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Lieser, Einführung in die Kernchemie, VCH, Weinheim, 1991
#### More Special
International Atomic Energy Agency, Radioisotopes in the Physical Sciences and Industry, IAEA, Vienna, 1962
International Atomic Energy Agency, Exchange Reactions, IAEA, Vienna, 1965
- H. A. C. McKay, Physicochemical Applications of Rad... | {
"Header 1": "17.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)",
"Header 2": "**18.5 Diffusion and Transport Processes**",
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Application of radionuclides in life sciences is of the greatest importance, and the largest single user of radionuclides is nuclear medicine. Shortly after the discovery of Ra in 1898 by Marie Curie and its subsequent isolation from pitchblende in amounts of 0.1 to 1 g, the finding that this element was useful as a ra... | {
"Header 1": "17.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)",
"Header 2": "19.1 Survey",
"token_count": 624,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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The uptake of trace metals from the soil by plants and animals can be studied with high sensitivity by radiotracer techniques. In these applications, it is important that the chemical form of the radiotracer is identical with that of the trace element to be studied. For example, in agriculture, the uptake of trace elem... | {
"Header 1": "17.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)",
"Header 2": "19.2 Application in Ecological Studies",
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Two radioanalytical methods described in chapter 17 are applied preferentially in the life sciences, activation analysis and isotope dilution, the latter mainly in combination with the substoichiometric principle.
Activation analysis can be used for determination of trace elements, in particular heavy metals and esse... | {
"Header 1": "17.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)",
"Header 2": "19.3 Radioanalysis in the Life Sciences",
"token_count": 1304,
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For investigation of physiological or metabolic processes in plants, animals and man, radiotracer techniques are very useful because of their high sensitivity and the possibility of labelling at certain positions of the molecules. In plant physiology, important biochemical processes can be elucidated by application of ... | {
"Header 1": "17.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)",
"Header 2": "**19.4 Application in Physiological and Metabolic Studies**",
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| Radionuclide | Half-life | Decay mode<br>(energy of particles or<br>photons emitted [keV]) | Application |
|------------------------|------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------... | {
"Header 1": "17.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)",
"Header 2": "**19.4 Application in Physiological and Metabolic Studies**",
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One of the most important radionuclides in this group is 1231. This radioisotope of iodine has more favourable properties than 1311: it emits only y radiation and its relatively short half-life is more appropriate for medical application. Its production is described in section 12.1. Suitable accelerators for the genera... | {
"Header 1": "17.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)",
"Header 2": "**19.4 Application in Physiological and Metabolic Studies**",
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In computer tomography (CT) with radionuclides, one or several radiation detectors, a computer and a display are used. The detector array is moved in relation to the patient, and the variations in counting rates with the absorbancies of the radiation in the body as a function of the geometry are processed by the softwa... | {
"Header 1": "17.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)",
"Header 2": "**19.6 Single Photon Emission Tomography (SPET)**",
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In positron emission tomography (PET) the two 511 keV y-ray photons emitted simultaneously in opposite directions are registered by y-ray detectors, indicating that the positron decay must have occurred somewhere along the line between these two detectors. The same holds for other events of positron decay, and the radi... | {
"Header 1": "17.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)",
"Header 2": "**19.7 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)**",
"token_count": 1980,
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Hor, Burragi (Eds.), Clinical Use of Antibodies, Tumors, Infection, Infarction, Rejection, and in the Diagnosis of AIDS, Kluwer, Dordrecht, **1991**
- G. Stocklin, V. W. Pike (Eds.), Radiopharmaceuticals for Positron Emission Tomography, Kluwer, Dordrecht, **1993**
- B. M. Mazoyer, W. D. Heuss, D. Comar (Eds.), PET Stu... | {
"Header 1": "17.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA)",
"Header 2": "**19.7 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)**",
"token_count": 535,
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In the technical sciences and in industry, radiotracer techniques are preferably applied for the investigation of mixing and separation procedures and of transport processes in machines, technical plants and pipelines.
Table 20.1 gives a survey of various radionuclides used as radiotracers (indicators) in industry. T... | {
"Header 1": "**20** Technical and Industrial Applications of Radionuclides and Nuclear Radiation",
"Header 2": "20.1 Radiotracer Techniques",
"token_count": 1385,
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Absorption or scattering of radioactive radiation is applied in industry for measurement of thickness or for material testing. For example, the production of paper, plastic or metal foils or sheets can be controlled continuously by passing these materials between an encapsulated radionuclide as the radiation source and... | {
"Header 1": "**20** Technical and Industrial Applications of Radionuclides and Nuclear Radiation",
"Header 2": "20.2 Absorption and Scattering of Radiation",
"token_count": 2010,
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production of sulfonic acid chlorides by irradiation of mixtures of carbohydrates, SO <sub>2</sub> and Cl <sub>2</sub> | $\approx 10^7$ |
| Production of alkylsulfonic acids by irradiation of mixtures of carbohydrates, $SO_2$ and $O_2$ ... | {
"Header 1": "**20** Technical and Industrial Applications of Radionuclides and Nuclear Radiation",
"Header 2": "20.2 Absorption and Scattering of Radiation",
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Energy production by nuclear fission and by thermonuclear reactions has been discussed in chapter 11. In this section, energy production in radionuclide batteries by the radiation emitted by radionuclides will be considered.
The purpose of radionuclide batteries is to produce energy over longer periods of time withou... | {
"Header 1": "**20** Technical and Industrial Applications of Radionuclides and Nuclear Radiation",
"Header 2": "20.4 Energy Production by Nuclear Radiation",
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In order to take advantage of thermionic conversion, radionuclides of high specific power output (high power per mass unit) are needed, such as 238Pu, 232U, 227A~, 242Cm. Prototypes of 0.1 to 1 kW have been developed.
In thermophotovoltaic batteries the heat emitted by the radionuclides is converted to electric energ... | {
"Header 1": "**20** Technical and Industrial Applications of Radionuclides and Nuclear Radiation",
"Header 2": "20.4 Energy Production by Nuclear Radiation",
"token_count": 1887,
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Two groups of radioactivity sources on the earth are to be distinguished, natural and anthropogenic. Natural sources such as <sup>40</sup>K, <sup>232</sup>Th, <sup>235</sup>U and <sup>238</sup>U have been produced in the course of nucleogenesis (primordial radionuclides; chapter 15) and have been present on the earth f... | {
"Header 1": "21 Radionuclides in the Geosphere and the Biosphere",
"Header 2": "21.1 Sources of Radioactivity",
"token_count": 1360,
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| | $\frac{210}{\text{Pb}}$ (22.3 y) | Ores/minerals |
| Sb | V | <sup>125</sup> Sb (2.77 y); <sup>126</sup> Sb (12... | {
"Header 1": "21 Radionuclides in the Geosphere and the Biosphere",
"Header 2": "21.1 Sources of Radioactivity",
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(continued)
| Element | Group of the<br>Periodic Table | Radionuclide (half-life) | Source ... | {
"Header 1": "21 Radionuclides in the Geosphere and the Biosphere",
"Header 2": "21.1 Sources of Radioactivity",
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Gaseous species, aerosols and species dissolved in aquifers are mobile and easily transported with air or water, respectively. Mobility of solid particles, on the other hand, may be caused by dissolution or suspension in water or spreading by wind.
Solubility and leaching of solids depend on the properties of the sol... | {
"Header 1": "21 Radionuclides in the Geosphere and the Biosphere",
"Header 2": "**21.2 Mobility of Radionuclides in the Geosphere**",
"token_count": 2013,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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The influence of the redox potential is very pronounced in the case of Tc: whereas Tc(IV) is not dissolved in water and immobile, Tc(VII) is easily dissolved in the form of $TcO_4^-$ , and very mobile. The oxidation of $PuO_2$ to $PuO_{2+x}$ in moist air leads to an unexpected solubility of $PuO_2$ and has a mar... | {
"Header 1": "21 Radionuclides in the Geosphere and the Biosphere",
"Header 2": "**21.2 Mobility of Radionuclides in the Geosphere**",
"token_count": 311,
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In aqueous solutions, the majority of the radionuclides listed in Table 21.1 are present in cationic forms, for which primarily the following reactions have to be taken into account:
- hydration (formation of aquo complexes),
- hydrolysis (formation of hydroxo complexes),
- condensation (formation of polynuclear hydr... | {
"Header 1": "21.3 Reactions of Radionuclides with the Components of Natural Waters",
"token_count": 2033,
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Compounds of low molecular mass may be of natural origin (e.g. metabolites, such as organic acids, amines or amino acids) or anthropogenic (e.g. detergents, aromatic sulfonic acids). Many of these organic compounds are strong complexing agents and well soluble in water. They are able to form stable complexes with radio... | {
"Header 1": "21.3 Reactions of Radionuclides with the Components of Natural Waters",
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Mobility and transport of radionuclides in the geosphere are influenced markedly by their interaction with solids. Migration is retarded, or even stopped, if the interaction is strong, in particular if the radionuclides are incorporated into the solids. Sorption of radionuclides on solids has been investigated extensiv... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
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They may enter the sediments by sorption of molecularly-dispersed species (ions, molecules), by precipitation or coprecipitation, by coagulation of colloids (in particular carrier colloids) followed by sedimentation of the particles formed, or by sedimentation of coarse particles (suspended matter). By desorption, the ... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
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Radionuclides in the atmosphere, in surface waters and on the surface of the earth have immediate access to the biosphere. From surface waters as well as from near-surface groundwaters, from soils and from the air, radionuclides may be taken up by microorganisms, plants, fish and other animals, thus also entering the v... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "21.5 Radionuclides in the Biosphere",
"token_count": 1928,
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| Radionuclide | Ecosystem | Molluscs | Crustaceans | Fish muscle |
|--------------|------------|----------|-------------|-------------|
| 137Cs | Freshwater | 600 | 4000 | 3000 |
| | Marine | 8 | 23 | 15 |
| 90~r | Freshwater | 600 | 2... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "21.5 Radionuclides in the Biosphere",
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The bio-
logical half-life in domestic animals is of the order of 100–500 d for the skeleton and of the order of 20–100 d for the rest of the body. In man the biological half-life of $^{90}$ Sr is in the range 200–600 d. Aggregated transfer factors (soil–meat) vary between 0.01 and $0.06\,\mathrm{m}^2/\mathrm{kg}$ ... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "21.5 Radionuclides in the Biosphere",
"token_count": 1992,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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Cleveland, The Chemistry of Plutonium, Gordon and Breach, New York, 1971
- W. Stumm, P. A. Brauner, Chemical Speciation, in: Chemical Oceanography, 2nd ed. (Eds. J. P. Riley, G. Skirow), Academic Press, New York, 1975
- W. C. Hanson (Ed.), Transuranic Elements in the Environment, US Department of Energy, Technical Info... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "21.5 Radionuclides in the Biosphere",
"token_count": 1993,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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Clearfield, Inorganic Ion Exchange Materials, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1982
- G. Sposito, The Surface Chemistry of Soils, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984
- T. H. Sibley, C. Myttenaere (Eds.), Application of Distribution Coefficients in Radiological Assessment Models, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1985
- W. Stumm, Aquati... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "21.5 Radionuclides in the Biosphere",
"token_count": 840,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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The units used in radiation dosimetry are summarized in Table 22.1. The energy dose and the ion dose are also used in radiation chemistry, whereas the equivalent dose is only applied in radiation biology and in the field of radiation protection.
| Table 22.1. | Radiation doses and dose r | ates. |
|-------------|----... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "22.1 Dosimetry",
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Less sensitive parts are the arms and hands, the legs and feet, the head (except the eyes) and the neck. The ion dose rate transmitted by a point-like $\gamma$ -radiation source of activity A at the distance r is
$$\frac{\mathrm{d}J}{\mathrm{d}t} = k_{\gamma} \frac{A}{r^2} \tag{22.7}$$
The dose rate constant $k_{... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "22.1 Dosimetry",
"token_count": 1147,
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Internal radiation sources are always more dangerous than external ones, because shielding is impossible, and incorporated radionuclides may be enriched in certain organs or parts of the body and affect them over long periods of time.
With respect to radiotoxicity, possible storage in the body and half-lives of radio... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**22.3 Internal Radiation Sources**",
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| Radiotoxicity | Radionuclides and radioelements ... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**22.3 Internal Radiation Sources**",
"token_count": 1527,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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The effects of radiation on microrganisms, plants and animals differ appreciably. From Table 22.6, it is evident that organisms at a low stage of evolution exhibit much higher radiation resistance than those at a higher evolutionary stage.
| Organism | Dose of inactivation (Di) or 50% lethal dose within 30 days (05... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**22.5 Radiation Effects in Man, Animals and Plants**",
"token_count": 2033,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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Average equivalent dose rates received from natural radiation sources are listed in Table 22.8. The values vary appreciably with the environmental conditions. The influence of cosmic radiation increases markedly with the height above sea level, and terrestrial radiation depends strongly on the local and the living cond... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "22.6 Non-occupational Radiation Exposure",
"token_count": 1632,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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The assumption by ICRP of a linear relation between radiation effects and dose (section 22.5) implies the highest degree of safety. It may overestimate the risk, but for safety reasons its application is recommended. In the linear ICRP approach, the risk L, of cancer is assumed to be given by
$$L_{\rm c} = 0.05 \, H_... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**22.7 Safety Recommendations**",
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Special regulations have been established for persons working professionally with X rays or with radioactive substances in radiology, nuclear medicine, in chemical or physical laboratories, technical installations, at accelerators, nuclear reactors, or in reprocessing and other technical plants. With respect to possibl... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "22.8 Safety Regulations",
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For comparison, 1 Bq/l is the activity of 20mg of natural K per litre, river water contains about 1 Bq/l, water from natural springs up to several kBq/l, and rainwater sampled after test explosions of nuclear weapons also contained up to 1 kBq/l. The safest method for determination of concentrations of the order of 1 B... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "22.8 Safety Regulations",
"token_count": 259,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Nuclear-and-Radiochemistry-Fundamental-and-Application.pdf"
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In many countries the radioactivity in the environment is continuously measured by means of monitoring stations, in particular at and in the neighbourhood of nuclear power stations and other nuclear facilities. Monitors are installed at elevated positions or on the ground, to measure the radioactivity in the air and on... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "22.9 Monitoring of the Environment",
"token_count": 2044,
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#### Glossary
Activation: Production of radionuclides by nuclear reactions
Artificial elements: Man-made elements produced by nuclear reactions
Autoradiography: Picture produced by nuclear radiation in photographic films or
Becquerel: Unit of (radio)activity (abbr. Bq; $1 \text{ Bq} = 1 \text{ s}^{-1}$ )
Car... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**Appendix**",
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matter in the colloidal state) consisting of the radioactive matter considered (intrinsic colloids) or containing microamounts of radioactive matter (carrier colloids)
Radioelements: Elements existing only in the form of radionuclides but not in a stable form
Radionuclides: Any kind of unstable (radioactive) atoms ... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**Appendix**",
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Abelson 279, 285 Armbruster 279, 291 Aston 6 Avogadro 20, 138,267 Becquerel 1 Berson 374 Berzelius 5, 277 Bethe 166 Bohr 22,70, 144,289 Bose 24 Breit 144 Chadwick 24, 129, 148,283 Chalmers 171, 183, 240 Cockroft 131 Corson 277 Coryell 279,281 Coulomb 11, 19f, 69, 71, 130, 137, 147, 156, Curie 1, 5, 57, 58, 249, 277, 28... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**Name Index**",
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Absorption coefficient 85f, 136, 244 - by heavy ions 344 - cross section 135, 225 - by neutrons 244, 340ff - curves 81 - by $\nu$ rays 340, 346 - of radiation 75ff -, equation 139, 340 - of $\alpha$ radiation 77f Activity 34ff - of $\beta$ radiation 81f - measurement 95f - of y radiation 85f -, absolute 116 - of ... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**Subject Index**",
"token_count": 255,
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- of the solar system 331 Ageing 367, 371f -- produced radionuclides 379 Allowed $\beta$ transmutations 58 Accelerators 131f, 244f, 288, 346, 377, 388 Alpha decay 49ff, 293 Accidental radiation exposure 426 - decay, chemical effects 177f Actinide compounds 298ff radiation 77ff, 431 - ions, colour 298 α-decay chains 2... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**Subject Index**",
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109Cd 355 <sup>137</sup>Cs in the biosphere 412 <sup>137</sup>Cs/<sup>137m</sup>Ba generator 255 Calcination of radioactive waste 231 Calcium carbonate 371 Chain reactions 202, 232, 389 <sup>40</sup>Ca 42 Channel rays 24 <sup>41</sup>Ca 328 Characteristic X rays 62, 85 <sup>48</sup>Ca 294 Charge distribution of fission... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**Subject Index**",
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Fragmentation 158, 163 260 Francium 5, 277, 298 Generators, neutron flux 343 ft value 58 Genesis of the elements 313ff, 332 Fuel cycles 206ff Genetic effects of radiation 424, 426, 430 - elements 213ff, 225, 230 Geochemical isotope thermometry 311 --, storage 210, 225 Geochemistry 123, 309ff, 331, 334, 347 - rods 213f,... | {
"Header 1": "**21.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere**",
"Header 2": "**Subject Index**",
"token_count": 7967,
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118, 125, 326, 434 Protactinium 5, 209, 277, 295f <sup>231</sup>Pa 52, 211, 212, 323, 392 <sup>234</sup>Pa 64, 65 <sup>234m</sup>Pa 64, 65, 339 Proton activity 66 - decay 66f - emission 47, 66 - recoil 118 -- induced reactions 137 - neutron model 6, 7, 14 Protons 7f, 24, 66f, 75, 132, 244, 313, 314, 321, 342 P-P reacti... | {
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"Header 2": "**Subject Index**",
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Statistics of counting 119f Sterilization by radiation 390 - radioactive atoms 271 Stochastic radiation exposure 424 - - particle statistics 271 Stopping power 79 - -strand breaks by radiation 423 Storage of fuel elements 210, 225 <sup>22</sup>Na, production 245 - of radioactive waste 231, 400 <sup>24</sup>Na, producti... | {
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"Header 2": "**Subject Index**",
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AUTHOR
**JOHN MCMURRY, CORNELL UNIVERSITY (EMERITUS)**
#### **OpenStax**
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**©2023 Ri... | {
"Header 1": "**Organic Chemistry: A Tenth Edition**",
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| Dedication and Preface<br>1 ... | {
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This 10th edition of Organic Chemistry is dedicated to the memory of my son, Peter McMurry, who passed away in 2019 after a lifelong struggle with Cystic Fibrosis (CF). He was brilliant, strong, and truly the kindest person I have ever known.
**Peter McMurry 12/10/1968 – 12/12/2019**
... | {
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McMurry was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1985 and received a Max Planck Society Research Award in 1991. Apart from his scientific contributions, McMurry is also a prolific author in the field of chemistry education. He has written 45 undergraduate chemistry textbooks,... | {
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**FIGURE 1.1 The enzyme HMG–CoA reductase, shown here as a so-called ribbon model, catalyzes a crucial step in the body's synthesis of cholesterol.** Understanding how this enzyme functions has led to the development of drugs credited with saving millions of lives. (credit: image from the... | {
"Header 1": "Structure and Bonding",
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All the atoms of a given element have the same atomic number: 1 for hydrogen, 6 for carbon, 15 for phosphorus, and so on; but they can have different mass numbers depending on how many neutrons they contain. Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called **isotopes**. The element carbon, for in... | {
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| | | TABLE 1.1 Ground-State Electron Configurations of Some | |
|----------|--|--------------------------------------------------------|--|
| Elements | | | |
| Element | Atomic number | Configuration | | | | | | |
|------------|---------... | {
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#### **Solution**
Hydrogen has one valence electron, carbon has four valence electrons, and chlorine has seven valence electrons. Thus, chloromethane is represented as
- **[PROBLEM](#page-446-3) 1-3** Draw a molecule of chloroform, CHCl3, using solid, wedged, and dashed lines to show its tetrahedral geometry.
- *... | {
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Each C–H bond in methane has a strength of 439 kJ/mol (105 kcal/mol) and a length of 109 pm. Because the four bonds have a specific geometry, we also can define a property called the **bond angle**. The angle formed by each H–C–H is 109.5°, the so-called tetrahedral angle. Methane thus has the structure shown in **FIGU... | {
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#### **1.9 sp Hybrid Orbitals and the Structure of Acetylene**
In addition to forming single and double bonds by sharing two and four electrons, respectively, carbon can also form a triple bond by sharing six electrons. To account for the triple bond in a molecule such as acetylene, ,... | {
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**[\(a\)](#page-447-1)** The oxygen atom in dimethyl ether, CH3–O–CH<sup>3</sup> **[\(b\)](#page-447-1)** The nitrogen atom in trimethylamine,
- **[\(c\)](#page-447-2)** The phosphorus atom in phosphine, PH<sup>3</sup>
- **[\(d\)](#page-447-2)** The sulfur atom in the amino acid methionine,
$$_{\rm CH_3-S-CH_2CH_... | {
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#### **Interpreting a Line-Bond Structure**
Carvone, a substance responsible for the odor of spearmint, has the following structure. Tell how many hydrogens are bonded to each carbon, and give the molecular formula of carvone.
#### **Strategy**
The end of a line represents a carbon atom with 3 hydrogens, CH3; a t... | {
"Header 1": "WORKED EXAMPLE 1.4",
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In the valence bond description, carbon uses hybrid orbitals to form bonds in organic molecules. When forming only single bonds with tetrahedral geometry, carbon uses four equivalent **sp <sup>3</sup> hybrid orbitals**. When forming a double bond with planar geometry, carbon uses three equivalent **sp <sup>2</sup> hy... | {
"Header 1": "WORKED EXAMPLE 1.4",
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What is the hybridization and the bond angle for each nonterminal atom?
#### **Skeletal Structures**
**PROBLEM** Convert the following structures into skeletal drawings:
**1-41**
**(d)**
**PROBLEM 1-42** How many hydrogens are bonded to each carbon... | {
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**FIGURE 2.1 The opium poppy is the source of morphine, one of the first "vegetable alkali," or alkaloids, to be isolated.** (credit: "Papaver somniferum" by Liz West/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)
#### **CHAPTER CONTENTS**
- **2.1 Polar Covalent Bonds and Electronegativity**
- **2.2 Polar Covale... | {
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(a)** Methanol, CH3OH, has a polar covalent C–O bond, and **(b)** methyllithium, CH3Li, has a polar covalent C–Li bond. The computer-generated representations, called electrostatic potential maps, use color to show calculated charge distributions, ranging from **red (electron-rich; δ−)** to **blue (electron-poor; δ+).*... | {
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**[PROBLEM](#page-448-2) 2-5** Ethylene glycol, HOCH2CH2OH, may look nonpolar when drawn, but an internal hydrogen bond between the two –OH groups results in a dipole moment. Explain.
**[PROBLEM](#page-448-3) 2-6** Make three-dimensional drawings of the following molecules, and predi... | {
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When first dealing with resonance forms, it's useful to have a set of guidelines that describe how to draw and interpret them. The following rules should be helpful:
#### **RULE 1**
**Individual resonance forms are imaginary, not real**. The real structure is a composite, or resonance hybrid, of the different forms... | {
"Header 1": "**2.5 Rules for Resonance Forms**",
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#### **Drawing Resonance Forms for an Anion**
Draw three resonance structures for the carbonate ion, CO3 2– .
#### **Strategy**
Look for three-atom groupings that contain a multiple bond next to an atom with a p orbital. Then exchange the positions of the multiple bond and the electrons in the p orbital. In the c... | {
"Header 1": "WORKED EXAMPLE 2.2",
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The calculation is artificial in that the concentration of "solvent" water is ignored while the concentration of "acid" water is not, but it is nevertheless useful for making a comparison of water with other weak acids on a similar footing.
Notice also in **[TABLE 2.3](#page-62-1)** that there is an inverse relations... | {
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\\ NH_3 \end{array}$$
**[PROBLEM](#page-449-5)** What is the <sup>K</sup>a of HCN if its pKa = 9.31?
**2-16**
#### **2.10 Organic Acids and Organic Bases**
Many of the reactions we'll be seeing in future chapters, including practically all biological reactions, involve organic acids and organic bases. Although ... | {
"Header 1": "WORKED EXAMPLE 2.2",
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#### **Strategy**
A Lewis base donates an electron pair to a Lewis acid. We therefore need to locate the electron lone pairs on acetaldehyde and use a curved arrow to show the movement of a pair toward the H atom of the acid.
#### **Solution**
$$\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc$$
**[PROBLEM]... | {
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#### **Alkaloids: From Cocaine to Dental Anesthetics**
Just as ammonia (NH3) is a weak base, there are a large number of nitrogen-containing organic compounds called amines that are also weak bases. In the early days of organic chemistry, basic amines derived from natural sources were known as vegetable alkali, but t... | {
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**PROBLEM 2-23** The following molecular models are representations of **(a)** adenine and **(b)** cytosine, constituents of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Indicate the positions of multiple bonds and lone pairs for both, and draw skeletal structures (black = C, red = O, blue = N, gray = ... | {
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2-35 (a)
$$(CH_3)_2OBF_3$$
(b) $H_2C=N\equiv N$ : (c) $H_2C=N=N$ : (d) $U=0=0=0$ : (e) $CH_3$ $H_2C=N=N$ : (f) $U=0=0=0$ : (e) $U=0$ : (f) $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : $U=0$ : ... | {
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Why do the following structures not represent resonance forms?
#### **Acids and Bases**
**PROBLEM 2-40** Alcohols can act either as weak acids or as weak bases, just as water can. Show the reaction of methanol, CH3OH, with a strong acid such as HCl and with a strong base such as Na+ –... | {
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**PROBLEM** Identify the acids and bases in the following reactions:
2-55 (a)
$$CH_3OH + H^+ \longrightarrow CH_3OH_2$$
(b) $CH_3OH + H^+ \longrightarrow CH_3OH_2$ $CCCCH_3$ $CCCCCH_3$ $CCCCCCH_3$ $CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC$
**PROBLEM** Which of the following pairs represent resonance structur... | {
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Use the electronegativity values given in Figure 2.3 to predict the direction of polarization of the following functional groups.
(a)
$$O$$
(b) (c) $O$ (d) $-C \equiv N$ $C$ $O$ $O$ $O$ (d) $-C \equiv N$ Ketone Alcohol Amide Nitrile
**PROBLEM 2-60** The azide functional group, which occurs in azidoben... | {
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**FIGURE 3.1 The bristlecone pine is the oldest living organism on Earth.** The waxy coating on its needles contains a mixture of organic compounds called alkanes, the subject of this chapter. (credit: "Gnarly Bristlecone Pine" by Rick Goldwaser/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)
#### **CHAPTER CONTENT... | {
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In all these functional groups, the carbonyl carbon atom bears a partial positive charge (δ+), and the oxygen bears a partial negative charge (δ–).
**[PROBLEM](#page-450-0)** Use Table 3.1 to identify the functional groups in each of the following molecule... | {
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$$\begin{array}{c} & 0 \\ || \\ \text{CH}_2\text{CCCH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{CH}... | {
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Compounds like the two C4H10 molecules and the three C5H12 molecules, which have the same formula but different structures, are called **Isomers**, from the Greek isos + meros, meaning "made of the same parts." Isomers have the same numbers and kinds of atoms but differ in the way the atoms are arranged. Compounds li... | {
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For example, removal of a hydrogen from methane, CH4, generates a methyl group, –CH3, and removal of a hydrogen from ethane, CH3CH3, generates an ethyl group, –CH2CH3. Similarly, removal of a hydrogen atom from the end carbon of any straight-chain alkane gives the series of straight-chain alkyl groups shown in **[TABLE... | {
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**3-7**
**[PROBLEM](#page-450-9)** Identify the carbon atoms in the following molecules as primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary:
3-8 (a)
$$CH_3$$
(b) $CH_3CHCH_3$ (c) $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $CH_3$ $C... | {
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Thus, urea (CH4N2O) is a crystalline substance isolated from urine; morphine (C17H19NO3) is an analgesic (painkiller) named after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams; and acetic acid, the primary organic constituent of vinegar, is named from the Latin word for vinegar, acetum.
As the science of organic chemistry slowly... | {
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#### **Solution**
**[PROBLEM](#page-451-2)** Give IUPAC names for the following compounds:
3-11 (a) The three isomers of
$$C_5H_{12}$$
(b) $CH_3$ (c) $CH_3$ (d) $CH_3$ (CH3)2CHCH2CHCH3 (CH3)3CCH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 (CH3)3CCH2CH2CH2CH3 (CH3)3CCH2CH2CH2CH3 (CH3)3CCH2CH2CH2CH3 (CH3)3CCH2CH2CH2CH3 (CH3)3CCH2CH2CH2CH3 ... | {
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Only when sufficient energy is applied to overcome these forces does the solid melt or liquid boil. As you might expect, dispersion forces increase as molecular size increases, accounting for the higher melting and boiling points of larger alkanes.
**FIGURE 3.5 A plot of melting and boi... | {
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A total strain energy of 19 kJ/mol (4.5 kcal/ mol) has been estimated for this conformation, making it possible to calculate a value of 11 kJ/mol (2.6 kcal/ mol) for the CH3⟷CH3 eclipsing interaction: total strain of 19 kJ/mol minus the strain of two H⟷H eclipsing interactions (2 × 4.0 kcal/mol) equals 11 kJ/mol.
![]... | {
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The final product that goes in your tank has an approximate composition of 15% C4–C8 straight-chain alkanes, 25% to 40% C4–C10 branched-chain alkanes, 10% cyclic alkanes, 10% straight-chain and cyclic alkenes, and 25% arenes (aromatics).
#### **Key Terms**
- **[alcohol](#page-86-0)**
- **[aldehyde](#page-87-0)**
- ... | {
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**3-30**
**PROBLEM** Draw as many compounds as you can that fit the following descriptions:
- **3-31 (a)** Alcohols with formula C4H10O **(b)** Amines with formula C5H13N
- **(c)** Ketones with formula C5H10O **(d)** Aldehydes with formula C5H10O
- **(e)** Esters with formula C4H8O<sup>2</sup> **(f)** Ethers with f... | {
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**FIGURE 4.1 The musk gland of the male Himalayan musk deer secretes a substance once used in perfumery that contains cycloalkanes of 14 to 18 carbons**. (credit: modification of work "Siberian musk deer in the tiaga" by ErikAdamsson/Wikimedia Commons, CC0 1.0)
#### **CHAPTER CONTENTS*... | {
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The 1,2-dimethylcyclopropanes are members of a subclass of stereoisomers called **cis–trans isomers**. The prefixes cis- (Latin "on the same side") and trans- (Latin "across") are used to distinguish between them. Cis–trans isomerism is a common occurrence in substituted cycloalkanes and in many cyclic biological mol... | {
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The result is that cyclopropane bonds are weaker and more reactive than typical alkane bonds—255 kJ/mol (61 kcal/mol) for a C−C bond in cyclopropane versus 370 kJ/mol (88 kcal/mol) for a C−C bond in open-chain propane.
#### **Cyclobutane**
Cyclobutane ... | {
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Two hydrogens on the same side of the ring are always cis, regardless of whether they're axial or equatorial and regardless of whether they're adjacent. Similarly, two hydrogens on opposite sides of the ring are always trans.
Axial and equatorial bonds can be drawn following the procedure shown in **[FIGURE 4.11](#pa... | {
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| TABLE 4.1 Steric Strain in Monosubstituted Cyclohexanes | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------------------------|----------|------------|--|--|--|--|
| | | | | | | |
| Y ... | {
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#### **Solution**
First draw the two chair conformations of the molecule:
Ring-flip
$$H_3C$$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H_3C$
$H... | {
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**[PROBLEM](#page-453-3) 4-18** Draw the more stable chair conformation of the following molecules, and estimate the amount of strain in each:
- **[\(a\)](#page-453-3)** trans-1-Chloro-3-methylcyclohexane **[\(b\)](#page-453-3)** cis-1-Ethyl-2-methylcyclohexane
- **[\(c\)](#page-453-3)** cis-1-Bromo-4-ethylcyclohex... | {
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Cis–trans isomers are just one kind of **stereoisomer**—compounds that have the same connections between atoms but different threedimensional arrangements.
Not all cycloalkanes are equally stable. Three kinds of strain contribute to the overall energy of a cycloalkane: (1) **angle strain** is the resistance of a bond... | {
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Draw the two possible chair conformations, and suggest a reason for the large energy difference.
- **PROBLEM 4-48** Approximately how much steric strain does the 1,3-diaxial interaction between the two methyl groups introduce into the diaxial conformation of cis-1,3-dimethylcyclohexane? (See Problem 4-47.)
- **PROBLEM ... | {
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**FIGURE 5.1 Like the mountain whose image is reflected in a lake, many organic molecules also have mirror-image counterparts**. (credit: modification of work "Crystal Lake sunrise reflection" by Sandy Horvath-Dori/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0)
#### **CHAPTER CONTENTS**
- **5.1 Enant... | {
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Methylcyclohexane is achiral because no carbon atom in the molecule is bonded to four different groups. You can immediately eliminate all −CH2− carbons and the −CH3 carbon from consideration, but what about C1 on the ring? The C1 carbon atom is bonded to a −CH3 group, to an −H atom, and to C2 and C6 of the ring. Carbon... | {
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} |
#### **Calculating an Optical Rotation**
A 1.20 g sample of cocaine, [α]D = −16, was dissolved in 7.50 mL of chloroform and placed in a sample tube having a pathlength of 5.00 cm. What was the observed rotation?
#### **Strategy**
Since
Then
where [α]<sup>D</sup> = −16; <sup>l</sup> = 5.00 cm = 0.500 dm; <sup>... | {
"Header 1": "WORKED EXAMPLE 5.2",
"token_count": 2043,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/OrganicChemistry-SAMPLE_9ADraVJ.pdf"
} |
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