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The haploid life cycle ( Figure below ) is the simplest life cycle. It is found in many single-celled organisms. Organisms with a haploid life cycle spend the majority of their lives as haploid gametes. When the haploid gametes fuse, they form a diploid zygote. It quickly undergoes meiosis to produce more haploid gametes that repeat the life cycle. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Gravity keeps the Moon orbiting Earth. Gravity keeps the planets orbiting the Sun. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Ionic bonds are formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The hypothalamus also produces hormones that directly regulate body processes. For example, it produces antidiuretic hormone. This hormone travels to the kidneys and stimulates them to conserve water by producing more concentrated urine. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Take a close look at this gorilla hand. The similarities to a human hand are remarkable. Comparing anatomy, and characterizing the similarities and differences, provides evidence of evolution. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
What is this intricate orb? It is the greatly magnified skeleton of single-celled ocean organisms call radiolarian. The skeleton is made of an element that is extremely common on Earth. In fact, it is the second most abundant element in Earth’s crust. It is also one of the most common elements in the entire universe. What is this important element? Its name is silicon, and it belongs to a class of elements called metalloids. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The majority of arthropods are insects (Class Insecta). In fact, more than half of all known organisms are insects. There may be more than 10 million insect species in the world, although most of them have not yet been identified. In terms of their numbers and diversity, insects clearly are the dominant animals in the world. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Saturn’s composition is similar to Jupiter's. The planet is made mostly of hydrogen and helium. These elements are gases in the outer layers and liquids in the deeper layers. Saturn may also have a small solid core. Saturn's upper atmosphere has clouds in bands of different colors. These clouds rotate rapidly around the planet. But Saturn has fewer storms than Jupiter. Thunder and lightning have been seen in the storms on Saturn ( Figure below ). | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The two materials do have at least one thing in common. The atoms in the materials are held together by covalent bonds. These bonds consist of electrons shared between two or more atoms. Unlike ionic bonds, where electrons are either lost or gained by an atom to form charged ions, electrons in covalent compounds are shared between the two atoms, giving rise to properties that are quite different from those seen in ionic materials. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Atoms have a mass that is based largely on the number of protons and neutrons in their nucleus. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Annelids called polychaete worms live on the ocean floor. They may be filter feeders, predators, or scavengers. The amazing feather duster worm in Figure below is a polychaete that has a fan-like crown of tentacles for filter feeding. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Biogeography is the study of how and why plants and animals live where they do. It provides more evidence for evolution. Let’s consider the camel family as an example. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Muscles That Position the Pectoral Girdle Muscles that position the pectoral girdle are located either on the anterior thorax or on the posterior thorax (Figure 11.22 and Table 11.8). The anterior muscles include the subclavius, pectoralis minor, and serratus anterior. The posterior muscles include the trapezius, rhomboid major, and rhomboid minor. When the rhomboids are contracted, your scapula moves medially, which can pull the shoulder and upper limb posteriorly. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The two major types of seed plants are the gymnosperms (seeds in cones) and angiosperms (seeds in ovaries of flowers). Figure below shows how the seeds of gymnosperms and angiosperms differ. Do you see the main difference between the two seeds? The angiosperm seed is surrounded by an ovary . | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Glucose is the energy-rich product of photosynthesis, a universal food for life. It is also the primary form in which your bloodstream delivers energy to every cell in your body. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The oxygen enters the bloodstream from the alveoli , tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place ( Figure below ). The transfer of oxygen into the blood is through simple diffusion. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Fungi are simple eukaryotic organisms that consist of one or more cells. They include mushrooms and yeasts. Human diseases caused by fungi include ringworm and athlete’s foot. Both are skin diseases that are not usually serious. A ringworm infection is pictured below ( Figure below ). A more serious fungus disease is histoplasmosis. It is a lung infection. Though fungal infections can be annoying, they are rarely as serious or deadly as bacterial or viral infections. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
A car’s gas pedal, like the one in Figure below , is sometimes called the accelerator. That’s because it controls the acceleration of the car. Pressing down on the gas pedal gives the car more gas and causes the car to speed up. Letting up on the gas pedal gives the car less gas and causes the car to slow down. Whenever an object speeds up, slows down, or changes direction, it accelerates. Acceleration is a measure of the change in velocity of a moving object. Acceleration occurs whenever an object is acted upon by an unbalanced force. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchi, the air passages that conduct air into the lungs. The bronchi become red and swollen with infection. Acute bronchitis is usually caused by viruses or bacteria, and may last several days or weeks. It is characterized by a cough that produces phlegm, or mucus. Symptoms include shortness of breath and wheezing. Acute bronchitis is usually treated with antibiotics. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Primates are generally divided into prosimian and non-prosimian primates. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
In some places, the oceanic crust comes up to a continent. The moving crust pushes that continent away from the ridge axis as well. If the moving oceanic crust reaches a deep sea trench, the crust sinks into the mantle. The creation and destruction of oceanic crust is the reason that continents move. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Looking at different types of competition, ecologists developed the competitive exclusion principle . The principle states that species less suited to compete for resources will either adapt, move from the area, or die out. In order for two species within the same area to coexist, they may adapt by developing different specializations. This is known as character displacement . An example of character displacement is when different birds adapt to eating different types of food. They can develop different types of bills, like Darwin’s Finches ( Figure below ). Therefore, competition for resources within and between species plays an important role in evolution through natural selection . | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
You can follow the operation of an electricity-generating fission reactor in the image above. The reactor core is submerged in a pool of water. The heat from the fission reaction heats the water, which is pumped into a heat exchange container. There the heated water boils the water in the heat exchanger. The produced steam is forced through a turbine that spins a generator and produces electricity. After the water passes through the turbine, it is condensed back to liquid water and pumped back to the heat exchanger. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
A single-replacement reaction is one in which an element replaces another element in a compound. An element is in either the solid, liquid, or gas state and is not an ion. The example below shows the reaction of solid magnesium metal with aqueous silver nitrate to form aqueous magnesium nitrate and silver metal. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Metallic Solids Metals are characterized by their ability to reflect light, called luster, their high electrical and thermal conductivity, their high heat capacity, and their malleability and ductility. Every lattice point in a pure metallic element is occupied by an atom of the same metal. The packing efficiency in metallic crystals tends to be high, so the resulting metallic solids are dense, with each atom having as many as 12 nearest neighbors. Bonding in metallic solids is quite different from the bonding in the other kinds of solids we have discussed. Because all the atoms are the same, there can be no ionic bonding, yet metals always contain too few electrons or valence orbitals to form covalent bonds with each of their neighbors. Instead, the valence electrons are delocalized throughout the crystal, providing a strong cohesive force that holds the metal atoms together. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
It is estimated that 100 trillion bacteria live in the gut. This is more than the human cells that make up you. It has also been estimated that there are more bacteria in your mouth than people on the planet. There are over 7 billion people on the planet. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Mammals have the ability to regulate body temperature. This is an advantage, as Earth’s climate went through sudden and dramatic changes. Mastodons, saber tooth tigers, hoofed mammals, whales, primates and eventually humans all lived during the Cenozoic Era ( Figure below ). | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The majority of the human genome is non-coding sequence. These sequences include regulatory sequences, and DNA with unknown functions. These sequences include tandem repeat elements known as satellite DNA , and transposons. Satellite DNA consists of very large arrays of tandemly repeating, non-coding DNA. The repeating units can be just a single base (a mono nucleotide repeat), two bases (a dinucleotide repeat), three bases (a trinucleotide repeat) or a much larger repeating unit. Some repeating units are several thousand base pairs long, and the total size of a satellite DNA segment can be several megabases without interruption. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Oceanographers use bathymetric maps to show the features of the bottom of a body of water. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Migration Migration is the long-range seasonal movement of animals. It is an evolved, adapted response to variation in resource availability, and it is a common phenomenon found in all major groups of animals. Birds fly south for the winter to get to warmer climates with sufficient food, and salmon migrate to their spawning grounds. The popular 2005 documentary March of the Penguins followed the 62-mile migration of emperor penguins through Antarctica to bring food back to their breeding site and to their young. Wildebeests (Figure 45.35) migrate over 1800 miles each year in search of new grasslands. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Composite volcanoes are also called stratovolcanoes. This is because they are formed by alternating layers (strata) of magma and ash ( Figure below ). The magma that creates composite volcanoes tends to be thick. The steep sides form because the lava cannot flow too far from the vent. The thick magma may also create explosive eruptions. Ash and pyroclasts erupt into the air. Much of this material falls back down near the vent. This creates the steep sides of stratovolcanoes. The composition of magma that erupts at composite volcanoes is usually felsic (rhyolite) or intermediate (andesite). | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
When geologic and climatic conditions are changing, evolution may occur more quickly. Thus, long periods of little change may be interrupted by bursts of rapid change. This model of the timing of evolution is called punctuated equilibrium . It is better supported by the fossil record than is gradualism. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Chinook winds ( Figure below ) occur when air is forced over a mountain range. Warm air rises over the Sierra Nevada in California, for example, because it is pushed eastward by the westerly winds. The air cools as it rises and precipitates. The air is now dry. It sinks down the far side of the mountains and may create strong winds. These Chinook winds are relatively warm. If there is snow, the winds may melt it quickly. The dry sinking air creates a rainshadow effect . Rainshadow effect is responsible for many of the world's deserts. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Clouds block sunlight in the day. Clouds trap heat in the atmosphere at night. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The nervous system is made up of nerves. A nerve is a bundle of nerve cells. A nerve cell that carries messages is called a neuron. The messages carried by neurons are called nerve impulses. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
There are several traits shared by all arthropods. Arthropods have a complete digestive system. They also have a circulatory system and a nervous system. In addition, they have special organs for breathing and excreting wastes. Other traits of arthropods include:. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Most biochemical molecules are macromolecules, meaning that they are very large. Some contain thousands of monomer molecules. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Laboratory testing has come to the local drug store or grocery store because of developments in chemistry. You can test your blood glucose using a simple portable device that runs a chemical test on the blood sample and tells you how much glucose is present, allowing a diabetic patient to regulate how much insulin to administer (chemistry is also used to produce the insulin and the disposable syringe that administers the drug). | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
As food is pushed through the GI tract by peristalsis, it undergoes digestion. Digestion is the process of breaking down food into nutrients. There are two types of digestion: mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Any useful hypothesis will allow predictions based on reasoning. Reasoning can be broken down into two categories: deduction and induction. Most reasoning in science is formed through induction. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Astronomers use imaging satellites to study and make maps of the Moon and other planets. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Density is an important physical property of matter. It reflects how closely packed the particles of matter are. When particles are packed together more tightly, matter has greater density. Differences in density of matter explain many phenomena, not just why helium balloons rise. For example, differences in density of cool and warm ocean water explain why currents such as the Gulf Stream flow through the oceans. You can see a colorful demonstration of substances with different densities at this URL:. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Populations of viruses do not grow through cell division because they are not cells. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce new copies of themselves. After infecting a host cell, a virion uses the cell’s ribosomes, enzymes, ATP, and other components to replicate. Viruses vary in how they do this. For example:. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Some parasites kill their host, but most do not. It’s easy to see why. If a parasite kills its host, the parasite is also likely to die. Instead, parasites usually cause relatively minor damage to their host. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
An amorphous solid is a solid that lacks an ordered internal structure. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Getting the same result when an experiment is repeated is called replication. If research results can be replicated, it means they are more likely to be correct. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
human body system that includes the skin, nails, and hair. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
In the chest, the trachea divides as it enters the lungs to form the right and left bronchi . The bronchi contain cartilage, which prevents them from collapsing. Mucus in the bronchi traps any remaining particles in air. Tiny, hair-like structures called cilia line the bronchi and sweep the particles and mucus toward the throat so they can be expelled from the body. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Many objects have color because they contain pigments. A pigment is a substance that colors materials by reflecting light of certain wavelengths and absorbing light of other wavelengths. A very common pigment is the dark green pigment called chlorophyll, which is found in plants. Chlorophyll absorbs all but green wavelengths of visible light. Pigments are also found in many manufactured products. They are used to color paints, inks, and dyes. Just three pigments, called primary pigments, can be combined to produce all other colors. The primary colors of pigments are the same as the secondary colors of light: cyan, magenta, and yellow. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Craters and rifts become lakes when they fill with water. Where does the water come from?. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Nuclear power is a controversial subject in California and most other places. Nuclear power has no pollutants including no carbon emissions. However, power plants are not always safe. The long-term disposal of wastes is a problem that has not yet been solved. The future of nuclear power is murky. Find out more at: http://science. kqed. org/quest/audio/new-nuclear/. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The esophagus is a long, narrow tube that carries food from the pharynx to the stomach. It has no other purpose. Food moves through the esophagus because of peristalsis. At the lower end of the esophagus, a circular muscle, called a sphincter, controls the opening to the stomach. The sphincter relaxes to let food pass into the stomach. Then the sphincter contracts to prevent food from passing back into the esophagus. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The temperature at which condensation of water vapor occurs is called the dew point. The dew point varies depending on air temperature and moisture content. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Alkenes have double bonds; alkynes have triple bonds. Both undergo addition reactions. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Weathering may concentrate some resources. In tropical climates, chemical weathering can be intense. Some minerals dissolve and water carries them away. This leaves behind the materials that are not soluble. Bauxite is aluminum oxide that collects this way. Bauxite is our main source of aluminum ore. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Several lethal viruses that cause viral hemorrhagic fever have been discovered, two of which are shown in the Figure below . Ebola outbreaks have been limited mainly to remote areas of the world. However, they have gained extensive media attention because of the high mortality rate—23 percent to 90 percent—depending on the strain. The primary hosts of the viruses are thought to be apes in west central Africa, but the virus has also been isolated from bats in the same region. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Cell division is simpler in prokaryotes than eukaryotes because prokaryotic cells themselves are simpler. Prokaryotic cells have a single circular chromosome, no nucleus, and few other organelles. Eukaryotic cells, in contrast, have multiple chromosomes contained within a nucleus, and many other organelles. All of these cell parts must be duplicated and then separated when the cell divides. A chromosome is a molecule of DNA, and will be the focus of a subsequent concept. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The axon of many neurons has an outer layer called a myelin sheath (see Figure above ). Myelin is a lipid produced by a type of a glial cell known as a Schwann cell. The myelin sheath acts like a layer of insulation, similar to the plastic that encases an electrical cord. Regularly spaced nodes, or gaps, in the myelin sheath allow nerve impulses to skip along the axon very rapidly. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
New species arise in the process of speciation. Allopatric speciation occurs when some members of a species become geographically separated. They then evolve genetic differences. If the differences prevent them from interbreeding with the original species, a new species has evolved. Sympatric speciation occurs without geographic separation. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Fossil evidence shows that amphibians evolved about 365 million years ago from a lobe-finned lungfish ancestor. As the earliest land vertebrates, they were highly successful. Some of them were much larger than today’s amphibians. For more than 100 million years, amphibians remained the dominant land vertebrates. Then some of them evolved into reptiles. Once reptiles appeared, with their amniotic eggs, they replaced amphibians as the dominant land vertebrates. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Water is the main ingredient of many solutions. A solution is a mixture of two or more substances that has the same composition throughout. Some solutions are acids and some are bases. To understand acids and bases, you need to know more about pure water. In pure water (such as distilled water), a tiny fraction of water molecules naturally breaks down to form ions. An ion is an electrically charged atom or molecule. The breakdown of water is represented by the chemical equation. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Giardia are flagellate protozoa that cause giardiasis . The parasites enter the body through food or water that has been contaminated by feces of infected people or animals. The protozoa attach to the lining of the host’s small intestine, where they prevent the host from fully absorbing nutrients. They may also cause diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever. A picture of a Giardia protozoan opens this concept. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Nucleic acids are one of four classes of biochemical compounds. (The other three classes are carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. ) Nucleic acids include RNA (ribonucleic acid) as well as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Both types of nucleic acids contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Streak is the color of the powder of a mineral. To do a streak test, you scrape the mineral across an unglazed porcelain plate. The plate is harder than many minerals, causing the minerals to leave a streak of powder on the plate. The color of the streak often differs from the color of the larger mineral sample, as Figure below shows. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Water is essential to life because chemical reactions within cells take place in water. Most people can survive only a few days without consuming water to replace their water losses. How do you lose water?. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The outer ear catches sound waves and funnels them to the middle ear. The middle ear amplifies the sound waves and passes them to the inner ear. The inner ear changes the sound waves to electrical signals. The signals travel to the brain, which interprets the sounds. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
22.1 Introduction Viruses are the smallest biological particle (the tiniest are only 20 nm in diameter). However, they are not biological organisms so they are not classified in any kingdom of living things. They do not have any organelles and cannot respire or perform metabolic functions. Viruses are merely strands of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat called a capsid. Viruses only come to life when they have invaded a cell. Outside of a host cell, viruses are completely inert. Since first being identified in 1935, viruses have been classified into more than 160 major groups. Viruses are classified based on their shape, replication properties, and the diseases that they cause. Furthermore, the shape of a virus is determined by the type and arrangement of proteins in its capsid. Viruses pathogenic to humans are currently classified into 21 groups. Viruses can also attack bacteria and infect bacterial cells. Such viruses are called bacteriophages. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Hot lower mantle material rises upward ( Figure below ). As it rises, it cools. At the top of the mantle it moves horizontally. Over time it becomes cool and dense enough that it sinks. Back at the bottom of the mantle, it travels horizontally. Eventually the material gets to the location where warm mantle material is rising. The rising and sinking of warm and cooler material is called convection . | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
A tissue is a group of connected cells that have a similar function within an organism. More complex organisms such as jellyfish, coral, and sea anemones have a tissue level of organization. For example, jellyfish have tissues that have separate protective, digestive, and sensory functions. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
As stated earlier, not all atoms of a given element are identical. Specifically, the number of neutrons in the nucleus can vary for many elements. As an example, naturally occurring carbon exists in three forms, which are illustrated in Figure below . | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Water is recycled constantly through the ecosystem. That means any water you drank today has been around for millions of years. You could be drinking water that was once drunk by George Washington, the first humans, or even the dinosaurs. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The process in which organ systems work to maintain a stable internal environment is called homeostasis . Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments. Here are just three of the many ways that human organ systems help the body maintain homeostasis:. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Figure below shows a diagram of Mercury’s interior. Mercury is one of the densest planets. Scientists think that the interior contains a large core made mostly of melted iron. Mercury's core takes up about 42% of the planet's volume. Mercury's highly cratered surface is evidence that Mercury is not geologically active. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The sun and other stars consist of plasma. Plasma is also found naturally in lightning and the northern and southern lights. Human-made plasma is found in fluorescent lights, plasma TV screens, and plasma spheres. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
All objects in the universe have an attraction to each other. This attraction is known as gravity ( Figure below ). The strength of the force of gravity depends on two things. One is the mass of the objects. The other is the distance between the objects. As an object's mass increases, the attraction increases. As the distance between the objects increases, the attraction decreases. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
You know that friction produces heat. That’s why rubbing your hands together makes them warmer. But do you know why the rubbing produces heat? Friction causes the molecules on rubbing surfaces to move faster, so they have more heat energy. Heat from friction can be useful. It not only warms your hands. It also lets you light a match (see Figure below ). On the other hand, heat from friction can be a problem inside a car engine. It can cause the car to overheat. To reduce friction, oil is added to the engine. Oil coats the surfaces of moving parts and makes them slippery so there is less friction. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall and many have a polysaccharide capsule (Figure 4.5). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to attach to a host cell. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
There are very few living species of monotremes, or egg-laying mammals. They include the echidna and platypus, both pictured in Figure below . Monotremes are found only in Australia and the nearby island of New Guinea. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The genetic code is the same in all living things. This shows that all organisms are related by descent from a common ancestor. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Figure 15.2 All animals that derive energy from food are heterotrophs. The (a) black bear is an omnivore, eating both plants and animals. The (b) heartworm Dirofilaria immitis is a parasite that derives energy from its hosts. It spends its larval stage in mosquitos and its adult stage infesting the hearts of dogs and other mammals, as shown here. (credit a: modification of work by USDA Forest Service; credit b: modification of work by Clyde Robinson). | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Through the process of transformation, the human gene for insulin is placed into bacteria. The bacteria then use that gene to make a protein. The protein can be separated from the bacteria and then used to treat patients. The mass production of insulin by bacteria made this medicine much more affordable. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit. An example of mutualism involves goby fish and shrimp (see Figure below ). The nearly blind shrimp and the fish spend most of their time together. The shrimp maintains a burrow in the sand in which both the fish and shrimp live. When a predator comes near, the fish touches the shrimp with its tail as a warning. Then, both fish and shrimp retreat to the burrow until the predator is gone. From their relationship, the shrimp gets a warning of approaching danger. The fish gets a safe retreat and a place to lay its eggs. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Longer chains of monosaccharides are referred to as polysaccharides . Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are three extremely common polysaccharides made entirely out of glucose molecules. The differences lie in the types of bonds between the glucose units and the extent of branching in the carbohydrate chain. Starch is found in plants and is consumed as part of our diet. Glycogen is made by the body and is a storage form of glucose for when the cells need extra energy. Cellulose is another long-chain polysaccharide found in plants. Unlike starch and glycogen, the human body cannot break cellulose down into molecules of glucose. Although cellulose does not have any nutritional value in terms of calories, it is a major component of dietary fiber, which has other digestive benefits. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
This equation is based on the conservation of energy and conservation of charge. Electrical potential energy can be described by the equation PE = qV , where q is the electric charge and V is the voltage. Thus the energy supplied by the source is qV , while that dissipated by the resistors is. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Scientific theories are broad explanations that are widely accepted as true. This is because they are supported by a great deal of evidence. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Warmer, lighter air is more buoyant than the cooler air above it. So the warm air rises. The cooler air is denser than the air beneath it. So it sinks down. This is convection: warm air rises, and cool air sinks. Warm fluids can undergo convection as well. This is described in the chapter Plate Tectonics . | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
10.3 Dynamics of Rotational Motion: Rotational Inertia If you have ever spun a bike wheel or pushed a merry-go-round, you know that force is needed to change angular velocity as seen in Figure 10.10. In fact, your intuition is reliable in predicting many of the factors that are involved. For example, we know that a door opens slowly if we push too close to its hinges. Furthermore, we know that the more massive the door, the more slowly it opens. The first example implies that the farther the force is applied from the pivot, the greater the angular acceleration; another implication is that angular acceleration is inversely proportional to mass. These relationships should seem very similar to the familiar relationships among force, mass, and acceleration embodied in Newton’s second law of motion. There are, in fact, precise rotational analogs to both force and mass. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The kinetic-molecular theory as it applies to gases has five basic assumptions. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are direct opposite reactions. Energy from the sun enters a plant and is converted into glucose during photosynthesis. Some of the energy is used to make ATP in the mitochondria during cellular respiration, and some is lost to the environment as heat. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
After tissues, organs are the next level of organization of the human body. An organ is a structure that consists of two or more types of tissues that work together to do the same job. Examples of human organs include the brain, heart, lungs, skin, and kidneys. Human organs are organized into organ systems, many of which are shown in Figure below . An organ system is a group of organs that work together to carry out a complex overall function. Each organ of the system does part of the larger job. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Many amino acids can be linked together to form a long chain known as a protein . These linkages are formed when the carboxylic acid of one amino acid reacts with the amine of another to produce an amide (see Figure below ). | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
A related process to diffusion is the effusion. Effusion is the process of a confined gas escaping through a tiny hole in its container. Effusion can be observed by the fact that a helium-filled balloon will stop floating and sink to the floor after a day or so. This is because the helium gas effuses through tiny pores in the balloon. Both diffusion and effusion are related to the speed at which various gas molecules move. Gases that have a lower molar mass effuse and diffuse at a faster rate than gases that have a higher molar mass. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
There are four known types of bosons, which are force-carrying particles. Each of these bosons carries a different fundamental force between interacting particles. In addition, there is a particle which may exist, called the "Higgs Boson", which gives objects the masses they have. Some types of bosons have mass; others are massless. Bosons have an electric charge of +1, -1, or 0. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Meteorites provide clues about our solar system. Many were formed in the early solar system ( Figure below ). Some are from asteroids that have split apart. A few are rocks from nearby bodies like Mars. For this to happen, an asteroid smashed into Mars and sent up debris. A bit of the debris entered Earth’s atmosphere as a meteor. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
An electron possesses both particle and wave properties. CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS 1. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
The organs that make up the cardiovascular system are the heart and a network of blood vessels that run throughout the body. The blood in the cardiovascular system is a liquid connective tissue. Figure below shows the heart and major vessels through which blood flows in the system. The heart is basically a pump that keeps blood moving through the blood vessels. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
True predation is when a predator kills and eats its prey. Some predators of this type, such as jaguars, kill large prey. They tear it apart and chew it before eating it. Others, like bottlenose dolphins or snakes, may eat their prey whole. In some cases, the prey dies in the mouth or the digestive system of the predator. Baleen whales, for example, eat millions of plankton at once. The prey is digested afterward. True predators may hunt actively for prey, or they may sit and wait for prey to get within striking distance. Certain traits enable organisms to be effective hunters. These include camouflage, speed, and heightened senses. These traits also enable certain prey to avoid predators. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Pressure, volume, and temperature are related by the combined gas law. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Different forms, or allotropes, of carbon are diamond, graphite, and fullerenes. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
Organisms that reproduce sexually by joining gametes , a process known as fertilization , must have a mechanism to produce haploid gametes. This mechanism is meiosis , a type of cell division that halves the number of chromosomes. Meiosis occurs only in gamete producing cells within the gonads. During meiosis the pairs of chromosomes separate and segregate randomly to produce gametes with one chromosome from each pair. Meiosis involves two nuclear and cell divisions without an interphase in between, starting with one diploid cell and generating four haploid cells ( Figure below ). Each division, named meiosis I and meiosis II, has four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. These stages are similar to those of mitosis, but there are distinct and important differences. | https://huggingface.co/datasets/allenai/sciq |
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