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[
"Sentinel-2B",
"significant event",
"rocket launch"
] |
Sentinel-2B is a European optical imaging satellite that was launched on 7 March 2017. It is the second Sentinel-2 satellite launched as part of the European Space Agency's Copernicus Programme, and its orbit will be phased 180° against Sentinel-2A. The satellite carries a wide swath high-resolution multispectral imager with 13 spectral bands. It will provide information for agriculture and forestry, among others allowing for prediction of crop yields.
| 5
|
[
"DearMoon project",
"significant event",
"rocket launch"
] |
The dearMoon project is a lunar tourism mission and art project conceived and financed by Japanese billionaire Yusaku Maezawa. It will make use of a SpaceX Starship spacecraft on a private spaceflight flying a single circumlunar trajectory around the Moon. The passengers will be Maezawa and eight other civilians, and there may be one or two crew members. The project was unveiled in September 2018 and is scheduled to launch in 2024. The project objective is to have eight passengers travel with Maezawa for free around the Moon on a six-day tour. Maezawa expects that the experience of space tourism will inspire the accompanying passengers in the creation of something new. The art would be exhibited some time after returning to Earth to help promote peace around the world.
Maezawa had previously contracted in 2017 with SpaceX for a lunar flyby in a much smaller Dragon 2 spacecraft launched by a Falcon Heavy launch vehicle, which would have carried only two passengers. According to a SpaceX announcement in early 2018, the Falcon Heavy plan was shelved in light of the development of Starship.History
On February 27, 2017, SpaceX announced that they were planning to fly two space tourists on a free-return trajectory around the Moon, now known to be billionaire Yusaku Maezawa, and one friend. This mission, which would have launched in late 2018, was planned to use the Crew Dragon 2 capsule already developed under contract for NASA's Commercial Crew Program and launched via a Falcon Heavy rocket. As well as being a source of income for the company, any mission would serve as technology development for SpaceX's further plans to colonize Mars.At the time of the 2017 announcement, the Crew Dragon 2 capsule was still under development and the Falcon Heavy had yet to fly. Industry analysts noted that the schedule proposed by SpaceX might be too ambitious, as the capsule was expected to need modifications to handle differences in flight profile between the proposed lunar flight and its main use for crew transfer to space stations orbiting Earth.In February 2018, SpaceX announced it no longer had plans to certify the Falcon Heavy for human spaceflight and that lunar missions would be flown on Starship (then called BFR). Then, on September 14, 2018, SpaceX announced that the previously contracted passenger would be launched aboard Starship to flyby the Moon in 2023. Starship will have a pressurized volume of 1,000 m3 (35,000 cu ft), large common areas, central storage, a galley, and a solar storm shelter.
| 9
|
[
"The E.N.D. World Tour",
"start point",
"Japan"
] |
The E.N.D. World Tour was the third concert tour by American hip hop group Black Eyed Peas, in support of their fifth studio album The E.N.D. (2009). The tour began in Japan on September 15, 2009, with shows also performed in Australia and New Zealand in 2009. The group toured in North America starting in February 2010, with dates also planned for Europe starting in Dublin, Ireland in May. The group performed 2 shows in Paradise, Nevada at the end of 2009 as a warm up to their extensive North American tour. The tour was also expected to reach South America and more parts of Asia during 2010. It is the group's biggest tour production-wise to date, with the group's female vocalist Fergie stating that they are "trying to up [their] game" and the shows will "utilize a lot of the technology that's out there". The E.N.D. World Tour was backed by presenting sponsor BlackBerry, and Bacardi as the official spirit of the tour.
| 0
|
[
"Blackpink Arena Tour 2018",
"start point",
"Japan"
] |
Blackpink Arena Tour 2018 was the first concert tour by South Korean girl group Blackpink. The tour was held in Japan, from July 24 to December 24, 2018, to promote their first Japanese extended play Blackpink.Background
Six shows were initially scheduled. An extra show was later in Chiba added due to overwhelming demand. On July 7, the final stop of the tour was added for December 24 at Kyocera Dome Osaka. They embarked on their first concert tour of Japan titled "Black Pink Arena Tour 2018" in Osaka on July 24 and July 25.
| 0
|
[
"Blackpink Arena Tour 2018",
"instance of",
"concert tour"
] |
Blackpink Arena Tour 2018 was the first concert tour by South Korean girl group Blackpink. The tour was held in Japan, from July 24 to December 24, 2018, to promote their first Japanese extended play Blackpink.Background
Six shows were initially scheduled. An extra show was later in Chiba added due to overwhelming demand. On July 7, the final stop of the tour was added for December 24 at Kyocera Dome Osaka. They embarked on their first concert tour of Japan titled "Black Pink Arena Tour 2018" in Osaka on July 24 and July 25.
| 3
|
[
"Blackpink Arena Tour 2018",
"based on",
"Blackpink"
] |
Blackpink Arena Tour 2018 was the first concert tour by South Korean girl group Blackpink. The tour was held in Japan, from July 24 to December 24, 2018, to promote their first Japanese extended play Blackpink.
| 5
|
[
"Puritan migration to New England (1620–1640)",
"start point",
"England"
] |
The Puritan migration to New England was marked in its effects from 1620 to 1640, declining sharply afterwards. The term Great Migration usually refers to the migration in the period of English Puritans to the New England colonies, starting with Plymouth Colony and Massachusetts Bay Colony. They came in family groups rather than as isolated individuals and were mainly motivated for freedom to practice their beliefs.Context
King James VI and Charles I made some efforts to reconcile the Puritan clergy who had been alienated by the lack of change in the Church of England. Puritans embraced Calvinism (Reformed theology) with its opposition to ritual and an emphasis on preaching, a growing sabbatarianism, and preference for a presbyterian system of church polity, as opposed to the episcopal polity of the Church of England, which had also preserved medieval canon law almost intact. They opposed church practices that resembled Roman Catholic ritual.
This religious conflict worsened after Charles I became king in 1625, and Parliament increasingly opposed his authority. In 1629, Charles dissolved Parliament with no intention of summoning a new one in an ill-fated attempt to neutralize his enemies there, which included numerous Puritans. With the religious and political climate so unpromising, many Puritans decided to leave the country. Some of the migrants were also English expatriate communities of Nonconformists and Separatists from the Dutch Republic who had fled to the European mainland since the 1590s.
The Winthrop Fleet of 1630 included 11 ships led by the flagship Arbella, and it delivered some 700 passengers to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Migration continued until Parliament was reconvened in 1640, when the scale dropped off sharply. The English Civil War began in 1641, and some colonists returned from New England to England to fight on the Puritan side. Many then remained in England since Oliver Cromwell backed Parliament as an Independent.The Great Migration saw 80,000 people leave England, roughly 20,000 migrating to each of four destinations: Ireland, New England, the West Indies, and the Netherlands. The immigrants to New England came from every English county except Westmorland; nearly half were from East Anglia. The colonists to New England were mostly families with some education who were leading relatively prosperous lives in England. One modern writer, however, estimates that 7 to 10 percent of the colonists returned to England after 1640, including about a third of the clergymen.
| 0
|
[
"Puritan migration to New England (1620–1640)",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
The Puritan migration to New England was marked in its effects from 1620 to 1640, declining sharply afterwards. The term Great Migration usually refers to the migration in the period of English Puritans to the New England colonies, starting with Plymouth Colony and Massachusetts Bay Colony. They came in family groups rather than as isolated individuals and were mainly motivated for freedom to practice their beliefs.Context
King James VI and Charles I made some efforts to reconcile the Puritan clergy who had been alienated by the lack of change in the Church of England. Puritans embraced Calvinism (Reformed theology) with its opposition to ritual and an emphasis on preaching, a growing sabbatarianism, and preference for a presbyterian system of church polity, as opposed to the episcopal polity of the Church of England, which had also preserved medieval canon law almost intact. They opposed church practices that resembled Roman Catholic ritual.
This religious conflict worsened after Charles I became king in 1625, and Parliament increasingly opposed his authority. In 1629, Charles dissolved Parliament with no intention of summoning a new one in an ill-fated attempt to neutralize his enemies there, which included numerous Puritans. With the religious and political climate so unpromising, many Puritans decided to leave the country. Some of the migrants were also English expatriate communities of Nonconformists and Separatists from the Dutch Republic who had fled to the European mainland since the 1590s.
The Winthrop Fleet of 1630 included 11 ships led by the flagship Arbella, and it delivered some 700 passengers to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Migration continued until Parliament was reconvened in 1640, when the scale dropped off sharply. The English Civil War began in 1641, and some colonists returned from New England to England to fight on the Puritan side. Many then remained in England since Oliver Cromwell backed Parliament as an Independent.The Great Migration saw 80,000 people leave England, roughly 20,000 migrating to each of four destinations: Ireland, New England, the West Indies, and the Netherlands. The immigrants to New England came from every English county except Westmorland; nearly half were from East Anglia. The colonists to New England were mostly families with some education who were leading relatively prosperous lives in England. One modern writer, however, estimates that 7 to 10 percent of the colonists returned to England after 1640, including about a third of the clergymen.
| 2
|
[
"Y Wladfa",
"start point",
"Wales"
] |
Y Wladfa (Welsh pronunciation: [ə ˈwladva], "The Colony"), also occasionally Y Wladychfa Gymreig (Welsh pronunciation: [ə wlaˈdəχva ɡəmˈreiɡ], "The Welsh Settlement"), refers to the establishment of settlements by Welsh immigrants in Patagonia, beginning in 1865, mainly along the coast of the lower Chubut Valley. In 1881, the area became part of the Chubut National Territory of Argentina which, in 1955, became Chubut Province.In the 19th and early 20th century the Argentine government encouraged emigration from Europe to populate Patagonia which, until the Conquest of the Desert began in the 1870s, was terra nullius, claimed but not controlled by Argentina until 1884.
Between 1856 and 1875, 34 settlements of immigrants of various nationalities were established in Santa Fe and Entre Ríos. In addition to the main colony in Chubut, a smaller colony was set up in Santa Fe by 44 Welsh people who left Chubut, and another group settled at Coronel Suárez in southern Buenos Aires Province.The Welsh-Argentine community is centred on Gaiman, Trelew, and Trevelin. There are 70,000 Welsh-Patagonians. However,
Chubut estimates the number of Patagonian Welsh speakers to be about 1,500, while other estimates put the number at 5,000.
| 0
|
[
"Y Wladfa",
"location",
"Patagonia"
] |
Y Wladfa (Welsh pronunciation: [ə ˈwladva], "The Colony"), also occasionally Y Wladychfa Gymreig (Welsh pronunciation: [ə wlaˈdəχva ɡəmˈreiɡ], "The Welsh Settlement"), refers to the establishment of settlements by Welsh immigrants in Patagonia, beginning in 1865, mainly along the coast of the lower Chubut Valley. In 1881, the area became part of the Chubut National Territory of Argentina which, in 1955, became Chubut Province.In the 19th and early 20th century the Argentine government encouraged emigration from Europe to populate Patagonia which, until the Conquest of the Desert began in the 1870s, was terra nullius, claimed but not controlled by Argentina until 1884.
Between 1856 and 1875, 34 settlements of immigrants of various nationalities were established in Santa Fe and Entre Ríos. In addition to the main colony in Chubut, a smaller colony was set up in Santa Fe by 44 Welsh people who left Chubut, and another group settled at Coronel Suárez in southern Buenos Aires Province.The Welsh-Argentine community is centred on Gaiman, Trelew, and Trevelin. There are 70,000 Welsh-Patagonians. However,
Chubut estimates the number of Patagonian Welsh speakers to be about 1,500, while other estimates put the number at 5,000.Towards the end of 1862, Captain Love Jones-Parry and Lewis Jones (after whom Trelew was named) left for Patagonia to decide whether it was a suitable area for Welsh emigrants. They first visited Buenos Aires where they held discussions with the Interior Minister Guillermo Rawson then, having come to an agreement, headed south. They reached Patagonia in a small ship named the Candelaria, and were driven by a storm into a bay which they named Porth Madryn, after Jones-Parry's estate in Wales. The town that grew near the spot where they landed is now named Puerto Madryn. On their return to Wales they declared the area to be very suitable for colonization.During the British Government's repatriation of the 11,313 Argentine POWs taken during the 1982 Falklands War, Welsh-speaking British merchant seamen and British soldiers from the Welsh Guards were shocked to find themselves addressed in Patagonian Welsh by an Argentine POW who was on the way home to Puerto Madryn. Over the years since, close ties between Wales and Y Wladfa have been reestablished.
A 2001 BBC article described in detail the recent visit to Chubut Province by Archdruid Meirion Evans and 30 members of the Gorsedd Cymru in order to revive the Gorsedd Y Wladfa in a ceremony held in a specially constructed stone circle near Gaiman.
Every year, the Eisteddfod festival takes place in the town of Trevelin. BBC reporters attended the 2001 Eisteddfod del Chubut at Trelew and watched as the Bardic Chair was awarded for the first time in Y Wladfa to a female poet: Gaiman hotel owner Monica Jones de Jones, for an Awdl on the subject of Rhyddid ("Freedom"). The article's author continued, "The Patagonia Eisteddfod itself, while sharing those elements common to Eisteddfodau in Wales itself, nonetheless is, in other respects, quite a different affair. As well as haunting Welsh folk tunes, and recitations in the unique Spanish-accented Welsh of the Patagonians, there are also rousing displays of Argentinian folk dancing which owe everything to the culture of the gauchos and nothing to the somewhat tamer dance routines of the Welsh homeland."Current Eisteddfod competitions are bilingual, in both Patagonian Welsh and Argentine Spanish, and include poetry, prose, literary translations (Welsh, Spanish, English, Italian, and French), musical performances, arts, folk dances, photography, and filmmaking among others. The Eisteddfod del Juventud is held every September at Gaiman. The main Eisteddfod del Chubut is held every October at Trelew. Other annual eisteddfodau are held at Trevelin, in the Andes and at Puerto Madryn along the South Atlantic coast.In 2006, the first of a two-Test tour to Argentina by the Wales national rugby union team was played in Puerto Madryn, which was a 27–25 win for Argentina.
As of 2019, 1,411 people undertook Welsh courses in the region, which is the highest number on record for the project. There are three bilingual Welsh/Spanish primary schools in the province of Chubut, namely Ysgol yr Hendre in Trelew, Ysgol Gymraeg y Gaiman in Gaiman, and Ysgol Y Cwm in Trevelin.In 2014, Professor Wyn James of Cardiff University estimated there were about 5,000 people in Patagonia who speak Welsh.On 28 July 2015, celebrations took place to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the Welsh migrations. The First Minister of Wales,
Carwyn Jones, attended the celebration.In October 2018, the BBC National Orchestra of Wales undertook an historic visit to Y Wladfa to give two concerts in a newly refurbished concert hall, that had previously been a wool factory on the outskirts of Trelew. These performances attracted thousands of local visitors and helped celebrate the 150th anniversary of the Welsh migration. Welsh harpist Catrin Finch and conductor Grant Llewelyn were part of the concerts.
| 2
|
[
"Y Wladfa",
"instance of",
"human settlement"
] |
Y Wladfa (Welsh pronunciation: [ə ˈwladva], "The Colony"), also occasionally Y Wladychfa Gymreig (Welsh pronunciation: [ə wlaˈdəχva ɡəmˈreiɡ], "The Welsh Settlement"), refers to the establishment of settlements by Welsh immigrants in Patagonia, beginning in 1865, mainly along the coast of the lower Chubut Valley. In 1881, the area became part of the Chubut National Territory of Argentina which, in 1955, became Chubut Province.In the 19th and early 20th century the Argentine government encouraged emigration from Europe to populate Patagonia which, until the Conquest of the Desert began in the 1870s, was terra nullius, claimed but not controlled by Argentina until 1884.
Between 1856 and 1875, 34 settlements of immigrants of various nationalities were established in Santa Fe and Entre Ríos. In addition to the main colony in Chubut, a smaller colony was set up in Santa Fe by 44 Welsh people who left Chubut, and another group settled at Coronel Suárez in southern Buenos Aires Province.The Welsh-Argentine community is centred on Gaiman, Trelew, and Trevelin. There are 70,000 Welsh-Patagonians. However,
Chubut estimates the number of Patagonian Welsh speakers to be about 1,500, while other estimates put the number at 5,000.On 28 July 1865, 153 Welsh settlers arrived aboard tea clipper Mimosa. The Mimosa settlers, including tailors, cobblers, carpenters, brickmakers, and miners, comprised 56 married adults, 33 single or widowed men, 12 single women (usually sisters or servants of married immigrants), and 52 children; the majority (92) were from the South Wales Coalfield and English urban centres.: 35 There were few farmers. This was rather unfortunate, particularly when they discovered that the attractions of the area had been oversold and they had landed in an arid semi-desert with little food; they had been told that the area was like lowland Wales. At the coast there was little drinking water, and the group embarked on a walk across the parched plain with a single wheelbarrow to carry their belongings. Some died and a baby, Mary Humphries, was born on the march. John Williams was the only colonist with any form of rudimentary medical skill. So disheartened were some settlers, they requested that the British Government settle them on the Falkland Islands. However, this request was ignored.
Once they reached the valley of the Chubut River, their first settlement was a small fortress on the site which later became the town of Rawson, now the capital of Chubut Province.: 45 This was referred to as Yr Hen Amddiffynfa ('The Old Fortress').: 44 The first houses, constructed from earth, were washed away by a flash flood in 1865, and new houses of superior quality were built to replace them.: 45–47 The floods also washed away crops of potatoes and maize.: 52 The rainfall in the area was much less than the colonists had been led to expect, leading to crop failures.
| 4
|
[
"Y Wladfa",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Welsh settlement in Patagonia"
] |
Y Wladfa (Welsh pronunciation: [ə ˈwladva], "The Colony"), also occasionally Y Wladychfa Gymreig (Welsh pronunciation: [ə wlaˈdəχva ɡəmˈreiɡ], "The Welsh Settlement"), refers to the establishment of settlements by Welsh immigrants in Patagonia, beginning in 1865, mainly along the coast of the lower Chubut Valley. In 1881, the area became part of the Chubut National Territory of Argentina which, in 1955, became Chubut Province.In the 19th and early 20th century the Argentine government encouraged emigration from Europe to populate Patagonia which, until the Conquest of the Desert began in the 1870s, was terra nullius, claimed but not controlled by Argentina until 1884.
Between 1856 and 1875, 34 settlements of immigrants of various nationalities were established in Santa Fe and Entre Ríos. In addition to the main colony in Chubut, a smaller colony was set up in Santa Fe by 44 Welsh people who left Chubut, and another group settled at Coronel Suárez in southern Buenos Aires Province.The Welsh-Argentine community is centred on Gaiman, Trelew, and Trevelin. There are 70,000 Welsh-Patagonians. However,
Chubut estimates the number of Patagonian Welsh speakers to be about 1,500, while other estimates put the number at 5,000.
| 6
|
[
"Y Wladfa",
"part of",
"immigration to Argentina"
] |
Y Wladfa (Welsh pronunciation: [ə ˈwladva], "The Colony"), also occasionally Y Wladychfa Gymreig (Welsh pronunciation: [ə wlaˈdəχva ɡəmˈreiɡ], "The Welsh Settlement"), refers to the establishment of settlements by Welsh immigrants in Patagonia, beginning in 1865, mainly along the coast of the lower Chubut Valley. In 1881, the area became part of the Chubut National Territory of Argentina which, in 1955, became Chubut Province.In the 19th and early 20th century the Argentine government encouraged emigration from Europe to populate Patagonia which, until the Conquest of the Desert began in the 1870s, was terra nullius, claimed but not controlled by Argentina until 1884.
Between 1856 and 1875, 34 settlements of immigrants of various nationalities were established in Santa Fe and Entre Ríos. In addition to the main colony in Chubut, a smaller colony was set up in Santa Fe by 44 Welsh people who left Chubut, and another group settled at Coronel Suárez in southern Buenos Aires Province.The Welsh-Argentine community is centred on Gaiman, Trelew, and Trevelin. There are 70,000 Welsh-Patagonians. However,
Chubut estimates the number of Patagonian Welsh speakers to be about 1,500, while other estimates put the number at 5,000.Towards the end of 1862, Captain Love Jones-Parry and Lewis Jones (after whom Trelew was named) left for Patagonia to decide whether it was a suitable area for Welsh emigrants. They first visited Buenos Aires where they held discussions with the Interior Minister Guillermo Rawson then, having come to an agreement, headed south. They reached Patagonia in a small ship named the Candelaria, and were driven by a storm into a bay which they named Porth Madryn, after Jones-Parry's estate in Wales. The town that grew near the spot where they landed is now named Puerto Madryn. On their return to Wales they declared the area to be very suitable for colonization.
| 8
|
[
"Spaniards in Mexico",
"subclass of",
"immigration"
] |
Spanish Mexicans are citizens or residents of Mexico who identify as Spanish as a result of nationality or recent ancestry. Spanish immigration to Mexico began in the early 1500s and spans to the present day. The vast majority of Mexicans have at least partial Spanish ancestry; the Northern regions of Mexico have a higher prevalence of Spanish heritage. There are three recognized large-scale Spanish immigration waves to the territory which is now Mexico: the first arrived during the colonial period, the second during the Porfiriato and the third after the Spanish Civil War.
The first Spanish settlement was established in February 1519 by Hernán Cortés in the Yucatan Peninsula, accompanied by about 11 ships, 500 men, 13 horses and a small number of cannons. In March 1519, Cortés formally claimed the land for the Spanish crown and by 1521 secured the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.
| 2
|
[
"Filipino people of Spanish ancestry",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Filipino people of Spanish descent"
] |
Persons classified as 'Blanco' (white) were the Filipino (person born in the Philippines of pure Spanish descent), peninsulares (persons born in Spain of pure Spanish descent), mestizos de español, and tornatras. Manila was racially segregated, with 'blancos' living in the walled city Intramuros, un-Christianized sangleys in Parían, Christianized sangleys and mestizos de sangley in Binondo, and the rest of the 7,000 islands for the indios, with the exception of Cebu and several other Spanish territories.
Indio was a general term applied to native Malay or Malayan, a Malayo-Polynesian speaking people known as the Austronesian inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago, but as a legal classification, it was only applied to Christianized Malayo-Polynesian who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies.
Persons who lived outside of Manila, Cebu, and the major Spanish posts were classified as such: 'Naturales' were Christianized Austronesian/Malay/Malayo-Polynesian of the lowland and coastal towns. The un-Christianized Aetas and Austronesian/Malay/Malayo-Polynesian who lived in the towns were classified as 'salvajes' (savages) or 'infieles' (the unfaithful). 'Remontados' (Spanish for 'situated in the mountains') and 'tulisanes' (bandits) were Austronesian/Malay/Malayo-Polynesian and Aetas who refused to live in towns and took to the hills, all of whom were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in everyday life, as well as determining social class in the colony.Persons of pure Spanish descent, as well as many mestizos and castizos, living in the Philippines who were born in Spanish America were classified as 'Americano'. A few mulattos born in Spanish America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification as such, and sometimes came as indentured servants to the 'americanos'. The Philippine-born children of 'americanos' were classified as 'Filipinos'. The Philippine-born children mulattos from Spanish America were classified based on patrilineal descent.
The Spanish legally classified the Aetas as 'negritos' based on their appearance. The word 'negrito' would be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both Christianized Aetas who lived in the colony and un-Christianized Aetas who lived in tribes outside of the colony were classified as 'negritos'. Christianized Aetas who lived in Manila were not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for Indios.
Persons of mixed Aeta and Austronesian/Malay/Malayo-Polynesian ancestry were classified based on patrilineal descent; the father's ancestry determined a child's legal classification. If the father was 'negrito' (Aeta) and the mother was 'india' (Austronesian/Malayo-Polynesian), the child was classified as 'negrito'. If the father was 'indio' and the mother was 'negrita', the child was classified as 'indio'. Persons of Aeta descent were viewed as being outside of the social order as they usually lived in tribes outside of the colony and resisted conversion to Christianity.
This legal system of racial classification based on patrilineal descent had no parallel anywhere in the Spanish colonies in the Americas. In general, a son born of a sangley male and an indio or mestizo de sangley female was classified as mestizo de sangley; all subsequent male descendants were mestizos de sangley regardless of whether they married an india or a mestiza de sangley.
The social stratification system based on class that continues to this day in the Philippines has its beginnings in the Spanish colonial area with this caste system.
The system was used for tax purposes. Indios paid a base tax, mestizos de sangley paid twice the base tax, sangleys paid four times the base tax, and the blancos or whites ('filipinos' or peninsulares) paid no tax. Negritos who lived within the colony paid the same tax rate as the indios.
The Spanish colonial caste system based on race was abolished after the Philippines' independence from Spain in 1898, and the word 'Filipino' expanded to include the entire population of the Philippines regardless of racial ancestry.
| 1
|
[
"Spanish migration to Honduras",
"start point",
"Spain"
] |
19th century
In the first years of Honduran independence, towards the end of the era of free trade between Latin America and Spain, a large proportion of the Spanish people arriving in Honduras were Catalans. Spaniard immigrants started to arrive to Honduras during the mid 19th century most of them from Catalonia.
Honduras was a country that received immigrants from diverse regions of the world. Spanish settlers typically came to start businesses in rural areas, cultivating crops such as coffee, bananas and sugar, which were exported to Spain and other European countries. Such foreign investment in Honduras was a first step towards developing a more robust economy, through the exploitation of natural resources and the generation of wealth and employment, however conflict arose when indigenous chiefdoms seized farms and ranches.With the acceptance of treaties for the recognition of titles, at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th, through the initiative of president Luís Bográn, the Doctor Antonio Abad Ramírez y Fernández Fontecha (Cádiz, 1855), Honorary Consul of Spain in Tegucigalpa and Rector of the Central University of the Republic of Honduras, President of the Scientific-Literary Academy and President of the Supreme Council of Public Instruction, organised "cultural missions" with the objective of hiring artists and teachers from Spain through orderly immigration.
| 0
|
[
"Spanish migration to Honduras",
"instance of",
"ethnic group"
] |
Honduras has a large Spanish community, distributed throughout the country. According to the National Institute of Statistics of Spain, 2,888 Spanish citizens live in Honduras as of 2017.Spaniards in Honduras or Honduran-Spaniards refers to the number of Spanish immigrants and Hondurans with direct Spanish ancestry living in the Republic of Honduras. This country has an important Spanish community that has spread throughout the national territory, this people are part of the white Honduran population. According to the National Institute of Statistics of Spain, in 2009 1,982 Spanish citizens lived in Honduras and by 2017, more than 2,888. Today there are many people with Spaniard ancestry who benefit from the dual nationality that is legally allowed between both countries.19th century
In the first years of Honduran independence, towards the end of the era of free trade between Latin America and Spain, a large proportion of the Spanish people arriving in Honduras were Catalans. Spaniard immigrants started to arrive to Honduras during the mid 19th century most of them from Catalonia.
Honduras was a country that received immigrants from diverse regions of the world. Spanish settlers typically came to start businesses in rural areas, cultivating crops such as coffee, bananas and sugar, which were exported to Spain and other European countries. Such foreign investment in Honduras was a first step towards developing a more robust economy, through the exploitation of natural resources and the generation of wealth and employment, however conflict arose when indigenous chiefdoms seized farms and ranches.With the acceptance of treaties for the recognition of titles, at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th, through the initiative of president Luís Bográn, the Doctor Antonio Abad Ramírez y Fernández Fontecha (Cádiz, 1855), Honorary Consul of Spain in Tegucigalpa and Rector of the Central University of the Republic of Honduras, President of the Scientific-Literary Academy and President of the Supreme Council of Public Instruction, organised "cultural missions" with the objective of hiring artists and teachers from Spain through orderly immigration.
| 2
|
[
"Spanish migration to Honduras",
"facet of",
"Spanish diaspora"
] |
Honduras has a large Spanish community, distributed throughout the country. According to the National Institute of Statistics of Spain, 2,888 Spanish citizens live in Honduras as of 2017.Spaniards in Honduras or Honduran-Spaniards refers to the number of Spanish immigrants and Hondurans with direct Spanish ancestry living in the Republic of Honduras. This country has an important Spanish community that has spread throughout the national territory, this people are part of the white Honduran population. According to the National Institute of Statistics of Spain, in 2009 1,982 Spanish citizens lived in Honduras and by 2017, more than 2,888. Today there are many people with Spaniard ancestry who benefit from the dual nationality that is legally allowed between both countries.19th century
In the first years of Honduran independence, towards the end of the era of free trade between Latin America and Spain, a large proportion of the Spanish people arriving in Honduras were Catalans. Spaniard immigrants started to arrive to Honduras during the mid 19th century most of them from Catalonia.
Honduras was a country that received immigrants from diverse regions of the world. Spanish settlers typically came to start businesses in rural areas, cultivating crops such as coffee, bananas and sugar, which were exported to Spain and other European countries. Such foreign investment in Honduras was a first step towards developing a more robust economy, through the exploitation of natural resources and the generation of wealth and employment, however conflict arose when indigenous chiefdoms seized farms and ranches.With the acceptance of treaties for the recognition of titles, at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th, through the initiative of president Luís Bográn, the Doctor Antonio Abad Ramírez y Fernández Fontecha (Cádiz, 1855), Honorary Consul of Spain in Tegucigalpa and Rector of the Central University of the Republic of Honduras, President of the Scientific-Literary Academy and President of the Supreme Council of Public Instruction, organised "cultural missions" with the objective of hiring artists and teachers from Spain through orderly immigration.
| 3
|
[
"Spanish migration to Honduras",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
19th century
In the first years of Honduran independence, towards the end of the era of free trade between Latin America and Spain, a large proportion of the Spanish people arriving in Honduras were Catalans. Spaniard immigrants started to arrive to Honduras during the mid 19th century most of them from Catalonia.
Honduras was a country that received immigrants from diverse regions of the world. Spanish settlers typically came to start businesses in rural areas, cultivating crops such as coffee, bananas and sugar, which were exported to Spain and other European countries. Such foreign investment in Honduras was a first step towards developing a more robust economy, through the exploitation of natural resources and the generation of wealth and employment, however conflict arose when indigenous chiefdoms seized farms and ranches.With the acceptance of treaties for the recognition of titles, at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th, through the initiative of president Luís Bográn, the Doctor Antonio Abad Ramírez y Fernández Fontecha (Cádiz, 1855), Honorary Consul of Spain in Tegucigalpa and Rector of the Central University of the Republic of Honduras, President of the Scientific-Literary Academy and President of the Supreme Council of Public Instruction, organised "cultural missions" with the objective of hiring artists and teachers from Spain through orderly immigration.
| 4
|
[
"Spanish Costa Rican",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
Immigration
The Spanish immigration began with the exploration of Hernán Ponce de León and Juan de Castañeda along the Pacific coast, soon after led to the native population of this region under Spanish control. Although a small number of colonists settled in Costa Rica because of the small number of Indians who inhabited the region. After independence, the governors were interested in populating the territories with white workers, preferably imported from Europe. After independence, the governors were interested in populating territories with white people workers, preferably brought from Europe, banana cultivation was attracting a lot of capital and labor for the construction of the railway to the Atlantic.Catalan Immigration
In the early twentieth century many Spaniards used Costa Rica as a bridge to move to Panama attracted by the construction of the Canal. The events in Catalonia for the same dates Catalan prompted many to migrate to Costa Rica, becoming in a few years a thriving and influential Catalan colony that persists today. This colony, located in San Jose (Costa Rica) came to consist mainly of Catalan, followed by Gallegos, Asturian and Castilian. Currently the Catalans make up most of the community of Spaniards in Costa Rica.Canarian Immigration
Some Canarians had already settled in Costa Rica, beginning in the 16th century; a Canarian from Lanzarote island, Jose Martinez, was among the first Spanish settlers to arrive in Costa Rica in the 16th century. But large-scale Canarian immigration took place in 1884, when over 8,000 Canarians emigrated to a small town when the Costa Rican government invited Canarian immigration to populate the uninhabited town.
| 3
|
[
"Spanish immigration to Guatemala",
"facet of",
"Spanish diaspora"
] |
The arrival of the Spaniards in Guatemala began in 1524 with the conquest of the Guatemalan Highlands and neighbouring Pacific plain under the command of Pedro de Alvarado. After the conquest and the colonial era, more people came to the country not as conquerors, but to do business or daily activities.
| 2
|
[
"Spanish Australians",
"start point",
"Spain"
] |
Spanish Australians refers to Australian citizens and residents of Spanish descent, or people who were born in Spain and immigrated to Australia. There are approximately 123,000 Australians who are of full or partial Spanish descent, most of whom reside within the major cities of Sydney and Melbourne, with lesser but rapidly growing numbers in Brisbane (which has over 15,000) and Perth. Of these, according to the 2011 Australian census, 13,057 were born in Spain.History
In Victoria
Although Spanish seafarers began exploring the South Pacific in the sixteenth century, it was not until the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s that Spanish immigrants began to arrive in Victoria. The first Spanish restaurant was opened in Melbourne in 1860. By 1871, 135 Spaniards lived in Victoria, 80% of them men. Over the next two decades, the number of Spanish women arriving in Victoria tripled; a few more men also arrived.
Despite a military coup in Spain in 1923 and the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, few Spanish refugees settled in Victoria. Immigration Acts passed in the 1920s restricted the entry of Spaniards and other southern Europeans. By 1947, the Spain-born population of Victoria was only 252.
The Spain-born population dramatically increased from the late 1950s, following the 1958 Spanish-Australian migration agreement. The agreement provided assisted passages to Spanish migrants, many escaping poverty and hunger. The community in Victoria increased from 374 in 1954 to 3,143 in 1966.
During the following decades economic improvements in Spain coincided with a slowing of Spanish immigration to Australia. The Spain-born community in Victoria today has declined from 4,067 in 1986 to 3,523, in 2016.
The Spain-born community in Victoria is also aging: 45% of its population are between the ages of 50 and 75. Living predominantly in the Geelong area, the majority are employed as professionals and tradespeople.
The community is supported by a number of groups and organizations including the Spanish Welfare Centre (CELAS), providing counseling, community development and educational programs. Spanish culture in Victoria is further maintained through SBS and community radio and television programs, and publications such as The Spanish Herald.
| 0
|
[
"Spanish Australians",
"instance of",
"ethnic group"
] |
Spanish Australians refers to Australian citizens and residents of Spanish descent, or people who were born in Spain and immigrated to Australia. There are approximately 123,000 Australians who are of full or partial Spanish descent, most of whom reside within the major cities of Sydney and Melbourne, with lesser but rapidly growing numbers in Brisbane (which has over 15,000) and Perth. Of these, according to the 2011 Australian census, 13,057 were born in Spain.History
In Victoria
Although Spanish seafarers began exploring the South Pacific in the sixteenth century, it was not until the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s that Spanish immigrants began to arrive in Victoria. The first Spanish restaurant was opened in Melbourne in 1860. By 1871, 135 Spaniards lived in Victoria, 80% of them men. Over the next two decades, the number of Spanish women arriving in Victoria tripled; a few more men also arrived.
Despite a military coup in Spain in 1923 and the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, few Spanish refugees settled in Victoria. Immigration Acts passed in the 1920s restricted the entry of Spaniards and other southern Europeans. By 1947, the Spain-born population of Victoria was only 252.
The Spain-born population dramatically increased from the late 1950s, following the 1958 Spanish-Australian migration agreement. The agreement provided assisted passages to Spanish migrants, many escaping poverty and hunger. The community in Victoria increased from 374 in 1954 to 3,143 in 1966.
During the following decades economic improvements in Spain coincided with a slowing of Spanish immigration to Australia. The Spain-born community in Victoria today has declined from 4,067 in 1986 to 3,523, in 2016.
The Spain-born community in Victoria is also aging: 45% of its population are between the ages of 50 and 75. Living predominantly in the Geelong area, the majority are employed as professionals and tradespeople.
The community is supported by a number of groups and organizations including the Spanish Welfare Centre (CELAS), providing counseling, community development and educational programs. Spanish culture in Victoria is further maintained through SBS and community radio and television programs, and publications such as The Spanish Herald.
| 1
|
[
"Spanish Australians",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
Spanish Australians refers to Australian citizens and residents of Spanish descent, or people who were born in Spain and immigrated to Australia. There are approximately 123,000 Australians who are of full or partial Spanish descent, most of whom reside within the major cities of Sydney and Melbourne, with lesser but rapidly growing numbers in Brisbane (which has over 15,000) and Perth. Of these, according to the 2011 Australian census, 13,057 were born in Spain.
| 2
|
[
"Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico",
"country",
"Spain"
] |
Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico began in the early 1500s shortly after the formation of the Spanish state in 1493 (continuing until 1898 as a colony of Spain) and continues to the present day. On 25 September 1493, Christopher Columbus set sail on his second voyage with 17 ships and 1,200–1,500 men from Cádiz, Spain. On 19 November 1493 he landed on the island, naming it San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist.
The most significant Spanish immigration wave occurred during the colonial period, continuing with smaller numbers arriving during the 20th century to the present day.
The Spanish heritage in Puerto Rico is palpable today in its customs and many traditions, language, and in the old and new architectural designs.
| 0
|
[
"Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico",
"start point",
"Spain"
] |
Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico began in the early 1500s shortly after the formation of the Spanish state in 1493 (continuing until 1898 as a colony of Spain) and continues to the present day. On 25 September 1493, Christopher Columbus set sail on his second voyage with 17 ships and 1,200–1,500 men from Cádiz, Spain. On 19 November 1493 he landed on the island, naming it San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist.
The most significant Spanish immigration wave occurred during the colonial period, continuing with smaller numbers arriving during the 20th century to the present day.
The Spanish heritage in Puerto Rico is palpable today in its customs and many traditions, language, and in the old and new architectural designs.Migration waves, 1500–1898
From the start of the conquest of Puerto Rico, Castilians ruled over the religious (Roman Catholicism) and political life. Some came to the island for just a few years and then returned to Spain. However, many stayed.
Among Puerto Rico's founding families were the Castilian Ponce de León family. Their home was built in 1521 by Ponce de Leon but he died in the same year, leaving "La Casa Blanca", or "The White House", to his young son Luis Ponce de León. The original structure didn't last long; two years after its construction a hurricane destroyed it and it was rebuilt by Ponce de León's son-in-law Juan García Troche. The descendants of Ponce de León's family lived in La Casa Blanca for more than 250 years when in 1779 the Spanish Army took control of it. Finally, the American military moved into La Casa Blanca in 1898. The southern city of Ponce is named after Juan Ponce de León y Loayza, the great-grandson of the island's first governor.The Spanish heritage of Puerto Ricans comes from the many regions of Spain (including Canary Islanders, Asturians, Catalans, Majorcans, Galicians, Castilians, Andalusians, and Basques)
| 1
|
[
"Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico",
"instance of",
"ethnic group"
] |
Immigration to Puerto Rico, 1800–1898
Immigration to the island caused the population to grow rapidly during the 19th century. In 1800, the population was 155,426 and the century ended with almost one million inhabitants (953,243), multiplying the population by about six times. The major impetus for the massive European immigration during the 1800s was the Spanish Crown's proclamation of the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 (Real Cédula de Gracias), which led to the arrival of primarily Catholic immigrants from some seventy-four countries. Included were hundreds of Corsican, French, Irish, German, Scottish, Italian, Lebanese, Maltese, Dutch, English and Portuguese families moving to the island. Some countries were represented by only a few immigrants, e.g., fifty-one Chinese immigrants during this century. The country that still sent the most people was Spain.
From the start of colonization other groups from Andalusia, Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia, and Majorca had also immigrated, although the Canarian people formed the basis. Once the 19th century came, things changed drastically. According to Puerto Rican scholars such as Estela Cifre de Loubriel, who did extensive research on immigration patterns to the island, during the 19th century the greatest number of Spaniards that came to the island with large families were Catalans and Mallorcans.
The next regions with the largest number of immigrants were Galicia and Asturias, followed by the Canary Islands, the Basque Country and Andalusia. The Catalans, Galicians, Mallorcans, and Asturians typically arrived with large extended whole families. There were regions of the island that attracted some immigrants more than others which was mainly due to political or economic reasons.
| 3
|
[
"Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
First settlement
The first Spanish settlement, Caparra, was founded on 8 August 1508 by Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, who later became the first governor of the island. The following year the settlement was abandoned in favor of a nearby islet on the coast, named Borinquen, which had a suitable harbor. In 1511, a second settlement, San Germán, was established in the southwestern part of the island. During the 1520s the island took the name of Puerto Rico while the port became San Juan.Migration waves, 1500–1898
From the start of the conquest of Puerto Rico, Castilians ruled over the religious (Roman Catholicism) and political life. Some came to the island for just a few years and then returned to Spain. However, many stayed.
Among Puerto Rico's founding families were the Castilian Ponce de León family. Their home was built in 1521 by Ponce de Leon but he died in the same year, leaving "La Casa Blanca", or "The White House", to his young son Luis Ponce de León. The original structure didn't last long; two years after its construction a hurricane destroyed it and it was rebuilt by Ponce de León's son-in-law Juan García Troche. The descendants of Ponce de León's family lived in La Casa Blanca for more than 250 years when in 1779 the Spanish Army took control of it. Finally, the American military moved into La Casa Blanca in 1898. The southern city of Ponce is named after Juan Ponce de León y Loayza, the great-grandson of the island's first governor.The Spanish heritage of Puerto Ricans comes from the many regions of Spain (including Canary Islanders, Asturians, Catalans, Majorcans, Galicians, Castilians, Andalusians, and Basques)Immigration to Puerto Rico, 1800–1898
Immigration to the island caused the population to grow rapidly during the 19th century. In 1800, the population was 155,426 and the century ended with almost one million inhabitants (953,243), multiplying the population by about six times. The major impetus for the massive European immigration during the 1800s was the Spanish Crown's proclamation of the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 (Real Cédula de Gracias), which led to the arrival of primarily Catholic immigrants from some seventy-four countries. Included were hundreds of Corsican, French, Irish, German, Scottish, Italian, Lebanese, Maltese, Dutch, English and Portuguese families moving to the island. Some countries were represented by only a few immigrants, e.g., fifty-one Chinese immigrants during this century. The country that still sent the most people was Spain.
From the start of colonization other groups from Andalusia, Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia, and Majorca had also immigrated, although the Canarian people formed the basis. Once the 19th century came, things changed drastically. According to Puerto Rican scholars such as Estela Cifre de Loubriel, who did extensive research on immigration patterns to the island, during the 19th century the greatest number of Spaniards that came to the island with large families were Catalans and Mallorcans.
The next regions with the largest number of immigrants were Galicia and Asturias, followed by the Canary Islands, the Basque Country and Andalusia. The Catalans, Galicians, Mallorcans, and Asturians typically arrived with large extended whole families. There were regions of the island that attracted some immigrants more than others which was mainly due to political or economic reasons.
| 4
|
[
"Spanish settlement in Jamaica",
"facet of",
"Spanish diaspora"
] |
Historia
The arrival of Spaniards in Jamaica began in 1494, with the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the island in search of gold (as in Cuba and the Spanish, where he had reported the existence of the island, called Xaymaca by the Taino, in the indigenous language, "land of springs " later "land of wood and water" by the English), but then discovered that there was no gold on the island. Columbus named the island Santiago and used it as a mini-state for his family. In addition, he and his sailors founded other settlements, such as Santa Gloria (now St. Ann's Bay), named by Columbus, as it was the first that was sighted when they came to Jamaica.
In 1505 Juan de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia in agreement with Columbus proposed a project to populate the island but Ferdinand turned it down because he worried that the cumulative power nobiliary house. In 1509 the first Spanish settlement on the island was founded which was named New Sevilla and was located in a place near Santa Gloria. As early as 1510, the first governor of Jamaica, Juan de Esquivel, was appointed and the island was incorporated into the Viceroyalty of New Spain.
In 1524, the settlers left New Seville and, around 1534, moved to the current Spanish Town, founded by the colonial governor of Jamaica Francisco de Garay with the name of Our Lady of the Blessed Villa de la Vega, Santiago de la Vega, St. Jago de la Vega or Villa de la Vega (the place that the English renamed Spanish Town when they conquered the island in 1655). Here the oldest cathedral in Jamaica was built. Eventually, the Spanish founded other settlements elsewhere across the island (such as Las Chorreras or Eight rivers, and Santa Cruz), but that city was chosen as the capital of Jamaica. The settlers, as they used to do in the colonies in which they settled, took crops (such as sugar cane and banana) and pets (including dogs, cats, and horses), to Jamaica.
Most Spaniards arrived on the island for gold and silver but due to its absence in Jamaica, they generally neglected the island, being based only on the coastal plains, mainly in the northern part of the island. So, Jamaica became a center mainly for supply and rest.
However, from 1595, pirates, buccaneers, and English privateers began to attack the island with some frequency, in order to challenge the papal bull, which stated that all territories of the new world belonged to the kingdoms of Castile and Portugal. The 1596 attack was followed by attacks in 1603, 1640, and 1643. Thus, the Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. However, it was in 1655 when the English army, led by the British Admiral Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, finally occupied the island, taking over the last Spanish fort in Jamaica.
Dominated the Spanish colony by the British, the fear of loss of the island official from Spain meant that, in 1659, the political and noble Spanish Juan Francisco de Leiva, began to develop means to expel foreigners on the island, proposed sending a "dispatched armed Peninsula, full of people who should be working and enjoyment such as the Canary". Thus, a group of Spanish soldiers came to Jamaica, who settled in the already Santiago de la Vega, reinforcing this Spanish community in the capital of the island, to exert greater resistance to British occupation. Meanwhile, in 1660, was named the first British governor of Jamaica, Edward D'Oyley. The British government was already a sign of sovereignty, but Spain did not recognize Jamaica as a British colony until 1670.
Furthermore, in 1660, as in other Spanish colonies, Jamaica became a refuge for Jews, also attracting those who had been expelled from Spain and Portugal. Already in 1510, an agreement had been signed with the Jews, shortly after the son of Christopher Columbus was established on the island. The Jewish community in Jamaica, mainly composed of merchants and traders, were forced to lead a secret life, calling themselves "Portugals". All this increased the Hispanic community on the island.
With the signing of the Treaty of Madrid in 1670, Spain finally gave Jamaica and the Cayman Islands to the UK. After the official British occupation of the island, the Spanish colonists fled after freeing their slaves, which were scattered throughout the mountains, joining the Maroons, slaves who had previously escaped from the Spanish to live with the Taínos. The Jamaican Maroons fought the British during the 18th century
After the British took Jamaica, the Jews of the colony, many of whom were from Spain and Portugal, decided that the best defense to try to prevent the recovery of the island from Spain was encouraged to make the colony a base for pirates of the Caribbean. With pirates installed in Puerto Real, the Spanish would be deterred from attacking. British leaders agreed on the feasibility of this strategy to prevent aggression was abroad.
| 1
|
[
"Euclid (spacecraft)",
"has use",
"cosmology"
] |
Euclid is a visible to near-infrared space telescope developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Euclid Consortium. The objective of the Euclid mission is to better understand dark energy and dark matter by accurately measuring the acceleration of the universe. To achieve this, the Korsch-type telescope will measure the shapes of galaxies at varying distances from Earth and investigate the relationship between distance and redshift. Dark energy is generally accepted as contributing to the increased acceleration of the expanding universe, so understanding this relationship will help to refine how physicists and astrophysicists understand it. Euclid's mission advances and complements ESA's Planck telescope (2009 to 2013). The mission is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid.
Euclid is a medium-class ("M-class") mission and is part of the Cosmic Vision campaign of ESA's Science Programme. This class of missions have an ESA budget cap at around €500 million. Euclid was chosen in October 2011 together with Solar Orbiter, out of several competing missions. Prior to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the launch was scheduled on a Soyuz ST-B in 2023; following the invasion, Euclid will instead be launched on a Falcon 9 Block 5 in July 2023.Spacecraft
Euclid emerged from two mission concepts that were proposed in response to the ESA Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 Call for Proposals, issued in March 2007: DUNE, the Dark Universe Explorer, and SPACE, the Spectroscopic All-Sky Cosmic Explorer. Both missions proposed complementary techniques to measure the geometry of the Universe, and after an assessment study phase, a combined mission resulted. The new mission concept was called Euclid, honouring the Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria (~300 BC) who is considered as the father of geometry. In October 2011, Euclid was selected by ESA's Science Programme Committee for implementation, and on 25 June 2012 it was formally adopted.ESA selected Thales Alenia Space, Italy for the construction of the satellite. Euclid is 4.5 metres long with a diameter of 3.1 metres and a mass of 2160 kg.The Euclid payload module is managed by Airbus Defence and Space, Toulouse, France. It consists of a Korsch telescope with a primary mirror 1.2 meter in diameter, which covers an area of 0.5 deg2.
An international consortium of scientists, the Euclid consortium, comprising scientists from 13 European countries and the United States, will provide a visible-light camera (VIS) and a near-infrared camera/spectrometer (NISP). Together, they will map the 3D distribution of up to two billion galaxies spread over more than a third of the whole sky. These large format cameras will be used to characterise the morphometric, photometric and spectroscopic properties of galaxies.Mission execution and data
Euclid will be launched on a Falcon 9 in July 2023. Following a travel time of 30 days, it will be stabilised to travel a Lissajous path of large amplitude (about 1 million kilometres) around the Sun-Earth Lagrangian point L2.During its nominal mission, which will last at least six years, Euclid will observe about 15,000 deg2, about a third of the sky, focusing on the extragalactic sky (the sky facing away from the Milky Way). The survey will be complemented by additional observations about 100 times deeper (5 magnitudes) pointing toward three different fields located close to the ecliptic poles and covering 40 deg2. The three fields will be regularly visited during the whole duration of the mission. They will be used as calibration fields and to monitor the telescope and instrument performance stability as well as to produce scientific data by observing the most distant galaxies and quasars in the universe.To measure a photometric redshift for each galaxy with sufficient accuracy, the Euclid mission depends on additional photometric data obtained in at least four visible filters. This data will be obtained from ground-based telescopes located in both northern and southern hemispheres to cover the full 15,000 deg2 of the mission. In total each galaxy of the Euclid mission will get photometric information in at least 7 different filters covering the whole range 460–2000 nm.
About 10 billion astronomical sources will be observed by Euclid, of which 1 billion will be used for weak lensing (to have their gravitational shear measured) with a precision 50 times more accurate than is possible today using ground-based telescopes. Euclid will measure spectroscopic redshifts for 50 million objects to study galaxy clustering.
The scientific exploitation of this enormous data set will be carried out by a European-led consortium of more than 1200 people in over 100 laboratories in 15 countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Switzerland, UK, Canada, and the US). The Euclid Consortium is also responsible for the construction of the Euclid instrument payload and for the development and implementation of the Euclid ground segment which will process all data collected by the satellite. The laboratories contributing to the Euclid Consortium are funded and supported by their national space agencies, which also have the programmatic responsibilities of their national contribution, and by their national research structures (research agencies, observatories, universities). Overall, the Euclid Consortium contributes to about 30% of the total budget cost of the mission until completion.
The huge volume, diversity (space and ground, visible and near-infrared, morphometry, photometry, and spectroscopy) and the high level of precision of measurements needed demand considerable care and effort in the data processing making this a critical part of the mission. ESA, the national agencies and the Euclid Consortium are spending considerable resources to set up top-level teams of researchers and engineers in algorithm development, software development, testing and validation procedures, data archiving and data distribution infrastructures. In total, nine Science Data Centres spread over countries of the Euclid Consortium will process more than 10 petabytes of raw input images over 10 years to deliver data products (images, catalogues spectra) in 3 main public data releases in the Science Archive System of the Euclid mission to the scientific community.
With its wide sky coverage and its catalogues of billions of stars and galaxies, the scientific value of data collected by the mission goes beyond the scope of cosmology. This database will provide the worldwide astronomical community with abundant sources and targets for the James Webb Space Telescope and Atacama Large Millimeter Array, as well as future missions such as the European Extremely Large Telescope, Thirty Meter Telescope, Square Kilometer Array, and the Vera C. Rubin Observatory.
| 1
|
[
"Euclid (spacecraft)",
"instance of",
"space telescope"
] |
Euclid is a visible to near-infrared space telescope developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Euclid Consortium. The objective of the Euclid mission is to better understand dark energy and dark matter by accurately measuring the acceleration of the universe. To achieve this, the Korsch-type telescope will measure the shapes of galaxies at varying distances from Earth and investigate the relationship between distance and redshift. Dark energy is generally accepted as contributing to the increased acceleration of the expanding universe, so understanding this relationship will help to refine how physicists and astrophysicists understand it. Euclid's mission advances and complements ESA's Planck telescope (2009 to 2013). The mission is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid.
Euclid is a medium-class ("M-class") mission and is part of the Cosmic Vision campaign of ESA's Science Programme. This class of missions have an ESA budget cap at around €500 million. Euclid was chosen in October 2011 together with Solar Orbiter, out of several competing missions. Prior to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the launch was scheduled on a Soyuz ST-B in 2023; following the invasion, Euclid will instead be launched on a Falcon 9 Block 5 in July 2023.Spacecraft
Euclid emerged from two mission concepts that were proposed in response to the ESA Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 Call for Proposals, issued in March 2007: DUNE, the Dark Universe Explorer, and SPACE, the Spectroscopic All-Sky Cosmic Explorer. Both missions proposed complementary techniques to measure the geometry of the Universe, and after an assessment study phase, a combined mission resulted. The new mission concept was called Euclid, honouring the Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria (~300 BC) who is considered as the father of geometry. In October 2011, Euclid was selected by ESA's Science Programme Committee for implementation, and on 25 June 2012 it was formally adopted.ESA selected Thales Alenia Space, Italy for the construction of the satellite. Euclid is 4.5 metres long with a diameter of 3.1 metres and a mass of 2160 kg.The Euclid payload module is managed by Airbus Defence and Space, Toulouse, France. It consists of a Korsch telescope with a primary mirror 1.2 meter in diameter, which covers an area of 0.5 deg2.
An international consortium of scientists, the Euclid consortium, comprising scientists from 13 European countries and the United States, will provide a visible-light camera (VIS) and a near-infrared camera/spectrometer (NISP). Together, they will map the 3D distribution of up to two billion galaxies spread over more than a third of the whole sky. These large format cameras will be used to characterise the morphometric, photometric and spectroscopic properties of galaxies.
| 6
|
[
"Euclid (spacecraft)",
"operator",
"European Space Astronomy Centre"
] |
Milestones
NASA signed a memorandum of understanding with ESA on 24 January 2013 describing its participation in the mission. NASA will provide 20 detectors for the near-infrared band instrument, which will operate in parallel with a camera in the visible-light band. The instruments, the telescope, and the satellite will be built and operated from Europe. NASA has also appointed 40 American scientists to be part of the Euclid consortium, which will develop the instruments and analyse the data generated by the mission. Currently, this consortium brings together more than 1000 scientists from 13 European countries and the United States.In 2015, Euclid passed a preliminary design review, having completed a large number of technical designs as well as built and tested key components.In December 2018, Euclid passed its critical design review, which validated the overall spacecraft design and mission architecture plan, and final spacecraft assembly was allowed to commence.In July 2020, the two instruments (visible and NIR) were delivered to Airbus, Toulouse, France for integration with the spacecraft.After Russia withdrew (in 2022) the Soyuz planned to launch Euclid, ESA reassigned it to a SpaceX Falcon 9 launch vehicle, but still to launch in 2023.
| 15
|
[
"Euclid (spacecraft)",
"manufacturer",
"Airbus Defence and Space"
] |
Spacecraft
Euclid emerged from two mission concepts that were proposed in response to the ESA Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 Call for Proposals, issued in March 2007: DUNE, the Dark Universe Explorer, and SPACE, the Spectroscopic All-Sky Cosmic Explorer. Both missions proposed complementary techniques to measure the geometry of the Universe, and after an assessment study phase, a combined mission resulted. The new mission concept was called Euclid, honouring the Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria (~300 BC) who is considered as the father of geometry. In October 2011, Euclid was selected by ESA's Science Programme Committee for implementation, and on 25 June 2012 it was formally adopted.ESA selected Thales Alenia Space, Italy for the construction of the satellite. Euclid is 4.5 metres long with a diameter of 3.1 metres and a mass of 2160 kg.The Euclid payload module is managed by Airbus Defence and Space, Toulouse, France. It consists of a Korsch telescope with a primary mirror 1.2 meter in diameter, which covers an area of 0.5 deg2.
An international consortium of scientists, the Euclid consortium, comprising scientists from 13 European countries and the United States, will provide a visible-light camera (VIS) and a near-infrared camera/spectrometer (NISP). Together, they will map the 3D distribution of up to two billion galaxies spread over more than a third of the whole sky. These large format cameras will be used to characterise the morphometric, photometric and spectroscopic properties of galaxies.
| 17
|
[
"American settlement in the Philippines",
"start point",
"United States of America"
] |
American settlement in the Philippines (Filipino: paninirahan sa Pilipinas ng mga Amerikano) began during the Spanish colonial period. The period of American colonialization of the Philippines was 48 years. It began with the cession of the Philippines to the U.S. by Spain in 1898 and lasted until the U.S. recognition of Philippine independence in 1946. After independence in 1946, many Americans chose to remain in the Philippines while maintaining relations with relatives in the US. Most of them were professionals, but missionaries continued to settle the country. In 2015, the U.S. State Department estimated in 2016 that more than 220,000 U.S. citizens lived in the Philippines and more than 650,000 visited per year, with a significant mixed population of Amerasians and descendants from the colonial era as well.The United States invaded the Philippines, which was then governed by Spain as the Spanish East Indies, during the Spanish–American War. During that war, Philippine revolutionaries declared independence. Wanting to maintain a stronghold over the island nation as a stepping stone to Japan and continental Asia, the United States maintained authority over the archipelago and the Philippine–American War ensued. America then held the Philippines until granting full independence on July 4, 1946.
| 0
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[
"List of presidential visits to North Dakota",
"participant",
"President of the United States"
] |
Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt visited the state while President in April 1903 during a tour of the west. He entered at Ellendale and went through Edgeley, North Dakota and on through Fargo. He then headed west through Jamestown, Bismarck, and Dickinson, and ended up in Medora.Harry Truman
Harry Truman came through the state in May 1950 as part of a whistle stop tour across the country. He visited Williston, Minot, New Rockford, and Fargo. He returned in 1952 on another whistle stop tour campaigning for Adlai Stevenson. This trip brought him all across the state.Dwight D. Eisenhower
In June 1953, Dwight D. Eisenhower came to the dedication ceremony of the Garrison Dam; his plane landed at the Minot airport. After he spoke there, he was driven to Bismarck where he went on a motorcade throughout the city before he flew out of Bismarck Municipal Airport. He also visited Minot in 1960.John F. Kennedy
Three years later, President John F. Kennedy embarked on a five-day conservation tour that brought him to 11 states in the west where he encouraged the conservation of the nation's natural resources. This tour brought the President to the University of North Dakota in Grand Forks on September 25, 1963; less than two months before the assassination. While there, he accepted an honorary law degree from the university, and gave a 22-minute speech that endorsed the Garrison Diversion water project.Richard Nixon
Richard Nixon visited the state in Fargo on July 24, 1970 to talk to Governors at a national conference there. He also campaigned the same year in Grand Forks for Republican congressman Thomas S. Kleppe, who was running for United States Senate.Ronald Reagan
Ronald Reagan came to the University of North Dakota in Grand Forks in October 1986 to campaign for the re-election of Senator Mark Andrews.George H.W. Bush
In 1989, to celebrate the state's centennial, President George H. W. Bush came to the North Dakota State Capitol grounds to plant an American Elm tree near the capitol steps.Bill Clinton
Bill Clinton came to Grand Forks in April 1997 in the wake of the 1997 Red River flood.George W. Bush
President George W. Bush made his first of two visits to the state in March 2001, just two months after his inauguration. The trip was part of his national speaking tour to promote his proposed tax cut program in Congress. He spoke at the Bison Sports Arena at the North Dakota State University in Fargo. President Bush returned to Fargo in 2005, this time to promote his proposed changes in the Social Security system; he spoke again at the Bison Sports Arena.Donald Trump
President Donald Trump made an appearance at the Mandan refinery for a tax return speech on September 5, 2017. He also visited the state several times during the 2018 midterm election campaign on behalf of Senate candidate Kevin Cramer.
| 3
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[
"List of United States presidential visits to Puerto Rico",
"participant",
"President of the United States"
] |
Eleven United States presidents have made presidential visits to Puerto Rico since the islands became a U.S. territory in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War of 1898, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. The eleventh and most recent visit was by President Joe Biden on October 3, 2022, after Hurricane Fiona devastated center and southern and western parts of the island.
The tenth visit was by President Donald Trump on October 3, 2017. Nine presidents are honored by life-sized bronze statues commissioned and placed in a linear park, called Paseo de los Presidentes, on the south side of the Puerto Rico Capitol in San Juan.Theodore Roosevelt
President Theodore Roosevelt was the first sitting president to visit Puerto Rico arriving on the USS Louisiana (BB 19) on November 21, 1906, after inspecting the Panama Canal. A bronze statue and plaque commemorating his visit is on public view at the Paseo de los Presidentes on the south side of the Capitol of Puerto Rico.John F. Kennedy
President John F. Kennedy and his wife visited Puerto Rico on December 15–16, 1961, arriving in a VC-137A, spending the night as guests of Gov. Luis Muñoz Marín at La Fortaleza, the oldest executive mansion in continuous use in the Western Hemisphere. The guest bedroom in which he stayed subsequently became known as the "Kennedy Bedroom". On December 16 they continued the flight to Venezuela. Upon the completion of the South American tour, they flew from Colombia to Ramey AFB for a refuel stop on December 18 and continued to Palm Beach, Florida. Kennedy did not leave the aircraft during that stop at Ramey. Until President Obama's June 14, 2011, trip to Puerto Rico, for over 49 years Kennedy's visit, which included a motorcade in addition to the visit to the governor's mansion, had been considered the last official visit by a sitting president at the time, notwithstanding President Johnson's private visit in 1968 to Ramey AFB in Aguadilla and President Ford's attendance at the 1976 G-7 summit in Dorado. Then-Senator Kennedy had previously visited Puerto Rico while on the presidential campaign trail, even though he had not yet announced his candidacy, giving a speech titled "A New Attitude on Latin America" at a Democratic-fundraising dinner in San Juan on December 15, 1958.Barack Obama
President Barack Obama made an official visit to Puerto Rico for four hours on June 14, 2011. Arriving on Air Force One a VC-25A (Boeing 747) 92–8000 with then-Resident Commissioner Pedro Pierluisi, he was greeted at Muñiz Air National Guard Base in Carolina, Puerto Rico, by Governor Luis Fortuño, visited La Fortaleza, the oldest executive mansion in continuous use in the Western Hemisphere, had lunch at a local eatery with then-Senator Alejandro García Padilla, gave exclusive interviews to Univision local TV affiliate reporter Cyd Marie Fleming and El Nuevo Día newspaper, and attended a Democratic National Committee event that added nearly $1 million to his campaign coffers, before flying to Washington, D.C. with Pierluisi. A bronze statue of him commemorating the visit was commissioned by, and installed at the Paseo de los Presidentes by then-Senate President Thomas Rivera-Schatz and House Speaker Jenniffer González-Colón. It is considered one of the first public statues depicting the then-sitting president during the first of two full terms in office.Donald Trump
President Donald Trump visited Puerto Rico for about 4 hours on October 3, 2017, to discuss Hurricane Maria. Trump arrived on Air Force One at the Muñiz Air National Guard Base together with First Lady Melania Trump and Jenniffer González-Colón, the first woman ever to hold the office of Puerto Rico's sole Representative to the U.S. Congress, they shook the hands of military members stationed at the base. He later held a press briefing on relief efforts- which was also attended by San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz and various Puerto Rican officials-, held a meeting with senior military personnel – as well as with Governors Ricardo Rosselló of Puerto Rico and Kenneth Mapp of the U.S. Virgin Islands —, visited with people who were impacted by the storm, and met with members of the Navy and Marine Corps. Following the tradition set by President McClintock and Speaker Hernández in 2008, eventually a bronze statue and plaque commemorating President Trump's visit is expected to be commissioned and installed at the Paseo de los Presidentes. As of October 2022, there has been no official news as to when a statue of Trump will be commissioned.Dwight Eisenhower
President Dwight D. Eisenhower also visited Puerto Rico on his way to a goodwill visit to South America. Landed at San Juan International airport in a VC-137A on February 22, 1960, and was received by Gov. Luis Muñoz Marín. Later that day he flew to Ramey Air Force Base, PR where he spent the night. The next day he continued his flight to Brasilia, Brazil. Upon completion of his South American tour he returned to Ramey AFB on March 3 staying there until March 7 on vacation. During that time he played golf at Ramey AFB and at the Dorado Beach Hotel to where he flew in a U.S. Army VH-34 on March 4 and again on March 6 in a U.S. Air Force C-47 from Ramey. The bronze statue commemorating that visit is one of the first seven commissioned by the Puerto Rico Legislature.
| 2
|
[
"United States presidential visits to Canada",
"country",
"United States of America"
] |
There have been 41 United States presidential visits to Canada by 14 presidents over the past century. As the U.S. president is both head of state and head of government, these visits have taken many forms, ranging from formal state visits to official visits, working visits, or private visits (or, as in the case of Franklin D. Roosevelt, personal vacations).
Since the first presidential visit, made by Warren G. Harding in 1923 (just a few weeks before his death), Canada has become one of the most common presidential international travel destinations. Since the Franklin Roosevelt administration, only Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter never visited Canada while in office. Eight presidents have addressed a joint session of the Parliament of Canada, with Dwight D. Eisenhower and Ronald Reagan both speaking twice.
| 0
|
[
"United States presidential visits to Canada",
"participant",
"President of the United States"
] |
There have been 41 United States presidential visits to Canada by 14 presidents over the past century. As the U.S. president is both head of state and head of government, these visits have taken many forms, ranging from formal state visits to official visits, working visits, or private visits (or, as in the case of Franklin D. Roosevelt, personal vacations).
Since the first presidential visit, made by Warren G. Harding in 1923 (just a few weeks before his death), Canada has become one of the most common presidential international travel destinations. Since the Franklin Roosevelt administration, only Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter never visited Canada while in office. Eight presidents have addressed a joint session of the Parliament of Canada, with Dwight D. Eisenhower and Ronald Reagan both speaking twice.
| 2
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[
"United States presidential visits to Sub-Saharan Africa",
"participant",
"President of the United States"
] |
Table of visits
See also
Foreign policy of the United States
Foreign relations of the United States
| 2
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[
"Americans in Argentina",
"subclass of",
"immigration to Argentina"
] |
Migration history
From 2002 to 2003, many Americans migrated to Argentina when the country suddenly became comparatively inexpensive thus it became a cheap place to live in.Immigration from the United States increased further during and after the financial crisis of 2007–2008 as many Americans fled the crisis-ridden United States to escape to Argentina. A few interviews and immigration data shows a 12% increase in the number of Americans (742) who applied for permanent residency in 2008.
| 3
|
[
"Americans in Ecuador",
"country",
"Ecuador"
] |
Americans in Ecuador consists of immigrants from the United States to Ecuador which includes but is not exclusive to many retirees. It is estimated that about 5,000 to 10,000 American immigrants now live in the country.
| 1
|
[
"United States presidential visits to Northern Europe",
"participant",
"President of the United States"
] |
Seven United States presidents have made presidential visits to Northern Europe. Richard Nixon became the first incumbent president to visit a Northern European country when he went to Iceland in 1973. The first trips were an offshoot of the general easing of the geo-political tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. To date, every nation in the region has been visited at least once: Finland (6), Denmark (4), Latvia (3), Estonia (2), Iceland (2), Norway (2), Sweden (2), and Lithuania (1).
| 2
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[
"United States presidential visits to the Middle East",
"is a list of",
"state visit"
] |
Ten United States presidents have made presidential visits to the Middle East. The first trips by an incumbent president to countries in (or partly within) the Middle East were those of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and were an offshoot of Allied diplomatic interactions during World War II. To date, 16 visits have been made to Egypt, 12 to Saudi Arabia, 11 to Israel, six to both Iraq, Jordan and Turkey, four to Iran, three to the Palestinian Territories, two to both Kuwait and Syria, one to Bahrain, Georgia, Oman, Qatar, and to the United Arab Emirates. No incumbent American president has yet visited Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Lebanon, and Yemen.
| 4
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[
"United States presidential visits to Australia and New Zealand",
"participant",
"President of the United States"
] |
Several United States presidents have made presidential visits to Australia and New Zealand. The first visit by an incumbent to these Australasian nations was made in 1966 by Lyndon B. Johnson. His three-day five-city visit to Australia was intended as a show of gratitude to the Australian nation for its then emphatic support for the Vietnam War. Four presidents have traveled there since. Prior to arriving in Australia, Johnson visited New Zealand. He went primarily to shore up support for the war in Vietnam. Only one sitting president has visited since.
| 2
|
[
"United States presidential visits to East Asia",
"participant",
"President of the United States"
] |
Ten United States presidents have made presidential visits to East Asia. The first presidential trip to a country in East Asia was made by Dwight D. Eisenhower (as president-elect) in 1952. Since then, all presidents, except John F. Kennedy, have traveled to one or more nations in the region while in office.
To date, 25 visits have been made to Japan, 20 to South Korea, 14 to China, and one each to Mongolia and to North Korea.
| 2
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[
"United States presidential visits to South America",
"participant",
"President of the United States"
] |
Eleven United States presidents and one president-elect have made presidential visits to South America. The first trip was made by Herbert Hoover (as president-elect) in 1928. During this tour he delivered twenty-five speeches in ten Central and South American countries, almost all of which stressed his plans to reduce American political and military interference in Latin American affairs. In sum, he pledged that the United States would act as a "good neighbor."The first official visits by a sitting president were those of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and were an offshoot of Allied diplomatic interactions during World War II. Of the 12 independent countries on the continent, all but Bolivia, Guyana and Paraguay have been visited by an American president. Ecuador has only been visited by a president elect.
| 3
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[
"United States presidential visits to the Caribbean",
"participant",
"President of the United States"
] |
Nine United States presidents and one president-elect have made presidential visits to the Caribbean since 1928. Franklin D. Roosevelt made the most trips to the Caribbean islands (14), either for vacation or while involved with Allied diplomatic interactions during World War II. Of the 13 sovereign countries in the region, four—Dominica, the Dominican Republic, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines—have not as of yet been visited by an American president.
| 2
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[
"Evolve World Tour",
"start point",
"United States of America"
] |
The Evolve World Tour (stylized as ƎVOLVE World Tour) was the third concert tour by American pop rock band Imagine Dragons in support of their third studio album Evolve (2017). The tour began on September 26, 2017 in Phoenix, Arizona and concluded on November 18, 2018, in Mexico City.
| 0
|
[
"Evolve World Tour",
"based on",
"Evolve"
] |
The Evolve World Tour (stylized as ƎVOLVE World Tour) was the third concert tour by American pop rock band Imagine Dragons in support of their third studio album Evolve (2017). The tour began on September 26, 2017 in Phoenix, Arizona and concluded on November 18, 2018, in Mexico City.
| 3
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[
"Evolve World Tour",
"performer",
"Imagine Dragons"
] |
The Evolve World Tour (stylized as ƎVOLVE World Tour) was the third concert tour by American pop rock band Imagine Dragons in support of their third studio album Evolve (2017). The tour began on September 26, 2017 in Phoenix, Arizona and concluded on November 18, 2018, in Mexico City.
| 4
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[
"Evolve World Tour",
"instance of",
"concert tour"
] |
The Evolve World Tour (stylized as ƎVOLVE World Tour) was the third concert tour by American pop rock band Imagine Dragons in support of their third studio album Evolve (2017). The tour began on September 26, 2017 in Phoenix, Arizona and concluded on November 18, 2018, in Mexico City.
| 5
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[
"Sabena Flight 571",
"start point",
"Belgium"
] |
Sabena Flight 571 was a scheduled passenger flight from Brussels to Lod via Vienna operated by the Belgian national airline, Sabena. On 8 May 1972 a Boeing 707 passenger aircraft operating that service, captained by British pilot Reginald Levy, DFC, was hijacked by four members of the Black September Organization, a Palestinian terrorist group. Following their instructions, Captain Levy landed the plane at Lod Airport (later Ben Gurion International Airport). The hijackers demanded that Israel release Palestinian prisoners in exchange for the hostages. The standoff was ended by an Israeli commando raid in which all of the hijackers were killed or captured.
| 0
|
[
"Sabena Flight 571",
"part of",
"Arab–Israeli conflict"
] |
Sabena Flight 571 was a scheduled passenger flight from Brussels to Lod via Vienna operated by the Belgian national airline, Sabena. On 8 May 1972 a Boeing 707 passenger aircraft operating that service, captained by British pilot Reginald Levy, DFC, was hijacked by four members of the Black September Organization, a Palestinian terrorist group. Following their instructions, Captain Levy landed the plane at Lod Airport (later Ben Gurion International Airport). The hijackers demanded that Israel release Palestinian prisoners in exchange for the hostages. The standoff was ended by an Israeli commando raid in which all of the hijackers were killed or captured.
| 3
|
[
"Sabena Flight 571",
"operator",
"Sabena"
] |
Sabena Flight 571 was a scheduled passenger flight from Brussels to Lod via Vienna operated by the Belgian national airline, Sabena. On 8 May 1972 a Boeing 707 passenger aircraft operating that service, captained by British pilot Reginald Levy, DFC, was hijacked by four members of the Black September Organization, a Palestinian terrorist group. Following their instructions, Captain Levy landed the plane at Lod Airport (later Ben Gurion International Airport). The hijackers demanded that Israel release Palestinian prisoners in exchange for the hostages. The standoff was ended by an Israeli commando raid in which all of the hijackers were killed or captured.
| 7
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[
"Sabena Flight 571",
"location",
"Ben Gurion Airport"
] |
Sabena Flight 571 was a scheduled passenger flight from Brussels to Lod via Vienna operated by the Belgian national airline, Sabena. On 8 May 1972 a Boeing 707 passenger aircraft operating that service, captained by British pilot Reginald Levy, DFC, was hijacked by four members of the Black September Organization, a Palestinian terrorist group. Following their instructions, Captain Levy landed the plane at Lod Airport (later Ben Gurion International Airport). The hijackers demanded that Israel release Palestinian prisoners in exchange for the hostages. The standoff was ended by an Israeli commando raid in which all of the hijackers were killed or captured.
| 8
|
[
"Sabena Flight 571",
"instance of",
"aircraft hijacking"
] |
Sabena Flight 571 was a scheduled passenger flight from Brussels to Lod via Vienna operated by the Belgian national airline, Sabena. On 8 May 1972 a Boeing 707 passenger aircraft operating that service, captained by British pilot Reginald Levy, DFC, was hijacked by four members of the Black September Organization, a Palestinian terrorist group. Following their instructions, Captain Levy landed the plane at Lod Airport (later Ben Gurion International Airport). The hijackers demanded that Israel release Palestinian prisoners in exchange for the hostages. The standoff was ended by an Israeli commando raid in which all of the hijackers were killed or captured.
| 10
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[
"Finnish Argentine",
"part of",
"immigration to Argentina"
] |
Finnish Argentine is an Argentine person of full, partial, or predominantly Finnish ancestry, or a Finnish-born person residing in Argentina.
Finnish immigration in Argentina began in the early twentieth century and was not as massive as those of other European nationalities. Currently, most of the descendants of Finnish immigrants live in the city of Oberá, Misiones.Oberá
The Finns were one of the first foreign communities to settle in what is now the city of Oberá. At first, they called "Picada Finlandesa" to the three sections that were pooled city lots. This was because most of its inhabitants had come from Finland.Other areas where they settled
Besides Misiones, Finnish immigrant groups and their descendants settled in regions of the provinces of Corrientes, Córdoba and Buenos Aires.
| 2
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[
"Finnish Argentine",
"instance of",
"diaspora or migration by origin and host country"
] |
Finnish Argentine is an Argentine person of full, partial, or predominantly Finnish ancestry, or a Finnish-born person residing in Argentina.
Finnish immigration in Argentina began in the early twentieth century and was not as massive as those of other European nationalities. Currently, most of the descendants of Finnish immigrants live in the city of Oberá, Misiones.
| 3
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[
"Emigration from Poland to Germany after World War II",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
Other emigrants
In addition to former German citizens, their descendants and family members (usually from the marriage of an autochthon and non-autochthon) and other Polish citizens also emigrated to Germany after World War II in numbers difficult to estimate. During the 1980s, about 300,000 Poles left Poland (usually illegally) and settled in Western Germany. Although many were political emigrants, others emigrated for economic reasons. This "Solidarity emigration" involved a large number of people with secondary and higher education. They are characterised by deep national pride, and actively participate in Polish cultural and political life in Germany; however, few returned to Poland after the fall of communism in 1989.
| 3
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[
"Italians in Germany",
"start point",
"Italy"
] |
Italians in Germany consist of ethnic Italian migrants to Germany and their descendants, both those originating from Italy as well as from among the communities of Italians in Switzerland. Most Italians moved to Germany for reasons of work, others for personal relations, study, or political reasons. Today, Italians in Germany form one of the largest Italian diasporas in the world and account for one of the largest immigrant groups in Germany.
It is not clear how many people in Germany are of Italian descent, since the German government does not collect data on ethnicity. However, based on the German "microcensus," which surveys 1% of the German population annually and includes a question on the nationality of the surveyees' parents, the number is at least 873,000 people. The total number (i.e. including third generation Italian Germans and beyond) is likely considerably higher.German unification to end of World War II (1871–1945)
Germany was a comparatively minor destination of Italians during the waves of Italian emigration after Italian unification and the resulting breakdown of the feudal system, with most leaving for the Americas. Between 1876, the year Italy began keeping track of people leaving the country permanently, and 1915, around 1.2 million Italians moved to Germany. For comparison, a total of 14 million Italians emigrated to various parts of the world during this period.Post-World War II (1945–1990)
With Germany's post-World War II economic boom (Wirtschaftswunder), the country signed a number of immigration treaties with other mostly European nations starting in 1955 with Italy, which allowed immigrants to move to Germany in large numbers to work and live. The treaty allowed companies experiencing labor shortages to request the transference of Italian workers via the Italian Ministry of Labor. Italy had signed a number of such treaties with other countries in Europe, Oceania and South America in the 1950s to alleviate widespread unemployment. The biggest sectors for which migrants were recruited to Germany were mining, construction and manufacturing. Companies recruiting Italian workers were concentrated primarily in Germany's southeast, especially the industrial states of Baden-Württemberg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Bavaria and Hesse. Today, these regions are home to the country's biggest Italian-German communities.In 1973, due to that year's oil crisis and a resulting recession, Germany annulled the immigration treaties it had signed. However, by then the European Coal and Steel Community (later the European Economic Community), of which both Italy and Germany were members, had established freedom of movement for workers (beginning in 1968). As a result, Italians continued to be able to move to Germany for work with relative ease. An estimated 2 million Italians moved to Germany between 1956 and 1972 alone, especially from southern and northeastern Italy. The majority of Italians that came with this first wave of immigration were men without families; most intended to return there in the medium term, although a great many ended up settling in Germany permanently. From the early 1970s onward, many of these workers' families joined them. The total number of Italians who moved to Germany between 1955 and 2005 is estimated at 3−4 million.Initially seen as temporary "guest workers" by both Germany and Italy, almost no effort was made at first to ease the assimilation of immigrants into German society. Adults were not encouraged to learn German and schools were instructed to encourage students' ties to their parents' culture to promote their eventual return. Nonetheless, Italian immigrants gradually began to integrate. While most of the Italians among the 1955–1973 wave of immigrants were employed as laborers in the mining, construction and manufacturing sectors, they began to diversify into more skilled employment, especially in the automotive and electronics industry and mechanical engineering. A growing market for Italian cuisine among the local German population also led many to open restaurants. These trends contributed to the gradual upward mobility of Italian immigrants and their descendants.
| 0
|
[
"Italians in Germany",
"instance of",
"Italian diaspora"
] |
German unification to end of World War II (1871–1945)
Germany was a comparatively minor destination of Italians during the waves of Italian emigration after Italian unification and the resulting breakdown of the feudal system, with most leaving for the Americas. Between 1876, the year Italy began keeping track of people leaving the country permanently, and 1915, around 1.2 million Italians moved to Germany. For comparison, a total of 14 million Italians emigrated to various parts of the world during this period.Post-World War II (1945–1990)
With Germany's post-World War II economic boom (Wirtschaftswunder), the country signed a number of immigration treaties with other mostly European nations starting in 1955 with Italy, which allowed immigrants to move to Germany in large numbers to work and live. The treaty allowed companies experiencing labor shortages to request the transference of Italian workers via the Italian Ministry of Labor. Italy had signed a number of such treaties with other countries in Europe, Oceania and South America in the 1950s to alleviate widespread unemployment. The biggest sectors for which migrants were recruited to Germany were mining, construction and manufacturing. Companies recruiting Italian workers were concentrated primarily in Germany's southeast, especially the industrial states of Baden-Württemberg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Bavaria and Hesse. Today, these regions are home to the country's biggest Italian-German communities.In 1973, due to that year's oil crisis and a resulting recession, Germany annulled the immigration treaties it had signed. However, by then the European Coal and Steel Community (later the European Economic Community), of which both Italy and Germany were members, had established freedom of movement for workers (beginning in 1968). As a result, Italians continued to be able to move to Germany for work with relative ease. An estimated 2 million Italians moved to Germany between 1956 and 1972 alone, especially from southern and northeastern Italy. The majority of Italians that came with this first wave of immigration were men without families; most intended to return there in the medium term, although a great many ended up settling in Germany permanently. From the early 1970s onward, many of these workers' families joined them. The total number of Italians who moved to Germany between 1955 and 2005 is estimated at 3−4 million.Initially seen as temporary "guest workers" by both Germany and Italy, almost no effort was made at first to ease the assimilation of immigrants into German society. Adults were not encouraged to learn German and schools were instructed to encourage students' ties to their parents' culture to promote their eventual return. Nonetheless, Italian immigrants gradually began to integrate. While most of the Italians among the 1955–1973 wave of immigrants were employed as laborers in the mining, construction and manufacturing sectors, they began to diversify into more skilled employment, especially in the automotive and electronics industry and mechanical engineering. A growing market for Italian cuisine among the local German population also led many to open restaurants. These trends contributed to the gradual upward mobility of Italian immigrants and their descendants.
| 6
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[
"Italian immigration to Mexico",
"instance of",
"ethnic group"
] |
History
During the colonial era there was a small number of non-Spanish European entrants, in particular Catholic missionaries. There are records of a few Italian soldiers and mariners in early New Spain. Prominent among the Italians was Juan Pablos (born Giovanni Paoli in Brescia), who founded the first printing shop in the Americas. The most important missionary was Eusebio Kino who led the evangelization of Pimería Alta.
Italian-Mexican identity rests on the common experience of migration from Italy in the late 19th century, a period characterized by a general Italian diaspora to the Americas. About 13,000 Italians emigrated to Mexico during this period, and at least half returned to Italy or went on to the United States. Most Italians who came to Mexico were farmers or farm workers from the northern Italian regions of Veneto, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, and Lombardy. Others, who arrived in the early 20th century, were from southern Italy. Many Italian settlers arriving in the late 19th and early 20th centuries received land grants from the Mexican government. When Benito Mussolini came to power, thousands of Italian families left Italy for Mexico.
The regions with the greatest populations of Mexican Italians are Mexico City, Monterrey, Puebla, Hidalgo and Veracruz. Specifically in Hidalgo, there are a large number of people of Southern Italian descent.Italian community
Many Italian-Mexicans live in cities founded by their ancestors in the states of Veracruz (Huatusco) and San Luis Potosí. Smaller numbers of Italian-Mexicans live in Guanajuato and the State of Mexico, and the former haciendas (now cities) of Nueva Italia, Michoacán and Lombardia, Michoacán, both founded by Dante Cusi from Gambar in Brescia.Playa del Carmen, Mahahual and Cancun in the state of Quintana Roo have also received a significant number of immigrants from Italy. Several families of Italian-Mexican descent were granted citizenship in the United States under the Bracero program to address a labor shortage of labor.
Italian companies have invested in Mexico, primarily in the tourism and hospitality industries. These ventures have sometimes resulted in settlements, but residents primarily live in the resort areas of the Riviera Maya, Baja California, Puerto Vallarta and Cancun. Although they generate employment, mainly in restaurants, hotels and entertainment centers, most employees have not become permanent residents of Mexico and live as ex-pats.
There were over 850,000 Mexicans of Italian descent, while there were around 10,000 Italian citizens.
| 1
|
[
"Italian immigration to Mexico",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
Italian community
Many Italian-Mexicans live in cities founded by their ancestors in the states of Veracruz (Huatusco) and San Luis Potosí. Smaller numbers of Italian-Mexicans live in Guanajuato and the State of Mexico, and the former haciendas (now cities) of Nueva Italia, Michoacán and Lombardia, Michoacán, both founded by Dante Cusi from Gambar in Brescia.Playa del Carmen, Mahahual and Cancun in the state of Quintana Roo have also received a significant number of immigrants from Italy. Several families of Italian-Mexican descent were granted citizenship in the United States under the Bracero program to address a labor shortage of labor.
Italian companies have invested in Mexico, primarily in the tourism and hospitality industries. These ventures have sometimes resulted in settlements, but residents primarily live in the resort areas of the Riviera Maya, Baja California, Puerto Vallarta and Cancun. Although they generate employment, mainly in restaurants, hotels and entertainment centers, most employees have not become permanent residents of Mexico and live as ex-pats.
There were over 850,000 Mexicans of Italian descent, while there were around 10,000 Italian citizens.
| 2
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[
"Italian Costa Ricans",
"start point",
"Italy"
] |
Italian Costa Ricans (Italian: italo-costaricani; Spanish: ítalo-costarricenses) are Costa Rican-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Costa Rica during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Costa Rica. Most of them reside in San Vito, the capital city of the Coto Brus Canton. Both Italians and their descendants are referred to in the country as tútiles. There were over 380,000 Costa Ricans of Italian descent, corresponding to about 7.5% of Costa Rica's population, while there were around 2,300 Italian citizens.History
After Christopher Columbus's discovery of Costa Rica in 1502, only a few Italians—initially mostly from the Republic of Genoa—moved to live in the Costa Rica region. The italo-costarican historian Rita Bariatti named Girolamo Benzomi, Stefano Corti, Antonio Chapui, Jose Lombardo, Francesco Granado, and Benito Valerino are between those who created important families in colonial Costa Rica. In the 1883 census of Costa Rica there were only 63 Italian citizens and most of them lived in the San José area, but soon in 1888 there were 1,433 Italians working mainly in the creation of new railways.
In 1888, the railroad brought in laborers from Italy as an alternative workforce. The harsh work conditions prompted them to leave the railroad project although many remained in Costa Rica, settling in a government-sponsored colony known as San Vito in the Southern Pacific region.
However, one third of those Italian workers of the railways remained in Costa Rica and created a small but important community.In the 1920s and 1930s, the Italian community grew in importance, even because some Italo-costaricans reached top levels in the political arena. Julio Acosta García, a descendant from a Genoese family in San Jose since colonial times, served as President of Costa Rica from 1920 to 1924. In 1939 there were nearly 15,000 Italians resident in Costa Rica and many suffered persecutions during World War IIIn 1952, there was an influx of Italian immigrants, mainly farmers, who arrived in San Vito armed with tractors and other farm machinery, and began to farm the land intensively and to raise cattle. An Italian organization for agricultural colonization purchased 10,000 hectares of land from the government of Costa Rica.Indeed in the 1950s a group of 500 Italian colonists settled in the area of San Vito (that received this name as an homage to San Vito, an Italian saint).In 1952, in the midst of the post-war socio-economic crisis in Europe, the two brothers Ugo and Vito Sansonetti organised a group of Italian pioneers from 40 different places, from Trieste to Taranto, and including a handful from Istria (Istrian Italians) and Dalmatia (Dalmatian Italians), with the latter arriving during the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus.
This Italian immigration is a typical example of directed agricultural colonisation, similar in many ways to the process in other places in Latin America. The European immigrants were helped by the Comité Intergubernamental para las Migraciones Europeas (CIME), (Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration).
Vito Sansonetti, a seaman by profession, was the founder of the colonising company which he named Sociedad Italiana de Colonización Agricola (SICA), (Italian Agricultural Colonisation Society), and was in charge of negotiations with the Costa Rican authorities represented by the Instituto de Tierras y Colonización (ITCO) (Institute of Land and Colonisation).
San Vito is the only place in Costa Rica (other than some small communities) in which the teaching of the Italian language is compulsory in the educational system, and promoted by the Ministerio de Educación Pública (Ministry of Public Education) in order to preserve Italian customs and traditions. Additionally there is an Italian cultural center in San Vito, as well as several Italian restaurants. The Italian language is still usually spoken only by the older citizens of San Vito, even if many young people have some superficial knowledge.
| 0
|
[
"Italian Costa Ricans",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
Italian Costa Ricans (Italian: italo-costaricani; Spanish: ítalo-costarricenses) are Costa Rican-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Costa Rica during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Costa Rica. Most of them reside in San Vito, the capital city of the Coto Brus Canton. Both Italians and their descendants are referred to in the country as tútiles. There were over 380,000 Costa Ricans of Italian descent, corresponding to about 7.5% of Costa Rica's population, while there were around 2,300 Italian citizens.
| 1
|
[
"Italian Dominicans",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
Italian Dominicans (Italian: italo-dominicani; Spanish: ítalo-dominicanos) are Dominican-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to the Dominican Republic during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in the Dominican Republic. The Italian community in the Dominican Republic, considering both people of Italian ancestry and Italian birth, is the largest in the Caribbean region.History
There were a few hundred Italians who moved to live in "Santo Domingo" (as the Dominican Republic was then called), in the first centuries after the discovery of America in 1492. Most were religious, adventurers and traders.The turbulent years of Dominican independence even had a Dominican president whose ancestors came from Ravenna—Francisco Gregorio Billini. Indeed, Billini was president between 1884 and 1885, and gave his resignation early after refusing to limit the freedom of the press.At the end of the 19th century, the sugar industry produced much of wealth on the Caribbean island and attracted several hundred Italians who settled mainly in the capital Santo Domingo and its surroundings, such as La Romana.Italian Dominicans have left its mark on the history of the Caribbean country. The foundation of the oldest Dominican newspaper in 1889 was the work of an Italian, while the establishment of the Navy of the Dominican Republic was the work of the Genoese merchant Giovanni Battista Cambiaso. Finally, the design of the Palace of the President of the Dominican Republic, both aesthetically and structurally, was the work of an Italian engineer, Guido D'Alessandro.In 2010, Dominicans of Italian descent numbered around 300,000 (corresponding to about 3% of the total population of the Dominican Republic), while Italian citizens residing in the Caribbean nation numbered around 50,000, mainly concentrated in Boca Chica, Santiago de los Caballeros, La Romana and in the capital Santo Domingo. The Italian community in the Dominican Republic, considering both people of Italian ancestry and Italian birth, is the largest in the Caribbean region.
| 1
|
[
"Italian Dominicans",
"instance of",
"ethnic group"
] |
Italian Dominicans (Italian: italo-dominicani; Spanish: ítalo-dominicanos) are Dominican-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to the Dominican Republic during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in the Dominican Republic. The Italian community in the Dominican Republic, considering both people of Italian ancestry and Italian birth, is the largest in the Caribbean region.History
There were a few hundred Italians who moved to live in "Santo Domingo" (as the Dominican Republic was then called), in the first centuries after the discovery of America in 1492. Most were religious, adventurers and traders.
| 2
|
[
"Italian Paraguayans",
"start point",
"Italy"
] |
Italian Paraguayans (Italian: italo-paraguaiani; Spanish: ítalo-paraguayos) are one of the most prominent ethnic group in Paraguay, consisting of Paraguayan-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Paraguay during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Paraguay. Italian immigration to Paraguay has been one of the largest migration flows this South American country has received.Italians in Paraguay are the second-largest immigrant group in the country after the Spaniards. The Italian embassy calculates that nearly 40% of the Paraguayans have recent and distant Italian roots: about 2,500,000 Paraguayans are descendants of Italian emigrants to Paraguay. Over the years, many descendants of Italian immigrants came to occupy important positions in the public life of the country, such as the presidency of the republic, the vice-presidency, local administrations and congress.
| 0
|
[
"Italian Paraguayans",
"instance of",
"ethnic group"
] |
Italian Paraguayans (Italian: italo-paraguaiani; Spanish: ítalo-paraguayos) are one of the most prominent ethnic group in Paraguay, consisting of Paraguayan-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Paraguay during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Paraguay. Italian immigration to Paraguay has been one of the largest migration flows this South American country has received.Italians in Paraguay are the second-largest immigrant group in the country after the Spaniards. The Italian embassy calculates that nearly 40% of the Paraguayans have recent and distant Italian roots: about 2,500,000 Paraguayans are descendants of Italian emigrants to Paraguay. Over the years, many descendants of Italian immigrants came to occupy important positions in the public life of the country, such as the presidency of the republic, the vice-presidency, local administrations and congress.Actual Italian community
It is estimated by academics that about 2,500,000 Paraguayans have Italian ancestry, corresponding to 37%-40% of the total Paraguayan population. Italians are now fully integrated into Paraguayan society, due to the many marriages between Italians and Paraguayan girls (after the massacres in the war of 1870 that left only a few native Paraguayan males). The number of Italian citizens resident in Paraguay in 2019 was about 13,000.
| 1
|
[
"Italian Peruvians",
"start point",
"Italy"
] |
Italian Peruvians (Italian: italo-peruviani; Spanish: ítalo-peruanos) are Peruvian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Peru during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Peru. Among European Peruvians, Italians were the second largest group of immigrants to settle in the country. Italian immigration in Peru began in the colonial era, during the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru.However, the peak of Italian immigrants occurred after Peruvian independence, between 1840 and 1880, with the guano export boom. In the following years, from 1914 to 1950, waves of Italian immigration followed due to the two world wars, which destroyed most of the Italian cities, while other Italians arrived from Argentina and Brazil, mainly merchants, peasants and technicians, who then formed families in Peru, where they settled permanently.History
Spanish colonial era
The Italian community is characterized by having started since the times of the Spanish colony in Peru. Concentrated in and around Lima, these first Italians (a few hundred only) mostly came from the Genoa area. Many of them achieved first-level political-economic positions in colonial and postcolonial Peruvian society. The presence of Ligurians in Peru since the 16th century can be explained by the bond that the Republic of Genoa had with Spain. They settled in Peru mostly to engage in trade and navigation.Between 1532 and 1560, 50 Italians established in Lima (Viceroyalty of Peru) and Callao, mostly from Liguria and Tuscany, such as Martin from Florence, Pietro Catagno, Pietro Martín from Sicily (all of them involved in Atahualpa's capture), Juan Bautista Pastene, born in Genoa in 1505 and also present since the beginning of the Spanish Conquest of the Inca Empire.After independence
After the independence of the Spanish colonies, which was caused by the crisis in Spain, the immigration of Italians to Peru increased considerably. Initially Ligurian sailors emigrated to Peru, who founded numerous commercial activities along the coasts of the country. Again from Liguria, many peasants fleeing poverty began to emigrate to Peru. The latter, having arrived in Peru, dedicated themselves to the cultivation of the land and to small trade. This migration of Italians began to be consistent starting from 1840 thanks to the conspicuous economic growth of Peru, which was caused by the export of guano.Only after the unification of Italy in 1861 was there mass emigration, especially from the impoverished countryside of Veneto and broader Italy. The first wave of Italian immigration to an independent Peru occurred during the period 1840–1866 (the "Guano" Era): not less than 15,000 Italians arrived to Peru during this period (without counting the non-registered Italians) and established mainly in the coastal cities, especially, in Lima and Callao. They came, mostly, from the northern regions (Liguria, Piedmont, Tuscany and Lombardy). Giuseppe Garibaldi arrived to Peru in 1851, as well as other Italians who participated in the Milan rebellion like Giuseppe Eboli, Steban Siccoli, Antonio Raimondi and Arrigoni. Subsequently, there was a decline in them, as a result of the war between Chile and Peru. The great wave of Italian migration to Peru ended around 1880, after which Italians began to arrive in Peru in much smaller numbers. From 1880, there was in fact a drastic drop in the export of guano, a situation which continued also in the following decades without ever reaching the previous levels.
| 0
|
[
"Italian Peruvians",
"country",
"Peru"
] |
Italian Peruvians (Italian: italo-peruviani; Spanish: ítalo-peruanos) are Peruvian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Peru during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Peru. Among European Peruvians, Italians were the second largest group of immigrants to settle in the country. Italian immigration in Peru began in the colonial era, during the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru.However, the peak of Italian immigrants occurred after Peruvian independence, between 1840 and 1880, with the guano export boom. In the following years, from 1914 to 1950, waves of Italian immigration followed due to the two world wars, which destroyed most of the Italian cities, while other Italians arrived from Argentina and Brazil, mainly merchants, peasants and technicians, who then formed families in Peru, where they settled permanently.
| 1
|
[
"Italian Peruvians",
"instance of",
"ethnic group"
] |
Italian Peruvians (Italian: italo-peruviani; Spanish: ítalo-peruanos) are Peruvian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Peru during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Peru. Among European Peruvians, Italians were the second largest group of immigrants to settle in the country. Italian immigration in Peru began in the colonial era, during the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru.However, the peak of Italian immigrants occurred after Peruvian independence, between 1840 and 1880, with the guano export boom. In the following years, from 1914 to 1950, waves of Italian immigration followed due to the two world wars, which destroyed most of the Italian cities, while other Italians arrived from Argentina and Brazil, mainly merchants, peasants and technicians, who then formed families in Peru, where they settled permanently.
| 2
|
[
"Italian Peruvians",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
Italian Peruvians (Italian: italo-peruviani; Spanish: ítalo-peruanos) are Peruvian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Peru during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Peru. Among European Peruvians, Italians were the second largest group of immigrants to settle in the country. Italian immigration in Peru began in the colonial era, during the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru.However, the peak of Italian immigrants occurred after Peruvian independence, between 1840 and 1880, with the guano export boom. In the following years, from 1914 to 1950, waves of Italian immigration followed due to the two world wars, which destroyed most of the Italian cities, while other Italians arrived from Argentina and Brazil, mainly merchants, peasants and technicians, who then formed families in Peru, where they settled permanently.
| 3
|
[
"Italian Peruvians",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Peruvian people of Italian descent"
] |
Italian Peruvians (Italian: italo-peruviani; Spanish: ítalo-peruanos) are Peruvian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Peru during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Peru. Among European Peruvians, Italians were the second largest group of immigrants to settle in the country. Italian immigration in Peru began in the colonial era, during the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru.However, the peak of Italian immigrants occurred after Peruvian independence, between 1840 and 1880, with the guano export boom. In the following years, from 1914 to 1950, waves of Italian immigration followed due to the two world wars, which destroyed most of the Italian cities, while other Italians arrived from Argentina and Brazil, mainly merchants, peasants and technicians, who then formed families in Peru, where they settled permanently.
| 4
|
[
"Italian South Africans",
"instance of",
"ethnic group"
] |
Italian South Africans (Italian: italo-sudafricani) are South African-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to South Africa during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in South Africa. They are primarily descended from Italians who emigrated to South Africa during the late 19th century and early 20th century.
| 1
|
[
"Italian Colombian",
"start point",
"Italy"
] |
Italian Colombians (Italian: italo-colombiani; Spanish: ítalo-colombianos) are Colombian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Colombia during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Colombia. Italians have been immigrating to Colombia since the early 16th century.
| 0
|
[
"Italian Colombian",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
Italian Colombians (Italian: italo-colombiani; Spanish: ítalo-colombianos) are Colombian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Colombia during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Colombia. Italians have been immigrating to Colombia since the early 16th century.
| 1
|
[
"Italian Ecuadorians",
"start point",
"Italy"
] |
Italian Ecuadorians (Italian: italo-ecuadoriani; Spanish: ítalo-ecuatorianos) are Ecuadorian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Ecuador during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Ecuador.
Italian immigration to Ecuador has developed above all in the last two centuries. Ecuador is a country in which there are Italian communities, which – like other countries in Latin America – have spread throughout the national territory. The Italians who immigrated to Ecuador are predominantly Ligurian.History
The first Italians heading to Ecuador embarked from the port of Genoa in the 19th century. Many of these Italians were sailors and inhabitants of rural regions, who ventured to emigrate to South American lands. First, they sailed to the Chilean ports, then the migratory waves extended to the northernmost ports (Peru and Ecuador). A part of the Italian immigrants arrived in Guayaquil from Peru, fleeing the Peruvian/Chilean war.
Before World War I, a small colony of Italians existed in Ecuador; 650 in total, of whom 500 lived in Guayaquil. Almost two-thirds were originally from Liguria and were mainly engaged in trade between Ecuador and Europe.Starting from the 1920s, many Italians emigrated to the coasts of Ecuador; the vast majority settled in Guayaquil.In 1921, the Italians founded "La Previsora", the first financial company in Ecuador, which promoted the cultivation and marketing of Ecuadorian cocoa in the world. The Italian government sent the "Accorsi Mission" to Ecuador for economic-military aid and an agricultural colony of Italians was planned near the Colombian border, but the intervention of the United States and its oil companies (which feared the Italian presence) blocked everything.Italians were very well accepted in the country due to their integration with Ecuadorian culture. Along with the presence of the Spanish on the north and south coasts of the country, the Italians began to develop various activities on the coasts. In Guayaquil, they established shops and various industries.There are currently almost 56,000 descendants of Italians in Ecuador, being one of the lowest rates of migrant ancestry in Ecuador, where Arabs and Spaniards play a more prominent role, while there were around 19,000 Italian citizens. However, Argentine and Colombian immigrants who have entered the country since the end of the last century (80% and 50% respectively were made up of Italian descendants).
| 0
|
[
"Italian Ecuadorians",
"instance of",
"diaspora or migration by origin and host country"
] |
Italian Ecuadorians (Italian: italo-ecuadoriani; Spanish: ítalo-ecuatorianos) are Ecuadorian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Ecuador during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Ecuador.
Italian immigration to Ecuador has developed above all in the last two centuries. Ecuador is a country in which there are Italian communities, which – like other countries in Latin America – have spread throughout the national territory. The Italians who immigrated to Ecuador are predominantly Ligurian.History
The first Italians heading to Ecuador embarked from the port of Genoa in the 19th century. Many of these Italians were sailors and inhabitants of rural regions, who ventured to emigrate to South American lands. First, they sailed to the Chilean ports, then the migratory waves extended to the northernmost ports (Peru and Ecuador). A part of the Italian immigrants arrived in Guayaquil from Peru, fleeing the Peruvian/Chilean war.
Before World War I, a small colony of Italians existed in Ecuador; 650 in total, of whom 500 lived in Guayaquil. Almost two-thirds were originally from Liguria and were mainly engaged in trade between Ecuador and Europe.Starting from the 1920s, many Italians emigrated to the coasts of Ecuador; the vast majority settled in Guayaquil.In 1921, the Italians founded "La Previsora", the first financial company in Ecuador, which promoted the cultivation and marketing of Ecuadorian cocoa in the world. The Italian government sent the "Accorsi Mission" to Ecuador for economic-military aid and an agricultural colony of Italians was planned near the Colombian border, but the intervention of the United States and its oil companies (which feared the Italian presence) blocked everything.Italians were very well accepted in the country due to their integration with Ecuadorian culture. Along with the presence of the Spanish on the north and south coasts of the country, the Italians began to develop various activities on the coasts. In Guayaquil, they established shops and various industries.There are currently almost 56,000 descendants of Italians in Ecuador, being one of the lowest rates of migrant ancestry in Ecuador, where Arabs and Spaniards play a more prominent role, while there were around 19,000 Italian citizens. However, Argentine and Colombian immigrants who have entered the country since the end of the last century (80% and 50% respectively were made up of Italian descendants).
| 1
|
[
"Italian Panamanians",
"start point",
"Italy"
] |
Italian Panamanians (Italian: italo-panamensi; Spanish: ítalo-panameños) are Panamanian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Panama during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Panama. Italian Panamanians are mainly descendant of Italians attracted by the construction of the Panama Canal, between the 19th and 20th century.
| 0
|
[
"Italian Panamanians",
"instance of",
"ethnic group"
] |
Italian Panamanians (Italian: italo-panamensi; Spanish: ítalo-panameños) are Panamanian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Panama during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Panama. Italian Panamanians are mainly descendant of Italians attracted by the construction of the Panama Canal, between the 19th and 20th century.
| 1
|
[
"Italian Panamanians",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
Italian Panamanians (Italian: italo-panamensi; Spanish: ítalo-panameños) are Panamanian-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Panama during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Panama. Italian Panamanians are mainly descendant of Italians attracted by the construction of the Panama Canal, between the 19th and 20th century.History
The history of Italian immigrants in Panama begins from 1510, when several Italian citizens decided to emigrate to Panama City founded by Pedrarias Davila.
From 1520 some Genoese merchants ruled the commerce of Old Panama (Panamá Viejo) on the Pacific Ocean for a century, thanks to a concession given by the Spaniards, who had the Republic of Genoa as allies.Between 1596 and 1597 already there were 11 Italians in Panama, for naturalization and the right to stay in Panama. According to a census around 1607, Panama City had 548 inhabitants (some of them descendants of the first Genoese settlers), of whom 53 were foreigners and of these 18 were Italians, 6 of which were domiciled by the composition of foreigners.After de independence, the Italian presence continued to emphasize immigrants such as Agostino Codazzi and Napoleone Garella, who in the nineteenth century and at different times, performed studies that recommended Panama as the ideal for the construction of an interoceanic canal.
Meanwhile, in 1844, Garella was the first engineer assigned by the French government to find a route for the construction of the Canal and in his studies recommended the route of the isthmus of Panama over the routes suggested by the isthmus of Tehuantepec and Nicaragua. During the isthmus canal project and construction continued to arrive eminent Italians from scientists, artists, priests and merchants, to craftsmen and laborers. They founded families whose descendants were quickly integrated the dynamic process of formation of the Panamanian nationality. One was elected President of Panama in 1949 and 1960: Roberto Francisco Chiari Remón (March 2, 1905 in Panama City – March 1, 1981) was the President of Panama in 1949 and later from 1960 to 1964. He belonged to the Liberal Party. In the 1920s even his father (Rodolfo Chiari) was president.
| 2
|
[
"Italian Cubans",
"start point",
"Italy"
] |
Italian Cubans (Italian: italo-cubani; Spanish: ítalo-cubanos) are Cuban-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Cuba during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Cuba. Italian emigration into Cuba was minor (a few thousand emigrates) in comparison with other waves of Italian emigration to the Americas (millions went to Argentina, Venezuela, Brazil and the United States).History
After Christopher Columbus (Italian from Genoa), accidentally found Cuba in 1492, the first Italians arrived with the Spanish conquistadores. Some were sailors and soldiers of fortune but most were missionaries. In 1605 shipwrecked Italian sailors founded the city of Mantua, Cuba in the far west of the island. These sailors came from the Genoa and Venice areas.The Royal Decree of Graces (Real Cédula de Gracias) which was originated 10 August 1815 by the Spanish Crown, was issued with the intention of attracting European settlers who were not of Spanish origin to populate what would be the two remaining colonies of the Spanish Empire: Puerto Rico and Cuba.
| 0
|
[
"Italian Cubans",
"instance of",
"diaspora or migration by origin and host country"
] |
History
After Christopher Columbus (Italian from Genoa), accidentally found Cuba in 1492, the first Italians arrived with the Spanish conquistadores. Some were sailors and soldiers of fortune but most were missionaries. In 1605 shipwrecked Italian sailors founded the city of Mantua, Cuba in the far west of the island. These sailors came from the Genoa and Venice areas.The Royal Decree of Graces (Real Cédula de Gracias) which was originated 10 August 1815 by the Spanish Crown, was issued with the intention of attracting European settlers who were not of Spanish origin to populate what would be the two remaining colonies of the Spanish Empire: Puerto Rico and Cuba.
| 1
|
[
"Italian Hondurans",
"start point",
"Italy"
] |
Italian Hondurans (Italian: italo-honduregni; Spanish: ítalo-hondureños) are Honduran-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Honduras during the Italian diaspora, or Italian-born people in Honduras.History
In the 19th century, Lieutenant Colonel Feliciano Viviani of Italian origin appeared in the ranks of the allied army, protector of Central American law, under the command of Francisco Morazán. Viviani would die in the battle of Omoa in 1832.
In the year 1853, the European traveler of English nationality Mary Lester arrived in Comayagua and recorded that several foreign families resided in Honduras, adding also that in the south of the country, in Nacaome, Aramecina and Langue, there were Italian immigrants who managed tavern, inns and lodgings.In the general census of the Republic of Honduras, carried out on 15 June 1887, foreigners were summarized as 185 North Americans, 77 Spaniards, 72 French, 1,033 English, 43 Germans, 4 Russians, 2 Swiss, 13 Italians, 4 Belgians, 2 Danes, 1 Dutch, 1 Portuguese, 1 Brazilian and 1 Chinese.The influx of Italian citizens to settle in the Republic of Honduras became evident within the first three decades of the 20th century. Among them stood out businessmen, architects, aviators, engineers, artists in various fields, etc. In 1911 the participation of immigrants in the development of the country began to be evident, especially families from Europe (Germany, Italy, France). The main marketing items were coffee, bananas, precious woods, gold and silver.The count of immigrants residing in Honduras, according to reports between 1887 and 1935, showed that:
When World War II broke out, under the presidency of Tiburcio Carías Andino, was issued decree no. 5 of 13 December 1941, with which the Republic of Honduras declared war on Nazi Germany and on Kingdom of Italy; but the Italian citizens did not receive limitations and harassment from the Honduran government, such as that received by German immigrants.
| 0
|
[
"Italians in Spain",
"start point",
"Italy"
] |
Italians in Spain are one of the largest communities of immigrant groups in Spain, with 257,256 Italian citizens in the country; conversely, 142,401 residents in Spain were born in Italy. A significant part of the Italian community in Spain are not from Italy but emigrated from Italian descended communities in countries like Argentina or Uruguay.The immigration rate of Italian nationals increased in the second part of the 2010s, and, in 2018, Italians trumped Chinese nationals as the third biggest foreign nationality in the Spanish workforce. Most of the Italians citizens dwell in Catalonia, the Community of Madrid, the Valencian Community, the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands.Over 70% of Italian citizens residing in Spain are on retirement living in the Canary Islands, Costa Blanca and Costa del Sol.
| 1
|
[
"Italians in Spain",
"instance of",
"human migration"
] |
Italians in Spain are one of the largest communities of immigrant groups in Spain, with 257,256 Italian citizens in the country; conversely, 142,401 residents in Spain were born in Italy. A significant part of the Italian community in Spain are not from Italy but emigrated from Italian descended communities in countries like Argentina or Uruguay.The immigration rate of Italian nationals increased in the second part of the 2010s, and, in 2018, Italians trumped Chinese nationals as the third biggest foreign nationality in the Spanish workforce. Most of the Italians citizens dwell in Catalonia, the Community of Madrid, the Valencian Community, the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands.Over 70% of Italian citizens residing in Spain are on retirement living in the Canary Islands, Costa Blanca and Costa del Sol.
| 2
|
[
"Istanbul Convention",
"instance of",
"international human rights instrument"
] |
Main provisions
The Istanbul Convention is the first legally-binding instrument which "creates a comprehensive legal framework and approach to combat violence against women" and is focused on preventing domestic violence, protecting victims and prosecuting accused offenders.It characterizes violence against women as a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination (Art.3(a)). Countries should exercise due diligence when preventing violence, protecting victims and prosecuting perpetrators (Art. 5). The convention also contains a definition of gender: for the purpose of the Convention gender is defined in Article 3(c) as "the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for women and men". Moreover, the treaty establishes a series of offences characterized as violence against women. States which ratify the Convention must criminalize several offences, including: psychological violence (Art.33); stalking (Art.34); physical violence (Art.35); sexual violence, including rape, explicitly covering all engagement in non-consensual acts of a sexual nature with a person (Art.36), forced marriage (Art.37); female genital mutilation (Art.38), forced abortion and forced sterilisation (Art.39). The Convention states that sexual harassment must be subject to "criminal or other legal sanction" (Art. 40). The convention also includes an article targeting crimes committed in the name of "so-called honour" (Art. 42).
| 10
|
[
"Istanbul Convention",
"instance of",
"Council of Europe treaty"
] |
The Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence, better known as the Istanbul Convention, is a human rights treaty of the Council of Europe opposing violence against women and domestic violence which was opened for signature on 11 May 2011, in Istanbul, Turkey. The convention aims at prevention of violence, victim protection and to end the impunity of perpetrators. As of March 2019, it has been signed by 45 countries and the European Union. On 12 March 2012, Turkey became the first country to ratify the convention, followed by 37 other countries from 2013 to 2022 (Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, the Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, United Kingdom). The Convention came into force on 1 August 2014. In 2021, Turkey became the first and only country to withdraw from the convention, after denouncing it on 20 March 2021. The convention ceased to be effective in Turkey on 1 July 2021, following its denunciation.
| 11
|
[
"Interim Constitution (South Africa)",
"country",
"South Africa"
] |
The Interim Constitution was the fundamental law of South Africa from the first non-racial general election on 27 April 1994 until it was superseded by the final constitution on 4 February 1997. As a transitional constitution it required the newly elected Parliament to also serve as a constituent assembly to adopt a final constitution. It made provision for a major restructuring of government as a consequence of the abolition of apartheid. It also introduced an entrenched bill of rights against which legislation and government action could be tested, and created the Constitutional Court with broad powers of judicial review.
| 0
|
[
"Interim Constitution (South Africa)",
"applies to jurisdiction",
"South Africa"
] |
The Interim Constitution was the fundamental law of South Africa from the first non-racial general election on 27 April 1994 until it was superseded by the final constitution on 4 February 1997. As a transitional constitution it required the newly elected Parliament to also serve as a constituent assembly to adopt a final constitution. It made provision for a major restructuring of government as a consequence of the abolition of apartheid. It also introduced an entrenched bill of rights against which legislation and government action could be tested, and created the Constitutional Court with broad powers of judicial review.
| 1
|
[
"Interim Constitution (South Africa)",
"instance of",
"constitution"
] |
The Interim Constitution was the fundamental law of South Africa from the first non-racial general election on 27 April 1994 until it was superseded by the final constitution on 4 February 1997. As a transitional constitution it required the newly elected Parliament to also serve as a constituent assembly to adopt a final constitution. It made provision for a major restructuring of government as a consequence of the abolition of apartheid. It also introduced an entrenched bill of rights against which legislation and government action could be tested, and created the Constitutional Court with broad powers of judicial review.History
An integral part of the negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa was the creation of a new, non-discriminatory constitution for the country. One of the major disputed issues was the process by which such a constitution would be adopted. The African National Congress (ANC) insisted that it should be drawn up by a democratically elected constituent assembly, while the governing National Party (NP) feared that the rights of minorities would not be protected in such a process, and proposed instead that the constitution be negotiated by consensus between the parties and then put to a referendum.Formal negotiations began in December 1991 at the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA). The parties agreed on a process, whereby a negotiated transitional constitution would provide for an elected constitutional assembly to draw up a permanent constitution. The CODESA negotiations broke down, however, after the second plenary session in May 1992. One of the major points of dispute was the size of the supermajority that would be required for the assembly to adopt the constitution: the NP wanted a 75 per cent requirement, which would effectively have given it a veto.In April 1993, the parties returned to negotiations, in what was known as the Multi-Party Negotiating Process (MPNP). A committee of the MPNP proposed the development of a collection of "constitutional principles" with which the final constitution would have to comply, so that basic freedoms would be ensured and minority rights protected, without overly limiting the role of the elected constitutional assembly. Adopting this idea, the parties to the MPNP drew up the Interim Constitution, which was formally enacted by the apartheid-era Tricameral Parliament and came into force on 27 April 1994.
| 2
|
[
"Interim Constitution (South Africa)",
"repealed by",
"Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996"
] |
The Interim Constitution was the fundamental law of South Africa from the first non-racial general election on 27 April 1994 until it was superseded by the final constitution on 4 February 1997. As a transitional constitution it required the newly elected Parliament to also serve as a constituent assembly to adopt a final constitution. It made provision for a major restructuring of government as a consequence of the abolition of apartheid. It also introduced an entrenched bill of rights against which legislation and government action could be tested, and created the Constitutional Court with broad powers of judicial review.
| 3
|
[
"Interim Constitution (South Africa)",
"instance of",
"provisional constitution"
] |
The Interim Constitution was the fundamental law of South Africa from the first non-racial general election on 27 April 1994 until it was superseded by the final constitution on 4 February 1997. As a transitional constitution it required the newly elected Parliament to also serve as a constituent assembly to adopt a final constitution. It made provision for a major restructuring of government as a consequence of the abolition of apartheid. It also introduced an entrenched bill of rights against which legislation and government action could be tested, and created the Constitutional Court with broad powers of judicial review.History
An integral part of the negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa was the creation of a new, non-discriminatory constitution for the country. One of the major disputed issues was the process by which such a constitution would be adopted. The African National Congress (ANC) insisted that it should be drawn up by a democratically elected constituent assembly, while the governing National Party (NP) feared that the rights of minorities would not be protected in such a process, and proposed instead that the constitution be negotiated by consensus between the parties and then put to a referendum.Formal negotiations began in December 1991 at the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA). The parties agreed on a process, whereby a negotiated transitional constitution would provide for an elected constitutional assembly to draw up a permanent constitution. The CODESA negotiations broke down, however, after the second plenary session in May 1992. One of the major points of dispute was the size of the supermajority that would be required for the assembly to adopt the constitution: the NP wanted a 75 per cent requirement, which would effectively have given it a veto.In April 1993, the parties returned to negotiations, in what was known as the Multi-Party Negotiating Process (MPNP). A committee of the MPNP proposed the development of a collection of "constitutional principles" with which the final constitution would have to comply, so that basic freedoms would be ensured and minority rights protected, without overly limiting the role of the elected constitutional assembly. Adopting this idea, the parties to the MPNP drew up the Interim Constitution, which was formally enacted by the apartheid-era Tricameral Parliament and came into force on 27 April 1994.
| 11
|
[
"Interim Constitution (South Africa)",
"instance of",
"act of the Parliament of South Africa"
] |
History
An integral part of the negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa was the creation of a new, non-discriminatory constitution for the country. One of the major disputed issues was the process by which such a constitution would be adopted. The African National Congress (ANC) insisted that it should be drawn up by a democratically elected constituent assembly, while the governing National Party (NP) feared that the rights of minorities would not be protected in such a process, and proposed instead that the constitution be negotiated by consensus between the parties and then put to a referendum.Formal negotiations began in December 1991 at the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA). The parties agreed on a process, whereby a negotiated transitional constitution would provide for an elected constitutional assembly to draw up a permanent constitution. The CODESA negotiations broke down, however, after the second plenary session in May 1992. One of the major points of dispute was the size of the supermajority that would be required for the assembly to adopt the constitution: the NP wanted a 75 per cent requirement, which would effectively have given it a veto.In April 1993, the parties returned to negotiations, in what was known as the Multi-Party Negotiating Process (MPNP). A committee of the MPNP proposed the development of a collection of "constitutional principles" with which the final constitution would have to comply, so that basic freedoms would be ensured and minority rights protected, without overly limiting the role of the elected constitutional assembly. Adopting this idea, the parties to the MPNP drew up the Interim Constitution, which was formally enacted by the apartheid-era Tricameral Parliament and came into force on 27 April 1994.
| 37
|
[
"Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"applies to jurisdiction",
"United States of America"
] |
The Eighteenth Amendment (Amendment XVIII) to the United States Constitution established the prohibition of alcohol in the United States. The amendment was proposed by Congress on December 18, 1917, and was ratified by the requisite number of states on January 16, 1919. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment on December 5, 1933—it is the only amendment to be repealed.
The Eighteenth Amendment was the product of decades of efforts by the temperance movement, which held that a ban on the sale of alcohol would ameliorate poverty and other societal problems. The Eighteenth Amendment declared the production, transport and sale of intoxicating liquors illegal, although it did not outlaw the actual consumption of alcohol. Shortly after the amendment was ratified, Congress passed the Volstead Act to provide for the federal enforcement of Prohibition. The Volstead Act declared that liquor, wine and beer qualified as intoxicating liquors and were therefore prohibited. Under the terms of the Eighteenth Amendment, Prohibition began on January 17, 1920, one year after the amendment was ratified.
Although the Eighteenth Amendment led to a decline in alcohol consumption in the United States, nationwide enforcement of Prohibition proved difficult, particularly in cities. Alcohol smuggling (known as rum-running or bootlegging) and illicit bars (speakeasies) became popular in many areas. Public sentiment began to turn against Prohibition during the 1920s, and 1932 Democratic presidential nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt called for its repeal. The Eighteenth Amendment became the only constitutional amendment to be repealed in its entirety when the Twenty-first Amendment was ratified in 1933.
| 1
|
[
"Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"instance of",
"constitutional amendment"
] |
The Eighteenth Amendment (Amendment XVIII) to the United States Constitution established the prohibition of alcohol in the United States. The amendment was proposed by Congress on December 18, 1917, and was ratified by the requisite number of states on January 16, 1919. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment on December 5, 1933—it is the only amendment to be repealed.
The Eighteenth Amendment was the product of decades of efforts by the temperance movement, which held that a ban on the sale of alcohol would ameliorate poverty and other societal problems. The Eighteenth Amendment declared the production, transport and sale of intoxicating liquors illegal, although it did not outlaw the actual consumption of alcohol. Shortly after the amendment was ratified, Congress passed the Volstead Act to provide for the federal enforcement of Prohibition. The Volstead Act declared that liquor, wine and beer qualified as intoxicating liquors and were therefore prohibited. Under the terms of the Eighteenth Amendment, Prohibition began on January 17, 1920, one year after the amendment was ratified.
Although the Eighteenth Amendment led to a decline in alcohol consumption in the United States, nationwide enforcement of Prohibition proved difficult, particularly in cities. Alcohol smuggling (known as rum-running or bootlegging) and illicit bars (speakeasies) became popular in many areas. Public sentiment began to turn against Prohibition during the 1920s, and 1932 Democratic presidential nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt called for its repeal. The Eighteenth Amendment became the only constitutional amendment to be repealed in its entirety when the Twenty-first Amendment was ratified in 1933.
| 3
|
[
"Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"repealed by",
"Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution"
] |
The Volstead Act
This legislation that would become the National Prohibition Act was conceived and introduced by Wayne Wheeler, a leader of the Anti-Saloon League, a group that found alcohol responsible for almost all of society's problems and that also ran many campaigns against the sale of alcohol. The law was strongly supported by the powerful Minnesota Republican congressman Andrew Volstead, chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, whose name came to be informally associated with the act. The act laid the groundwork for Prohibition, defining the procedures for banning the distribution of alcohol, including production and distribution.Volstead had previously introduced an early version of the law to Congress. It was first brought to the floor on May 27, 1919 but met heavy resistance from Democratic senators. Instead, the so-called "wet law" was introduced, an attempt to end the wartime prohibition laws put into effect much earlier. The debate over prohibition persisted for that entire session, as the House was divided among groups who become known as the "bone-drys" and the "wets." The Volstead Act finally passed the Republican-led House of Representatives on July 22, 1919, with 287 in favor and 100 opposed.
However, the act was largely a failure, proving unable to prevent mass distribution of alcoholic beverages and also inadvertently causing a massive increase in organized crime. The act defined the terms and enforcement methods of Prohibition until the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment repealed it in 1933.Calls for repeal
Public sentiment turned against Prohibition by the late 1920s, and the Great Depression only hastened its demise, as opponents argued that the ban on alcohol denied jobs to the unemployed and much-needed revenue to the government. The efforts of the nonpartisan Association Against the Prohibition Amendment (AAPA) added to public disillusionment. In 1932, the platform of Democratic presidential candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt included a plank for repealing the 18th Amendment, and his victory that November ensured the end of Prohibition.
In February 1933, Congress adopted a resolution proposing the Twenty-first Amendment, which repealed the 18th Amendment and modified the Volstead Act to permit the sale of beer. The resolution required state conventions, rather than the state legislatures, to approve the amendment, effectively reducing the process to a one-state, one-vote referendum rather than a popular vote. A few states continued statewide prohibition after 1933, but by 1966 they all had abandoned it.
| 4
|
[
"Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"main subject",
"prohibition in the United States"
] |
The Eighteenth Amendment (Amendment XVIII) to the United States Constitution established the prohibition of alcohol in the United States. The amendment was proposed by Congress on December 18, 1917, and was ratified by the requisite number of states on January 16, 1919. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment on December 5, 1933—it is the only amendment to be repealed.
The Eighteenth Amendment was the product of decades of efforts by the temperance movement, which held that a ban on the sale of alcohol would ameliorate poverty and other societal problems. The Eighteenth Amendment declared the production, transport and sale of intoxicating liquors illegal, although it did not outlaw the actual consumption of alcohol. Shortly after the amendment was ratified, Congress passed the Volstead Act to provide for the federal enforcement of Prohibition. The Volstead Act declared that liquor, wine and beer qualified as intoxicating liquors and were therefore prohibited. Under the terms of the Eighteenth Amendment, Prohibition began on January 17, 1920, one year after the amendment was ratified.
Although the Eighteenth Amendment led to a decline in alcohol consumption in the United States, nationwide enforcement of Prohibition proved difficult, particularly in cities. Alcohol smuggling (known as rum-running or bootlegging) and illicit bars (speakeasies) became popular in many areas. Public sentiment began to turn against Prohibition during the 1920s, and 1932 Democratic presidential nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt called for its repeal. The Eighteenth Amendment became the only constitutional amendment to be repealed in its entirety when the Twenty-first Amendment was ratified in 1933.Background
The Eighteenth Amendment was the result of decades of effort by the temperance movement in the United States and at the time was generally considered a progressive amendment. Founded in 1893 in Saratoga, New York, the Anti-Saloon League (ASL) started in 1906 a campaign to ban the sale of alcohol at the state level. Their speeches, advertisements, and public demonstrations claimed that prohibition of alcohol would eliminate poverty and ameliorate social problems such as immoral sexual behavior and violence. The ASL argued that prohibition would inspire new forms of sociability, create happier families, reduce workplace accidents, and improve the world overall. (Following the repeal of Prohibition, the group merged into the National Temperance League.)
Other groups, such as the Women's Christian Temperance Union, also launched efforts to ban the sale, manufacture, and distribution of alcoholic beverages. Churches were also highly influential in gaining new members and support, garnering 6,000 local societies in several different states. The well-known reformer Carrie Nation became a household name for her militancy, such as vandalizing saloon property. Many state legislatures had already enacted statewide prohibition prior to the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment but did not ban the consumption of alcohol in most households. By 1916, 23 of 48 states had already passed laws against saloons, some even banning the manufacture of alcohol.
| 6
|
[
"Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"instance of",
"Amendment to the United States Constitution"
] |
The Eighteenth Amendment (Amendment XVIII) to the United States Constitution established the prohibition of alcohol in the United States. The amendment was proposed by Congress on December 18, 1917, and was ratified by the requisite number of states on January 16, 1919. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment on December 5, 1933—it is the only amendment to be repealed.
The Eighteenth Amendment was the product of decades of efforts by the temperance movement, which held that a ban on the sale of alcohol would ameliorate poverty and other societal problems. The Eighteenth Amendment declared the production, transport and sale of intoxicating liquors illegal, although it did not outlaw the actual consumption of alcohol. Shortly after the amendment was ratified, Congress passed the Volstead Act to provide for the federal enforcement of Prohibition. The Volstead Act declared that liquor, wine and beer qualified as intoxicating liquors and were therefore prohibited. Under the terms of the Eighteenth Amendment, Prohibition began on January 17, 1920, one year after the amendment was ratified.
Although the Eighteenth Amendment led to a decline in alcohol consumption in the United States, nationwide enforcement of Prohibition proved difficult, particularly in cities. Alcohol smuggling (known as rum-running or bootlegging) and illicit bars (speakeasies) became popular in many areas. Public sentiment began to turn against Prohibition during the 1920s, and 1932 Democratic presidential nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt called for its repeal. The Eighteenth Amendment became the only constitutional amendment to be repealed in its entirety when the Twenty-first Amendment was ratified in 1933.
| 7
|
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