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Turkish people | riots left hundreds turks dead injured nearly properties destroyed thus thousands meskhetian turks forced renewed exile.soviet authorities recorded many meskhetian turks belonging nationalities azeri kazakh kyrgyz uzbek.culture language based geographic variants ethnic turks speak various dialects turkish language.turkish remains largest vigorous turkic language spoken million people.historically ottoman turkish official language lingua franca throughout ottoman territories ottoman turkish alphabet used persoarabic script.however turkish intellectuals sought simplify written language rise turkish nationalism nineteenth century.by twentieth century intensive language reforms thoroughly practiced importantly mustafa kemal atatürk changed written script latinbased modern turkish alphabet . |
Turkish people | since regulatory body leading reform activities turkish language association founded .the modern standard turkish based dialect istanbul.however dialectal variation persists spite levelling influence standard used mass media turkish education system since s. terms ağız şive often refer different types turkish dialects.official status today modern turkish language used official language turkey northern cyprus.also official language republic cyprus alongside greek.kosovo turkish recognized official language municipalities prizren mamuša gjilan mitrovica pristina vučitrn whilst elsewhere country recognized minority language. |
Turkish people | similarly north macedonia turkish official language form least population includes plasnica municipality centar župa municipality mavrovo rostuša municipality whilst elsewhere country remains minority language only.iraq recognizes turkish official language regions turks constitute majority population minority language elsewhere.several countries turkish officially recognized minority language including bosnia herzegovina croatia romania.however greece right use turkish language recognized western thrace sizable longstanding minorities elsewhere country i.e.rhodes kos benefit recognition.there also several postottoman nations officially recognize turkish language give rights turkish minorities study language alongside compulsory study official language country practiced bulgaria tunisia.various variants turkish also used millions turkish immigrants descendants western europe however official recognition countries. |
Turkish people | turkish dialects three major anatolian turkish dialect groups spoken turkey west anatolian dialect roughly west euphrates east anatolian dialect east euphrates north east anatolian group comprises dialects eastern black sea coast trabzon rize littoral districts artvin.the balkan turkish dialects also called rumelian turkish dialects divided two main groups western rumelian turkish eastern rumelian turkish.western dialects spoken north macedonia kosovo western bulgaria northern romania bosnia albania.eastern dialects spoken greece northeasternsouthern bulgaria southeastern romania.division roughly follows borderline west east bulgaria starts east lom proceeds southwards east vratsa sofia samokov turns west reaching south kyustendil close serbian north macedonian border.eastern dialects lacks phonetic peculiarities found western area thus dialects close central anatolian dialects. |
Turkish people | turkish dialects spoken near western black sea region e.g.ludogorie dobruja bessarabia show analogies northeastern anatolian black sea dialects.the cypriot turkish dialect maintained features respective local varieties ottoman settlers mostly came konyaantalyaadana region furthermore cypriot turkish also influenced cypriot greek.today varieties spoken northern cyprus increasingly influenced standard turkish.the cypriot turkish dialect exposed increasing standard turkish immigration turkey new mass media new educational institutions.the iraqi turkish dialects similarities certain southeastern anatolian dialects around region urfa diyarbakır.linguists described iraqi turkish dialects anatolian eastern anatolian dialect.historically iraqi turkish influenced ottoman turkish neighboring azerbaijani turkic. |
Turkish people | however istanbul turkish prestige language exerts profound influence dialects.syntax iraqi turkish therefore differs sharply neighboring iranoturkic varieties shares characteristics similar turkish dialects turkey.collectively iraqi turkish dialects also show similarities cypriot turkish balkan turkish regarding modality.written language iraqi turkmen based istanbul turkish using modern turkish alphabet.the meskhetian turkish dialect originally spoken georgia turkish meskhetian community forcefully deported dispersed throughout turkey russia central asia azerbaijan ukraine united states.speak eastern anatolian dialect turkish hails regions kars ardahan artvin. |
Turkish people | meskhetian turkish dialect also borrowed languages including azerbaijani georgian kazakh kyrgyz russian uzbek meskhetian turks contact russian soviet rule.the syrian turkish dialects spoken throughout country.aleppo tell abyad raqqa bayırbucak speak southeastern anatolian dialects comparable kilis antep urfa hatay yayladağı.damascus speak turkish language yörük dialect.currently turkish third widely used language syria arabic kurdish.religion ethnic turkish people either practicing nonpracticing muslims follow teachings hanafi school sunni islam. |
Turkish people | form largest muslim community turkey northern cyprus well largest muslim groups austria bulgaria czech republic denmark germany liechtenstein netherlands romania switzerland.addition sunni turks alevi turks whose local islamic traditions based anatolia well bektashis traditionally centered anatolia balkans.in general turkish islam considered moderate pluralistic middle easternislamic societies.historically turkish sufi movements promoted liberal forms islam example turkish humanist groups thinkers mevlevis whirling dervishes follow rumi bektashis yunus emre emphasized faith practicing islam.tolerant environment seljuk turks turkish tribes arriving anatolia th century found liberal sufi version islam closer shamanists traditions chose preserve culture dance music.late ottoman period tanzimat policies introduced ottoman intelligentsia fused islam modernization reforms followed atatürks secularist reforms th century.consequently also many nonpracticing turkish muslims tend politically secular. |
Turkish people | example cyprus turkish cypriots generally secular attend mosques special occasions funerals.even hala sultan tekke larnaca resting place umm haram considered one holiest sites islam remains important pilgrimage site secular turkish cypriot community too.similarly urban areas levant iraq turkish minority mainly secular internalized secularist interpretation state–religion affairs practiced republic turkey since foundation .in north africa turkish minorities traditionally differentiated arabberber population follow maliki school turks continued follow teaching hanafi school brought region ancestors ottoman rule.indeed ottomanturkish mosques region often distinguishable pencillike octagonal minarets built accordance traditions hanafi rite.the tradition building mosques ottomanstyle i.e.either imperial style based istanbul mosques provincial styles continued present day traditional areas settlement e.g. |
Turkish people | turkey balkans cyprus parts levant well western europe north america substantial immigrant communities.since turkish even seen synonymous muslim countries like germany islam considered specific turkish character visual architectural style.arts architecture turkish architecture reached peak ottoman period.ottoman architecture influenced seljuk byzantine islamic architecture came develop style own.overall ottoman architecture described synthesis architectural traditions mediterranean middle east.as turkey successfully transformed religionbased former ottoman empire modern nationstate strong separation state religion increase modes artistic expression followed.first years republic government invested large amount resources fine arts museums theatres opera houses architecture. |
Turkish people | diverse historical factors play important roles defining modern turkish identity.turkish culture product efforts modern western state maintaining traditional religious historical values.mix cultural influences dramatized example form new symbols clash interlacing cultures enacted works orhan pamuk recipient nobel prize literature.traditional turkish music include turkish folk music halk müziği fasıl ottoman classical music sanat müziği originates ottoman court.contemporary turkish music include turkish pop music rock turkish hip hop genres.genetics turkish genomic variation along several western asian populations looks similar genomic variation south european populations southern italians. |
Turkish people | data ancient dna – covering paleolithic neolithic bronze age periods – showed western asian genomes including turkish ones greatly influenced early agricultural populations area later population movements turkic speakers also contributed.the whole genome sequencing study turkish genetics individuals concluded turkish population forms cluster southern europeanmediterranean populations predicted contribution ancestral east asian populations presumably central asian .. meanwhile east asian impact kazakh genome another turkic ethnic group .however direct estimate migration rate due reasons unknown original contributing populations.moreover genetic variation various populations central asia poorly characterized western asian populations may also closely related populations east.a study found .±.east asian ancestry turks authors suggested turks genetically shifted towards modern central asians line historical mixture populations region. |
Turkish people | study found turkish people cluster southern mediterranean europe populations along groups northern part southwest asia populations caucasus northern iraq iranians.another study found circassians closest turkish population among sampled european french italian sardinian middle eastern druze palestinian central kyrgyz hazara uygur south indian pakistani east asian mongolian han populations.another study found turkish people lowest fst distances caucasus population group iraniansyrian group compared eastcentral european european including northern eastern european sardinian roma turkmen groups populations.caucasus group study included samples abkhazians adygey armenians balkars chechens georgians kumyks kurds lezgins nogays north ossetia.a study involving mitochondrial analysis byzantineera population whose samples gathered excavations archaeological site sagalassos found sagalassos samples closest modern samples turkey crimea iran italy campania puglia cyprus balkans bulgaria croatia greece.modernday samples nearby town ağlasun showed lineages east eurasian descent assigned macrohaplogroup found modern samples ağlasun. |
Climate change in Africa | haplogroup significantly frequent ağlasun byzantine sagalassos study concluded genetic discontinuity across two millennia region.another study concluded true central asian contributions anatolia males females wide ranges confidence intervals language replacement turkey azerbaijan might accordance elite dominance model.see also tahtacı notes references bibliography reading external links media related people turkey wikimedia commonsaccording intergovernmental panel climate change vulnerability africa climate change driven range factors include weak adaptive capacity high dependence ecosystem goods livelihoods less developed agricultural production systems.risks climate change agricultural production food security water resources ecosystem services likely increasingly severe consequences lives sustainable development prospects africa.high confidence projected many african countries regions agricultural production food security would probably severely compromised climate change climate variability.managing risk requires integration mitigation adaptation strategies management ecosystem goods services agriculture production systems africa.over coming decades warming climate change expected across almost earths surface global mean rainfall increase.regional effects rainfall tropics expected much spatially variable sign change one location often less certain although changes expected. |
Climate change in Africa | consistent observed surface temperatures generally increased africa since late th century early st century °c locally much °c minimum temperature sahel end dry season.observed precipitation trends indicate spatial temporal discrepancies expected.observed changes temperature precipitation vary regionally.the united nations environment programme unep produced postconflict environmental assessment sudan.according unep environmental stresses sudan interlinked social economic political issues population displacement competition natural resources.regional climate change decreased precipitation thought one factors contributed conflict darfur. |
Climate change in Africa | along environmental issues climate change could negatively affect future development sudan.one recommendations made unep international community assist sudan adapting climate change.kenya also experiences high vulnerability impacts climate change.main climate hazards include droughts floods current projects forecasting intense less predictable rainfall.addition projections anticipate temperatures rising .°c. |
Climate change in Africa | crowded urban settlements nairobi kenya conditions informal settlements “slums” may exacerbate impacts climate change disasterrelated risk.particular living conditions large informal settlements often create warmer microclimate due home construction materials lack ventilation sparse green space poor access electrical power services.mitigate climate changerelated risks informal neighborhood settlements important upgrade settlements urban development interventions built climate resilience.interventions include upgrades waste.in terms adaptation efforts regionallevel actors making progress.includes development adoption several regional climate change adaptation strategies e.g. |
Climate change in Africa | sadc policy paper climate change adaptation strategy water sector.addition efforts enhance climate change adaptation tripatite programme climate change adaptation mitigation eastern southern africa comesaeacsadc.as supranational organization member states african union put forward goals corresponding actions draft report combat mitigate climate change continent.secretary general united nations also declared need close cooperation african union order tackle climate change accordance uns sustainable development goals.greenhouse gas emissions impacts natural environment temperature weather changes observed surface temperatures generally increased africa since late th century early st century °c locally much °c minimum temperature sahel end dry season.observed precipitation trends indicate spatial temporal discrepancies expected. |
Climate change in Africa | observed changes temperature precipitation vary regionally.water resources water quality availability deteriorated areas africa particularly due climate change.water resources vulnerable possibility strongly impacted climate change vast ramifications human societies.ipcc predicts millions people africa persistently face increased water stress due climate variability change ipcc .changes precipitation patterns directly affect surface runoff water availability. |
Climate change in Africa | changes hydrological cycle may significant effects river basins africa.improve understanding past future changes water availability due climate change ipcc ipcc recommends using dynamic downscaling technique.ipcc proposed using coordinated regional downscaling experiment cordex regional climate models runs maximum km resolutions resolution used depends upon size watershed area coverage meteorological records.however using climate simulations dynamic downscaling appropriate evaluate performance different spatial scales since performance differs one location another one rcm another.climate change likely exacerbate waterstressed catchments across africa example rufiji basin tanzania owing diversity land uses complex sociopolitical challenges.impacts people climate change increasingly impact africa due many factors. |
Climate change in Africa | impacts already felt increase magnitude action taken reduce global carbon emissions.impacts include higher temperatures drought changing rainfall patterns increased climate variability.conditions bearing energy production consumption.recent drought many african countries linked climate change adversely affected energy security economic growth across continent.africa one regions impacted adverse effects climate change.reasons africas vulnerability diverse include low levels adaptive capacity poor diffusion technologies information relevant supporting adaptation high dependence agroecosystems livelihoods. |
Climate change in Africa | many countries across africa classified leastdeveloped countries ldcs poor socioeconomic conditions implication faced particular challenges responding impacts climate change.pronounced risks identified africa ipccs fifth assessment report relate ecosystems water availability agricultural systems implications food security.economic impacts agriculture relation agricultural systems heavy reliance rainfed subsistence farming low adoption climate smart agricultural practices contribute sectors high levels vulnerability.situation compounded poor reliability access climate data information support adaptation actions.agriculture inherently sensitive climate conditions one vulnerable sectors risks impacts global climate change.agriculture african countries mainly smallscale rainfed making particularly vulnerable climate variability change. |
Climate change in Africa | observed projected disruptions precipitation patterns due climate change likely shorten growing seasons affect crop yield many parts africa.furthermore agriculture sector africa dominated smallholder farmers limited access technology resources adapt.climate variability change continue principal source fluctuations global food production across developing countries production highly raindependent.agriculture sector sensitive climate variability especially interannual variability precipitation temperature patterns extreme weather events droughts floods.climatic events predicted increase future expected significant consequences agriculture sector.would negative influence food prices food security landuse decisions. |
Climate change in Africa | yields rainfed agriculture african countries could reduced .order prevent future destructive impact climate variability food production crucial adjust suggest possible policies cope increased climate variability.african countries need build national legal framework manage food resources accordance anticipated climate variability.however devising policy cope impacts climate variability especially agriculture sector critical clear understanding climate variability affects different food crops.particularly relevant due severe invasion locusts adversely affecting agriculture eastern africa. |
Climate change in Africa | invasion partially attributed climate change warmer temperature heavier rainfall caused abnormal increase number locusts.energy increasing population corresponding energy demand energy security must addressed energy crucial sustainable development.climate change affected energy sectors africa many countries depend hydropower generation.decreasing rainfall levels droughts resulted lower water levels dams adverse impacts hydropower generation.resulted low electrical energy production high cost electricity power outages loadshedding african countries depend hydroelectric power generation. |
Climate change in Africa | disruptions hydropower generation negatively affected various sectors countries ghana uganda kenya tanzania.health impacts african countries least efficient public health systems world.infectious disease burdens malaria schistosomiasis dengue fever meningitis sensitive climate impacts highest subsaharan african region.instance percent annual global malaria cases africa.changes climate affect spread infectious agents well alter people’s disposition infections.climate change resulting increased temperatures storms droughts rising sea levels affect incidence distribution infectious disease across globe.in july world food programme wfp blamed ongoing southern madagascar food crisis caused solely climate change war conflict. |
Climate change in Africa | declared first famine caused climate change.malaria africa malaria continues dramatic effects population.climate change continues specific areas likely experience yearround highrisk transmission malaria shift coastal west africa area democratic republic congo uganda known african highlands.scientific limitations examining shifting malaria transmission rates african highlands similar related broader understandings climate change malaria.modeling temperature changes shows relationship increase temperature increase malaria transmission limitations still exist.future population shifts affect population density well changes behavior mosquitos affect transmission rates limiting factors determining future risk malaria outbreaks also affect planning correct outbreak response preparation. |
Climate change in Africa | adaptation reduce impacts climate change african countries adaption measures required multiple scales ranging local national regional levels.first generation adaptation projects africa largely characterised smallscale nature focused targeted investments agriculture diffusion technologies support adaptive decisionmaking.recently programming efforts reoriented towards larger coordinated efforts tackling issues spanning multiple sectors.improved weather forecasting technology subsaharan africa important inform response climate change aid decisionmaking associated adaptation climate change example.during st conference parties cop african heads state launched africa adaptation initiative aai.aai’s steering committee composed african ministerial conference environment amcen bureau chair african group negotiators agn.the africa adaptation initiative also supported european union.european union partnered african union promotion sustainable resources management environmental resilience climate change mitigationat regional level regional policies actions support adaptation across africa still infancy. |
Climate change in Africa | ipccs fifth assessment report ar highlights examples various regional climate change action plans including developed southern african development community sadc lake victoria basin committee.national level many early adaptation initiatives coordinated national adaptation programmes action napas national climate change response strategies nccrs.implementation slow however mixed success delivery.integration climate change wider economic development planning remains limited growing.at subnational level many provincial municipal authorities also developing strategies example western cape climate change response strategy.yet levels technical capacity resources available implement plans generally low. |
Climate change in Africa | considerable attention across africa given implementing communitybased adaptation projects.broad agreement support locallevel adaptation best achieved starting existing local adaptive capacity engaging indigenous knowledge practices.the ipcc highlights number successful approaches promote effective adaptation africa outlining five common principles.includeenhancing support autonomous forms adaptationincreasing attention cultural ethical rights considerations adaptation especially active participation women youth poor vulnerable people adaptation activitiescombining “soft path” options flexible iterative learning approaches technological infrastructural approaches including integration scientific local indigenous knowledge developing adaptation strategiesfocusing enhancing resilience implementing lowregrets adaptation options andbuilding adaptive management encouraging process social institutional learning adaptation activities.the world health organizations report “adaptation climate change africa plan action health sector .intended provide comprehensive evidencebased coordinated response health sector climate change adaptation needs african countries order support commitments priorities african governments.action plan includes goals like scaling public health activities coordinating efforts international scale strengthening partnerships collaborative efforts promoting research effects climate change well effective measures taken local communities mitigate climate change consequences.according international monetary fund imf subsaharan africa requires billion additional financing year adapt effects climate change.according european investment banks banking africa study african institutions becoming conscious need address dangers posed climate change beginning capitalize possibilities green financing. |
Climate change in Africa | example questioned banks study saw climate change strategic concern people focusing climaterelated fronts.subsaharan african banks growing digital offerings expedited covid pandemic.majority banks surveyed said pandemic accelerated speed digital transformation shift permanent.the poor vulnerable susceptible migrant workers refugees marginalised groups likely suffer most.gdp per capita likely rebound levels risks tilting downside crisis reversed predicted drop number poor people according imf.in comparison precrisis forecasts might result additional million people subsaharan africa living extreme poverty well additional nine million middle east north africa mena area.northern africa adaption measures key adaptations northern africa relate increased risk water scarcity resulting combination climate change affecting water availability increasing demand. |
Climate change in Africa | reduced water availability turn interacts increasing temperatures create need adaptation among rainfed wheat production changing disease risk example leishmaniasis.government actions adaptation centre water supply side example desalination interbasin transfers dam construction.migration also observed act adaptation individuals households northern africa.like many regions however examples adaptation action opposed intentions act vulnerability assessments north africa limited systematic review published showed examples reported adaptations came north africa.western africa adaption measures water availability particular risk western africa extreme events drought leading humanitarian crises associated periodic famines food insecurity population displacement migration conflict insecurity. |
Climate change in Africa | adaptation strategies environmental culturalagronomic economic.adaptation strategies evident agriculture sector developed promoted formal research experimental stations.indigenous agricultural adaptations observed northern ghana croprelated soilrelated involve cultural practices.livestockbased agricultural adaptations include indigenous strategies adjusting quantities feed feed livestock storing enough feed abundant period fed livestock lean season treating wounds solution certain barks trees keeping local breeds already adapted climate northern ghana livestock production technologies include breeding health feednutrition housing.the choice adoption adaptation strategies variously contingent demographic factors household size age gender education household head economic factors income source farm size knowledge adaptation options expectation future prospects.eastern africa adaption measures eastern africa adaptation options varied including improving use climate information actions agriculture livestock sector water sector.making better use climate weather data weather forecasts management tools enables timely information preparedness people sectors agriculture depend weather outcomes.means mastering hydrometeorological information early warning systems. |
Climate change in Africa | argued indigenous communities possess knowledge historical climate changes environmental signs e.g.appearance migration certain birds butterflies etc.thus promoting indigenous knowledge considered important adaptation strategy.adaptation agricultural sector includes increased use manure cropspecific fertilizer use resistant varieties crops early maturing crops.manure especially animal manure thought retain water essential microbes breakdown nutrients making available plants compared synthetic fertilizers compounds released environment due overuse release greenhouse gases.one major vulnerability agriculture sector eastern africa dependence rainfed agriculture. |
Climate change in Africa | adaptation solution efficient irrigation mechanisms efficient water storage use.drip irrigation especially identified waterefficient option directs water root plant minimal wastage.countries like rwanda kenya prioritized developing irrigated areas gravity water systems perennial streams rivers zones vulnerable prolonged droughts.heavy rains many areas experience flooding resulting bare grounds due deforestation little land cover.adaptation strategies proposed promoting conservation efforts land protection planting indigenous trees protecting water catchment areas managing grazing lands zoning.for livestock sector adaptation options include managing production sustainable land pasture management ecosystems. |
Climate change in Africa | includes promoting hay fodder production methods e.g.irrigation use waste treated water focusing investing hay storage use dry seasons.keeping livestock considered livelihood rather economic activity.throughout eastern africa countries especially asals regions argued promoting commercialization livestock adaptation option.involves adopting economic models livestock feed production animal traceability promoting demand livestock products meat milk leather linking niche markets enhance businesses provide disposable income.in water sector options include efficient use water households animals industrial consumption protection water sources. |
Climate change in Africa | campaigns planting indigenous trees water catchment areas controlling human activities near catchment areas especially farming settlement carried help protect water resources avail access water communities especially climatic shocks.comoros napa operational extension poverty reduction strategy paper prsp includes among adaptation priorities agriculture fishing water housing health also tourism indirect way reconstitution basin slopes fight soils erosion therefore protection reefs limiting silting terrigenous contributions.kenya gazetted climate change act establishes authority oversee development management implementation regulation mechanisms enhance climate change resilience low carbon development sustainable development national county governments private sector civil society actors.kenya also developed national climate change action plan nccap aims countrys development goals providing mechanisms measures achieve low carbon climateresilient development manner prioritizes adaptation.central africa adaption measures angola objective national adaptation programs action identify communicate urgent immediate needs country regarding climate change adaptation increase angola‘s resilience climate variabilities climate change ensure achievement poverty reduction programs sustainable development objectives millennium development goals pursued government.southern africa adaption measures several initiatives local sitespecific local national regional scales aimed strengthening climate change.regional climate change programme rccp sasscal assar undp climate change adaptation resilim fractal. |
Climate change in Africa | south africa implemented longterm adaptation scenarios flagship research programme ltas april june .research also produced factsheets technical report covering sadc region entitled climate change adaptation perspectives southern african development community sadc.madagascar priority sectors adaptation agriculture livestock forestry public health water resources coastal zones.malawi napa identifies following high priority activities adaptation improving community resilience climate change development sustainable rural livelihoods restoring forests upper lower shire valleys catchments reduce siltation associated water flow problems improving agricultural production erratic rains changing climatic conditions improving malawi’s preparedness cope droughts floods improving climate monitoring enhance malawi’s early warning capability decision making sustainable utilization lake malawi lakeshore areas resources.mauritius adaptation address following priority areas coastal resources agriculture water resources fisheries health wellbeing land use change forestry biodiversity.mozambique proposed adaptation initiatives target various areas economic social development outline projects related reduction impacts natural disasters creation adaptation measures climate change fight soil erosion areas high desertification coastal zones reforestation management water resources.rwanda developed national adaptation programme action napa contains information guide national policymakers planners priority vulnerabilities adaptations important economic sectors.country also developed sector based policies adaptation climate change vision national environmental policy agricultural policy among others.tanzania tanzania outlined priority adaptation measures napa various national sector strategies research outputs.napa successful encouraging climate change mainstreaming sector policies tanzania however crosssectoral collaboration crucial implementing adaptation strategies remains limited due institutional challenges power imbalances budget constraints ingrained sectoral approach.projects tanzania concern agriculture water resource management irrigation water saving rainwater collection however energy tourism also play important role.zambia napa identifies urgent adaptation needs priority areas within sectors agriculture food security livestock fisheries crops energy water human health natural resources wildlifezimbabwe strategic interventions nap process strengthening role private sector adaptation planning enhancing capacity government develop bankable projects trainings improving management background climate information inform climate change planning crafting proactive resourcemobilization strategy identifying applying international climate finance requests funds primarily reactive present focusing emergency relief rather climate change risk reduction preparedness adaptation developing coordinated monitoring evaluation policy programs projects many institutions within government currently systematic approach monitoring evaluation. |
Climate change in Africa | lesotho key objectives napa process entail identification communities livelihoods vulnerable climate change generating list activities would form core national adaptation program action communicate country’s immediate urgent needs priorities building capacity adaptation climate changenamibia critical themes adaptation food security sustainable biological resource base sustainable water resources base human health well infrastructure development.south africa progress finalizing national climate change adaptation strategy.national adaptation strategy acts common reference point climate change adaptation efforts south africa provides platform upon national climate change adaptation objectives country articulated provide overarching guidance sectors economy regional differences central africa central africa part landlocked geographically threatened climate change.due high climate variability rainfed agriculture central africa expected experience longer frequent heatwaves well increase wet extremes.global mean temperature region increase .°c °c.the carbon dioxideabsorbing capacity forests congo basin decreased. |
Climate change in Africa | decrease occurred due increasing heat drought causing decreased tree growth.suggests even unlogged forests affected climate change.nature study indicates african jungle absorb percent less carbon dioxide around absorb none .eastern africa situated almost entirely tropics rainfall eastern africa dominated seasonal migration tropicalrain band.eastern africa characterized high spatiotemporal rainfall variability spans degrees latitude across equator. |
Climate change in Africa | influences indian atlantic oceans major orographic features highlands well inland water bodies lake victoria.therefore rainfall seasonality varies single wet season per year july–august parts northwest including ethiopia south sudan meteorologically connected west africa west african monsoon bringing rains single wet season per year december february south tanzania many areas close equator two rainy seasons per year approximately march–may “long rains” october december “short rains”.finescale variability rainfall seasonality often linked orography lakes.interannual variability large known controls include variations sea surface temperatures ssts different ocean basins largescale atmospheric modes variability maddenjulian osciliation mjo tropical cyclones.long rains main crop‐growing season region. |
Climate change in Africa | interannual predictability season low compared short rains recent drying contrasts climate projections wetter future “east african climate paradox”.eastern africa witnessed frequent severe droughts recent decades well devastating floods.trends rainfall since show general decrease march may mam seasonal rains slight increase june september jjas october december ond rains although appears recent recovery mam rains.future rainfall temperature projected change eastern africa.recent studies climate projections suggest average temperature might increase °c middle century °c end century.depend emission scenarios well real climate responds compared range possible outcomes shown models. |
Climate change in Africa | climate model projections tend show increase rainfall particularly ond season also projected occur later.delay short rain season linked deepening saharan heat low climate change.noted however models predict decreasing rainfall regions seasons largest rainfall increases predicted shown involve implausible mechanisms due systematic model errors.addition changes aerosols provide forcing rainfall change captured many assessments climate projections.the contrast drying trend mam long rains rainfall equatorial eastern africa models predicting wetting future labelled “east african climate change paradox although recent recovery rainfall.studies shown drying trend unlikely purely natural may driven factors aerosols rather greenhouse gases research needed. |
Climate change in Africa | drying shown caused shorter rainy season linked deepening arabian heat low.consistent uncertainty rainfall projections changes rainy seasons onset uncertain equatorial eastern africa although many models predict later wetter short rains.indian ocean dipole iod known provide strong control interannual variability short rains studies show extreme iods may increase climate change.globally climate change expected lead intensification rainfall extreme rainfall increases faster rate warming total rainfall does.recent work shows across africa global models expected underestimate rate change rainfall intensification changes rainfall extremes may much widespread predicted global models.southern parts eastern africa receive rainfall single rainy season southern hemisphere’s winter tanzania seasonal rainfall projected increase future climate change although uncertainty.south mozambique shorter season due later onset projected future climate change uncertainty.north africa west africa sahel west african region divided four climatic subregions namely guinea coast soudanosahel sahel extending eastward ethiopian border sahara different climatic conditions. |
Climate change in Africa | seasonal cycle rainfall mainly driven southnorth movement intertropical convergence zone itcz characterised confluence moist southwesterly monsoon winds dry northeasterly harmattan.based interannual rainfall variability three main climatic periods observed sahel wet period early followed dry period period onwards seen partial rainfall recovery.dry period sahel experienced number particularly severe drought events devastating effects.recent decades also witnessed moderate increment annual rainfall since beginning s. however total annual rainfall remains significantly observed s.some identified recent decades recovery period.others refer period ‘hydrological intensification’ much annual rainfall increase coming severe rain events sometimes flooding rather frequent rainfall similarly works underline continuity drought even though rainfall increased.since percent population affected five floods sahel region countries. |
Climate change in Africa | severe drought conditions sahel reported.governments region responded quickly launching strategies address issue.the region projected experience changes rainfall regime climate models suggesting decreases wet season rainfall likely western sahel increases likely central east sahel although opposite trends cannot yet ruled out.trends affect frequency severity floods droughts desertification sand dust storms desert locust plagues water shortages.however irrespective changes seasonal mean rain intense storms expected become intense amplifying flood frequency.enhanced carbon emissions global warming may also lead increase dry spells especially across guinea coast associated reduction wet spells .℃ ℃ global warming level.fifteen percent sahel region population also experienced temperature increase °c .sahel region particular experience higher average temperatures course st century changes rainfall patterns according intergovernmental panel climate change ipcc. |
History of Hinduism | southern africa climate research even though africa going one effected continents climate change systematic inequity biases related scientific research funding mean little published science climate change climate research funding african scientist.analysis research money climate change found research money research climate change africa spent european north american institutions spent former british colonies countries.pattern parachute science turn prevents local researchers groundbreaking work dont funding experimental activities reduces investment local researchers ideas topics important global south climate change adaptation.see also ecotourism africaregional effects climate changewater scarcity africa references external links future climate africa programmeafricas climate report african climate policy centre accp goal contribute poverty reduction successful mitigation adaptation climate change africa improve capacity african countries participate effectively multilateral climate negotiations.african monsoon multidisciplinary analysis amma aim address challenges understanding monsoon change future decades information effectively used support climatecompatible development region.collaborative adaptation research initiative africa asia cariaa builds resilience supporting collaborative research climate change adaptation inform adaptation policy practice.integrating hydroclimate science policy decisions climateresilient infrastructure livelihoods east africa hycristal aimed tackle uncertainties exist around climate change projections region concentrating particular mean availability management water.southern african science service centre climate change adaptive land management sasscal initiative aims put possible solutions many challenges global change develop produce scientifically sound findings sustainable socioeconomic benefits entire southern africa region.west african science service center climate change adapted land use wascal researchfocused climate service centre designed help tackle challenge thereby enhance resilience human environmental systems climate change increased variability west africa.history overlaps coincides development religion indian subcontinent since iron age traditions tracing back prehistoric religions bronze age indus valley civilization.thus called oldest religion world.scholars regard hinduism synthesis various indian cultures traditions diverse roots single founder.hindu synthesis emerged vedic period ca.– bce ca. |
History of Hinduism | ce period second urbanisation early classical period hinduism epics first purānas composed.flourished medieval period decline buddhism india.the history hinduism often divided periods development.first period prevedic period includes indus valley civilization local prehistoric religions ending bce.period followed northern india vedic period saw introduction historical vedic religion indoaryan migrations starting somewhere bce bce.subsequent period bce bce turning point vedic religion hindu religions formative period hinduism jainism buddhism. |
History of Hinduism | epic early puranic period c. bce ce saw classical golden age hinduism c. ce coincides gupta empire.period six branches hindu philosophy evolved namely samkhya yoga nyaya vaisheshika mīmāṃsā vedānta.monotheistic sects like shaivism vaishnavism developed period bhakti movement.period roughly ce forms late classical period early middle ages classical puranic hinduism established adi shankaras influential consolidation advaita vedanta.hinduism hindu islamic rulers c. ce saw increasing prominence bhakti movement remains influential today.colonial period saw emergence various hindu reform movements partly inspired western movements unitarianism theosophy. |
History of Hinduism | partition india along religious lines republic india emerging hindu majority.th century due indian diaspora hindu minorities formed continents largest communities absolute numbers united states united kingdom.roots hinduism puranic chronology presents genealogy thousands years scholars regard hinduism fusion synthesis various indian cultures traditions.among roots historical vedic religion already product composite indoaryan harappan cultures civilizations evolved brahmanical religion ideology kuru kingdom iron age northern india also sramana renouncer traditions northeast india mesolithic neolithic cultures india religions indus valley civilisation dravidian traditions local traditions tribal religions.this hindu synthesis emerged vedic period bce c. ce period second urbanisation early classical period hinduism epics first puranas composed.brahmanical synthesis incorporated śramaṇic buddhist influences emerging bhakti tradition brahmanical fold via smriti literature.synthesis emerged pressure success buddhism jainism. |
History of Hinduism | gupta reign first puranas written used disseminate mainstream religious ideology amongst preliterate tribal groups undergoing acculturation.resulting puranic hinduism differed markedly earlier brahmanism dharmaśāstras smritis.hinduism coexisted several centuries buddhism finally gain upper hand levels th century.from northern india hindu synthesis societal divisions spread southern india parts southeast asia courts rulers adopted brahmanical culture.aided settlement brahmins land granted local rulers incorporation assimilation popular nonvedic gods process sanskritization people many strata society throughout subcontinent tended adapt religious social life brahmanic norms.process assimilation explains wide diversity local cultures india half shrouded taddered cloak conceptual unity.according eliot deutsch brahmins played essential role development synthesis. |
History of Hinduism | bilingual bicultural speaking local language popular sanskrit transcended regional differences culture language.able translate mainstream large culture terms village culture village terms mainstream thereby integrating local culture larger whole.vaidikas lesser degree smartas remained faithful traditional vedic lore new brahminism arose composed litanies local regional gods became ministers local traditions.periodisation james mill – history british india distinguished three phases history india namely hindu muslim british civilisations.periodisation criticised misconceptions given rise to. |
History of Hinduism | another periodisation division ancient classical medieval modern periods although periodization also received criticism.romila thapar notes division hindumuslimbritish periods indian history gives much weight ruling dynasties foreign invasions neglecting socialeconomic history often showed strong continuity.division ancientmedievalmodern overlooks fact muslimconquests took place eight fourteenth century south never completely conquered.according thapar periodisation could also based significant social economic changes strictly related change ruling powers.smart michaels seem follow mills periodisation flood muesse follow ancient classical medieval modern periods periodisation.elaborate periodisation may followsprehistory indus valley civilisation c. bcevedic period c. bcesecond urbanisation c. bceclassical period c. bce cepreclassical period c. bce – cegolden age india gupta empire c. – celateclassical period c. – cemedieval period c. – ceearly modern period c. –modern period british raj independence c. .prevedic religions c. bce prehistory hinduism may roots mesolithic prehistoric religion evidenced rock paintings bhimbetka rock shelters years old c. bce well neolithic times. |
History of Hinduism | several tribal religions still exist though practices may resemble prehistoric religions.indus valley civilization c. – bce indus valley seals show swastikas found religions worldwide.phallic symbols interpreted much later hindu linga found harappan remains.many indus valley seals show animals.one seal shows horned figure seated posture reminiscent lotus position surrounded animals named early excavators pashupati epithet later hindu gods shiva rudra. |
History of Hinduism | writing doris meth srinivasan said many recent studies continue call seals figure protosiva rejecting thereby marshalls package protoshiva features including three heads.interprets john marshall interpreted facial human bovine possibly divine buffaloman.according iravatham mahadevan symbols indus script glossary indus script texts concordance tables representing seated humanlike figures could describe south indian deity murugan.in view large number figurines found indus valley scholars believe harappan people worshipped mother goddess symbolizing fertility common practice among rural hindus even today.however view disputed s. clark sees inadequate explanation function construction many figurines.there religious buildings evidence elaborate burials... temples identified.however house – hra area mohenjadaros lower town identified possible temple. |
History of Hinduism | dravidian folk religion early dravidian religion refers broad range belief systems existed south asia arrival indoaryans.scholars share uniform consensus early dravidian religion many scholars associated neolithic societies south asia later assimilated migrating indoaryan society leading formation early indian religious cultural synthesis.scholars suggest early dravidian religion either historically present āgamic.dated either postvedic prevedic compositions assimilated vedic fold.vedic period c. – bce commonly proposed period earlier vedic age dated back nd millennium bce. |
History of Hinduism | vedism sacrificial religion early indoaryans speakers early old indic dialects ultimately deriving protoindoiranian peoples bronze age lived central asian steppes.origins vedic period named vedic religion indoaryans kuru kingdom lasted c. bce.indoaryans branch indoeuropean language family many scholars believe originated kurgan culture central asian steppes.indeed vedic religion including names certain deities essence branch religious tradition ancient greeks romans persians germanic peoples.example vedic god dyaus pita variant protoindoeuropean god dyēus phter simply dyēus also derive greek zeus roman jupiter. |
History of Hinduism | similarly vedic manu yama derive protoindoeuropean manu yemo also derive germanic mannus ymir.according indoeuropean migration theory indoiranians common ancestor indoaryans protoiranians.indoiranians split indoaryans iranians around bc.the indoaryans pastoralists migrated northwestern india collapse indus valley civilization indoaryans branch indoiranians originated andronovo culture bactriamargiana era present northern afghanistan.roots culture go back sintashta culture funeral sacrifices show close parallels sacrificial funeral rites rig veda.although early depictions deities seem appear art indus valley civilisation religious artifacts period corresponding indoaryan migration vedic period remains.suggested early vedic religion focused exclusively worship purely elementary forces nature means elaborate sacrifices lend easily anthropomorphological representations.various artefacts may belong copper hoard culture nd millennium ce suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics. |
History of Hinduism | interpretations vary exact signification artifacts even culture periodization belonged.during early vedic period c. – bce indoaryan tribes pastoralists northwest india.bce introduction iron indoaryan tribes moved western ganges plain adapting agrarian lifestyle.rudimentary stateforms appeared kurutribe realm influential.tribal union developed first recorded statelevel society south asia around bce.decisively changed religious heritage early vedic period collecting ritual hymns vedacollections developing new rituals gained position indian civilization orthodox srauta rituals contributed socalled classical synthesis hindu synthesis. |
History of Hinduism | rigvedic religion really knows proclaim whence produced whence creation gods came afterwards creation universe.knows whence arisenthe indoaryans brought language religion.indoaryan vedic beliefs practices preclassical era closely related hypothesised protoindoeuropean religion indoiranian religion.according anthony old indic religion probably emerged among indoeuropean immigrants contact zone zeravshan river presentday uzbekistan presentday iran.syncretic mixture old central asian new indoeuropean elements borrowed distinctive religious beliefs practices bactria–margiana culture. |
History of Hinduism | least nonindoeuropean words borrowed culture including god indra ritual drink soma.according anthonymany qualities indoiranian god mightvictory verethraghna transferred adopted god indra became central deity developing old indic culture.indra subject hymns quarter rig veda.associated deity soma stimulant drug perhaps derived ephedra probably borrowed bmac religion.rise prominence peculiar trait old indic speakers.the oldest inscriptions old indic language rig veda found northwestern india pakistan northern syria location mitanni kingdom. |
History of Hinduism | mitanni kings took old indic throne names old indic technical terms used horseriding chariotdriving.old indic term rta meaning cosmic order truth central concept rig veda also employed mitanni kingdom.old indic gods including indra also known mitanni kingdom.their religion developed migrated ganges plain c. bce became settled farmers syncretising native cultures northern india.vedic religion later vedic period coexisted local religions yaksha cults product composite indoaryan harappan cultures civilizations.david gordon white cites three mainstream scholars emphatically demonstrated vedic religion partially derived indus valley civilizations. |
History of Hinduism | vedas liturgy preserved three vedic samhitas rigveda samaveda yajurveda.vedic texts texts elite necessarily represent popular ideas practices.rigveda oldest collection hymns composed ca.bce.two add ceremonial detail performance actual sacrifice. |
History of Hinduism | atharvaveda may also contain compositions dating bce.contains material pertinent domestic ritual folk magic period.these texts well voluminous commentary orthopraxy collected brahmanas compiled early st millennium bce transmitted oral tradition alone advent th century ad pallava gupta period combination written oral tradition since then.the hindu samskaras...go back hoary antiquity.vedas brahmanas grhyasutras dharmasutras smritis treatises describe rites ceremonies customs.the earliest text vedas rigveda collection poetic hymns used sacrificial rites vedic priesthood.many rigvedic hymns concern fire ritual agnihotra especially offering soma gods somayajna.soma intoxicant god sacrificial fire agni. |
History of Hinduism | royal horse sacrifice ashvamedha central rite yajurveda.the gods rigveda mostly personified concepts fall two categories devas – gods nature – weather deity indra also king gods agni fire usha dawn surya sun apas waters one hand hand asuras – gods moral concepts – mitra contract aryaman guardian guest friendship marriage bhaga share varuna supreme asura aditya.rigvedic deva variously applied gods including many asuras devas characterised younger gods asuras older gods pūrve devāḥ.later vedic texts asuras become demons.the rigveda mandalas books.significant variation language style family books rv books – book soma mandala rv recent books .older books share many aspects common indoiranian religion important source reconstruction earlier common indoeuropean traditions. |
History of Hinduism | especially rv striking similarity avesta containing allusions afghan flora fauna e.g.camels úṣṭra avestan uštra.many central religious terms vedic sanskrit cognates religious vocabulary indoeuropean languages deva latin deus hotar germanic god asura germanic ansuz yajna greek hagios brahman norse bragi perhaps latin flamen etc.. avesta asura ahura considered good devas daevas considered evil entities quite opposite rig veda.cosmic order ethics vedas based concepts satya rta.satya principle integration rooted absolute. |
History of Hinduism | ṛta expression satya regulates coordinates operation universe everything within it.conformity ṛta would enable progress whereas violation would lead punishment.panikkar remarksṛta ultimate foundation everything supreme although understood static sense.... expression primordial dynamism inherent everything....the term dharma already used brahmanical thought conceived aspect rta.term rta also known protoindoiranian religion religion indoiranian peoples prior earliest vedic indoaryan zoroastrian iranian scriptures. |
History of Hinduism | asha aša avestan language term corresponding vedic language ṛta.upanishads th th centuries bce witnessed composition earliest upanishads.upanishads form theoretical basis classical hinduism known vedanta conclusion veda.older upanishads launched attacks increasing intensity rituals however philosophical allegorical meaning also given rituals.later upanishads spirit accommodation towards rituals. |
History of Hinduism | tendency appears philosophical hymns vedas reduce number gods one principle becomes prominent upanishads.diverse monistic speculations upanishads synthesised theistic framework sacred hindu scripture bhagavad gita.brahmanism brahmanism also called brahminism developed vedic religion incorporating nonvedic religious ideas expanding region stretching northwest indian subcontinent ganges valley.brahmanism included vedic corpus also postvedic texts dharmasutras dharmasastras gave prominence priestly brahmin class society.emphasis ritual dominant position brahmans developed ideology developed kurupancala realm expanded wider realm demise kurupancala realm. |
History of Hinduism | coexisted local religions yaksha cults.in iron age india period roughly spanning th th centuries bce mahajanapadas arise earlier kingdoms various indoaryan tribes remnants late harappan culture.period mantra portions vedas largely completed flowering industry vedic priesthood organised numerous schools shakha develops exegetical literature viz.brahmanas.schools also edited vedic mantra portions fixed recensions preserved purely oral tradition following two millennia.second urbanisation decline brahmanism c. – bce upanishads śramaṇa movements vedism orthodox rituals may challenged consequence increasing urbanisation india th th centuries bce influx foreign stimuli initiated achaemenid conquest indus valley circa bce. |
History of Hinduism | new ascetic sramana movements arose challenged established religious orthodoxy buddhism jainism local popular cults.anthropomorphic depiction various deities apparently resumed middle st millennium bce also consequence reduced authority vedism.mahavira c. – bce proponent jainism buddha c. bce founder buddhism prominent icons movement.according heinrich zimmer jainism buddhism part prevedic heritage also includes samkhya yogajainism derive brahmanaryan sources reflects cosmology anthropology much older prearyan upper class northeastern india – rooted subsoil archaic metaphysical speculation yoga sankhya buddhism nonvedic indian systems.the sramana tradition part created concept cycle birth death concept samsara concept liberation became characteristic hinduism.pratt notes oldenberg – neumann – radhakrishnan – believed buddhist canon influenced upanishads la vallee poussin thinks influence nihil eliot several others insist points buddha directly antithetical upanishads.mauryan empire mauryan period saw early flowering classical sanskrit sutra shastra literature scholarly exposition circumvedic fields vedanga.however time buddhism patronised ashoka ruled large parts india buddhism also mainstream religion gupta period. |
History of Hinduism | decline brahmanism decline postvedic period second urbanisation saw decline brahmanism.end vedic period meaning words vedas become obscure perceived fixed sequence sounds magical power means end.growth cities threatened income patronage rural brahmins rise buddhism indian campaign alexander great bce expansion mauryan empire bce embrace buddhism saka invasions rule northwestern india nd c. bc – th c. ce brahmanism faced grave threat existence.later texts northwestindia earlier texts consider part aryavarta even seen impure probably due invasions.karnaparva . |
History of Hinduism | states live sindhu five rivers punjab impure dharmabahya.survival vedic ritual vedism religious tradition priestly elite marginalised traditions jainism buddhism later iron age middle ages would rise renewed prestige mimamsa school well astika traditions hinduism considered authorless apaurusheyatva eternal.last surviving elements historical vedic religion vedism śrauta tradition following many major elements vedic religion prominent southern india communities tamil nadu kerala karnataka andhra pradesh also pockets uttar pradesh maharashtra states best known groups nambudiri kerala whose traditions notably documented frits staal.hindu synthesis classical hinduism c. bce – ce early hinduism c. bce – ce hindu synthesis decline brahmanism overcome providing new services incorporating nonvedic indoaryan religious heritage eastern ganges plain local religious traditions giving rise contemporary hinduism.– bce c. ce hindu synthesis developed incorporated sramanic buddhist influences emerging bhakti tradition brahmanical fold via smriti literature. |
History of Hinduism | synthesis emerged pressure success buddhism jainism.according embree several religious traditions existed side side vedic religion.indigenous religions eventually found place broad mantle vedic religion.brahmanism declining compete buddhism jainism popular religions opportunity assert themselves.according embreethe brahmanists seem encouraged development extent means meeting challenge heterodox movements.time among indigenous religions common allegiance authority veda provided thin nonetheless significant thread unity amid variety gods religious practices.this new brahmanism appealed rulers attracted supernatural powers practical advice brahmins could provide resulted resurgence brahmanical influence dominating indian society since classical age hinduism early centuries ce. |
History of Hinduism | reflected process sanskritization process people many strata society throughout subcontinent tended adapt religious social life brahmanic norms.reflected tendency identify local deities gods sanskrit texts.smriti brahmins response assimilation consolidation reflected smriti literature took shape period.smriti texts period bce ce proclaim authority vedas acceptance vedas became central criterium defining hinduism heterodoxies rejected vedas.basic ideas practices classical hinduism derive new smriti literature.of six hindu darsanas mimamsa vedanta rooted primarily vedic sruti tradition sometimes called smarta schools sense develop smarta orthodox current thoughts based like smriti directly sruti. |
History of Hinduism | according hiltebeitel consolidation hinduism takes place sign bhakti.bhagavadgita seals achievement.result universal achievement may called smarta.views shiva vishnu complementary functions ontologically identical.the major sanskrit epics ramayana mahabharata belong smriti compiled protracted period late centuries bce early centuries ce.contain mythological stories rulers wars ancient india interspersed religious philosophical treatises. |
History of Hinduism | later puranas recount tales devas devis interactions humans battles rakshasa.bhagavad gita seals achievement consolidation hinduism integrating brahmanic sramanic ideas theistic devotion.schools hindu philosophy early centuries ce several schools hindu philosophy formally codified including samkhya yoga nyaya vaisheshika purvamimamsa vedanta.sangam literature sangam literature bce – ce written sangam period mostly secular body classical literature tamil language.nonetheless works significantly pattupathu paripaatal wherein personal devotion god written form devotional poems. |
History of Hinduism | vishnu shiva murugan mentioned gods.works therefore earliest evidence monotheistic bhakti traditions preceding large bhakti movement given great attention later times.indian trade africa time roman empire trade took place india east africa archaeological evidence small indian presence zanzibar zimbabwe madagascar coastal parts kenya along swahili coast conversion hinduism took place.hindu colony middle east levant armenian historian zenob glak ce said indian colony canton taron upper euphrates west lake van early second century b.c.indians built two temples containing images gods feet high. |
History of Hinduism | golden age india gupta pallava period c. – ce period power centralised along growth near distance trade standardization legal procedures general spread literacy.mahayana buddhism flourished orthodox brahmana culture began rejuvenated patronage gupta dynasty vaishnavas.position brahmans reinforced first hindu temples dedicated gods hindu deities emerged late gupta age.gupta reign first puranas written used disseminate mainstream religious ideology amongst preliterate tribal groups undergoing acculturation.guptas patronised newly emerging puranic religion seeking legitimacy dynasty. |
History of Hinduism | resulting puranic hinduism differed markedly earlier brahmanism dharmasastras smritis.according p. s. sharma gupta harsha periods form really strictly intellectual standpoint brilliant epocha development indian philosophy hindu buddhist philosophies flourished side side.charvaka atheistic materialist school came fore north india th century ce.gupta pallava empires gupta period th th centuries saw flowering scholarship emergence classical schools hindu philosophy classical sanskrit literature general topics ranging medicine veterinary science mathematics astrology astronomy astrophysics.famous aryabhata varahamihira belong age.gupta established strong central government also allowed degree local control. |
History of Hinduism | gupta society ordered accordance hindu beliefs.included strict caste system class system.peace prosperity created gupta leadership enabled pursuit scientific artistic endeavors.the pallavas th th centuries alongside guptas north patronisers sanskrit south indian subcontinent.pallava reign saw first sanskrit inscriptions script called grantha.pallavas used dravidian architecture build important hindu temples academies mahabalipuram kanchipuram places rule saw rise great poets famous kalidasa.during early pallavas period different connexions southeast asian countries. |
History of Hinduism | due middle ages hinduism became state religion many kingdoms asia socalled greater india—from afghanistan kabul west including almost southeast asia east cambodia vietnam indonesia philippines—and th century near everywhere supplanted buddhism islam.the practice dedicating temples different deities came vogue followed fine artistic temple architecture sculpture see vastu shastra.bhakti period saw emergence bhakti movement.bhakti movement rapid growth bhakti beginning tamil nadu southern india saiva nayanars th th centuries ce vaisnava alvars rd th centuries ce spread bhakti poetry devotion throughout india th th centuries ce.expansion southeast asia hindu influences reached indonesian archipelago early first century.time india started strongly influence southeast asian countries. |
History of Hinduism | trade routes linked india southern burma central southern siam lower cambodia southern vietnam numerous urbanised coastal settlements established there.for thousand years indian hindubuddhist influence therefore major factor brought certain level cultural unity various countries region.pali sanskrit languages indian script together theravada mahayana buddhism brahmanism hinduism transmitted direct contact well sacred texts indian literature ramayana mahabharata epics.from th th century southeast asia powerful indian colonial empires became extremely active hindu buddhist architectural artistic creation.sri vijaya empire south khmer empire north competed influence.langkasuka langkha sanskrit resplendent land sukkha bliss ancient hindu kingdom located malay peninsula.kingdom along old kedah settlement probably earliest territorial footholds founded malay peninsula.according tradition founding kingdom happened nd century malay legends claim langkasuka founded kedah later moved pattani.from th th centuries sri vijayan empire maritime empire centred island sumatra indonesia adopted mahayana vajrayana buddhism line rulers named sailendras. |
History of Hinduism | empire sri vijaya declined due conflicts chola rulers india.majapahit empire succeeded singhasari empire.one last greatest hindu empires maritime southeast asia.funan preangkor cambodian kingdom located around mekong delta probably established monkhmer settlers speaking austroasiatic language.according reports two chinese envoys kang tai chu ying state established indian brahmin named kaundinya st century ce given instruction dream take magic bow temple defeat khmer queen soma.soma daughter king nagas married kaundinya lineage became royal dynasty funan. |
History of Hinduism | myth advantage providing legitimacy indian brahmin divinity cobras time held religious regard inhabitants region.the kingdom champa linyi chinese records controlled south central vietnam approximately .dominant religion cham people hinduism culture heavily influenced india.later th th century mahayana buddhist hindu khmer empire dominated much southeast asian peninsula.khmer temples built cambodia neighboring thailand.angkor centre development temple complex urban organisation able support around one million urban dwellers.largest temple complex world angkor wat stands built king vishnuvardhan. |
History of Hinduism | lateclassical hinduism – puranic hinduism c. – ce end gupta empire collapse harsha empire power became decentralised india.several larger kingdoms emerged countless vasal states.kingdoms ruled via feudal system.smaller kingdoms dependent protection larger kingdoms.great king remote exalted deified reflected tantric mandala could also depict king centre mandala.the disintegration central power also lead regionalisation religiosity religious rivalry. |
History of Hinduism | local cults languages enhanced influence brahmanic ritualistic hinduism diminished.rural devotional movements arose along shaivism vaisnavism bhakti tantra though sectarian groupings beginning development.religious movements compete recognition local lords.buddhism lost position th century began disappear india.reflected change pujaceremonies courts th century hindu gods replaced buddha supreme imperial deity. |
History of Hinduism | puranic hinduism brahmanism dharmashastras smritis underwent radical transformation hands purana composers resulting rise puranic hinduism like colossus striding across religious firmanent soon came overshadow existing religions.puranic hinduism multiplex beliefsystem grew expanded absorbed synthesised polaristic ideas cultic traditions.distinguished vedic smarta roots popular base theological sectarioan pluralism tantric veneer central place bhakti.the early mediaeval puranas composed disseminate religious mainstream ideology among preliterate tribal societies undergoing acculturation.breakdown gupta empire gifts virgin wasteland heaped brahmanas ensure profitable agrarian exploitation land owned kings also provide status new ruling classes.brahmanas spread india interacting local clans different religions ideologies. |
History of Hinduism | brahmanas used puranas incorporate clans agrarian society accompanying religion ideology.according flood brahmans followed puranic religion became known smarta whose worship based smriti pauranika based puranas.local chiefs peasants absorbed varna used keep control new kshatriyas shudras.the brahmanic group enlarged incorporating local subgroups local priests.also lead stratification within brahmins brahmins lower status brahmins.use caste worked better new puranic hinduism sramanic sects. |
History of Hinduism | puranic texts provided extensive genealogies gave status new kshatriyas.buddhist myths pictured government contract elected ruler people.buddhist chakkavatti distinct concept models conquest held kshatriyas rajputs.many local religions traditions assimilated puranic hinduism.vishnu shiva emerged main deities together saktideva.vishnu subsumed cults narayana jagannaths venkateswara many others. |
History of Hinduism | nathsome incarnations vishnu matsya kurma varaha perhaps even nrsimha helped incorporate certain popular totem symbols creation myths especially related wild boar commonly permeate preliterate mythology others krsna balarama became instrumental assimilating local cults myths centering around two popular pastoral agricultural gods.the transformation brahmanism pauranic hinduism postgupta india due process acculturation.puranas helped establish religious mainstream among preliterate tribal societies undergoing acculturation.tenets brahmanism dharmashastras underwent radical transformation hands purana composers resulting rise mainstream hinduism overshadowed earlier traditions.bhakti movement rama krishna became focus strong bhakti tradition found expression particularly bhagavata purana.krishna tradition subsumed numerous naga yaksa hill treebased cults. |
History of Hinduism | siva absorbed local cults suffixing isa isvara name local deity example bhutesvara hatakesvara chandesvara.thcentury royal circles buddha started replaced hindu gods pujas.also period time buddha made avatar vishnu.the first documented bhakti movement founded karaikkalammaiyar.wrote poems tamil love shiva probably lived around th century ce.twelve alvars vaishnavite devotees sixtythree nayanars shaivite devotees nurtured incipient bhakti movement tamil nadu.during th century ce karnataka bhakti movement took form virashaiva movement. |
History of Hinduism | inspired basavanna hindu reformer created sect lingayats shiva bhaktas.time unique native form kannada literaturepoetry called vachanas born.advaita vedanta early advaitin gaudapada thth c. ce influenced buddhism.gaudapda took buddhist doctrines ultimate reality pure consciousness vijñaptimātra nature world fourcornered negation.gaudapada wove doctrines philosophy mandukya upanishad developed shankara. |
History of Hinduism | gaudapada also took buddhist concept ajāta nagarjunas madhyamaka philosophy.shankara succeeded reading gaudapadas mayavada badarayanas brahma sutras give locus classicus realistic strain brahma sutras.shankara th century ce scholar synthesized systematized advaita vedanta views already existed lifetime.shankara propounded unified reality innermost self person atman supernatural power entire world brahman one same.perceiving changing multiplicity forms objects final reality regarded maya illusion obscuring unchanging ultimate reality brahman.while shankara unparalleld status history advaita vedanta shankaras early influence india doubtfull.th century vedanta peripheral school thought th century shankara overshadowed older contemporary maṇḍana miśra considered major representative advaita.several scholars suggest historical fame cultural influence shankara advaita vedanta grew centuries later era muslim invasions consequent devastation india due efforts vidyaranya th c. created legends turn shankara divine folkhero spread teaching digvijaya universal conquest india like victorious conqueror.shankaras position established th th century neovedantins western orientalists elevated advaita vedanta connecting theological thread united hinduism single religious tradition. |
History of Hinduism | advaita vedanta acquired broad acceptance indian culture beyond paradigmatic example hindu spirituality shankara became iconic representation hindu religion culture despite fact hindus adhere advaita vedanta.contact persia mesopotamia hindu also buddhist religious secular learning first reached persia organised manner th century sassanid emperor khosrau – deputed borzuya physician envoy invite indian chinese scholars academy gundishapur.burzoe translated sanskrit panchatantra.pahlavi version translated arabic ibn almoqaffa title kalila dimna fables bidpai.under abbasid caliphate baghdad replaced gundishapur important centre learning vast islamic empire wherein traditions well scholars latter flourished.hindu scholars invited conferences sciences mathematics held baghdad. |
History of Hinduism | medieval early modern periods c. – ce muslim rule though islam came indian subcontinent early th century advent arab traders started impacting indian religions th century particularly th century establishment expansion islamic rule.durant calls muslim conquest india probably bloodiest story history.period buddhism declined rapidly hinduism faced militaryled sultanatessponsored religious violence.widespread practice raids seizure enslavement families hindus sold sultanate cities exported central asia.texts suggest number hindus forcibly converted islam. |
History of Hinduism | starting th century period years texts numerous written muslim court historians mention voluntary conversions hindus islam suggesting insignificance perhaps rarity conversions.typically enslaved hindus converted islam gain freedom.occasional exceptions religious violence hinduism.akbar example recognized hinduism banned enslavement families hindu war captives protected hindu temples abolished discriminatory jizya head taxes hindus.however many muslim rulers delhi sultanate mughal empire akbar th th centuries destroyed hindu temples persecuted nonmuslims. |
History of Hinduism | noted alain daniéloufrom time muslims started arriving around ad history india becomes long monotonous series murders massacres spoliations destructions.usual name holy war faith sole god barbarians destroyed civilizations wiped entire races.bhakti vedanta teachers ramanuja madhva chaitanya aligned bhakti movement textual tradition vedanta th century peripheral school thought rejecting opposing abstract notions advaita.instead promoted emotional passionate devotion towards accessible avatars especially krishna rama.unifying hinduism according nicholson already th th century certain thinkers began treat single whole diverse philosophical teachings upanishads epics puranas schools known retrospectively six systems saddarsana mainstream hindu philosophy. |
History of Hinduism | michaels notes historicization emerged preceded later nationalism articulating ideas glorified hinduism past.several scholars suggest historical fame cultural influence shankara advaita vedanta inetentionally established period.vidyaranya th c. also known madhava follower shankara created legends turn shankara whose elevated philosophy appeal gain widespread popularity divine folkhero spread teaching digvijaya universal conquest india like victorious conqueror.savadarsanasamgraha summary views vidyaranya presented shankaras teachings summit darsanas presenting darsanas partial truths converged shankaras teachings.vidyaranya enjoyed royal support sponsorship methodical efforts helped establish shankara rallying symbol values spread historical cultural influence shankaras vedānta philosophies establish monasteries mathas expand cultural influence shankara advaita vedānta.eastern ganga surya states eastern ganga surya hindu polities ruled much presentday odisha historically known kalinga th century midth century ce. |
History of Hinduism | th th centuries large parts india rule muslim powers independent kalinga became stronghold hindu religion philosophy art architecture.eastern ganga rulers great patrons religion arts temples built considered among masterpieces hindu architecture.early modern period c. – ce fall vijayanagar empire muslim rulers marked end hindu imperial defences deccan.taking advantage overstretched mughal empire – hinduism rose political prestige maratha empire .vijayanagar empire vijayanagar empire established harihara brother bukka raya sangama dynasty originated political heir hoysala empire kakatiya empire pandyan empire. |
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