acid acid dissociation constant for, 736*t* titration curve for, 288, 288*f* Manganese standard reduction potentials for, 744*t* in... | {
"Header 1": "**A**",
"Header 3": "**786** Index",
"token_count": 1965,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Modern analytical chemistry by David Harvey.pdf"
} |
See Capillary column | Peak capacity, 554β555 | |
| Negatron, 642 | Optimization | Peptization, 245 | |
| Nephelometry, 441β445 ... | {
"Header 1": "**A**",
"Header 3": "**786** Index",
"token_count": 808,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Modern analytical chemistry by David Harvey.pdf"
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See | scale, 142β143, 143f | |
| Nitrilotriacetic acid, acid dissociation constant | Redox reactions | uncertainty in, 67β68 | |
| for, 736t ... | {
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"Header 3": "**786** Index",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Modern analytical chemistry by David Harvey.pdf"
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| fluorescence and phosphorescence spectra,<br>424β427 | controlling and measuring of, in<br>electrochemical methods, 462β465 | Precipitation gravimetry, 234β255<br>accuracy in, 254 |
|--------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------... | {
"Header 1": "**A**",
"Header 3": "**792** Index",
"token_count": 1961,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Modern analytical chemistry by David Harvey.pdf"
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See Gross sample<br>Primary standard buffers, pH of, 492t |
| Polyprotic base, pH of, 163β165 | selectivity in, 496 | Primary standards, recommended reagents for, |
| Polyvinylchloride, Fourier transform infr... | {
"Header 1": "**A**",
"Header 3": "**792** Index",
"token_count": 1688,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Modern analytical chemistry by David Harvey.pdf"
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See Complexation reactions | Reduction, 146 |
| analysis of standards in, 710 | enzyme-catalyzed, 636β638, 637f | Reductor column, 341, 341f ... | {
"Header 1": "**A**",
"Header 3": "**792** Index",
"token_count": 1185,
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443β444
| Response surfaces, Color Plate 8, 667β668, | primary. See Gross sample | modules in flow injection analysis, 653, 654f |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|----... | {
"Header 1": "**A**",
"Header 3": "**794** Index",
"token_count": 1549,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Modern analytical chemistry by David Harvey.pdf"
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See Support-coated open tubular | Significant figures, 13β15 |
| duplicate, 708 | columns (SCOT) | Silica, 213t |
| grab, 185, 197, 197f ... | {
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See Fluorescence spectroscopy | multiple-point, 109 | |
| bringing into solution, 200β201, 200f, 200t | graphite furnace atomic absorption, 36, 37f, | versus single-point, 108β109 | |
| collection of, 197β198, 197f | 48, 49f ... | {
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"Header 3": "**794** Index",
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182β185
| Static mercury drop electrode (SMDE), | TCD. See Thermal conductivity detector (TCD) | displacement, 275 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----... | {
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"Header 3": "**796** Index",
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See Electronic transitions |
| Surfactants, in waters and wastewater, 395t | Titrant, 274 | Transmittance, 384 |
| Syringes, types of, 28, 28f ... | {
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See also Relative uncertainty in | quantitative applications involving, |
| Tungsten, standard reduction potentials | concentration, in UV/visible and infrared | 259β262 |
| for, 746t | spectroscopy ... | {
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nominal, 376
```
selection of, 376β379, 376f
in atomic absorption spectroscopy,
415β418, 418t
in atomic emission spectroscopy, 437
in spectroscopy, 376β379, 376f
using filters, 376
using monochromators, 376β378, 378f
Wavenumber, 370β371
Wave properties, of electromagnetic radiation,
369β371, 369f
WCOT. See Wall-coate... | {
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Fundamentals and Applications
Second, Revised Edition
Berlin - Weinheim Brisbane - Singapore - Toronto New York - Chichester Prof. Dr. Karl Heinrich Lieser Fachbereich Chemie TU Darmstadt Eduard-Zintl-Institut HochschulstraΓe 4 D-64289 Darmstadt
This book was carefully produced. Neve... | {
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| | Preface | | v |
|---|---------|----------------------------------------------------------------|----|
| 1 | | Radioactivity in Nature | |
| | 1.1 | Discovery of Radioactivity ... | {
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"Header 2": "**Contents**",
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I | Natural and Artificial Radioelements | 277 |
| 14.2 | Tcchnetiuni and Promethium | 280 |
| 14.3 | Production of Transuranium Elements | 283 |
| 14.4 | Further Extension of the Periodic Table of the Elements ... | {
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"Header 2": "**Contents**",
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Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 in Paris by Henri Becquerel, who investigated the radiation emitted by uranium minerals. He found that photographic plates were blackened in the absence of light, if they were in contact with the minerals. Two years later (1898) similar properties were discovered for thorium by Mari... | {
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"Header 2": "**1.1 Discovery of Radioactivity**",
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Radioactive substances are widely distributed on the earth. Some are found in the atmosphere, but the major part is present in the lithosphere. The most important ones are the ores of uranium and thorium, and potassium salts, including the radioactive decay products of uranium and thorium. Uranium and thorium are coinm... | {
"Header 1": "**Nuclear and Radiochemistry**",
"Header 2": "**1.2 Radioactive Substances in Nature**",
"token_count": 983,
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| Radioactive species (radionuclides) | Half-life ... | {
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"Header 2": "**1.2 Radioactive Substances in Nature**",
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#### **General and Historical**
- H. Becquerel, Sur les Radiations Invisibles Emises par les Corps Phosphorescents, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 122, 501 **(1896)**
- M. Curie, Rayons Emis par les ComposCs de I'Uranium et du Thorium, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 126, 1102 **(1898)**
- P. Curie, M. Slodowska-Curie, Sur une Nouv... | {
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"Header 2": "**Literature**",
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#### 2.1 Periodic Table of the Elements
The Periodic Table of the elements was set up in 1869 by Lothar Meyer and independently by D. Mendeleyev, in order to arrange the elements according to their chemical properties and to make clear the relationships between the elements. This table allowed valuable predictions to... | {
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The investigation of the natural radioelements (group b) led to the realization that the elements must exist in various forms differing from each other by their mass and their nuclear properties. In fact, about 40 kinds of atoms with different half-lives were found, for which only 12 places in the Periodic Table of the... | {
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"Header 2": "2.2 Isotopes and the Chart of the Nuclides",
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| P | N | Nuclide | Nuclide mass [u] | Natural abundance [%] | Atomic mass [u] | Remarks |
|----|----|---------------------------|------------------|-----------------------|-----------------|----------|
| 1 | 0 | $^{1}\mathrm{H}$ | 1.007825 | 99.985 | } 1.00797 ... | {
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They comprise the radionuclides of group (2) and $^{238}$ U, $^{235}$ U, $^{232}$ Th and $^{244}$ Pu.
The following groups of nuclides can be distinguished:
- Isotopes: Z = P equal - Isotones: N = A - Z equal - Isobars: A = N + Z equal
- Isodiaspheres: A - 2Z = N - Z equal
The positions of these groups of n... | {
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On the basis of the proton-neutron model of atomic nuclei the following combinations may be distinguished:
P even, N even (even-even nuclei)
P even, N odd (even-odd nuclei)
P odd, N even (odd-even nuclei)
P odd, N odd (odd-odd nuclei)
P odd, N odd (odd-odd nuclei)
Common, 53 nuclei
Common, 50 nuclei
Rare, onl... | {
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"Header 2": "2.3 Stability and Transmutation of Nuclides",
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The high stability of closed shells (magic numbers) is also evident from the binding energies of the nucleons. Just below each magic number the binding energy of an additional proton or neutron is exceptionally high, and just above each magic number it is exceptionally low, similarly to the binding energies of an addit... | {
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"Header 2": "**2.4 Binding Energies of Nuclei**",
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It is due to the fact that the binding energy $E_{\rm B}$ of the nucleons according to eq. (2.8) results in a decrease in the mass compared with the sum of the masses of the individual particles. The effect of the binding energy of the electrons is very small with respect to the binding energy of the nucleons and can... | {
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"Header 2": "**2.4 Binding Energies of Nuclei**",
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Whereas the diameters of atoms vary between about $0.8 \cdot 10^{-10}$ and $3.0 \cdot 10^{-10}$ m, the diameters of nuclei are in the range of about $0.3 \cdot 10^{-14}$ to $1.6 \cdot 10^{-14}$ m.
The first concepts of nuclear forces and nuclear radii were developed by Rutherford in 1911 on the basis of the s... | {
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"Header 2": "3.1 Properties of Nuclei",
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This kind of coupling is called jj coupling.
- (b) The interaction of the individual $\vec{s_i}$ and $\vec{I_i}$ of each particle is weak compared with the interaction between the particles; in other words, the spin-orbital coupling is weak. Then the resultant spin angular momentum $\vec{S} = \Sigma \vec{s_i}$ an... | {
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Several decades ago the number of elementary particles known was limited, and the system of elementary particles seemed to be comprehensible. Electrons had been known since 1858 as cathode rays, although the name electron was not used until 1881. Protons had been known since 1886 in the form of channel rays and since 1... | {
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| u u s | 1.277 | $\approx 1 \cdot 10^{-10}$ | |
| $\Sigma^0$ | u d s | 1.280 | $\approx 1 \cdot 10^{-14}$ | |
| Ξ | d s s ... | {
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#### **General**
- R. D. Evans, The Atomic Nucleus, McGraw-Hill, New York, **1955**
- E. Segre, Nuclei and Particles, Benjamin, New York, **1964**
- I. Kaplan, Nuclear Physics, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, **1964**
- E. B. Paul, Nuclear and Particle Physics, North-Holland, Amsterdam, **1969**
- M. G. Bowler,... | {
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The terms "radioactive transmutation" and "radioactive decay" are synonymous. Generally, the term "decay" is preferred in the English literature. As already mentioned in section 2.1, many radionuclides were found after the discovery of radioactivity in 1896. These radionuclides were named $UX_1, UX_2, \ldots$ ; or mes... | {
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| Nuclide | Half-life | Decay<br>mode | Maximum energy of the radiation [MeV] |
|--------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------|-------------------------|---------------------------------------... | {
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Since the longest half-life in this family is exhibited by $^{237}$ Np, it is called the neptunium family, and the decay series is called the neptunium series. The decay series of neptunium is listed in Table 4.4. It was probably present in nature for some millions of years after the genesis of the elements, but decay... | {
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Radioactive decay follows the laws of statistics. If a sufficiently great number of radioactive atoms are observed for a sufficiently long time, the law of radioactive decay is found to be
$$-\frac{\mathrm{d}N}{\mathrm{d}t} = \lambda N \tag{4.1}$$
where *N* is the number of atoms of a certain radionuclide, -dN/dt i... | {
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Genetic relations between radionuclides, as in the decay series, can be written in the form
nuclide
$$1 \rightarrow$$
nuclide $2 \rightarrow$ nuclide $3$ (4.13)
In words: nuclide 1 is transformed by radioactive decay into nuclide 2, and the latter into nuclide 3. Nuclide 1 is the mother nuclide of nuclide 2, an... | {
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In secular radioactive equilibrium $(t_{1/2}(1) \gg t_{1/2}(2))$ , eq. (4.18) reduces to
$$N_2 = \frac{\lambda_1}{\lambda_2} N_1 (1 - e^{-\lambda_2 t}) \tag{4.22}$$
Assuming that mother and daughter nuclide are separated from each other at time t=0, the growth of the daughter nuclide in the fraction of the mother ... | {
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"Header 2": "4.4 Secular Radioactive Equilibrium",
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The attainment of a transient radioactive equilibrium is plotted in Fig. 4.5 for $t_{1/2}(1)/t_{1/2}(2) = 5$ . Now $t_{1/2}(2)$ alone does not regulate the attainment of the radioactive equilibrium; its influence is modified by a factor containing the ratio $t_{1/2}(1)/t_{1/2}(2)$ , as already explained in section ... | {
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In this case the mother nuclide decays faster than the daughter nuclide, and the ratio between the two changes continuously, until the mother nuclide has disappeared and only the daughter nuclide is left. The situation is plotted in Fig. 4.6. No radioactive equilibrium is attained.
**Fig... | {
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Branching decay is often observed for odd-odd nuclei on the line of *p* stability. For example, 40K, which is responsible for the natural radioactivity of potassium, decays into 40Ca with a probability of 89.3% by emission of *p-* particles and into 40Ar with a probability of 10.7% by electron capture. Branching decay ... | {
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n, for the initial conditions $N_1 = N_1^0$ , $N_2 = N_3 = \cdots = N_n = 0$ , gives for the number of atoms $N_n(t)$ of nuclide number n in the series at the time t:
$$N_{\rm n} = c_1 e^{-\lambda_1 t} + c_2 e^{-\lambda_2 t} + \dots + c_{\rm n} e^{-\lambda_n t}$$
(4.48)
The coefficients in this equation are
$... | {
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The various decay modes are listed in Table 5.1. Unstable, radioactive nuclei may be transformed by emission of nucleons ( $\alpha$ decay and, very rarely, emission of protons or neutrons) or by emission of electrons or positrons ( $\beta^-$ and $\beta^+$ decay, respectively). Alternatively to the emission of a pos... | {
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As indicated in Table 5.1, ${}_{2}^{4}$ He nuclei are emitted by $\alpha$ decay, and so the atomic number decreases by two units and the mass number by four units (first displacement law of Soddy and Fajans).
The energy $\Delta E$ of $\alpha$ decay can be calculated by means of the Einstein formula $\Delta E ... | {
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Nuclides with an excess of neutrons expcricnce /? decay. In the nuclcus a neutron is convertcd into a proton, an electron and an electron antineutrino, as indicated in Table 5.1. Thc atomic numbcr increases by one unit, whcrcas the mass number does not change (second displaccment law of Soddy and Fajans). The energy of... | {
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Application of quantum mechanics by Fermi led to the following theoretical formula for the probability of $\beta$ decay:
$$P(E_{k}) dE = G^{2} |M|^{2} F(Z, E_{k}) (E_{k} + m_{0}c^{2}) (E_{k}^{2} + 2m_{0}c^{2}E_{k})^{1/2} \cdot (\Delta E - E_{k})^{2} dE_{k}$$
(5.23)
P is the fraction of nuclei decaying per unit ... | {
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| Classification | Change of the quantum number of orbital spin, $\Delta L$ | Change of the nuclear spin, Ξ <i>I</i> | Change of the parity | $\log ft$ | Examples ... | {
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Isomeric transition is free from accompanying $\alpha$ or $\beta$ radiation, and some nuclear isomers are of great practical importance as pure $\gamma$ emitters. For example, <sup>99m</sup>Tc has found broad application in nuclear medicine.
Instead of emitting a $\gamma$ -ray photon, the excited nucleus may t... | {
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If in such a transition the parity does not change, conversion electrons may be emitted instead of y-ray photons (example 72Ge), or, if the excitation energy is high enough *(AE* > 1.02 MeV), an electron and a positron may be emitted (example \*l4P0).
**Figure 5.13.** Decay scheme of 234... | {
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With an increasing excess of protons, on the left-hand side of the line of $\beta$ stability, the binding energy of the last proton decreases markedly, and a region is expected in which this binding energy approaches zero and proton emission from the ground state becomes energetically possible. However, as in the cas... | {
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Spontaneous fission (symbol sf) was found in 1940 by Flerov and Petrzhak at Dubna, after fission by neutrons had been discovered in 1938 by Hahn and Strassmann in Berlin. Spontaneous fission is another mode of radioactive decay, which is observed only for high mass numbers A. For <sup>238</sup>U the ratio of the probab... | {
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| Nuclide | Partial half-life of spontaneous fission | Average number v of neutrons set free | Nuclide | Partial half-life<br>of spontaneous<br>fission | Average number v of neutrons set free |
|-------------------|------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------... | {
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Although the fission barrier for nuclides such as $^{238}$ U ( $\approx 6$ MeV) is small compared with the total binding energy of the nucleons ( $\approx 1800$ MeV), spontaneous fission of $^{238}$ U has a low probability compared with $\alpha$ decay.
The main part of the energy $\Delta E$ released by sponta... | {
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#### **General**
- R. D. Evans, The Atomic Nucleus, McGraw-Hill, New York, **1955**
- E. Segre (Ed.), Radioactive Decay, in: Experimental Nuclear Physics, Vol. **111,** Wiley, New York, **1959**
- I. Kaplan, Nuclear physics, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, **1964**
- G. Friedlander, J. W. Kennedy, E. **S.** Mac... | {
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"Header 2": "**Literature**",
"token_count": 690,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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Knowledge of the properties of nuclear radiation is needed for the measurement and identification of radionuclides and in the field of radiation protection. The most important aspect is the interaction of radiation with matter.
Charged high-energy particles or photons, such as $\alpha$ particles, protons, electrons... | {
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"Header 2": "**6.1 General Properties**",
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The limited range of *a* radiation can be seen in Fig. 6.2. The range depends on the energy of the *a* particles and amounts to several centimetres in air. Their course is practically not influenced by the collisions with electrons. Rarely an *a* particle collides with a nucleus and is strongly deflected, or it is capt... | {
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"Header 2": "**6.2 Alpha Radiation**",
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Katz, **A. S.** Penfold; Rev. mod. Physics **24** ( 1952) 28).
Beta radiation interacts with matter in three different ways:
(a) Interaction with electrons leads to excitation of the electron shell and ionization. The important parameter for this interaction is the electron density in the absorber, i.e. the number ... | {
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"Header 2": "**6.2 Alpha Radiation**",
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Gamma rays and X rays have similar properties and are distinguished by their origins: X rays are emitted from the electron shell of atoms, if electrons are passing from states of higher energy to those of lower energy (characteristic X rays) or if electrons are slowed down in the field of nuclei (bremsstrahlung); y ray... | {
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The total absorption coefficient ,u is given approximately by the sum of the partial absorption coefficients due to the photoeffect (,uPh), the Compton effect *(pC)* and pair formation (,up):
$$\mu = \mu_{\rm Ph} + \mu_{\rm C} + \mu_{\rm P} \tag{6.24}$$
The contributions of these partial absorption coefficients t... | {
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"Header 2": "**6.4 Gamma Radiation**",
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Neutrons are emitted by spontaneously fissioning heavy nuclei. They play an important role in nuclear reactions, in particular in nuclear fission (chapter 8). High fluxes of neutrons are available in nuclear reactors (chapter 11).
The properties of neutrons have been discussed in sections 3.1 and 3.2. Neutrons are no... | {
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"Header 2": "*6.5* **Neutrons**",
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As already mentioned in section 3.2, absorption of short-lived elementary particles, such as positrons, muons, pions, kaons or sigma particles, may lead to formation of unusual (exotic) kinds of atoms or molecules. A proton in a hydrogen atom may be substituted by a positively charged short-lived elementary particle, s... | {
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"Header 2": "**6.6 Short-lived Elementary Particles in Atoms and Molecules**",
"token_count": 2041,
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Kroh (Ed.), Early Developments in Radiation Chemistry, London, 1989
- Y. Tabata, Y. Ito, S. Tagawa (Eds.), Handbook of Radiation Chemistry, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991
- I. G. Draganic, Radioactivity and Radiation Chemistry of Water, Radiochim. Acta 70/71, 317 (1995)
#### **Positronium and Muonium Chemistry**
-... | {
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The activity (disintegration rate) A as defined in section 4.2 is a property of radioactive matter and can be measured by various devices which give a certain counting rate I', which depends on the activity A, the overall counting efficiency $\eta$ of the device and the background counting rate $I_0$ :
$$I' = I + ... | {
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Gas-filled detectors have been in use since the beginning of radiochemistry. Ionizing radiation passing through a gas creates a trail of ion pairs (positive ions and free electrons), as described in section 6.1. If an electric field is applied, the ions and the electrons move in opposite directions. The motion of the c... | {
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"token_count": 2048,
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Various types of Geiger-Muller counters.
instrument and most frequently used. The immersion counter and the counter with the ring-like glass beaker are used to measure liquids and the gas counter is used for the determination of the activity of gases.
#### 7.3 Scintillation Detectors
The main parts of a scintilla... | {
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"Header 2": "**7.2 Gas-filled Detectors**",
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The specific energy loss -dE/dx can also be determined by use of semiconductor detectors and, by arranging a very thin and a thick semiconductor detector one behmd the other, charged particles can easily be identified. For measurement of y radiation relatively large crystals are needed, because of the low specific ioni... | {
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At energies >1.02 MeV additional contributions are found: the positrons originating from pair production are generally annihilated within the detector, but one or both of the annihilation photons may escape from the detector without interaction, depending on the size of the detector. These photons give rise to an "esca... | {
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Gamma-ray and cl-ray spectrometry are important tools of nuclear and radiochemistry. They are mainly used for identification of radionuclides. Because of the continuous energy distribution of *P* radiation, P-ray spectrometry is less frequently applied.
For y-ray spectrometry i-Ge or Ge( Li) detectors are most suitab... | {
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"Header 2": "**7.6 Spectrometry**",
"token_count": 1987,
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Some pure p- emitters | | | |
|----------------------------------|--|--|--|
|----------------------------------|--|--|--|
| Nuclide | Emax [Mevl | Half-life | |
|----------|------------|----------------|--|
| 3H | 0.0186 | 12.323 y | |
| 14c | 0.156 | 5730 y | |
| 32P ... | {
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As indicated in section 7.1, measurements of relative and absolute activities are to be distinguished. For determination of relative activities, the overall counting efficiency y in eq. (7.3) must be constant, but it need not be known, whereas y must be known exactly for determination of absolute activities. The overal... | {
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If samples of very low activity are to be measured, the contribution of the background to the counting rate and hence the error of the measurement are relatively high. The influence of the background can be reduced by intensification of the detector shielding and by coincidence or anticoincidence circuits.
Usually, d... | {
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"Header 2": "7.9 Low-level Counting",
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Neutron detection and measurement are based largely on the production of secondary ionizing radiation by the neutrons. Low-energy (slow) neutrons, in particular thermal neutrons, are measured with high efficiency by means of the charged particles emitted in neutron-induced reactions, such as (n,p) or (n,cc) reactions o... | {
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Radioactive decay is governed by the laws of statistics. Thus, the decay of a single atom cannot be predicted and every counting rate has a statistical error which decreases with the number of counts measured. If the counting rate of a long-lived radionuclide is measured several times under identical conditions, a dist... | {
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Dust or other condensation centres must be eliminated, to avoid interferences. Cloud chambers can be operated in cycles by a piston or diaphragm (expansion chamber) or by diffusion of a saturated vapour into a colder region (diffusion cloud chamber).
#### **Bubble Chambers**
The bubble chamber makes use of the fact... | {
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"Header 2": "7.11 Statistics and Errors of Counting",
"token_count": 351,
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For the monitoring of personnel radiation exposures, measurement of radioactive contamination and surveying of laboratories and equipment, and for the detection of radionuclides incorporated in the human body, various detectors and instruments are used. The principles of operation of these detectors have been discussed... | {
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"Header 2": "**7.13 Detectors Used in Health Physics**",
"token_count": 956,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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#### **General**
- **G.** B. Cook, J. F. Illincan: Modern Radiochemical Practice, Oxford University Prcss, Oxford, **1952 S.** Fliiggc, E. Crcutz (Eds.), Instrumcntelle Ililfsmittel dcr Kernphysik 11, Ilandbuch der Physik XLV, Springer, Berlin, **1958**
- R. T. Ovcrnian, **13.** M. Clark, Radioisotopc Techniques, LA4... | {
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"Header 2": "**Literature**",
"token_count": 2009,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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The first binuclear reaction was observed in a cloud chamber in 1919 by Rutherford:
$${}_{7}^{14}N + {}_{2}^{4}He \rightarrow {}_{8}^{17}O + {}_{1}^{1}H$$
(8.2)
The sum of the mass numbers and the sum of the atomic numbers must each be the same on the left- and right-hand sides of the equation. The short form of ... | {
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"Header 2": "**Literature**",
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The energy *AE* (Q value) of a nuclear reaction (eq. (8.1)) can be calculated by comparison of the nuclide masses, as in the case of radioactive decay:
$$\Delta E = (m_{\rm A} + m_{\rm x} - m_{\rm B} - m_{\rm y}) \cdot c^2 \tag{8.8}$$
Introducing the nuclide masses M = *m* + Z . me, where Z is the atomic number and... | {
"Header 1": "3 Physical Properties of Atomic Nuclei and Elementary Particles",
"Header 2": "**8.2 Energetics of Nuclear Reactions**",
"token_count": 968,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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#### **Neutrons**
Neutrons are the most frequently used projectiles for nuclear reactions. As they do not carry a positive charge, they do not experience Coulomb repulsion, and even low-energy (thermal and slow) neutrons can easily enter the nuclei. Neutrons with energies of the order of 1 to $10\,\mathrm{eV}$ (res... | {
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"Header 2": "8.3 Projectiles for Nuclear Reactions",
"token_count": 2050,
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Proton linacs serve frequently as injectors of 50 to 200MeV protons into proton synchrotrons. For the production of radionuclides, relatively small cyclotrons are used by which particle energies of the order of 10 to 30 MeV and ion currents of the order of 100 **pA** are available. Radionuclides obtained by reactions w... | {
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"Header 2": "8.3 Projectiles for Nuclear Reactions",
"token_count": 1353,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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The probability that a nuclear reaction may occur is given by the cross section of the reaction, which is comparable with the rate constant of a bimolecular chemical reaction. Considering the general equation for a binuclear reaction
$$\mathbf{A} + \mathbf{x} \to \mathbf{B} + \mathbf{y} \tag{8.17}$$
the production ... | {
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"Header 2": "**8.4 Cross Sections of Nuclear Reactions**",
"token_count": 1684,
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The yield of a nuclear reaction can be calculated if the cross secion a, the flux density @, and the number of atoms *NA* of a certain nuclide **A** in eq. (8.18) are known. If the product nuclide B is radioactive, its decay rate
$$-\frac{\mathrm{d}N_{\mathrm{B}}}{\mathrm{d}t} = \lambda N_{\mathrm{B}} \tag{8.24}$$
... | {
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"Header 2": "**8.5 Yield of Nuclear Reactions**",
"token_count": 1825,
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A simple case is the decay of the nuclide produced by a binuclear reaction:
(A)
$$\xrightarrow{\text{binuclear reaction}}$$
(1) $\xrightarrow{\text{decay}}$ (2) (8.34)
The net production rate of nuclide 2 is
$$\frac{\mathrm{d}N_2}{\mathrm{d}t} = \sigma \Phi N_{\mathrm{A}} (1 - \mathrm{e}^{-\lambda_1 t}) - \lamb... | {
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If the assumption $N_A$ = constant is not fulfilled, because of noticeable transmutation of A by mononuclear or binuclear reactions, the following equation is applied:
$$-\frac{\mathrm{d}N_{\mathrm{A}}}{\mathrm{d}t} = N_{\mathrm{A}} + \sigma\Phi N_{\mathrm{A}} = (\lambda + \sigma\Phi)N_{\mathrm{A}} = \Lambda N_{\... | {
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Investigation of nuclear reactions comprises identification of the products and determination of the cross sections *g,* the energy of the products and their angular distribution. As far as possible, all values are to be measured as a function of the energy E of the projectiles with the aim to determine the excitation ... | {
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"Header 2": "**8.6 Investigation of Nuclear Reactions**",
"token_count": 1979,
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**A** great variety of nuclear reactions is available by application of different projectiles and variation of their energy. In this section nuclear reactions induced by projectiles with energies of up to about 50 MeV are considered. This energy range is preferred for the production of radionucldies. If the energies ar... | {
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"Header 2": "**8.8 Low-energy Reactions**",
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The same holds for the (n, p) reaction with 14N,
$${}^{14}_{7}N + {}^{1}_{0}n \rightarrow ({}^{15}_{7}N) \rightarrow {}^{14}_{6}C + {}^{1}_{1}H$$
(8.61)
by which 14C is produced in the atmosphere and artificially in nuclear reactors. Most other (n, **p)** reactions are endoergic. **A11** (n, 2n) reactions are endoe... | {
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"Header 2": "**8.8 Low-energy Reactions**",
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In section 5.6 it has been shown that nuclides with mass numbers *A* > 100 are energetically unstable with respect to fission. The fact that fission is not observed is due to the fission barrier. However, if enough excitation energy is transferred to heavy nuclides, the fission barrier can be surmounted and the nuclide... | {
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"Header 2": "**8.9 Nuclear Fission**",
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attained about $10^{-15}$ s after neutron capture. Then fission occurs very fast, followed by emission of neutrons and $\gamma$ rays by the highly excited fission products and finally by a sequence of $\beta^-$ transformations. Due to their high positive charges, the fission fragments repel each other very stro... | {
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It increases with the mass number of the fissioning nuclei (Table 8.2). In Fig. 8.17 this number is plotted as a function of the mass of the fission fragments. It is relatively low for fragments with filled neutron shells (N = 50, N = 82).
On average, 7.5 $\gamma$ -ray photons with a mean energy of about 1 MeV are e... | {
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"Header 2": "**8.9 Nuclear Fission**",
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From Table 8.1 it is evident that at higher projectile energies more than one particle is emitted. Examples are (x, 2n), (x, np) and (x, 2p) reactions $(x = n, p, d, \alpha)$ at energies >10 MeV. The high excitation energy of the nuclei is given off by emission (evaporation) of nucleons, preferably neutrons. The dist... | {
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"Header 2": "8.10 High-energy Reactions",
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The use of heavy ions as projectiles has opened up new fields of nuclear reactions, as already mentioned in section 8.3. The general formula of a heavy-ion reaction is
$$A + B \rightarrow D + E + \dots + \nu_1 n + \nu_2 p + \dots + \Delta E$$
(8.70)
where B is the heavy ion used as the projectile. B must have a min... | {
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"Header 2": "**8.11 Heavy-ion Reactions**",
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Nuclear fusion of heavy atoms has been discussed in the previous section. Exoergic nuclear fusion of light atoms resulting in a gain of energy according to Fig. 2.6 is considered in this section.
The general formula of nuclear fusion is
$$A + B \to D + \Delta E \tag{8.71}$$
With respect to the production of energ... | {
"Header 1": "**8.12 Nuclear Fusion** - **Thermonuclear Reactions**",
"token_count": 2035,
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8.25 as a function of the energy of the deuterons. From this figure it can bc concluded that energies of the order of 10 keV (corresponding to tenipcraturcs of the order of lo8 K) arc needed to get these thermonuclear reactions going and to produce utilizable cnergy. The starting temperature for the D-T reaction is abo... | {
"Header 1": "**8.12 Nuclear Fusion** - **Thermonuclear Reactions**",
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Post, Controlled Fusion Research and High-Energy Plasmas, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Sci. 20, 509 (1970)
- R. Bock (Ed.), Heavy Ion Collisions, 3 Vols., North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1979-1981
- D. A. Bromley (Ed.), Treatise on Heavy Ion Science, Vol. 4, Plenum Press, New York, 1985
- R. Bock, G. Herrmann, G. Siegbert, Schwerionenfo... | {
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"token_count": 274,
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The binding energies between atoms vary between about 40 and 400 kJ/mol, corresponding to about 0.4 to 4 eV (1 eV $\simeq$ 96.5 kJ/mol). The energies involved in nuclear reactions are of the order of up to several MeV, and parts of this energies are transmitted to the atoms in the form of recoil and of excitation ene... | {
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"Header 2": "9.1 General Aspects",
"token_count": 2047,
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- c) Emission of $\gamma$ -ray photons in isomeric transition: In isomeric transition only $\gamma$ -ray photons are emittedβin the case of isomeric transition of $^{80\text{m}}$ Br photons of 0.049 and 0.037 MeV. Eq. (9.7) gives for the recoil energy due to emission of 0.049 MeV photons $E_1 = 0.016 \, \text{eV}... | {
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"Header 2": "9.1 General Aspects",
"token_count": 2007,
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