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natural causes
In addition to finding already dead animals, what other cause of death were their animal finds?
sparsely wooded areas
Where did hunter-gatherer peoples live?
dense forest
What type of area did early humans avoid?
persistence hunting
What is long-distance running as a food hunting-gathering technique?
endurance running hypothesis
What theory says that long-distance running drove the evolution of some human traits?
some hunter-gatherer groups
Who still practices persistence hunting?
scavenging hypothesis
Besides the endurance running hypothesis, what other theory of food collection is there?
both subsistence strategies
What food gathering techniques could have been used by early man at the same time?
1.8 million years ago
When did human populations begin using hunting-gathering?
Homo erectus
What phase of human used subsistence strategies to find food?
0.2 million years ago
When did Homo sapiens begin using subsistence gathering?
10,000 years ago
When did hunting-gathering begin to fade from use?
Neolithic Revolution
What began replacing hunting-gathering at the end of the Mesolithic period?
Middle to Upper Paleolithic
During what period did hunter-gatherers begin to focus food collection on a more limited range?
80,000 to 70,000 years ago
How many years ago did hunting-gatherers start specializing in their collection practices?
a smaller selection
What was the change in gathering?
12,000 years ago
When did the use of agriculture begin it's spread?
jungle-clad river banks
In what kind of area did forest gardening start?
foothills of monsoon regions
In what other types of areas did forest gardening show up?
tree and vine species
What kind of plant did these early gardeners seek out?
identified, protected and improved
What use did forest gardeners put to tree and vines to?
eliminated
What did these gardeners do about unwanted species?
in the developing world
Where do many modern day hunter-gatherers live?
arid regions or tropical forests
In what type of climate do hunter-gatherers live?
settlements of agriculturalists
What kind of human life-style is pushing hunter-gatherers out of their environment?
availability of wild foods
What has Jared Diamond blamed the decline of gatherers on?
large mammal species
What type of food animal went extict by the end of the Pleistocene era?
agricultural societies
Who expanded into the territory of hunter-gathers?
first forms of government
What did the increase in agricultural areas produce?
agricultural centers
What were the Fertile Crescent and Ancient India ?
agriculture-driven
What type of expansion was it in places like the Fertile Crescent?
agricultural societies increased
Why did agricultural societies push into hunter-gatherer areas?
unsuitable for agricultural use
What type of areas do modern hunter-gathers live in?
few
How many modern hunter-gatherer cultures are there?
agriculture
What do people basically rely on now?
hunter-gatherer cultures
Who lives in areas not usable for agriculture?
reliance upon agriculture
What kind of food production is worldwide now?
nomadic or semi-nomadic
What is the lifestyle of hunter-gatherers?
temporary
What is the permanence of hunter-gatherer settlements?
impermanent
What kind of building materials do they use?
rock shelters
What kind of natural structure do hunter-gatherers use?
Mobile communities
What is the movement ability of hunter-gathers?
rich environments
What kind of area allowed a more permanent settlement?
hunter-gatherer
What is the life style of the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest?
sedentary or semi-sedentary
What does a lush environment allow hunter-gatherers to be?
rich environments
What kind of environment is the Pacific Northwest?
hunter-gatherer cultures
What are the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest?
egalitarian
What is the social style of hunter-gather societies?
Northwest Coast of North America
Where do people who are an exception to egalitarianism live?
African
what group of hunter-gatherers are nearly all egalitarian?
in an evolutionary context
How is it interesting to view hunter-gatherers' egalitarianism?
anything but egalitarian
What do chimpanzees act like as pertains to being egalitarianism?
into hierarchies
How do chimpanzees arrange themselves in a group setting?
alpha male
What is the dominate one in a chimpanzee group?
permanent leaders
What permanent group representative do hunter-gatherers not have?
task being performed
Initiative within the group depends upon what factor?
matrilocal
What group arrangement is usual in family authority?
matrilineal
What is the kinship and decent system among hunter-gatherers?
Western values
What value system do Western scholars tend to use in analyzing societies?
women
Who does most of the gathering in a hunter-gatherer society?
men
What group members are the big game hunters?
arrangement oppresses women
What does the argument over women as gathers said to produce ?
childcare is collective
How is childcare viewed in a hunter-gatherer society?
sexual division
How is labor often divided in these groups?
85%
What percentage of Aeta women hunt?
31%
What is the success rate of Aeta female hunters?
17%
What is the success rate for male Aeta hunters?
Man the Hunter
At what conference did Richard Borshay speak?
1966
When was the Man the Hunter conference?
mobility
Why is there a lessening of material possessions in hunting and gathering groups?
egalitarianism
What can decreased material possessions produce in a hunter-gatherer society?
territorial boundaries
What other characteristic is variable for these groups?
Marshall Sahlins
Who called hunter-gathers the original affluent society?
1996
When did Ross Sackett study time and energy for hunter-gartherer groups?
8.8 hours a day
How long a day do people in other societies work?
sharing
What other characteristic of group behavior is needed in a hunter-gatherer society?
gift economy
What is the basis of a hunting an gathering economy?
temperature
What is the only important factor in hunter-gatherer tool choices?
variability
What does climate produce in hunter-gatherer societies?
significant
What is the threat that extreme temperature causes in environment?
increased variability of tools
What does temperature impact on tool kits?
risk of failure
What is Torrence's 1989 theory about that ties into tool kit variability ?
egalitarian
What does the immediate return system mean?
nonegalitarian
To what kind of group does the delayed return system belong?
immediate return
Which group eats their acquired food in a day or two?
contact with modern civilization
How do modern hunters and gathers differ from early ones?
pristine
What type of conditions are not present in modern societies?
in uncontacted peoples
Where do you find groups that represent pristine conditions?
Paleolithic societies
What do modern hunter-gatherers not reflect?
adaptive strategy
What is hunting and gathering argued to be?
environmental change
What situation can cause food stresses that make hunting-gathering necessary?
transition
What change from hunting and gathering to agriculture is not easy to mark?
cultural diffusion
Besides the use of agriculture, what other factor clouds the issue of the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture?
last 10,000 years
How long has this cultural diffusion been happening?
agriculturalists
If they're not purely hunter-gatherers, then what do they have a history of being?
pushed into marginal areas
What caused these one-time agriculturalists to become foragers??
migrations
What kind of upset could force agriculturalists into being foragers?
violent conflict
Besides economic troubles, what else could push a people into foraging?
nothing meaningful
What can be learned from the study of modern hunter-gatherers?
theorists
Who thinks that it is useless to study modern foragers since the real ones are gone?