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1993 Bishopsgate bombing	bombing commercial targets sought damage economy cause severe disruption believed would put pressure british government negotiate withdrawal northern ireland.early northern ireland peace process delicate stage attempts broker ira ceasefire ongoing.gerry adams sinn féin john hume social democratic labour party engaged private dialogue since view establishing broad irish nationalist coalition.british prime minister john major refused openly enter talks sinn féin ira declared ceasefire.risk ira attack city london increased due lack progress political talks resulting warning circulated police forces britain highlighting intelligence reports possible attack felt ira enough personnel equipment funds launch sustained campaign england.
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	april ira detonated truck bomb outside baltic exchange st. mary axe.baltic exchange bombing caused £ million worth damage equivalent £ million £ million total damage caused explosions occurred troubles northern ireland point.bombing march iveco tipper truck stolen newcastleunderlyme staffordshire repainted white dark blue.tonne anfo bomb made iras south armagh brigade smuggled england placed truck hidden underneath layer tarmac.april two volunteers ira active service unit drove truck containing bomb onto bishopsgate.
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	parked truck outside bishopsgate uk headquarters hsbc located junction wormwood street camomile street left area car driven accomplice.series telephone warnings sent phonebox forkhill county armagh northern ireland caller using recognised ira codeword stating theres massive bomb… clear wide area.first warnings sent one hour bomb detonated.two police officers already making inquiries truck warnings received police began evacuating area.the bomb exploded causing extensive damage buildings along significant stretch bishopsgate.blast raised mushroom cloud could seen across much london gouged foot wide crater street.
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	buildings metres away damaged sq ft office space affected tonnes glass broken.natwest tower — time citys tallest skyscraper – amongst structures badly damaged many windows east side tower destroyed one newspaper described black gaps punched fiftytwo floors like mouth full bad teeth.damage extended far north liverpool street station south beyond threadneedle street.st ethelburgas church seven metres away bomb collapsed result explosion.cost repair estimated time £ billion.
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	civilian casualties low saturday morning city typically occupied small number residents office workers security guards builders maintenance staff.fortyfour people injured bomb news world photographer ed henty killed ignoring police warnings rushing scene.truckbomb produced explosive power kg tnt.reaction business community media called increased security city one leading city figure calling medievalstyle walled enclave prevent terrorist attacks.prime minister john major received telephone call francis mcwilliams lord mayor london reminding city london earned £ billion last year nation whole.
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	operating environment future must preserved.major mcwilliams chancellor exchequer norman lamont made public statements business would continue normal city bishopsgate bombing would achieve lasting effect.major later gave account public stance taken government bombingfrankly thought likely bring whole process end.told repeatedly case.assumed bombed put pressure british bishopsgate outrage would affect negotiating position advantage.
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	judgment wholly wrong.every time made harder easier movement made towards settlement.hardened attitude whereas believed actions would soften it.fundamental mistake ira made successive british governments throughout last quarter century.john hume gerry adams issued first joint statement day bombing stating accept irish people whole right national selfdetermination.view shared majority people island though people exercise selfdetermination matter agreement people ireland.the iras reaction appeared april edition phoblacht highlighting bombers exploited security loophole spotted breach usually tight security around city.
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	also message ira leadership calling british establishment seize opportunity take steps needed ending futile costly war ireland.emphasise pursue path peace resign path war.ira also attempted apply indirect pressure british government statement sent nonunited states foreignowned businesses city warning one misled underestimating iras intention mount future planned attacks political financial heart british state ... context present political realities attacks city london elsewhere inevitable.feel bound convey directly allow make fully informed decisions.the city london corporations chief planning officer called demolition buildings damaged explosion including natwest tower seeing opportunity rid city architecture build new stateoftheart structure symbol defiance ira.comments endorsed corporation remarked natwest tower integral part citys skyline.
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	aftermath may city london police confirmed planned security cordon city conceived commissioner owen kelly july ring steel introduced.routes city closed made exitonly remaining eight routes city checkpoints manned armed police.cctv cameras also introduced monitor vehicles entering area including two cameras entry point – one read vehicle registration plate another monitor driver passenger.policecontrolled cameras monitored city increase coverage public areas camera watch launched september encourage cooperation surveillance police private companies corporation london.nine months scheme launched .
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	buildings camera systems well cameras separate systems operational city.the bombing resulted number companies changing working practices drawing plans deal future incidents.documents blown windows multistorey buildings force explosion police destroyed documents found.resulted risk managers subsequently demanding clear desk policy end working day improve information security.attack also prompted british american financial companies prepare disaster recovery plans case future attacks.the first world trade center bombing new york city february caused bankruptcy affected companies within two years attack according report analysts idc.result baltic exchange bishopsgate bomb attacks citybased companies wellprepared deal aftermath september attacks spokesman corporation london stating ira bombs firms redoubled disaster recovery plans city recovered remarkably quickly.
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	left city pretty wellprepared sort thing now.initial estimate £ billion worth damage later downgraded total cost reconstruction £ million.subsequent payouts insurance companies resulted suffering heavy losses causing crisis industry including nearcollapse lloyds london market.governmentbacked insurance scheme pool subsequently introduced britain government acting reinsurer last resort losses £ million.the bombing mounted cost £ last major bombing england phase northern ireland conflict.campaign bombing uks financial centre described author journalist ed moloney possibly iras successful military tactic since start troubles suspended ira allow political progress made gerry adams john hume continue.
1993 Bishopsgate bombing	ira carried number smaller bomb mortar attacks england remainder early declaring complete cessation military operations august .ceasefire ended february two people killed iras bombing london docklands targeted londons secondary financial district canary wharf.subsequent events july announced punch magazine prosecuted contempt court publishing article former mi agent david shayler.shaylers article claimed mi could stopped bishopsgate bombing spokesman attorney general lord williams claimed breach court injunction preventing shayler disclosing information security intelligence matters.november punch editor found guilty fined £ £ respectively.
Oracle Database	march editor successfully appealed conviction fine appeal judge accusing attorney general acting like press censor ruling injunction breach european convention human rights.december decision overturned house lords five law lords ruling editor james steens publication shaylers article indeed contempt.on april commemorative dinner held felix fund charity bomb disposal experts families merchant taylors hall threadneedle street mark years since bishopsgate bombing.referencesoracle database available several service providers onprem oncloud hybrid cloud installation.may run third party servers well oracle hardware exadata onprem oracle cloud cloud customer history larry ellison two friends former coworkers bob miner ed oates started consultancy called software development laboratories sdl .sdl developed original version oracle software.name oracle comes codename ciafunded project ellison worked formerly employed ampex.releases versions oracle products follow custom releasenumbering naming convention.
Oracle Database	c current release oracle database c stands cloud.previous releases e.g.oracle database g oraclei database used suffixes g stand grid internet respectively.prior release oraclei database suffixes featured oracle database naming conventions.note v oracle database cofounder larry ellison knew one would want buy version .oracle database release numbering used following codesthe introduction oracle database includes brief history key innovations introduced major release oracle database.see oracle support mos note release schedule current database releases doc id .
Oracle Database	current oracle database releases patching end dates.patch updates security alerts prior oracle database c oracle corporation released critical patch updates cpus security patch updates spus security alerts close security vulnerabilities.releases issued quarterly releases updates issued prior next quarterly release.starting oracle database c oracle corporation releases release updates rus release update revisions rurs.rus usually contain security regression bug optimizer functional fixes may include feature extensions well.rurs include fixes corresponding ru add new security regression fixes.
Oracle Database	however new optimizer functional fixes included.market position gartner report claimed show oracle holding rdbms market share worldwide based revenue share ahead four closest competitors – microsoft ibm sap teradata .competition market relational databases oracle database competes commercial products ibms db udb microsoft sql server.oracle ibm tend battle midrange database market unix linux platforms microsoft dominates midrange database market microsoft windows platforms.however since share many customers oracle ibm tend support others products many middleware application categories example websphere peoplesoft siebel systems crm ibms hardware divisions work closely oracle performanceoptimizing servertechnologies example linux ibm z. niche commercial competitors include teradata data warehousing business intelligence software ags adabas sybase ibms informix among many others.increasingly oracle database products compete opensource software relational nonrelational database systems postgresql mongodb couchbase neoj others.
CompTIA	oracle acquired innobase supplier innodb codebase mysql part compete better open source alternatives acquired sun microsystems owner mysql .database products licensed opensource legal terms open source definition free distribute free royalty licensing fees.see also comparison relational database management systemscomparison object–relational database management systemsdatabase management systemlist relational database management systemslist databases using mvcc references external links overview provided oracle corporation.oracle licensing knowledge net.considered one industrys top trade associations.based downers grove illinois comptia issues vendorneutral professional certifications countries.organization releases industry studies annually track industry trends changes..million people earned comptia certifications since association established.
CompTIA	history comptia created association better computer dealers abcd.abcd later changed name computing technology industry association.in comptia moved world headquarters downers grove illinois.building designed meet leed ci certification standards.the comptia portal moved hybrid version openaccess model april exclusive content duespaying members.move expanded organizations reach engage broader diverse set members within year comptias membership grew members .close organization boasted members worldwide.comptia launched dream program provide resources girls women united states interested industry.
CompTIA	october program expanded uk.skillsboost comptias online resource schools launched june .contained resources students parents teachers promote importance computer skills.comptia held first annual channelcon vendor summit .vendor summit exclusive people attending channelcon industrys premier conference collaboration education networking.addresses issues within industry.in january comptia launched professional association built acquisition association information technology professionals.
CompTIA	trustmarks comptia offers trustmarks businesses certify security capabilities credentials.comptia security trustmark based nist cybersecurity framework demonstrates compliance key industry regulations pcidss ssae hipaa others reliant nist framework.based thirdparty assessment security policies procedures operations.comptia offered additional trustmarks managed services trustmark managed print trustmark retired sept. .certifications comptia administers vendorneutral certification exams pearson vue testing centers.note casp one renew extend certification satisfying cases ceus a.k.a.
CompTIA	continuing education units threeyear period.basic certifications comptia fundamentals certification covers foundational concepts basic literacy terminology concepts industry.considered first step toward certification.comptia also offers cloud essentials certification pathway cloud credential.professional level certifications earned accreditation american national standards institute ansi .certification represents entrylevel competency computer technician vendor neutral certification covers various technologies operating systems.
CompTIA	one million people worldwide earned certification.expires years.certification prior january considered goodforlife gfl expire.cloud released october including cloud computing virtualization.accredited ansi maps dod standards.expires years.cysa cybersecurity analyst released february .
CompTIA	certification focuses cyberthreat detection tools analysis identify vulnerabilities risks.csa accredited ansi.january certification renamed csa cysa due trademark issues.expires years.linux single exam known xk renewable ce program certification covers linux operating systems installation use basics applicable free software open source licenses.formerly twopart exam lx lx partnership linux professional institute.network accredited ansi .
CompTIA	entrylevel certification used measure skill network technician.expires years.certification prior january considered goodforlife gfl expire.pentest intermediatelevel certification focusing penetration testing.released july pentest covers risk analysis threat detection penetration testing ethical hacking tools methodologies.pentest ansi iso accredited currently aligns dod standard.
CompTIA	expires years.project comptia acquired project project management certification program gartner group.program previously called project updated .security also earned ansi accreditation .security entrylevel vendorneutral security certification builds network security knowledge covered network certification.expires years.
CompTIA	certification prior january considered goodforlife gfl expire.server focuses serverspecific hardware operating systems environments disaster recovery business continuity.developed updates released update planned .master level certification comptia advanced security practitioner casp highest level certification comptia’s cybersecurity pathway security cysa pentest.casp certification accredited international organization standardization iso american national standards institute ansi december .casp exam certify successful candidate technical knowledge skills required conceptualize design engineer secure solutions across complex enterprise environments.
CompTIA	march department defense approved certification baseline certification accepted information assurance technical level iii manager level ii ia systems architect engineer levels ii.specialty certifications certified document imaging architect cdia certification competency document imaging document management enterprise content management.the certified technical trainer ctt certification vendorneutral certification applicable training professionals industries.originally administered chauncey institute ctt program acquired comptia renamed ctt.created collaboration information technology training association inc. itta computer education management association cedma.the comptia healthcare technician certificate focused healthcare industry aimed professionals install maintain electronic health record systems.retired .
CompTIA	stackable certifications january comptia released stackable certifications comptia infrastructure career pathway specialistcomptia operations specialist anetworkcomptia systems support specialist alinuxprofessionalcomptia cloud admin professional networkcloudcomptia network infrastructure professional networkservercomptia linux network professional networklinux comptia cybersecurity career pathway specialistcomptia secure infrastructure specialist anetworksecurityprofessionalcomptia secure cloud professional securitycloudcomptia security analytics professional securitycysacomptia network vulnerability assessment professional securitypentestcomptia network security professional securitypentestcysaexpertcomptia security analytics expert securitycysacaspcomptia security infrastructure expert securitycysapentestcasp sled public sector council state local government education sled division comptia consortium executives leading technology companies focused advancing interests industry sled market.right repair comptia initially lobbied right repair.february comptia posted statement relation prior position right repair legislationon february comptia permanently stepped back lobbying activity related right repair legislation.philanthropy comptia established c charitable foundation called creating futures.creating futures worked wounded warrior project provide comptia certification testing vouchers injured military veterans.
CompTIA	certification expiration previously comptia marketed flagship network security certifications valid lifetime.january comptia changed status certifications would expire every three years.proposal certified individuals would recertify exams pay yearly maintenance fee ceu continuing education units system.comptia modified guidelines certificates received january would need renewed every three years however certain amount documented hours geared towards use certification automatically renew certification.unexpirable certificates issued officially called goodforlife getting updated expirable certification replace goodforlife one – professional both.
Soviet Union	see also strata examcomputer repair technicianlist computer security certifications references external links comptia curliecomptia official websitenominally federal union multiple national republics practice government economy highly centralized final years.country oneparty state prior governed communist party soviet union moscow capital within largest populous republic russian sfsr.major urban centers leningrad russian sfsr kiev ukrainian ssr minsk byelorussian ssr tashkent uzbek ssr almaata kazakh ssr novosibirsk russian sfsr.largest country world covering square kilometres sq mi spanning eleven time zones.the soviet union roots october revolution bolsheviks headed vladimir lenin overthrew provisional government earlier replaced house romanov russian empire.established russian soviet republic worlds first constitutionally guaranteed socialist state.
Soviet Union	tensions escalated civil war bolshevik red army many antibolshevik forces across former empire among largest faction white guard.white guard engaged violent anticommunist repression bolsheviks suspected worker peasant bolsheviks known white terror.red army expanded helped local bolsheviks take power establishing soviets repressing political opponents rebellious peasants red terror.balance power shifted bolsheviks emerged victorious forming soviet union unification russian transcaucasian ukrainian byelorussian republics.upon conclusion civil war lenins government introduced new economic policy led partial return free market private property resulted period economic recovery.following lenins death joseph stalin came power.
Soviet Union	stalin suppressed political opposition rule inside communist party inaugurated command economy.result country underwent period rapid industrialization forced collectivization led significant economic growth also led manmade famine –.gulag labour camp system also expanded period.stalin also fomented political paranoia conducted great purge remove actual perceived opponents party mass arrests military leaders communist party members ordinary citizens alike sent correctional labor camps sentenced death.on august unsuccessful efforts form antifascist alliance western powers soviets signed nonaggression pact nazi germany.start world war ii formally neutral soviets invaded annexed territories several eastern european states including eastern regions poland lithuania latvia estonia.
Soviet Union	june germans invaded opening largest bloodiest theater war history.soviet war casualties accounted majority allied casualties conflict process acquiring upper hand axis forces intense battles stalingrad.soviet forces eventually captured berlin world war ii europe may .territory overtaken red army became satellite states eastern bloc.cold war emerged eastern bloc confronted western bloc would unite north atlantic treaty organization .following stalins death period known destalinization khrushchev thaw occurred leadership nikita khrushchev.
Soviet Union	country developed rapidly millions peasants moved industrialized cities.ussr took early lead space race first ever satellite first human spaceflight first probe land another planet venus.brief détente relations united states tensions resumed soviet union deployed troops afghanistan .war drained economic resources matched escalation american military aid mujahideen fighters.in mids last soviet leader mikhail gorbachev sought reform liberalize economy policies glasnost perestroika.goal preserve communist party reversing economic stagnation.
Soviet Union	cold war ended tenure warsaw pact countries central eastern europe overthrew respective marxistleninist regimes.strong nationalist separatist movements broke across ussr.gorbachev initiated referendum—boycotted lithuania latvia estonia armenia georgia moldova — resulted majority participating citizens voting favor preserving union renewed federation.august coup détat attempted communist party hardliners.failed russian president boris yeltsin playing highprofile role facing coup.
Soviet Union	main result banning communist party.republics led russia ukraine declared independence.december gorbachev resigned.republics emerged dissolution soviet union independent postsoviet states.russian federation formerly russian sfsr assumed soviet unions rights obligations recognized continued legal personality world affairs.the soviet union produced many significant social technological achievements innovations regarding military power.
Soviet Union	boasted worlds secondlargest economy largest standing military world.ussr recognized one five nuclear weapons states.founding permanent member united nations security council well member osce wftu leading member council mutual economic assistance warsaw pact.before dissolution ussr maintained status world superpower alongside united states four decades world war ii.sometimes also called soviet empire exercised hegemony eastcentral europe worldwide military economic strength proxy conflicts influence developing countries funding scientific research especially space technology weaponry.etymology word soviet derived russian word sovet russian совет meaning council assembly advice ultimately deriving protoslavic verbal stem větiti inform related slavic věst news english wise root advisor came english french dutch weten know cf.
Soviet Union	wetenschap meaning science.word sovietnik means councillor.some organizations russian history called council russian совет.russian empire state council functioned referred council ministers revolt .during georgian affair vladimir lenin envisioned expression great russian ethnic chauvinism joseph stalin supporters calling nationstates join russia semiindependent parts greater union initially named union soviet republics europe asia russian союз советских республик европы и азии tr.soyuz sovetskikh respublik evropy azii.stalin initially resisted proposal ultimately accepted although lenins agreement changed name union soviet socialist republics ussr albeit republics began socialist soviet change order .
Soviet Union	addition national languages several republics word council conciliar respective language quite late changed adaptation russian soviet never others e.g.ukrainian ssr.ссср latin alphabet sssr abbreviation russian language cognate ussr written cyrillic letters.soviets used abbreviation frequently audiences worldwide became familiar meaning.common short form names soviet state russian советский союз transliteration sovetskiy soyuz literally means soviet union союз сср transliteration soyuz ssr compensating grammatical differences essentially translates union ssrs english.in english language media state referred soviet union ussr.european languages locally translated short forms abbreviations usually used union soviétique urss french sowjetunion udssr german.
Soviet Union	englishspeaking world soviet union also informally called russia citizens russians although technically incorrect since russia one republics ussr.misapplications linguistic equivalents term russia derivatives frequent languages well.geography soviet union covered area square kilometres sq mi worlds largest country status retained successor state russia.covered sixth earths land surface size comparable continent north america.western part europe accounted quarter countrys area cultural economic center.
Soviet Union	eastern part asia extended pacific ocean east afghanistan south except areas central asia much less populous.spanned kilometres mi east west across eleven time zones kilometres mi north south.five climate zones tundra taiga steppes desert mountains.the soviet union similarly russia worlds longest border measuring kilometres mi ⁄ circumferences earth.twothirds coastline.country bordered norway finland baltic sea poland czechoslovakia hungary romania black sea turkey iran caspian sea afghanistan china mongolia north korea.
Soviet Union	bering strait separated country united states la pérouse strait separated japan.the soviet unions highest mountain communism peak ismoil somoni peak tajik ssr metres ft. also included worlds largest lakes caspian sea shared iran lake baikal russia worlds largest deepest freshwater lake.history revolution foundation – modern revolutionary activity russian empire began decembrist revolt.although serfdom abolished done terms unfavorable peasants served encourage revolutionaries.parliament—the state duma—was established russian revolution tsar nicholas ii resisted attempts move absolute constitutional monarchy.social unrest continued aggravated world war military defeat food shortages major cities.a spontaneous popular uprising petrograd response wartime decay russias economy morale culminated february revolution toppling nicholas ii imperial government march .
Soviet Union	tsarist autocracy replaced russian provisional government intended conduct elections russian constituent assembly continue fighting side entente world war i.at time workers councils known russian soviets sprang across country.bolsheviks led vladimir lenin pushed socialist revolution soviets streets.november red guards stormed winter palace petrograd ending rule provisional government leaving political power soviets.event would later officially known soviet bibliographies great october socialist revolution.december bolsheviks signed armistice central powers though february fighting resumed.
Soviet Union	march soviets ended involvement war signed treaty brestlitovsk.a long bloody civil war ensued reds whites starting ending reds victory.included foreign intervention execution former tsar family famine killed five million people.march related conflict poland peace riga signed splitting disputed territories belarus ukraine republic poland soviet russia.soviet russia resolve similar conflicts newly established republics estonia finland latvia lithuania.on december conference plenipotentiary delegations russian sfsr transcaucasian sfsr ukrainian ssr byelorussian ssr approved treaty creation ussr declaration creation ussr forming union soviet socialist republics.two documents confirmed first congress soviets ussr signed heads delegations mikhail kalinin mikhail tskhakaya mikhail frunze grigory petrovsky alexander chervyakov december .
Soviet Union	formal proclamation made stage bolshoi theatre.an intensive restructuring economy industry politics country began early days soviet power .large part done according bolshevik initial decrees government documents signed vladimir lenin.one prominent breakthroughs goelro plan envisioned major restructuring soviet economy based total electrification country.plan became prototype subsequent fiveyear plans fulfilled .economic policy war communism russian civil war prelude fully developing socialism country soviet government permitted private enterprise coexist alongside nationalized industry total food requisition countryside replaced food tax.from creation government soviet union based oneparty rule communist party bolsheviks.
Soviet Union	stated purpose prevent return capitalist exploitation principles democratic centralism would effective representing peoples practical manner.debate future economy provided background power struggle years lenins death .initially lenin replaced troika consisting grigory zinoviev ukrainian ssr lev kamenev russian sfsr joseph stalin transcaucasian sfsr.on february ussr recognized united kingdom.year soviet constitution approved legitimizing december union.according archie brown constitution never accurate guide political reality ussr.example fact party played leading role making enforcing policy mentioned .
Soviet Union	ussr federative entity many constituent republics political administrative entities.however term soviet russia – strictly applicable russian federative socialist republic – often applied entire country nonsoviet writers.stalin era – april stalin named general secretary communist party soviet union.lenin appointed stalin head workers peasants inspectorate gave stalin considerable power.gradually consolidating influence isolating outmaneuvering rivals within party stalin became undisputed leader country end established totalitarian rule.
Soviet Union	october zinoviev leon trotsky expelled central committee forced exile.in stalin introduced first fiveyear plan building socialist economy.place internationalism expressed lenin throughout revolution aimed build socialism one country.industry state assumed control existing enterprises undertook intensive program industrialization.agriculture rather adhering lead example policy advocated lenin forced collectivization farms implemented country.famines ensued result causing deaths estimated three seven million surviving kulaks persecuted many sent gulags forced labor.social upheaval continued mids.
Soviet Union	despite turmoil midtolate country developed robust industrial economy years preceding world war ii.closer cooperation ussr west developed early s. country participated world disarmament conference.diplomatic relations united states ussr established november newly elected president united states franklin d. roosevelt chose recognize stalins communist government formally negotiated new trade agreement two countries.september country joined league nations.spanish civil war broke ussr actively supported republican forces nationalists supported fascist italy nazi germany.in december stalin unveiled new constitution praised supporters around world democratic constitution imaginable though skepticism.stalins great purge resulted detainment execution many old bolsheviks participated october revolution lenin.
Soviet Union	according declassified soviet archives nkvd arrested one half million people shot.two years average one thousand executions day.in attempts form military alliance britain france germany failed soviet union made dramatic shift towards nazi germany.almost year britain france concluded munich agreement germany soviet union made agreements germany well militarily economically extensive talks.two countries concluded molotov–ribbentrop pact german–soviet commercial agreement august .former made possible soviet occupation lithuania latvia estonia bessarabia northern bukovina eastern poland soviets remained formally neutral.
Soviet Union	late november unable coerce republic finland diplomatic means moving border kilometres mi back leningrad stalin ordered invasion finland.december soviet union expelled league nations invading finland.east soviet military several decisive victories border clashes empire japan .however april ussr signed soviet–japanese neutrality pact japan recognizing territorial integrity manchukuo japanese puppet state.world war ii germany broke molotov–ribbentrop pact invaded soviet union june starting known ussr great patriotic war.
Soviet Union	red army stopped seemingly invincible german army battle moscow.battle stalingrad lasted late early dealt severe blow germany never fully recovered became turning point war.stalingrad soviet forces drove eastern europe berlin germany surrendered .german army suffered military deaths eastern front.harry hopkins close foreign policy advisor franklin d. roosevelt spoke august ussrs decisive role war.in year ussr fulfilment agreement allies yalta conference denounced soviet–japanese neutrality pact april invaded manchukuo japancontrolled territories august .
Soviet Union	conflict ended decisive soviet victory contributing unconditional surrender japan end world war ii.the ussr suffered greatly war losing around million people.approximately .million soviet pows died starvation mistreatment executions eight months –.war country together united states united kingdom china considered big four allied powers later became four policemen formed basis united nations security council.emerged superpower postwar period.
Soviet Union	denied diplomatic recognition western world ussr official relations practically every country late s. member united nations foundation country became one five permanent members united nations security council gave right veto resolutions.cold war immediate postwar period soviet union rebuilt expanded economy maintaining strictly centralized control.took effective control countries eastern europe except yugoslavia later albania turning satellite states.ussr bound satellite states military alliance warsaw pact economic organization council mutual economic assistance comecon counterpart european economic community eec .ussr concentrated recovery seizing transferring germanys industrial plants exacted war reparations east germany hungary romania bulgaria using sovietdominated joint enterprises.
Soviet Union	also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed favor country.moscow controlled communist parties ruled satellite states followed orders kremlin.later comecon supplied aid eventually victorious communist party china influence grew elsewhere world.fearing ambitions soviet unions wartime allies united kingdom united states became enemies.ensuing cold war two sides clashed indirectly proxy wars.
Soviet Union	destalinization khrushchev thaw – stalin died march .without mutually agreeable successor highest communist party officials initially opted rule soviet union jointly troika headed georgy malenkov.last however nikita khrushchev eventually ensuing power struggle mids.denounced joseph stalin proceeded ease controls party society.known destalinization.moscow considered eastern europe critically vital buffer zone forward defence western borders case another major invasion german invasion .
Soviet Union	reason ussr sought cement control region transforming eastern european countries satellite states dependent upon subservient leadership.result soviet military forces used suppress anticommunist uprising hungary .in late confrontation china regarding soviet rapprochement west mao zedong perceived khrushchevs revisionism led sino–soviet split.resulted break throughout global marxist–leninist movement governments albania cambodia somalia choosing ally china.during period late early ussr continued realize scientific technological exploits space race rivaling united states launching first artificial satellite sputnik living dog named laika first human yuri gagarin first woman space valentina tereshkova alexei leonov first person walk space first soft landing moon spacecraft luna first moon rovers lunokhod lunokhod .khrushchev initiated thaw complex shift political cultural economic life country.included openness contact nations new social economic policies emphasis commodity goods allowing dramatic rise living standards maintaining high levels economic growth.censorship relaxed well.
Soviet Union	khrushchevs reforms agriculture administration however generally unproductive.precipitated crisis united states soviet deployment nuclear missiles cuba.agreement made united states remove nuclear missiles cuba turkey concluding crisis.event caused khrushchev much embarrassment loss prestige resulting removal power .era stagnation – following ousting khrushchev another period collective leadership ensued consisting leonid brezhnev general secretary alexei kosygin premier nikolai podgorny chairman presidium lasting brezhnev established early preeminent soviet leader.in soviet union warsaw pact allies invaded czechoslovakia halt prague spring reforms.
Soviet Union	aftermath brezhnev justified invasion previous military interventions well potential military interventions future introducing brezhnev doctrine proclaimed threat socialist rule warsaw pact state threat warsaw pact states therefore justifying military intervention.brezhnev presided throughout détente west resulted treaties armament control salt salt ii antiballistic missile treaty time building soviet military might.in october third soviet constitution unanimously adopted.prevailing mood soviet leadership time brezhnevs death one aversion change.long period brezhnevs rule come dubbed one standstill ageing ossified top political leadership.period also known era stagnation period adverse economic political social effects country began rule brezhnev continued successors yuri andropov konstantin chernenko.in late soviet unions military intervened ongoing civil war neighboring afghanistan effectively ending détente west.perestroika glasnost reforms – two developments dominated decade followed increasingly apparent crumbling soviet unions economic political structures patchwork attempts reforms reverse process.
Soviet Union	kenneth s. deffeyes argued beyond oil reagan administration encouraged saudi arabia lower price oil point soviets could make profit selling oil resulted depletion countrys hard currency reserves.brezhnevs next two successors transitional figures deep roots tradition last long.yuri andropov years old konstantin chernenko assumed power died less two years.attempt avoid third shortlived leader soviets turned next generation selected mikhail gorbachev.made significant changes economy party leadership called perestroika.policy glasnost freed public access information decades heavy government censorship.
Soviet Union	gorbachev also moved end cold war.ussr abandoned war afghanistan began withdraw forces.following year gorbachev refused interfere internal affairs soviet satellite states paved way revolutions .particular standstill soviet union paneuropean picnic august set peaceful chain reaction motion end eastern bloc collapsed.tearing berlin wall east west germany pursuing unification iron curtain west sovietcontrolled regions came down.at time soviet republics started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty territories citing freedom secede article ussr constitution.
Soviet Union	april law passed allowing republic secede twothirds residents voted referendum.many held first free elections soviet era national legislatures .many legislatures proceeded produce legislation contradicting union laws known war laws.russian sfsr convened newly elected congress peoples deputies.boris yeltsin elected chairman.
Soviet Union	june congress declared russias sovereignty territory proceeded pass laws attempted supersede soviet laws.landslide victory sąjūdis lithuania country declared independence restored march .a referendum preservation ussr held march nine republics remainder boycotted vote majority population republics voting preservation union.referendum gave gorbachev minor boost.summer new union treaty would turned country much looser union agreed upon eight republics.signing treaty however interrupted august coup—an attempted coup détat hardline members government kgb sought reverse gorbachevs reforms reassert central governments control republics.
Soviet Union	coup collapsed yeltsin seen hero decisive actions gorbachevs power effectively ended.balance power tipped significantly towards republics.august latvia estonia immediately declared restoration full independence following lithuanias example.gorbachev resigned general secretary late august soon afterwards partys activities indefinitely suspended—effectively ending rule.fall gorbachev could longer influence events outside moscow challenged even yeltsin elected president russia july .
Soviet Union	dissolution aftermath remaining republics continued discussing new increasingly looser models union.however december except russia kazakhstan formally declared independence.time yeltsin took remained soviet government including moscow kremlin.final blow struck december ukraine secondmost powerful republic voted overwhelmingly independence.ukraines secession ended realistic chance country staying together even limited scale.on december presidents russia ukraine belarus formerly byelorussia signed belavezha accords declared soviet union dissolved established commonwealth independent states cis place.
Soviet Union	doubts remained authority accords december representatives soviet republics except georgia signed almaata protocol confirmed accords.december gorbachev resigned president ussr declaring office extinct.turned powers vested presidency yeltsin.night soviet flag lowered last time russian tricolor raised place.the following day supreme soviet highest governmental body voted country existence.generally recognized marking official final dissolution soviet union functioning state end cold war.
Soviet Union	soviet army initially remained overall cis command soon absorbed different military forces newly independent states.remaining soviet institutions taken russia ceased function end .following dissolution russia internationally recognized legal successor international stage.end russia voluntarily accepted soviet foreign debt claimed soviet overseas properties own.lisbon protocol russia also agreed receive nuclear weapons remaining territory former soviet republics.since russian federation assumed soviet unions rights obligations.
Soviet Union	ukraine refused recognize exclusive russian claims succession ussr claimed status ukraine well codified articles law legal succession ukraine.since independence ukraine continued pursue claims russia foreign courts seeking recover share foreign property owned ussr.the dissolution followed severe drop economic social conditions postsoviet states including rapid increase poverty crime corruption unemployment homelessness rates disease infant mortality domestic violence well demographic losses income inequality rise oligarchical class along decreases calorie intake life expectancy adult literacy income.– gini ratio increased average points former socialist countries.economic shocks accompanied wholesale privatization associated sharp increases mortality.data shows russia kazakhstan latvia lithuania estonia saw tripling unemployment increase male death rates .
Soviet Union	following decades five six postcommunist states path joining wealthy capitalist west falling behind extent take fifty years catch fall soviet bloc.in summing international ramifications events vladislav zubok stated collapse soviet empire event epochal geopolitical military ideological economic significance.dissolution country maintained status one worlds two superpowers four decades world war ii hegemony eastern europe military strength economic strength aid developing countries scientific research especially space technology weaponry.postsoviet states analysis succession states postsoviet states complex.russian federation seen legal continuator state purposes heir soviet union.retained ownership former soviet embassy properties also inherited soviet unions un membership permanent seat security council.of two cofounding states ussr time dissolution ukraine one passed laws similar russia statesuccessor ukrainian ssr ussr.
Soviet Union	soviet treaties laid groundwork ukraines future foreign agreements well led ukraine agreeing undertake .debts soviet union going receive share ussrs foreign property.although tough position time due russias position single continuation ussr became widely accepted west well constant pressure western countries allowed russia dispose state property ussr abroad conceal information it.due ukraine never ratified zero option agreement russian federation signed former soviet republics denied disclosing information soviet gold reserves diamond fund.dispute former soviet property assets two former republics still ongoingthe conflict unsolvable.
Soviet Union	continue poke kiev handouts calculation solve problem wont solved.going trial also pointless number european countries political issue make decision clearly whose favor.situation open question.search nontrivial solutions.must remember filing ukrainian prime minister yatsenyuk litigation russia resumed countries.similar situation occurred restitution cultural property.
Soviet Union	although february russia former soviet republics signed agreement return cultural historic property origin states minsk halted russian state duma eventually passed federal law cultural valuables displaced ussr result second world war located territory russian federation made restitution currently impossible.the baltic states reckon revivals original independent countries existed prior occupation annexation soviet union .maintain process incorporated soviet union violated international law law reasserting independence still legally existed.there additionally four states claim independence internationally recognised postsoviet states possess limited international recognition abkhazia artsakh south ossetia transnistria.chechen separatist movement chechen republic ichkeria lacks international recognition.foreign relations rule stalin always made final policy decisions.otherwise soviet foreign policy set commission foreign policy central committee communist party soviet union partys highest body politburo.
Soviet Union	operations handled separate ministry foreign affairs.known peoples commissariat foreign affairs narkomindel .influential spokesmen georgy chicherin – maxim litvinov – vyacheslav molotov – andrey vyshinsky – andrei gromyko –.intellectuals based moscow state institute international relations.comintern – communist international international communist organization based kremlin advocated world communism.comintern intended struggle available means including armed force overthrow international bourgeoisie creation international soviet republic transition stage complete abolition state.
Soviet Union	abolished conciliatory measure toward britain united states.comecon council mutual economic assistance russian совет экономической взаимопомощи sovet ekonomicheskoy vzaimopomoshchi сэв sev economic organization soviet control comprised countries eastern bloc along several communist states elsewhere world.moscow concerned marshall plan comecon meant prevent countries soviets sphere influence moving towards americans southeast asia.comecon eastern blocs reply formation western europe organization european economic cooperation oeecthe warsaw pact collective defence alliance formed among ussr satellite states eastern europe cold war.warsaw pact military complement comecon regional economic organization socialist states central eastern europe.warsaw pact created reaction integration west germany nato.the cominform – informally communist information bureau officially information bureau communist workers parties first official agency international marxistleninist movement since dissolution comintern .
Soviet Union	role coordinate actions marxistleninist parties soviet direction.stalin used order western european communist parties abandon exclusively parliamentarian line instead concentrate politically impeding operations marshall plan.also coordinated international aid marxistleninist insurgents greek civil war –.expelled yugoslavia josip broz tito insisted independent program.newspaper lasting peace peoples democracy promoted stalins positions.
Soviet Union	cominforms concentration europe meant deemphasis world revolution soviet foreign policy.enunciating uniform ideology allowed constituent parties focus personalities rather issues.early policies – marxistleninist leadership soviet union intensely debated foreign policy issues changed directions several times.even stalin assumed dictatorial control late debates frequently changed positions.during countrys early period assumed communist revolutions would break soon every major industrial country soviet responsibility assist them.comintern weapon choice.
Soviet Union	revolutions break quickly suppressed longest lasting one hungary—the hungarian soviet republic—lasted march august .russian bolsheviks position give help.by lenin trotsky stalin realized capitalism stabilized europe would widespread revolutions anytime soon.became duty russian bolsheviks protect russia avoid military confrontations might destroy bridgehead.russia pariah state along germany.two came terms treaty rapallo settled longstanding grievances.
Soviet Union	time two countries secretly set training programs illegal german army air force operations hidden camps ussr.moscow eventually stopped threatening states instead worked open peaceful relationships terms trade diplomatic recognition.united kingdom dismissed warnings winston churchill others continuing marxistleninist threat opened trade relations de facto diplomatic recognition .hope settlement prewar tsarist debts repeatedly postponed.formal recognition came new labour party came power .countries followed suit opening trade relations.
Soviet Union	henry ford opened largescale business relations soviets late hoping would lead longterm peace.finally united states officially recognized ussr decision backed public opinion especially us business interests expected opening new profitable market.in late early stalin ordered marxistleninist parties across world strongly oppose nonmarxist political parties labor unions organizations left.stalin reversed popular front program called marxist parties join together antifascist political labor organizational forces opposed fascism especially nazi variety.in half year munich agreement ussr attempted form antinazi alliance france britain.adolf hitler proposed better deal would give ussr control much eastern europe molotov–ribbentrop pact.september germany invaded poland ussr also invaded later month resulting partition poland.
Soviet Union	response britain france declared war germany marking beginning world war ii.world war ii – death joseph stalin controlled foreign relations soviet union interwar period.despite increasing buildup germanys war machine outbreak second sinojapanese war soviet union cooperate nation choosing follow path.however operation barbarossa soviet unions priorities changed.despite previous conflict united kingdom vyacheslav molotov dropped post war border demands.
Soviet Union	cold war – cold war period geopolitical tension united states soviet union respective allies western bloc eastern bloc began following world war ii .term cold war used largescale fighting directly two superpowers supported major regional conflicts known proxy wars.conflict based around ideological geopolitical struggle global influence two superpowers following temporary alliance victory nazi germany .aside nuclear arsenal development conventional military deployment struggle dominance expressed via indirect means psychological warfare propaganda campaigns espionage farreaching embargoes rivalry sports events technological competitions space race.politics three power hierarchies soviet union legislature represented supreme soviet soviet union government represented council ministers communist party soviet union cpsu legal party final policymaker country.
Soviet Union	communist party top communist party central committee elected party congresses conferences.turn central committee voted politburo called presidium secretariat general secretary first secretary de facto highest office soviet union.depending degree power consolidation either politburo collective body general secretary always one politburo members effectively led party country except period highly personalized authority stalin exercised directly position council ministers rather politburo .controlled general party membership key principle party organization democratic centralism demanding strict subordination higher bodies elections went uncontested endorsing candidates proposed above.the communist party maintained dominance state mainly control system appointments.senior government officials deputies supreme soviet members cpsu.
Soviet Union	party heads stalin – khrushchev – premiers.upon forced retirement khrushchev party leader prohibited kind double membership later general secretaries least part tenure occupied mostly ceremonial position chairman presidium supreme soviet nominal head state.institutions lower levels overseen times supplanted primary party organizations.however practice degree control party able exercise state bureaucracy particularly death stalin far total bureaucracy pursuing different interests times conflict party.party monolithic top bottom although factions officially banned.government supreme soviet successor congress soviets nominally highest state body soviet history first acting rubber stamp institution approving implementing decisions made party.
Soviet Union	however powers functions extended late including creation new state commissions committees.gained additional powers relating approval fiveyear plans government budget.supreme soviet elected presidium successor central executive committee wield power plenary sessions ordinarily held twice year appointed supreme court procurator general council ministers known council peoples commissars headed chairman premier managing enormous bureaucracy responsible administration economy society.state party structures constituent republics largely emulated structure central institutions although russian sfsr unlike constituent republics history republican branch cpsu ruled directly unionwide party .local authorities organized likewise party committees local soviets executive committees.
Soviet Union	state system nominally federal party unitary.the state security police kgb predecessor agencies played important role soviet politics.instrumental great purge brought strict party control stalins death.yuri andropov kgb engaged suppression political dissent maintained extensive network informers reasserting political actor extent independent partystate structure culminating anticorruption campaign targeting highranking party officials late early s. separation power reform constitution promulgated limit state power.formal separation powers existed party supreme soviet council ministers represented executive legislative branches government.system governed less statute informal conventions settled mechanism leadership succession existed.
Soviet Union	bitter times deadly power struggles took place politburo deaths lenin stalin well khrushchevs dismissal due decision politburo central committee.leaders communist party gorbachev died office except georgy malenkov khrushchev dismissed party leadership amid internal struggle within party.between facing considerable opposition mikhail gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away highest bodies party making supreme soviet less dependent them.congress peoples deputies established majority whose members directly elected competitive elections held march .congress elected supreme soviet became fulltime parliament much stronger before.first time since refused rubber stamp proposals party council ministers.
Soviet Union	gorbachev introduced assumed position president soviet union concentrated power executive office independent party subordinated government renamed cabinet ministers ussr himself.tensions grew unionwide authorities gorbachev reformists led russia boris yeltsin controlling newly elected supreme soviet russian sfsr communist hardliners.– august group hardliners staged coup attempt.coup failed state council soviet union became highest organ state power period transition.gorbachev resigned general secretary remaining president final months existence ussr.judicial system judiciary independent branches government.
Soviet Union	supreme court supervised lower courts peoples court applied law established constitution interpreted supreme soviet.constitutional oversight committee reviewed constitutionality laws acts.soviet union used inquisitorial system roman law judge procurator defence attorney collaborate establish truth.administrative divisions constitutionally ussr federation constituent union republics either unitary states ukraine byelorussia ssrs federations russia transcaucasia sfsrs four founding republics signed treaty creation ussr december .national delimitation central asia uzbekistan turkmenistan formed parts russias turkestan assr two soviet dependencies khorezm bukharan ssrs.
Soviet Union	tajikistan split uzbekistan ssr.constitution transcaucasian sfsr dissolved resulting constituent republics armenia georgia azerbaijan elevated union republics kazakhstan kirghizia split russian sfsr resulting status.august moldavia formed parts ukraine bessarabia northern bukovina.estonia latvia lithuania ssrs also admitted union recognized international community considered illegal occupation.karelia split russia union republic march reabsorbed .
Soviet Union	july september union republics see map below.while nominally union equals practice soviet union dominated russians.domination absolute existence country commonly incorrectly referred russia.rsfsr technically one republic within larger union far largest terms population area powerful highly developed.rsfsr also industrial center soviet union.historian matthew white wrote open secret countrys federal structure window dressing russian dominance.
Soviet Union	reason people ussr usually called russians soviets since everyone knew really ran show.military military law september soviet armed forces consisted land forces air force navy joint state political directorate ogpu internal troops.ogpu later became independent joined nkvd internal troops joint leadership defense internal commissariats.world war ii strategic missile forces air defense forces national civil defense forces formed ranked first third sixth official soviet system importance ground forces second air force fourth navy fifth.the army greatest political influence.served two million soldiers divided motorized armored divisions.
Soviet Union	early soviet navy rather small military branch caribbean crisis leadership sergei gorshkov expanded significantly.became known battlecruisers submarines.served men.soviet air force focused fleet strategic bombers war situation eradicate enemy infrastructure nuclear capacity.air force also number fighters tactical bombers support army war.
Soviet Union	strategic missile forces intercontinental ballistic missiles icbms deployed bases command centers.in postwar period soviet army directly involved several military operations abroad.included suppression uprising east germany hungarian revolution invasion czechoslovakia .soviet union also participated war afghanistan .in soviet union general conscription applied.space program end help engineers technologies captured imported defeated nazi germany soviets constructed first satellite – sputnik thus overtook united states terms using space.followed successful satellites test dogs flight sent.
Soviet Union	april first cosmonaut yuri gagarin sent space.flew around earth successfully landed kazakh steppe.time first plans space shuttles orbital stations drawn soviet design offices end personal disputes designers management prevented this.as lunar space program ussr program automated spacecraft launches crewed spacecraft used passing moon race part space race.in specific proposals design space shuttle began emerge shortcomings especially electronics industry rapid overheating electronics postponed program end s. first shuttle buran flew without human crew.another shuttle ptichka eventually ended construction shuttle project canceled .launch space today unused superpower rocket energia powerful world.in late soviet union managed build mir orbital station.
Soviet Union	built construction salyut stations role civiliangrade research tasks.in us skylab shut due lack funds mir orbital station operation.gradually modules added including american ones.however station deteriorated rapidly fire board decided bring atmosphere burned down.economy soviet union adopted command economy whereby production distribution goods centralized directed government.first bolshevik experience command economy policy war communism involved nationalization industry centralized distribution output coercive requisition agricultural production attempts eliminate money circulation private enterprises free trade.
Soviet Union	severe economic collapse lenin replaced war communism new economic policy nep legalizing free trade private ownership small businesses.economy quickly recovered result.after long debate among members politburo course economic development – upon gaining control country stalin abandoned nep pushed full central planning starting forced collectivization agriculture enacting draconian labor legislation.resources mobilized rapid industrialization significantly expanded soviet capacity heavy industry capital goods s. primary motivation industrialization preparation war mostly due distrust outside capitalist world.result ussr transformed largely agrarian economy great industrial power leading way emergence superpower world war ii.war caused extensive devastation soviet economy infrastructure required massive reconstruction.by early soviet economy become relatively selfsufficient period creation comecon tiny share domestic products traded internationally.
Soviet Union	creation eastern bloc external trade rose rapidly.however influence world economy ussr limited fixed domestic prices state monopoly foreign trade.grain sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles around s. arms race cold war soviet economy burdened military expenditures heavily lobbied powerful bureaucracy dependent arms industry.time ussr became largest arms exporter third world.significant amounts soviet resources cold war allocated aid socialist states.from dissolution late way soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged.
Soviet Union	economy formally directed central planning carried gosplan organized fiveyear plans.however practice plans highly aggregated provisional subject ad hoc intervention superiors.critical economic decisions taken political leadership.allocated resources plan targets usually denominated rubles rather physical goods.credit discouraged widespread.
Soviet Union	final allocation output achieved relatively decentralized unplanned contracting.although theory prices legally set practice often negotiated informal horizontal links e.g.producer factories widespread.a number basic services statefunded education health care.manufacturing sector heavy industry defence prioritized consumer goods.consumer goods particularly outside large cities often scarce poor quality limited variety.
Soviet Union	command economy consumers almost influence production changing demands population growing incomes could satisfied supplies rigidly fixed prices.massive unplanned second economy grew low levels alongside planned one providing goods services planners could not.legalization elements decentralized economy attempted reform .although statistics soviet economy notoriously unreliable economic growth difficult estimate precisely accounts economy continued expand mids.comparatively high growth catching west.however growth still positive steadily declined much quickly consistently countries despite rapid increase capital stock rate capital increase surpassed japan.overall growth rate per capita income soviet union slightly world average based countries.

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