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A pulse per second (PPS or 1PPS) is an electrical signal that has a width of less than one second and a sharply rising or abruptly falling edge that accurately repeats once per second. PPS signals are output by radio beacons, frequency standards, other types of precision oscillators and some GPS receivers. Precision clocks are sometimes manufactured by interfacing a PPS signal generator to processing equipment that aligns the PPS signal to the UTC second and converts it to a useful display | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Qualitative properties are properties that are observed and can generally not be measured with a numerical result. They are contrasted to quantitative properties which have numerical characteristics.
Some engineering and scientific properties are qualitative | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantity or amount is a property that can exist as a multitude or magnitude, which illustrate discontinuity and continuity. Quantities can be compared in terms of "more", "less", or "equal", or by assigning a numerical value multiple of a unit of measurement. Mass, time, distance, heat, and angle are among the familiar examples of quantitative properties | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation, including visible light. Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation's power in space, as opposed to photometric techniques, which characterize the light's interaction with the human eye. The fundamental difference between radiometry and photometry is that radiometry gives the entire optical radiation spectrum, while photometry is limited to the visible spectrum | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In mathematics, a rate is the quotient of two quantities in different units of measurement, often represented as a fraction. If the divisor (or fraction denominator) in the rate is equal to one expressed as a single unit, and if it is assumed that this quantity can be changed systematically (i. e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The distinction between real value and nominal value occurs in many fields. From a philosophical viewpoint, nominal value represents an accepted condition, which is a goal or an approximation, as opposed to the real value, which is always present.
Measurement
In manufacturing, a nominal size or trade size is a size "in name only" used for identification | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
VGA Planets is a multi-player, space strategy war game originally released in 1992. The game simulates combat in space between galactic scale empires. It follows the 4X game (eXplore, eXpand, eXploit and eXterminate) model: The players start with a home world, and have to build spaceships, explore the galaxy, colonize planets, mine minerals, build up their industry | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
War in the South Pacific is a 1987 computer wargame designed by Gary Grigsby and published by Strategic Simulations. It is classified as a monster wargame.
Gameplay
War in the South Pacific is a computer wargame that simulates Pacific Theatre conflicts during World War II | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Warcraft: Orcs & Humans is a real-time strategy game (RTS) developed and published by Blizzard Entertainment, and published by Interplay Productions in Europe. It was released for MS-DOS in North America on 15 November 1994, and for Mac OS in early 1996. The MS-DOS version was re-released by Sold-Out Software in 2002 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wargame Construction Set III: Age of Rifles 1846-1905 (or simply Age of Rifles) is a turn-based computer wargame for MS-DOS, written by Norm Koger. It was published in 1996 by Strategic Simulations. It is the third game in the Wargame Construction Set series, following Wargame Construction Set (1986) and Wargame Construction Set II: Tanks! (1994) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Weird Dreams is a cinematic platform game developed by Rainbird Software which was published for the Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, and DOS. A modified version served as the visual component to a phone-in quiz on ITV's Motormouth. The game was planned for release on Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum, but both versions were cancelled | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Western Front: The Liberation of Europe 1944–1945 is a 1991 computer wargame developed and published by Strategic Simulations, Inc. It was designed by Gary Grigsby.
Gameplay
Western Front is a computer wargame that simulates the Western Front of World War II | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi is the first sequel in Chris Roberts' Wing Commander science fiction space combat simulator franchise of computer games, produced by Origin Systems.
Released in 1991, Wing Commander II retains much of the first game's core conventions: an interstellar war between the Terran Confederation and the felinoid warrior race called the Kilrathi, multiple allies as wingmen, and a wide variety of ships on both sides of the war. However, WCII places a greater emphasis on storytelling, providing various sprite-animated cutscenes and some of the industry's first examples of voice acting | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wing Commander: Armada is a computer game set in the universe of Chris Roberts' Wing Commander franchise. Created by Origin Systems and distributed by Electronic Arts in 1994, Armada was the first official game of the Wing Commander series to feature multiplayer mode. This game was released shortly before Wing Commander III: Heart of the Tiger and features a new graphics engine, capable of rendering fully 3D ship models, which is more powerful than the sprite-based engine used in Wing Commander II: Vengeance of the Kilrathi | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wing Commander: Privateer is an adventure space trading and combat simulator computer game released by Origin Systems in September 1993. Privateer and its storyline is part of the Wing Commander series. The player takes the role of Grayson Burrows, a "privateer" who travels through the Gemini Sector, one of many sectors in the Wing Commander universe | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wing Nuts: Battle in the Sky is a game published by BMG Interactive Entertainment and developed by Rocket Science Games for DOS in 1995.
Gameplay
The game is told by FMV cutscenes. It is an FMV rail shooter, like Loadstar, but in 2 missions the player must use bombs and balloons to destroy a bridge | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Witchaven II: Blood Vengeance is a fantasy-themed first-person shooter for DOS compatible operating systems released in 1996 by Capstone Software. It is a sequel to 1995's Witchaven. Both games use the Build engine | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wizardry VI: Bane of the Cosmic Forge (originally known as Wizardry: Bane of the Cosmic Forge) is the 6th title in the Wizardry series of role-playing video games. It was the first in the trilogy surrounding the Dark Savant, which was followed by Wizardry VII: Crusaders of the Dark Savant and Wizardry 8. It was developed by Sir-Tech Software, Inc | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wizardry VII: Crusaders of the Dark Savant (originally known as Wizardry: Crusaders of the Dark Savant) is the seventh title in the Wizardry series of role-playing video games by Sir-Tech Software, Inc. , preceding Wizardry 8 and succeeding Wizardry VI: Bane of the Cosmic Forge. It is also the second entry in the 'Dark Savant' trilogy | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Piotr Indyk is Thomas D. and Virginia W. Cabot Professor in the Theory of Computation Group at the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Raj Jain (born 17 August 1951) is a professor of Computer Science and Engineering in the Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri.
Education
Dr | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
FamilySearch Indexing is a volunteer project established and run by FamilySearch, a genealogy organization of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The project aims to create searchable digital indexes of scanned images of historical documents that are relevant to genealogy. The documents include census records, birth and death certificates, marriage licenses, military and property records, and other vital records maintained by local, state, and national governments | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Galaxy Zoo is a crowdsourced astronomy project which invites people to assist in the morphological classification of large numbers of galaxies. It is an example of citizen science as it enlists the help of members of the public to help in scientific research. There have been 15 versions as of July 2017 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Ghost work is work performed by a human, but believed by a customer to be performed by an automated process. The term was coined by anthropologist Mary L. Gray and computer scientist Siddharth Suri in their 2019 book, Ghost Work: How to Stop Silicon Valley from Building a New Global Underclass | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A human search engine was a search engine that used human participation to filter the search results and assist users in clarifying their search request. The goal was to provide users with a limited number of relevant results, as opposed to traditional search engines that often return many results that may or may not be relevant.
Examples of defunct human search engines include ApexKB, ChaCha, Mahalo | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Human-based evolutionary computation (HBEC) is a set of evolutionary computation techniques that rely on human innovation.
Classes and examples
Human-based evolutionary computation techniques can be classified into three more specific classes analogous to ones in evolutionary computation. There are three basic types of innovation: initialization, mutation, and recombination | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Microwork is a series of many small tasks which together comprise a large unified project, and it is completed by many people over the Internet. Microwork is considered the smallest unit of work in a virtual assembly line. It is most often used to describe tasks for which no efficient algorithm has been devised, and require human intelligence to complete reliably | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Milky Way Project is a Zooniverse project whose main goal is to identify stellar-wind bubbles in the Milky Way Galaxy. Users classify sets of infrared images from the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE). Scientists believe bubbles in these images are the result of young, massive stars whose light causes shocks in interstellar gas | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Organismic computing is a form of engineered human computation that employs technology to enable "shared sensing, collective reasoning, and coordinated action" within human groups toward goal-directed behavior. This biomimetic approach to augmenting group efficacy seeks to improve synergy by allowing a group of individuals to function as a single intelligent superorganism.
Rationale
For many tasks, increasing the size of a group leads to diminishing returns | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Participatory sensing is the concept of communities (or other groups of people) contributing sensory information to form a body of knowledge.
Description
A growth in mobile devices, for example smartphones, tablet computers or activity trackers, which have multiple sensors, has made participatory sensing viable in the large-scale. Participatory sensing can be used to retrieve information about the environment, weather, noise pollution, urban mobility, congestion as well as any other sensory information that collectively forms knowledge | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Planet Hunters is a citizen science project to find exoplanets using human eyes. It does this by having users analyze data from the NASA Kepler space telescope and the NASA Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite. It was launched by a team led by Debra Fischer at Yale University, as part of the Zooniverse project | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SETILive was an online project of Zooniverse that utilized live participants to analyze radio telescope data in real time to recognize patterns to find extraterrestrial intelligences (ETI's). The project ceased live operations on 12 October 2014, but still allows archival analysis.
Project
The project was launched in February 2012 as part of Jill Tarter's 2009 TED Prize Wish | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Smithsonian Transcription Center is a crowdsourcing transcription project that aims to assist with the preservation and digitization of handwritten material in the Smithsonian Institution. The Transcription Center cites five reasons why transcription matters: discovery, humanities research, scientific research, education, and readability. Collections available for transcription include such documents as scientist field notebooks, artist diaries, astronomy logbooks, botany and bumblebee specimens and certified currency proofs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Social problem-solving, in its most basic form, is defined as problem solving as it occurs in the natural environment. More specifically it refers to the cognitive-behavioral process in which one works to find adaptive ways of coping with everyday situations that are considered problematic. This process in self-directed, conscious, effortful, cogent, and focused | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Stardust@home is a citizen science project that encourages volunteers to search images for tiny interstellar dust impacts. The project began providing data for analysis on August 1, 2006.
From February to May 2000 and from August to December 2002, the Stardust spacecraft exposed its "Stardust Interstellar Dust Collector" (SIDC), a set of aerogel blocks about 0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Toloka is a crowdsourcing platform and microtasking project launched by Yandex in 2014 to quickly markup large amounts of data, which are then used for machine learning and improving search algorithms. The proposed tasks are usually simple and do not require any special training from the performer. Most of the tasks are designed to improve algorithms that are used by modern technologies spanning self-driving vehicles, smart web searches, advanced voice assistants and e-commerce | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Zooniverse is a citizen science web portal owned and operated by the Citizen Science Alliance. It is home to some of the Internet's largest, most popular and most successful citizen science projects. The organization grew from the original Galaxy Zoo project and now hosts dozens of projects which allow volunteers to participate in crowdsourced scientific research | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
ACM Computing Surveys is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Association for Computing Machinery. It publishes survey articles and tutorials related to computer science and computing. The journal was established in 1969 with William S | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
ACM Transactions on Information Systems (ACM TOIS) is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on computer systems and their underlying technology. It was established in 1983 and is published by the Association for Computing Machinery. The editor-in-chief is Min Zhang (Tsinghua University) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Business & Information Systems Engineering (BISE) is an international scholarly and double-blind reviewed journal which publishes scientific research on the effective and efficient design and utilization of information systems by individuals, groups, enterprises, and society for the improvement of social welfare. Information systems are understood as socio-technical systems comprising tasks, people, and information technology. Research published in the journal examines relevant problems in the analysis, design, implementation and management of information systems and covers areas of information management, computer science, business administration and economics, new media, and operations research | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Communications of the ACM is the monthly journal of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). It was established in 1958, with Saul Rosen as its first managing editor. It is sent to all ACM members | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Electronic Markets - The International Journal on Networked Business is a quarterly double-blind peer-reviewed academic journal that covers research on the implications of information systems on e-commerce. It was established in 1991 and is published by Springer Science+Business Media. Since 2010, Electronic Markets is included in the Social Sciences Citation Index | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The European Journal of Information Systems is an interdisciplinary scientific journal, which offers a distinctive European perspective on the theory and practice of information systems.
The journal was established in 1991 and is an official journal of The Operational Research Society. The journal covers a diverse range of topics including technology, development, implementation, strategy, management, and policy related to the theory and practice of information systems | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Information Systems Journal is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers all aspects of information systems, with particular emphasis on the relationship between information systems and people, business, and organisations. The journal was established in 1991 as Journal of Information Systems with David Avison and Guy Fitzgerald as founding editors-in-chief. It obtained its current name in 1994 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
IT Professional is a bi-monthly peer-reviewed magazine published by the IEEE Computer Society for the developers and managers of enterprise information systems. Coverage areas include emerging technologies, Web services, Internet security, data management, enterprise architectures and infrastructures, software development, systems integration, and wireless networks. The magazine was established in January 1999 and celebrated twenty years in 2019 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS) is a top-tier peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes impactful research articles making a significant novel contribution in the areas of information systems and information technology. It was established in 1984. The present editor-in-chief of JMIS is Vladimir Zwass | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Journal of Strategic Information Systems is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering management, business, and organizational issues associated with the use of information systems. It was established in December 1991 and is published by Elsevier. The Co-Editors-in-Chief are Guy Gable (Queensland University of Technology; since 2019) and Yolande E | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Journal of the Association for Information Systems (JAIS) is a top-tier peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research in the areas of information systems and technology. It is an official journal of the Association for Information Systems and published electronically. The journal was established in 2000 and is abstracted and indexed in Science Citation Index Expanded, Social Sciences Citation Index, and Current Contents/Social & Behavioral Sciences | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Management Information Systems Quarterly, referred to as MIS Quarterly, is an online-only quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal that covers research in management information systems and information technology. It was established in 1977 and is considered a major periodical in the information systems industry. An official journal of the Association for Information Systems, it is published by the Management Information Systems Research Center at the University of Minnesota | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
MIS Quarterly Executive is a quarterly journal covering the management of information systems. The journal was founded in 2002. Its purpose is to encourage practice-based research in the IS field and to disseminate the results of that research into a much more relevant manner to practitioners | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Information management (IM) is the appropriate and optimized capture, storage, retrieval, and use of information. It may be personal information management or organizational. IM for organizations concerns a cycle of organizational activity: the acquisition of information from one or more sources, the custodianship and the distribution of that information to those who need it, and its ultimate disposal through archiving or deletion | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Business intelligence (BI) comprises the strategies and technologies used by enterprises for the data analysis and management of business information. Common functions of business intelligence technologies include reporting, online analytical processing, analytics, dashboard development, data mining, process mining, complex event processing, business performance management, benchmarking, text mining, predictive analytics, and prescriptive analytics.
BI tools can handle large amounts of structured and sometimes unstructured data to help identify, develop, and otherwise create new strategic business opportunities | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A non-biological entity with a cellular organizational structure (also known as a cellular organization, cellular system, nodal organization, nodal structure, et cetera) is set up in such a way that it mimics how natural systems within biology work, with individual 'cells' or 'nodes' working somewhat independently to establish goals and tasks, administer those things, and troubleshoot difficulties. " These cells exist in a broader network in which they frequently communicate with each other, exchanging information, in a more or less even organizational playing field. Numerous examples have existed both in economic terms as well as for groups working towards other pursuits | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Content storage management (CSM) is a technique for the evolution of traditional media archive technology used by media companies and content owners to store and protect valuable file-based media assets. CSM solutions focus on active management of content and media assets regardless of format, type and source, interfaces between proprietary content source/destination devices and any format and type of commodity IT centric storage technology. These digital media files (or assets) most often contain video but in rarer cases may be still pictures or sound | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Data center security is the set of policies, precautions and practices adopted at a data center to avoid unauthorized access and manipulation of its resources. The data center houses the enterprise applications and data, hence why providing a proper security system is critical. Denial of service (DoS), theft of confidential information, data alteration, and data loss are some of the common security problems afflicting data center environments | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Digital researcher is a person who uses digital technology such as computers or smartphones and the Internet to do research (see also Internet research). Digital research differs from Internet research in that digital researchers use the Internet as a research tool rather than the Internet itself as the subject of study. A digital researcher seeks knowledge as part of a systematic investigation with the specific intent of publishing research findings in an online open access journal or by other social media information exchange formats | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Electronic document and records management system (EDRMS) is a type of content management system and refers to the combined technologies of document management and records management systems as an integrated system.
Use
Typically, systems consider a document or file to be a work-in-progress until it has undergone review, approval, lock-down, and (potentially) publication, where it will wait to be used. The version of the form that is saved containing user content will become a formal record within the organization | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a unit primarily composed of clay, but is now also used informally to denote units made of other materials or other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can be joined using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An Eco-Block is an environmental-friendly brick made from recycled materials and construction waste. The brick was invented by the Hong Kong Polytechnic University in 2006. Its major feature is to catalyze the nitrogen oxide and other pollutants in air into non-hazardous substances | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A brickfield is a field or other open site where bricks are made. Land may be leased by an owner to a brickmaster, by whom the manufacture of bricks may be conducted.
Historically, the topsoil was typically removed and the clay beneath was stripped and mixed with chalk and ash to make bricks | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Bricks without straw is a phrase that refers to a task which must be undertaken without appropriate resources.
Biblical narrative
In Exodus 5 (Parshat Shemot in the Torah), Moses and Aaron meet with the pharaoh and deliver God's message, "Let my people go". The pharaoh not only refuses, but punishes the Israelites by telling his overseers, "Ye shall no more give the people straw to make brick, as heretofore: let them go and gather straw for themselves", but still requiring the same daily output of bricks as before | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Brickwork is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar. Typically, rows of bricks called courses are laid on top of one another to build up a structure such as a brick wall.
Bricks may be differentiated from blocks by size | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A brickyard or brickfield is a place or yard where bricks are made, fired, and stored, or sometimes sold or otherwise distributed from. Brick makers work in a brick yard. A brick yard may be constructed near natural sources of clay or on or near a construction site if necessity or design requires the bricks to be made locally | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Ceramic building material, often abbreviated to CBM, is an umbrella term used in archaeology to cover all building materials made from baked clay. It is particularly, but not exclusively, used in relation to Roman building materials.
It is a useful and necessary term because, especially when initially found in archaeological excavation, it may be difficult to distinguish, for example, fragments of bricks from fragments of roofing or flooring tiles | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Chicago common brick are brick that were made in the Chicago, IL area during the 20th century. They have a unique color range due to the raw materials and the way that they were manufactured. The clays used to make these brick are unusually high in carbonates such as limestone giving brick their lighter color | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Clay chemistry is an applied subdiscipline of chemistry which studies the chemical structures, properties and reactions of or involving clays and clay minerals. It is a multidisciplinary field, involving concepts and knowledge from inorganic and structural chemistry, physical chemistry, materials chemistry, analytical chemistry, organic chemistry, mineralogy, geology and others.
The study of the chemistry (and physics) of clays and clay minerals is of great academic and industrial relevance as they are among the most widely used industrial minerals, being employed as raw materials (ceramics, pottery, etc | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A clay pit is a quarry or mine for the extraction of clay, which is generally used for manufacturing pottery, bricks or Portland cement. Quarries where clay is mined to make bricks are sometimes called brick pits. A brickyard or brickworks is often located alongside a clay pit to reduce the transport costs of the raw material | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Clinker bricks are partially-vitrified bricks used in the construction of buildings.
Clinker bricks are produced when wet clay bricks are exposed to excessive heat during the firing process, sintering the surface of the brick and forming a shiny, dark-colored coating. Clinker bricks have a blackened appearance, and they are often misshapen or split | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cream City brick is a cream or light yellow-colored brick made from a clay found around Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the Menomonee River Valley and on the western banks of Lake Michigan. These bricks were one of the most common building materials used in Milwaukee during the mid and late 19th century, giving the city the nickname "Cream City" and the bricks the name "Cream City bricks".
Characteristics
Cream City bricks are made from a red clay containing elevated amounts of lime and sulfur; this clay is common in regions of Wisconsin, especially near Milwaukee | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Engineering bricks are a type of brick used where strength, low water porosity or acid (flue gas) resistance are needed. Engineering bricks can be used for damp-proof courses. Clay engineering bricks are defined in § 6 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A fire brick, firebrick, fireclay brick, or refractory brick is a block of ceramic material used in lining furnaces, kilns, fireboxes, and fireplaces. A refractory brick is built primarily to withstand high temperature, but will also usually have a low thermal conductivity for greater energy efficiency. Usually dense fire bricks are used in applications with extreme mechanical, chemical, or thermal stresses, such as the inside of a wood-fired kiln or a furnace, which is subject to abrasion from wood, fluxing from ash or slag, and high temperatures | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Fly ash brick (FAB) is a building material, specifically masonry units, containing class C or class F fly ash and water. Compressed at 28 MPa (272 atm) and cured for 24 hours in a 66 °C steam bath, then toughened with an air entrainment agent, the bricks can last for more than 100 freeze-thaw cycles. Owing to the high concentration of calcium oxide in class C fly ash, the brick is described as "self-cementing" | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Air brick: A brick with perforations to allow the passage of air through a wall. Usually used to permit the ventilation of underfloor areas.
Bat: A cut brick | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Harvard brick is a technique for building brick facades in imitation of much older ones. It was originated by architect Charles McKim in conjunction with the construction (1889) of the Johnston Gate, the "oldest and grandest" of the gates surrounding Harvard Yard in Cambridge, Massachusetts. "McKim made the gate harmonious with the Yard's older buildings | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Oil of brick, called by apothecaries Oleum de Lateribus and by alchemists Oil of Philosophers, was an empyreumatic oil obtained by subjecting a brick soaked in oil, such as olive oil, to distillation at a high temperature.
Manufacture
The process initially started with pieces of brick, which were heated red hot in live coals, and extinguished in an earth half-saturated with olive oil. Being then separated and pounded grossly, the brick absorbs the oil | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Opus reticulatum (also known as reticulate work) is a facing used for concrete walls in Roman architecture from about the first century BCE to the early first century CE. : 136–9  They were built using small pyramid shaped tuff, a volcanic stone embedded into a concrete core. : 75–6  Reticulate work was also combined with a multitude of other building materials to provide polychrome colouring and other facings to form new techniques | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Opus spicatum, literally "spiked work," is a type of masonry construction used in Roman and medieval times. It consists of bricks, tiles or cut stone laid in a herringbone pattern.
Uses
Its usage was generally decorative and most commonly it served as a pavement, though it was also used as an infill pattern in walls, as in the striking base of the causeway leading up to the gate tower at Tamworth Castle | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Roman brick is a type of brick used in Ancient Roman architecture and spread by the Romans to the lands they conquered, or a modern adaptation derived from the ancient prototypes. In both cases, it characteristically has longer and flatter dimensions than those of standard modern bricks.
Ancient
The Romans only developed fired clay bricks under the Empire, but had previously used mudbrick, dried only by the sun and therefore much weaker and only suitable for smaller buildings | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Staffordshire blue brick is a strong type of construction brick, originally made in Staffordshire, England.
The brick is made from the local red clay, Etruria marl, which when fired at a high temperature in a low-oxygen reducing atmosphere takes on a deep blue colour and attains a very hard surface with high crushing strength and low water absorption.
Brickworks were a key industry across the whole Black Country throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, and were considered so important that they were designated as a reserved occupation during World War Two | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Dimension stone is natural stone or rock that has been selected and finished (e. g. , trimmed, cut, drilled or ground) to specific sizes or shapes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Stone veneer is a thin layer of any stone used as decorative facing material that is not meant to be load bearing. Stone cladding is a stone veneer, or simulated stone, applied to a building or other structure made of a material other than stone. Stone cladding is sometimes applied to concrete and steel buildings as part of their original architectural design | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Ancaster stone is Middle Jurassic oolitic limestone, quarried around Ancaster, Lincolnshire, England. There are three forms of this limestone: weatherbed, hard white and freestone. Ancaster stone is a generic term for these forms of limestone found only at Ancaster, Glebe quarry (UK Grid reference: SK992409) being the only active quarry where Ancaster Hard White and Ancaster Weatherbed are quarried | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Aquia Creek sandstone is a brown to light-gray freestone used extensively in building construction in Washington, D. C. in the late 18th and early 19th centuries | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Arizona flagstone is composed of rounded grains of quartz which are cemented by silica. Other minerals are present, mostly as thin seams of clay, mica, secondary calcite, and gypsum. Arizona flagstone is mainly quarried from the Coconino and Prescott National Forests | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Artificial stone is a name for various synthetic stone products produced from the 18th century onward. Uses include statuary, architectural details, fencing and rails, building construction, civil engineering work, and industrial applications such as grindstones.
History
One of the earliest examples of artificial stone was Coade stone (originally called Lithodipyra), a ceramic created by Eleanor Coade (1733–1821), and produced from 1769 to 1833 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Ashlar () is finely dressed (cut, worked) stone, either an individual stone that has been worked until squared, or a structure built from such stones. Ashlar is the finest stone masonry unit, generally rectangular cuboid, mentioned by Vitruvius as opus isodomum, or less frequently trapezoidal. Precisely cut "on all faces adjacent to those of other stones", ashlar is capable of very thin joints between blocks, and the visible face of the stone may be quarry-faced or feature a variety of treatments: tooled, smoothly polished or rendered with another material for decorative effect | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In geotechnical engineering and contact mechanics the term asperity is used to refer to individual features of unevenness (roughness) of the surface of a discontinuity, grain, or particle with heights in the range from approximately 0. 1 mm to the order of metres. Below the asperity level, surface interactions are normally considered to be a material property, arising from mechanisms of adhesion and repulsion at the atomic scale (often accounted for by material friction, atomic friction or molecular friction) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Bargate stone is a highly durable form of sandstone. It owes its yellow, butter or honey colouring to a high iron content. In some contexts it may be considered to be a form of ironstone | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Barnack is a village and civil parish in the Peterborough unitary authority of the ceremonial county of Cambridgeshire, England and the historic county of Northamptonshire. Barnack is in the north-west of the unitary authority, 3. 5 miles (5 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Bath Stone is an oolitic limestone comprising granular fragments of calcium carbonate. Originally obtained from the Combe Down and Bathampton Down Mines under Combe Down, Somerset, England. Its honey colouring gives the World Heritage City of Bath, England its distinctive appearance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Bayfield group is a quartz sandstone found in Wisconsin along the Lake Superior coast. It is named for the village of Bayfield, Wisconsin, but was once known as Western Lake Superior Sandstone. Prior to the 1900s, Bayfield group sandstone was also variously named Lake Superior Sandstone, brownstone, or redstone, and prefixed by the quarry location | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Clunch is a traditional building material of chalky limestone rock used mainly in eastern England and Normandy. Clunch distinguishes itself from archetypal forms of limestone by being softer in character when cut, such as resembling chalk in lower density, or with minor clay-like components.
Use
It has been used in a wide variety of shapes such as irregular lumps picked from the topsoil of certain fields, or more commonly blocks quarried by being cut from the bedrock in regular-shaped (ashlar) building blocks | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cobblestone is a natural building material based on cobble-sized stones, and is used for pavement roads, streets, and buildings.
Setts, also called Belgian blocks, are often inaccurately referred to as "cobbles", although a sett is distinct from a cobblestone by being quarried and shaped into a regular form, while cobblestones are naturally occurring forms less uniform in size.
Use in roading
Cobblestones are typically either set in sand or similar material, or are bound together with mortar | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Crushed stone or angular rock is a form of construction aggregate, typically produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and breaking the removed rock down to the desired size using crushers. It is distinct from naturally occurring gravel, which is produced by natural processes of weathering and erosion and typically has a more rounded shape.
Use
Angular crushed stone is the key material for macadam road construction, which depends on the interlocking of the individual stones' angular faces for its strength | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cyclopean masonry is a type of stonework found in Mycenaean architecture, built with massive limestone boulders, roughly fitted together with minimal clearance between adjacent stones and with clay mortar or no use of mortar. The boulders typically seem unworked, but some may have been worked roughly with a hammer and the gaps between boulders filled in with smaller chunks of limestone.
The most famous examples of Cyclopean masonry are found in the walls of Mycenae and Tiryns, and the style is characteristic of Mycenaean fortifications | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Decomposed granite is a kind of granite rock that is weathered to the point that the parent material readily fractures into smaller pieces of weaker rock. Further weathering yields material that easily crumbles into mixtures of gravel-sized particles known as grus that further may break down to produce a mixture of clay and silica sand or silt particles. Different specific granite types have differing propensities to weather, and so differing likelihoods of producing decomposed granite | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Dent Marble is a highly polished form of limestone which occurs in the Dentdale district of Cumbria in England. The stone is noted for the presence of fossils which gives it its distinctive look. The stone is actually a crinoidal limestone and is not a true marble, but is known as a marble because it polished quite well | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Dry stone, sometimes called drystack or, in Scotland, drystane, is a building method by which structures are constructed from stones without any mortar to bind them together. A certain amount of binding is obtained through the use of carefully selected interlocking stones.
Dry stone construction is best known in the context of stone walls, traditionally used for the boundaries of fields and churchyards, or as retaining walls for terracing, but dry stone shelters, houses and other structures also exist | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Fencepost limestone, Post Rock limestone, or Stone Post is a stone bed in the Great Plains notable for its historic use as fencing and construction material in north-central Kansas resulting in unique cultural expression. The source of this stone is the topmost layer of the Greenhorn Limestone formation. It is a regional marker bed as well as a valued construction material of the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Kansas | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Fieldstone is a naturally occurring type of stone, which lies at or near the surface of the Earth. Fieldstone is a nuisance for farmers seeking to expand their land under cultivation, but at some point it began to be used as a construction material. Strictly speaking, it is stone collected from the surface of fields where it occurs naturally | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
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