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R.[, 296](#page-310-0) Macrocylic compounds, [469](#page-483-0) Madelung constant, [226 β 227](#page-240-0) Magic Acid[, 174](#page-188-0) Magnesium, [263 ,](#page-277-0) [264](#page-278-0) [, 265](#page-279-0) Magnetic levitation[, 237](#page-251-0) Magnetic moment, m, [18 ,](#page-32-0) [126 ,](#page-140-0) [35... | {
"Header 1": "[Index](#page-10-0)",
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I., [5 ,](#page-19-0) [10 ,](#page-24-0) [271](#page-285-0) *mer* isomers, [323 β 324](#page-337-0) Mercury complexes, equilibrium constants of exchange reactions, [203](#page-217-0) Mercury(I) halides, [201](#page-215-0) Meridional isomers, [323 β 324](#page-337-0) Metal atoms, bonding between organic pi systems ... | {
"Header 1": "[Index](#page-10-0)",
"token_count": 1446,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/inorganic-chemistry-g-l-miessler-2014.pdf"
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A., [11](#page-25-0) Minerals structures of, [215](#page-229-0) study of, [5 β 6](#page-19-0) Mirror planes, [77 ,](#page-91-0) [84](#page-98-0) [, 85](#page-99-0) Mixing orbitals, [124 β 126](#page-138-0) MLX plots, [523](#page-537-0) *Mno* rule, [610](#page-624-0) Model compounds, [6](#page-20-0) Modular synt... | {
"Header 1": "[Index](#page-10-0)",
"token_count": 1938,
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See Ammonia (NH3) | Nuclear model of the atom, 11 |
| Molecular symmetry, bond dipoles and, 67 | Nickel arsenide (NiAs), | Nucleophilic discrimination factor, |
| Molecular tweezers, 200 | structure of, 223... | {
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C., 309 | compounds, 302 β 306<br>electronegativity, 59 , 252 | Olefi n metathesis, 565 β 570 |
| NaCl | elements, 301 β 302 | Onnes, K., 236 |
| crystal structure, 282 ... | {
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L., [477](#page-491-0) PBr3, [59](#page-73-0) P(C6H5)3, [87](#page-101-0) PCl3, [59](#page-73-0) bond angle, [59](#page-73-0) point groups, [87](#page-101-0) pcu, [349](#page-363-0) Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling, [547 β 548](#page-561-0)
Pearson, R. G., [58 ,](#page-72-0) [201 β 202 ,](#page-215-0) [209 ,](#pa... | {
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"token_count": 231,
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J., [261](#page-275-0) Pentaaminecobalt(III), [452](#page-466-0) Pentadentate, [318](#page-332-0) Pentagonal bipyramidal geometry, [51 ,](#page-65-0) [52 ,](#page-66-0) [54 ,](#page-68-0) [343 β 344 ,](#page-357-0) [605](#page-619-0) Pentagonal planar complexes, [341](#page-355-0) Pentahaptocyclopentadienyl, [479... | {
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L., 34β35, 36 |
| Polyynediyl bridges, 519 | Radioactivity, 5 | Right-handed helices, 327β328 |
| Poole, C. P., 239, 246 | Radiocarbon dating, 272 ... | {
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R., [237](#page-251-0) Schrock metathesis catalysts, [568 ,](#page-582-0) [569](#page-583-0) Schrock-type carbene complexes, [515](#page-529-0) SchrΓΆdinger, E., [5](#page-19-0) SchrΓΆdinger equation, [14 β 26 ,](#page-28-0) [117](#page-131-0) SCN-, resonance structure, [47](#page-61-0) Screw dislocations, [241](#p... | {
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*See also* Crystalline solids imperfections in, [240 β 241](#page-254-0) Solubility, [227 β 229](#page-241-0) Solvation of anion, [187](#page-201-0) of cation, [187](#page-201-0) Solvent isomerism, [331](#page-345-0) Solvent isomers, [322](#page-336-0) Solvents amphoteric, [171 β 172](#page-185-0) nonamphoteric,... | {
"Header 1": "[Index](#page-10-0)",
"token_count": 1628,
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A., [534 ,](#page-548-0) [574 ,](#page-588-0) [614](#page-628-0) Stowasser, R., [131](#page-145-0) Strong-fi eld ligands, [372](#page-386-0) Strong-fi eld limit, [415](#page-429-0) Strong ligand fi eld, [415](#page-429-0) Strontium, [263](#page-277-0) Structure-breaking ions, [228 β 229](#page-242-0) Structure-m... | {
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A., 543 | Vacancies, 240 |
| chirality and, 323 | Total angular momentum quantum | Valence band, 230 , 231 |
| elements, 75 , 79 | number, 408 |... | {
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molecular vibrations, [101 β 103](#page-115-0) as oxidizing agent, [187](#page-201-0) photolytic splitting of, [432](#page-446-0) planes of symmetry, [80](#page-94-0) point groups, [87](#page-101-0) properties of, [68 ,](#page-82-0) [171](#page-185-0) as reducing agent, [187 β 188](#page-201-0) representation fl... | {
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"Header 3": "**682** | Index",
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X-function ligand[, 521](#page-535-0) X-ray crystallography, [6 ,](#page-20-0) [335 ,](#page-349-0) [517 ,](#page-531-0) [590](#page-604-0) X-ray diffractio[n, 51](#page-65-0) XeF2, shape of, [54](#page-68-0) XeF4 shape of, [54](#page-68-0) symmetry of molecular motions of, [106](#page-120-0) vibrational modes of... | {
"Header 1": "[Index](#page-10-0)",
"Header 3": "**X**",
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The need for innovation, adaptability, and discovery is more glaring in our world today than ever. Globally, we all look to "thought leaders" for progress, many of whom were, are, or will be students of science. Whether these students were inspired by a book, a teacher, or technology, we at Pearson Education want to do... | {
"Header 1": "**Pearson Advanced Chemistry Series**",
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by Ira N. Levine *Brooklyn College, City College of New York*
| 18<br>8A | 2<br>He | 10<br>Ne | | Ar<br>39.948 | 36<br>Kr | 83.798 | Xe Xe | 131.29 | 86<br>Rn | (222) | 118<br>Uuo | (294) |
|----------------|--------------... | {
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"Header 3": "**Quantum Chemistry**",
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| Cy | Ho | H | II | Ξ»b | r<br>T |
| | 140.116 | 140.9077 | 144.242 | (145) | 150.36 | 151.964 | 157.25 | 158.9254 | 162.500 | 164.9303 | 167.259 | 168.9342 | 173.05 | 174.9668 |
| | 06 | 91 | 92 | 93... | {
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| Greek Al | phabet | | | | |
|-----------|----------|---------|---|----------|---------|
| A | Ξ± | alpha | N | Ξ½ | nu |
| Π | $\beta$ | beta | θ£ | ΞΎ | xi |
| Ξ | Ξ³ | gamma | Π | o | omicron |
| $\Delta$ | Ξ΄ ... | {
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| Element | Z | Configuration | Element | Z | Configuration |
|----------------|----|---------------------------------------------------------------|---------|-----|------------------------------------------------------|
... | {
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| 21 | $[Ar]4s^23d^4$ | Au | 79 | *[Xe] $6s^14f^{14}5d^{10}$ |
| Ξi | 22 | $[Ar]4s^23d^2$ | Hg | 80 | $[Xe]6s^24f^{14}5d^{10}$ |
| 7 ... | {
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| 39 | $[Kr]5s^24d^1$ | Cf | 98 | $[Rn]7s^25f^{10}$ |
| Zr | 40 | $[Kr]5s^24d^2$ | Es | 99 | $[Rn]7s^25f^{11}$ |
| Nb ... | {
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| Physical Constants | Speed of light in a vacuum | $c_0$ | $2.99792458 \times 10^8 \text{ m s}^{-1}$ |
|--------------------|--------------------------------|----------------------|---------------------------------------------------------|
| | Permittivity of a vac... | {
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To convert from units in the first column to units in columns 2β4, multiply by the factor given. For example, 1 eV = 96.4853 kJ/mol.
| | $cm^{-1}$ | eV | kJ/mol | kcal/mol |
|--------------------|-----------|--------------|------------|------------|
| $\mathrm{cm}^{-1}$ | 1 ... | {
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| | Foreword | | 6 |
|---|----------|---------------------------------------------------------------|----|
| | Glossary | | 7 |
| 1 | | Introduction to the Introduction ... | {
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While teaching botany for about twenty years, I came to the idea of re-structuring the "classical" course into a more logical sequence of themes which you will find in this textbook.
There were two main ideas that I attempted to embed here: one was to put as much plant-related information as possible into an evolutio... | {
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"Header 2": "**Foreword**",
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*K***-strategy** population growth when there is small number of offspring with high probability to survive
*r***-strategy** population growth when there is huge number of offspring with low probability to survive
**absorption zone** root: zone of root hairs
**achene** one-seeded indehiscent dry fruit of Composit... | {
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"Header 2": "**Glossary**",
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#### **1.1 Plants, Botany, and Kingdoms**
**Botany** is the scientific study of plants and plant-like organisms. It helps us understand why plants are so vitally important to the world. Plants start the majority of food and energy chains, they provide us with oxygen, food and medicine.
Plants can be divided into tw... | {
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"Header 2": "**Introduction to the Introduction**",
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At the moment, we have almost 20,000,000 names to describe 2,000,000 species. These 18,000,000 "excess names" are **synonyms** which should not be used in science. To regulate the use of names, **nomenclature codes** were created. These codes specify, for example, the **rule of priority**: *when two names are given for... | {
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"Header 2": "**Introduction to the Introduction**",
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#### **2.1 Discovery of Photosynthesis**
The history of the studies done on photosynthesis dates back into the 17th century with Jan Baptist van Helmont. He rejected the ancient idea that plants take most of their biomass from the soil. For the proof, he performed willow tree experiment. He started with a willow tree... | {
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"Header 2": "**Photosynthesis**",
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[2.7\)](#page-33-1).
**Figure 2.5.** Chloroplast.
\* \* \*
To summarize, the logic of photosynthesis (Fig. [2.8\)](#page-34-0) is based on a simple idea: *make sugar from carbon dioxide*. Imagine if we have letters "s", "g", "u", and "a" and need to build the word "sugar". Obviously... | {
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#### **3.1 Introduction to Cells**
In 1665, Robert Hooke looked at cork under a microscope and saw multiple chambers which he called "cells". In 1838, Schleidern and Schwann stated that (1) *all plants and animals are composed of cells* and that (2) *cell is the most basic unit ("atom") of life*. In 1858, Virchow sta... | {
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Plant cells, in turn, have *three genomes*, and chloroplast genome is usually also inherited maternally.
Chloroplasts synthesize organic compounds whereas mitochondria produce most of the cytoplasmic ATP. Both organells are covered with two membranes and contain circular DNA and ribosomes similar to bacterial. Chloro... | {
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#### **4.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle**
**Mitosis** is a process of equal cell division, where each of the new cells receives the same number of chromosomes as the original cell. Mitosis does not change the cells' genotype. The goal of mitosis is to distribute pre-combined genetic material equally. Actually, mitosis ... | {
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In the first division, cell needs to split pairs of homologs to reduce ploidy. The second division of meiosis is necessary because DNA was already duplicated in the synthetic stage of the cell cycle. Consequently, every *X*-like chromosome needs to be split into two *I*-like chromosomes:
$$XX \rightarrow X + X \rig... | {
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**Figure 4.10.** Sporic life cycle. Overview. Haploid part is on the left, diploid on the right, syngamy on the top, meiosis on the bottom.
In all, there are three types of life cycles: sporic, zygotic, which is the most similar to unicellular and most primitive; and gametic, which is... | {
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#### **5.1 Tissues**
From now on, we will frequently use multiple names of plants<sup>2</sup> group, they are summarized on Figure [5.1,](#page-66-3) and in more detailsβon Fig[.6.1.](#page-104-0)
**Figure 5.1.** Plants<sup>2</sup> classification: overview.
#### **5.1.1 Epidermis and... | {
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"Header 2": "**Tissues and Organs; or how the Plant is built**",
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Tracheids are closed on both ends and connected with **pits** whereas vessel members are more or less open and connects via **perforations**. Tracheids, vessel members and fibers are dead cells. Xylem parenchyma, on the other hand, is alive.
Pits of tracheids consist of a pit membrane and the torus in a center, there... | {
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Buds, fruits, seeds and specific to seedlings hypocotyl and epicotyl are **non-organs** for different reasons: **buds** are just young shoos, **fruit** is the ripe flower, **hypocotyl** is a part of stem between first leaves of the seedling (cotyledons) and root (i.e., stem/root transition place), **epicotyl** is fir... | {
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A plant can have both juvenile leaves and adult leaves, water leaves and air leaves, or sun leaves and shade leaves. A leaf mosaics refers to the distribution of leaves in a single plane perpendicular to light rays, this provides the least amount of shading for each leaf.
Leaves have seasonal lives; they arise from t... | {
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Multiple types of spiral leaf arrangement mostly follow the **Fibonacci sequence**:
$$\frac{1}{2}$$
, $\frac{1}{3}$ , $\frac{2}{5}$ , $\frac{3}{8}$ , $\frac{5}{13}$ , $\frac{8}{21}$ , ...
**Figure 5.24.** Types of phyllotaxis (leaf arrangement): a spiral (alternate), b and c oppo... | {
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[5.31\)](#page-97-1)! However, as a rule, root is the heterotrophic organ, because root cells have no access to the light.
**Root nodules** present on the roots of nitrogen-fixing plants, they contain bacteria capable to deoxidize athmospheric nitrogen into ammonia: N<sup>2</sup> β NH3. Root nodules contain also hemo... | {
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When plants developed basic tissues and organs and thus became mature enough to survive on land, they started to increase in their diversity. All plants studied in this and following chapters belong to plants2, or kingdom Vegetabilia which is split into three phyla (Fig. [6.1\)](#page-104-0): Bryophyta (mosses and rela... | {
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"Header 2": "**Growing Diversity of Plants**",
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Lycophytes belong to **microphyllous** lineage of pteridohytes. This means that their leaves originated from the emergences of the stem surface, and therefore are more similar to moss leaves than any other leaves of pteridophytes and seed plants. Lycophyte sporangia are associated with leaves and often form **strobilus... | {
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"Header 2": "**Growing Diversity of Plants**",
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Heterosporic life cycle (Fig. [6.11\)](#page-116-0) starts with a male gametophyte and a female gametophyte, both of which produce gametes. Once fertilization occurs, a zygote develops into sporophyte. The sporophyte will then produce two different sporangia types: female **megasporangia** and male **microsporgangia**.... | {
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Competition over resources (primarily water and sun light) always drove plant evolution. The most logical way to escape competition was to enlarge the body. But if only primary tissues are available, this growth is strictly limited.
Without secondary thickening, the trunk will easily break under the weight of growing... | {
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"Header 2": "**The Origin of Trees and Seeds**",
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The most ancient classification employ both branching and thickening and divide plants into trees, shrubs
**Figure 7.5.** Monopodial (left) and sympodial branching. First, second and third years of growth are red, blue and green, respectively. Note that rightmost branch developed the FU... | {
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Conversely, in tropics, many plants which are herbs in temperate regions, will have time to develop secondary tissues and may even become tree-like.
Dynamic approach uses three categories: hardiness, woodiness, and slenderness (Fig. [7.11\)](#page-130-0). *Hardiness* is a sensitivity of their exposed parts to all neg... | {
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(Below, we will continue to call all male gametes "sperms"). Pollen tube also allows only two male gametes per gametophyte: in living world, male gametes are usually competing for fertilizationβthis selects the best genotypes; whereas in higher seed plants, competition is between pollen tubes. Haploid pollen tube grows... | {
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While these plants morphologically remind of angiosperms, they are molecularly related more to other gymnosperms. *Ephedra* are horsetail-like desert leafless shrubs, *Gnetum* are tropical trees, and *Welwitschia* are plants which have a life form that is really hard to tell (Fig. [7.21\)](#page-143-0).
*Ephedra* has... | {
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#### **8.1 Spermatophyta 2.0**
Flowering plants (angiosperms, Angiospermae) are sometimes referred to as "Spermatophyta 2.0.", or "upgraded gymnosperms". In fact, there is no single character which unequivocally differs flowering plants from other seed plants. Only several characteristics combined together will disti... | {
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"Header 2": "**The Origin of Flowering**",
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[8.5\)](#page-153-0). Perianth is typically split into green part (*calyx*, consists of *sepals*) and color part (*corolla*, consists of *petals*). Sometimes perianth consists of similar parts which are neither sepals nor petals: *tepals*. This might be seen in the tulip (*Tulipa*) flower where tepals change their colo... | {
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If there are A and C genes expressed, cells will make sepals and pistils. In areas where A and B are active, petals will form; areas where B and C are active are the sites where stamens will appear. A will make a sepal, C will "create" a carpel:
β’ A alone β calyx
- A + B β corolla
- C + B β androecium
- β’ C alone β... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to Botany**",
"Header 2": "**The Origin of Flowering**",
"token_count": 1915,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/intro_botany.pdf"
} |
All these different variants have their own names partly described in the following table:
| Type | Consistency | Opening | Example(s) |
|---------------|---------------------|-------------|--------------------------------------------------|
| Simple ... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to Botany**",
"Header 2": "**The Origin of Flowering**",
"token_count": 2019,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/intro_botany.pdf"
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Fruit of aster family is one-seeded **achene** (it is a frequent mistake to call it "seed"). In achene, walls of inferior ovary are tightly fused with seed coat. Achenes frequently bear diverse dispersal structures: trichomes, teeth, hooks and others.
\* \* \*
Oil plants, vegetables, ornamentals and medicinal pla... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to Botany**",
"Header 2": "**The Origin of Flowering**",
"token_count": 787,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/intro_botany.pdf"
} |
#### **9.1 Geography of Vegetation**
Plants are main components of terrestrial ecosystems, they are primary producers, and almost all terrestrial life if based on plants. Consequently, plants will determine how a particular territory might look, which could be, for example, grassland, tundra, or forest. These *types ... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to Botany**",
"Header 2": "**Plants and Earth**",
"token_count": 1313,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/intro_botany.pdf"
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The goal of taxonomy is to describe diversity, provide an insight to the evolutionary history (phylogeny), help to determine organisms (diagnostics) and allow for **taxonomic estimations**. The latter means that if we know features of one plant, the taxonomically close one should have similar features. For example, pla... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to Botany**",
"Header 2": "**Methods of Taxonomy and Diagnostics**",
"token_count": 2008,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/intro_botany.pdf"
} |
**Figure A.2.** Crown (green skull) and stem (red skull) extinct groups among extant groups.
#### **A.2 Phenetics**
The other way of making classification is even more mathematical. This is **phenetics** based on multivariate methods of data analysis. One of its methods is **cluste... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to Botany**",
"Header 2": "**Methods of Taxonomy and Diagnostics**",
"token_count": 1103,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/intro_botany.pdf"
} |
Below is the set of botanical problems, questions which require careful thinking and analysis of multiple hypotheses. Please remember that it is rare in biology to have just one answer, so most of questions below have many answers.
- 1. Some asters and other flowering plants grow in the tidal zone of the sea: during ... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to Botany**",
"Header 2": "**Problems**",
"token_count": 1818,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/intro_botany.pdf"
} |
There are botanical publications which I especially like, and also think that they might be useful to the readers of this book. There are so many of them! But I tried to shorten this list as much as possible. This list is below.
- Boudouresque C.F. 2015. Taxonomy and phylogeny of unicellular eukaryotes. In Environmen... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to Botany**",
"Header 2": "**Some useful literature**",
"token_count": 785,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/intro_botany.pdf"
} |
After studying this Unit, you will be able to
- describe an electrochemical cell and differentiate between galvanic and electrolytic cells;
- apply Nernst equation for calculating the emf of galvanic cell and define standard potential of the cell:
- derive relation between standard potential of the cell, Gibbs energy... | {
"Header 1": "<u> Objectives</u>",
"token_count": 220,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
Chemical reactions can be used to produce electrical energy, conversely, electrical energy can be used to carry out chemical reactions that do not proceed spontaneously.
Electrochemistry is the study of production of electricity from energy released during spontaneous chemical reactions and the use of electrical ener... | {
"Header 1": "Unit Electrochemistry",
"token_count": 729,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
As mentioned earlier a galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction into electrical energy. In this device the Gibbs energy of the spontaneous redox reaction is converted into electrical work which may be used for running a motor or other electrical gadgets ... | {
"Header 1": "2.2 Galvanic Cells",
"token_count": 2021,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
2.1 can be written as:
Left electrode:
$$Zn(s) \rightarrow Zn^{2+}$$
(aq, 1 M) + 2 e<sup>-</sup>
Right electrode: $Cu^{2+}$ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e<sup>-</sup> $\rightarrow Cu(s)$
The overall reaction of the cell is the sum of above two reactions and we obtain the equation:
$$Zn(s) + Cu^{2+} (aq) \rightarrow Zn^{2+} (... | {
"Header 1": "2.2 Galvanic Cells",
"token_count": 716,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
We have assumed in the previous section that the concentration of all the species involved in the electrode reaction is unity. This need not be always true. Nernst showed that for the electrode reaction:
$$M^{n+}(aq) + ne^{-} \rightarrow M(s)$$
the electrode potential at any concentration measured with respect to s... | {
"Header 1": "2.3 Nernst Equation",
"token_count": 351,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
| Reaction (Oxidised form + ne <sup>2</sup> β Reduced form) F <sub>2</sub> (g) + 2e <sup>2</sup> Co <sup>3+</sup> + e <sup>2</sup> β Co <sup>2+</sup> $+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + $ | ... | {
"Header 1": "2.3 Nernst Equation",
"token_count": 2230,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
A negative $E^{\rm o}$ means that the redox couple is a stronger reducing agent than the H<sup>+</sup>/H<sub>2</sub> couple. 2. A positive $E^{\rm o}$ means that the redox couple is a weaker reducing agent than the H<sup>+</sup>/H<sub>2</sub> couple.
In Daniell cell, the electrode potential for any given concentr... | {
"Header 1": "2.3 Nernst Equation",
"token_count": 1376,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
If the circuit in Daniell cell (Fig. 2.1) is closed then we note that the reaction
$$Zn(s) + Cu^{2+}(aq) \rightarrow Zn^{2+}(aq) + Cu(s)$$
(2.1)
takes place and as time passes, the concentration of $Zn^{2+}$ keeps on increasing while the concentration of $Cu^{2+}$ keeps on decreasing. At the same time voltage o... | {
"Header 1": "2.3.1 Equilibrium Constant from Nernst Equation",
"token_count": 1072,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
The standard electrode potential for Daniell cell is 1.1V. Calculate the standard Gibbs energy for the reaction:
$$Zn(s) + Cu^{2+}(aq) \longrightarrow Zn^{2+}(aq) + Cu(s)$$
Solution
$$\Delta_{\rm r}G^{\rm o} = -nFE_{\rm (cell)}^{\rm o}$$
n in the above equation is 2, F = 96487 C mol<sup>-1</sup> and $E_{\text{(c... | {
"Header 1": "Example 2.3",
"token_count": 2035,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
The conductivity of electrolytic (ionic) solutions depends on:
- (i) the nature of the electrolyte added
- (ii) size of the ions produced and their solvation
- (iii) the nature of the solvent and its viscosity
- (iv) concentration of the electrolyte
- (v) temperature (it increases with the increase of temperature). ... | {
"Header 1": "Example 2.3",
"token_count": 1910,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
Solution
The cell constant is given by the equation:
Cell constant = $G^*$ = conductivity Γ resistance
= 1.29 S/m Γ 100
$$\Omega$$
= 129 m<sup>-1</sup> = 1.29 cm<sup>-1</sup>
Conductivity of 0.02 mol $L^{-1}\,$ KCl solution = cell constant / resistance
$$= \frac{G^*}{R} = \frac{129 \text{ m}^{-1}}{520 \... | {
"Header 1": "Example 2.3",
"token_count": 1937,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
Example 2.6 The molar conductivity of KCl solutions at different concentrations at 298 K are given below:
| $c/\text{mol } L^{-1}$ | $\Lambda_m/S$ cm <sup>2</sup> mol <sup>-1</sup> |
|------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
| 0.000198 | 148.61 ... | {
"Header 1": "Example 2.3",
"token_count": 1986,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
**Solution** We know from Kohlrausch law that
$$\Lambda_{m(CaCl_2)}^{\circ} = \lambda_{Ca^{2+}}^{\circ} + 2\lambda_{Cl^{-}}^{\circ} = 119.0 \text{ S cm}^2 \text{ mol}^{-1} + 2(76.3) \text{ S cm}^2 \text{ mol}^{-1}$$
= (119.0 + 152.6) S cm<sup>2</sup> mol<sup>-1</sup>
= 271.6 S cm<sup>2</sup> mol<sup>-1</sup>
$$\L... | {
"Header 1": "Example 2.3",
"token_count": 1159,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
In an **electrolytic cell** external source of voltage is used to bring about a chemical reaction. The electrochemical processes are of great importance in the laboratory and the chemical industry. One of the simplest electrolytic cell consists of two copper strips dipping in an aqueous solution of copper sulphate. If ... | {
"Header 1": "2.5 Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis",
"token_count": 1073,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
A solution of $CuSO_4$ is electrolysed for 10 minutes with a current of 1.5 amperes. What is the mass of copper deposited at the cathode?
Solution
t = 600 s charge = current Γ time = 1.5 A Γ 600 s = 900 C According to the reaction:
$$Cu^{2+}(aq) + 2e^{-} = Cu(s)$$
We require 2F or $2 \times 96487$ C to depo... | {
"Header 1": "Example 2.10",
"token_count": 206,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
Products of electrolysis depend on the nature of material being electrolysed and the type of electrodes being used. If the electrode is inert (e.g., platinum or gold), it does not participate in the chemical reaction and acts only as source or sink for electrons. On the other hand, if the electrode is reactive, it part... | {
"Header 1": "2.5.1 Products of Electrolysis",
"token_count": 1937,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
The electrode reactions for the cell are given below:
Anode: $Zn(Hg) + 2OH^- \longrightarrow ZnO(s) + H_2O + 2e^-$ Cathode: $HgO + H_2O + 2e^- \longrightarrow Hg(l) + 2OH^-$
Zinc cup $MnO_2$ + (anode) carbon black + $NH_4$ Cl paste
Fig. 2.8: A commercial dry cell consists of a... | {
"Header 1": "2.5.1 Products of Electrolysis",
"token_count": 786,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
Production of electricity by thermal plants is not a very efficient method and is a major source of pollution. In such plants, the chemical energy (heat of combustion) of fossil fuels (coal, gas or oil) is first used for converting water into high pressure steam. This is then used to run a turbine to produce electricit... | {
"Header 1": "2.5.1 Products of Electrolysis",
"Header 3": "2.7 Fuel Cells",
"token_count": 679,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
2.13) of an object made of iron, oxidation takes place and that spot behaves as anode and we can write the reaction
$O_{2} + Fe^{2+}$ $Fe^{2+} + Fe^{2+} + O_{2}$ $Fe_{2}O_{3}$ $Fe_{2}$ $Fe_{2}O_{3}$ $Fe_{2}O_{4}$ $Fe_{2}O_{4}$ $Fe_{2}O_{5}$ $Fe_{2}O_{5}$ $Fe_{2}O_{5}$ $Fe_{2}O_{5}$ $Fe_{2}O_{5}$... | {
"Header 1": "2.5.1 Products of Electrolysis",
"Header 3": "2.7 Fuel Cells",
"token_count": 2048,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
One of the simplest methods of preventing corrosion is to prevent the surface of the metallic object to come in contact with atmosphere. This can be done by covering the surface with paint or by some chemicals (e.g. bisphenol). Another simple method is to cover the surface by other metals (Sn, Zn, etc.) that are inert ... | {
"Header 1": "2.5.1 Products of Electrolysis",
"Header 3": "2.7 Fuel Cells",
"token_count": 457,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
An **electrochemical cell** consists of two metallic electrodes dipping in electrolytic solution(s). Thus an important component of the electrochemical cell is the ionic conductor or electrolyte. Electrochemical cells are of two types. In **galvanic cell**, the **chemical energy** of a **spontaneous redox reaction** is... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"token_count": 522,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
- **2.1** Arrange the following metals in the order in which they displace each other from the solution of their salts.
- Al, Cu, Fe, Mg and Zn.
- **2.2** Given the standard electrode potentials,
$$K^{+}/K = -2.93V$$
, $Ag^{+}/Ag = 0.80V$ ,
$$Hg^{2+}/Hg = 0.79V$$
$$Mg^{2+}/Mg = -2.37 \text{ V}, \text{ } Cr^{3+}/... | {
"Header 1": "Exercises",
"token_count": 1865,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/lech102.pdf"
} |
#### **Fifth Edition**
**Harvey Lodish** (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
**Arnold Berk** (U. of California, Los Angeles)
**Paul Matsudaira** (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
**Chris A. Kaiser** (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
**Monty Krieger** (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
*... | {
"Header 1": "Molecular Cell Biology",
"Header 2": "**Molecular Cell Biology**",
"token_count": 1874,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
#### **Also available,**
#### **Student CD, 0-7167-8875-6**
Please note, this CD has the same material as the student Web site
**Instructors For Instructors,** the site offers specific ideas on using the electronic media for the book while teaching from it, including:
- **Textbook illustrations, photos, and t... | {
"Header 1": "Molecular Cell Biology",
"Header 2": "**Molecular Cell Biology**",
"token_count": 1922,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
Chemical Foundations**
- *Emphasis on role of noncovalent bonds and molecular complementarity in interactions between macromolecules*
- *Consolidated introduction to properties of biological monomers and principles of their polymerization*
- *Introduction to phospholipids and their assembly into larger structures*
- ... | {
"Header 1": "Molecular Cell Biology",
"Header 2": "**Molecular Cell Biology**",
"token_count": 2042,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
Transcriptional Control of Gene Expression**
- *Focus on gene control in eukaryotes (prokaryotes covered in Chapter 4)*
- *New molecular model of yeast RNA polymerase II and comparison with bacterial RNA polymerase*
- *New coverage of concept that a "histone code" functions in controlling transcription initiation by ... | {
"Header 1": "Molecular Cell Biology",
"Header 2": "**Molecular Cell Biology**",
"token_count": 1872,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
Metabolism and Movement of Lipids**
- *New chapter that provides an in-depth example of synergistic relationship between basic molecular cell biology and medicine*
- *Assay for detecting flippase activity of ABC proteins*
- *Role of ABC proteins and other transport proteins in formation of bile and enterohepatic circ... | {
"Header 1": "Molecular Cell Biology",
"Header 2": "**Molecular Cell Biology**",
"token_count": 1234,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
A single ~200 micrometer ( $\mu$ m) cell, the human egg, with sperm, which are also single cells. From the union of an egg and sperm will arise the 10 trillion cells of a human body. [Photo Researchers, Inc.]
ike ourselves, the individual cells that form our bodies can grow, reproduce, ... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "LIFE BEGINS WITH CELLS",
"token_count": 343,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
Cells come in an amazing variety of sizes and shapes (Figure 1-1). Some move rapidly and have fast-changing structures, as we can see in movies of amoebae and rotifers. Others are largely stationary and structurally stable. Oxygen kills some cells but is an absolute requirement for others. Most cells in multicellular o... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "1.1 The Diversity and Commonality of Cells",
"token_count": 2044,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
All cells are thought to have evolved from a common progenitor because the structures and molecules in all cells have
so many similarities. In recent years, detailed analysis of the DNA sequences from a variety of prokaryotic organisms has revealed two distinct types: the so-called "true" bacteria, or **eubacteria*... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "1.1 The Diversity and Commonality of Cells",
"token_count": 2024,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
Abbey/Visuals
Unlimited, Inc.]
make numerous antibiotics and are used in the manufacture of bread, beer, wine, and cheese. Not so pleasant are fungal diseases, which range from relatively innocuous skin infections, such as jock itch and athlete's foot, to life-threatening *Pneumocystis carinii* pneumonia, a common ... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "1.1 The Diversity and Commonality of Cells",
"token_count": 2027,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
Of greater scientific and medical interest is the ability to generate specific cell types starting from embryonic or adult stem cells. The scientific interest comes from learning the signals that can unleash the potential of the genes to form a certain cell type. The medical interest comes from the possibility of treat... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "1.1 The Diversity and Commonality of Cells",
"token_count": 2036,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
The information about how, when, and where to produce each kind of protein is carried in the genetic material, a polymer called **deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)**. The three-dimensional structure of DNA consists of two long helical strands that are coiled around a common axis, forming a **double helix**. DNA strands are c... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "Nucleic Acids Carry Coded Information for Making Proteins at the Right Time and Place",
"token_count": 286,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
(Left) The double helix is stabilized by weak hydrogen bonds between the A and T bases and between the C and G bases. (Right) During replication, the two strands are unwound and used
as templates to produce complementary strands. The outcome is two copies of the original double helix, each containing one of the origi... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "Nucleic Acids Carry Coded Information for Making Proteins at the Right Time and Place",
"Header 3": "β² FIGURE 1-10 DNA consists of two complementary strands wound around each other to form a double helix.",
"token_count": 2044,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molec... |
Body cells that do not contribute to offspring are called **somatic cells.** Mutations that occur in these cells never are inherited, although they may contribute to the onset of cancer. Plants have a less distinct division between somatic and germ-line cells, since many plant cells can function in both capacities.
M... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "Nucleic Acids Carry Coded Information for Making Proteins at the Right Time and Place",
"Header 3": "β² FIGURE 1-10 DNA consists of two complementary strands wound around each other to form a double helix.",
"token_count": 2023,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molec... |
The cells in animal tissues are "glued" together by **celladhesion molecules (CAMs)** embedded in their surface membranes. Some CAMs bind cells to one another; other types bind cells to the extracellular matrix, forming a cohesive unit. The cells of higher plants contain relatively few such molecules; instead, plants... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "Nucleic Acids Carry Coded Information for Making Proteins at the Right Time and Place",
"Header 3": "β² FIGURE 1-10 DNA consists of two complementary strands wound around each other to form a double helix.",
"token_count": 2026,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molec... |
In Chapters 11 and 12, we take a close look at transcriptional activators and repressors and how they operate, as well as other mechanisms for controlling gene expression. In an extreme case, expression of a particular gene could occur only in part of the brain, only during evening hours, only during a certain stage of... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "Nucleic Acids Carry Coded Information for Making Proteins at the Right Time and Place",
"Header 3": "β² FIGURE 1-10 DNA consists of two complementary strands wound around each other to form a double helix.",
"token_count": 2033,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molec... |
Cells undergoing programmed cell death (apoptosis), like the cell on the right, form numerous surface blebs that eventually are released. The cell is dying because it lacks certain growth signals. Apoptosis is important to eliminate virus-infected cells, remove cells where they are not needed (like the webbing that dis... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "Nucleic Acids Carry Coded Information for Making Proteins at the Right Time and Place",
"Header 3": "β² FIGURE 1-10 DNA consists of two complementary strands wound around each other to form a double helix.",
"token_count": 754,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecu... |
Actual observation of cells awaited development of the first, crude microscopes in the early 1600s. A compound microscope, the most useful type of light microscope, has two lenses. The total magnifying power is the product of the magnification by each lens. As better lenses were invented, the magnifying power and the a... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "Cell Biology Reveals the Size, Shape, and Location of Cell Components",
"token_count": 926,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
Biochemists extract the contents of cells and separate the constituents based on differences in their chemical or physical properties, a process called *fractionation*. Of particular interest are proteins, the workhorses of many cellular processes. A typical fractionation scheme involves use of various separation techn... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "Biochemistry Reveals the Molecular Structure and Chemistry of Purified Cell Constituents",
"token_count": 891,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
Biochemical and crystallographic studies can tell us much about an individual protein, but they cannot prove that it is required for cell division or any other cell process. The importance of a protein is demonstrated most firmly if a mutation that prevents its synthesis or makes it nonfunctional adversely affects the ... | {
"Header 1": "1",
"Header 2": "Genetics Reveals the Consequences of Damaged Genes",
"token_count": 2039,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/s-molecularcellbiology.pdf"
} |
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