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Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a **process**, and the series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the **path** of the process (Fig. 1β29). To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the process, a... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "**1β7** β **PROCESSES AND CYCLES**",
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During a steady-flow process, fluid properties within the control volume may change with position but not with time.
It should be pointed out that a quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized process and is not a true representation of an actual process. But many actual processes closely approximate it, and they can b... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "**FIGURE 1β32**",
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The terms *steady* and *uniform* are used often in engineering, and thus it is important to have a clear understanding of their meanings. The term *steady* implies *no change with time.* The opposite of steady is *unsteady,* or *transient.* The term *uniform,* however, implies *no change with location* over a specified... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "**The Steady-Flow Process**",
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Although we are familiar with temperature as a measure of "hotness" or "coldness," it is not easy to give an exact definition for it. Based on our physiological sensations, we express the level of temperature qualitatively with words like *freezing cold, cold, warm, hot,* and *red-hot.* However, we cannot assign numeri... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "**1β8** β **TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS**",
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Temperature scales enable us to use a common basis for temperature measurements, and several have been introduced throughout history. All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the freezing
**FIGURE 1β33**
Under steady-flow conditions, the mass and en... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "**Temperature Scales**",
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The *International Temperature Scale of 1990,* which supersedes the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68), 1948 (ITPS-48), and 1927 (ITS-27), was adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures at its meeting in 1989 at the request of the Eighteenth General Conference on Weights and... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "**The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)**",
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Humans are most comfortable when the temperature is between 65Β°F and 75Β°F.
Express these temperature limits in Β°C. Convert the size of this temperature range (10Β°F) to K, Β°C, and R. Is there any difference in the size of this range as measured in relative or absolute units?
$\begin{tabular}{ll} \textbf{SOLUTION} & A ... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "β EXAMPLE 1-4 Expressing Temperatures in Different Units",
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**Pressure** is defined as *a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area*. Normally, we speak of pressure when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is *normal stress*. Note, however, that pressure is a scalar quantity while stress is a tensor. Since pressure is defined as force per u... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "1-9 β’ PRESSURE",
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It will come as no surprise to you that pressure in a fluid at rest does not change in the horizontal direction. This can be shown easily by considering a thin horizontal layer of fluid and doing a force balance in any horizontal direction. However, this is not the case in the vertical direction in a gravity field. Pre... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "**Variation of Pressure with Depth**",
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Pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with distance from the free surface.
proportional to the vertical distance $\Delta z$ between the points and the density $\rho$ of the fluid. Noting the negative sign, *pressure in a static fluid increases linearly with depth*. This is what a diver experiences when ... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "FIGURE 1-45",
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Lifting of a large weight by a small force by the application of Pascal's law. A common example is a hydraulic jack.
(Top) Β©Stockbyte/Getty Images RF
FIGURE 1β48
The basic barometer.
The length and the cross-sectional area of the tube have no effect on... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "FIGURE 1-47",
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Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a **barometer**; thus, the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the *barometric pressure*.
The Italian Evangelista Torricelli (1608β1647) was the first to conclusively prove that the atmospheric pressure can be measured by inverting a mercury-filled tube int... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "The Barometer",
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Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is 740 mmHg and the gravitational acceleration is *g =* 9.805 m/s2 . Assume the temperature of mercury to be 10Β°C, at which its density is 13,570 kg/m3 .
**SOLUTION** The barometric reading at a location in height of mercury column is given... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 1β6 Measuring Atmospheric Pressure with a Barometer**",
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Intravenous infusions usually are driven by gravity by hanging the fluid bottle at sufficient height to counteract the blood pressure in the vein and to force the fluid into the body (Fig. 1β51). The higher the bottle is raised, the higher the flow rate of the fluid will be. (*a*) If it is observed that the fluid and t... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 1β7 Gravity-Driven Flow from an IV Bottle**",
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**Properties** The density of the IV fluid is given to be $\rho = 1020 \text{ kg/m}^3$ .
**Analysis** (a) Noting that the IV fluid and the blood pressures balance each other when the bottle is 1.2 m above the arm level, the gage pressure of the blood in the arm is simply equal to the gage pressure of the IV fluid at... | {
"Header 1": "**FIGURE 1β12** A wind turbine, as discussed in Example 1β1.",
"Header 3": "**FIGURE 1β51** Schematic for Example 1β7.",
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Solar ponds are small artificial lakes a few meters deep that are used to store solar energy. The rise of heated (and thus less dense) water to the surface is prevented by adding salt at the pond bottom. In a typical salt gradient solar pond, the density of water increases in the gradient zone, as shown in Fig. 1β52, a... | {
"Header 1": "**EXAMPLE 1β8** Hydrostatic Pressure in a Solar Pond with Variable Density",
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We notice from Eq. 1β17 that an elevation change of $-\Delta z$ in a fluid at rest corresponds to $\Delta P/\rho g$ , which suggests that a fluid column can be used to measure pressure differences. A device based on this principle is called a **manometer**, and it is commonly used to measure small and moderate press... | {
"Header 1": "**EXAMPLE 1β8** Hydrostatic Pressure in a Solar Pond with Variable Density",
"Header 3": "The Manometer",
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A manometer is used to measure the pressure of a gas in a tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown in Fig. 1β56. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank.
**SOLUTION** The reading of a manometer attached... | {
"Header 1": "**EXAMPLE 1β8** Hydrostatic Pressure in a Solar Pond with Variable Density",
"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 1β9 Measuring Pressure with a Manometer**",
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The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as shown in Fig. 1β59. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank if $h_1 = 0.1$ m, $h_2 = 0.2$ m, and $h_3 = 0.35$ m... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 1-10 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer",
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Schematic for Example 1β10; drawing not to scale.
**Analysis** Starting with the pressure at point 1 at the airβwater interface, moving along the tube by adding or subtracting the $\rho gh$ terms until we reach point 2, and setting the result equal to $P_{\text{atm}}$ since the tube is open to the atmosphere give... | {
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"Header 3": "FIGURE 1-59",
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Another type of commonly used mechanical pressure measurement device is the **Bourdon tube**, named after the French engineer and inventor Eugene Bourdon (1808β1884), which consists of a bent, coiled, or twisted hollow metal tube whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle (Fig. 1β60). When the tube is... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 1-10 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer",
"Header 3": "Other Pressure Measurement Devices",
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Check to make sure that the results obtained are reasonable and intuitive, and verify the validity of the questionable assumptions. Repeat the calculations that resulted in unreasonable values. For example, insulating a water heater that uses \$80 worth of natural gas a year cannot result in savings of \$200 a year (Fi... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 1-10 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer",
"Header 3": "**Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion**",
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You may be wondering why we are about to undertake an in-depth study of the fundamentals of another engineering science. After all, almost all such problems we are likely to encounter in practice can be solved using one of several sophisticated software packages readily available in the market today. These software pac... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 1-10 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer",
"Header 3": "**Engineering Software Packages**",
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You are probably familiar with the equation solving capabilities of spreadsheets such as Microsoft Excel. Despite its simplicity, Excel is commonly used in solving systems of equations in engineering as well as finance. It enables the user to conduct parametric studies, plot the results, and ask "what if " questions. I... | {
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"Header 3": "**Equation Solvers**",
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The difference of two numbers is 4, and the sum of the squares of these two numbers is equal to the sum of the numbers plus 20. Determine these two numbers.
**SOLUTION** Relations are given for the difference and the sum of the squares of two numbers. The two numbers are to be determined.
**Analysis** We first solv... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 1-10 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer",
"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 1β11 Solving a System of Equations Numerically**",
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In engineering calculations, the information given is not known to more than a certain number of significant digits, usually three digits. Consequently, the results obtained cannot possibly be accurate to more significant digits. Reporting results in more significant digits falsely implies greater accuracy than exists,... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 1-10 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer",
"Header 3": "**A Remark on Significant Digits**",
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A result with more significant digits than that of given data falsely implies more precision.
be correct only if the volume and density were given to be 3.75000 L and 0.845000 kg/L, respectively. The value 3.75 L implies that we are fairly confident that the volume is accurate within Β±0.01 L, and it cannot be 3.74 or... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 1-10 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer",
"Header 3": "**FIGURE 1β69**",
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In this chapter, the basic concepts of thermodynamics are introduced and discussed. *Thermodynamics* is the science that primarily deals with energy. The *first law of thermodynamics* is simply an expression of the conservation of energy principle, and it asserts that *energy* is a thermodynamic property. The *second l... | {
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"Header 3": "**SUMMARY**",
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- **1β5C** Explain why the light-year has the dimension of length.
- **1β6C** What is the difference between pound-mass and pound-force?
- **1β7C** What is the net force acting on a car cruising at a constant velocity of 70 km/h (a) on a level road and (b) on an uphill road?
- **1β8** What is the weight, in N, of an ob... | {
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"Header 3": "Mass, Force, and Units",
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- 1β18C How would you define a system to determine the rate at which an automobile adds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere?
- **1β19C** A large fraction of the thermal energy generated in the engine of a car is rejected to the air by the radiator through the circulating water. Should the radiator be analyzed as a closed ... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 1-10 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer",
"Header 3": "**Systems, Properties, State, and Processes**",
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**1β31C** What are the ordinary and absolute temperature scales in the SI and the English system?
- **1β32C** Consider an alcohol and a mercury thermometer that read exactly 0Β°C at the ice point and 100Β°C at the steam point. The distance between the two points is divided into 100 equal parts in both thermometers. Do ... | {
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"Header 3": "**Temperature**",
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- **1β40C** What is the difference between gage pressure and absolute pressure?
- **1β41C** Explain why some people experience nose bleeding and some others experience shortness of breath at high elevations.
- **1β42C** A health magazine reported that physicians measured 100 adults' blood pressure using two different a... | {
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"Header 3": "**Pressure, Manometer, and Barometer**",
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Using a mercury manometer and a stethoscope, the systolic pressure (the maximum pressure when the heart is pumping) and the diastolic pressure (the minimum pressure when the heart is resting) are measured in mmHg. The systolic and diastolic pressures of a healthy person are about 120 mmHg and 80 mmHg, respectively, and... | {
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"Header 3": "**Pressure, Manometer, and Barometer**",
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**1β80C** What is the value of the engineering software packages in (*a*) engineering education and (*b*) engineering practice?
**1β81** Determine a positive real root of this equation using appropriate software:
$$2x^3 - 10x^{0.5} - 3x = -3$$
**1β82** Solve this system of two equations with two unknowns using ap... | {
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"Header 3": "**Solving Engineering Problems and Equation Solvers**",
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- **1β85E** The reactive force developed by a jet engine to push an airplane forward is called thrust, and the thrust developed by the engine of a Boeing 777 is about 85,000 lbf. Express this thrust in N and kgf.
- **1β86** The weight of bodies may change somewhat from one location to another as a result of the variati... | {
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"Header 3": "**Review Problems**",
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... |
Answer: 40.8 g
**FIGURE P1β105**
**1β106** The pilot of an airplane reads the altitude 6400 m and the absolute pressure 45 kPa when flying over a city. Calculate the local atmospheric pressure in that city in kPa and in mmHg. Take the densities of air and mercury to be 0.828 kg/m<sup>... | {
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"Header 3": "**Review Problems**",
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**1β108E** Consider a U-tube whose arms are open to the atmosphere. Now equal volumes of water and light oil (*Ο* = 49.3 lbm/ft3 ) are poured from different arms. A person blows from the oil side of the U-tube until the contact surface of the two fluids moves to the bottom of the U-tube, and thus the liquid levels in t... | {
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"Header 3": "**FIGURE P1β107**",
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**1β114** Consider the flow of air through a wind turbine whose blades sweep an area of diameter *D* (in m). The average air velocity through the swept area is *V* (in m/s). On the bases of the units of the quantities involved, show that the mass flow rate of air (in kg/s) through the swept area is proportional to air ... | {
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"Header 3": "**FIGURE P1β113**",
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**1β118** During a heating process, the temperature of an object rises by 10Β°C. This temperature rise is equivalent to a temperature rise of
(*a*) 10Β°F (*b*) 42Β°F (*c*) 18 K (*d*) 18 R (*e*) 283 K
**1β119** An apple loses 3.6 kJ of heat as it cools per Β°C drop in its temperature. The amount of heat loss from the ap... | {
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"Header 3": "**Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Exam Problems**",
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hether we realize it or not, energy is an important part of most aspects of daily life. The quality of life, and even its sustenance, depends on the availability of energy. Therefore, it is important to have a good understanding of the sources of energy, the conversion of energy from one form to another, and the ramifi... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
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We are familiar with the conservation of energy principle, which is an expression of the first law of thermodynamics, back from our high school years. We are told repeatedly that energy cannot be created or destroyed during a process; it can only change from one form to another. This seems simple enough, but let's test... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "**2β1** β **INTRODUCTION**",
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Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear (Fig. 2β3), and their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system. The total energy of a system on a *unit mass* basis is denoted by e and is expressed as
$$e = \frac{E}{m} \qquad \text{(kJ... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "2-2 β’ FORMS OF ENERGY",
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The macroscopic energy of an object changes with velocity and elevation. where V denotes the velocity of the system relative to some fixed reference frame. The kinetic energy of a rotating solid body is given by $\frac{1}{2}I\omega^2$ where I is the moment of inertia of the body and $\omega$ is the angular velocity... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "FIGURE 2-4",
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Internal energy was defined earlier as the sum of all the *microscopic* forms of energy of a system. It is related to the *molecular structure* and the degree of *molecular activity* and can be viewed as the sum of the *kinetic* and *potential* energies of the molecules.
To have a better understanding of internal ene... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "**Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy**",
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The *macroscopic* kinetic energy is an organized form of energy and is much more useful than the disorganized *microscopic* kinetic energies of the molecules.
in the core or nucleus. Therefore, an atom preserves its identity during a chemical reaction but loses it during a nuclear reaction. Atoms may also possess *el... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "**FIGURE 2β8**",
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The best-known fission reaction involves the splitting of the uranium atom (the U-235 isotope) into other elements. It is commonly used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants (450 reactors in 2016 with 392,000 MW capacity), to power nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers, and even to power spacecraft, in add... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "**More on Nuclear Energy**",
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An average car consumes about 5 L of gasoline a day, and the capacity of the fuel tank of a car is about 50 L. Therefore, a car needs to be refueled once every 10 days. Also, the density of gasoline ranges from 0.68 to 0.78 kg/L, and its lower heating value is about 44,000 kJ/kg (that is, 44,000 kJ of heat is released ... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 2β1 A Car Powered by Nuclear Fuel**",
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Many engineering systems are designed to transport a fluid from one location to another at a specified flow rate, velocity, and elevation difference, and the system may generate mechanical work in a turbine or it may consume mechanical work in a pump or fan during this process (Fig. 2β11). These systems do not involve ... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "**Mechanical Energy**",
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A site evaluated for a wind farm is observed to have steady winds at a speed of 8.5 m/s (Fig. 2β13). Determine the wind energy (a) per unit mass, (b) for a mass of 10 kg, and (c) for a flow rate of 1154 kg/s for air.
**SOLUTION** A site with a specified wind speed is considered. Wind energy per unit mass, for a speci... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "EXAMPLE 2-2 Wind Energy",
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Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two distinct forms: *heat* and *work* (Fig. 2β14). It is important to distinguish between these two forms of energy. Therefore, they will be discussed first, to form a sound basis for the development of the laws of thermodynamics.
We ... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "**2β3** β **ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT**",
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Heat has always been perceived to be something that produces in us a sensation of warmth, and one would think that the nature of heat is one of the first things understood by mankind. However, it was only in the middle of the 19th century that we had a true physical understanding of the nature of heat, thanks to the de... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "**Historical Background on Heat**",
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In the early 19th century, heat was thought to be an invisible fluid called the *caloric* that flowed from warmer bodies to cooler ones.
much the same as when a glass of water could not dissolve any more salt or sugar, the body was said to be saturated with caloric. This interpretation gave rise to the terms *saturat... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "**FIGURE 2-19**",
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Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings. As mentioned earlier, energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in the form of heat or work. Therefore, if the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be work. Heat is easy to recognize: Its driving forc... | {
"Header 1": "ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS",
"Header 3": "2-4 β’ ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK",
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A candle is burning in a well-insulated room. Taking the room (the air plus the candle) as the system, determine (*a*) if there is any heat transfer during this burning process and (*b*) if there is any change in the internal energy of the system.
**SOLUTION** A candle burning in a well-insulated room is considered. ... | {
"Header 1": "Oven Heat 200Β°C Potato 25Β°C",
"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 2β3 Burning of a Candle in an Insulated Room**",
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It was pointed out in Example 2β5 that electrons crossing the system boundary do electrical work on the system. In an electric field, electrons in a wire move under the effect of electromotive forces, doing work. When *N* coulombs of electrical charge move through a potential difference **V**, the electrical work done ... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**Electrical Work**",
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There are several different ways of doing work, each in some way related to a force acting through a distance (Fig. 2β28). In elementary mechanics, the work done by a constant force F on a body displaced a distance s in the direction of the force is given by
$$W = Fs (kJ) (2-21)$$
If the force F is not constant, th... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "2-5 β’ MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK",
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Energy transmission with a rotating shaft is very common in engineering practice (Fig. 2β29). Often the torque T applied to the shaft is constant, which means that the force F applied is also constant. For a specified constant torque, the work done during n revolutions is determined as follows: A force F acting through... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**Shaft Work**",
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Determine the power transmitted through the shaft of a car when the torque applied is 200 NΒ·m and the shaft rotates at a rate of 4000 revolutions per minute (rpm).
**SOLUTION** The torque and the rpm for a car engine are given. The power transmitted is to be determined.
**Analysis** A sketch of the car is given in ... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 2-7** Power Transmission by the Shaft of a Car",
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It is common knowledge that when a force is applied on a spring, the length of the spring changes (Fig. 2β32). When the length of the spring changes by a differential amount dx under the influence of a force F, the work done is
$$\delta W_{\text{spring}} = F \, dx \tag{2-27}$$
To determine the total spring work, we... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**Spring Work**",
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Consider a liquid film such as soap film suspended on a wire frame (Fig. 2β35). We know from experience that it will take some force to stretch this film by the movable portion of the wire frame. This force is used to overcome the microscopic forces between molecules at the liquidβair interfaces. These microscopic forc... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film**",
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When a body is raised in a gravitational field, its potential energy increases. Likewise, when a body is accelerated, its kinetic energy increases. The conservation of energy principle requires that an equivalent amount of energy must be transferred to the body being raised or accelerated. Remember that energy can be t... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body**",
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A man whose mass is 100 kg pushes a cart whose mass, including its contents, is 100 kg up a ramp that is inclined at an angle of $20^{\circ}$ from the horizontal (Fig. 2β37). The local gravitational acceleration is $9.8 \text{ m/s}^2$ . Determine the work, in kJ, needed to move along this ramp a distance of 100 m co... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "β EXAMPLE 2-8 Power Needs of a Car to Climb a Hill",
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... |
Determine the power required to accelerate a 900-kg car shown in Fig. 2β38 from rest to a velocity of 80 km/h in 20 s on a level road.
**SOLUTION** The power required to accelerate a car to a specified velocity is to be determined.
**Analysis** The work needed to accelerate a body is simply the change in the kineti... | {
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"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 2-9** Power Needs of a Car to Accelerate",
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The treatment in Section 2β5 represents a fairly comprehensive coverage of mechanical forms of work except the *moving boundary work* that is covered in Chap. 4. Some work modes encountered in practice are not mechanical in nature. However, these nonmechanical work modes can be treated in a similar manner by identifyin... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**Nonmechanical Forms of Work**",
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So far, we have considered various forms of energy such as heat Q, work W, and total energy E individually, and no attempt is made to relate them to each other during a process. The *first law of thermodynamics*, also known as *the conservation of energy principle*, provides a sound basis for studying the relationships... | {
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"Header 3": "2-6 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS",
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In the light of the preceding discussions, the conservation of energy principle can be expressed as follows: The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process. ... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**Energy Balance**",
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Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms: *heat, work,* and *mass flow.* Energy interactions are recognized at the system boundary as they cross it, and they represent the energy gained or lost by a system during a process. The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a fixed mass or cl... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout**",
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The energy content of a control volume can be changed by mass flow as well as by heat and work interactions.
The heat transfer Q is zero for adiabatic systems, the work transfer W is zero for systems that involve no work interactions, and the energy transport with mass $E_{\rm mass}$ is zero for systems that involv... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**FIGURE 2β47**",
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A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and the paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid. Neglect the ... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 2-10** Cooling of a Hot Fluid in a Tank",
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A fan that consumes 20 W of electric power when operating is claimed to discharge air from a ventilated room at a rate of 1.0 kg/s at a discharge velocity of 8 m/s (Fig. 2β50). Determine if this claim is reasonable.
**SOLUTION** A fan is claimed to increase the velocity of air to a specified value while consuming ele... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 2-11** Acceleration of Air by a Fan",
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A room is initially at the outdoor temperature of 25Β°C. Now a large fan that consumes 200 W of electricity when running is turned on (Fig. 2β51). The heat transfer rate between the room and the outdoor air is given as $\dot{Q} = UA(T_i - T_o)$ where $U = 6 \text{ W/m}^2 \cdot ^{\circ}\text{C}$ is the overall heat t... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "EXAMPLE 2-12 Heating Effect of a Fan",
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The lighting needs of a classroom are met by 30 fluorescent lamps, each consuming 80 W of electricity (Fig. 2β52). The lights in the classroom are kept on for 12 hours a day and 250 days a year. For a unit electricity cost of 11 cents per kWh, determine the annual energy cost of lighting for this classroom. Also, discu... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "EXAMPLE 2-13 Annual Lighting Cost of a Classroom",
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Efficiency is one of the most often used terms in thermodynamics, and it indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is accomplished. Efficiency is also one of the most often misused terms in thermodynamics and a source of misunderstandings. This is because efficiency is... | {
"Header 1": "Electric oven Heating element",
"Header 3": "2-7 β’ ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES",
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The efficacy of different lighting systems
| Type of lighting | Efficacy,<br>lumens/W |
|--------------------------|-----------------------|
| Combustion | |
| Candle | 0.3 |
| Kerosene lamp | 1β2 |
| Incandes... | {
"Header 1": "**TABLE 2β1**",
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Energy costs of cooking a casserole with different appliances\*
| | | Cooking appliance | Cooking<br>temperature ... | {
"Header 1": "**TABLE 2β1**",
"Header 3": "**TABLE 2β2**",
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The efficiency of cooking appliances affects the internal heat gain from them since an inefficient appliance consumes a greater amount of energy for the same task, and the excess energy consumed shows up as heat in the living space. The efficiency of open burners is determined to be 73 percent for electric units and 38... | {
"Header 1": "**TABLE 2β1**",
"Header 3": "**EXAMPLE 2β14** Cost of Cooking with Electric and Gas Ranges",
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The transfer of mechanical energy is usually accomplished by a rotating shaft, and thus mechanical work is often referred to as *shaft work*. A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an electric motor) and transfers it to the fluid as mechanical energy (less frictional losses). A turbine, on the other hand, co... | {
"Header 1": "**TABLE 2β1**",
"Header 3": "**Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices**",
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The overall efficiency of a turbine generator is the product of the efficiency of the turbine and the efficiency of the generator, and it represents the fraction of the mechanical power of the fluid converted to electrical power.
FIGURE 2β60 Schematic for Example 2β15.
**Analysis** ... | {
"Header 1": "**TABLE 2β1**",
"Header 3": "FIGURE 2-59",
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A 60-hp electric motor (a motor that delivers 60 hp of shaft power at full load) that has an efficiency of 89.0 percent is worn out and is to be replaced by a 93.2 percent efficient high-efficiency motor (Fig. 2β61). The motor operates 3500 hours a year at full load. Taking the unit cost of electricity to be \$0.08/kWh... | {
"Header 1": "**TABLE 2β1**",
"Header 3": "EXAMPLE 2-16 Cost Savings Associated with High-Efficiency Motors",
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The conversion of energy from one form to another often affects the environment and the air we breathe in many ways, and thus the study of energy is not complete without considering its impact on the environment (Fig. 2β62). Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas have been powering the industrial development a... | {
"Header 1": "**TABLE 2β1**",
"Header 3": "2-8 β’ ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT",
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If you live in a metropolitan area such as Los Angeles, you are probably familiar with urban smogβthe dark yellow or brown haze that builds up in a large, stagnant air mass and hangs over populated areas on calm, hot summer days. *Smog* is made up mostly of ground-level ozone (O3), but it also contains many other chemi... | {
"Header 1": "**TABLE 2β1**",
"Header 3": "**Ozone and Smog**",
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} |
Fossil fuels are mixtures of various chemicals, including small amounts of sulfur. The sulfur in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide ( $SO_2$ ), which is an air pollutant. The main source of $SO_2$ is the electric power plants that burn high-sulfur coal. The Clean Air Act of 1970 has limited the $SO_2... | {
"Header 1": "**TABLE 2β1**",
"Header 3": "**Acid Rain**",
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} |
The greenhouse effect on earth.
The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react with water vapor and other chemicals high in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight to form sulfuric and nitric acids (Fig. 2β65). The acids formed usually dissolve in the suspended water droplets in clouds or fog. These acid-laden droplets... | {
"Header 1": "**TABLE 2β1**",
"Header 3": "FIGURE 2-66",
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} |
You have probably noticed that when you leave your car under direct sunlight on a sunny day, the interior of the car gets much warmer than the air outside, and you may have wondered why the car acts like a heat trap. This is because glass at thicknesses encountered in practice transmits over 90 percent of radiation in ... | {
"Header 1": "The Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate Change",
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} |
Renewable energies such as wind are called "green energy" since they emit no pollutants or greenhouse gases.
Β©Bear Dancer Studios/Mark Dierker RF
of electricity produced by a fossil-fueled power plant produces 0.6 to 1.0 kg (1.3 to 2.2 lbm) of carbon dioxide. Each liter of gasoline burned by a vehicle produces abou... | {
"Header 1": "The Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate Change",
"Header 3": "FIGURE 2-68",
"token_count": 612,
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} |
A geothermal power plant in Nevada is generating electricity using geothermal water extracted at $180^{\circ}$ C and injected back into the ground at $85^{\circ}$ C. It is proposed to use the injected brine to heat the residential and commercial buildings in the area, and calculations show that the geothermal heating... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
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} |
Heat can be transferred in three different ways: *conduction, convection*, and *radiation*. We will give a brief description of each mode to familiarize you with the basic mechanisms of heat transfer. All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference, and all modes of heat transfer are from t... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "**TOPIC OF SPECIAL INTEREST\\*** Mechanisms of Heat Transfer",
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Thermal conductivities of some materials at room conditions
| | Thermal conductivity, |
|----------------------|-----------------------|
| Material | W/mΒ·K |
| Diamond | 2300 |
| Silver | 429 |
| Copper ... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "TABLE 2-3",
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} |
Heat transfer from a hot surface to air by convection.
Materials such as rubber, wood, and styrofoam are poor conductors of heat and therefore have low k values.
In the limiting case of $\Delta x \rightarrow 0$ , the preceding equation reduces to the differential form
$$\dot{Q}_{\rm cond} = -kA \frac{dT}{dr} \qq... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "**FIGURE 2-70**",
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} |
Emissivity of some materials at 300 K
| Material | Emissivity |
|--------------------------|-------------|
| Aluminum foil | 0.07 |
| Anodized aluminum | 0.82 |
| Polished copper | 0.03 |
| Polished gold | 0.03 |
| Polished silver ... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "TABLE 2-4",
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} |
The absorption of radiation incident on an opaque surface of absorptivity $\alpha$ .
thermal radiation such as metals, wood, and rocks since the radiation emitted by the interior regions of such material can never reach the surface, and the radiation incident on such bodies is usually absorbed within a few microns f... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "**FIGURE 2-73**",
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} |
Consider a person standing in a breezy room at $20^{\circ}$ C. Determine the total rate of heat transfer from this person if the exposed surface area and the average outer surface temperature of the person are $1.6 \text{ m}^2$ and $29^{\circ}$ C, respectively, and the convection heat transfer coefficient is $6 \t... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "β EXAMPLE 2-18 Heat Transfer from a Person",
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Radiation heat transfer between a body and the inner surfaces of a much larger enclosure that completely surrounds it.
FIGURE 2β75
Heat transfer from the person described in Example 2β18.
Note that we must use *absolute* temperatures in radiation calculations. Also note that we used... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "FIGURE 2-74",
"token_count": 281,
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} |
The sum of all forms of energy of a system is called *total energy*, which consists of internal, kinetic, and potential energy for simple compressible systems. *Internal energy* represents the molecular energy of a system and may exist in sensible, latent, chemical, and nuclear forms.
Mass flow rate $\dot{m}$ is de... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "**SUMMARY**",
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} |
- **2β1C** What is the difference between the macroscopic and microscopic forms of energy?
- **2β2**C What is total energy? Identify the different forms of energy that constitute the total energy.
- **2β3C** List the forms of energy that contribute to the internal energy of a system.
- **2β4C** How are heat, internal e... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "Forms of Energy",
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} |
- **2β18C** What is the caloric theory? When and why was it abandoned?
- **2β19C** In what forms can energy cross the boundaries of a closed system?
- **2β20C** What is an adiabatic process? What is an adiabatic system?
- **2β21C** When is the energy crossing the boundaries of a closed system heat and when is it work?
... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "**Energy Transfer by Heat and Work**",
"token_count": 359,
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**2β27C** A car is accelerated from rest to 85 km/h in 10 s. Would the energy transferred to the car be different if it were accelerated to the same speed in 5 s?
- **2β28E** A construction crane lifts a prestressed concrete beam weighing 3 short tons from the ground to the top of piers that are 24 ft above the groun... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "**Mechanical Forms of Work**",
"token_count": 720,
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- **2β37C** What are the different mechanisms for transferring energy to or from a control volume?
- **2β38C** For a cycle, is the net work necessarily zero? For what kinds of systems will this be the case?
- **2β39C** On a hot summer day, a student turns his fan on when he leaves his room in the morning. When he retur... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "**The First Law of Thermodynamics**",
"token_count": 1311,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Physics_v1/Physics/pdfcoffee.com_engineering-thermodynamics-by-cengel-boles-and-kanoglu-9th-edition-pdf-free.pdf - 2023.01.13 - 06... |
- **2β52C** What is mechanical efficiency? What does a mechanical efficiency of 100 percent mean for a hydraulic turbine?
- **2β53C** How is the combined pumpβmotor efficiency of a pump and motor system defined? Can the combined pumpβmotor efficiency be greater than either the pump or the motor efficiency?
- **2β54C*... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "**Energy Conversion Efficiencies**",
"token_count": 2036,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Physics_v1/Physics/pdfcoffee.com_engineering-thermodynamics-by-cengel-boles-and-kanoglu-9th-edition-pdf-free.pdf - 2023.01.13 - 06.... |
- **2β75C** How does energy conversion affect the environment? What are the primary chemicals that pollute the air? What is the primary source of these pollutants?
- **2β76C** What is acid rain? Why is it called a "rain"? How do the acids form in the atmosphere? What are the adverse effects of acid rain on the environm... | {
"Header 1": "EXAMPLE 2-17 Reducing Air Pollution by Geothermal Heating",
"Header 3": "**Energy and Environment**",
"token_count": 765,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Physics_v1/Physics/pdfcoffee.com_engineering-thermodynamics-by-cengel-boles-and-kanoglu-9th-edition-pdf-free.pdf - 2023.01.13 - 06.32.12pm.p... |
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