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Pipeline forwarding (PF) applies to packet forwarding in computer networks the basic concept of pipelining, which has been widely and successfully used in computing — specifically, in the architecture of all major central processing units (CPUs) — and manufacturing — specifically in assembly lines of various industries starting from automotive to many others. Pipelining is known to be optimal independent of the specific instantiation. In particular, PF is optimal from various points of view:
High efficiency in utilization of network resources, which enables accommodating a larger amount of traffic on the network, thus lowering operation cost and being the foundation for accommodating the exponential growth of modern networks | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Policy-based management is a technology that can simplify the complex task of managing networks and distributed systems. Under this paradigm, an administrator can manage different aspects of a network or distributed system in a flexible and simplified manner by deploying a set of policies that govern its behaviour. Policies are technology independent rules aiming to enhance the hard-coded functionality of managed devices by introducing interpreted logic that can be dynamically changed without modifying the underlying implementation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Power-line communication (also known as power-line carrier), abbreviated as PLC, carries data on a conductor that is also used simultaneously for AC electric power transmission or electric power distribution to consumers.
A wide range of power-line communication technologies are needed for different applications, ranging from home automation to Internet access which is often called broadband over power lines (BPL). Most PLC technologies limit themselves to one type of wires (such as premises wiring within a single building), but some can cross between two levels (for example, both the distribution network and premises wiring) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Presence service is a network service which accepts, stores and distributes presence information.
Presence service may be implemented as a single server or have an internal structure involving multiple servers and proxies. There may be complex patterns of redirection and proxying while retaining logical connectivity to a single presence service | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In a network based on packet switching, processing delay is the time it takes routers to process the packet header. Processing delay is a key component in network delay.
During processing of a packet, routers may check for bit-level errors in the packet that occurred during transmission as well as determining where the packet's next destination is | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computer networking, promiscuous traffic, or cross-talking, describes situations where a receiver configured to receive a particular data stream receives that data stream and others. Promiscuous traffic should not be confused with the promiscuous mode, which is a network card configuration.
In particular, in multicast socket networking, an example of promiscuous traffic is when a socket configured to listen on a specific multicast address group A with a specific port P, noted A:P, receives traffic from A:P but also from another multicast source | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In telecommunication and computer engineering, the queuing delay or queueing delay is the time a job waits in a queue until it can be executed. It is a key component of network delay. In a switched network, queuing delay is the time between the completion of signaling by the call originator and the arrival of a ringing signal at the call receiver | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A radio access technology (RAT) is the underlying physical connection method for a radio communication network. Many modern mobile phones support several RATs in one device such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and GSM, UMTS, LTE or 5G NR.
The term RAT was traditionally used in mobile communication network interoperability | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The RapidIO architecture is a high-performance packet-switched electrical connection technology. RapidIO supports messaging, read/write and cache coherency semantics. Based on industry-standard electrical specifications such as those for Ethernet, RapidIO can be used as a chip-to-chip, board-to-board, and chassis-to-chassis interconnect | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In network science, reciprocity is a measure of the likelihood of vertices in a directed network to be mutually linked. Like the clustering coefficient, scale-free degree distribution, or community structure, reciprocity is a quantitative measure used to study complex networks.
Motivation
In real network problems, people are interested in determining the likelihood of occurring double links (with opposite directions) between vertex pairs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In Fibre Channel protocol, a registered state change notification (RSCN) is a Fibre Channel fabric's notification sent to all specified nodes in case of any major fabric changes. This allows nodes to immediately gain knowledge about the fabric and react accordingly.
Overview
Implementation of this function is obligatory for each Fibre Channel switch, but is optional for a node | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A relay network is a broad class of network topology commonly used in wireless networks, where the source and destination are interconnected by means of some nodes. In such a network the source and destination cannot communicate to each other directly because the distance between the source and destination is greater than the transmission range of both of them, hence the need for intermediate node(s) to relay.
A relay network is a type of network used to send information between two devices, for e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Reliable Data Transfer is a topic in computer networking concerning the transfer of data across unreliable channels. Unreliability is one of the drawbacks of packet switched networks such as the modern internet, as packet loss can occur for a variety of reasons, and delivery of packets is not guaranteed to happen in the order that the packets were sent. Therefore, in order to create long-term data streams over the internet, techniques have been developed to provide reliability, which are generally implemented in the Transport layer of the internet protocol suite | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A reliable multicast is any computer networking protocol that provides a reliable sequence of packets to multiple recipients simultaneously, making it suitable for applications such as multi-receiver file transfer.
Overview
Multicast is a network addressing method for the delivery of information to a group of destinations simultaneously using the most efficient strategy to deliver the messages over each link of the network only once, creating copies only when the links to the multiple destinations split (typically network switches and routers). However, like the User Datagram Protocol, multicast does not guarantee the delivery of a message stream | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computing, the term remote desktop refers to a software- or operating system feature that allows a personal computer's desktop environment to be run remotely off of one system (usually a PC, but the concept applies equally to a server or a smartphone), while being displayed on a separate client device. Remote desktop applications have varying features. Some allow attaching to an existing user's session and "remote controlling", either displaying the remote control session or blanking the screen | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Remote infrastructure management (RIM) is the remote management of information technology (IT) infrastructure. This can include the management of computer hardware and software, such as workstations (desktops, laptops, notebooks, etc. ), servers, network devices, storage devices, IT security devices, etc | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Resource Location and Discovery (RELOAD) is a peer-to-peer (P2P) signalling protocol for use on the Internet. A P2P signalling protocol provides its clients with an abstract storage and messaging service between a set of cooperating peers that form the overlay network. RELOAD is designed to support a peer-to-peer SIP network, but can be utilized by other applications with similar requirements by defining new usages that specify the kinds of data that must be stored for a particular application | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions between networks and on the global Internet. Data sent through a network, such as a web page or email, is in the form of data packets | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A router on a stick, also known as a one-armed router, is a router that has a single physical or logical connection to a network. It is a method of inter-VLAN routing where one router is connected to a switch via a single cable. The router has physical connections to the broadcast domains where one or more VLANs require the need for routing between them | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A routing bridge or RBridge, also known as a TRILL switch, is a network device that implements the TRILL protocol, as specified by the IETF and should not be confused with BRouters (Bridging Routers). RBridges are compatible with previous IEEE 802. 1 customer bridges as well as IPv4 and IPv6 routers and end nodes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A routing protocol specifies how routers communicate with each other to distribute information that enables them to select routes between nodes on a computer network. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet; data packets are forwarded through the networks of the internet from router to router until they reach their destination computer. Routing algorithms determine the specific choice of route | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
ScreenOS is a real-time embedded operating system for the NetScreen range of hardware firewall devices from Juniper Networks.
Features
Beside transport level security ScreenOS also integrates these flow management applications:
IP gateway VPN management – ICSA-certified IPSec
IP packet inspection (low level) for protection against TCP/IP attacks
Virtualization for network segmentation
Possible NSA backdoor and 2015 "Unauthorized Code" incident
In December 2015, Juniper Networks announced that it had found unauthorized code in ScreenOS that had been there since August 2012. The two backdoors it created would allow sophisticated hackers to control the firewall of un-patched Juniper Netscreen products and decrypt network traffic | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computing the SCSI RDMA Protocol (SRP) is a protocol that allows one computer to access SCSI devices attached to another computer via remote direct memory access (RDMA). The SRP protocol is also known as the SCSI Remote Protocol. The use of RDMA makes higher throughput and lower latency possible than what is generally available through e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Secure End Node is a trusted, individual computer that temporarily becomes part of a trusted, sensitive, well-managed network and later connects to many other (un)trusted networks/clouds. SEN's cannot communicate good or evil data between the various networks (e. g | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A security domain is the determining factor in the classification of an enclave of servers/computers. A network with a different security domain is kept separate from other networks. For example, NIPRNet, SIPRNet, JWICS, and NSANet are all kept separate | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A sensor node (also known as a mote in North America), consists of an individual node from a sensor network that is capable of performing a desired action such as gathering, processing or communicating information with other connected nodes in a network.
History
Although wireless sensor networks have existed for decades and used for diverse applications such as earthquake measurements or warfare, the modern development of small sensor nodes dates back to the 1998 Smartdust project and the NASA. Sensor Web One of the objectives of the Smartdust project was to create autonomous sensing and communication within a cubic millimeter of space, though this project ended early on, it led to many more research projects and major research centres such as The Berkeley NEST and CENS | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computer science and networking in particular, a session is a time-delimited two-way link, a practical (relatively high) layer in the TCP/IP protocol enabling interactive expression and information exchange between two or more communication devices or ends – be they computers, automated systems, or live active users (see login session). A session is established at a certain point in time, and then ‘torn down’ - brought to an end - at some later point. An established communication session may involve more than one message in each direction | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Sideloading describes the process of transferring files between two local devices, in particular between a personal computer and a mobile device such as a mobile phone, smartphone, PDA, tablet, portable media player or e-reader.
Sideloading typically refers to media file transfer to a mobile device via USB, Bluetooth, WiFi or by writing to a memory card for insertion into the mobile device, but also applies to the transfer of apps from web sources that are not vendor-approved.
When referring to Android apps, "sideloading" typically means installing an application package in APK format onto an Android device | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In virtualization, single root input/output virtualization (SR-IOV) is a specification that allows the isolation of PCI Express resources for manageability and performance reasons.
Details
A single physical PCI Express bus can be shared in a virtual environment using the SR-IOV specification. The SR-IOV offers different virtual functions to different virtual components (e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Slashdot effect, also known as slashdotting, occurs when a popular website links to a smaller website, causing a massive increase in traffic. This overloads the smaller site, causing it to slow down or even temporarily become unavailable. This has the same effect as a denial-of-service attack, albeit accidentally | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A smart device is an electronic device, generally connected to other devices or networks via different wireless protocols (such as Bluetooth, Zigbee, near-field communication, Wi-Fi, LiFi, or 5G) that can operate to some extent interactively and autonomously. Several notable types of smart devices are smartphones, smart speakers, smart cars, smart thermostats, smart doorbells, smart locks, smart refrigerators, phablets and tablets, smartwatches, smart bands, smart keychains, smart glasses, and many others. The term can also refer to a device that exhibits some properties of ubiquitous computing, including—although not necessarily—machine learning | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Sneakernet, also called sneaker net, is an informal term for the transfer of electronic information by physically moving media such as magnetic tape, floppy disks, optical discs, USB flash drives or external hard drives between computers, rather than transmitting it over a computer network. The term, a tongue-in-cheek play on net(work) as in Internet or Ethernet, refers to walking in sneakers as the transport mechanism. Alternative terms may be floppy net, train net, or pigeon net | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computer networking, STREAMS is the native framework in Unix System V for implementing character device drivers, network protocols, and inter-process communication. In this framework, a stream is a chain of coroutines that pass messages between a program and a device driver (or between a pair of programs). STREAMS originated in Version 8 Research Unix, as Streams (not capitalized) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SwitchBlade is the registered name of a family of layer 2 and layer 3 chassis switches developed by Allied Telesis. Current models include the SwitchBlade x908 GEN2 and the SwitchBlade x8100 layer 3 chassis switches. The first model was the SwitchBlade 4000-layer 3 core chassis, which ran the earlier AlliedWare operating system | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
When realizing pipeline forwarding
a predefined schedule for forwarding a pre-allocated amount of bytes during one or more time frames along a path of subsequent switches establishes a synchronous virtual pipe (SVP). The SVP capacity is determined by the total number of bits allocated in every time cycle for the SVP. For example, for a 10 ms time cycle, if 20,000 bits are allocated during each of 2 time frames, the SVP capacity is 4 Mbit/s | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Time-driven priority (TDP)
is a synchronous packet scheduling technique that implements UTC-based pipeline forwarding
and can be combined with conventional IP routing to achieve the higher flexibility than another pipeline forwarding implementation known as time-driven switching (TDS) or fractional lambda switching (FλS). Packets entering a switch from the same input port during the same [time frame] (TF) can be sent out from different output ports, according to the rules that drive IP packet routing. Operation in accordance to pipeline forwarding principles ensures deterministic quality of service and low complexity packet scheduling | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In telecommunication and computer networking, time-driven switching (TDS) is a node by node time variant implementation of circuit switching, where the propagating datagram is shorter in space than the distance between source and destination. With TDS it is no longer necessary to own a complete circuit between source and destination, but only the fraction of circuit where the propagating datagram is temporarily located.
TDS adds flexibility and capacity to circuit-switched networks but requires precise synchronization among nodes and propagating datagrams | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In telecommunications and related engineering (including computer networking and programming), the term timeout or time-out has several meanings, including:
A network parameter related to an enforced event designed to occur at the conclusion of a predetermined elapsed time.
A specified period of time that will be allowed to elapse in a system before a specified event is to take place, unless another specified event occurs first; in either case, the period is terminated when either event takes place. Note: A timeout condition can be canceled by the receipt of an appropriate time-out cancellation signal | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Tor, short for The Onion Router, is free and open-source software for enabling anonymous communication. It directs Internet traffic via a free, worldwide, volunteer overlay network that consists of more than seven thousand relays. Using Tor makes it more difficult to trace a user's Internet activity | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In packet switching networks, traffic flow, packet flow or network flow is a sequence of packets from a source computer to a destination, which may be another host, a multicast group, or a broadcast domain. RFC 2722 defines traffic flow as "an artificial logical equivalent to a call or connection. " RFC 3697 defines traffic flow as "a sequence of packets sent from a particular source to a particular unicast, anycast, or multicast destination that the source desires to label as a flow | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Tsunami UDP Protocol is a UDP-based protocol that was developed for high-speed file transfer over network paths that have a high bandwidth-delay product. Such protocols are needed because standard TCP does not perform well over paths with high bandwidth-delay products. Tsunami was developed at the Advanced Network Management Laboratory of Indiana University | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
UDPcast is a file transfer tool that can send data simultaneously to many destinations on a LAN. This can for instance be used to install entire classrooms of PCs at once. The advantage of UDPcast over using other methods (nfs, ftp, whatever) is that UDPcast uses the User Datagram Protocol's multicast abilities: it won't take longer to install 15 machines than it would to install just 2 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A universal gateway is a device that transacts data between two or more data sources using communication protocols specific to each. Sometimes called a universal protocol gateway, this class of product is designed as a computer appliance, and is used to connect data from one automation system to another.
Typical applications
Typical applications include:
M2M Communications – machine to machine communications between machines from different vendors, typically using different communication protocols | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An unwired enterprise is an organization that extends and supports the use of traditional thick client enterprise applications to a variety of mobile devices and their users throughout the organization. The abiding characteristic is seamless universal mobile access to critical applications and business data.
Use
By supporting mobile clients alongside more traditional desktop and laptop clients, an unwired enterprise attempts to increase productivity rates and speed the pace of many common business processes through anytime/anywhere accessibility | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Usage Parameter Control (UPC) and Network Parameter Control (NPC) are functions that may be performed in a computer network. UPC may be performed at the input to a network "to protect network resources from malicious as well as unintentional misbehaviour". NPC is the same and done for the same reasons as UPC, but at the interface between two networks | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Uploading refers to transmitting data from one computer system to another through means of a network. Common methods of uploading include: uploading via web browsers, FTP clients], and terminals (SCP/SFTP). Uploading can be used in the context of (potentially many) clients that send files to a central server | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
MacPlaymate is an erotic computer game released for the Macintosh by PEGASUS Productions in 1987. Developed by Mike Saenz, the game is an interactive erotica where the player can sexually interact with the female avatar Maxie in a variety of ways.
Gameplay
The game opens with Maxie (voiced by Raquel Shapira) fully clothed and introducing herself as the player's date | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Match Day II is a football sports game part of the Match Day series released for the Amstrad CPC, Amstrad PCW, ZX Spectrum, MSX and Commodore 64 platforms. It was created in 1987 by Jon Ritman with graphics by Bernie Drummond and music and sound by Guy Stevens (except for the Commodore version, which was a line-by-line conversion by John Darnell). It is the sequel to 1984's Match Day | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Roberta Williams' Mixed-Up Mother Goose is a computer game first released by Sierra On-Line in 1987. It is, in essence, an edutainment title, directed specifically at young gamers, as well as an adventure game. It was the first multimedia game released on CD-ROM in 1991 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Phantom Club is an isometric 3D arcade adventure game released by Ocean in 1987 for the Sinclair Spectrum and Amstrad CPC.
Plot
Plutus the Zelator, the lowest-ranked member of the Phantom Club of superheroes, must defeat Zarg and the other evil superheroes.
Gameplay
The player controls Plutus the Zelator in his mission against Zarg and his minions | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Ranarama (also Rana Rama) is a top-down Gauntlet-like action game developed by Graftgold and published by Hewson Consultants in 1987. It was released for the Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum home computers. The title appears to be a pun on rana, a genus of frogs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Saboteur II: Avenging Angel, also known as Saboteur 2, is an action-adventure game created by Clive Townsend and released by Durell Software in 1987 for the ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, and MS-DOS compatible operating systems. A sequel to 1985's Saboteur, the player controls a sister of Ninja from the first game on a mission to avenge his death. Saboteur II was one of the first action-adventure games with a female protagonist and was well received by critics | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, imputation is the process of replacing missing data with substituted values. When substituting for a data point, it is known as "unit imputation"; when substituting for a component of a data point, it is known as "item imputation". There are three main problems that missing data causes: missing data can introduce a substantial amount of bias, make the handling and analysis of the data more arduous, and create reductions in efficiency | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics and applications of statistics, normalization can have a range of meanings. In the simplest cases, normalization of ratings means adjusting values measured on different scales to a notionally common scale, often prior to averaging. In more complicated cases, normalization may refer to more sophisticated adjustments where the intention is to bring the entire probability distributions of adjusted values into alignment | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, a power transform is a family of functions applied to create a monotonic transformation of data using power functions. It is a data transformation technique used to stabilize variance, make the data more normal distribution-like, improve the validity of measures of association (such as the Pearson correlation between variables), and for other data stabilization procedures.
Power transforms are used in multiple fields, including multi-resolution and wavelet analysis, statistical data analysis, medical research, modeling of physical processes, geochemical data analysis, epidemiology and many other clinical, environmental and social research areas | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, quantile normalization is a technique for making two distributions identical in statistical properties. To quantile-normalize a test distribution to a reference distribution of the same length, sort the test distribution and sort the reference distribution. The highest entry in the test distribution then takes the value of the highest entry in the reference distribution, the next highest entry in the reference distribution, and so on, until the test distribution is a perturbation of the reference distribution | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In applied statistics, a variance-stabilizing transformation is a data transformation that is specifically chosen either to simplify considerations in graphical exploratory data analysis or to allow the application of simple regression-based or analysis of variance techniques.
Overview
The aim behind the choice of a variance-stabilizing transformation is to find a simple function ƒ to apply to values x in a data set to create new values y = ƒ(x) such that the variability of the values y is not related to their mean value. For example, suppose that the values x are realizations from different Poisson distributions: i | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Winsorizing or winsorization is the transformation of statistics by limiting extreme values in the statistical data to reduce the effect of possibly spurious outliers. It is named after the engineer-turned-biostatistician Charles P. Winsor (1895–1951) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, groups of individual data points may be classified as belonging to any of various statistical data types, e. g. categorical ("red", "blue", "green"), real number (1 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Aggregate data is high-level data which is acquired by combining individual-level data. For instance, the output of an industry is an aggregate of the firms’ individual outputs within that industry. Aggregate data are applied in statistics, data warehouses, and in economics | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Binary data is data whose unit can take on only two possible states. These are often labelled as 0 and 1 in accordance with the binary numeral system and Boolean algebra.
Binary data occurs in many different technical and scientific fields, where it can be called by different names including bit (binary digit) in computer science, truth value in mathematical logic and related domains and binary variable in statistics | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, bivariate data is data on each of two variables, where each value of one of the variables is paired with a value of the other variable. It is a specific but very common case of multivariate data. The association can be studied via a tabular or graphical display, or via sample statistics which might be used for inference | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, a categorical variable (also called qualitative variable) is a variable that can take on one of a limited, and usually fixed, number of possible values, assigning each individual or other unit of observation to a particular group or nominal category on the basis of some qualitative property. In computer science and some branches of mathematics, categorical variables are referred to as enumerations or enumerated types. Commonly (though not in this article), each of the possible values of a categorical variable is referred to as a level | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, censoring is a condition in which the value of a measurement or observation is only partially known.
For example, suppose a study is conducted to measure the impact of a drug on mortality rate. In such a study, it may be known that an individual's age at death is at least 75 years (but may be more) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, compositional data are quantitative descriptions of the parts of some whole, conveying relative information. Mathematically, compositional data is represented by points on a simplex. Measurements involving probabilities, proportions, percentages, and ppm can all be thought of as compositional data | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, count data is a statistical data type describing countable quantities, data which can take only the counting numbers, non-negative integer values {0, 1, 2, 3, . . | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics and econometrics, cross-sectional data is a type of data collected by observing many subjects (such as individuals, firms, countries, or regions) at a single point or period of time. Analysis of cross-sectional data usually consists of comparing the differences among selected subjects, typically with no regard to differences in time.
For example, if we want to measure current obesity levels in a population, we could draw a sample of 1,000 people randomly from that population (also known as a cross section of that population), measure their weight and height, and calculate what percentage of that sample is categorized as obese | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, a unit of observation is the unit described by the data that one analyzes. A study may treat groups as a unit of observation with a country as the unit of analysis, drawing conclusions on group characteristics from data collected at the national level. For example, in a study of the demand for money, the unit of observation might be chosen as the individual, with different observations (data points) for a given point in time differing as to which individual they refer to; or the unit of observation might be the country, with different observations differing only in regard to the country they refer to | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Directional statistics (also circular statistics or spherical statistics) is the subdiscipline of statistics that deals with directions (unit vectors in Euclidean space, Rn), axes (lines through the origin in Rn) or rotations in Rn. More generally, directional statistics deals with observations on compact Riemannian manifolds including the Stiefel manifold.
The fact that 0 degrees and 360 degrees are identical angles, so that for example 180 degrees is not a sensible mean of 2 degrees and 358 degrees, provides one illustration that special statistical methods are required for the analysis of some types of data (in this case, angular data) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Functional data analysis (FDA) is a branch of statistics that analyses data providing information about curves, surfaces or anything else varying over a continuum. In its most general form, under an FDA framework, each sample element of functional data is considered to be a random function. The physical continuum over which these functions are defined is often time, but may also be spatial location, wavelength, probability, etc | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, inter-rater reliability (also called by various similar names, such as inter-rater agreement, inter-rater concordance, inter-observer reliability, inter-coder reliability, and so on) is the degree of agreement among independent observers who rate, code, or assess the same phenomenon.
Assessment tools that rely on ratings must exhibit good inter-rater reliability, otherwise they are not valid tests.
There are a number of statistics that can be used to determine inter-rater reliability | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In actuarial science and demography, a life table (also called a mortality table or actuarial table) is a table which shows, for each age, what the probability is that a person of that age will die before their next birthday ("probability of death"). In other words, it represents the survivorship of people from a certain population. They can also be explained as a long-term mathematical way to measure a population's longevity | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Mean-field particle methods are a broad class of interacting type Monte Carlo algorithms for simulating from a sequence of probability distributions satisfying a nonlinear evolution equation. These flows of probability measures can always be interpreted as the distributions of the random states of a Markov process whose transition probabilities depends on the distributions of the current random states. A natural way to simulate these sophisticated nonlinear Markov processes is to sample a large number of copies of the process, replacing in the evolution equation the unknown distributions of the random states by the sampled empirical measures | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, missing data, or missing values, occur when no data value is stored for the variable in an observation. Missing data are a common occurrence and can have a significant effect on the conclusions that can be drawn from the data.
Missing data can occur because of nonresponse: no information is provided for one or more items or for a whole unit ("subject") | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In econometrics, a multidimensional panel data is data of a phenomenon observed over three or more dimensions. This comes in contrast with panel data, observed over two dimensions (typically, time and cross-sections). An example is a data set containing forecasts of one or multiple macroeconomic variables produced by multiple individuals (the first dimension), in multiple series (the second dimension) at multiple times periods (the third dimension) and for multiple horizons (the fourth dimension) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A nominal category or a nominal group is a group of objects or ideas that can be collectively grouped on the basis of a particular characteristic—a qualitative property. A variable that codes whether each one in a set of observations is in a particular nominal category is called a categorical variable.
Valid data operations
A nominal group only has members and non-members | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, latent variables (from Latin: present participle of lateo, “lie hidden”) are variables that can only be inferred indirectly through a mathematical model from other observable variables that can be directly observed or measured. Such latent variable models are used in many disciplines, including political science, demography, engineering, medicine, ecology, physics, machine learning/artificial intelligence, bioinformatics, chemometrics, natural language processing, management, psychology and the social sciences.
Latent variables may correspond to aspects of physical reality | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In fields such as epidemiology, social sciences, psychology and statistics, an observational study draws inferences from a sample to a population where the independent variable is not under the control of the researcher because of ethical concerns or logistical constraints. One common observational study is about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator. This is in contrast with experiments, such as randomized controlled trials, where each subject is randomly assigned to a treated group or a control group | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics and econometrics, panel data and longitudinal data are both multi-dimensional data involving measurements over time. Panel data is a subset of longitudinal data where observations are for the same subjects each time.
Time series and cross-sectional data can be thought of as special cases of panel data that are in one dimension only (one panel member or individual for the former, one time point for the latter) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics and probability theory, a point process or point field is a collection of mathematical points randomly located on a mathematical space such as the real line or Euclidean space.
Point processes can be used for spatial data analysis, which is of interest in such diverse disciplines as forestry, plant ecology, epidemiology, geography, seismology, materials science, astronomy, telecommunications, computational neuroscience, economics and others.
There are different mathematical interpretations of a point process, such as a random counting measure or a random set | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In probability and statistics, a realization, observation, or observed value, of a random variable is the value that is actually observed (what actually happened). The random variable itself is the process dictating how the observation comes about. Statistical quantities computed from realizations without deploying a statistical model are often called "empirical", as in empirical distribution function or empirical probability | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Statistical shape analysis is an analysis of the geometrical properties of some given set of shapes by statistical methods. For instance, it could be used to quantify differences between male and female gorilla skull shapes, normal and pathological bone shapes, leaf outlines with and without herbivory by insects, etc. Important aspects of shape analysis are to obtain a measure of distance between shapes, to estimate mean shapes from (possibly random) samples, to estimate shape variability within samples, to perform clustering and to test for differences between shapes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In probability theory and related fields, a stochastic () or random process is a mathematical object usually defined as a sequence of random variables, where the index of the sequence has the interpretation of time. Stochastic processes are widely used as mathematical models of systems and phenomena that appear to vary in a random manner. Examples include the growth of a bacterial population, an electrical current fluctuating due to thermal noise, or the movement of a gas molecule | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Surrogate data, sometimes known as analogous data, usually refers to time series data that is produced using well-defined (linear) models like ARMA processes that reproduce various statistical properties like the autocorrelation structure of a measured data set. The resulting surrogate data can then for example be used for testing for non-linear structure in the empirical data, see surrogate data testing.
Surrogate or analogous data may refer to data used to supplement available data from which a mathematical model is built | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Synthetic data is information that's artificially generated rather than produced by real-world events. Typically created using algorithms, synthetic data can be deployed to validate mathematical models and to train machine learning models. Data generated by a computer simulation can be seen as synthetic data | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In mathematics, a time series is a series of data points indexed (or listed or graphed) in time order. Most commonly, a time series is a sequence taken at successive equally spaced points in time. Thus it is a sequence of discrete-time data | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In statistics, truncation results in values that are limited above or below, resulting in a truncated sample. A random variable
y
{\displaystyle y}
is said to be truncated from below if, for some threshold value
c
{\displaystyle c}
, the exact value of
y
{\displaystyle y}
is known for all cases
y
>
c
{\displaystyle y>c}
, but unknown for all cases
y
≤
c
{\displaystyle y\leq c}
. Similarly, truncation from above means the exact value of
y
{\displaystyle y}
is known in cases where
y
<
c
{\displaystyle y<c}
, but unknown when
y
≥
c
{\displaystyle y\geq c}
| https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In science and research, an attribute is a quality of an object (person, thing, etc. ). Attributes are closely related to variables | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wide and narrow (sometimes un-stacked and stacked, or wide and tall) are terms used to describe two different presentations for tabular data.
Wide
Wide, or unstacked data is presented with each different data variable in a separate column.
Narrow
Narrow, stacked, or long data is presented with one column containing all the values and another column listing the context of the value
This is often easier to implement; addition of a new field does not require any changes to the structure of the table, however it can be harder for people to understand | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Vital statistics is accumulated data gathered on live births, deaths, migration, foetal deaths, marriages and divorces. The most common way of collecting information on these events is through civil registration, an administrative system used by governments to record vital events which occur in their populations. Efforts to improve the quality of vital statistics will therefore be closely related to the development of civil registration systems in countries | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Vital records are records of life events kept under governmental authority, including birth certificates, marriage licenses (or marriage certificates), separation agreements, divorce certificates or divorce party and death certificates. In some jurisdictions, vital records may also include records of civil unions or domestic partnerships.
Note that only the life events meaning is restricted to government; the records management meaning in this article applies to both government and non-government organizations | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Administrative data are collected by governments or other organizations for non-statistical reasons to provide overviews on registration, transactions, and record keeping. They evaluate part of the output of administrating a program. Border records, pensions, taxation, and vital records like births and deaths are examples of administrative data | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a person. The term "birth certificate" can refer to either the original document certifying the circumstances of the birth or to a certified copy of or representation of the ensuing registration of that birth. Depending on the jurisdiction, a record of birth might or might not contain verification of the event by such as a midwife or doctor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In law, medicine, and statistics, cause of death is an official determination of the conditions resulting in a human's death, which may be recorded on a death certificate. A cause of death is determined by a medical examiner. In rare cases, an autopsy needs to be performed by a pathologist | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Civil registration is the system by which a government records the vital events (births, marriages, and deaths) of its citizens and residents. The resulting repository or database has different names in different countries and even in different subnational jurisdictions. It can be called a civil registry, civil register (but this is also an official term for an individual file of a vital event), vital records, and other terms, and the office responsible for receiving the registrations can be called a bureau of vital statistics, registry of vital records and statistics, registrar, registry, register, registry office (officially register office), or population registry | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
CRVS Systems stands for Civil Registration and Vital Statistics Systems and represents the interoperability of three separate systems: Civil Registration, Health Information, and Vital Statistics.
The United Nations (UN) defines Civil Registration as: “The continuous, permanent, compulsory, and universal recording of the occurrence and characteristics of vital events (live births, deaths, fetal deaths, marriages, and divorces) and other civil status events pertaining to the population as provided by decree, law or regulation, in accordance with the legal requirements in each country. ”The primary purpose of Civil Registration is to establish the legal documents required by law | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A death certificate is either a legal document issued by a medical practitioner which states when a person died, or a document issued by a government civil registration office, that declares the date, location and cause of a person's death, as entered in an official register of deaths.
An official death certificate is usually required to be provided when applying for probate or administration of a deceased estate. They are also sought for genealogical research | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Civil status, or marital status, are the distinct options that describe a person's relationship with a significant other. Married, single, divorced, and widowed are examples of civil status.
Civil status and marital status are terms used in forms, vital records, and other documents to ask or indicate whether a person is married or single | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A marriage license (or marriage licence in Commonwealth spelling) is a document issued, either by a religious organization or state authority, authorizing a couple to marry. The procedure for obtaining a license varies between jurisdictions, and has changed over time. Marriage licenses began to be issued in the Middle Ages, to permit a marriage which would otherwise be illegal (for instance, if the necessary period of notice for the marriage had not been given) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Page of Testimony is a form issued by Yad Vashem (יד ושם) that asks for information about a Jewish victim of the Holocaust. Over 4. 3 million Pages of Testimony have been submitted to Yad Vashem, beginning in the 1950s | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
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