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The severity of this cavitation, as measured by the amount of the energy released, depends on the value of the ratio *Rm*/*R*0, where *Rm* denotes the radius of the bubble when it has expanded to its maximum size. Obviously this ratio depends on the magnitude of the acoustic pressure amplitude, i.e., the acoustic inten... | {
"Header 1": "16 Ultrasonics",
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Then
$$\xi_j = \sin[k(ja)] \left(\frac{\xi_1}{\sin(ka)}\right)$$
The eigenvalue k is quantitized with
$$k = \frac{n}{N+1} \frac{\pi}{a} \quad \text{with } n = 1, 2, \dots, N$$
In an infinite system or in a system with periodic boundary conditions, it is readily established that $X_k = 0$ or $X_{-k} = 0$ . If... | {
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That is, it converts acoustical energy into or from other forms of energy (e.g., electrical, mechanical, or thermal). A transducer is said to be *reversible* if it can convert in either direction. Most high-intensity ultrasonic generators in use are basically crystal oscillators or magnetostrictive devices.
Transduce... | {
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Within the elastic limits, the resultant mechanical strain *s* relates to the stress as follows:
$$s = a\sigma + bE \tag{16.19}$$
and we also have
$$D = cE + d\sigma (16.20)$$
where *D* represents the electric displacement and *a*, *b*, *c*, *d* are coefficients defined below.
Let us now short circuit the ele... | {
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In terms of the strain s, velocity u = l(ds/dt), and the current is expressed as i = (dQ/dt) = A(dP/dt). Here l is the body length, Q is the electric charge, A is the cross-sectional area. We invoke Equation (16.26) to obtain
$$\frac{dP}{dt} = e\frac{ds}{dt}$$
which gives
$$i = \frac{Ae}{l}u = \alpha_T u \tag{16.... | {
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We can now obtain the analog to Equation (16.23) by using *H* instead of the electric field *E*, *Y* instead of 1/*a*, and βμ*<sup>i</sup>* instead of *d*. This gives us
$$\varepsilon = \frac{\sigma}{Y} + \beta \mu_i H \tag{16.39}$$
for a rod undergoing simultaneously a tensile stress σ and a magnetic field *H*. Th... | {
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Figure 16.9. Block diagram of a "generic ultrasonic instrument."
#### *A-Scan*
In a flaw-detection instrument the display may be an oscilloscope with limited adaptability. The display, shown in Figure 16.10(a) resulted from a well-damped transducer. If the transducers incorporate le... | {
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*Journal of the Acoustical Society of America* 34(3): 271.
- Sternberg, M. S. 1958. *Physics Review* 110:772.
- Suslick, Kenneth S. and Crum, Lawrence A. 1997. Sonochemistry and sonoluminescence. In: *Encyclopedia of Acoustics*. Crocker, Malcolm J. (ed.), Vol. 1. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Chapter 26, pp. 71–281.
- W... | {
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#### 17.1 The Growth of Ultrasonic Applications
It is recognized among technologists that the field of ultrasonics is still in its infancy, and many new uses for ultrasound will continue to accrue in commercial and medical fields. Ultrasound is proving its continued worth in diagnostics, as it is generally nondestruc... | {
"Header 1": "17 Commercial and Medical Ultrasound Applications",
"token_count": 2005,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Physics_v1/Physics/pdf_esp_198.pdf"
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#### *Determination of Propagation Velocity and Attenuation through an Interferometer*
The interferometer is a continuous wave device that can accurately measure velocity and attenuation in liquids and gases that can sustained standing waves. It consists of a fluid column that contains a fixed, air-backed piezoelec... | {
"Header 1": "17 Commercial and Medical Ultrasound Applications",
"token_count": 2036,
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This involves the use of a fixed transducer and a fixed reflector or two transducers spaced a fixed distance apart. The transducer is driven to sweep through a range of frequencies to determine successive resonances. In a nondispersive medium, the difference between two successive resonant frequencies equals the fundam... | {
"Header 1": "17 Commercial and Medical Ultrasound Applications",
"token_count": 2033,
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#### Ultrasonic Viscometer
The ideal liquid should not support a shear stress, but the fact is that liquids do have viscosity that gives rise to shear waves. A viscoelastic liquid combining the attributes of both fluid and solid behaviors (which produces shear stresses) is described by
$$-\frac{\partial \varepsil... | {
"Header 1": "17 Commercial and Medical Ultrasound Applications",
"token_count": 2015,
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Liquid lens of carbon tetrachloride or chloroform have the same acoustic impedance as water, but their toxicity generally precludes their use in industry. Plastic lenses also have been developed, but the sound propagation velocity in these materials exceeds that of water and they present an impedance mismatch between t... | {
"Header 1": "17 Commercial and Medical Ultrasound Applications",
"token_count": 2015,
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The position of the probe is synchronized with the sweep of one of the axes of the oscilloscope, and the echo amplitude appears as a spot with a specific intensity at a position on the screen corresponding to the position of the plane causing the echo. The TM-mode (or M-mode) is a diagnostic ultrasound representation... | {
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Another application is the imaging of microcirculation, which is important in the study of artherosclerosis, diabetes, and cancer—this means that 3D ultrasound is a powerful tool for ascertaining the progression of diseases in the body. As recently as 2003, researchers at Norway's SINTEF Unimed Ultrasound (Kaspersen, 2... | {
"Header 1": "17 Commercial and Medical Ultrasound Applications",
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HIFU results in thermally induced coagulative necrosis only in the intraprostatic tissue encompassed by the focal volume, with effect on intervening tissues. Confirmation of targeting accuracy is provided through continuously updated images. The necrotic tissue is either sloughed during urination or reabsorbed, along w... | {
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"token_count": 2055,
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Clinical trials with new navigation system: Custus X. SINTEF [On line, available at: http://www.sintef.no/static/UM/UL/cx/cx.html].
- Kr¨uger, J. F. von and Evans, David H. Doppler ultrasound tracking instrument for monitoring blood flow velocity. *Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology* 28: 1499–1508.
- Needleman, L. and Fo... | {
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#### 18.1 Introduction
From time immemorial music has impacted humanity in many ways. In moments of sadness, music provides solace; in happier times, enhances exhilaration; during stressful periods, a greater sense of calm intertwined with an intensified feeling of purpose; and when diversion is needed, entertainment... | {
"Header 1": "18 Music and Musical Instruments",
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The duration of a whole rest is equal to that of a whole note, the duration of a half rest is equal to that of a half note, and so forth.
The duration of a tone represented by a note or a rest of a certain denomination can be modified by the addition of a dot to the note. The effect of the dot is to
![](_page_518_F... | {
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a musician depends on his or her own sense of subjectivity to obtain the proper intensity or range of intensities. The common notations and abbreviations for loudness are as follows:
• Pianissimo (ppp): softly as possible
• Pianissimo (pp): very soft
• Piano (p): soft
• Mezzo piano (mp): half soft
• Mezzo f... | {
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As was explained in Chapter 4, the presence and the amplitudes of these harmonics depend upon the manner the string is excited (namely, by plucking, striking, or bowing) and where the excitation is applied. Because the string projects a small area, it is not an efficient producer of sound as it is not by itself capable... | {
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Over the past three decades, Europeans and Americans have become familiar with structured musical compositions called *ragas* through concert performances by Ravi Shankar who performed them on the *sitar* which is northern India's predominant string instrument. The sitar's seven main strings are tuned in fourths, fif... | {
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"token_count": 2019,
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This bow force is inversely proportional to the distance of the bow from the bridge; the minimum bow force, on the other hand, is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the bow from the bridge. The maximum and minimum bow forces are equal when the bow is placed at a point very close to the bridge, and ... | {
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"token_count": 2017,
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Because the tension forces in the strings are so high, the frames are fabricated of cast iron, which also provides dimensional stability necessary to maintain the state of tune
Three pedals are provided on the conventional piano. The right or *sustaining* pedal removes all dampers from the strings so that the strings... | {
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The holes are controlled by closing or opening them in order to vary the resonant frequencies
FIGURE 18.26. The modern flute.
corresponding to the musical scale, either by the fingers directly or through actuation of keys. This system of keys and connecting shafts and levels constitu... | {
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The resonant frequency can be changed by altering the resonant frequency of either the reed or the pipe. A reed organ pipe is customarily tuned by changing the effective stiffness of the reed by moving a tuning spring that is in contact with the reed. A cross-sectional view of the organ pipe mechanism is shown in Figur... | {
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The organ console in Figure 18.33 is shown to contain three manuals, a pedal keyboard, tablet couplers, thumb and toe pistons, and swell pedals. Organs
Figure 18.34. Schematic of the elements of the modern organ (from Olson, 1967).
and organ consoles, it should be mentioned here, are ... | {
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Thus, eight different lengths are provided, in the same basic manner as the trumpet or cornet. Some versions of the tuba include a fourth valve, with a corresponding increase in the number of different resonant frequencies. Largest of the brass instruments, a typical tuba, measures approximately 1 m. The tuba covers th... | {
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The soprano or ping pong can have anywhere from 26 to 36 different notes, but a bass drum may have only three or four notes. Because of the relative paucity of notes on a single drum, the bass drummer is likely to play on a half a dozen drums in the same manner as a timpanist in a symphonic orchestra.
![](_page_559_F... | {
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The envelope generator sustains an appropriate level for the duration of the tone and ends the tone with an exponential decay. As with the tone control parameters on a synthesizer, the performer can set the envelope transients, the sustain level, and decay time by adjusting individual potentiometers on a modular analog... | {
"Header 1": "18 Music and Musical Instruments",
"token_count": 2037,
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A more recent methodology of creating music electronically is that of *physical modeling* (*Computer Music Journal*, 1992). A mathematical model is developed for the production of a tone by a traditional instrument or by some other mechanical device. The model may result in a set of coupled, usually nonlinear differe... | {
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*Journal of the Acoustical Society of America* 73:1421–1440.
- Hutchins, C. M., Stetson, K. A., and Taylor, P. A. Clarification of 'free plate tap tones' by holographic interferometry. *Journal of the Catgut Society* 16:12–23.
- International MIDI Association. 1983. *MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface Specificat... | {
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#### 19.1 Historical Overview
Until 1877 when Thomas Edison (1847–1931) developed the *phonograph*, there was no way to record and reproduce sounds. While working to improve the efficiency of a telegraph transmitter, Edison noted that the noise emanating from that type of machine resembled spoken words when operating... | {
"Header 1": "19 Sound Reproduction",
"token_count": 1996,
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MAGNETIC RECORD/PLAYBACK SYSTEM
CLOSE-UP SHOWING MAGNETIC HEAD CONSTRUCTION
Figure 19.1. The elements of a magnetic tape recording and playback system, with details of the interior construction of a magnetic head.
A magnetic head is designed to conc... | {
"Header 1": "19 Sound Reproduction",
"token_count": 2036,
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#### *Voice Recognition*
Voice or speech recognition is the ability of a machine or device to receive and interpret dictation or to comprehend and carry out oral commands. In use with computers, analog audio must be converted into digital signals through an analogto-digital (A/D) converter. In order that it can dec... | {
"Header 1": "19 Sound Reproduction",
"token_count": 1999,
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The transfer of the motion from the piston to the air is bound in terms of frequency by resonance frequency of the cone at the low end (here the ability to transfer energy to the air is limited by mechanical constraints) and by the radiation impedance at the upper limit. This upper frequency limit occurs from the fact ... | {
"Header 1": "19 Sound Reproduction",
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This stage is also a lossy procedure.
- 4. The bitstream is run through the process of *Huffman coding* that compresses redundant information throughout the sample. The Huffman coding does not work on the basis of a psychoacoustic model but achieves additional compression through more traditional means so that even les... | {
"Header 1": "19 Sound Reproduction",
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#### 20.1 Introduction
Noise often results from vibration. Many sources of vibration exist and they include impact processes, such as blasting, pile driving, hammering, and die stamping; machinery such as motors, engines, fans, blowers, and pumps; turbulence in fluids systems; and transportation vehicles. Attenuation... | {
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"Header 2": "Vibration and Vibration Control",
"token_count": 1999,
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From Equation (20.4) the natural frequency of the system is
$$\omega_n = \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}} \tag{20.7}$$
and the damping ratio is
$$\xi = \frac{C}{2\sqrt{km}} \tag{20.8}$$
When $\xi = 1$ , critical damping occurs. We set $C = C_c$ for this value of $\xi = 1$ . Then
$$\xi = 1 = \frac{C_c}{2\sqrt{km}}$$ ... | {
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An initial displacement is introduced to the model system of Figure 20.1, and it is desired to determine the response of this system. The differential equation in standard mathematical shorthand notation is
$$\ddot{x}(t) + 2\xi \omega_n \dot{x}(t) + \omega_n^2 x(t) = 0 \tag{20.11}$$
which undergoes a Laplacean tran... | {
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The transient portion of the
solution is in the form of Equation (20.13) and it is determined by the residues of the complex poles, wherein the poles constitute the solution of
$$ms^2 + Cs + k = 0$$
The steady-state solution of Equation (20.19) is a sinusoidal oscillation expressed as
$$x(t) = x(\omega)\sin(\om... | {
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"token_count": 1932,
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A system subjected to impulse force of strength A has a response determined by the following equation:
$$m\ddot{x} + C\dot{x} + kx = A\delta(t) \tag{20.32}$$
The Laplacian $\mathcal{L}[A\delta(t-\varepsilon)]$ is equal to A; and so if the initial conditions are zero, then Equation (20.32) transforms to
$$X(s)... | {
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The curves of Figure 20.8 thus demonstrate the effectiveness of an isolator in mitigating vibration. It is also apparent that isolators should be selected to avoid exciting the natural frequencies of the system, and that damping is important in the range of resonance, when the system is operating near resonance or me... | {
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FIGURE 20.10. The analytical model for a vibration absorber.
The frequency response can be gotten from the following transformed equations:
$$-m_1\omega^2 X_1 + (k_1 + k_2)X_1 - k_2 X_2 = F_0$$
$$-k_2 X_1 + (-m_2\omega^2 + k_2)X_2 = 0$$
Rearranging these last two equations:
$$(-m_1\omega^2 + k_1 + k_2)X_1 - k_2... | {
"Header 1": "VIBRATION ABSORBER $m_2$ $k_2$ $m_1$ $k_1$ $f(t) = F_0 \\sin \\omega t$",
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This device is not very useful because it functions well at only a single frequency or in a very narrow frequency band. Moreover, any change in temperature is likely to change the tuning frequency of the damper.
The other two mechanisms of Figure 20.12 entail adding viscoelastic layers to a structure that is to be da... | {
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"token_count": 1934,
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One model widely used is the Gaussian distribution or normal probability density curve expressed as follows in normalized form:
$$p(x) = \frac{1}{\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}e^{-0.5x^2/\sigma^2}$$
(20.47)
and the probability of the value of x falling between a and b is
$$P(a < x < b) = \int_{a}^{b} p(x) dx$$
(20.48)
wher... | {
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A mass is supported by four identical springs, each having a spring constant of 2.6 N/cm. If the spring deflects 1.5 cm, what is the weight of the mass being supported?
- 8. Consider the system described in the last problem. It is forced with a sinusoidal signal with a frequency twice that of its natural frequency. Fin... | {
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#### 21.1 Introduction
In most of the preceding chapters we have dealt with acoustics in terms of the linear wave equation. The amplitude of the sound was considered to be virtually infinitesimal, thus paving the path to relatively convenient mathematical analyses. When the wave amplitude becomes sufficiently large, ... | {
"Header 1": "21 Nonlinear Acoustics",
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Introducing the coordinate stretching function
$$z = r_0 \ln \frac{r}{r_0}$$
(spherical waves)
= $2(\sqrt{rr_0} - r_0)$ (cylindrical waves)
and the spreading compensation function
$$w = \left(\frac{r}{r_0}\right)^a u \tag{21.9}$$
into Equation (21.8) results in this equation being reduced to the plane wave fo... | {
"Header 1": "21 Nonlinear Acoustics",
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The shock relations for a polytropic gas are expressed in terms of shock strength z defined by
$$z = \frac{(p_{-} - p_{+})}{p_{+}} \tag{21.20}$$
and the Mach number M of the shock relative to the flow ahead:
$$M = \frac{(u_{\rm sh} - u_+)}{c_+}$$
The shock relations are as follows:
$$M = \frac{u_{-} - u_{+}}{... | {
"Header 1": "21 Nonlinear Acoustics",
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The partial differential equation $u_t + uu_x = \mu u_{xx}$ . Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics 3:201–230.
- Landau, Lev D. 1945. On shock waves at large distances from the place of their origin. U.S.S.R. Journal of Physics 9:496–503.
- Lighthill, James. 1972. The propagation of sound through moving fluid... | {
"Header 1": "21 Nonlinear Acoustics",
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A.1. Solids
| Solid | Density, ρ<br>(kg/m3) | Young's<br>Modulus, E<br>(GPa) | Shear<br>Modulus,<br>G (GPa) | Poisson's<br>Ratio, ν | Speed, c<br>(m/s) | Characteristic<br>Impedance, ρ0c<br>(106 Pa·s/m) |
|----------------|-----------------------|--------------------------------|-----------------------------... | {
"Header 1": "Appendix A Physical Properties of Matter",
"token_count": 2011,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Physics_v1/Physics/pdf_esp_198.pdf"
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Conversion Factors
| To Convert | Into | Multiply by | Conversely,<br>Multiply by |
|-------------------------------------|----------------------------|---------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| atm (atmosphere) ... | {
"Header 1": "Appendix A Physical Properties of Matter",
"token_count": 1958,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Physics_v1/Physics/pdf_esp_198.pdf"
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<sup>3</sup> | $6.102 \times 10^4$ | $1.639 \times 10^{-5}$ |
| | $ft^3$ | 35.31 | $2.832 \times 10^{-2}$ |
| | cm <sup>3</sup> | $10^{6}$ ... | {
"Header 1": "Appendix A Physical Properties of Matter",
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#### B.1 The Bessel Differential Equation
The Bessel differential equation of order n, expressed as
$$\[ x^2 \frac{d^2}{dx^2} + x \frac{d}{dx} + (x^2 - n^2) \] f(x) = 0$$
carries the solutions consisting of (1) the Bessel functions of the first kind $J_n(x)$ for all x, and (2) the Bessel functions of the second... | {
"Header 1": "Appendix B Bessel Functions",
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Bessel Functions or Order 0, 1, and 2
| х | $J_0(x)$ | $J_1(x)$ | $J_2(x)$ | $I_0(x)$ | $I_1(x)$ | $I_2(x)$ |
|-----|----------|----------|----------|----------|----------|-------------|
| 0.0 | 1.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 |
| 0.2 | 0.9900 | 0.0995 | 0.0050 | 0.0100 ... | {
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(Continued)
B.2. Zeros of $J_m: J_m(j_{mn}) = 0$ . $j_{mn}$
| | | | | n | | |
|---|---|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| m | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| 0 | _ | 2.40 | 5.52 | 8.65 | 11.79 | 14.93 |
| 1 | 0 | 3.83 | 7.02 | 10.17 | 13.32 | 16.47 |
| 2 | 0 |... | {
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#### C.1 Introduction
Not only all aspects of the of Laplace transforms will be presented, but also enough of the characteristics will be presented, discussed here to help the reader understand and appreciate the elegance and powerfulness of the procedures that can be effectively applied to solve linear differential ... | {
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In Figure C.1(a), $C_1$ is derived as
$$C_1 = \frac{3\angle 0^{\circ}}{(2\angle 0^{\circ})(1\angle 0^{\circ})} = 3/2$$
In Figure C.1(b), we get
$$C_2 = \frac{2\angle 0^{\circ}}{(1\angle 0^{\circ})(1\angle 180^{\circ})} = \frac{2}{(1)(-1)} = -2$$
and from Figure C.1(c):
$$C_3 = \frac{1\angle 0^{\circ}}{(1\an... | {
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Equation (C.14) can be expressed as
$$X(s) = \frac{Me^{i\phi}}{s + \alpha - i\beta} + \frac{Me^{-i\phi}}{s + \alpha + i\beta} + \text{additional terms}$$
where
$$M = \frac{z_1 z_2}{P_1 P_2 P_3 P_4}, \quad \phi = \theta_2 + \theta_6 - (\theta_1 + \theta_3 + \theta_4 + \theta_5)$$
Then
$$x(t) = M(e^{-\alpha t +... | {
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| A-scan, 473 | history of, 1–11 |
|-----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| A-weighting, 52–54 | importance of, 15 |
| Absorbent effects, growth o... | {
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"Header 2": "Index",
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F., 4–5 Chorusing, 559 Chrysippus, 2 Clamped-free bar, 106, 107 Clarinet, 544 Clavichord, 527 Closed-ended pipes, resonances in, 132–134 Cochlea, 215–219 Cochlear microphonic effect, 219 Coincidence effect, 286–287 Collision number, 446 Color schlieren photography, 496 Community noise, evaluation of, 344–345 Community ... | {
"Header 1": "Appendix C Using Laplace Transforms to Solve Differential Equations",
"Header 2": "Index",
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L., 6<br>Joule, James P., 7<br>Helmholtz resonator, 145–148<br>Journal bearing noise, 378–379<br>Hemianechoic chamber, 65<br>K´arm´an vortex street, 386<br>Hemispherical wave, 65<br>Hemostasis, acoustic, 504<br>Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts,<br>Hertz (unit), 15<br>2568–270<br>High-fidelity reproduction, 10, 57... | {
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"Header 2": "Index",
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503–506 |
| combined, 294–296 | Thermocline, 414 |
| Sound, unwanted, 15 | Thermodynamic states of fluids, 18–19 |
| Sound velocity, 17–18 ... | {
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Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2015, 2011, and 2008. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in ... | {
"Header 1": "THERMODYNAMICS",
"Header 3": "THERMODYNAMICS: AN ENGINEERING APPROACH, NINTH EDITION",
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Names: Çengel, Yunus A., author. | Boles, Michael A., author. | Kanoğlu, Mehmet, author.
Title: Thermodynamics : an engineering approach / Yunus A. Çengel, University of Nevada, Reno, Michael A. Boles, North Carolina State
University, Mehmet Kanoğlu, University of Gaziantep.
Description: Ninth edition. | New York... | {
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"Header 3": "**Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data**",
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*Without ethics, everything happens as if we were all five billion passengers on a big machinery and nobody is driving the machinery. And it's going faster and faster, but we don't know where.*
*—Jacques Cousteau*
*Because you're able to do it and because you have the right to do it doesn't mean it's right to do it... | {
"Header 1": "THERMODYNAMICS",
"Header 3": "Quotes on Ethics",
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**Yunus A. Çengel** is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Nevada, Reno. He received his B.S. in mechanical engineering from Istanbul Technical University and his M.S. and Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from North Carolina State University. His areas of interest are renewable energy, ener... | {
"Header 1": "A BOUT THE A UTHORS",
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CHAPTER ONE
**[INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS](#page-25-0) 1**
CHAPTER TWO
**[ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS](#page-75-0) 51**
CHAPTER THREE
**[PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES](#page-133-0) 109**
CHAPTER FOUR
**[ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED SYSTEMS](#page-185-0) 161**
CHAPTER FIVE
**... | {
"Header 1": "B RIEF C ONTENTS",
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CHAPTER TWO
[Preface](#page-17-0) xvii
| | CHAPTER ONE | | ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND ... | {
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- **12–1** [A Little Math—Partial Derivatives and](#page-668-0) Associated Relations 644 [Partial Differentials](#page-669-0) 645 [Partial Differential Relations](#page-671-0) 647
- **12–2** [The Maxwell Relations](#page-673-0) 649
- **12–3** [The Clapeyron Equation](#page-674-0) 650
- **12–4** [General Relations for]... | {
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"Header 3": "**THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY RELATIONS 643**",
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- **13–1** [Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole](#page-700-0) Fractions 676
- **13–2** *P*-*v*-*T* [Behavior of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real](#page-701-0) Gases 677
[Ideal-Gas Mixtures](#page-702-0) 678 [Real-Gas Mixtures](#page-703-0) 679
**13–3** [Properties of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real](#page-706-0)... | {
"Header 1": "C ONTENTS",
"Header 3": "**GAS MIXTURES 675**",
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- **14–1** [Dry and Atmospheric Air](#page-736-0) 712
- **14–2** [Specific and Relative Humidity of air](#page-737-0) 713
- **14–3** [Dew-Point Temperature](#page-739-0) 715
- **14–4** [Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb](#page-741-0) Temperatures 717
- **14–5** [The Psychrometric Chart](#page-744-0) 720
- **14–6** [Hu... | {
"Header 1": "C ONTENTS",
"Header 3": "**GAS–VAPOR MIXTURES AND AIR-CONDITIONING 711**",
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- **15–1** [Fuels and Combustion](#page-772-0) 748
- **15–2** [Theoretical and Actual Combustion](#page-776-0) Processes 752
- **15–3** [Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of](#page-782-0) Combustion 758
- **15–4** [First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems](#page-786-0) 762 [Steady-Flow Systems](#page-786-0) 762 [Close... | {
"Header 1": "C ONTENTS",
"Header 3": "**CHEMICAL REACTIONS 747**",
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| 16–2<br>The Equilibrium Constant for Ideal-Gas | Solar-Power-Tower Plant<br>Solar Pond | |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|--|
| Mixtur... | {
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"Header 3": "**xv CONTENTS**",
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| Table A–2E<br>Figure A–14<br>Ideal-gas specific heats of various<br>P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a<br>905<br>common gases<br>933<br>Figure A–15<br>Nelson–Obert generalized<br>Table A–3E<br>Properties of common liquids, solids,<br>compressibility chart<br>906<br>and foods<br>936<br>Table A–16<br>Properties of the at... | {
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"Header 3": "**xvi**",
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The philosophy that contributed to the overwhelming popularity of the prior editions of this book has remained unchanged in this edition. Namely, our goal has been to offer an engineering textbook that
- ⬤ Communicates directly to the minds of tomorrow's engineers in a *simple yet precise* manner.
- ⬤ Leads students ... | {
"Header 1": "P REFACE",
"Header 3": "**PHILOSOPHY AND GOAL**",
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The end-of-chapter problems are grouped under specific topics to make problem selection easier for both instructors and students. Within each group of problems are Concept Questions, indicated by "C," to check the students' level of understanding of basic concepts. The problems under Review Problems are more comprehens... | {
"Header 1": "A WEALTH OF REAL-WORLD END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS",
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The physically meaningful forms of the balance equations rather than formulas are used to foster deeper understanding and to avoid a cookbook approach. The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balances for *any system* undergoing *any process* are expressed as
Mass balance:
$$m_{\rm in} - m_{\rm out} = \Delta m_{\rm sys... | {
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"Header 3": "PHYSICALLY MEANINGFUL FORMULAS",
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The authors would like to acknowledge with appreciation the numerous and valuable comments, suggestions, constructive criticisms, and praise from the following evaluators and reviewers:
**Edward Anderson**
*Texas Tech University*
**John Biddle**
*Cal Poly Pomona University*
**Gianfranco DiGiuseppe**
*Ketter... | {
"Header 1": "A WEALTH OF REAL-WORLD END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS",
"Header 3": "**ACKNOWLEDGMENTS**",
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Connect Insight is Connect's one-of-a-kind visual analytics dashboard. Now available for both instructors and students that provides at-a-glance information regarding student performance, which is immediately actionable. By presenting assignment, assessment, and topical performance results together with a time metric t... | {
"Header 1": "A WEALTH OF REAL-WORLD END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS",
"Header 2": "Online Resources for Students and Instructors",
"Header 3": "**Connect Insight®**",
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very science has a unique vocabulary associated with it, and thermodynamics is no exception. Precise definition of basic concepts forms a sound foundation for the development of a science and prevents possible misunderstandings. We start this chapter with an overview of thermodynamics and the unit systems, and continue... | {
"Header 1": "INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS",
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Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of *energy*. Although everybody has a feeling of what energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition for it. Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes.
The name *thermodynamics* stems from the Greek words *therme* (heat) and *dynamis* (power), which is ... | {
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"Header 3": "1-1 • THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY",
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All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner. Therefore, developing a good understanding of basic principles of thermodynamics has long been an essential part of engineering education.
Thermodynam... | {
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"Header 3": "**Application Areas of Thermodynamics**",
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Any physical quantity can be characterized by **dimensions**. The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called **units**. Some basic dimensions such as mass *m,* length *L,* time *t,* and temperature *T* are selected as **primary** or **fundamental dimensions**, while others such as velocity *V,* energy *E,* and vo... | {
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... |
Some application areas of thermodynamics.
*(a) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Jill Braaten; (b) ©Doug Menuez/Getty Images RF; (c) ©Ilene MacDonald/Alamy RF; (d) ©Malcolm Fife/Getty Images RF; (e) ©Ryan McVay/Getty Images RF; (f) ©Mark Evans/Getty Images RF; (g) ©Getty Images/iStockphoto RF; (h) ©Glow Images RF; (i) Courtesy ... | {
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Standard prefixes in SI unit
| Standard prefixes in SI units | | |
|-------------------------------|-----------|--|
| Multiple | Prefix | |
| $10^{24}$ | yotta, Y | |
| $10^{21}$ | zetta, Z | |
| $10^{18}$ | exa, E ... | {
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In SI, the units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram (kg), meter (m), and second (s), respectively. The respective units in the English system are the pound-mass (lbm), foot (ft), and second (s). The pound symbol *lb* is actually the abbreviation of *libra*, which was the ancient Roman unit of weight. The Englis... | {
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A school is paying \$0.12/kWh for electric power. To reduce its power bill, the school installs a wind turbine (Fig. 1–12) with a rated power of 30 kW. If the turbine operates 2200 hours per year at the rated power, determine the amount of electric power generated by the wind turbine and the money saved by the school p... | {
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"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 1–1** Electric Power Generation by a Wind Turbine",
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A tank is filled with oil whose density is $\rho = 850 \text{ kg/m}^3$ . If the volume of the tank is $V = 2 \text{ m}^3$ , determine the amount of mass m in the tank.
**SOLUTION** The volume of an oil tank is given. The mass of oil is to be determined. **Assumptions** Oil is a nearly incompressible substance and t... | {
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"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 1–2** Obtaining Formulas from Unit Considerations",
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Just as all nonprimary dimensions can be formed by suitable combinations of primary dimensions, *all nonprimary units* (*secondary units*) can be formed by combinations of primary units. Force units, for example, can be expressed as
$$1 \text{ N} = 1 \text{ kg} \frac{\text{m}}{\text{s}^2}$$
and $1 \text{ lbf} = 32.1... | {
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"Header 3": "**Unity Conversion Ratios**",
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Using unity conversion ratios, show that 1.00 lbm weighs 1.00 lbf on earth (Fig. 1–16).
**SOLUTION** A mass of 1.00 lbm is subjected to standard earth gravity. Its weight in lbf is to be determined.
**Assumptions** Standard sea-level conditions are assumed.
**Properties** The gravitational constant is g = 32.174 ... | {
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"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 1-3** The Weight of One Pound-Mass",
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A system is defined as a *quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study*. The mass or region outside the system is called the **surroundings**. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the **boundary** (Fig. 1–18). The boundary of a system can be *fixed* or *mov... | {
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"Header 3": "1-3 • SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES",
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A control volume can involve fixed, moving, real, and imaginary boundaries.
**FIGURE 1–22** An open system (a control volume)
with one inlet and one exit.
*©McGraw-Hill Education/Christopher Kerrigan*
**FIGURE 1–23**
Criterion to differentiate inten... | {
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Any characteristic of a system is called a **property**. Some familiar properties are pressure *P,* temperature *T,* volume *V*, and mass *m.* The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, and e... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1–12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1–1.",
"Header 3": "**1–4** ■ **PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM**",
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Matter is made up of atoms that are widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very convenient to disregard the atomic nature of a substance and view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a **continuum**. The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and to assume t... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1–12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1–1.",
"Header 3": "**Continuum**",
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} |
**Density** is defined as *mass per unit volume* (Fig. 1–25).
Density:
$$\rho = \frac{m}{V} \qquad (kg/m^3)$$
(1–4)
The reciprocal of density is the **specific volume** V, which is defined as *volume* V, which is defined as *volume* V, which is defined as V
$$U = \frac{V}{m} = \frac{1}{\rho} \tag{1-5}$$
For a d... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1–12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1–1.",
"Header 3": "1-5 • DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY",
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Density is mass per unit volume; specific volume is volume per unit mass.
| TABLE 1–3 | |
|-------------------------------------------------|---------|
| Specific gravities of some<br>substances at 0°C | |
| Substance | SG ... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1–12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1–1.",
"Header 3": "FIGURE 1-25",
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} |
Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all the properties can be measured or calculated throughout the entire system, which gives us a set of properties that completely describes the condition, or the **state**, of the system. At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values. If t... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1–12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1–1.",
"Header 3": "**1–6** ■ **STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM**",
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A closed system reaching thermal equilibrium.
the rest of the properties assume certain values automatically. That is, specifying a certain number of properties is sufficient to fix a state. The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the **state postulate**:
The state of a simple com... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1–12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1–1.",
"Header 3": "**FIGURE 1–27**",
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} |
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