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Al-Assad family | stanford encyclopedia philosophy.medieval philosophy.internet encyclopedia philosophy.medieval philosophy philpapersmedieval philosophy indiana philosophy ontology projectmedieval philosophy electronic resourcesarticle philosophy catholic encyclopediasome medieval jewish philosophersmedieval natural philosophy church james hannamthe fathers scholastics von balthasarmedieval philosophy theology journalin german alcuin – regensburger infothek der scholastik – huge database information biography text chronology editions.death june son bashar succeeded him.the assads originally qardaha east latakia northwest syria.members minority alawite sect belong kalbiyya tribe.family name assad goes back ali sulayman – changed last name alassad arabic lion possibly connection social standing local mediator political activities.members extended assad family stem ali sulayman second wife naissa came village annusayriyah mountains.family connections continue important syrian politics.several close family members hafez alassad held important positions government since rise power continuing death. |
Al-Assad family | origin assad family originates sulayman alwahsh hafez assads grandfather lived village qardaha northern syrian mountains.locals reportedly nicknamed wahsh arabic wild beast physically strong good fighter.alwahhish remained family name changed alassad arabic lion.sulaymans reported strength marksmanship respected village.outbreak world war ottoman governor aleppo vilayet sent troops area collect taxes round recruits. |
Al-Assad family | troops reportedly fought sulayman friends armed sabres old muskets.sulayman respected local mediator quarreling families.also one local chieftains de facto rulers area.chieftains powerful families would provide protection neighbours return gained loyalty respect.hafez alassads father ali sulayman alassad born inherited many similar characteristics father became wellrespected among locals.accomplishments called alassad lion locals. |
Al-Assad family | made nickname surname .lived long enough see sons rise power.married twice three decades eleven children.first wife saada district haffeh.three sons two daughters. |
Al-Assad family | second wife naisa twenty years younger him.daughter uthman abbud village alqutailibiyah dozen kilometres mountain.daughter five sons.hafez born october fourth child.the family religion alassad shia islam specifically alawite sect.hafezs family hafez alassad hafez alassad –. |
Al-Assad family | president syria –.anisa makhlouf – wife hafez first lady.bushra alassad died infant .bushra alassad born pharmacist married five children gen. assef shawkat – deputychief staff syrian army former head military intelligence.killed july bombing damascus syrian civil war.bassel alassad – original candidate presidential succession however died car accident.bashar alassad born president syria since .bassels death ophthalmologist.married asma alassad born . |
Al-Assad family | first lady syria takes prominent public role.married investment banker.three children.majid alassad – electrical engineer reported history severe mental problems.died long unspecified illness.married ru’a ayyoub born children. |
Al-Assad family | majid died damascus december .maher alassad born commander republican guard also known presidential guard armys elite fourth armored division together syrias secret police form core countrys security forces.also member baath party central command said aggressive uncontrollable personality.married two daughters.reported severely disabled bombing damascus syrian civil war.reportedly shot assef shawkat stomach october argument. |
Al-Assad family | maher also known many ruthless alassad family.hafezs siblings jamil alassad jamil alassad – parliamentarian commander minor militia.politically marginalized years death.childrenmundhir alassad born arrested beirut airport entering lebanon.reported involved arms smuggling iraqi insurgents. |
Al-Assad family | eu placed sanctions involved shabbiha militia repression protestors syrian civil war.fawwaz alassad – first real shabiha gave meaning known today word shabiha concept tashbeeh act like thug.sanctions placed eu involved shabbiha militia repression protestors syrian civil war.one daughter married yarob kanaan whose father ghazi kanaan – term interior minister presumably killed himself.kanaans come kalabiyya tribe.rifaat alassad rifaat alassad born .formerly powerful security chief commander defense companies responsible hama massacre. |
Al-Assad family | attempting coup détat went exile france lives london.married four wives amira alassad cousin sana makhlouf family hafezs wife raja barakat wealthy sunni damascene family lina alkhayer sister law late saudi king abdullah bin abdulaziz rifaat number children marriages includingribal alassad lived abroad since nine years old currently lives united states.interview denied father involved massacre hama familys branch connected abdul halim khaddam ghazi kanaan.somar alassad supports father actively opposition bashar.lamia married ala alfayad son shafiq fayadh former syrian general.mudar alassad married may haydar daughter syrian multimillionaire muhammad haydar.tumadhir married muein nasif kheirbek also kalabiyya tribe related mohammed nasif kheirbek indirectly related marriage blood abd alhalim khaddam rafik hariri influential homs alatassi family.firas alassad accused cousin president bashar killing alawites half million syrians order stay power.shalish family sister hafez alassad married shalish family.family paternal cousin general dhu al himma alshalish maintains significant level influence bashar alassad government. |
Al-Assad family | shalishes mainly active automobile construction sectors.american government sources also report shalish family engaged wide range illicit activities including smuggling money laundering.gen.dhu alhimma shalish born cousin bashar alassad head presidential security part inner circle leadership bashar alassad government.sanctions placed us government supplying weapons saddam hussein government.june eu sanctioned involved violence demonstrators syrian civil war.asef isa shalish nephew dhu alhimma manager ses company involved weapons trade iraq iran.riyad shalish cousin bashar assad director governmental construction organization military housing establishment managed transform company. |
Al-Assad family | made fortune construction contracting deals syria involving large scale projects financed arab states.june eu sanctioned providing funding regime repress protesters syrian civil war.ahmed alassad ahmed alassad older halfbrother hafez alassad ali sulaymans first wife saada.anwar alassadhilal alassad president syrian arabian horse association.hilal killed march battle border crossing turkey north latakia.suleiman alassad hilals son arrested august allegedly murdering offduty colonel road rage incident latakia.however released prison late despite originally year sentence.hael alassad head military police armys th armoured division whose official commander general ali ammar whose de facto commander maher alassad. |
Al-Assad family | also director prison maher alassad keeps personal prisoners outside state jurisdiction.haroun alassad elected municipal official village qardaha.daad alassad married general zouheir alassad born distant cousin.general zouheir alassad commanded th regiment unit men charged protecting capital.karam al assad leads group shabiha.group shabiha led assault peaceful protests night destiny.assault ended two deaths dozens injured.ibrahim alassad ibrahim alassad older halfbrother hafez alassad ali sulaymans first wife saada. |
Al-Assad family | married umm anwar took smuggling business son malek.malek alassad first known smuggler assad family.about hafezs siblings died early bayat bahijat unknown sister almost nothing known.anisas siblings makhlouf family makhloufs belong alawi haddad tribe hafez rifaat related marriage makhloufs.makhlouf family rose humble beginnings become financial advisor hafez alassad former president married makhloufs sister.family headed mohammad makhlouf established vast financial empire telecommunication retail banking power generation oil gas sectors.net worth family estimated least five billion dollars.muhammad makhlouf – september made fortune management state companies private sector.rami makhlouf born wealthy businessman main owner syriatel. |
Al-Assad family | according financial times thought control much economy web business interests include telecommunications oil gas construction banking airlines retail widely seen business arm assad government.american government sources report rami makhlouf used syrian security services personal relationship president assad intimidate steal promising business ventures businessmen.regarded syrias wealthiest man – worth approximately billion dollars.col.hafez makhlouf deputy director general security directorate intelligence chief damascus branch.works ali mamlouk enjoys far greater influence cousin bashar alassad. |
Al-Assad family | along maher alassad assef shawkat dhu alhimma shalish comprise inner circle leadership.iyad makhlouf born twin ihab makhlouf general security directorate officer.eu sanctioned involved violence civilian population syrian civil war.ihab makhlouf born twin iyad makhlouf vicepresident syriatel caretaker rami makhloufs us company.eu sanctioned providing funding assad government allowing violence demonstrators syrian civil war.believed charge sniper units used shoot protestors uprising.fatma makhlouf sister anisa makhlouf.atef najib former head political security directorate deraa.eu sanctioned involved violence demonstrators syria civil war.general adnan makhlouf first cousin anisa former commander republican guard. |
Al-Assad family | hafezs cousins namir alassad reportedly established rifaat alassad shabiha controlled organized smuggling networks anchored lattakias port.adnan alassad leader struggle companies militia damascus.muhammad tawfiq alassad another leader struggle companies.killed dispute powerful person control alqerdaha area latakia province march .hussein tawfiq alassad son muhammed.took criminal network father reorganized paramilitary unit lions hussein.gen.shafiq fayadh cousin hafez aunt village ayn alarus jableh.commander th mechanized infantry division –. |
Al-Assad family | commander rd armored division since .reportedly incapacitated due heart attack.batatu describes army corps general.relatives numeir alassad second degree cousin hafezs children led shabiha latakia.nizar alassad cousin bashar alassad.head nizar oilfield supplies company. |
Al-Assad family | sanctioned eu close key government officials financing shabiha region latakia.fawaz alassad nephew hafez leader shabihamundhir alassad nephew hafez leader shabihasamer alassad son kamal grandson ismael halfbrother hafez alassad runs one several captagon factories albassah.references citationsbibliographyalianak sonia .middle eastern leaders islam precarious equilibrium.peter lang.isbn .cooper tom . |
Al-Assad family | syrian conflagration.civil war –.solihull helion company limited.isbn .seale patrick .asad struggle middle east. |
Al-Assad family | university california press.isbn .zahler kathy a. .assads syria.twentyfirst century books.isbn . |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | external links syria’s first family slate magazine february bashar alassads inner circle bbc may syrias leaders esther pan council foreign relations marchchina fastest growing economy world since average annual growth rate based government statistics.gdp reached usd .trillion .since end maoist period china transitioning state dominated planned socialist economy mixed economy.transformation required complex number reforms chinas fiscal financial enterprise governance legal systems ability government able flexibly respond unintended consequences changes. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | transformation accompanied high levels industrialization urbanization process influenced every aspect chinas society culture economy.the large size china means major regional variations living standards vary extreme poverty relative prosperity.much rural china peasants live land major cities like shanghai beijing modern servicebased economy forming.since prc founded china experienced surprising turbulent economic development process.experienced revolution socialism maoism finally gradual economic reform fast economic growth characterised postmaoist period.period great leap forward famine chaos cultural revolution negatively impacted economy.however since period economic reform began china seen major improvements average living standards experienced relative social stability. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | period china evolved isolated socialist state backbone world economy.the high growth rates reform period caused massive mobilization resources shift control resources public private ownership allowed improved efficiency management resources.benefits reaped era massive resource mobilization coming end china must rely efficiency improvements future grow economy.general overview chinas economic system lates state ownership certain industries central control planning financial system enabled government mobilize whatever surplus available greatly increase proportion national economic output devoted investment.analysts estimated investment accounted percent gnp rate surpassed countries.comparatively low level gnp however even high rate investment secured small amount resources relative size country population.instance percent gnp united states went gross investment amounted u.s. . |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | billion whereas approximately percent chinas gnp invested came equivalent u.s. billion serve population .times size united states.limited resources available investment prevented china rapidly producing importing advanced equipment.technological development proceeded gradually outdated equipment continued used long possible.consequently many different levels technology use simultaneously see science technology china. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | industries included plants comparable modern western facilities often based imported equipment designs.equipment produced chinese factories generally years behind standard western designs.agriculture received smaller share state investment industry remained much lower investment average technology productivity did.despite significant increase availability tractors trucks electric pumps mechanical threshers agricultural activities still performed people animals.although central administration coordinated economy redistributed resources regions required necessary economic activity decentralized little flow goods services regions causing suffering areas wait central administration step relief given.example roughly percent grain grown china consumed families produced remaining percent distributed regions required it.one important sources growth economy show comparative advantages locality expanding transportation capacity. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | transportation communications sectors growing improving fast enough pace handle volume traffic fast growing modern economy requires due scarcity investment funds lack advanced technology needed support growth.limited interaction among regions vast variety differing geographic zones created broad spectrum incompatible technologies use creating areas greatly differed economic activities organizational forms prosperity.within given city enterprises ranged tiny collectively owned handicraft units barely earning subsistence level incomes members modern state owned factories whose workers received steady wages along free medical care bonuses assortment benefits.the agricultural sector diverse accommodating well equipped specialized households supplied scarce products services local markets along wealthy suburban villages specializing production vegetables pork poultry eggs sell nearby free market cities fishing villages seacoast also herding groups grasslands inner mongolia poor struggling grain producing villages arid mountains shaanxi gansu provinces.despite formidable constraints disruptions chinese economy never stagnant.production grew substantially increased fairly rapidly .however production gains largely matched population growth productive capacity unable outdistance essential consumption needs significantly particularly agriculture.example grain output twice much population also doubled mostly countered increase production result little surplus accrued even high yielding years. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | furthermore resources could spared investment capital goods machinery factories mines railroads productive assets.relatively small size capital stock caused productivity per worker remain low turn perpetuated inability economy generate substantial surplus.economic policies – communist party china came power leaders fundamental longrange goals transform china modern powerful socialist nation.economic terms objectives meant industrialization improvement living standards narrowing income differences production modern military equipment.years passed leadership continued subscribe goals. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | economic policies formulated achieve dramatically altered several occasions response major changes economy internal politics international political economic developments.an important distinction emerged leaders felt socialist goals income equalization heightened political consciousness take priority material progress believed industrialization general economic modernization prerequisites attainment successful socialist order.among prominent leaders considered politics prime consideration mao zedong lin biao members gang four.leaders often stressed practical economic considerations included liu shaoqi zhou enlai deng xiaoping.part important policy shifts reflected alternating emphasis political economic goals accompanied major changes positions individuals political power structure.important characteristic development economic policies underlying economic model new policy period differing significantly predecessor nonetheless retained existing economic organization. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | thus form economic model policies expressed given point chinese history reflected current policy emphasis structural foundation built earlier periods.recovery war – chinas economy suffering debilitating effects decades warfare.many mines factories damaged destroyed.end war japan soviet troops dismantled half machinery major industrial areas northeast shipped soviet union.transportation communication power systems destroyed deteriorated lack maintenance. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | agriculture disrupted food production percent prewar peak level.economic ills compounded one virulent inflations world history.the chief goal government – period simply restore economy normal working order.administration moved quickly repair transportation communication links revive flow economic activity.banking system nationalized centralized peoples bank china.bring inflation control government unified monetary system tightened credit restricted government budgets levels put central control guaranteed value currency. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | commerce stimulated partially regulated establishment state trading companies commercial departments competed private traders purchasing goods producers selling consumers enterprises.transformation ownership industry proceeded slowly.third countrys enterprises state control nationalist government power – much modernized transportation sector.communist party china immediately made units stateowned enterprises upon taking power .remaining privately owned enterprises gradually brought government control percent industrial units still completely outside state system .in agriculture major change landownership carried out. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | nationwide land reform program titles percent arable land redistributed landlords prosperous farmers percent farm families previously owned little land.land reform completed area farmers encouraged cooperate phases production formation small mutual aid teams six seven households each.thirtyeight percent farm households belonged mutual aid teams .price stability established commerce restored industry agriculture regained previous peak levels production.period recovery achieved goals. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | first fiveyear plan – restored viable economic base leadership mao zedong zhou enlai revolutionary veterans prepared embark intensive program industrial growth socialization.purpose administration adopted soviet economic model based state ownership modern sector large collective units agriculture centralized economic planning.soviet approach economic development manifested first fiveyear plan –.soviet economy main objective high rate economic growth primary emphasis industrial development expense agriculture particular concentration heavy industry capitalintensive technology.soviet planners helped chinese counterparts formulate plan. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | large numbers soviet engineers technicians scientists assisted developing installing new heavy industrial facilities including many entire plants pieces equipment purchased soviet union.government control industry increased period applying financial pressures inducements convince owners private modern firms sell state convert joint publicprivate enterprises state control.approximately .percent modern industrial enterprises state owned .percent joint publicprivate ownership. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | privately owned firms remained.period handicraft industries organized cooperatives accounted .percent handicraft workers .agriculture also underwent extensive organizational changes.facilitate mobilization agricultural resources improve efficiency farming increase government access agricultural products authorities encouraged farmers organize increasingly large socialized collective units.loosely structured tiny mutual aid teams villages advance first lowerstage agricultural producers cooperatives families still received income basis amount land contributed eventually advanced cooperatives collectives. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | advanced producers cooperatives income shares based amount labor contributed.addition family allowed retain small private plot grow vegetables fruit livestock use.collectivization process began slowly accelerated ..percent farm households joined advanced producers cooperatives.in terms economic growth first fiveyear plan quite successful especially areas emphasized sovietstyle development strategy. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | solid foundation created heavy industry.key industries including iron steel manufacturing coal mining cement production electricity generation machine building greatly expanded put firm modern technological footing.thousands industrial mining enterprises constructed including major facilities.industrial production increased average annual rate percent national income grew rate percent year.despite lack state investment agriculture agricultural output increased substantially averaging increases percent year.growth resulted primarily gains efficiency brought reorganization cooperation achieved collectivization. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | first fiveyear plan wore however chinese leaders became increasingly concerned relatively sluggish performance agriculture inability state trading companies increase significantly amount grain procured rural units urban consumption.great leap forward – end first fiveyear plan growing imbalance industrial agricultural growth dissatisfaction inefficiency lack flexibility decisionmaking process convinced nations leaders – particularly mao zedong – highly centralized industrybased soviet model appropriate china.government adopted measures shift great deal authority economic decision making provinciallevel county local administrations.second fiveyear plan – intended continue policies first plan abandoned.place leadership adopted approach relied spontaneous heroic efforts entire population produce dramatic great leap production sectors economy once. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | reorganization agriculture regarded key endeavor leap suddenly higher stage productivity.fundamental problem lack sufficient capital invest heavily industry agriculture time.overcome problem leadership decided attempt create capital agricultural sector building vast irrigation water control works employing huge teams farmers whose labor fully utilized.surplus rural labor also employed support industrial sector setting thousands smallscale lowtechnology backyard industrial projects farm units would produce machinery required agricultural development components urban industries.mobilization surplus rural labor improvements agricultural efficiency accomplished leap final stage agricultural collectivization—the formation peoples communes.peoples communes created combining advanced producers cooperatives members average although membership varied cases. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | first instituted communes envisaged combining one body functions lowest level local government highest level organization agricultural production.communes consisted three organizational levels central commune administration production brigade roughly equivalent advanced producers cooperatives traditional rural village production team generally consisted around thirty families.inception great leap forward communes intended acquire ownership rights productive assets subordinate units take planning decision making farm activities.ideally communes improve efficiency moving farm families dormitories feeding communal mess halls moving whole teams laborers task task.practice ideal extremely centralized form commune instituted areas.ninetyeight percent farm population organized communes april september . |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | soon became evident cases communes unwieldy carry successfully managerial administrative functions assigned them.production decisions reverted brigade team levels eventually governmental responsibilities returned county township administrations.nonetheless commune system retained continued basic form organization agricultural sector early s.during great leap forward industrial sector also expected discover use slack labor productive capacity increase output beyond levels previously considered feasible.political zeal motive force put politics command enterprising party branches took direction many factories.addition central planning relegated minor role favor spontaneous politically inspired production decisions individual units.the result great leap forward severe economic crisis. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | industrial output fact leap percent agricultural sector gathered good harvest.however adverse weather conditions improperly constructed water control projects misallocations resources occurred overly centralized communist movement resulted disastrous declines agricultural output.gross value agricultural output fell percent percent respectively dropped percent reach lowest point since .widespread famine occurred especially rural areas according census figures death rate climbed .percent . |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | percent .percent dropped back .percent .million people apparently died starvation number reported births million fewer normal conditions.government prevented even worse disaster canceling nearly orders foreign technical imports using countrys foreign exchange reserves import million tons grain year beginning . |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | mines factories continued expand output partly overworking personnel machines largely many new plants constructed first fiveyear plan went full production years.thereafter however excessive strain equipment workers effects agricultural crisis lack economic coordination withdrawal soviet assistance caused industrial output plummet percent percent .readjustment recovery agriculture first – faced economic collapse early government sharply revised immediate goals economy devised new set economic policies replace great leap forward.top priority given restoring agricultural output expanding rate would meet needs growing population.planning economic coordination revived although less centralized form great leap forward—so restore order efficient allocation resources economy. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | rate investment reduced investment priorities reversed agriculture receiving first consideration light industry second heavy industry third.in departure emphasis heavy industrial development persisted great leap forward government undertook mobilize nations resources bring technological advancement agriculture.organizational changes agriculture mainly involved decentralization production decisionmaking income distribution within commune structure.role central commune administration greatly reduced although remained link local government agricultural producers important carrying activities large scale production brigades.production teams designated basic accounting units responsible making nearly decisions concerning production distribution income members.private plots disappeared communes great leap forward officially restored farm families.economic support agriculture took several forms. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | agricultural taxes reduced prices paid agricultural products raised relative prices industrial supplies agriculture.substantial increases supplies chemical fertilizer various kinds agricultural machinery notably small electric pumps irrigation.modern supplies concentrated areas known produce high stable yields order ensure best possible results.in industry key enterprises returned central state control control enterprises remained hands provinciallevel local governments.decentralization taken place reaffirmed strengthened period.planning rather politics guided production decisions material rewards rather revolutionary enthusiasm became leading incentive production. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | major imports advanced foreign machinery come abrupt halt withdrawal soviet assistance starting initiated japan west european countries.during – readjustment recovery period economic stability restored production agriculture industry surpassed peak levels great leap forward period.agricultural output grew average rate .percent year.industrial output increased years average annual rate .percent largely reviving plants operated capacity economic collapse . |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | another important source growth period spread rural smallscale industries particularly coal mines hydroelectric plants chemical fertilizer plants agricultural machinery plants.economic model emerged period combined elements highly centralized industrially oriented sovietstyle system first fiveyear plan aspects decentralization ownership decision making characterized great leap forward strong emphasis agricultural development balanced growth agriculture first policy.important changes economic policy occurred later years basic system ownership decisionmaking structure development strategy forged early significantly altered reform period s. events cultural revolution decade – cultural revolution set motion mao zedong called halt atmosphere radical leftism persisted maos death fall gang four .period several distinct phases economic policy.high tide cultural revolution – cultural revolution unlike great leap forward primarily political upheaval produce major changes official economic policies basic economic model. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | nonetheless influence felt throughout urban society profoundly affected modern sector economy.agricultural production stagnated general rural areas experienced less turmoil cities.production reduced modern nonagricultural sectors several ways.the direct cause production halts political activity students workers mines factories.a second cause extensive disruption transportation resulting requisitioning trains trucks carry chinese red guards around country.output many factories suffered shortages raw materials supplies.a third disruptive influence direction factories placed hands revolutionary committees consisting representatives party workers chinese peoples liberation army whose members often little knowledge either management enterprise supposed run.addition virtually engineers managers scientists technicians landlords professional personnel criticized demoted sent countryside participate labor even jailed resulted skills knowledge lost enterprise.the effect percent decline industrial production .degree order restored army late industrial sector returned fairly high rate growth .other aspects cultural revolution farreaching effects economy. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | imports foreign equipment required technological advancement curtailed rampant xenophobia.probably serious longlasting effect economy dire shortage highly educated personnel caused closing universities.chinas ability develop new technology absorb imported technology would limited years hiatus higher education.resumption systematic growth – political stability gradually restored renewed drive coordinated balanced development set motion leadership premier zhou enlai.to revive efficiency industry communist party china committees returned positions leadership revolutionary committees campaign carried return skilled highly educated personnel jobs displaced cultural revolution.universities began reopen foreign contacts expanded.economy suffered imbalances capacities different industrial sectors urgent need increased supplies modern inputs agriculture.response problems significant increase investment including signing contracts foreign firms construction major facilities chemical fertilizer production steel finishing oil extraction refining. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | notable contracts thirteen worlds largest modern chemical fertilizer plants.period industrial output grew average rate percent year.agricultural production declined somewhat poor weather increased average annual rate .percent period whole.party state leadership undertook general reevaluation development needs zhou enlai presented conclusions report fourth national peoples congress january .called four modernizations see glossary. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | zhou emphasized mechanization agriculture comprehensive twostage program modernization entire economy end century.gang four – early mids radical group later known gang four attempted dominate power center network supporters important control media.more moderate leaders however developing promulgating pragmatic program rapid modernization economy contradicted set policies expressed media.initiatives zhou enlai deng xiaoping vehemently attacked press political campaigns poisonous weeds.using official news organs gang four advocated primacy nonmaterial political incentives radical reduction income differences elimination private farm plots shift basic accounting unit brigade level agriculture.opposed strengthening central planning denounced use foreign technology.in face contradictory policy pronouncements uncertain political currents administrators economic decision makers levels virtually paralyzed.economic activity slowed incipient modernization program almost ground halt. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | uncertainty instability exacerbated death zhou enlai january subsequent second purge deng xiaoping april.the effects power struggle policy disputes compounded destruction resulting tangshan earthquake july .output year industry agriculture showed growth .interlude uncertainty finally ended gang four arrested october one month maos death.postmao interlude – fall gang four leadership hua guofeng—and july rehabilitated deng xiaoping—reaffirmed modernization program espoused zhou enlai .also set forth battery new policies purpose accomplishing four modernizations.the new policies strengthened authority managers economic decision makers expense party officials stressed material incentives workers called expansion research education systems. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | foreign trade increased exchanges students foreign experts developed countries encouraged.this new policy initiative capped fifth national peoples congress february march hua guofeng presented draft ambitious tenyear plan period.plan called high rates growth industry agriculture included construction projects would require massive expensive imports foreign technology.between economy quickly recovered stagnation cultural revolution.agricultural production sluggish third consecutive year adverse weather conditions rebounded record harvest .industrial output jumped percent percent .reform economic system beginning milestone third plenum national party congresss th central committee opened december party leaders decided undertake program gradual fundamental reform economic system. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | concluded centrally planned economy failed produce efficient economic growth caused china fall far behind industrialized nations west also new industrial powers asia japan south korea singapore taiwan hong kong.in late japan hong kong rivaled european countries modern technology chinas citizens make barely sufficient food supplies rationed clothing inadequate housing service sector inadequate inefficient.shortcomings embarrassed china internationally.the purpose reform program abandon communism make work better substantially increasing role market mechanisms system reducing—not eliminating—government planning direct control.the process reform incremental.new measures first introduced experimentally localities popularized disseminated nationally proved successful.by program achieved remarkable results increasing supplies food consumer goods created new climate dynamism opportunity economy.time however reforms also created new problems tensions leading intense questioning political struggles programs future.period readjustment – first years reform program designated period readjustment key imbalances economy corrected foundation laid wellplanned modernization drive. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | schedule hua guofengs tenyear plan discarded although many elements retained.the major goals readjustment process expand exports rapidly overcome key deficiencies transportation communications coal iron steel building materials electric power redress imbalance light heavy industry increasing growth rate light industry reducing investment heavy industry.agricultural production stimulated increase percent procurement prices paid farm products.the central policies reform program introduced experimentally readjustment period.successful reform policy contract responsibility system production agriculture suggested government way poor rural units mountainous arid areas increase incomes.responsibility system allowed individual farm families work piece land profit return delivering set amount produce collective given price.arrangement created strong incentives farmers reduce production costs increase productivity. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | soon introduction responsibility system adopted numerous farm units sorts areas.agricultural production also stimulated official encouragement establish free farmers markets urban areas well countryside allowing families operate specialized households devoting efforts producing scarce commodity service profitmaking basis.in industry main policy innovations increased autonomy enterprise managers reduced emphasis planned quotas allowed enterprises produce goods outside plan sale market permitted enterprises experiment use bonuses reward higher productivity.government also tested fundamental change financial procedures limited number stateowned units rather remitting profits state normally done enterprises allowed pay tax profits retain balance reinvestment distribution workers bonuses.the government also actively encouraged establishment collectively owned operated industrial service enterprises means soaking unemployment among young people time helping increase supplies light industrial products.individual enterprise also allowed virtually disappeared cultural revolution independent cobblers tailors tinkers vendors became common sights cities.foreigntrade procedures greatly eased allowing individual enterprises administrative departments outside ministry foreign trade became ministry foreign economic relations trade engage direct negotiations foreign firms.wide range cooperation trading credit arrangements foreign firms legalized china could enter mainstream international trade. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | reform opening beginning period readjustment produced promising results increasing incomes substantially raising availability food housing consumer goods generating strong rates growth sectors except heavy industry intentionally restrained.strength initial successes reform program broadened leadership deng xiaoping frequently remarked chinas basic policy reform opening reform economic system opening foreign trade.in agriculture contract responsibility system adopted organizational norm entire country commune structure largely dismantled.end approximately percent farm households responsibility system handful communes dissolved.communes administrative responsibilities turned township town governments economic roles assigned townships villages.role free markets farm produce expanded increased marketing possibilities rising productivity farm incomes rose rapidly.in industry complexity interrelation production activities prevented single simple policy bringing kind dramatic improvement responsibility system achieved agriculture. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | nonetheless cluster policies based greater flexibility autonomy market involvement significantly improved opportunities available enterprises generated high rates growth increased efficiency.enterprise managers gradually gained greater control units including right hire fire although process required endless struggles bureaucrats party cadres.practice remitting taxes profits retaining balance became universal increasing incentive enterprises maximize profits substantially adding autonomy.change potentially equal importance shift source investment funds government budget allocations carried interest repaid interestbearing bank loans.interest rate charged loans still low serve check unproductive investments mechanism place.the role foreign trade economic reforms increased far beyond importance previous period. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | reform period combined value imports exports seldom exceeded percent national income.percent percent reached percent.unlike earlier periods china committed trying achieve selfsufficiency deng xiaoping foreign trade regarded important source investment funds modern technology.result restrictions trade loosened mids foreign investment legalized.common foreign investments joint ventures foreign firms chinese units. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | sole ownership foreign investors also became legal feasibility undertakings remained questionable.the conspicuous symbols new status foreign trade four coastal special economic zones see glossary created enclaves foreign investment could receive special treatment.three four zones—the cities shenzhen zhuhai shantou—were located guangdong province close hong kong.fourth xiamen fujian province directly across strait taiwan.significant chinas economic development designation april economic development zones fourteen largest coastal cities including dalian tianjin shanghai guangzhou—all major commercial industrial centers.zones create productive exchanges foreign firms advanced technology major chinese economic networks.domestic commerce also stimulated reform policies explicitly endeavored enliven economy shifting primary burden allocation goods services government plan market. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | private entrepreneurship freemarket activities legalized encouraged although central authorities continuously fight efforts local government agencies impose excessive taxes independent merchants.stateowned system commercial agencies retail outlets coexisted rapidly growing private collectively owned system competed vigorously providing wider range consumption choices chinese citizens previous time.although reform program achieved impressive successes also gave rise several serious problems.one problem challenge party authority presented principles freemarket activity professional managerial autonomy.another difficulty wave crime corruption and—in minds many older people—moral deterioration caused looser economic political climate.fundamental tensions created widening income disparities people getting rich pervasive threat inflation. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | concerns played role political struggle culminated party general secretary hu yaobangs forced resignation .following hus resignation leadership engaged intense debate future course reforms balance need efficiency market incentives need government guidance control.commitment reform affirmed pace emphasis placed macroeconomic microeconomic levers remained objects caution.china gdp state council china approved establish sna system national accounting use gdp measure national economy.china started study theoretical foundation guiding accounting model etc. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | establishing new system national economic accounting.first citizen peoples republic china receive phd.economics overseas country dr. fengbo zhang headed chinese macroeconomic research key research project seventh fiveyear plan china well completing publishing china gdp data chinas research.summary included book chinese macroeconomic structure policy june edited fengbo zhang collectively authored research center state council china.first gdp data published china.the research utilized world banks method reference made numerous appropriate adjustments based chinas national condition. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | gdp also converted usd based data utilizing moving average exchange rate.research systematically completed chinas gdp gdp per capita analyzed growth rate change contribution rates component.research also included international comparisons.additionally research compared mps material product system sna system national accounting looking results two systems analyzing chinese economy.achievement created foundation chinas gdp research.the state council china issued “the notice regarding implementation system national accounting” august western sna system officially introduced china replaced soviet unions mps system western economic indicator gdp became chinas important economic indicator. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | based dr. fengbo zhangs research national bureau statistics china collaboration hitotsubashi university japan estimated chinas gdp data based sna principal.industry industry employed percent labor force produced percent gross national product gnp.fastest growing sector average annual growth percent .wide range technological levels.many small handicraft units many enterprises using machinery installed designed s. significant number big uptodate plants including textile mills steel mills chemical fertilizer plants petrochemical facilities also burgeoning light industries producing consumer goods. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | china produced kinds products made industrialized nations limited quantities hightechnology items.technology transfer conducted importing whole plants equipment designs important means progress.major industrial centers liaoning province beijingtianjintangshan area shanghai wuhan.mineral resources included huge reserves iron ore adequate abundant supplies nearly industrial minerals.outdated mining ore processing technologies gradually replaced modern processes techniques equipment. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | agriculture agricultural sector employed percent labor force proportion gnp percent.low worker productivity scant supplies agricultural machinery modern inputs.agricultural processes still performed hand.small arable land area percent total area compared percent united states relation size country population.intensive use land fields produced least one crop year wherever conditions permitted two even three crops grown annually especially south. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | grain important product including rice wheat corn sorghum barley millet.important crops included cotton jute oil seeds sugarcane sugar beets.eggs also major product.pork production increased steadily poultry pigs raised family plots.livestock relatively limited numbers except sheep goats grazed large herds grasslands inner mongolia autonomous region northwest. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | substantial marine freshwater fishery.timber resources mainly located northeast southwest much country deforested centuries ago.wide variety fruits vegetables grown.energy resources china selfsufficient nearly energy forms.coal petroleum exported since early s. coal reserves among worlds largest mining technology inadequately developed steadily improved late s. petroleum reserves large time varying quality disparate locations. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | suspected oil deposits northwest offshore tracts believed among worlds largest.exploration extraction limited scarcity equipment trained personnel.twentyseven contracts joint offshore exploration production japanese western oil companies signed late handful wells producing oil.substantial natural gas reserves north northwest offshore.hydroelectric potential country greatest world sixth largest capacity large hydroelectric projects construction others planning stage. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | thermal power mostly coal fired produced approximately percent generating capacity increased percent .emphasis thermal power late seen policy makers quick shortterm solution energy needs hydroelectric nuclear power seen longterm solution.petroleum production growth continued order meet needs nationwide mechanization provided important foreign exchange domestic use restricted much possible end decade.foreign trade foreign trade small international standards growing rapidly size importance represented percent gnp .trade controlled ministry foreign economic relations trade subordinate units bank china foreign exchange arm central bank. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | substantial decentralization increased flexibility foreign trade operations occurred since late s. textiles leading export category.important exports included petroleum foodstuffs.leading imports included machinery transport equipment manufactured goods chemicals.japan dominant trading partner accounted .percent imports . |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | percent exports .hong kong leading market exports .percent source percent imports.united states became chinas second largest source imports third largest overall trade partner.western europe particularly federal republic germany also major trading partner. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | tourism encouraged growing.– chinas economy saw continuous real gdp growth least since .chinese new year visit southern china early chinas paramount leader time deng xiaoping made series political pronouncements designed give new impetus reinvigorate process economic reform.th national communist party congress later year backed dengs renewed push market reforms stating chinas key task create socialist market economy.continuity political system bolder reform economic system announced hallmarks year development plan s.in chinese economy continued grow rapid pace . |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | accompanied low inflation.economy slowed next years influenced part asian financial crisis official growth .... |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | inflation dropped sharply reflecting tighter monetary policies stronger measures control food prices.year showed modest reversal trend.gross domestic product grew officially .year quadrupled since .. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | billion people gdp per capita ppp china became second largest economy world us.according several sources china become second largest economy .however according gallup polls many americans rate chinas economy first.considering gdp per capita far accurate.united states remains largest economy world. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | however trend china rising clear.the asian financial crisis affected china margin mainly decreased foreign direct investment sharp drop growth exports.however china huge reserves currency freely convertible capital inflows consisted overwhelmingly longterm investment.reasons remained largely insulated regional crisis commitment devalue major stabilizing factor region.however china faced slowing growth rising unemployment based internal problems including financial system burdened huge amounts bad loans massive layoffs stemming aggressive efforts reform stateowned enterprises soes.despite chinas impressive economic development past two decades reforming state sector modernizing banking system remained major hurdles.half chinas stateowned enterprises inefficient reporting losses. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | th national communist party congress met september general secretary president jiang zemin announced plans sell merge close vast majority soes call increased nonpublic ownership feigongyou privatization euphemistic terms.th national peoples congress endorsed plans march session.china claimed success threeyear effort make majority large state owned enterprises soes profitable.following chinese communist partys third plenum held october chinese legislators unveiled several proposed amendments state constitution.one significant proposal provide protection private property rights. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | legislators also indicated would new emphasis certain aspects overall government economic policy including efforts reduce unemployment – range urban areas rebalance income distribution urban rural regions maintain economic growth protecting environment improving social equity.national peoples congress approved amendments met march .the fifth plenum october approved th fiveyear economic program – aimed building socialist harmonious society balanced wealth distribution improved education medical care social security.march national peoples congress approved th fiveyear program.plan called relatively conservative increase gdp reduction energy intensity energy consumption per unit gdp .chinas economy grew average rate per year period – highest growth rate world.chinas gdp grew . |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | .even faster .despite attempts government cool economy.chinas total trade surpassed .trillion making china worlds thirdlargest trading nation u.s. germany. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | high growth necessary china generate million jobs needed annually—roughly size ecuador cambodia—to employ new entrants job market.on january confirmed world bank nbs published revised figures financial year growth happened percent instead .percent provisional figures.chinas gross domestic product stood us.trillion germanys gdp us.trillion . |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | made china worlds third largest economy gross domestic product.based figures china recorded fastest growth since gdp grew .percent.china may already overtaken germany even earlier chinas informal economy including grey market underground economy larger germanys.louis kuijs senior economist world bank china office beijing said chinas economy may even january much percent larger germanys. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | according merrill lynch china economist ting lu china projected overtake japan three four years.social economic indicators improved since various recent reforms launched rising inequality evident highly developed coastal provinces less developed poorer inland regions.according un estimates around million people china—mostly rural areas lagging inland provinces—still lived poverty subsistence wages less day.chinese population lives day.in mediumterm economists state ample amount potential china maintain relatively high economic growth rates forecasted worlds largest exporter .urbanization china technological progress catchup developed countries decades left run.future growth complicated rapidly aging population costs damage environment.china launched economic stimulus plan specifically deal global financial crisis –. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | primarily focused increasing affordable housing easing credit restrictions mortgage smes lower taxes real estate sales commodities pumping public investment infrastructure development rail network roads ports.major natural disasters chinese winter storms sichuan earthquake south china floods mildly affected national economic growth major damage local regional economies infrastructure.growth rates sichuan dropped .nd quarter recovered .annual growth whole .major reconstruction efforts still continuing may earthquake expected last least three years. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | despite closures relocation factories summer olympics games minor impact beijings overall economic growth.chinese economy significantly affected global financial crisis due export oriented nature economy depends heavily upon international trade.however government economicstimulus hugely successful nearly accounts.corporate income tax cit income tax companies set although exceptions.companies invest industries supported chinese government tax rates .companies investing industries also get advantages.in online realm chinas ecommerce industry grown slowly eu us significant period development occurring around onwards. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | according credit suisse total value online transactions china grew insignificant size around rmb trillion us billion .alipay biggest market share china million users control half chinas online payment market february tenpays share around percent china unionpays share slightly greater percent.according corruption perception index compiled global coalition transparency international china ranked countries score .index scores countries scale highly corrupt low corruption half nations asia pacific region emerged score lower .transparency international stated final assessmentif genuine efforts made present efforts chinese government go beyond observing rule law.embrace political reforms would allow checks balances transparency independent scrutiny together acknowledging role civil society play countering corruption. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | economic planning economy directed coordinated means economic plans formulated levels administration.reform program significantly reduced role central planning encouraging offplan production stateowned units promoting growth collective individual enterprises fall planning system.government also endeavored replace direct plan control indirect guidance economy economic levers taxes investment support.despite changes overall direction economy still carried central plan allocation key goods steel energy.when chinas planning apparatus first established early patterned highly centralized soviet system.system basically depended central planning bureaucracy calculated balanced quantities major goods demanded supplied. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | approach substantially modified great leap forward – economic management extensively decentralized.degree centralization planning system fluctuated political currents waxing times pragmatic growth waning influence cultural revolution gang four.at national level planning began highest bodies central government.national economic goals priorities determined partys central committee state council national peoples congress.decisions communicated ministries commissions agencies state council put effect national economic plans.the state planning commission worked state economic commission state statistical bureau former state capital construction commission peoples bank china economic ministries organs subordinate state council formulate national plans varying duration import.longrange plans protracted ten twelve years also announced various times. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | essentially statements future goals intended general direction economy little direct effect economic activity.late recent longrange plan draft plan presented hua guofeng february .the primary form mediumrange plan fiveyear plan another feature adopted soviet system.purpose fiveyear plan guide integrate annual plans achieve balanced growth progress toward national goals.practice role fulfilled first fiveyear plan – served effectively blueprint industrialization.second – third – fourth – fifth – fiveyear plans interrupted political upheavals little influence. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | sixth fiveyear plan – drawn planning period reflection results reform program guide reform.seventh fiveyear plan – intended direct course reforms second half mid future already clouded political struggle.a second form mediumrange planning appeared readjustment recovery periods – – – followed period chaos civil war great leap forward gang four respectively.instances normal long mediumrange planning suspended basic imbalances economy targeted corrected.case objectives limited clearly defined fiveyear plans fairly successfully achieved.the activities economic units controlled annual plans.formulation plans began autumn preceding year planned agricultural output current year could taken account. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | foundation annual plan material balance table.national level first step preparation material balance table estimate province autonomous region special municipality enterprise direct central control demand supply centrally controlled good.transfers goods provinciallevel units planned bring quantities supplied demanded balance.last resort serious overall deficit good could made imports.the initial targets sent provinciallevel administrations centrally controlled enterprises.provinciallevel counterparts state economic commissions ministries broke targets allocation among subordinate counties districts cities enterprises direct provinciallevel control. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | counties distributed assigned quantities among subordinate towns townships countyowned enterprises cities divided targets objectives enterprises jurisdiction.finally towns assigned goals stateowned enterprises controlled.agricultural targets distributed townships among villages ultimately reduced quantities villages contracted individual farm households.at level individual units received target input allocations output quantities.managers engineers accountants compared targets projections concluded planned output quotas exceeded capabilities consulted representatives administrative body superior them.administrative level adjusted targets basis discussions subordinate units sent revised figures back planning ladder. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | commissions ministries evaluated revised sums repeated material balance table procedure used results final plan state council officially approved.annual plans formulated provincial level provided quantities centrally controlled goods established targets goods included national plan important province autonomous region special municipality.figures went process disaggregation review discussion reaggregation centrally planned targets eventually became part provinciallevel units annual plan.many goods included provincial level similarly added county city plans.the final stage planning process occurred individual producing units.received output quotas figures allocations capital labor supplies enterprises generally organized production schedules tenday onemonth threemonth sixmonth plans.the chinese planning system encountered problems inflexibility inadequate responsiveness emerged centrally planned economies.basic difficulty impossible planners foresee needs economy specify adequately characteristics planned inputs products. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | beginning first reforms introduced experimental basis.nearly policies increased autonomy decisionmaking power various economic units reduced direct role central planning.mids planning still governments main mechanism guiding economy correcting imbalances ability predict control behavior economy greatly reduced.prices determination prices reform period late prices commodities set government agencies changed infrequently.prices change production costs demand commodity altered often failed reflect true values goods causing many kinds goods misallocated producing price system chinese government referred irrational.the best way generate accurate prices required economic efficiency process supply demand government policy increasingly advocated use prices mutually agreed upon buyer seller determined market.the prices products farm produce free markets determined supply demand summer state store prices food items except grain also allowed float response market conditions. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | prices goods produced private collectively owned enterprises rural urban areas generally free float prices many items stateowned enterprises produced outside plan.prices major goods produced stateowned enterprises however along grain purchased farmers state commercial departments retail sales cities still set restricted government agencies still sufficiently accurate.in price structure china chaotic.prices determined market forces supply demand others set government agencies still others produced procedures clearly defined.many cases one price commodity depending exchanged kind unit produced buyer was.government pleased situation committed continued price reform. |
Economic history of China (1949–present) | reluctant however release remaining fixed prices potential political economic disruption.sudden unpredictable price changes would leave consumers unable continue buying goods previously profitable enterprises old price structure would begin take losses others would abruptly become wealthy.role prices result economic reform program increased importance market exchange profitability prices played central role determining production distribution goods sectors economy.previously strict centrally planned system enterprises assigned output quotas inputs physical terms.reform program incentive show positive profit caused even stateowned enterprises choose inputs products basis prices whenever possible. |
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