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Homelessness in the United States	changes garnered positive results patrons.since service started staff library stated noticed drop inappropriate behavior.addition social workers library multiple benefits assist issues education emergency services food clothing housing crisis support employment family matters health improvement including health insurance immigration support groups men women teens.the san jose university library became one first academic libraries pay attention needs homeless people implement changes better serve population.merged university library public library made choice proactive reaching out.collaborations nonprofit organizations area culminated computer classes taught well nutrition classes family literacy programs book discussion groups.
Homelessness in the United States	eighteen months library staff felt still enough analyzed program participation trends supplemented observation anecdotes order better understand information needs homeless people.understood needs complex additional customer service training provided staff interested.staff fully understood needs homeless people determined many programs place already minor adjustments would helpful homeless people.example providing book clubs proven effective bridges librarians homeless people.programs tailored meet needs.
Homelessness in the United States	additional changes implemented included temporary computer passes generous inhouse reading space counteract policies place may prevent homeless person obtaining library card.the dallas public library started coffee conversation part homeless engagement initiative.staff hopes bimonthly events staff homeless patrons help better serve homeless people population dallas.also sponsor street view podcast library produced podcast featuring stories experiences citys homeless population.guests often include social service providers.in may richard kreimer homeless man morristown n.j. sued local public library town morristown expelling library patrons complained disruptive behavior pungent body odor.later case settled .
Homelessness in the United States	effects homelessness effects downtown partnership nashville tennessee conducted census businesses.sixty percent respondents identified public inebriates transients vagrants affect employees clients customers.businesses solicited identify issues need addressed transients panhandlers ranked amongst top five issues.audio deterrents two eleven locations — one sacramento california one portland oregon — briefly employed highpitched noise maker repel panhandlers vagrants.portland local news source kxl described sidewalk front downtown portland eleven transformed barely walkable clean orderly first time years repelling device installed buildings owner standard insurance company.
Homelessness in the United States	manager eleven told reporters would see many dozen transients simultaneously loitering front store loitering adversely affected business.buildings owner issued statement goal protect safety employees tenants guests location consistently plagued public drug use menacing behavior.several complaints made city city announced deterrent device used situation comply city noise code.device shut reporters made follow visit.manager commented effective duration used.a manager eleven modesto california also attested effectiveness sound deterring undesirable activity commenting music started riffraff left.
Homelessness in the United States	mckinney–vento homeless assistance act homelessness tremendous effect childs education.education homeless youth thought essential breaking cycle poverty.mckinney–vento homeless assistance act mandates equal opportunity free public education homeless students.act supposed break barriers homeless students receiving education.barriers include residency restriction medical record verification transportation issues.
Homelessness in the United States	student surpasses barriers still subject stigma homeless humiliation feel situation.families report homelessness others unaware opportunities available them.many report maintaining stable school environment helps students thing remains normal.many homeless students fall behind peers school due behavioral disorders lack attendance school.since united states housing bubble collapse rise number homeless students.naehcy national association education homeless children youth reported increase homeless students within threemonth period san diego.of schools reported increase reported increase half reported increase percent more.
Homelessness in the United States	due underfunding many school districts struggling provide necessary services support homeless students mandated provisions mckinney–vento act rising transportation needs greater range usefulness services.wisconsin rapids public schools homeless liaison heather lisitza saysone biggest challenges district faces providing transportation students experiencing homelessness.approaches district utilize provide transportation students.city one taxi cab service public bus system.cab company small simply cannot fulfill transportation requests.
Homelessness in the United States	possible add students existing bus routes set contractual agreement students parentguardian.however many situations none options worked.another challenge district faces providing proper outerwear students homeless.live central wisconsin long cold winters students need proper outerwear go outside.proper outerwear includes snow boots hat mittens snow pants winter jacket working zipper buttons it.
Homelessness in the United States	expense adds quickly hard provide increasing number homeless students.this especially worrisome since homeless students .times likely perform grade level reading .times likely perform grade level spelling .times likely perform grade level math.there worries false reports homeless students mostly issue.criminalization various laws directly indirectly criminalized people homeless people attempting feed homeless people outdoors.
Homelessness in the United States	least cities criminalized feeding people homeless.in united nations human rights committee criticized united states criminalization homelessness noting cruel inhuman degrading treatment violation international human rights treaty obligations.report philip alston u.n. special rapporteur extreme poverty human rights found homeless persons effectively criminalized many cities around united states noted punishing imprisoning poor distinctively american response topoverty twentyfirst century.in response criminalization homelessness homelessness advocates promoted homeless bill rights would preserve civil rights people experiencing homelessness.vagrancy august federal district judge philadelphia ruled laws prohibiting serving food homeless people outdoors unconstitutional.on june court appeals ninth circuit struck ordinance city los angeles bans people living cars recreational vehicles city streets parking lots unconstitutionally vague ... unlike cities ban overnight parking sleeping vehicles los angeles law prohibits using cars living quarters overnight daybyday otherwise.homeless rights advocates pushing right rest bills several states would overturn laws target homeless people sitting eating sleeping public places.in martin v. boise u.s. court appeals ninth circuit ruled city ordinances banning sleeping outside cannot enforced enough shelter beds available city.crimes homeless people since growing number violent acts committed upon people experiencing homelessness.rate documented crimes higher .
Homelessness in the United States	teens engage activity source amusement.cnn reported incidents rise.the center study hate extremism cshe california state university san bernardino conjunction nch found homeless people killed nonhomeless people hate killings people killed traditional hate crime homicide categories race religion combined.various studies surveys indicate homeless people much higher criminal victimization rate nonhomeless incidents never get reported authorities.study found number violent crimes homeless people increasing.attacks homeless people percent increase previous year according nch.eighteen people died result attacks.
Homelessness in the United States	july three boys arrested charged beating death two homeless men bricks metal pole albuquerque.as countries criminals—both individuals organized groups—sometimes exploit homeless people ranging identity theft tax welfare scams.homeless people homeless organizations also known accused convicted frauds scams.incidents often lead negative impressions homeless people general public.health homelessness public welfare health epidemic within united states.period homelessness associated adverse health consequences.
Homelessness in the United States	adverse health consequences associated poor living conditions lack access treatment facilities.due living extreme poverty unlikely individual family healthcare plan.healthcare plans important obtaining treatment illnesses injury treatment facilities.without individuals families left deal ailments endure financial burden receiving treatments without health insurance plan.respiratory infections outbreaks tuberculosis aerosol transmitted infections reported.
Homelessness in the United States	homeless intravenous drug users increased risk contracting hiv hepatitis b c infections.close living spaces areas skid row california provide environment infectious diseases spread easily.areas high concentration homeless individuals dirty environments little resources personal hygiene.estimated report congress homeless unsheltered locations suitable human habitation.there bidirectional relationship homelessness poor health.homelessness exacts heavy toll individuals longer individuals experience homelessness likely experience poor health higher risk premature death.
Homelessness in the United States	health conditions substance use mental illness increase peoples susceptibility homelessness.conversely homelessness cause health issues come constant exposure environmental threat hazards violence communicable diseases.homeless people suffer disproportionately high rates poly substance use mental illness physical health problems legal issuesbarriers attaining employment.large number homeless people work homeless people able generate significant earnings employment alone.physical health problems also limit work daily activities barriers employment.substance use positively associated lower work level negatively related higher work level.
Homelessness in the United States	physical health problems substantially likely mental health problems generous disability programs.substance use disorders also barrier participation disability programs.rates participation government programs low people major mental disorders low participation rate disability programs.childrens health risks seeking refuge shelters heightened noticeable children.risks include health problems malnutrition lack access food nutritional content behavioral problems associated coping social insecurity growing unstable environment mental illnesses ptsd trauma.
Homelessness in the United States	mothers health children come homeless families higher risk developing behavioral mental physical health problems peers mothers also higher risk especially developing mental illnesses.many things contribute homeless women higher rate developing mental illness compared general population reoccurring theme among studies focused issue.mental health homeless individuals report mental illness number three reason becoming staying homeless.illnesses often closely linked fourth reason—substance use—and therefore generally accepted issues treated simultaneously.although many medical psychiatric counseling services exist address needs commonly believed without support reliable stable housing treatments remain ineffective.
Homelessness in the United States	furthermore absence universal healthcare plan many need cannot afford services.situations specific u.s. cities states public attitudes many advocates homeless people contend key difficulty social stigma surrounding homelessness.many associate lack permanent home lack proper bathroom limited access regular grooming.thus people homeless become aesthetically unappealing general public.research shows physically attractive persons judged positively physically unattractive individuals various traits... reflecting social competence.in addition physical component stigmatization exists association homeless people mental illness.
Homelessness in the United States	many people consider mentally ill irresponsible childlike treat fear exclusion using mental incapacitation justification left communities.a common misconception persists many individuals panhandle actually homeless actually use pity compassion fund lifestyles making hour living luxurious lives.exception rule seems prevalent due media attention reality cases exist.public opinion surveys show relatively little support view however.paper american journal community psychology concluded although homeless clearly stigmatized little evidence suggest public lost compassion unwilling support policies help homeless people.penn state study concluded familiarity breeds sympathy greater support addressing problem.a survey conducted public agenda nonprofit organization helps leaders citizens navigate complex social issues found percent new yorkers agreed homeless people without shelter circumstances beyond control including high housing costs lack good steady employment.onethird percent said worried becoming homeless percent saying worried.
Homelessness in the United States	percent new yorkers believed everyone right shelter percent believed government responsible guaranteeing right citizens.survey found support investments prevention rental assistance permanent housing homeless people.public agenda also concluded however publics sympathy limits.national survey organization found percent say police leave homeless person alone bothering anyone.contrast percent say police move homeless people keeping customers away shopping area percent say homeless people moved driving people away public park.statistics demographics completely accurate comprehensive statistics difficult acquire social study especially measuring ambiguous hidden erratic reality homelessness.
Homelessness in the United States	figures given estimates.addition estimates represent overall national averages proportions specific homeless communities vary substantially depending local geography.annual homeless assessment report congress perhaps accurate comprehensive current data homelessness united states reported annually department housing urban development hud annual homeless assessment report congress ahar released every year since .ahar report relies data two sources singlenight pointintime counts sheltered unsheltered homeless populations reported continuum care applications hud counts sheltered homeless population full year provided sample communities based data management information systems hmis.statistics total number course year october – september annual homeless assessment report found individuals experienced homelessness homeless temporarily.
Homelessness in the United States	chronically homeless population repeated episodes homeless long periods decreased .according ahar annual homeless assessment report people experienced homelessness increase .familial composition according nchwih report.single males.. single females.families children—the fastest growing segment.
Homelessness in the United States	minors unaccompanied adults.total homeless population children age .marital status according nchwih report married.single.. single males within single percentage.. single females within single percentage.race ethnicity according samhsa report among sheltered individuals course year october september gender age raceethnicity.
Homelessness in the United States	white nonhispanic.white hispanic blackafricanamerican.single races.multiple racesaccording nchwih report african american overrepresented .× compared general population.caucasian underrepresented .× compared general population.
Homelessness in the United States	hispanic overrepresented .× compared general population.native american overrepresented × compared general population.asianamerican underrepresented .× compared general population.mental health according samhsa report.sheltered persons homeless severe mental illnessabout people chronically homeless mental health conditions.according analyses data nshapcxivover people chronically homeless experienced lifetime mental health problems substance use according samhsa report.
Homelessness in the United States	sheltered adults homeless chronic substance use issuesabout people chronically homeless cooccurring substance use problems.according analyses data nshapcxivover experienced lifetime alcohol andor drug problems education according urban institute findings national survey homeless assistance providers clients uihac report less high school education completed high school education beyond high school.employment according uihac report percent paid work past month.percent worked job lasting expected last least three months.percent worked temporary day labor job.percent earned money peddling selling personal belongings.a longitudinal study homeless men conducted birmingham alabama found earned average ninety dollars per week working average thirty hours per week location according samhsa report reside central cities.
Homelessness in the United States	suburbs.rural areas.according u.s. department housing urban development homeless new york city homeless los angeles homeless seattle duration according samhsa reportresearch shelter use new york city philadelphia concluded thatpeople experiencing transitional homelessness constitute shelter userspeople experiencing episodic homelessness comprise shelter users.in new york citytransitionally homeless individuals experience average .stays year period total days average years.episodically homeless individuals average experience .shelter episodes year period totaling days average length stay .days.data nshapc show people homeless experiencing first second episode homelessness typically lasted weeks months one year.
Homelessness in the United States	gender according annual homelessness assessment report.male.female.. transgender.identify male female transgender.age according annual homelessness assessment report.
Homelessness in the United States	.. –.. .see also homeless women united stateshomelessness mental healthunited stateslist tent cities united statesmole peoplehistory civil rights united stateshousingeviction united stateshousing insecurity united statestent citygeneralpoverty united states references bibliography aguirre adalberto brooks jonathan.city redevelopment policies criminalization homelessness narrative case study kevin fox gotham ed.critical perspectives urban redevelopment research urban sociology volume emerald group publishing limited pp.–american library association social responsibilities round table hunger homelessness poverty task force.
Homelessness in the United States	n.d.. resources.retrieved december barry ellen refugees triumph desolation boston globe december .baumohl jim editor homelessness america oryx press phoenix .isbn bley d. january .raising visibility family homelessness washington statebooth brenda m. sullivan j. greer koegel paul burnam m. audrey vulnerability factors homelessness associated substance dependence community sample homeless adults rand research report.originally published american journal drug alcohol abuse v. no.
Homelessness in the United States	pp.–.borchard kurt homeless las vegas stories street university nevada press borchard kurt word street homeless men las vegas university nevada press burke kerry fox alison martinez jose hobo madness hits mad.ave. bizman sues homeless new york daily news january .center social policy university massachusetts boston hard numbers hard times homeless individuals massachusetts emergency shelters – july .coalition homeless new york history modern homelessness new york city.crimaldi laura cardinal spends time homeless boston herald december .crimaldi laura homeless advocates urge diversion shelter funds boston herald wednesday february .crimaldi laura champion homeless fights life boston herald sunday september .richard weintraub director homeless services boston massachusetts.article modern history homelessness boston.csptech university massachusetts boston characteristics homeless families accessing massachusetts emergency shelters – april .culhane dennis responding homelessness policies politics .demause neil shelter fire new city program homeless keep job keep apartment village voice new york june .depastino todd citizen hobo century homelessness shaped america .
Homelessness in the United States	isbn desjarlais robert r. shelter blues sanity selfhood among homeless university pennsylvania press .particular study homeless people boston area.dreier peter appelbaum richard american nightmare homelessness challenge magazine economic affairs v. n. marchapril pp.–.flowers r. barri .street kids lives runaway thrownaway teens.jefferson nc mcfarland.
Homelessness in the United States	isbn .freeman richard b. hall brian permanent homelessness america working paper no.national bureau economic research cambridge massachusetts september friedman donna haig et al.preventing homelessness promoting housing stability comparative analysis boston foundation umassboston center social policy june .gatto nora vincent niagara university eagle alumni magazine fall p. .hoch charles slayton robert a. new homeless old community skid row hotel philadelphia temple university press .isbn human rights watch..
Homelessness in the United States	socalled emancipation foster care homelessness california youth.retrieved https governmental studies berkeley urban homelessness public policy solutions oneday conference january .kadi j. ronald r. .undermining housing affordability new yorks lowincome households role policy reform rental sector restructuring pdf.critical social policy.–.
Homelessness in the United States	doi.. hdl.cfabde.scid .kahn ric buried obscurity found dead causeway street june body awaits nameless final rest boston globe december .story beacon hill church pausing remember recently departed homeless.katz celeste public advocate bill de blasio bbh global keep homeless hotspot stunt nyc new york daily news march katz jessica ilana homelessness crime mental illness substance abuse core population multiple social service needs department urban planning studies massachusetts institute technology june keen j. december .libraries welcome homeless community living rooms.usa today retrieved december knight h. january .
Homelessness in the United States	library adds social worker assist homeless.san francisco chronicle.retrieved http c. theodore .shelter society theory research policy nonprofit housing.suny press.
Homelessness in the United States	isbn .kuhlman thomas l. psychology streets mental health practice homeless persons new york j. wiley sons .isbn kusmer kenneth l. road homeless american history oxford university press .isbn leeder k. december .welcoming homeless libraries.library lead pipe.
Homelessness in the United States	retrieved http david ed..encyclopedia homelessness.thousand oaks california sage publications.isbn .lowe eugene t. december u.s. conference mayors report hunger homelessness status report homelessness hunger americas cities washington dc u.s. conference mayors retrieved september massachusetts coalition homeless resource manual .the massachusetts commission end homelessness report special commission relative ending homelessness commonwealth boston massachusetts december january .massachusetts commonwealth housing homeless effective approach governors executive commission homeless services coordination november .morton margaret tunnel underground homeless new york city yale university press .
Homelessness in the United States	isbn national coalition homeless american nightmare decade homelessness united states december national coalition homeless.july homes handcuffs criminalization homelessness u.s. cities.retrieved december .national coalition homeless national law center homelessness poverty january dream denied criminalization homelessness u.s. cities pdf washington dc authors retrieved september nieto g. gittelman m. abad a. .homeless mentally ill persons bibliography review archived may wayback machine international journal psychosocial rehabilitation.oflaherty brendan making room economics homelessness cambridge massachusetts harvard university press .
Homelessness in the United States	isbn quigley john m. raphael steven economics homelessness evidence north america european journal housing policy –radin charles a. street quiet outreach kindness little brothers lift less fortunate boston globe december .riis jacob half lives .rossi peter h. america origins homelessness university chicago press .russell jenna shoes better understand plight homeless harvard student takes streets boston globe august ryan charles v. homes within reach springfields year plan end long term homelessness city springfield massachusetts mayor charles v. ryan january .sanburn josh.bans around u.s. face challenges court october .schneider p. november .remodeled library attract public suit homeless cap times.retrieved httphost.madison.comctnewslocalgovtandpoliticsarticlebfcdfccce.htmlschutt russell k. phd professor university massachusetts boston.schutt russell k. et al.bostons homeless – change continuity .schutt russell k. working homeless backgrounds activities beliefs shelter staff .schutt russell k. homeless adults boston twoshelter profile .schutt russell k. garrett gerald r. responding homeless policy practice topics social psychiatry .
Homelessness in the United States	isbn schutt russell k. byrne francine et al.city boston homeless services employment training homeless persons .schutt russell k. feldman james et al.homeless persons residential preferences needs pilot survey persons severe mental illness boston mental health generic shelters .sommer heidi homelessness urban america review literature st. mungos organisation uk brief history homelessnessstern h. .aimless homeless wins fortune court lawsuit library banned police harassed wish hadnt—to tune .los angeles times retrieved november .stewart b. mckinney act u.s.c.
Homelessness in the United States	§ et seq..retrieved december .stringer lee grand central winter stories street st ed.new york seven stories press .isbn szantos ruth excuse spare change economy socioeconomic history antipanhandling laws toth jennifer mole people life tunnels beneath new york city .
Homelessness in the United States	isbn united states conference mayors hunger homelessness survey december .united states department health human services ending chronic homelessness strategies action report secretarys work group ending chronic homelessness march .university vermont starts bed uvm alums richard weintraub lyndia downie lead fight break cycle homelessness boston vermont quarterly fall .u.s.department housing urban development .annual homeless assessment report congress.washington dc u.s. government printing office.vissing yvonne sight mind homeless children families smalltown america .vissing yvonne ubtle war children fellowship marchapril vladeck bruce r. committee health care homeless people institute medicine homelessness health human needs national academies press wagner david.checkerboard square culture resistance homeless community boulder westview press .
Homelessness in the United States	isbn ward c. .didnt teach us library school library became heartbreak hotel.tomdispatch.com.retrieved http megan homes holiday housing agency nonprofit team help homeless boston globe december .wortham jenna use homeless internet hot spots backfires marketer new york times march wright james d. address unknown homeless america new york a. de gruyter edition external links u.s. interagency council homelessness – us governmentunited states department housing urban development site homelessnessunited states department health human services site homelessnesshousing homelessness research issuelabhomeless us deepening crisis streets america.bbc.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	octoberson emperor henry vi hohenstaufen dynasty queen constance sicily hauteville dynasty.his political cultural ambitions enormous ruled vast area beginning sicily stretching italy way north germany.crusades progressed acquired control jerusalem styled king.however papacy became enemy eventually prevailed.viewing direct successor roman emperors antiquity emperor romans papal coronation death also claimant title king romans unopposed holder monarchy .king germany italy burgundy.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	age three crowned king sicily coruler mother constance hauteville daughter roger ii sicily.royal title king jerusalem virtue marriage connection sixth crusade.frequently war papacy hemmed fredericks lands northern italy kingdom sicily regno south excommunicated three times often vilified propapal chronicles time after.pope gregory ix went far call antichrist.speaking six languages latin sicilian middle high german langues doïl greek arabic frederick avid patron science arts.played major role promoting literature sicilian school poetry.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	sicilian royal court palermo beginning around saw first use literary form italoromance language sicilian.poetry emanated school significant influence literature become modern italian language.also first king formally outlaw trial ordeal come viewed superstitious.after death line survive house hohenstaufen came end.furthermore holy roman empire entered long period decline great interregnum completely recover reign charles v nearly years later.historian donald detwiler wrote man extraordinary culture energy ability – called contemporary chronicler stupor mundi wonder world nietzsche first european many historians first modern ruler – frederick established sicily southern italy something much like modern centrally governed kingdom efficient bureaucracy.birth naming born jesi near ancona italy december frederick son emperor henry vi.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	known puer apuliae son apulia.mother constance gave birth age boccaccio related de mulieribus claris empress sicilian princess paternal aunt william ii sicily prediction marriage would destroy sicily led confinement convent nun childhood remain celibate late engagement henry age .chronicles say constance gave birth public square order forestall doubt origin son butcher.frederick baptised assisi.at birth frederick named constantine mother.name masculine form mothers name served identify closely norman heritage imperial heritage constantine great first christian emperor.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	still name time election king romans.given grandfathers names becoming frederick roger roger frederick baptism two years old.dual name served purpose constantine emphasising dual heritage.fredericks birth accompanied gossip rumour account mothers advanced age.according albert stade salimbene son henry constance presented henry faked pregnancy.real father variously described butcher jesi physician miller falconer.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	fredericks birth also associated prophecy merlin.according andrea dandolo writing distance probably recording contemporary gossip henry doubted reports wifes pregnancy convinced consulting joachim fiore confirmed frederick son interpretation merlins prophecy erythraean sibyl.later legend claims constance gave birth public square jesi silence doubters.none stories validity although clear constance took unusual measures prove pregnancy legitimacy.roger howden reports swore gospels papal legate frederick son henrys.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	probable public acts affirmation account age gave rise false rumours.early years frankfurt main infant frederick elected king romans thus heir fathers imperial crown.rights germany end disputed henrys brother philip swabia otto brunswick.death father frederick italy traveling towards germany bad news reached guardian conrad spoleto.frederick hastily brought back mother constance palermo sicily crowned king may three years age.constance sicily right queen sicily established regent.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	upon constances death pope innocent iii succeeded fredericks guardian.fredericks tutor period cencio would become pope honorius iii.markward annweiler support henrys brother philip swabia reclaimed regency soon invaded kingdom sicily.help genoese ships landed sicily one year later seized young frederick.thus ruled sicily succeeded another german captain william capparone kept frederick control royal palace palermo .
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	frederick subsequently tutor walter palearia declared age.first task reassert power sicily southern italy local barons adventurers usurped authority.emperor otto brunswick crowned holy roman emperor pope innocent iii .southern italy otto became champion noblemen barons feared fredericks increasingly strong measures check power dismissal pronoble walter palearia.new emperor invaded italy reached calabria without meeting much resistance.in response innocent sided otto september diet nuremberg frederick elected absentia german king rebellious faction backed pope.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	innocent also excommunicated otto forced return germany.frederick sailed gaeta small following.agreed pope future separation sicilian imperial titles named wife constance regent.passing lombardy engadin reached konstanz september preceding otto hours.frederick crowned king december mainz.fredericks authority germany remained tenuous recognized southern germany.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	region northern germany center guelph power otto continued hold reins royal imperial power despite excommunication.ottos decisive military defeat bouvines forced withdraw guelph hereditary lands virtually without supporters died .the german princes supported innocent iii elected frederick king germany crowned king aachen july one three german archbishops.another five years passed negotiations frederick innocent iii honorius iii – succeeded papacy innocents death – frederick crowned holy roman emperor rome honorius iii november .time fredericks oldest son henry took title king romans.unlike holy roman emperors frederick spent years germany.helped king philip ii france odo iii duke burgundy bring end war succession champagne france invading lorraine capturing burning nancy capturing theobald duke lorraine forcing withdraw support erard brienneramerupt.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	coronation frederick remained either kingdom sicily crusade made last journey germany.returned italy stayed remaining thirteen years life represented germany son conrad.in kingdom sicily built reform laws begun assizes ariano grandfather roger ii.initiative direction visible early assizes capua issued soon coronation rome came fruition promulgation constitutions melfi also known liber augustalis collection laws realm remarkable time source inspiration long time after.made kingdom sicily absolutist monarchy also set precedent primacy written law.relatively small modifications liber augustalis remained basis sicilian law .
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	foreign policy wars fifth crusade early policies northern italy time elected king romans frederick promised go crusade.continually delayed however spite renewal vow coronation king germany travel egypt armies fifth crusade .sent forces egypt command louis duke bavaria constant expectation arrival caused papal legate pelagius reject ayyubid sultan alkamils offer restore latin kingdom jerusalem crusaders exchange withdrawal egypt caused crusade continually stall anticipation everdelayed arrival.crusade ended failure loss damietta .frederick blamed pope honorius iii general christian populace calamitous defeat.in agreeing pope honorius launch crusade frederick summoned imperial diet cremona main proimperial city lombardy main arguments holding diet would continue struggle heresy organize crusade restore imperial power northern italy long usurped numerous communes located there.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	assembled responded reformation lombard league already defeated grandfather frederick barbarossa th century milan chosen leagues leader.diet cancelled however situation stabilized compromise reached honorius frederick league.sojourn northern italy frederick also invested teutonic order territories would become east prussia starting later called northern crusade.frederick distracted league june louis viii france laid siege avignon imperial city.barons french army sent letter frederick defending action military necessity days start siege henry vii ratified alliance france signed .sixth crusade problems stability within empire delayed fredericks departure crusade.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	proxy frederick married isabella ii jerusalem heiress kingdom jerusalem departure seemed assured.frederick immediately saw new fatherinlaw john brienne current king jerusalem dispossessed rights transferred emperor.august frederick set holy land brindisi forced return struck epidemic broken out.even master teutonic knights hermann salza recommended return mainland recuperate.september frederick excommunicated pope gregory ix failing honor crusading pledge.many contemporary chroniclers doubted sincerity fredericks illness attitude may explained propapal leanings.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	roger wendover chronicler time wrote... went mediterranean sea embarked small retinue pretending make holy land three days said seized sudden illness... conduct emperor redounded much disgrace injury whole business crusade.frederick eventually sailed brindisi june .pope still gregory ix regarded action provocation since excommunicate frederick technically capable conducting crusade excommunicated emperor second time.frederick reached acre september.many local nobility templars hospitallers therefore reluctant offer overt support.since crusading army already small force frederick negotiated along lines previous agreement intended broker ayyubid sultan alkamil.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	treaty signed february resulted restitution jerusalem nazareth bethlehem small coastal strip kingdom jerusalem though disagreements extent territory returned.the treaty also stipulated dome rock alaqsa mosque remain muslim control city jerusalem would remain without fortifications.virtually crusaders including templars hospitallers condemned deal political ploy part frederick regain kingdom betraying cause crusaders.alkamil nervous possible war relatives ruled syria mesopotamia wished avoid trouble christians least domestic rivals subdued.the crusade ended truce fredericks coronation king jerusalem march although technically improper.fredericks wife isabella heiress died leaving infant son conrad rightful king.also disagreement whether coronation coronation letter written frederick henry iii england suggests crown placed head fact imperial crown romans.at coronation may worn red silk mantle crafted reign roger ii.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	bore arabic inscription indicating robe dated year muslim calendar incorporated generic benediction wishing wearer vast prosperity great generosity high splendor fame magnificent endowments fulfillment wishes hopes.may days nights go pleasure without end change.coronation robe found today schatzkammer kunsthistorisches museum vienna.in case gerald lausanne latin patriarch jerusalem attend ceremony indeed next day bishop caesarea arrived place city interdict patriarchs orders.fredericks attempts rule kingdom jerusalem met resistance part barons led john ibelin lord beirut.mids fredericks viceroy forced leave acre following siege jerusalem lost new muslim offensive.whilst fredericks seeming bloodless recovery jerusalem cross brought great prestige european circles decision complete crusade excommunicated provoked church hostility.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	although pope lifted fredericks excommunication decision taken variety reasons related political situation europe.fredericks crusade philip novara chronicler period said emperor left acre conclusion truce hated cursed vilified.overall crusade arguably first successful one since first crusade adversely affected manner frederick carried negotiations without support church.left behind kingdom levant torn agents local nobility civil war known war lombards.the itinerant joachimite preachers many radical franciscans spirituals supported frederick.interdict pronounced lands preachers condemned pope continued minister sacraments grant absolutions.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	brother arnold swabia proclaimed second coming time frederick would confiscate riches rome distribute among poor true christians.war keys fredericks stay holy land regent rainald spoleto attacked march ancona duchy spoleto.gregory ix recruited army john brienne invaded southern italy.troops overcame initial resistance montecassino reached apulia.frederick arrived brindisi june .
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	quickly recovered lost territories tried condemned rebel barons avoided crossing borders papal states.the war came end treaty san germano july .august public ceremony ceprano papal legates thomas capua giovanni colonna absolved frederick lifted excommunication.emperor personally met gregory ix anagni making concessions church sicily.also issued constitutions melfi august attempt solve political administrative problems country dramatically shown recent war.henrys revolt may temporarily made peace pope frederick found german princes another matter.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	fredericks son henry vii born sicily son fredericks first wife constance aragon caused discontent aggressive policy privileges.forced henry complete capitulation statutum favorem principum statutes favor princes issued worms deprived emperor much sovereignty germany.frederick summoned henry meeting held aquileia .henry confirmed submission frederick nevertheless compelled confirm statutum cividale soon afterwards.the situation frederick also problematic lombardy emperors attempts restore imperial authority lombardy help gregory ix time ousted rome revolt turned nothing .meantime henry germany returned antiprinces policy fathers frederick thus obtained excommunication gregory ix july .
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	henry tried muster opposition germany asked lombard cities block alpine passes.may frederick went germany taking army soon july however able force son renounce crown lands worms imprisoned him.in germany hohenstaufen guelphs reconciled .otto child grandson henry lion deposed duke bavaria saxony conveying allodial guelphic possessions frederick return enfeoffed otto lands additional former imperial possessions newly established duke brunswicklüneburg ending unclear status german guelphs left without title rank .war lombardy italy peace north alps frederick raised army german princes suppress rebel cities lombardy.gregory tried stop invasion diplomatic moves vain.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	descent italy frederick divert troops quell rebellion frederick ii duke austria.vienna february obtained title king romans yearold son conrad.after failure negotiations lombard cities pope imperial diplomats frederick invaded lombardy verona.november decisive battle cortenuova lombard league.frederick celebrated triumph cremona manner ancient roman emperor captured carroccio later sent commune rome elephant.rejected suit peace even milan sent great sum money.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	demand total surrender spurred resistance milan brescia bologna piacenza october forced raise siege brescia course enemies tried unsuccessfully capture him.frederick received news excommunication gregory ix first months court padua emperor responded expelling franciscans dominicans lombardy electing son enzo imperial vicar northern italy.enzo soon annexed romagna marche duchy spoleto nominally part papal states.father announced destroy republic venice sent ships sicily.december year frederick entered tuscany spent christmas pisa.january frederick triumphantly entered foligno followed viterbo whence aimed finally conquer rome restore ancient splendours empire.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	fredericks plan attack rome time however come fruition chose leave southern italy papal incited rebellion flared apulia.southern italy frederick attacked razed st angelo benevento.in meantime ghibelline city ferrara fallen frederick swept way northwards capturing ravenna another long siege faenza.people forlì kept ghibelline stance even collapse hohenstaufen power offered loyal support capture rival city sign gratitude granted augmentation communal coatofarms hohenstaufen eagle together privileges.episode shows independent cities used rivalry empire pope means obtain maximum advantage themselves.at time gregory considered yielding.truce occurred peace negotiations began.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	direct peace negotiations ultimately failed gregory called general council.frederick allies however dashed gregorys plan general council intercepted delegation prelates traveling rome genoese fleet battle giglio .frederick directed army toward rome pope burning destroying umbria advanced.emperors forces ready attack rome gregory died august .frederick attempted show war directed church rome pope withdrawing troops freeing prison capua two cardinals captured giglio otto tonengo james pecorara.frederick traveled sicily wait election new pope.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	mongol raids – forces mongol empire decisively defeated armies hungary poland devastated countryside unfortified settlements.king béla iv hungary appealed frederick aid frederick dispute hungarian king time bela sided papacy wanting commit major military expedition readily refused.unwilling cross hungary although went unifying magnates monarchs potentially face mongol invasion specifically took vow defense empire side alps.frederick aware danger mongols posed grimly assessed situation also tried use leverage papacy frame protector christendom.called traitorous pagans frederick expressed admiration mongol military prowess hearing deeds particular able commanders fierce discipline obedience judging latter greatest source success.called levy throughout germany mongols busy raiding hungary.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	mid federick dispersed army back holdfasts mongols preoccupied lands east danube attempting smash hungarian resistance.subsequently ordered vassals strengthen defenses adopt defensive posture gather large numbers crossbowmen.a chronicler reports frederick received demand submission batu khan time ignored.apparently kept date mongols activities letter frederick ii dated june comments mongols using looted hungarian armor.letter written emperor frederick ii found regesta imperii dated june intended vassals swabia austria bohemia included number specific military instructions.forces avoid engaging mongols field battles hoard food stocks every fortress stronghold arm possible levies well general populace.thomas split comments frenzy fortifying castles cities throughout holy roman empire including italy.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	either following emperors instructions initiative frederick ii duke austria paid border castles strengthened expense.king wenceslaus bohemia every castle strengthened provisioned well providing soldiers armaments monasteries order turn refuges civilian population.mongol probing attacks materialised holy roman empires border states mongol attack olomouc failed leader captured sortie force repulsed skirmish near kłodzko – mongol troops killed battle near vienna austrian losses according duke austria mongol raiding party destroyed austrian knights district theben backed border river march.holy roman empire seemed target mongols frederick ii sent letters henry iii england louis ix france order organise crusade mongol empire.a fullscale invasion never occurred mongols spent next year pillaging hungary withdrawing.mongols withdrew hungary back russia frederick turned attention back towards italian matters.danger represented presence mongols europe debated first council lyon frederick ii excommunicated diet context struggle papacy ultimately abandoned possibility crusade mongol empire.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	innocent iv new pope innocent iv elected june .member noble imperial family relatives fredericks camp emperor initially happy election.innocent however become fiercest enemy.negotiations began summer situation changed viterbo rebelled instigated intriguing local cardinal ranieri capocci.frederick could afford lose main stronghold near rome besieged city.innocent convinced rebels sign peace frederick withdrew garrison ranieri slaughtered november.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	frederick enraged.new pope master diplomat frederick signed peace treaty soon broken.innocent together cardinals fled via genoese galleys liguria arriving july.aim reach lyon new council held since june .despite initially appearing council could end compromise intervention ranieri series insulting pamphlets published frederick among things defined emperor heretic antichrist led prelates towards less accommodating solution.one month later innocent iv declared frederick deposed emperor characterising friend babylons sultan saracen customs provided harem guarded eunuchs like schismatic emperor byzantium sum heretic.the pope backed heinrich raspe landgrave thuringia rival imperial crown set motion plot kill frederick enzo support popes brotherinlaw orlando de rossi another friend frederick.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	plotters unmasked count caserta however city altavilla found shelter razed.guilty blinded mutilated burnt alive hanged.attempt invade kingdom sicily command ranieri halted spello marino eboli imperial vicar spoleto.innocent also sent flow money germany cut fredericks power source.archbishops cologne mainz also declared frederick deposed may heinrich raspe chosen new king.august heinrich thanks popes money managed defeat army conrad son frederick near frankfurt.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	frederick strengthened position southern germany however acquiring duchy austria whose duke died without heirs.year later heinrich died new antiking william ii holland.between february march frederick settled situation italy means diet terni naming relatives friends vicars various lands.married son manfred daughter amedeo di savoia secured submission marquis monferrato.part innocent asked protection king france louis ix king friend emperor believed desire peace.papal army command ottaviano degli ubaldini never reached lombardy emperor accompanied massive army held next diet turin.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	battle parma unexpected event change situation dramatically.june important lombard city parma expelled imperial functionaries sided guelphs.enzo city could nothing ask help father came back lay siege rebels together friend ezzelino iii da romano tyrant verona.besieged languished emperor waited surrender starvation.wooden city called vittoria built around walls.on february one absences camp suddenly assaulted taken ensuing battle parma imperial side routed.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	frederick lost imperial treasure hope maintaining impetus struggle rebellious communes pope began plans crusade sicily.frederick soon recovered rebuilt army defeat encouraged resistance many cities could longer bear fiscal burden regime romagna marche spoleto lost.in february frederick fired advisor prime minister famous jurist poet pier delle vigne charges peculation embezzlement.historians suggest pier planning betray emperor according matthew paris cried discovered plot.pier blinded chains died pisa possibly hand.even shocking frederick capture natural son enzo sardinia bolognese battle fossalta may .
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	enzo held palace bologna remained captive death .frederick lost another son richard chieti.struggle continued empire lost como modena regained ravenna.army sent invade kingdom sicily command cardinal pietro capocci crushed marche battle cingoli .first month year indomitable ranieri viterbo died imperial condottieri reconquered romagna marche spoleto conrad king romans scored several victories germany william holland.frederick take part campaigns.ill likely felt tired.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	despite betrayals setbacks faced last years frederick died peacefully wearing habit cistercian monk december castel fiorentino territory torremaggiore apulia attack dysentery.at time death preeminent position europe challenged lost testament left legitimate son conrad imperial sicilian crowns.manfred received principality taranto government kingdom henry kingdom arles jerusalem son henry vii entrusted duchy austria march styria.fredericks stipulated lands taken church returned prisoners freed taxes reduced provided damage empires prestige.however upon conrads death mere four years later hohenstaufen dynasty fell power great interregnum began lasting one year last hohenstaufen enzo died prison.time legend developed frederick truly dead merely sleeping kyffhäuser mountains would one day awaken reestablish empire.time legend largely transferred grandfather frederick also known barbarossa redbeard.his sarcophagus made red porphyry lies cathedral palermo beside parents henry vi constance well grandfather norman king roger ii sicily.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	wearing funerary alb thuluthstyle inscribed cuff.bust frederick sits walhalla temple built ludwig bavaria.sarcophagus opened nineteenth century various items found british museums collection including small piece funerary crown.personality religion fredericks contemporaries called stupor mundi astonishment world majority contemporaries indeed astonished – sometimes repelled – pronounced unorthodoxy hohenstaufen emperor temperamental stubbornness.frederick inherited german norman sicilian blood training lifestyle temperament sicilian.maehl concludes end life remained sicilian grand signore whole imperial policy aimed expanding sicilian kingdom italy rather german kingdom southward.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	cantor concludes frederick intention giving naples sicily real strongholds power.fact uninterested germany.frederick religious sceptic extent unusual era.papal enemies used every turn subsequently referred preambulus antichristi predecessor antichrist pope gregory ix frederick allegedly respect privilegium potestatis church excommunicated.fredericks religious unorthodoxy led speculation atheist though unlikely.his rationalistic mind took pleasure strictly logical character catholic dogma.however champion rationalism sympathy mysticoheretical movements time fact joined suppressing them.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	church middle ages antagonized representatives.for supposed epicureanism paganism frederick ii listed representative member sixth region dantes inferno heretics burned tombs.he deported muslim population western sicily lucera enlisted christian army even personal bodyguards muslim soldiers advantage immunity papal excommunication.literature science frederick great thirst knowledge learning.frederick employed jews sicily immigrated holy land court translate greek arabic works.he played major role promoting literature sicilian school poetry.sicilian royal court palermo saw first use literary form italoromance language sicilian.poetry emanated school significant influence literature become modern italian language.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	school poetry saluted dante peers predate least century use tuscan idiom elite literary language italy.frederick ii author first treatise subject falconry de arte venandi cum avibus art hunting birds.words historian charles homer haskinsit scientific book approaching subject aristotle based closely observation experiment throughout divisivus et inquisitivus words preface time scholastic book minute almost mechanical divisions subdivisions.also rigidly practical book written falconer falconers condensing long experience systematic form use others.fredericks pride mastery art illustrated story ordered become subject great khan batu receive office khans court remarked would make good falconer understood birds well.maintained fifty falconers time court letters requested arctic gyrfalcons lübeck even greenland.one two existing versions modified son manfred also keen falconer.david attenborough natural curiosities notes frederick fully understood migration birds time sorts improbable theories common.frederick loved exotic animals general menagerie impressed cold cities northern italy europe included hounds giraffes cheetahs lynxes leopards exotic birds elephant.he also alleged carried number experiments people.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	experiments recorded monk salimbene di adam chronicles.among experiments shutting prisoner cask see soul could observed escaping hole cask prisoner died feeding two prisoners sent one hunt bed disemboweled see digested meal better imprisoning children denying human contact see would develop natural language.in language deprivation experiment young infants raised without human interaction attempt determine natural language might demonstrate voices matured.claimed seeking discover language would imparted unto adam eve god.chronicles salimbene wrote frederick bade fostermothers nurses suckle bathe wash children ways prattle speak would learnt whether would speak hebrew language first greek latin arabic perchance tongue parents born.laboured vain children could live without clappings hands gestures gladness countenance blandishments.frederick also interested stars court host many astrologers astronomers including michael scot guido bonatti.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	often sent letters leading scholars time europe asking solutions questions science mathematics physics.in founded university naples worlds oldest state university called università federico ii.appearance damascene chronicler sibt ibn aljawzi left physical description frederick based testimony seen emperor person jerusalem emperor covered red hair bald myopic.slave would fetched dirhams market.fredericks eyes described variously blue green like serpent.law reforms edict salerno sometimes called constitution salerno made first legally fixed separation occupations physician apothecary.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	physicians forbidden double pharmacists prices various medicinal remedies fixed.became model regulation practice pharmacy throughout europe.he able extend legal reforms beyond sicily empire.forced german princes promulgate statutum favorem principum statute favor princes.charter liberties leading german princes expense lesser nobility entirety commoners.princes gained whole power jurisdiction power strike coins.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	emperor lost right establish new cities castles mints territories.statutum severely weakened central authority germany.vassals emperor veto imperial legislative decisions.every new law established emperor approved princes.significance legacy historians rate frederick ii highly significant european monarch middle ages.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	reputation present even fredericks era.lansing english two british historians argue medieval palermo overlooked favor paris londonone effect approach privilege historical winners aspects medieval europe became important later centuries nation state.... arguably liveliest cultural innovation th century mediterranean centered frederick iis polyglot court administration palermo.... sicily italian south later centuries suffered long slide overtaxed poverty marginality.textbook narratives therefore focus medieval palermo muslim jewish bureaucracies arabicspeaking monarch historical winners paris london.modern medievalists longer accept notion sponsored popes frederick antichristian.argue frederick understood christian monarch sense byzantine emperor thus gods viceroy earth.whatever personal feelings toward religion certainly submission pope enter matter slightest.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	line hohenstaufen kaiseridee ideology claiming holy roman emperor legitimate successor roman emperors.as father henry vi frederick established cosmopolitan court black treasury custodian johannes morus depiction different peoples rule persisted throughout starting late middle ages.twentiethcentury treatments frederick vary sober wolfgang stürner dramatic ernst kantorowicz.however agree frederick iis significance holy roman emperor.judgment british historian geoffrey barraclough fredericks extensive concessions german princes – made hopes securing base italian projects – undid political power predecessors postponed german unity centuries.however modern approach frederick ii tends focused continuity frederick predecessors kings sicily holy roman emperors similarities thirteenthcentury monarchs.david abulafia biography subtitled medieval emperor argues fredericks reputation enlightened figure ahead time undeserved frederick mostly conventionally christian monarch sought rule conventional medieval manner.family frederick left numerous children legitimate illegitimate legitimate issue first wife constance aragon – june .
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	marriage august messina sicily.henry vii – february .second wife yolande jerusalem – april .marriage november brindisi apulia.margareta november – august .conrad iv april – may .third wife isabella england – december .marriage july worms germany.jordan born spring failed survive year child given baptismal name jordanus baptized water brought purpose jordan river.agnes b d. .henry february – may named henry iii england uncle appointed governor sicily promised become king jerusalem father died died within three years never crowned.betrothed many pope innocent ivs nieces never married any.margaret december – august married albert landgrave thuringia later margrave meissen.frederick relationship bianca lancia c. – possibly starting around .one source states lasted years.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	bore three childrenconstance anna – april married john iii ducas vatatzes.manfred – killed battle benevento february first regent later king sicily.violante – married riccardo sanseverino count caserta.matthew paris relates story marriage articulo mortis deathbed bianca dying marriage never recognized church.nevertheless biancas children apparently regarded frederick legitimate evidenced daughter constances marriage nicaean emperor appointed manfred prince taranto regent sicily.mistresses illegitimate issue unknown name sicilian countess.exact parentage unknown thomas tuscuss gesta imperatorum et pontificum c. stated nobili comitissa quo regno sicilie erat heres.frederick pettorano – aft.fled spain wife children .adelheid adelaide urslingen c. – c. .
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	relationship frederick ii took place time stayed germany .according sources related hohenburg family name alayta vohburg alayta di marano accepted theory stated daughter conrad urslingen count assisi duke spoleto.enzo sardinia –.powerful bentivoglio family bologna ferrara claimed descent him.caterina da marano – aft.married firstly nn secondly giacomo del carretto marquis noli finale.matilda maria antioch.frederick antioch –.although frederick ascribed eight children two perhaps three identified primary documents.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	son conrad alive late .daughter philippa born around married manfredi maletta grand chamberlain manfredi lancia .imprisoned charles anjou died prison .maria wife barnabò malaspina may also daughter.an unknown member lancia familyselvaggia – married ezzelino iii da romano.manna niece berardo di castagna archbishop palermorichard chieti – may .anais brienne c. – cousin isabella ii jerusalemblanchefleur – june dominican nun montargis france.richina wolfsöden c. – margaret swabia – married thomas aquino count acerra.unknown mistressgerhard died .ancestry see also dukes swabia family treefamily tree german monarchsfrederick second kantorowiczs biography frederick notes references bibliography external links texts wikisourcefrederick ii.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	king sicily holy roman emperor .new international encyclopedia..frederick ii.roman emperor.encyclopædia britannica th ed.. .frederick ii.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	catholic encyclopedia..frederick ii emperor holy roman empire.encyclopedia americana..frederick ii.colliers new encyclopedia.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor	.frederick ii – encyclopædia britannicapsalter frederick ii around –literature friedrich ii.german national library catalogueworks frederick ii holy roman emperor deutsche digitale bibliothek german digital libraryfridericus ii imperator.repertorium historical sources german middle ages geschichtsquellen des deutschen mittelalters.stupor mundi italian websitedeed frederick ii branch teutonic order nuremberg january digitalised image.photograph archive old original documents lichtbildarchiv älterer originalurkunden.university marburg..

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