doc_content stringlengths 1 386k | doc_id stringlengths 5 188 |
|---|---|
msg
For syntax errors - the compiler error message. | python.library.traceback#traceback.TracebackException.msg |
offset
For syntax errors - the offset into the text where the error occurred. | python.library.traceback#traceback.TracebackException.offset |
stack
A StackSummary representing the traceback. | python.library.traceback#traceback.TracebackException.stack |
text
For syntax errors - the text where the error occurred. | python.library.traceback#traceback.TracebackException.text |
__cause__
A TracebackException of the original __cause__. | python.library.traceback#traceback.TracebackException.__cause__ |
__context__
A TracebackException of the original __context__. | python.library.traceback#traceback.TracebackException.__context__ |
__suppress_context__
The __suppress_context__ value from the original exception. | python.library.traceback#traceback.TracebackException.__suppress_context__ |
traceback.walk_stack(f)
Walk a stack following f.f_back from the given frame, yielding the frame and line number for each frame. If f is None, the current stack is used. This helper is used with StackSummary.extract(). New in version 3.5. | python.library.traceback#traceback.walk_stack |
traceback.walk_tb(tb)
Walk a traceback following tb_next yielding the frame and line number for each frame. This helper is used with StackSummary.extract(). New in version 3.5. | python.library.traceback#traceback.walk_tb |
tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations New in version 3.4. Source code: Lib/tracemalloc.py The tracemalloc module is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated by Python. It provides the following information: Traceback where an object was allocated Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory blocks Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory leaks To trace most memory blocks allocated by Python, the module should be started as early as possible by setting the PYTHONTRACEMALLOC environment variable to 1, or by using -X tracemalloc command line option. The tracemalloc.start() function can be called at runtime to start tracing Python memory allocations. By default, a trace of an allocated memory block only stores the most recent frame (1 frame). To store 25 frames at startup: set the PYTHONTRACEMALLOC environment variable to 25, or use the -X tracemalloc=25 command line option. Examples Display the top 10 Display the 10 files allocating the most memory: import tracemalloc
tracemalloc.start()
# ... run your application ...
snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
top_stats = snapshot.statistics('lineno')
print("[ Top 10 ]")
for stat in top_stats[:10]:
print(stat)
Example of output of the Python test suite: [ Top 10 ]
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=4855 KiB, count=39328, average=126 B
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=521 KiB, count=3199, average=167 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/collections/__init__.py:368: size=244 KiB, count=2315, average=108 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:381: size=185 KiB, count=779, average=243 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:402: size=154 KiB, count=378, average=416 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/abc.py:133: size=88.7 KiB, count=347, average=262 B
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1446: size=70.4 KiB, count=911, average=79 B
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1454: size=52.0 KiB, count=25, average=2131 B
<string>:5: size=49.7 KiB, count=148, average=344 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/sysconfig.py:411: size=48.0 KiB, count=1, average=48.0 KiB
We can see that Python loaded 4855 KiB data (bytecode and constants) from modules and that the collections module allocated 244 KiB to build namedtuple types. See Snapshot.statistics() for more options. Compute differences Take two snapshots and display the differences: import tracemalloc
tracemalloc.start()
# ... start your application ...
snapshot1 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
# ... call the function leaking memory ...
snapshot2 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
top_stats = snapshot2.compare_to(snapshot1, 'lineno')
print("[ Top 10 differences ]")
for stat in top_stats[:10]:
print(stat)
Example of output before/after running some tests of the Python test suite: [ Top 10 differences ]
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=8173 KiB (+4428 KiB), count=71332 (+39369), average=117 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/linecache.py:127: size=940 KiB (+940 KiB), count=8106 (+8106), average=119 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:571: size=298 KiB (+298 KiB), count=589 (+589), average=519 B
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=1005 KiB (+166 KiB), count=7423 (+1526), average=139 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/mimetypes.py:217: size=112 KiB (+112 KiB), count=1334 (+1334), average=86 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/http/server.py:848: size=96.0 KiB (+96.0 KiB), count=1 (+1), average=96.0 KiB
/usr/lib/python3.4/inspect.py:1465: size=83.5 KiB (+83.5 KiB), count=109 (+109), average=784 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/mock.py:491: size=77.7 KiB (+77.7 KiB), count=143 (+143), average=557 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/urllib/parse.py:476: size=71.8 KiB (+71.8 KiB), count=969 (+969), average=76 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/contextlib.py:38: size=67.2 KiB (+67.2 KiB), count=126 (+126), average=546 B
We can see that Python has loaded 8173 KiB of module data (bytecode and constants), and that this is 4428 KiB more than had been loaded before the tests, when the previous snapshot was taken. Similarly, the linecache module has cached 940 KiB of Python source code to format tracebacks, all of it since the previous snapshot. If the system has little free memory, snapshots can be written on disk using the Snapshot.dump() method to analyze the snapshot offline. Then use the Snapshot.load() method reload the snapshot. Get the traceback of a memory block Code to display the traceback of the biggest memory block: import tracemalloc
# Store 25 frames
tracemalloc.start(25)
# ... run your application ...
snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
top_stats = snapshot.statistics('traceback')
# pick the biggest memory block
stat = top_stats[0]
print("%s memory blocks: %.1f KiB" % (stat.count, stat.size / 1024))
for line in stat.traceback.format():
print(line)
Example of output of the Python test suite (traceback limited to 25 frames): 903 memory blocks: 870.1 KiB
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 716
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1036
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 934
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
File "/usr/lib/python3.4/doctest.py", line 101
import pdb
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 284
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 938
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/support/__init__.py", line 1728
import doctest
File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/test_pickletools.py", line 21
support.run_doctest(pickletools)
File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1276
test_runner()
File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 976
display_failure=not verbose)
File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 761
match_tests=ns.match_tests)
File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1563
main()
File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/__main__.py", line 3
regrtest.main_in_temp_cwd()
File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 73
exec(code, run_globals)
File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 160
"__main__", fname, loader, pkg_name)
We can see that the most memory was allocated in the importlib module to load data (bytecode and constants) from modules: 870.1 KiB. The traceback is where the importlib loaded data most recently: on the import pdb line of the doctest module. The traceback may change if a new module is loaded. Pretty top Code to display the 10 lines allocating the most memory with a pretty output, ignoring <frozen importlib._bootstrap> and <unknown> files: import linecache
import os
import tracemalloc
def display_top(snapshot, key_type='lineno', limit=10):
snapshot = snapshot.filter_traces((
tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>"),
tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<unknown>"),
))
top_stats = snapshot.statistics(key_type)
print("Top %s lines" % limit)
for index, stat in enumerate(top_stats[:limit], 1):
frame = stat.traceback[0]
print("#%s: %s:%s: %.1f KiB"
% (index, frame.filename, frame.lineno, stat.size / 1024))
line = linecache.getline(frame.filename, frame.lineno).strip()
if line:
print(' %s' % line)
other = top_stats[limit:]
if other:
size = sum(stat.size for stat in other)
print("%s other: %.1f KiB" % (len(other), size / 1024))
total = sum(stat.size for stat in top_stats)
print("Total allocated size: %.1f KiB" % (total / 1024))
tracemalloc.start()
# ... run your application ...
snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
display_top(snapshot)
Example of output of the Python test suite: Top 10 lines
#1: Lib/base64.py:414: 419.8 KiB
_b85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _b85chars for b in _b85chars]
#2: Lib/base64.py:306: 419.8 KiB
_a85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _a85chars for b in _a85chars]
#3: collections/__init__.py:368: 293.6 KiB
exec(class_definition, namespace)
#4: Lib/abc.py:133: 115.2 KiB
cls = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, namespace)
#5: unittest/case.py:574: 103.1 KiB
testMethod()
#6: Lib/linecache.py:127: 95.4 KiB
lines = fp.readlines()
#7: urllib/parse.py:476: 71.8 KiB
for a in _hexdig for b in _hexdig}
#8: <string>:5: 62.0 KiB
#9: Lib/_weakrefset.py:37: 60.0 KiB
self.data = set()
#10: Lib/base64.py:142: 59.8 KiB
_b32tab2 = [a + b for a in _b32tab for b in _b32tab]
6220 other: 3602.8 KiB
Total allocated size: 5303.1 KiB
See Snapshot.statistics() for more options. Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks The following code computes two sums like 0 + 1 + 2 + ... inefficiently, by creating a list of those numbers. This list consumes a lot of memory temporarily. We can use get_traced_memory() and reset_peak() to observe the small memory usage after the sum is computed as well as the peak memory usage during the computations: import tracemalloc
tracemalloc.start()
# Example code: compute a sum with a large temporary list
large_sum = sum(list(range(100000)))
first_size, first_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()
tracemalloc.reset_peak()
# Example code: compute a sum with a small temporary list
small_sum = sum(list(range(1000)))
second_size, second_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()
print(f"{first_size=}, {first_peak=}")
print(f"{second_size=}, {second_peak=}")
Output: first_size=664, first_peak=3592984
second_size=804, second_peak=29704
Using reset_peak() ensured we could accurately record the peak during the computation of small_sum, even though it is much smaller than the overall peak size of memory blocks since the start() call. Without the call to reset_peak(), second_peak would still be the peak from the computation large_sum (that is, equal to first_peak). In this case, both peaks are much higher than the final memory usage, and which suggests we could optimise (by removing the unnecessary call to list, and writing sum(range(...))). API Functions
tracemalloc.clear_traces()
Clear traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. See also stop().
tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(obj)
Get the traceback where the Python object obj was allocated. Return a Traceback instance, or None if the tracemalloc module is not tracing memory allocations or did not trace the allocation of the object. See also gc.get_referrers() and sys.getsizeof() functions.
tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit()
Get the maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of a trace. The tracemalloc module must be tracing memory allocations to get the limit, otherwise an exception is raised. The limit is set by the start() function.
tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()
Get the current size and peak size of memory blocks traced by the tracemalloc module as a tuple: (current: int, peak: int).
tracemalloc.reset_peak()
Set the peak size of memory blocks traced by the tracemalloc module to the current size. Do nothing if the tracemalloc module is not tracing memory allocations. This function only modifies the recorded peak size, and does not modify or clear any traces, unlike clear_traces(). Snapshots taken with take_snapshot() before a call to reset_peak() can be meaningfully compared to snapshots taken after the call. See also get_traced_memory(). New in version 3.9.
tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory()
Get the memory usage in bytes of the tracemalloc module used to store traces of memory blocks. Return an int.
tracemalloc.is_tracing()
True if the tracemalloc module is tracing Python memory allocations, False otherwise. See also start() and stop() functions.
tracemalloc.start(nframe: int=1)
Start tracing Python memory allocations: install hooks on Python memory allocators. Collected tracebacks of traces will be limited to nframe frames. By default, a trace of a memory block only stores the most recent frame: the limit is 1. nframe must be greater or equal to 1. You can still read the original number of total frames that composed the traceback by looking at the Traceback.total_nframe attribute. Storing more than 1 frame is only useful to compute statistics grouped by 'traceback' or to compute cumulative statistics: see the Snapshot.compare_to() and Snapshot.statistics() methods. Storing more frames increases the memory and CPU overhead of the tracemalloc module. Use the get_tracemalloc_memory() function to measure how much memory is used by the tracemalloc module. The PYTHONTRACEMALLOC environment variable (PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME) and the -X tracemalloc=NFRAME command line option can be used to start tracing at startup. See also stop(), is_tracing() and get_traceback_limit() functions.
tracemalloc.stop()
Stop tracing Python memory allocations: uninstall hooks on Python memory allocators. Also clears all previously collected traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. Call take_snapshot() function to take a snapshot of traces before clearing them. See also start(), is_tracing() and clear_traces() functions.
tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
Take a snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. Return a new Snapshot instance. The snapshot does not include memory blocks allocated before the tracemalloc module started to trace memory allocations. Tracebacks of traces are limited to get_traceback_limit() frames. Use the nframe parameter of the start() function to store more frames. The tracemalloc module must be tracing memory allocations to take a snapshot, see the start() function. See also the get_object_traceback() function.
DomainFilter
class tracemalloc.DomainFilter(inclusive: bool, domain: int)
Filter traces of memory blocks by their address space (domain). New in version 3.6.
inclusive
If inclusive is True (include), match memory blocks allocated in the address space domain. If inclusive is False (exclude), match memory blocks not allocated in the address space domain.
domain
Address space of a memory block (int). Read-only property.
Filter
class tracemalloc.Filter(inclusive: bool, filename_pattern: str, lineno: int=None, all_frames: bool=False, domain: int=None)
Filter on traces of memory blocks. See the fnmatch.fnmatch() function for the syntax of filename_pattern. The '.pyc' file extension is replaced with '.py'. Examples:
Filter(True, subprocess.__file__) only includes traces of the subprocess module
Filter(False, tracemalloc.__file__) excludes traces of the tracemalloc module
Filter(False, "<unknown>") excludes empty tracebacks Changed in version 3.5: The '.pyo' file extension is no longer replaced with '.py'. Changed in version 3.6: Added the domain attribute.
domain
Address space of a memory block (int or None). tracemalloc uses the domain 0 to trace memory allocations made by Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources.
inclusive
If inclusive is True (include), only match memory blocks allocated in a file with a name matching filename_pattern at line number lineno. If inclusive is False (exclude), ignore memory blocks allocated in a file with a name matching filename_pattern at line number lineno.
lineno
Line number (int) of the filter. If lineno is None, the filter matches any line number.
filename_pattern
Filename pattern of the filter (str). Read-only property.
all_frames
If all_frames is True, all frames of the traceback are checked. If all_frames is False, only the most recent frame is checked. This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is 1. See the get_traceback_limit() function and Snapshot.traceback_limit attribute.
Frame
class tracemalloc.Frame
Frame of a traceback. The Traceback class is a sequence of Frame instances.
filename
Filename (str).
lineno
Line number (int).
Snapshot
class tracemalloc.Snapshot
Snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. The take_snapshot() function creates a snapshot instance.
compare_to(old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str, cumulative: bool=False)
Compute the differences with an old snapshot. Get statistics as a sorted list of StatisticDiff instances grouped by key_type. See the Snapshot.statistics() method for key_type and cumulative parameters. The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: absolute value of StatisticDiff.size_diff, StatisticDiff.size, absolute value of StatisticDiff.count_diff, Statistic.count and then by StatisticDiff.traceback.
dump(filename)
Write the snapshot into a file. Use load() to reload the snapshot.
filter_traces(filters)
Create a new Snapshot instance with a filtered traces sequence, filters is a list of DomainFilter and Filter instances. If filters is an empty list, return a new Snapshot instance with a copy of the traces. All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored if no inclusive filters match it. A trace is ignored if at least one exclusive filter matches it. Changed in version 3.6: DomainFilter instances are now also accepted in filters.
classmethod load(filename)
Load a snapshot from a file. See also dump().
statistics(key_type: str, cumulative: bool=False)
Get statistics as a sorted list of Statistic instances grouped by key_type:
key_type description
'filename' filename
'lineno' filename and line number
'traceback' traceback If cumulative is True, cumulate size and count of memory blocks of all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the most recent frame. The cumulative mode can only be used with key_type equals to 'filename' and 'lineno'. The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: Statistic.size, Statistic.count and then by Statistic.traceback.
traceback_limit
Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of traces: result of the get_traceback_limit() when the snapshot was taken.
traces
Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of Trace instances. The sequence has an undefined order. Use the Snapshot.statistics() method to get a sorted list of statistics.
Statistic
class tracemalloc.Statistic
Statistic on memory allocations. Snapshot.statistics() returns a list of Statistic instances. See also the StatisticDiff class.
count
Number of memory blocks (int).
size
Total size of memory blocks in bytes (int).
traceback
Traceback where the memory block was allocated, Traceback instance.
StatisticDiff
class tracemalloc.StatisticDiff
Statistic difference on memory allocations between an old and a new Snapshot instance. Snapshot.compare_to() returns a list of StatisticDiff instances. See also the Statistic class.
count
Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.
count_diff
Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the new snapshots (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been allocated in the new snapshot.
size
Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.
size_diff
Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the old and the new snapshots (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been allocated in the new snapshot.
traceback
Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, Traceback instance.
Trace
class tracemalloc.Trace
Trace of a memory block. The Snapshot.traces attribute is a sequence of Trace instances. Changed in version 3.6: Added the domain attribute.
domain
Address space of a memory block (int). Read-only property. tracemalloc uses the domain 0 to trace memory allocations made by Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources.
size
Size of the memory block in bytes (int).
traceback
Traceback where the memory block was allocated, Traceback instance.
Traceback
class tracemalloc.Traceback
Sequence of Frame instances sorted from the oldest frame to the most recent frame. A traceback contains at least 1 frame. If the tracemalloc module failed to get a frame, the filename "<unknown>" at line number 0 is used. When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to get_traceback_limit() frames. See the take_snapshot() function. The original number of frames of the traceback is stored in the Traceback.total_nframe attribute. That allows to know if a traceback has been truncated by the traceback limit. The Trace.traceback attribute is an instance of Traceback instance. Changed in version 3.7: Frames are now sorted from the oldest to the most recent, instead of most recent to oldest.
total_nframe
Total number of frames that composed the traceback before truncation. This attribute can be set to None if the information is not available.
Changed in version 3.9: The Traceback.total_nframe attribute was added.
format(limit=None, most_recent_first=False)
Format the traceback as a list of lines with newlines. Use the linecache module to retrieve lines from the source code. If limit is set, format the limit most recent frames if limit is positive. Otherwise, format the abs(limit) oldest frames. If most_recent_first is True, the order of the formatted frames is reversed, returning the most recent frame first instead of last. Similar to the traceback.format_tb() function, except that format() does not include newlines. Example: print("Traceback (most recent call first):")
for line in traceback:
print(line)
Output: Traceback (most recent call first):
File "test.py", line 9
obj = Object()
File "test.py", line 12
tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f()) | python.library.tracemalloc |
tracemalloc.clear_traces()
Clear traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. See also stop(). | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.clear_traces |
class tracemalloc.DomainFilter(inclusive: bool, domain: int)
Filter traces of memory blocks by their address space (domain). New in version 3.6.
inclusive
If inclusive is True (include), match memory blocks allocated in the address space domain. If inclusive is False (exclude), match memory blocks not allocated in the address space domain.
domain
Address space of a memory block (int). Read-only property. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.DomainFilter |
domain
Address space of a memory block (int). Read-only property. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.DomainFilter.domain |
inclusive
If inclusive is True (include), match memory blocks allocated in the address space domain. If inclusive is False (exclude), match memory blocks not allocated in the address space domain. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.DomainFilter.inclusive |
class tracemalloc.Filter(inclusive: bool, filename_pattern: str, lineno: int=None, all_frames: bool=False, domain: int=None)
Filter on traces of memory blocks. See the fnmatch.fnmatch() function for the syntax of filename_pattern. The '.pyc' file extension is replaced with '.py'. Examples:
Filter(True, subprocess.__file__) only includes traces of the subprocess module
Filter(False, tracemalloc.__file__) excludes traces of the tracemalloc module
Filter(False, "<unknown>") excludes empty tracebacks Changed in version 3.5: The '.pyo' file extension is no longer replaced with '.py'. Changed in version 3.6: Added the domain attribute.
domain
Address space of a memory block (int or None). tracemalloc uses the domain 0 to trace memory allocations made by Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources.
inclusive
If inclusive is True (include), only match memory blocks allocated in a file with a name matching filename_pattern at line number lineno. If inclusive is False (exclude), ignore memory blocks allocated in a file with a name matching filename_pattern at line number lineno.
lineno
Line number (int) of the filter. If lineno is None, the filter matches any line number.
filename_pattern
Filename pattern of the filter (str). Read-only property.
all_frames
If all_frames is True, all frames of the traceback are checked. If all_frames is False, only the most recent frame is checked. This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is 1. See the get_traceback_limit() function and Snapshot.traceback_limit attribute. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Filter |
all_frames
If all_frames is True, all frames of the traceback are checked. If all_frames is False, only the most recent frame is checked. This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is 1. See the get_traceback_limit() function and Snapshot.traceback_limit attribute. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Filter.all_frames |
domain
Address space of a memory block (int or None). tracemalloc uses the domain 0 to trace memory allocations made by Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Filter.domain |
filename_pattern
Filename pattern of the filter (str). Read-only property. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Filter.filename_pattern |
inclusive
If inclusive is True (include), only match memory blocks allocated in a file with a name matching filename_pattern at line number lineno. If inclusive is False (exclude), ignore memory blocks allocated in a file with a name matching filename_pattern at line number lineno. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Filter.inclusive |
lineno
Line number (int) of the filter. If lineno is None, the filter matches any line number. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Filter.lineno |
class tracemalloc.Frame
Frame of a traceback. The Traceback class is a sequence of Frame instances.
filename
Filename (str).
lineno
Line number (int). | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Frame |
filename
Filename (str). | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Frame.filename |
lineno
Line number (int). | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Frame.lineno |
tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(obj)
Get the traceback where the Python object obj was allocated. Return a Traceback instance, or None if the tracemalloc module is not tracing memory allocations or did not trace the allocation of the object. See also gc.get_referrers() and sys.getsizeof() functions. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.get_object_traceback |
tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit()
Get the maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of a trace. The tracemalloc module must be tracing memory allocations to get the limit, otherwise an exception is raised. The limit is set by the start() function. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit |
tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()
Get the current size and peak size of memory blocks traced by the tracemalloc module as a tuple: (current: int, peak: int). | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.get_traced_memory |
tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory()
Get the memory usage in bytes of the tracemalloc module used to store traces of memory blocks. Return an int. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory |
tracemalloc.is_tracing()
True if the tracemalloc module is tracing Python memory allocations, False otherwise. See also start() and stop() functions. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.is_tracing |
tracemalloc.reset_peak()
Set the peak size of memory blocks traced by the tracemalloc module to the current size. Do nothing if the tracemalloc module is not tracing memory allocations. This function only modifies the recorded peak size, and does not modify or clear any traces, unlike clear_traces(). Snapshots taken with take_snapshot() before a call to reset_peak() can be meaningfully compared to snapshots taken after the call. See also get_traced_memory(). New in version 3.9. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.reset_peak |
class tracemalloc.Snapshot
Snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. The take_snapshot() function creates a snapshot instance.
compare_to(old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str, cumulative: bool=False)
Compute the differences with an old snapshot. Get statistics as a sorted list of StatisticDiff instances grouped by key_type. See the Snapshot.statistics() method for key_type and cumulative parameters. The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: absolute value of StatisticDiff.size_diff, StatisticDiff.size, absolute value of StatisticDiff.count_diff, Statistic.count and then by StatisticDiff.traceback.
dump(filename)
Write the snapshot into a file. Use load() to reload the snapshot.
filter_traces(filters)
Create a new Snapshot instance with a filtered traces sequence, filters is a list of DomainFilter and Filter instances. If filters is an empty list, return a new Snapshot instance with a copy of the traces. All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored if no inclusive filters match it. A trace is ignored if at least one exclusive filter matches it. Changed in version 3.6: DomainFilter instances are now also accepted in filters.
classmethod load(filename)
Load a snapshot from a file. See also dump().
statistics(key_type: str, cumulative: bool=False)
Get statistics as a sorted list of Statistic instances grouped by key_type:
key_type description
'filename' filename
'lineno' filename and line number
'traceback' traceback If cumulative is True, cumulate size and count of memory blocks of all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the most recent frame. The cumulative mode can only be used with key_type equals to 'filename' and 'lineno'. The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: Statistic.size, Statistic.count and then by Statistic.traceback.
traceback_limit
Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of traces: result of the get_traceback_limit() when the snapshot was taken.
traces
Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of Trace instances. The sequence has an undefined order. Use the Snapshot.statistics() method to get a sorted list of statistics. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Snapshot |
compare_to(old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str, cumulative: bool=False)
Compute the differences with an old snapshot. Get statistics as a sorted list of StatisticDiff instances grouped by key_type. See the Snapshot.statistics() method for key_type and cumulative parameters. The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: absolute value of StatisticDiff.size_diff, StatisticDiff.size, absolute value of StatisticDiff.count_diff, Statistic.count and then by StatisticDiff.traceback. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Snapshot.compare_to |
dump(filename)
Write the snapshot into a file. Use load() to reload the snapshot. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Snapshot.dump |
filter_traces(filters)
Create a new Snapshot instance with a filtered traces sequence, filters is a list of DomainFilter and Filter instances. If filters is an empty list, return a new Snapshot instance with a copy of the traces. All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored if no inclusive filters match it. A trace is ignored if at least one exclusive filter matches it. Changed in version 3.6: DomainFilter instances are now also accepted in filters. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Snapshot.filter_traces |
classmethod load(filename)
Load a snapshot from a file. See also dump(). | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Snapshot.load |
statistics(key_type: str, cumulative: bool=False)
Get statistics as a sorted list of Statistic instances grouped by key_type:
key_type description
'filename' filename
'lineno' filename and line number
'traceback' traceback If cumulative is True, cumulate size and count of memory blocks of all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the most recent frame. The cumulative mode can only be used with key_type equals to 'filename' and 'lineno'. The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: Statistic.size, Statistic.count and then by Statistic.traceback. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Snapshot.statistics |
traceback_limit
Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of traces: result of the get_traceback_limit() when the snapshot was taken. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traceback_limit |
traces
Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of Trace instances. The sequence has an undefined order. Use the Snapshot.statistics() method to get a sorted list of statistics. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Snapshot.traces |
tracemalloc.start(nframe: int=1)
Start tracing Python memory allocations: install hooks on Python memory allocators. Collected tracebacks of traces will be limited to nframe frames. By default, a trace of a memory block only stores the most recent frame: the limit is 1. nframe must be greater or equal to 1. You can still read the original number of total frames that composed the traceback by looking at the Traceback.total_nframe attribute. Storing more than 1 frame is only useful to compute statistics grouped by 'traceback' or to compute cumulative statistics: see the Snapshot.compare_to() and Snapshot.statistics() methods. Storing more frames increases the memory and CPU overhead of the tracemalloc module. Use the get_tracemalloc_memory() function to measure how much memory is used by the tracemalloc module. The PYTHONTRACEMALLOC environment variable (PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME) and the -X tracemalloc=NFRAME command line option can be used to start tracing at startup. See also stop(), is_tracing() and get_traceback_limit() functions. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.start |
class tracemalloc.Statistic
Statistic on memory allocations. Snapshot.statistics() returns a list of Statistic instances. See also the StatisticDiff class.
count
Number of memory blocks (int).
size
Total size of memory blocks in bytes (int).
traceback
Traceback where the memory block was allocated, Traceback instance. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Statistic |
count
Number of memory blocks (int). | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Statistic.count |
size
Total size of memory blocks in bytes (int). | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Statistic.size |
traceback
Traceback where the memory block was allocated, Traceback instance. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Statistic.traceback |
class tracemalloc.StatisticDiff
Statistic difference on memory allocations between an old and a new Snapshot instance. Snapshot.compare_to() returns a list of StatisticDiff instances. See also the Statistic class.
count
Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.
count_diff
Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the new snapshots (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been allocated in the new snapshot.
size
Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.
size_diff
Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the old and the new snapshots (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been allocated in the new snapshot.
traceback
Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, Traceback instance. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff |
count
Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count |
count_diff
Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the new snapshots (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been allocated in the new snapshot. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.count_diff |
size
Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size |
size_diff
Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the old and the new snapshots (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been allocated in the new snapshot. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.size_diff |
traceback
Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, Traceback instance. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.StatisticDiff.traceback |
tracemalloc.stop()
Stop tracing Python memory allocations: uninstall hooks on Python memory allocators. Also clears all previously collected traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. Call take_snapshot() function to take a snapshot of traces before clearing them. See also start(), is_tracing() and clear_traces() functions. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.stop |
tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
Take a snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. Return a new Snapshot instance. The snapshot does not include memory blocks allocated before the tracemalloc module started to trace memory allocations. Tracebacks of traces are limited to get_traceback_limit() frames. Use the nframe parameter of the start() function to store more frames. The tracemalloc module must be tracing memory allocations to take a snapshot, see the start() function. See also the get_object_traceback() function. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.take_snapshot |
class tracemalloc.Trace
Trace of a memory block. The Snapshot.traces attribute is a sequence of Trace instances. Changed in version 3.6: Added the domain attribute.
domain
Address space of a memory block (int). Read-only property. tracemalloc uses the domain 0 to trace memory allocations made by Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources.
size
Size of the memory block in bytes (int).
traceback
Traceback where the memory block was allocated, Traceback instance. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Trace |
domain
Address space of a memory block (int). Read-only property. tracemalloc uses the domain 0 to trace memory allocations made by Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Trace.domain |
size
Size of the memory block in bytes (int). | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Trace.size |
traceback
Traceback where the memory block was allocated, Traceback instance. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Trace.traceback |
class tracemalloc.Traceback
Sequence of Frame instances sorted from the oldest frame to the most recent frame. A traceback contains at least 1 frame. If the tracemalloc module failed to get a frame, the filename "<unknown>" at line number 0 is used. When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to get_traceback_limit() frames. See the take_snapshot() function. The original number of frames of the traceback is stored in the Traceback.total_nframe attribute. That allows to know if a traceback has been truncated by the traceback limit. The Trace.traceback attribute is an instance of Traceback instance. Changed in version 3.7: Frames are now sorted from the oldest to the most recent, instead of most recent to oldest.
total_nframe
Total number of frames that composed the traceback before truncation. This attribute can be set to None if the information is not available.
Changed in version 3.9: The Traceback.total_nframe attribute was added.
format(limit=None, most_recent_first=False)
Format the traceback as a list of lines with newlines. Use the linecache module to retrieve lines from the source code. If limit is set, format the limit most recent frames if limit is positive. Otherwise, format the abs(limit) oldest frames. If most_recent_first is True, the order of the formatted frames is reversed, returning the most recent frame first instead of last. Similar to the traceback.format_tb() function, except that format() does not include newlines. Example: print("Traceback (most recent call first):")
for line in traceback:
print(line)
Output: Traceback (most recent call first):
File "test.py", line 9
obj = Object()
File "test.py", line 12
tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f()) | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Traceback |
format(limit=None, most_recent_first=False)
Format the traceback as a list of lines with newlines. Use the linecache module to retrieve lines from the source code. If limit is set, format the limit most recent frames if limit is positive. Otherwise, format the abs(limit) oldest frames. If most_recent_first is True, the order of the formatted frames is reversed, returning the most recent frame first instead of last. Similar to the traceback.format_tb() function, except that format() does not include newlines. Example: print("Traceback (most recent call first):")
for line in traceback:
print(line)
Output: Traceback (most recent call first):
File "test.py", line 9
obj = Object()
File "test.py", line 12
tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f()) | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Traceback.format |
total_nframe
Total number of frames that composed the traceback before truncation. This attribute can be set to None if the information is not available. | python.library.tracemalloc#tracemalloc.Traceback.total_nframe |
True
The true value of the bool type. Assignments to True are illegal and raise a SyntaxError. | python.library.constants#True |
tty — Terminal control functions Source code: Lib/tty.py The tty module defines functions for putting the tty into cbreak and raw modes. Because it requires the termios module, it will work only on Unix. The tty module defines the following functions:
tty.setraw(fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)
Change the mode of the file descriptor fd to raw. If when is omitted, it defaults to termios.TCSAFLUSH, and is passed to termios.tcsetattr().
tty.setcbreak(fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)
Change the mode of file descriptor fd to cbreak. If when is omitted, it defaults to termios.TCSAFLUSH, and is passed to termios.tcsetattr().
See also
Module termios
Low-level terminal control interface. | python.library.tty |
tty.setcbreak(fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)
Change the mode of file descriptor fd to cbreak. If when is omitted, it defaults to termios.TCSAFLUSH, and is passed to termios.tcsetattr(). | python.library.tty#tty.setcbreak |
tty.setraw(fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)
Change the mode of the file descriptor fd to raw. If when is omitted, it defaults to termios.TCSAFLUSH, and is passed to termios.tcsetattr(). | python.library.tty#tty.setraw |
class tuple([iterable])
Tuples may be constructed in a number of ways: Using a pair of parentheses to denote the empty tuple: ()
Using a trailing comma for a singleton tuple: a, or (a,)
Separating items with commas: a, b, c or (a, b, c)
Using the tuple() built-in: tuple() or tuple(iterable)
The constructor builds a tuple whose items are the same and in the same order as iterable’s items. iterable may be either a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If iterable is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged. For example, tuple('abc') returns ('a', 'b', 'c') and tuple( [1, 2, 3] ) returns (1, 2, 3). If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty tuple, (). Note that it is actually the comma which makes a tuple, not the parentheses. The parentheses are optional, except in the empty tuple case, or when they are needed to avoid syntactic ambiguity. For example, f(a, b, c) is a function call with three arguments, while f((a, b, c)) is a function call with a 3-tuple as the sole argument. Tuples implement all of the common sequence operations. | python.library.stdtypes#tuple |
class tuple([iterable])
Rather than being a function, tuple is actually an immutable sequence type, as documented in Tuples and Sequence Types — list, tuple, range. | python.library.functions#tuple |
turtle — Turtle graphics Source code: Lib/turtle.py Introduction Turtle graphics is a popular way for introducing programming to kids. It was part of the original Logo programming language developed by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert and Cynthia Solomon in 1967. Imagine a robotic turtle starting at (0, 0) in the x-y plane. After an import turtle, give it the command turtle.forward(15), and it moves (on-screen!) 15 pixels in the direction it is facing, drawing a line as it moves. Give it the command turtle.right(25), and it rotates in-place 25 degrees clockwise. Turtle star Turtle can draw intricate shapes using programs that repeat simple moves. from turtle import *
color('red', 'yellow')
begin_fill()
while True:
forward(200)
left(170)
if abs(pos()) < 1:
break
end_fill()
done()
By combining together these and similar commands, intricate shapes and pictures can easily be drawn. The turtle module is an extended reimplementation of the same-named module from the Python standard distribution up to version Python 2.5. It tries to keep the merits of the old turtle module and to be (nearly) 100% compatible with it. This means in the first place to enable the learning programmer to use all the commands, classes and methods interactively when using the module from within IDLE run with the -n switch. The turtle module provides turtle graphics primitives, in both object-oriented and procedure-oriented ways. Because it uses tkinter for the underlying graphics, it needs a version of Python installed with Tk support. The object-oriented interface uses essentially two+two classes:
The TurtleScreen class defines graphics windows as a playground for the drawing turtles. Its constructor needs a tkinter.Canvas or a ScrolledCanvas as argument. It should be used when turtle is used as part of some application. The function Screen() returns a singleton object of a TurtleScreen subclass. This function should be used when turtle is used as a standalone tool for doing graphics. As a singleton object, inheriting from its class is not possible. All methods of TurtleScreen/Screen also exist as functions, i.e. as part of the procedure-oriented interface.
RawTurtle (alias: RawPen) defines Turtle objects which draw on a TurtleScreen. Its constructor needs a Canvas, ScrolledCanvas or TurtleScreen as argument, so the RawTurtle objects know where to draw. Derived from RawTurtle is the subclass Turtle (alias: Pen), which draws on “the” Screen instance which is automatically created, if not already present. All methods of RawTurtle/Turtle also exist as functions, i.e. part of the procedure-oriented interface. The procedural interface provides functions which are derived from the methods of the classes Screen and Turtle. They have the same names as the corresponding methods. A screen object is automatically created whenever a function derived from a Screen method is called. An (unnamed) turtle object is automatically created whenever any of the functions derived from a Turtle method is called. To use multiple turtles on a screen one has to use the object-oriented interface. Note In the following documentation the argument list for functions is given. Methods, of course, have the additional first argument self which is omitted here. Overview of available Turtle and Screen methods Turtle methods Turtle motion
Move and draw
Tell Turtle’s state
Setting and measurement
Pen control
Drawing state
Color control
Filling
More drawing control
Turtle state
Visibility
Appearance
Using events
Special Turtle methods
Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen Window control
Animation control
Using screen events
Settings and special methods
Input methods
Methods specific to Screen
Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions Most of the examples in this section refer to a Turtle instance called turtle. Turtle motion
turtle.forward(distance)
turtle.fd(distance)
Parameters
distance – a number (integer or float) Move the turtle forward by the specified distance, in the direction the turtle is headed. >>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.forward(25)
>>> turtle.position()
(25.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.forward(-75)
>>> turtle.position()
(-50.00,0.00)
turtle.back(distance)
turtle.bk(distance)
turtle.backward(distance)
Parameters
distance – a number Move the turtle backward by distance, opposite to the direction the turtle is headed. Do not change the turtle’s heading. >>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.backward(30)
>>> turtle.position()
(-30.00,0.00)
turtle.right(angle)
turtle.rt(angle)
Parameters
angle – a number (integer or float) Turn turtle right by angle units. (Units are by default degrees, but can be set via the degrees() and radians() functions.) Angle orientation depends on the turtle mode, see mode(). >>> turtle.heading()
22.0
>>> turtle.right(45)
>>> turtle.heading()
337.0
turtle.left(angle)
turtle.lt(angle)
Parameters
angle – a number (integer or float) Turn turtle left by angle units. (Units are by default degrees, but can be set via the degrees() and radians() functions.) Angle orientation depends on the turtle mode, see mode(). >>> turtle.heading()
22.0
>>> turtle.left(45)
>>> turtle.heading()
67.0
turtle.goto(x, y=None)
turtle.setpos(x, y=None)
turtle.setposition(x, y=None)
Parameters
x – a number or a pair/vector of numbers
y – a number or None
If y is None, x must be a pair of coordinates or a Vec2D (e.g. as returned by pos()). Move turtle to an absolute position. If the pen is down, draw line. Do not change the turtle’s orientation. >>> tp = turtle.pos()
>>> tp
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.setpos(60,30)
>>> turtle.pos()
(60.00,30.00)
>>> turtle.setpos((20,80))
>>> turtle.pos()
(20.00,80.00)
>>> turtle.setpos(tp)
>>> turtle.pos()
(0.00,0.00)
turtle.setx(x)
Parameters
x – a number (integer or float) Set the turtle’s first coordinate to x, leave second coordinate unchanged. >>> turtle.position()
(0.00,240.00)
>>> turtle.setx(10)
>>> turtle.position()
(10.00,240.00)
turtle.sety(y)
Parameters
y – a number (integer or float) Set the turtle’s second coordinate to y, leave first coordinate unchanged. >>> turtle.position()
(0.00,40.00)
>>> turtle.sety(-10)
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,-10.00)
turtle.setheading(to_angle)
turtle.seth(to_angle)
Parameters
to_angle – a number (integer or float) Set the orientation of the turtle to to_angle. Here are some common directions in degrees:
standard mode logo mode
0 - east 0 - north
90 - north 90 - east
180 - west 180 - south
270 - south 270 - west >>> turtle.setheading(90)
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0
turtle.home()
Move turtle to the origin – coordinates (0,0) – and set its heading to its start-orientation (which depends on the mode, see mode()). >>> turtle.heading()
90.0
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,-10.00)
>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0
turtle.circle(radius, extent=None, steps=None)
Parameters
radius – a number
extent – a number (or None)
steps – an integer (or None) Draw a circle with given radius. The center is radius units left of the turtle; extent – an angle – determines which part of the circle is drawn. If extent is not given, draw the entire circle. If extent is not a full circle, one endpoint of the arc is the current pen position. Draw the arc in counterclockwise direction if radius is positive, otherwise in clockwise direction. Finally the direction of the turtle is changed by the amount of extent. As the circle is approximated by an inscribed regular polygon, steps determines the number of steps to use. If not given, it will be calculated automatically. May be used to draw regular polygons. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0
>>> turtle.circle(50)
>>> turtle.position()
(-0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0
>>> turtle.circle(120, 180) # draw a semicircle
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,240.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
180.0
turtle.dot(size=None, *color)
Parameters
size – an integer >= 1 (if given)
color – a colorstring or a numeric color tuple Draw a circular dot with diameter size, using color. If size is not given, the maximum of pensize+4 and 2*pensize is used. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.dot()
>>> turtle.fd(50); turtle.dot(20, "blue"); turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.position()
(100.00,-0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0
turtle.stamp()
Stamp a copy of the turtle shape onto the canvas at the current turtle position. Return a stamp_id for that stamp, which can be used to delete it by calling clearstamp(stamp_id). >>> turtle.color("blue")
>>> turtle.stamp()
11
>>> turtle.fd(50)
turtle.clearstamp(stampid)
Parameters
stampid – an integer, must be return value of previous stamp() call Delete stamp with given stampid. >>> turtle.position()
(150.00,-0.00)
>>> turtle.color("blue")
>>> astamp = turtle.stamp()
>>> turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.position()
(200.00,-0.00)
>>> turtle.clearstamp(astamp)
>>> turtle.position()
(200.00,-0.00)
turtle.clearstamps(n=None)
Parameters
n – an integer (or None) Delete all or first/last n of turtle’s stamps. If n is None, delete all stamps, if n > 0 delete first n stamps, else if n < 0 delete last n stamps. >>> for i in range(8):
... turtle.stamp(); turtle.fd(30)
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
>>> turtle.clearstamps(2)
>>> turtle.clearstamps(-2)
>>> turtle.clearstamps()
turtle.undo()
Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s). Number of available undo actions is determined by the size of the undobuffer. >>> for i in range(4):
... turtle.fd(50); turtle.lt(80)
...
>>> for i in range(8):
... turtle.undo()
turtle.speed(speed=None)
Parameters
speed – an integer in the range 0..10 or a speedstring (see below) Set the turtle’s speed to an integer value in the range 0..10. If no argument is given, return current speed. If input is a number greater than 10 or smaller than 0.5, speed is set to 0. Speedstrings are mapped to speedvalues as follows: “fastest”: 0 “fast”: 10 “normal”: 6 “slow”: 3 “slowest”: 1 Speeds from 1 to 10 enforce increasingly faster animation of line drawing and turtle turning. Attention: speed = 0 means that no animation takes place. forward/back makes turtle jump and likewise left/right make the turtle turn instantly. >>> turtle.speed()
3
>>> turtle.speed('normal')
>>> turtle.speed()
6
>>> turtle.speed(9)
>>> turtle.speed()
9
Tell Turtle’s state
turtle.position()
turtle.pos()
Return the turtle’s current location (x,y) (as a Vec2D vector). >>> turtle.pos()
(440.00,-0.00)
turtle.towards(x, y=None)
Parameters
x – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle instance
y – a number if x is a number, else None
Return the angle between the line from turtle position to position specified by (x,y), the vector or the other turtle. This depends on the turtle’s start orientation which depends on the mode - “standard”/”world” or “logo”. >>> turtle.goto(10, 10)
>>> turtle.towards(0,0)
225.0
turtle.xcor()
Return the turtle’s x coordinate. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(50)
>>> turtle.forward(100)
>>> turtle.pos()
(64.28,76.60)
>>> print(round(turtle.xcor(), 5))
64.27876
turtle.ycor()
Return the turtle’s y coordinate. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(60)
>>> turtle.forward(100)
>>> print(turtle.pos())
(50.00,86.60)
>>> print(round(turtle.ycor(), 5))
86.60254
turtle.heading()
Return the turtle’s current heading (value depends on the turtle mode, see mode()). >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(67)
>>> turtle.heading()
67.0
turtle.distance(x, y=None)
Parameters
x – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle instance
y – a number if x is a number, else None
Return the distance from the turtle to (x,y), the given vector, or the given other turtle, in turtle step units. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.distance(30,40)
50.0
>>> turtle.distance((30,40))
50.0
>>> joe = Turtle()
>>> joe.forward(77)
>>> turtle.distance(joe)
77.0
Settings for measurement
turtle.degrees(fullcircle=360.0)
Parameters
fullcircle – a number Set angle measurement units, i.e. set number of “degrees” for a full circle. Default value is 360 degrees. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(90)
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0
Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,
grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)
>>> turtle.degrees(400.0)
>>> turtle.heading()
100.0
>>> turtle.degrees(360)
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0
turtle.radians()
Set the angle measurement units to radians. Equivalent to degrees(2*math.pi). >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(90)
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0
>>> turtle.radians()
>>> turtle.heading()
1.5707963267948966
Pen control Drawing state
turtle.pendown()
turtle.pd()
turtle.down()
Pull the pen down – drawing when moving.
turtle.penup()
turtle.pu()
turtle.up()
Pull the pen up – no drawing when moving.
turtle.pensize(width=None)
turtle.width(width=None)
Parameters
width – a positive number Set the line thickness to width or return it. If resizemode is set to “auto” and turtleshape is a polygon, that polygon is drawn with the same line thickness. If no argument is given, the current pensize is returned. >>> turtle.pensize()
1
>>> turtle.pensize(10) # from here on lines of width 10 are drawn
turtle.pen(pen=None, **pendict)
Parameters
pen – a dictionary with some or all of the below listed keys
pendict – one or more keyword-arguments with the below listed keys as keywords Return or set the pen’s attributes in a “pen-dictionary” with the following key/value pairs: “shown”: True/False “pendown”: True/False “pencolor”: color-string or color-tuple “fillcolor”: color-string or color-tuple “pensize”: positive number “speed”: number in range 0..10 “resizemode”: “auto” or “user” or “noresize” “stretchfactor”: (positive number, positive number) “outline”: positive number “tilt”: number This dictionary can be used as argument for a subsequent call to pen() to restore the former pen-state. Moreover one or more of these attributes can be provided as keyword-arguments. This can be used to set several pen attributes in one statement. >>> turtle.pen(fillcolor="black", pencolor="red", pensize=10)
>>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())
[('fillcolor', 'black'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red'),
('pendown', True), ('pensize', 10), ('resizemode', 'noresize'),
('shearfactor', 0.0), ('shown', True), ('speed', 9),
('stretchfactor', (1.0, 1.0)), ('tilt', 0.0)]
>>> penstate=turtle.pen()
>>> turtle.color("yellow", "")
>>> turtle.penup()
>>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
[('fillcolor', ''), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'yellow')]
>>> turtle.pen(penstate, fillcolor="green")
>>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
[('fillcolor', 'green'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red')]
turtle.isdown()
Return True if pen is down, False if it’s up. >>> turtle.penup()
>>> turtle.isdown()
False
>>> turtle.pendown()
>>> turtle.isdown()
True
Color control
turtle.pencolor(*args)
Return or set the pencolor. Four input formats are allowed:
pencolor()
Return the current pencolor as color specification string or as a tuple (see example). May be used as input to another color/pencolor/fillcolor call.
pencolor(colorstring)
Set pencolor to colorstring, which is a Tk color specification string, such as "red", "yellow", or "#33cc8c".
pencolor((r, g, b))
Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of r, g, and b. Each of r, g, and b must be in the range 0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see colormode()).
pencolor(r, g, b)
Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by r, g, and b. Each of r, g, and b must be in the range 0..colormode. If turtleshape is a polygon, the outline of that polygon is drawn with the newly set pencolor. >>> colormode()
1.0
>>> turtle.pencolor()
'red'
>>> turtle.pencolor("brown")
>>> turtle.pencolor()
'brown'
>>> tup = (0.2, 0.8, 0.55)
>>> turtle.pencolor(tup)
>>> turtle.pencolor()
(0.2, 0.8, 0.5490196078431373)
>>> colormode(255)
>>> turtle.pencolor()
(51.0, 204.0, 140.0)
>>> turtle.pencolor('#32c18f')
>>> turtle.pencolor()
(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
turtle.fillcolor(*args)
Return or set the fillcolor. Four input formats are allowed:
fillcolor()
Return the current fillcolor as color specification string, possibly in tuple format (see example). May be used as input to another color/pencolor/fillcolor call.
fillcolor(colorstring)
Set fillcolor to colorstring, which is a Tk color specification string, such as "red", "yellow", or "#33cc8c".
fillcolor((r, g, b))
Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of r, g, and b. Each of r, g, and b must be in the range 0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see colormode()).
fillcolor(r, g, b)
Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by r, g, and b. Each of r, g, and b must be in the range 0..colormode. If turtleshape is a polygon, the interior of that polygon is drawn with the newly set fillcolor. >>> turtle.fillcolor("violet")
>>> turtle.fillcolor()
'violet'
>>> turtle.pencolor()
(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
>>> turtle.fillcolor((50, 193, 143)) # Integers, not floats
>>> turtle.fillcolor()
(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
>>> turtle.fillcolor('#ffffff')
>>> turtle.fillcolor()
(255.0, 255.0, 255.0)
turtle.color(*args)
Return or set pencolor and fillcolor. Several input formats are allowed. They use 0 to 3 arguments as follows:
color()
Return the current pencolor and the current fillcolor as a pair of color specification strings or tuples as returned by pencolor() and fillcolor().
color(colorstring), color((r,g,b)), color(r,g,b)
Inputs as in pencolor(), set both, fillcolor and pencolor, to the given value.
color(colorstring1, colorstring2), color((r1,g1,b1), (r2,g2,b2))
Equivalent to pencolor(colorstring1) and fillcolor(colorstring2) and analogously if the other input format is used. If turtleshape is a polygon, outline and interior of that polygon is drawn with the newly set colors. >>> turtle.color("red", "green")
>>> turtle.color()
('red', 'green')
>>> color("#285078", "#a0c8f0")
>>> color()
((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0))
See also: Screen method colormode(). Filling
turtle.filling()
Return fillstate (True if filling, False else). >>> turtle.begin_fill()
>>> if turtle.filling():
... turtle.pensize(5)
... else:
... turtle.pensize(3)
turtle.begin_fill()
To be called just before drawing a shape to be filled.
turtle.end_fill()
Fill the shape drawn after the last call to begin_fill(). Whether or not overlap regions for self-intersecting polygons or multiple shapes are filled depends on the operating system graphics, type of overlap, and number of overlaps. For example, the Turtle star above may be either all yellow or have some white regions. >>> turtle.color("black", "red")
>>> turtle.begin_fill()
>>> turtle.circle(80)
>>> turtle.end_fill()
More drawing control
turtle.reset()
Delete the turtle’s drawings from the screen, re-center the turtle and set variables to the default values. >>> turtle.goto(0,-22)
>>> turtle.left(100)
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,-22.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
100.0
>>> turtle.reset()
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0
turtle.clear()
Delete the turtle’s drawings from the screen. Do not move turtle. State and position of the turtle as well as drawings of other turtles are not affected.
turtle.write(arg, move=False, align="left", font=("Arial", 8, "normal"))
Parameters
arg – object to be written to the TurtleScreen
move – True/False
align – one of the strings “left”, “center” or right”
font – a triple (fontname, fontsize, fonttype) Write text - the string representation of arg - at the current turtle position according to align (“left”, “center” or “right”) and with the given font. If move is true, the pen is moved to the bottom-right corner of the text. By default, move is False. >>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center")
>>> turtle.write((0,0), True)
Turtle state Visibility
turtle.hideturtle()
turtle.ht()
Make the turtle invisible. It’s a good idea to do this while you’re in the middle of doing some complex drawing, because hiding the turtle speeds up the drawing observably. >>> turtle.hideturtle()
turtle.showturtle()
turtle.st()
Make the turtle visible. >>> turtle.showturtle()
turtle.isvisible()
Return True if the Turtle is shown, False if it’s hidden. >>> turtle.hideturtle()
>>> turtle.isvisible()
False
>>> turtle.showturtle()
>>> turtle.isvisible()
True
Appearance
turtle.shape(name=None)
Parameters
name – a string which is a valid shapename Set turtle shape to shape with given name or, if name is not given, return name of current shape. Shape with name must exist in the TurtleScreen’s shape dictionary. Initially there are the following polygon shapes: “arrow”, “turtle”, “circle”, “square”, “triangle”, “classic”. To learn about how to deal with shapes see Screen method register_shape(). >>> turtle.shape()
'classic'
>>> turtle.shape("turtle")
>>> turtle.shape()
'turtle'
turtle.resizemode(rmode=None)
Parameters
rmode – one of the strings “auto”, “user”, “noresize” Set resizemode to one of the values: “auto”, “user”, “noresize”. If rmode is not given, return current resizemode. Different resizemodes have the following effects: “auto”: adapts the appearance of the turtle corresponding to the value of pensize. “user”: adapts the appearance of the turtle according to the values of stretchfactor and outlinewidth (outline), which are set by shapesize(). “noresize”: no adaption of the turtle’s appearance takes place. resizemode("user") is called by shapesize() when used with arguments. >>> turtle.resizemode()
'noresize'
>>> turtle.resizemode("auto")
>>> turtle.resizemode()
'auto'
turtle.shapesize(stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None, outline=None)
turtle.turtlesize(stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None, outline=None)
Parameters
stretch_wid – positive number
stretch_len – positive number
outline – positive number Return or set the pen’s attributes x/y-stretchfactors and/or outline. Set resizemode to “user”. If and only if resizemode is set to “user”, the turtle will be displayed stretched according to its stretchfactors: stretch_wid is stretchfactor perpendicular to its orientation, stretch_len is stretchfactor in direction of its orientation, outline determines the width of the shapes’s outline. >>> turtle.shapesize()
(1.0, 1.0, 1)
>>> turtle.resizemode("user")
>>> turtle.shapesize(5, 5, 12)
>>> turtle.shapesize()
(5, 5, 12)
>>> turtle.shapesize(outline=8)
>>> turtle.shapesize()
(5, 5, 8)
turtle.shearfactor(shear=None)
Parameters
shear – number (optional) Set or return the current shearfactor. Shear the turtleshape according to the given shearfactor shear, which is the tangent of the shear angle. Do not change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement). If shear is not given: return the current shearfactor, i. e. the tangent of the shear angle, by which lines parallel to the heading of the turtle are sheared. >>> turtle.shape("circle")
>>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
>>> turtle.shearfactor(0.5)
>>> turtle.shearfactor()
0.5
turtle.tilt(angle)
Parameters
angle – a number Rotate the turtleshape by angle from its current tilt-angle, but do not change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement). >>> turtle.reset()
>>> turtle.shape("circle")
>>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
>>> turtle.tilt(30)
>>> turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.tilt(30)
>>> turtle.fd(50)
turtle.settiltangle(angle)
Parameters
angle – a number Rotate the turtleshape to point in the direction specified by angle, regardless of its current tilt-angle. Do not change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement). >>> turtle.reset()
>>> turtle.shape("circle")
>>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
>>> turtle.settiltangle(45)
>>> turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.settiltangle(-45)
>>> turtle.fd(50)
Deprecated since version 3.1.
turtle.tiltangle(angle=None)
Parameters
angle – a number (optional) Set or return the current tilt-angle. If angle is given, rotate the turtleshape to point in the direction specified by angle, regardless of its current tilt-angle. Do not change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement). If angle is not given: return the current tilt-angle, i. e. the angle between the orientation of the turtleshape and the heading of the turtle (its direction of movement). >>> turtle.reset()
>>> turtle.shape("circle")
>>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
>>> turtle.tilt(45)
>>> turtle.tiltangle()
45.0
turtle.shapetransform(t11=None, t12=None, t21=None, t22=None)
Parameters
t11 – a number (optional)
t12 – a number (optional)
t21 – a number (optional)
t12 – a number (optional) Set or return the current transformation matrix of the turtle shape. If none of the matrix elements are given, return the transformation matrix as a tuple of 4 elements. Otherwise set the given elements and transform the turtleshape according to the matrix consisting of first row t11, t12 and second row t21, t22. The determinant t11 * t22 - t12 * t21 must not be zero, otherwise an error is raised. Modify stretchfactor, shearfactor and tiltangle according to the given matrix. >>> turtle = Turtle()
>>> turtle.shape("square")
>>> turtle.shapesize(4,2)
>>> turtle.shearfactor(-0.5)
>>> turtle.shapetransform()
(4.0, -1.0, -0.0, 2.0)
turtle.get_shapepoly()
Return the current shape polygon as tuple of coordinate pairs. This can be used to define a new shape or components of a compound shape. >>> turtle.shape("square")
>>> turtle.shapetransform(4, -1, 0, 2)
>>> turtle.get_shapepoly()
((50, -20), (30, 20), (-50, 20), (-30, -20))
Using events
turtle.onclick(fun, btn=1, add=None)
Parameters
fun – a function with two arguments which will be called with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas
btn – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)
add – True or False – if True, a new binding will be added, otherwise it will replace a former binding Bind fun to mouse-click events on this turtle. If fun is None, existing bindings are removed. Example for the anonymous turtle, i.e. the procedural way: >>> def turn(x, y):
... left(180)
...
>>> onclick(turn) # Now clicking into the turtle will turn it.
>>> onclick(None) # event-binding will be removed
turtle.onrelease(fun, btn=1, add=None)
Parameters
fun – a function with two arguments which will be called with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas
btn – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)
add – True or False – if True, a new binding will be added, otherwise it will replace a former binding Bind fun to mouse-button-release events on this turtle. If fun is None, existing bindings are removed. >>> class MyTurtle(Turtle):
... def glow(self,x,y):
... self.fillcolor("red")
... def unglow(self,x,y):
... self.fillcolor("")
...
>>> turtle = MyTurtle()
>>> turtle.onclick(turtle.glow) # clicking on turtle turns fillcolor red,
>>> turtle.onrelease(turtle.unglow) # releasing turns it to transparent.
turtle.ondrag(fun, btn=1, add=None)
Parameters
fun – a function with two arguments which will be called with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas
btn – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)
add – True or False – if True, a new binding will be added, otherwise it will replace a former binding Bind fun to mouse-move events on this turtle. If fun is None, existing bindings are removed. Remark: Every sequence of mouse-move-events on a turtle is preceded by a mouse-click event on that turtle. >>> turtle.ondrag(turtle.goto)
Subsequently, clicking and dragging the Turtle will move it across the screen thereby producing handdrawings (if pen is down).
Special Turtle methods
turtle.begin_poly()
Start recording the vertices of a polygon. Current turtle position is first vertex of polygon.
turtle.end_poly()
Stop recording the vertices of a polygon. Current turtle position is last vertex of polygon. This will be connected with the first vertex.
turtle.get_poly()
Return the last recorded polygon. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.begin_poly()
>>> turtle.fd(100)
>>> turtle.left(20)
>>> turtle.fd(30)
>>> turtle.left(60)
>>> turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.end_poly()
>>> p = turtle.get_poly()
>>> register_shape("myFavouriteShape", p)
turtle.clone()
Create and return a clone of the turtle with same position, heading and turtle properties. >>> mick = Turtle()
>>> joe = mick.clone()
turtle.getturtle()
turtle.getpen()
Return the Turtle object itself. Only reasonable use: as a function to return the “anonymous turtle”: >>> pet = getturtle()
>>> pet.fd(50)
>>> pet
<turtle.Turtle object at 0x...>
turtle.getscreen()
Return the TurtleScreen object the turtle is drawing on. TurtleScreen methods can then be called for that object. >>> ts = turtle.getscreen()
>>> ts
<turtle._Screen object at 0x...>
>>> ts.bgcolor("pink")
turtle.setundobuffer(size)
Parameters
size – an integer or None Set or disable undobuffer. If size is an integer, an empty undobuffer of given size is installed. size gives the maximum number of turtle actions that can be undone by the undo() method/function. If size is None, the undobuffer is disabled. >>> turtle.setundobuffer(42)
turtle.undobufferentries()
Return number of entries in the undobuffer. >>> while undobufferentries():
... undo()
Compound shapes To use compound turtle shapes, which consist of several polygons of different color, you must use the helper class Shape explicitly as described below: Create an empty Shape object of type “compound”.
Add as many components to this object as desired, using the addcomponent() method. For example: >>> s = Shape("compound")
>>> poly1 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
>>> s.addcomponent(poly1, "red", "blue")
>>> poly2 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(-10,-5))
>>> s.addcomponent(poly2, "blue", "red")
Now add the Shape to the Screen’s shapelist and use it: >>> register_shape("myshape", s)
>>> shape("myshape")
Note The Shape class is used internally by the register_shape() method in different ways. The application programmer has to deal with the Shape class only when using compound shapes like shown above! Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions Most of the examples in this section refer to a TurtleScreen instance called screen. Window control
turtle.bgcolor(*args)
Parameters
args – a color string or three numbers in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers Set or return background color of the TurtleScreen. >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
>>> screen.bgcolor()
'orange'
>>> screen.bgcolor("#800080")
>>> screen.bgcolor()
(128.0, 0.0, 128.0)
turtle.bgpic(picname=None)
Parameters
picname – a string, name of a gif-file or "nopic", or None Set background image or return name of current backgroundimage. If picname is a filename, set the corresponding image as background. If picname is "nopic", delete background image, if present. If picname is None, return the filename of the current backgroundimage. >>> screen.bgpic()
'nopic'
>>> screen.bgpic("landscape.gif")
>>> screen.bgpic()
"landscape.gif"
turtle.clear()
turtle.clearscreen()
Delete all drawings and all turtles from the TurtleScreen. Reset the now empty TurtleScreen to its initial state: white background, no background image, no event bindings and tracing on. Note This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the name clearscreen. The global function clear is a different one derived from the Turtle method clear.
turtle.reset()
turtle.resetscreen()
Reset all Turtles on the Screen to their initial state. Note This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the name resetscreen. The global function reset is another one derived from the Turtle method reset.
turtle.screensize(canvwidth=None, canvheight=None, bg=None)
Parameters
canvwidth – positive integer, new width of canvas in pixels
canvheight – positive integer, new height of canvas in pixels
bg – colorstring or color-tuple, new background color If no arguments are given, return current (canvaswidth, canvasheight). Else resize the canvas the turtles are drawing on. Do not alter the drawing window. To observe hidden parts of the canvas, use the scrollbars. With this method, one can make visible those parts of a drawing which were outside the canvas before. >>> screen.screensize()
(400, 300)
>>> screen.screensize(2000,1500)
>>> screen.screensize()
(2000, 1500)
e.g. to search for an erroneously escaped turtle ;-)
turtle.setworldcoordinates(llx, lly, urx, ury)
Parameters
llx – a number, x-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas
lly – a number, y-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas
urx – a number, x-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas
ury – a number, y-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas Set up user-defined coordinate system and switch to mode “world” if necessary. This performs a screen.reset(). If mode “world” is already active, all drawings are redrawn according to the new coordinates. ATTENTION: in user-defined coordinate systems angles may appear distorted. >>> screen.reset()
>>> screen.setworldcoordinates(-50,-7.5,50,7.5)
>>> for _ in range(72):
... left(10)
...
>>> for _ in range(8):
... left(45); fd(2) # a regular octagon
Animation control
turtle.delay(delay=None)
Parameters
delay – positive integer Set or return the drawing delay in milliseconds. (This is approximately the time interval between two consecutive canvas updates.) The longer the drawing delay, the slower the animation. Optional argument: >>> screen.delay()
10
>>> screen.delay(5)
>>> screen.delay()
5
turtle.tracer(n=None, delay=None)
Parameters
n – nonnegative integer
delay – nonnegative integer Turn turtle animation on/off and set delay for update drawings. If n is given, only each n-th regular screen update is really performed. (Can be used to accelerate the drawing of complex graphics.) When called without arguments, returns the currently stored value of n. Second argument sets delay value (see delay()). >>> screen.tracer(8, 25)
>>> dist = 2
>>> for i in range(200):
... fd(dist)
... rt(90)
... dist += 2
turtle.update()
Perform a TurtleScreen update. To be used when tracer is turned off.
See also the RawTurtle/Turtle method speed(). Using screen events
turtle.listen(xdummy=None, ydummy=None)
Set focus on TurtleScreen (in order to collect key-events). Dummy arguments are provided in order to be able to pass listen() to the onclick method.
turtle.onkey(fun, key)
turtle.onkeyrelease(fun, key)
Parameters
fun – a function with no arguments or None
key – a string: key (e.g. “a”) or key-symbol (e.g. “space”) Bind fun to key-release event of key. If fun is None, event bindings are removed. Remark: in order to be able to register key-events, TurtleScreen must have the focus. (See method listen().) >>> def f():
... fd(50)
... lt(60)
...
>>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
>>> screen.listen()
turtle.onkeypress(fun, key=None)
Parameters
fun – a function with no arguments or None
key – a string: key (e.g. “a”) or key-symbol (e.g. “space”) Bind fun to key-press event of key if key is given, or to any key-press-event if no key is given. Remark: in order to be able to register key-events, TurtleScreen must have focus. (See method listen().) >>> def f():
... fd(50)
...
>>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
>>> screen.listen()
turtle.onclick(fun, btn=1, add=None)
turtle.onscreenclick(fun, btn=1, add=None)
Parameters
fun – a function with two arguments which will be called with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas
btn – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button)
add – True or False – if True, a new binding will be added, otherwise it will replace a former binding Bind fun to mouse-click events on this screen. If fun is None, existing bindings are removed. Example for a TurtleScreen instance named screen and a Turtle instance named turtle: >>> screen.onclick(turtle.goto) # Subsequently clicking into the TurtleScreen will
>>> # make the turtle move to the clicked point.
>>> screen.onclick(None) # remove event binding again
Note This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the name onscreenclick. The global function onclick is another one derived from the Turtle method onclick.
turtle.ontimer(fun, t=0)
Parameters
fun – a function with no arguments
t – a number >= 0 Install a timer that calls fun after t milliseconds. >>> running = True
>>> def f():
... if running:
... fd(50)
... lt(60)
... screen.ontimer(f, 250)
>>> f() ### makes the turtle march around
>>> running = False
turtle.mainloop()
turtle.done()
Starts event loop - calling Tkinter’s mainloop function. Must be the last statement in a turtle graphics program. Must not be used if a script is run from within IDLE in -n mode (No subprocess) - for interactive use of turtle graphics. >>> screen.mainloop()
Input methods
turtle.textinput(title, prompt)
Parameters
title – string
prompt – string Pop up a dialog window for input of a string. Parameter title is the title of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what information to input. Return the string input. If the dialog is canceled, return None. >>> screen.textinput("NIM", "Name of first player:")
turtle.numinput(title, prompt, default=None, minval=None, maxval=None)
Parameters
title – string
prompt – string
default – number (optional)
minval – number (optional)
maxval – number (optional) Pop up a dialog window for input of a number. title is the title of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what numerical information to input. default: default value, minval: minimum value for input, maxval: maximum value for input The number input must be in the range minval .. maxval if these are given. If not, a hint is issued and the dialog remains open for correction. Return the number input. If the dialog is canceled, return None. >>> screen.numinput("Poker", "Your stakes:", 1000, minval=10, maxval=10000)
Settings and special methods
turtle.mode(mode=None)
Parameters
mode – one of the strings “standard”, “logo” or “world” Set turtle mode (“standard”, “logo” or “world”) and perform reset. If mode is not given, current mode is returned. Mode “standard” is compatible with old turtle. Mode “logo” is compatible with most Logo turtle graphics. Mode “world” uses user-defined “world coordinates”. Attention: in this mode angles appear distorted if x/y unit-ratio doesn’t equal 1.
Mode Initial turtle heading positive angles
“standard” to the right (east) counterclockwise
“logo” upward (north) clockwise >>> mode("logo") # resets turtle heading to north
>>> mode()
'logo'
turtle.colormode(cmode=None)
Parameters
cmode – one of the values 1.0 or 255 Return the colormode or set it to 1.0 or 255. Subsequently r, g, b values of color triples have to be in the range 0..cmode. >>> screen.colormode(1)
>>> turtle.pencolor(240, 160, 80)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TurtleGraphicsError: bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80)
>>> screen.colormode()
1.0
>>> screen.colormode(255)
>>> screen.colormode()
255
>>> turtle.pencolor(240,160,80)
turtle.getcanvas()
Return the Canvas of this TurtleScreen. Useful for insiders who know what to do with a Tkinter Canvas. >>> cv = screen.getcanvas()
>>> cv
<turtle.ScrolledCanvas object ...>
turtle.getshapes()
Return a list of names of all currently available turtle shapes. >>> screen.getshapes()
['arrow', 'blank', 'circle', ..., 'turtle']
turtle.register_shape(name, shape=None)
turtle.addshape(name, shape=None)
There are three different ways to call this function:
name is the name of a gif-file and shape is None: Install the corresponding image shape. >>> screen.register_shape("turtle.gif")
Note Image shapes do not rotate when turning the turtle, so they do not display the heading of the turtle!
name is an arbitrary string and shape is a tuple of pairs of coordinates: Install the corresponding polygon shape. >>> screen.register_shape("triangle", ((5,-3), (0,5), (-5,-3)))
name is an arbitrary string and shape is a (compound) Shape object: Install the corresponding compound shape. Add a turtle shape to TurtleScreen’s shapelist. Only thusly registered shapes can be used by issuing the command shape(shapename).
turtle.turtles()
Return the list of turtles on the screen. >>> for turtle in screen.turtles():
... turtle.color("red")
turtle.window_height()
Return the height of the turtle window. >>> screen.window_height()
480
turtle.window_width()
Return the width of the turtle window. >>> screen.window_width()
640
Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen
turtle.bye()
Shut the turtlegraphics window.
turtle.exitonclick()
Bind bye() method to mouse clicks on the Screen. If the value “using_IDLE” in the configuration dictionary is False (default value), also enter mainloop. Remark: If IDLE with the -n switch (no subprocess) is used, this value should be set to True in turtle.cfg. In this case IDLE’s own mainloop is active also for the client script.
turtle.setup(width=_CFG["width"], height=_CFG["height"], startx=_CFG["leftright"], starty=_CFG["topbottom"])
Set the size and position of the main window. Default values of arguments are stored in the configuration dictionary and can be changed via a turtle.cfg file. Parameters
width – if an integer, a size in pixels, if a float, a fraction of the screen; default is 50% of screen
height – if an integer, the height in pixels, if a float, a fraction of the screen; default is 75% of screen
startx – if positive, starting position in pixels from the left edge of the screen, if negative from the right edge, if None, center window horizontally
starty – if positive, starting position in pixels from the top edge of the screen, if negative from the bottom edge, if None, center window vertically >>> screen.setup (width=200, height=200, startx=0, starty=0)
>>> # sets window to 200x200 pixels, in upper left of screen
>>> screen.setup(width=.75, height=0.5, startx=None, starty=None)
>>> # sets window to 75% of screen by 50% of screen and centers
turtle.title(titlestring)
Parameters
titlestring – a string that is shown in the titlebar of the turtle graphics window Set title of turtle window to titlestring. >>> screen.title("Welcome to the turtle zoo!")
Public classes
class turtle.RawTurtle(canvas)
class turtle.RawPen(canvas)
Parameters
canvas – a tkinter.Canvas, a ScrolledCanvas or a TurtleScreen Create a turtle. The turtle has all methods described above as “methods of Turtle/RawTurtle”.
class turtle.Turtle
Subclass of RawTurtle, has the same interface but draws on a default Screen object created automatically when needed for the first time.
class turtle.TurtleScreen(cv)
Parameters
cv – a tkinter.Canvas Provides screen oriented methods like setbg() etc. that are described above.
class turtle.Screen
Subclass of TurtleScreen, with four methods added.
class turtle.ScrolledCanvas(master)
Parameters
master – some Tkinter widget to contain the ScrolledCanvas, i.e. a Tkinter-canvas with scrollbars added Used by class Screen, which thus automatically provides a ScrolledCanvas as playground for the turtles.
class turtle.Shape(type_, data)
Parameters
type_ – one of the strings “polygon”, “image”, “compound” Data structure modeling shapes. The pair (type_, data) must follow this specification:
type_ data
“polygon” a polygon-tuple, i.e. a tuple of pairs of coordinates
“image” an image (in this form only used internally!)
“compound” None (a compound shape has to be constructed using the addcomponent() method)
addcomponent(poly, fill, outline=None)
Parameters
poly – a polygon, i.e. a tuple of pairs of numbers
fill – a color the poly will be filled with
outline – a color for the poly’s outline (if given) Example: >>> poly = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
>>> s = Shape("compound")
>>> s.addcomponent(poly, "red", "blue")
>>> # ... add more components and then use register_shape()
See Compound shapes.
class turtle.Vec2D(x, y)
A two-dimensional vector class, used as a helper class for implementing turtle graphics. May be useful for turtle graphics programs too. Derived from tuple, so a vector is a tuple! Provides (for a, b vectors, k number):
a + b vector addition
a - b vector subtraction
a * b inner product
k * a and a * k multiplication with scalar
abs(a) absolute value of a
a.rotate(angle) rotation
Help and configuration How to use help The public methods of the Screen and Turtle classes are documented extensively via docstrings. So these can be used as online-help via the Python help facilities: When using IDLE, tooltips show the signatures and first lines of the docstrings of typed in function-/method calls.
Calling help() on methods or functions displays the docstrings: >>> help(Screen.bgcolor)
Help on method bgcolor in module turtle:
bgcolor(self, *args) unbound turtle.Screen method
Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.
Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.
>>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
>>> screen.bgcolor()
"orange"
>>> screen.bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
>>> screen.bgcolor()
"#800080"
>>> help(Turtle.penup)
Help on method penup in module turtle:
penup(self) unbound turtle.Turtle method
Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.
Aliases: penup | pu | up
No argument
>>> turtle.penup()
The docstrings of the functions which are derived from methods have a modified form: >>> help(bgcolor)
Help on function bgcolor in module turtle:
bgcolor(*args)
Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.
Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.
Example::
>>> bgcolor("orange")
>>> bgcolor()
"orange"
>>> bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
>>> bgcolor()
"#800080"
>>> help(penup)
Help on function penup in module turtle:
penup()
Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.
Aliases: penup | pu | up
No argument
Example:
>>> penup()
These modified docstrings are created automatically together with the function definitions that are derived from the methods at import time. Translation of docstrings into different languages There is a utility to create a dictionary the keys of which are the method names and the values of which are the docstrings of the public methods of the classes Screen and Turtle.
turtle.write_docstringdict(filename="turtle_docstringdict")
Parameters
filename – a string, used as filename Create and write docstring-dictionary to a Python script with the given filename. This function has to be called explicitly (it is not used by the turtle graphics classes). The docstring dictionary will be written to the Python script filename.py. It is intended to serve as a template for translation of the docstrings into different languages.
If you (or your students) want to use turtle with online help in your native language, you have to translate the docstrings and save the resulting file as e.g. turtle_docstringdict_german.py. If you have an appropriate entry in your turtle.cfg file this dictionary will be read in at import time and will replace the original English docstrings. At the time of this writing there are docstring dictionaries in German and in Italian. (Requests please to glingl@aon.at.) How to configure Screen and Turtles The built-in default configuration mimics the appearance and behaviour of the old turtle module in order to retain best possible compatibility with it. If you want to use a different configuration which better reflects the features of this module or which better fits to your needs, e.g. for use in a classroom, you can prepare a configuration file turtle.cfg which will be read at import time and modify the configuration according to its settings. The built in configuration would correspond to the following turtle.cfg: width = 0.5
height = 0.75
leftright = None
topbottom = None
canvwidth = 400
canvheight = 300
mode = standard
colormode = 1.0
delay = 10
undobuffersize = 1000
shape = classic
pencolor = black
fillcolor = black
resizemode = noresize
visible = True
language = english
exampleturtle = turtle
examplescreen = screen
title = Python Turtle Graphics
using_IDLE = False
Short explanation of selected entries: The first four lines correspond to the arguments of the Screen.setup() method. Line 5 and 6 correspond to the arguments of the method Screen.screensize().
shape can be any of the built-in shapes, e.g: arrow, turtle, etc. For more info try help(shape). If you want to use no fillcolor (i.e. make the turtle transparent), you have to write fillcolor = "" (but all nonempty strings must not have quotes in the cfg-file). If you want to reflect the turtle its state, you have to use resizemode =
auto. If you set e.g. language = italian the docstringdict turtle_docstringdict_italian.py will be loaded at import time (if present on the import path, e.g. in the same directory as turtle. The entries exampleturtle and examplescreen define the names of these objects as they occur in the docstrings. The transformation of method-docstrings to function-docstrings will delete these names from the docstrings.
using_IDLE: Set this to True if you regularly work with IDLE and its -n switch (“no subprocess”). This will prevent exitonclick() to enter the mainloop. There can be a turtle.cfg file in the directory where turtle is stored and an additional one in the current working directory. The latter will override the settings of the first one. The Lib/turtledemo directory contains a turtle.cfg file. You can study it as an example and see its effects when running the demos (preferably not from within the demo-viewer). turtledemo — Demo scripts The turtledemo package includes a set of demo scripts. These scripts can be run and viewed using the supplied demo viewer as follows: python -m turtledemo
Alternatively, you can run the demo scripts individually. For example, python -m turtledemo.bytedesign
The turtledemo package directory contains: A demo viewer __main__.py which can be used to view the sourcecode of the scripts and run them at the same time. Multiple scripts demonstrating different features of the turtle module. Examples can be accessed via the Examples menu. They can also be run standalone. A turtle.cfg file which serves as an example of how to write and use such files. The demo scripts are:
Name Description Features
bytedesign complex classical turtle graphics pattern tracer(), delay, update()
chaos graphs Verhulst dynamics, shows that computer’s computations can generate results sometimes against the common sense expectations world coordinates
clock analog clock showing time of your computer turtles as clock’s hands, ontimer
colormixer experiment with r, g, b ondrag()
forest 3 breadth-first trees randomization
fractalcurves Hilbert & Koch curves recursion
lindenmayer ethnomathematics (indian kolams) L-System
minimal_hanoi Towers of Hanoi Rectangular Turtles as Hanoi discs (shape, shapesize)
nim play the classical nim game with three heaps of sticks against the computer. turtles as nimsticks, event driven (mouse, keyboard)
paint super minimalistic drawing program onclick()
peace elementary turtle: appearance and animation
penrose aperiodic tiling with kites and darts stamp()
planet_and_moon simulation of gravitational system compound shapes, Vec2D
round_dance dancing turtles rotating pairwise in opposite direction compound shapes, clone shapesize, tilt, get_shapepoly, update
sorting_animate visual demonstration of different sorting methods simple alignment, randomization
tree a (graphical) breadth first tree (using generators) clone()
two_canvases simple design turtles on two canvases
wikipedia a pattern from the wikipedia article on turtle graphics clone(), undo()
yinyang another elementary example circle() Have fun! Changes since Python 2.6 The methods Turtle.tracer(), Turtle.window_width() and Turtle.window_height() have been eliminated. Methods with these names and functionality are now available only as methods of Screen. The functions derived from these remain available. (In fact already in Python 2.6 these methods were merely duplications of the corresponding TurtleScreen/Screen-methods.) The method Turtle.fill() has been eliminated. The behaviour of begin_fill() and end_fill() have changed slightly: now every filling-process must be completed with an end_fill() call. A method Turtle.filling() has been added. It returns a boolean value: True if a filling process is under way, False otherwise. This behaviour corresponds to a fill() call without arguments in Python 2.6. Changes since Python 3.0 The methods Turtle.shearfactor(), Turtle.shapetransform() and Turtle.get_shapepoly() have been added. Thus the full range of regular linear transforms is now available for transforming turtle shapes. Turtle.tiltangle() has been enhanced in functionality: it now can be used to get or set the tiltangle. Turtle.settiltangle() has been deprecated. The method Screen.onkeypress() has been added as a complement to Screen.onkey() which in fact binds actions to the keyrelease event. Accordingly the latter has got an alias: Screen.onkeyrelease(). The method Screen.mainloop() has been added. So when working only with Screen and Turtle objects one must not additionally import mainloop() anymore. Two input methods has been added Screen.textinput() and Screen.numinput(). These popup input dialogs and return strings and numbers respectively. Two example scripts tdemo_nim.py and tdemo_round_dance.py have been added to the Lib/turtledemo directory. | python.library.turtle |
turtle.register_shape(name, shape=None)
turtle.addshape(name, shape=None)
There are three different ways to call this function:
name is the name of a gif-file and shape is None: Install the corresponding image shape. >>> screen.register_shape("turtle.gif")
Note Image shapes do not rotate when turning the turtle, so they do not display the heading of the turtle!
name is an arbitrary string and shape is a tuple of pairs of coordinates: Install the corresponding polygon shape. >>> screen.register_shape("triangle", ((5,-3), (0,5), (-5,-3)))
name is an arbitrary string and shape is a (compound) Shape object: Install the corresponding compound shape. Add a turtle shape to TurtleScreen’s shapelist. Only thusly registered shapes can be used by issuing the command shape(shapename). | python.library.turtle#turtle.addshape |
turtle.back(distance)
turtle.bk(distance)
turtle.backward(distance)
Parameters
distance – a number Move the turtle backward by distance, opposite to the direction the turtle is headed. Do not change the turtle’s heading. >>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.backward(30)
>>> turtle.position()
(-30.00,0.00) | python.library.turtle#turtle.back |
turtle.back(distance)
turtle.bk(distance)
turtle.backward(distance)
Parameters
distance – a number Move the turtle backward by distance, opposite to the direction the turtle is headed. Do not change the turtle’s heading. >>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.backward(30)
>>> turtle.position()
(-30.00,0.00) | python.library.turtle#turtle.backward |
turtle.begin_fill()
To be called just before drawing a shape to be filled. | python.library.turtle#turtle.begin_fill |
turtle.begin_poly()
Start recording the vertices of a polygon. Current turtle position is first vertex of polygon. | python.library.turtle#turtle.begin_poly |
turtle.bgcolor(*args)
Parameters
args – a color string or three numbers in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers Set or return background color of the TurtleScreen. >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
>>> screen.bgcolor()
'orange'
>>> screen.bgcolor("#800080")
>>> screen.bgcolor()
(128.0, 0.0, 128.0) | python.library.turtle#turtle.bgcolor |
turtle.bgpic(picname=None)
Parameters
picname – a string, name of a gif-file or "nopic", or None Set background image or return name of current backgroundimage. If picname is a filename, set the corresponding image as background. If picname is "nopic", delete background image, if present. If picname is None, return the filename of the current backgroundimage. >>> screen.bgpic()
'nopic'
>>> screen.bgpic("landscape.gif")
>>> screen.bgpic()
"landscape.gif" | python.library.turtle#turtle.bgpic |
turtle.back(distance)
turtle.bk(distance)
turtle.backward(distance)
Parameters
distance – a number Move the turtle backward by distance, opposite to the direction the turtle is headed. Do not change the turtle’s heading. >>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.backward(30)
>>> turtle.position()
(-30.00,0.00) | python.library.turtle#turtle.bk |
turtle.bye()
Shut the turtlegraphics window. | python.library.turtle#turtle.bye |
turtle.circle(radius, extent=None, steps=None)
Parameters
radius – a number
extent – a number (or None)
steps – an integer (or None) Draw a circle with given radius. The center is radius units left of the turtle; extent – an angle – determines which part of the circle is drawn. If extent is not given, draw the entire circle. If extent is not a full circle, one endpoint of the arc is the current pen position. Draw the arc in counterclockwise direction if radius is positive, otherwise in clockwise direction. Finally the direction of the turtle is changed by the amount of extent. As the circle is approximated by an inscribed regular polygon, steps determines the number of steps to use. If not given, it will be calculated automatically. May be used to draw regular polygons. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0
>>> turtle.circle(50)
>>> turtle.position()
(-0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0
>>> turtle.circle(120, 180) # draw a semicircle
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,240.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
180.0 | python.library.turtle#turtle.circle |
turtle.clear()
turtle.clearscreen()
Delete all drawings and all turtles from the TurtleScreen. Reset the now empty TurtleScreen to its initial state: white background, no background image, no event bindings and tracing on. Note This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the name clearscreen. The global function clear is a different one derived from the Turtle method clear. | python.library.turtle#turtle.clear |
turtle.clear()
turtle.clearscreen()
Delete all drawings and all turtles from the TurtleScreen. Reset the now empty TurtleScreen to its initial state: white background, no background image, no event bindings and tracing on. Note This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the name clearscreen. The global function clear is a different one derived from the Turtle method clear. | python.library.turtle#turtle.clearscreen |
turtle.clearstamp(stampid)
Parameters
stampid – an integer, must be return value of previous stamp() call Delete stamp with given stampid. >>> turtle.position()
(150.00,-0.00)
>>> turtle.color("blue")
>>> astamp = turtle.stamp()
>>> turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.position()
(200.00,-0.00)
>>> turtle.clearstamp(astamp)
>>> turtle.position()
(200.00,-0.00) | python.library.turtle#turtle.clearstamp |
turtle.clearstamps(n=None)
Parameters
n – an integer (or None) Delete all or first/last n of turtle’s stamps. If n is None, delete all stamps, if n > 0 delete first n stamps, else if n < 0 delete last n stamps. >>> for i in range(8):
... turtle.stamp(); turtle.fd(30)
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
>>> turtle.clearstamps(2)
>>> turtle.clearstamps(-2)
>>> turtle.clearstamps() | python.library.turtle#turtle.clearstamps |
turtle.clone()
Create and return a clone of the turtle with same position, heading and turtle properties. >>> mick = Turtle()
>>> joe = mick.clone() | python.library.turtle#turtle.clone |
turtle.color(*args)
Return or set pencolor and fillcolor. Several input formats are allowed. They use 0 to 3 arguments as follows:
color()
Return the current pencolor and the current fillcolor as a pair of color specification strings or tuples as returned by pencolor() and fillcolor().
color(colorstring), color((r,g,b)), color(r,g,b)
Inputs as in pencolor(), set both, fillcolor and pencolor, to the given value.
color(colorstring1, colorstring2), color((r1,g1,b1), (r2,g2,b2))
Equivalent to pencolor(colorstring1) and fillcolor(colorstring2) and analogously if the other input format is used. If turtleshape is a polygon, outline and interior of that polygon is drawn with the newly set colors. >>> turtle.color("red", "green")
>>> turtle.color()
('red', 'green')
>>> color("#285078", "#a0c8f0")
>>> color()
((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0)) | python.library.turtle#turtle.color |
turtle.colormode(cmode=None)
Parameters
cmode – one of the values 1.0 or 255 Return the colormode or set it to 1.0 or 255. Subsequently r, g, b values of color triples have to be in the range 0..cmode. >>> screen.colormode(1)
>>> turtle.pencolor(240, 160, 80)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TurtleGraphicsError: bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80)
>>> screen.colormode()
1.0
>>> screen.colormode(255)
>>> screen.colormode()
255
>>> turtle.pencolor(240,160,80) | python.library.turtle#turtle.colormode |
turtle.degrees(fullcircle=360.0)
Parameters
fullcircle – a number Set angle measurement units, i.e. set number of “degrees” for a full circle. Default value is 360 degrees. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(90)
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0
Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,
grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)
>>> turtle.degrees(400.0)
>>> turtle.heading()
100.0
>>> turtle.degrees(360)
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0 | python.library.turtle#turtle.degrees |
turtle.delay(delay=None)
Parameters
delay – positive integer Set or return the drawing delay in milliseconds. (This is approximately the time interval between two consecutive canvas updates.) The longer the drawing delay, the slower the animation. Optional argument: >>> screen.delay()
10
>>> screen.delay(5)
>>> screen.delay()
5 | python.library.turtle#turtle.delay |
turtle.distance(x, y=None)
Parameters
x – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle instance
y – a number if x is a number, else None
Return the distance from the turtle to (x,y), the given vector, or the given other turtle, in turtle step units. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.distance(30,40)
50.0
>>> turtle.distance((30,40))
50.0
>>> joe = Turtle()
>>> joe.forward(77)
>>> turtle.distance(joe)
77.0 | python.library.turtle#turtle.distance |
turtle.mainloop()
turtle.done()
Starts event loop - calling Tkinter’s mainloop function. Must be the last statement in a turtle graphics program. Must not be used if a script is run from within IDLE in -n mode (No subprocess) - for interactive use of turtle graphics. >>> screen.mainloop() | python.library.turtle#turtle.done |
turtle.dot(size=None, *color)
Parameters
size – an integer >= 1 (if given)
color – a colorstring or a numeric color tuple Draw a circular dot with diameter size, using color. If size is not given, the maximum of pensize+4 and 2*pensize is used. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.dot()
>>> turtle.fd(50); turtle.dot(20, "blue"); turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.position()
(100.00,-0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0 | python.library.turtle#turtle.dot |
turtle.pendown()
turtle.pd()
turtle.down()
Pull the pen down – drawing when moving. | python.library.turtle#turtle.down |
turtle.end_fill()
Fill the shape drawn after the last call to begin_fill(). Whether or not overlap regions for self-intersecting polygons or multiple shapes are filled depends on the operating system graphics, type of overlap, and number of overlaps. For example, the Turtle star above may be either all yellow or have some white regions. >>> turtle.color("black", "red")
>>> turtle.begin_fill()
>>> turtle.circle(80)
>>> turtle.end_fill() | python.library.turtle#turtle.end_fill |
turtle.end_poly()
Stop recording the vertices of a polygon. Current turtle position is last vertex of polygon. This will be connected with the first vertex. | python.library.turtle#turtle.end_poly |
turtle.exitonclick()
Bind bye() method to mouse clicks on the Screen. If the value “using_IDLE” in the configuration dictionary is False (default value), also enter mainloop. Remark: If IDLE with the -n switch (no subprocess) is used, this value should be set to True in turtle.cfg. In this case IDLE’s own mainloop is active also for the client script. | python.library.turtle#turtle.exitonclick |
turtle.forward(distance)
turtle.fd(distance)
Parameters
distance – a number (integer or float) Move the turtle forward by the specified distance, in the direction the turtle is headed. >>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.forward(25)
>>> turtle.position()
(25.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.forward(-75)
>>> turtle.position()
(-50.00,0.00) | python.library.turtle#turtle.fd |
turtle.fillcolor(*args)
Return or set the fillcolor. Four input formats are allowed:
fillcolor()
Return the current fillcolor as color specification string, possibly in tuple format (see example). May be used as input to another color/pencolor/fillcolor call.
fillcolor(colorstring)
Set fillcolor to colorstring, which is a Tk color specification string, such as "red", "yellow", or "#33cc8c".
fillcolor((r, g, b))
Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of r, g, and b. Each of r, g, and b must be in the range 0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see colormode()).
fillcolor(r, g, b)
Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by r, g, and b. Each of r, g, and b must be in the range 0..colormode. If turtleshape is a polygon, the interior of that polygon is drawn with the newly set fillcolor. >>> turtle.fillcolor("violet")
>>> turtle.fillcolor()
'violet'
>>> turtle.pencolor()
(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
>>> turtle.fillcolor((50, 193, 143)) # Integers, not floats
>>> turtle.fillcolor()
(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
>>> turtle.fillcolor('#ffffff')
>>> turtle.fillcolor()
(255.0, 255.0, 255.0) | python.library.turtle#turtle.fillcolor |
turtle.filling()
Return fillstate (True if filling, False else). >>> turtle.begin_fill()
>>> if turtle.filling():
... turtle.pensize(5)
... else:
... turtle.pensize(3) | python.library.turtle#turtle.filling |
turtle.forward(distance)
turtle.fd(distance)
Parameters
distance – a number (integer or float) Move the turtle forward by the specified distance, in the direction the turtle is headed. >>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.forward(25)
>>> turtle.position()
(25.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.forward(-75)
>>> turtle.position()
(-50.00,0.00) | python.library.turtle#turtle.forward |
turtle.getcanvas()
Return the Canvas of this TurtleScreen. Useful for insiders who know what to do with a Tkinter Canvas. >>> cv = screen.getcanvas()
>>> cv
<turtle.ScrolledCanvas object ...> | python.library.turtle#turtle.getcanvas |
turtle.getturtle()
turtle.getpen()
Return the Turtle object itself. Only reasonable use: as a function to return the “anonymous turtle”: >>> pet = getturtle()
>>> pet.fd(50)
>>> pet
<turtle.Turtle object at 0x...> | python.library.turtle#turtle.getpen |
turtle.getscreen()
Return the TurtleScreen object the turtle is drawing on. TurtleScreen methods can then be called for that object. >>> ts = turtle.getscreen()
>>> ts
<turtle._Screen object at 0x...>
>>> ts.bgcolor("pink") | python.library.turtle#turtle.getscreen |
turtle.getshapes()
Return a list of names of all currently available turtle shapes. >>> screen.getshapes()
['arrow', 'blank', 'circle', ..., 'turtle'] | python.library.turtle#turtle.getshapes |
turtle.getturtle()
turtle.getpen()
Return the Turtle object itself. Only reasonable use: as a function to return the “anonymous turtle”: >>> pet = getturtle()
>>> pet.fd(50)
>>> pet
<turtle.Turtle object at 0x...> | python.library.turtle#turtle.getturtle |
turtle.get_poly()
Return the last recorded polygon. >>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.begin_poly()
>>> turtle.fd(100)
>>> turtle.left(20)
>>> turtle.fd(30)
>>> turtle.left(60)
>>> turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.end_poly()
>>> p = turtle.get_poly()
>>> register_shape("myFavouriteShape", p) | python.library.turtle#turtle.get_poly |
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