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TCP offload engine	nic splits buffer separate packets.technique also called tcp segmentation offload tso generic segmentation offload gso applied tcp.lso lro independent use one require use other.system needs send large chunks data computer network chunks first need breaking smaller segments pass network elements like routers switches source destination computers.process referred segmentation.
TCP offload engine	often tcp protocol host computer performs segmentation.offloading work nic called tcp segmentation offload tso.for example unit kib bytes data usually segmented segments bytes sent nic network.intelligence nic host cpu hand kb data nic single transmitrequest nic break data smaller segments bytes add tcp ip data link layer protocol headers — according template provided hosts tcpip stack — segment send resulting frames network.significantly reduces work done cpu.many new nics market support tso.some network cards implement tso generically enough used offloading fragmentation transport layer protocols ip fragmentation protocols dont support fragmentation udp.
TCP offload engine	support linux unlike operating systems freebsd linux kernel include support toe confused types network offload.patches hardware manufacturers chelsio qlogic add toe support linux kernel developers opposed technology several reasonssecurity – toe implemented hardware patches must applied toe firmware instead software address security vulnerabilities found particular toe implementation.compounded newness vendorspecificity hardware compared well tested tcpip stack found operating system use toe.limitations hardware – connections buffered processed toe chip resource starvation easily occur compared generous cpu memory available operating system.complexity – toe breaks assumption kernels make access resources times – details memory used open connections available toe.toe also requires large changes networking stack order supported properly even done features like quality service packet filtering might work.proprietary – toe implemented differently hardware vendor.means code must rewritten deal various toe implementations cost aforementioned complexity possibly security.
TCP offload engine	furthermore toe firmware cannot easily modified since closedsource.obsolescence – toe nic limited lifetime usefulness system hardware rapidly catches toe performance levels eventually exceeds toe performance levels.suppliers much current work toe technology manufacturers gigabit ethernet interface cards broadcom chelsio communications emulex mellanox technologies qlogic.see also scalable networking packio acceleration technology references external links article tcp offload rescue andy currid acm queuepatent application mogul jeffrey c. .tcp offload dumb idea whose time come pdf.proceedings hotos ix th workshop hot topics operating systems.
TCP offload engine	usenix association.retrieved july .tcpip offload engine toe.gigabit ethernet alliance.april .windows network task offloadgso linuxbrief description lso linuxcase studies performance issues lso traffic shaping linuxfreebsd .new features brief discussion tso support
Start-Up (South Korean TV series)	series revolves around woman dreams becoming entrepreneur like steve jobs love triangle man secretly first love another man pretending first love.aired tvn october december every saturday sunday kst.available streaming netflix.synopsis set south koreas fictional silicon valley called sandbox startup tells story people world startup companies.seo dalmi bae suzy bright ambitious young woman dreams becoming koreas steve jobs.dalmi doesnt fancy background shes passionate work.
Start-Up (South Korean TV series)	bright energy person great vitality experience wide range parttime jobs.nam dosan nam joohyuk founder samsan tech.‘math genius’ genius savant young boy dosan pride family became shame business going past two years.finds dalmi mistakenly remembers first love decides work way hopes turning misunderstanding reality.cast main bae suzy seo dalmiheo jungeun young seo dalmishe dreams becoming koreas steve jobs.born humble family much.
Start-Up (South Korean TV series)	however shes also adventurer grand plan herself.drive also came abandoned mother sister young age.also experience wide range parttime jobs person great vitality.nam joohyuk nam dosankim kanghoon young nam dosandosan founder samsan tech.pride family math genius shy cannot even look people eye.gone nowhere past two years investments company almost ready give up.
Start-Up (South Korean TV series)	name seo dalmi mistakenly believes ‘cool first love’ although never knew her.decides begin startup hope turning seo dalmis misunderstanding reality.kim seonho han jipyeongnam dareum young han jipyeonga team leader sh venture capital astonishing investment skills sharp tongue earn nickname “the gordon ramsay investments.” though hes prickly others hes softer anyone one special person granted great favor past.orphan age helped seo dalmis grandmother never forgot kindness.fake nam dosan wrote letters seo dalmi grandmothers request.kang hanna injaeseo injaelee young injaewon injae seo dalmis older sister.everything society respects strong educational background beautiful appearance money.
Start-Up (South Korean TV series)	eventually realizes background secondgeneration chaebol weakness everything create success acknowledged skills.supporting seo dalmi injaes family kim haesook choi wondeok seo chungmyungs mother seo dalmi injaes grandmothersong seonmi cha ahhyun seo dalmi injaes motherhaving divorced husband quitting job ends marrying wealthy doojung.shown regret leaving dalmi injae’s dad doojung cheats finds hard give luxurious life affords her.kim joohun seo chungmyung seo dalmis injaes fatherhaving enough degraded work decides start business leads divorce year manages get deal implied inspired name sandbox chat owner happens current sandbox ceo yoon seonhak.day going home dies bus due brain injuries earlier car accident.eom hyoseop doojung injaes stepfather chairman morning group.moon donghyeok sangsoo donjungs son injaes stepbrother chief executive officer morning group.samsan tech yoo subin lee chulsana friend dosan since university joined company resigning due ransomware taken control incharge told pay million won.kim dowan kim yongsana friend dosan since university agenda getting sandbox relating death brother ceo sandboxs nd batch.stephanie lee jeong sahaa former lawyer quits job pursue something less generic.
Start-Up (South Korean TV series)	nam dosans family kim heejung park geumjung dosans motherkim wonhae nam sunghwan nam dosans fatherjang sehyun nam chunho nam dosans cousin sh venture capital seo yisook yoon seonhak ceo sandbox sh venture capital.kim minseok park dongcheon assistant secretary jipyeong mentoring manager sandboxs th batch.others jasper cho alex kwon one mentors sandboxs th batch owner sto silicon valley company.kang yooseok shin hyeon computer programmer shin jeongs twin brother.joo boyoung shin jeong computer programmer shin hyeons twin sister.kim jiin seohyun special appearances yeo jingoo jang youngshil voice hong jiseoklee boyoung woman pubmoon seyoon security guardpark chanho nam dosans favorite baseball athletebae haesun lee hyewon team leader seonju life insurance.original soundtrack part part part part part part part part part part part part part part part part part episodes reception critical response startup included forbes list best korean dramas joan macdonald writing forbes said story startup gets started interesting.actors—from leads supporting cast— imperfectly endearing kim seonho wins years unofficial prize appealing second lead.south china morning post ranked list top kdramas .
StarTeam	kim jaeha teen vogue including list best kdramas said startup reinforces idea matter fractured family ties remain – better worse .viewership series logged .viewership rating first episode.awards nominations notes references external links official website koreanstartup studio dragon koreanstartup history dc koreanstartup netflix startup imdbstartup hancinemastarteam scm sdlc software application created starbase corporation acquired borland january acquired micro focus july .application clientserver backed relational database retains changes made project evolution well project requirements task assignments threaded discussions bug tracking.microsoft sql server oracle database supported database servers.history branching support starteam supports branching threeway merging difference analysis advanced user access security management checkpoints end user administrator auditing view revision labels promotion states customization features.server supports remote use strong encryption remote connections.
StarTeam	starteam allows live backups server active use includes optional publishsubscribe event system called starteam mpx enhance scalability.in addition file versioning starteam also stores requirements project tasks change requests discussions.interlinked enhance traceability within project.clients starteam includes number clients including web client crossplatform java client command line interface integrations popular integrated development environments borland delphi borland jbuilder eclipse.starteam includes several apis platforms including com java microsoft .net framework.also provides msscci compliant source control plugin api integration ides offer integrated revision control features well applications mercury interactives testdirector ibm rational doors.
StarTeam	checkins checkins starteam atomic.whenever one file checked result single transaction files associated process items updated single action.reason checkin fails none files checked status associated process items updated.example suppose user selects check modified files starteam folder one selected files locked user b. locked file none files checked none process items updated fixed user notified none files checked one files locked user b. reception see also devpartnermysqlsilktest references reading sean kenefick .real world software configuration management.
StarTeam	apress.pp.–.isbn .robert a. delrossi august .configurationmanagement software home away starteam version control more.
StarTeam	infoworld.p. .issn .review version .larry seltzer may .team programming.
StarTeam	pc magazine.pp.–.issn .reviews starbase collaboration suite featured roundup review similar products online versiondarryl k. taft borland tops scm survey.
Open Shortest Path First	developers choose borlands starteam top software configuration management tool evans data poll.eweek external links current starteam product pagestarteam .datasheetstarteam .page archiveduses link state routing lsr algorithm falls group interior gateway protocols igps operating within single autonomous system as.ospf gathers link state information available routers constructs topology map network.topology presented routing table internet layer routing packets destination ip address.ospf supports internet protocol version ipv internet protocol version ipv networks supports classless interdomain routing cidr addressing model.ospf widely used large enterprise networks.isis another lsrbased protocol common large service provider networks.originally designed ospf defined ipv protocol version rfc .
Open Shortest Path First	updates ipv specified ospf version rfc .ospf supports classless interdomain routing cidr addressing model.concepts ospf interior gateway protocol igp routing internet protocol ip packets within single routing domain autonomous system.gathers link state information available routers constructs topology map network.topology presented routing table internet layer routes packets based solely destination ip address.ospf detects changes topology link failures converges new loopfree routing structure within seconds.
Open Shortest Path First	computes shortestpath tree route using method based dijkstras algorithm.ospf routing policies constructing route table governed link metrics associated routing interface.cost factors may distance router roundtrip time data throughput link link availability reliability expressed simple unitless numbers.provides dynamic process traffic load balancing routes equal cost.ospf divides network routing areas simplify administration optimize traffic resource utilization.areas identified bit numbers expressed either simply decimal often octetbased dotdecimal notation used ipv addresses.
Open Shortest Path First	convention area zero ... represents core backbone area ospf network.identifications areas may chosen administrators often select ip address main router area area identifier.additional area must connection ospf backbone area.connections maintained interconnecting router known area border router abr.abr maintains separate linkstate databases area serves maintains summarized routes areas network.ospf runs internet protocol version ipv internet protocol version ipv use transport protocol udp tcp.
Open Shortest Path First	encapsulates data directly ip packets protocol number .contrast routing protocols routing information protocol rip border gateway protocol bgp.ospf implements transport error detection correction functions.ospf uses multicast addressing distributing route information within broadcast domain.reserves multicast addresses ... ipv ff ipv spflink state routers allspfrouters ... ipv ff ipv designated routers alldrouters.
Open Shortest Path First	nonbroadcast networks special provisions configuration facilitate neighbor discovery.ospf multicast ip packets never traverse ip routers never travel one hop.protocol may therefore considered link layer protocol often also attributed application layer tcpip model.virtual link feature used create adjacency tunnel across multiple hops.ospf ipv operate securely routers optionally using variety authentication methods allow trusted routers participate routing.
Open Shortest Path First	ospfv ipv relies standard ipv protocol security ipsec internal authentication methods.for routing ip multicast traffic ospf supports multicast open shortest path first mospf protocol.cisco include mospf ospf implementations.protocol independent multicast pim conjunction ospf igps widely deployed.ospf version introduces modifications ipv implementation protocol.except virtual links neighbor exchanges use ipv linklocal addressing exclusively.ipv protocol runs per link rather based subnet.
Open Shortest Path First	ip prefix information removed linkstate advertisements hello discovery packet making ospfv essentially protocolindependent.despite expanded ip addressing bits ipv area router identifications still based bit numbers.router relationships ospf supports complex networks multiple routers including backup routers balance traffic load multiple links subnets.neighboring routers broadcast domain end pointtopoint link communicate via ospf protocol.routers form adjacencies detected other.
Open Shortest Path First	detection initiated router identifies hello protocol packet.upon acknowledgment establishes twoway state basic relationship.routers ethernet frame relay network select designated router dr backup designated router bdr act hub reduce traffic routers.ospf uses unicast multicast transmission modes send hello packets linkstate updates.as linkstate routing protocol ospf establishes maintains neighbor relationships exchanging routing updates routers.neighbor relationship table called adjacency database.
Open Shortest Path First	two ospf routers neighbors members subnet share area id subnet mask timers authentication.essence ospf neighborship relationship two routers allow see understand nothing more.ospf neighbors exchange routing information – packets exchange hello packets.ospf adjacencies formed selected neighbors allow exchange routing information.two routers must first neighbors become adjacent.
Open Shortest Path First	two routers become adjacent least one designated router backup designated router multiaccesstype networks interconnected pointtopoint pointtomultipoint network type.forming neighbor relationship interfaces used form relationship must ospf area.interface may configured belong multiple areas generally practiced.configured second area interface must configured secondary interface.operation modes ospf different operation modes following setups interfacenetworkbroadcast default router advertises periodically multicasting hello packets use designated routers.
Open Shortest Path First	using multicastnonbroadcast multiaccess use designated routers.may need static configuration.packets sent unicastpointtomultipoint ospf treats neighbours pointtopoint links.designated router elected.using multicast.
Open Shortest Path First	separate hello packets sent neighbor.pointtopoint.router advertises periodically multicasting hello packets.designated router elected.interface ip unnumbered without assigning unique ip address it.using multicast.virtual links packets sent unicast.
Open Shortest Path First	configured nonbackbone area stubarea.endpoints need abr virtual links behave unnumbered pointtopoint connections.cost intraarea path two routers added link.virtual link generic routing encapsulation gre.since ospf support virtual links areas backbone.workaround use gre backbone area.
Open Shortest Path First	note ip router id used link creates two equalcost routes destination.sham link link connects sites belong ospf area share ospf backdoor link via mpls vpn backbone.adjacency state machine ospf router within network communicates neighboring routers connecting interface establish states adjacencies.every communication sequence separate conversation identified pair router ids communicating neighbors.rfc specifies protocol initiating conversations hello protocol establishing full adjacencies database description packets link state request packets.course router conversation transitions maximum eight conditions defined state machinedown state represents initial state conversation information exchanged retained routers hello protocol.attempt attempt state similar state except router process efforts establish conversation another router used nbma networks.init init state indicates hello packet received neighbor router established twoway conversation.way way state indicates establishment bidirectional conversation two routers.
Open Shortest Path First	state immediately precedes establishment adjacency.lowest state router may considered designated router.exstart exstart state first step adjacency two routers.exchange exchange state router sending linkstate database information adjacent neighbor.state router able exchange ospf routing protocol packets.loading loading state router requests recent linkstate advertisements lsas neighbor discovered previous state.full full state concludes conversation routers fully adjacent state appears router networklsas.link state databases neighbors fully synchronized.ospf areas network divided ospf areas logical groupings hosts networks.
Open Shortest Path First	area includes connecting router interface connected network link.router maintains separate linkstate database area whose information may summarized towards rest network connecting router.thus topology area unknown outside area.reduces routing traffic parts autonomous system.ospf handle thousands routers concern reaching capacity forwarding information base fib table network contains lots routes lowerend devices.modern lowend routers full gigabyte ram allows handle many routers area .
Open Shortest Path First	many resources refer ospf guides years ago impressive mb ram.areas uniquely identified bit numbers.area identifiers commonly written dotdecimal notation familiar ipv addressing.however ip addresses may duplicate without conflict ipv address.area identifiers ipv implementations ospfv also use bit identifiers written notation.dotted formatting omitted implementations expand area area identifier ... known expand ....several vendors cisco allied telesis juniper alcatellucent huawei quagga implement totally stubby nssa totally stubby area stub notsostubby areas.
Open Shortest Path First	although covered rfc standards considered many standard features ospf implementations.ospf defines several area types backbonenonbackboneregularstubtotally stubbynotsostubbytotally notsostubbytransit.backbone area backbone area also known area area ... forms core ospf network.areas connected either directly routers.ospf requires prevent routing loops.interarea routing happens via routers connected backbone area associated areas.
Open Shortest Path First	logical physical structure ospf domain attached nonzero areas ospf domain.note ospf term autonomous system boundary router asbr historic sense many ospf domains coexist internetvisible autonomous system rfc .all ospf areas must connect backbone area.connection however virtual link.example assume area ... physical connection area .... assume area ... direct connection backbone area connection area .... area ... use virtual link transit area ... reach backbone.transit area area transit attribute cannot stubby way.
Open Shortest Path First	regular area regular area nonbackbone nonzero area without specific feature generating receiving summary external lsas.backbone area special type area.transit area transit area area two ospf border routers used pass network traffic one adjacent area another.transit area originate traffic destination traffic.backbone area special type transit area.examples thisbackbone areain ospf requires areas directly connected backbone area virtual links used area transit called transit area.
Open Shortest Path First	stub area hello packets e flag high indication external routing capablea stub area area receive route advertisements external routing within area based entirely default route.abr deletes type lsas internal routers sends default route ... turns default gateway.reduces lsdb routing table size internal routers.modifications basic concept stub area implemented systems vendors totally stubby area tsa notsostubby area nssa extension cisco systems routing equipment.totally stubby area totally stubby area similar stub area.however area allow summary routes addition external routes interarea ia routes summarized totally stubby areas.
Open Shortest Path First	way traffic get routed outside area default route type lsa advertised area.one route area fewer routing decisions made route processor lowers system resource utilization.occasionally said tsa one abr.notsostubby area hello packets n flag set high indication nssa supporteda notsostubby area nssa type stub area import autonomous system external routes send areas still cannot receive asexternal routes areas.nssa extension stub area feature allows injection external routes limited fashion stub area.case study simulates nssa getting around stub area problem able import external addresses.visualizes following activities asbr imports external addresses type lsa abr converts type lsa type floods areas abr acts asbr areas.the asbrs take type lsas convert type lsas area.
Open Shortest Path First	totally notsostubby area addition standard functionality nssa totally stubby nssa nssa takes attributes tsa meaning type summary routes flooded type area.also possible declare area totally stubby notsostubby means area receive default route area ... also contain autonomous system boundary router asbr accepts external routing information injects local area local area area ....redistribution nssa area creates special type lsa known type exist nssa area.nssa asbr generates lsa nssa abr router translates type lsa gets propagated ospf domain.a newly acquired subsidiary one example might suitable area simultaneously notsostubby totally stubby practical place put asbr edge totally stubby area.case asbr send externals totally stubby area available ospf speakers within area.ciscos implementation external routes summarized injecting totally stubby area.
Open Shortest Path First	general asbr advertise default tsanssa although work extremely careful design operation limited special cases advertisement makes sense.by declaring totally stubby area nssa external routes backbone except default route enter area discussed.externals reach area ... via tsanssa routes default route enter tsanssa.routers tsanssa send traffic abr except routes advertised asbr.router types ospf defines following overlapping categories routersinternal router iran internal router interfaces belonging area.area border router abran area border router router connects one areas main backbone network.considered member areas connected to.
Open Shortest Path First	abr keeps multiple instances linkstate database memory one area router connected.backbone router bra backbone router interface backbone area.backbone routers may also area routers be.autonomous system boundary router asbran autonomous system boundary router router connected using one routing protocol exchanges routing information routers autonomous systems.asbrs typically also run exterior routing protocol e.g.bgp use static routes both.asbr used distribute routes received external ass throughout autonomous system.
Open Shortest Path First	asbr creates external lsas external addresses floods areas via abr.routers areas use abrs next hops access external addresses.abrs forward packets asbr announces external addresses.the router type attribute ospf process.given physical router may one ospf processes.example router connected one area receives routes bgp process connected another area border router autonomous system boundary router.each router identifier customarily written dotteddecimal format e.g.
Open Shortest Path First	... ip address.identifier must established every ospf instance.explicitly configured highest logical ip address duplicated router identifier.however since router identifier ip address part routable subnet network often isnt avoid confusion.nonpointtopoint network networks subnet ospf routers system designated router dr backup designated router bdr used reducing network traffic providing source routing updates.this done using multicast addresss... routers topology listen multicast address.... dr brd listen multicast address.the dr bdr maintains complete topology table network sends updates routers via multicast.
Open Shortest Path First	routers multiaccess network segment form slavemaster relationship dr bdr.form adjacencies dr bdr only.every time router sends update sends dr bdr multicast address .... dr send update routers area multicast address .... way routers constantly update rather get updates single source.use multicasting reduces network load.drs bdrs always setupelected ospf broadcast networks.
Open Shortest Path First	drs also elected nbma nonbroadcast multiaccess networks frame relay atm.drs bdrs elected pointtopoint links pointtopoint wan connection two routers either side link must become fully adjacent bandwidth cannot optimized.dr nondr routers evolve way full adjacency relationships exchanging dd request update.designated router designated router dr router interface elected among routers particular multiaccess network segment generally assumed broadcast multiaccess.special techniques often vendordependent may needed support dr function nonbroadcast multiaccess nbma media.
Open Shortest Path First	usually wise configure individual virtual circuits nbma subnet individual pointtopoint lines techniques used implementationdependent.backup designated router backup designated router bdr router becomes designated router current designated router problem fails.bdr ospf router secondhighest priority time last election.a given router interfaces designated dr others backup designated bdr others nondesignated.router dr bdr given subnet bdr first elected second election held dr. designated router election dr elected based following default criteriaif priority setting ospf router set means never become dr bdr.when dr fails bdr takes another election see becomes replacement bdr.the router sending hello packets highest priority wins election.if two routers tie highest priority setting router sending hello highest rid router id wins.note rid highest logical loopback ip address configured router logicalloopback ip address set router uses highest ip address configured active interfaces e.g.
Open Shortest Path First	... would higher ....usually router secondhighest priority number becomes bdr.the priority values range – higher value increasing chances becoming dr bdr.if higher priority ospf router comes online election taken place become dr bdr least dr bdr fail.if current dr goes current bdr becomes new dr new election takes place find another bdr.new dr goes original dr available still previously chosen bdr become dr. protocol messages unlike routing protocols ospf carry data via transport protocol user datagram protocol udp transmission control protocol tcp.instead ospf forms ip datagrams directly packaging using protocol number ip protocol field.ospf defines five different message types various types communication.multiple packets send per frame.osfp uses following packets typehellodatabase descriptionlink state requestlink state updatelink state acknowledgement hello packet ospfs hello messages used form greeting allow router discover adjacent routers local links networks.
Open Shortest Path First	messages establish relationships neighboring devices called adjacencies communicate key parameters ospf used autonomous system area.normal operation routers send hello messages neighbors regular intervals hello interval router stops receiving hello messages neighbor set period dead interval router assume neighbor gone down.database description dbd database description messages contain descriptions topology autonomous system area.convey contents linkstate database lsdb area one router another.communicating large lsdb may require several messages sent sending device designated master device sending messages sequence slave recipient lsdb information responding acknowledgments.
Open Shortest Path First	link state packets link state request lsrlink state request messages used one router request updated information portion lsdb another router.message specifies links requesting device wants current information.link state update lsulinkstate update messages contain updated information state certain links lsdb.sent response link state request message also broadcast multicast routers regular basis.contents used update information lsdbs routers receive them.link state acknowledgment lsacklinkstate acknowledgment messages provide reliability linkstate exchange process explicitly acknowledging receipt link state update message.ospf v area types accepted lsas area types use lsa.
Open Shortest Path First	matrix accepted lsas.routing metrics ospf uses path cost basic routing metric defined standard equate standard value speed network designer could pick metric important design.practice determined comparing speed interface referencebandwidth ospf process.cost determined dividing reference bandwidth interface speed although cost interface manually overridden.reference bandwidth set gbits link cost .
Open Shortest Path First	speeds less rounded .example table shows routing metric cost calculation interface.type lsa size bit field decimaltype lsa size bit field decimalospf layer protocol layer switch two devices running ospf one side may negotiate speed different side.create asymmetric routing link router router could cost return path could cost may lead unintended consequences.metrics however directly comparable type.four types metrics recognized.decreasing preference types example intraarea route always preferred external route regardless metricintraareainterareaexternal type includes external path cost sum internal path costs asbr advertises routeexternal type value solely external path cost ospf v ospf version introduces modifications ipv implementation protocol.
Open Shortest Path First	despite expanded ip addressing bits ipv area router identifications still based bit numbers.high level changes except virtual links neighbor exchanges use ipv linklocal addressing exclusively.ipv protocol runs per link rather based subnet.all ip prefix information removed linkstate advertisements hello discovery packet making ospfv essentially protocolindependent.three separate flooding scopes lsaslinklocal scope lsa flooded local link further.area scope lsa flooded throughout single ospf area.as scope.lsa flooded throughout routing domain.use ipv linklocal addresses neighbor discovery autoconfiguration.authentication moved ip authentication header changes introduced ospf v backported vendors v explicit support multiple instances per link packet format changes ospf version number changed lsa header options field removed.in hello packets database description options field changed bit.in hello packet address information removed.interface id added.in routerlsas two options bits rbit vbit added.rbit allows multihomed hosts participate routing protocol.vbit specializes rbit.add instance id allows multiple ospf protocol instances logical interface.
Open Shortest Path First	lsa format changes lsa type field changed .add support handling unknown lsa typesthree bits used encoding flooding scope.with ipv addresses lsas expressed prefix prefix length.in routerlsas networklsas address information removed.routerlsas networklsas made network protocol independent.a new lsa type added linklsa linklsa provide routers linklocal address routers attached logical interface list ipv prefixes associate link send information reflect routers capabilities.lsa type summarylsas renamed interareaprefixlsas.lsa type summary lsas renamed interarearouterlsas.intraareaprefixlsa added lsa carries ipv prefix information.ospf mplsvpn customer use ospf mplsvpn service provider uses bgp rip interior gateway protocol.when using ospf mplsvpn vpn backbone becomes part ospf backbone area .areas isolated copies igp run.advantages mplsvpn transparent customers ospf standard routing.customers equipment needs support ospf.reduce need tunnels generic routing encapsulation ipsec wireguard use ospf.to achieve nonstandard ospfbgp redistribution used.ospf routes retain source lsa type metric.to prevent loops optional dn bit used lsas indicate route already sent provider edge customers equipment.ospf extensions traffic engineering ospfte extension ospf extending expressivity allow traffic engineering use nonip networks.
Open Shortest Path First	using ospfte information topology exchanged using opaque lsa carrying type–length–value elements.extensions allow ospfte run completely band data plane network.means also used nonip networks optical networks.ospfte used gmpls networks means describe topology gmpls paths established.gmpls uses path setup forwarding protocols full network map.in resource reservation protocol rsvp ospfte used recording flooding rsvp signaled bandwidth reservations label switched paths within linkstate database.optical routing rfc documents work optical routing ip based extensions ospf isis.
Open Shortest Path First	multicast open shortest path first multicast open shortest path first mospf protocol extension ospf support multicast routing.mospf allows routers share information group memberships.ospf broadcast nonbroadcast networks broadcast multipleaccess networks neighbor adjacency formed dynamically using multicast hello packets .... dr bdr elected normally function normally.for nonbroadcast multipleaccess networks nbma following two official modes definednonbroadcastpointtomultipointcisco defined following three additional modes ospf nbma topologiespointtomultipoint nonbroadcastbroadcastpointtopoint notable implementations allied telesis implements ospfv ospfv allied ware plus awarista networks implements ospfv ospfvbird implements ospfv ospfvcisco ios nxoscisco merakidlink implements ospfv unified services router.dells ftos implements ospfv ospfvextremexosgnu zebra gpl routing suite unixlike systems supporting ospfjuniper junosnetware implements ospf multi protocol routing module.openbsd includes openospfd ospfv implementation.quagga fork gnu zebra unixlike systemsfrrouting successor quaggaxorp routing suite implementing rfc ospfv rfc ospfv ipv ipvwindows nt .server windows server windows server implemented ospfv routing remote access service although functionality removed windows server .applications ospf widely deployed routing protocol converge network seconds guarantee loopfree paths.
Open Shortest Path First	many features allow imposition policies propagation routes may appropriate keep local load sharing selective route importing.isis contrast tuned lower overhead stable network sort common isp enterprise networks.historical accidents made isis preferred igp isps isps today may well choose use features nowefficient implementations ospf first considering pros cons isis service provider environments.ospf provide better loadsharing external links igps.default route isp injected ospf multiple asbrs type external route external cost specified routers go asbr least path cost location.tuned adjusting external cost.
Open Shortest Path First	default route different isps injected different external costs type ii external route lowercost default becomes primary exit highercost becomes backup only.the real limiting factor may compel major isps select isis ospf network routers.see also fabric shortest path firstmesh networkingroute analyticsroutingshortest path problem references reading colton andrew october .ospf cisco routers.rocket science press.isbn .doyle jeff carroll jennifer .
Open Shortest Path First	routing tcpip.vol.nd ed.. cisco press.isbn .moy john t. .ospf anatomy internet routing protocol.
Open Shortest Path First	addisonwesley.isbn .parkhurst william r. .cisco ospf command configuration handbook.isbn .basu anindya riecke jon .stability issues ospf routing.
Open Shortest Path First	proceedings conference applications technologies architectures protocols computer communications.sigcomm .pp.–.citeseerx ..... doi... isbn .
Open Shortest Path First	scid .valadas rui .ospf isis link state routing principles technologies.crc press.doi.. isbn .external links ietf ospf working groupcisco ospfcisco ospf areas virtual linkssummary ospf v
Glossary of computer science	abstract data type adta mathematical model data types data type defined behavior semantics point view user data specifically terms possible values possible operations data type behavior operations.contrasts data structures concrete representations data point view implementer rather user.abstract methodone signature implementation body.often used specify subclass must provide implementation method.abstract methods used specify interfaces computer languages.abstraction.software engineering computer science process removing physical spatial temporal details attributes study objects systems order closely attend details interest also similar nature process generalization.. result process abstract conceptobject created keeping common features attributes various concrete objects systems study.agent architecturea blueprint software agents intelligent control systems depicting arrangement components.
Glossary of computer science	architectures implemented intelligent agents referred cognitive architectures.agentbased model abma class computational models simulating actions interactions autonomous agents individual collective entities organizations groups view assessing effects system whole.combines elements game theory complex systems emergence computational sociology multiagent systems evolutionary programming.monte carlo methods used introduce randomness.aggregate functionin database management function values multiple rows grouped together form single value significant meaning measurement sum count max.agile software developmentan approach software development requirements solutions evolve collaborative effort selforganizing crossfunctional teams customersend users.advocates adaptive planning evolutionary development early delivery continual improvement encourages rapid flexible response change.algorithman unambiguous specification solve class problems.algorithms perform calculation data processing automated reasoning tasks.
Glossary of computer science	ubiquitous computing technologies.algorithm designa method mathematical process problemsolving engineering algorithms.design algorithms part many solution theories operation research dynamic programming divideandconquer.techniques designing implementing algorithm designs also called algorithm design patterns template method pattern decorator pattern.algorithmic efficiencya property algorithm relates number computational resources used algorithm.algorithm must analyzed determine resource usage efficiency algorithm measured based usage different resources.algorithmic efficiency thought analogous engineering productivity repeating continuous process.american standard code information interchange asciia character encoding standard electronic communications.
Glossary of computer science	ascii codes represent text computers telecommunications equipment devices.modern characterencoding schemes based ascii although support many additional characters.application programming interface apia set subroutine definitions communication protocols tools building software.general terms set clearly defined methods communication among various components.good api makes easier develop computer program providing building blocks put together programmer.application softwarealso simply application app.computer software designed perform group coordinated functions tasks activities benefit user.common examples applications include word processors spreadsheets accounting applications web browsers media players aeronautical flight simulators console games photo editors.
Glossary of computer science	contrasts system software mainly involved managing computers basic running operations often without direct input user.collective noun application software refers applications collectively.array data structurealso simply array.a data structure consisting collection elements values variables identified least one array index key.array stored position element computed index tuple mathematical formula.simplest type data structure linear array also called onedimensional array.artifactone many kinds tangible byproducts produced development software.artifacts e.g.
Glossary of computer science	use cases class diagrams unified modeling language uml models requirements design documents help describe function architecture design software.artifacts concerned process development itself—such project plans business cases risk assessments.artificial intelligence aialso machine intelligence.intelligence demonstrated machines contrast natural intelligence displayed humans animals.computer science ai research defined study intelligent agents devices capable perceiving environment taking actions maximize chance successfully achieving goals.colloquially term artificial intelligence applied machine mimics cognitive functions humans associate human minds learning problem solving.asciisee american standard code information interchange.assertionin computer programming statement predicate booleanvalued function i.e.true–false expression always true point code execution.
Glossary of computer science	help programmer read code help compiler compile help program detect defects.latter programs check assertions actually evaluating predicate run fact true – assertion failure – program considers broken typically deliberately crashes throws assertion failure exception.associative arrayan associative array map symbol table dictionary abstract data type composed collection key value pairs possible key appears collection.operations associated data type allowthe addition pair collectionthe removal pair collectionthe modification existing pairthe lookup value associated particular keyautomata theorythe study abstract machines automata well computational problems solved using them.theory theoretical computer science discrete mathematics subject study mathematics computer science.automated reasoningan area computer science mathematical logic dedicated understanding different aspects reasoning.study automated reasoning helps produce computer programs allow computers reason completely nearly completely automatically.although automated reasoning considered subfield artificial intelligence also connections theoretical computer science even philosophy.
Glossary of computer science	b bandwidththe maximum rate data transfer across given path.bandwidth may characterized network bandwidth data bandwidth digital bandwidth.bayesian programminga formalism methodology technique specify probabilistic models solve problems less necessary information available.benchmarkthe act running computer program set programs operations order assess relative performance object normally running number standard tests trials it.term benchmark also commonly utilized purposes elaborately designed benchmarking programs themselves.best worst average caseexpressions resource usage least average respectively given algorithm.usually resource considered running time i.e.time complexity could also memory resource.
Glossary of computer science	best case function performs minimum number steps input data n elements worst case function performs maximum number steps input data size n average case function performs average number steps input data n elements.big dataa term used refer data sets large complex traditional dataprocessing application software adequately deal with.data many cases rows offer greater statistical power data higher complexity attributes columns may lead higher false discovery rate.big notationa mathematical notation describes limiting behavior function argument tends towards particular value infinity.member family notations invented paul bachmann edmund landau others collectively called bachmann–landau notation asymptotic notation.binary numberin mathematics digital electronics number expressed base numeral system binary numeral system uses two symbols typically zero one.binary search algorithmalso simply binary search halfinterval search logarithmic search binary chop.a search algorithm finds position target value within sorted array.binary treea tree data structure node two children referred left child right child.recursive definition using set theory notions nonempty binary tree tuple l r l r binary trees empty set singleton set.authors allow binary tree empty set well.bioinformaticsan interdisciplinary field combines biology computer science information engineering mathematics statistics develop methods software tools analyzing interpreting biological data.
Glossary of computer science	bioinformatics widely used silico analyses biological queries using mathematical statistical techniques.bita basic unit information used computing digital communications portmanteau binary digit.binary digit one two possible values may physically represented twostate device.state values commonly represented either or.bit rate ralso bitrate.in telecommunications computing number bits conveyed processed per unit time.blacklistalso block list.in computing basic access control mechanism allows elements email addresses users passwords urls ip addresses domain names file hashes etc.except explicitly mentioned list prohibited elements.items list denied access.
Glossary of computer science	opposite whitelist means items list allowed whatever gate used elements blocked.greylist contains items temporarily blocked temporarily allowed additional step performed.bmp file formatalso bitmap image file device independent bitmap dib file format simply bitmap.a raster graphics image file format used store bitmap digital images independently display device graphics adapter used especially microsoft windows os operating systems.boolean data typea data type one two possible values usually denoted true false intended represent two truth values logic boolean algebra.named george boole first defined algebraic system logic midth century.boolean data type primarily associated conditional statements allow different actions changing control flow depending whether programmerspecified boolean condition evaluates true false.special case general logical data type see probabilistic logic—i.e.
Glossary of computer science	logic need always boolean.boolean expressionan expression used programming language returns boolean value evaluated one true false.boolean expression may composed combination boolean constants true false booleantyped variables booleanvalued operators booleanvalued functions.boolean algebrain mathematics mathematical logic branch algebra values variables truth values true false usually denoted respectively.contrary elementary algebra values variables numbers prime operations addition multiplication main operations boolean algebra conjunction denoted ∧ disjunction denoted ∨ negation denoted ¬.thus formalism describing logical relations way elementary algebra describes numeric relations.bytea unit digital information commonly consists eight bits representing binary number.historically byte number bits used encode single character text computer reason smallest addressable unit memory many computer architectures.bootingthe procedures implemented starting computer computer appliance used.
Glossary of computer science	initiated hardware button press software command.power switched computer relatively dumb read part storage called readonly memory.small program stored called firmware.poweron selftests importantly allows access types memory like hard disk main memory.firmware loads bigger programs computers main memory runs it.
Glossary of computer science	c callbackalso callafter function.any executable code passed argument code expected call back execute argument given time.execution may immediate synchronous callback might happen later time asynchronous callback.central processing unit cputhe electronic circuitry within computer carries instructions computer program performing basic arithmetic logic controlling inputoutput io operations specified instructions.computer industry used term central processing unit least since early s. traditionally term cpu refers processor specifically processing unit control unit cu distinguishing core elements computer external components main memory io circuitry.charactera unit information roughly corresponds grapheme graphemelike unit symbol alphabet syllabary written form natural language.cipheralso cypher.in cryptography algorithm performing encryption decryption—a series welldefined steps followed procedure.classin objectoriented programming extensible programcodetemplate creating objects providing initial values state member variables implementations behavior member functions methods.many languages class name used name class template name default constructor class subroutine creates objects type objects generated instantiating class distinct concepts easily conflated.classbased programmingalso classorientation.a style objectoriented programming oop inheritance occurs via defining classes objects instead via objects alone compare prototypebased programming.clienta piece computer hardware software accesses service made available server.server often always another computer system case client accesses service way network.
Glossary of computer science	term applies role programs devices play client–server model.cleanroom software engineeringa software development process intended produce software certifiable level reliability.cleanroom process originally developed harlan mills several colleagues including alan hevner ibm.focus cleanroom process defect prevention rather defect removal.closurealso lexical closure function closure.a technique implementing lexically scoped name binding language firstclass functions.operationally closure record storing function together environment.cloud computingshared pools configurable computer system resources higherlevel services rapidly provisioned minimal management effort often internet.cloud computing relies sharing resources achieve coherence economies scale similar public utility.code librarya collection nonvolatile resources used computer programs often software development.
Glossary of computer science	may include configuration data documentation help data message templates prewritten code subroutines classes values type specifications.ibms os successors referred partitioned data sets.codingcomputer programming process designing building executable computer program accomplishing specific computing task.programming involves tasks analysis generating algorithms profiling algorithms accuracy resource consumption implementation algorithms chosen programming language commonly referred coding.source code program written one programming languages.purpose programming find sequence instructions automate performance task solving given problem.
Glossary of computer science	process programming thus often requires expertise several different subjects including knowledge application domain specialized algorithms formal logic.coding theorythe study properties codes respective fitness specific applications.codes used data compression cryptography error detection correction data transmission data storage.codes studied various scientific disciplines—such information theory electrical engineering mathematics linguistics computer science—for purpose designing efficient reliable data transmission methods.typically involves removal redundancy correction detection errors transmitted data.cognitive sciencethe interdisciplinary scientific study mind processes.examines nature tasks functions cognition broad sense.
Glossary of computer science	cognitive scientists study intelligence behavior focus nervous systems represent process transform information.mental faculties concern cognitive scientists include language perception memory attention reasoning emotion understand faculties cognitive scientists borrow fields linguistics psychology artificial intelligence philosophy neuroscience anthropology.collectiona collection container grouping variable number data items possibly zero shared significance problem solved need operated upon together controlled fashion.generally data items type languages supporting inheritance derived common ancestor type.collection concept applicable abstract data types prescribe specific implementation concrete data structure though often conventional choice see container type theory discussion.commaseparated values csva delimited text file uses comma separate values.csv file stores tabular data numbers text plain text.
Glossary of computer science	line file data record.record consists one fields separated commas.use comma field separator source name file format.compilera computer program transforms computer code written one programming language source language another programming language target language.compilers type translator support digital devices primarily computers.name compiler primarily used programs translate source code highlevel programming language lowerlevel language e.g.
Glossary of computer science	assembly language object code machine code create executable program.computability theoryalso known recursion theory branch mathematical logic computer science theory computation originated study computable functions turing degrees.field since expanded include study generalized computability definability.areas recursion theory overlaps proof theory effective descriptive set theory.computationany type calculation includes arithmetical nonarithmetical steps follows welldefined model e.g.algorithm.study computation paramount discipline computer science.computational biologyinvolves development application dataanalytical theoretical methods mathematical modelling computational simulation techniques study biological ecological behavioural social systems.
Glossary of computer science	field broadly defined includes foundations biology applied mathematics statistics biochemistry chemistry biophysics molecular biology genetics genomics computer science evolution.computational biology different biological computing subfield computer science computer engineering using bioengineering biology build computers.computational chemistrya branch chemistry uses computer simulation assist solving chemical problems.uses methods theoretical chemistry incorporated efficient computer programs calculate structures properties molecules solids.computational complexity theorya subfield computational science focuses classifying computational problems according inherent difficulty relating classes other.computational problem task solved computer.computation problem solvable mechanical application mathematical steps algorithm.computational modela mathematical model computational science requires extensive computational resources study behavior complex system computer simulation.computational neurosciencealso theoretical neuroscience mathematical neuroscience.a branch neuroscience employs mathematical models theoretical analysis abstractions brain understand principles govern development structure physiology cognitive abilities nervous system.computational physicsis study implementation numerical analysis solve problems physics quantitative theory already exists.
Glossary of computer science	historically computational physics first application modern computers science subset computational science.computational sciencealso scientific computing scientific computation sc.an interdisciplinary field uses advanced computing capabilities understand solve complex problems.area science spans many disciplines core involves development computer models simulations understand complex natural systems.computational steeringis practice manually intervening otherwise autonomous computational process change outcome.computera device instructed carry sequences arithmetic logical operations automatically via computer programming.modern computers ability follow generalized sets operations called programs.programs enable computers perform extremely wide range tasks.computer architecturea set rules methods describe functionality organization implementation computer systems.definitions architecture define describing capabilities programming model computer particular implementation.
Glossary of computer science	definitions computer architecture involves instruction set architecture design microarchitecture design logic design implementation.computer data storagealso simply storage memory.a technology consisting computer components recording media used retain digital data.data storage core function fundamental component modern computer systems.– computer ethicsa part practical philosophy concerned computing professionals make decisions regarding professional social conduct.computer graphicspictures films created using computers.usually term refers computergenerated image data created help specialized graphical hardware software.vast recently developed area computer science.computer networkalso data network.a digital telecommunications network allows nodes share resources.
Glossary of computer science	computer networks computing devices exchange data using connections data links nodes.data links established cable media wires optic cables wireless media wifi.computer programis collection instructions executed computer perform specific task.computer programmingthe process designing building executable computer program accomplishing specific computing task.programming involves tasks analysis generating algorithms profiling algorithms accuracy resource consumption implementation algorithms chosen programming language commonly referred coding.source code program written one programming languages.
Glossary of computer science	purpose programming find sequence instructions automate performance task solving given problem.process programming thus often requires expertise several different subjects including knowledge application domain specialized algorithms formal logic.computer sciencethe theory experimentation engineering form basis design use computers.involves study algorithms process store communicate digital information.computer scientist specializes theory computation design computational systems.computer scientista person acquired knowledge computer science study theoretical foundations information computation application.computer securityalso cybersecurity information technology security security.the protection computer systems theft damage hardware software electronic data well disruption misdirection services provide.computer visionan interdisciplinary scientific field deals computers made gain highlevel understanding digital images videos.perspective engineering seeks automate tasks human visual system do.computingis goaloriented activity requiring benefiting creating computing machinery.
Glossary of computer science	includes study algorithmic processes development hardware software.scientific engineering mathematical technological social aspects.major computing fields include computer engineering computer science cybersecurity data science information systems information technology software engineering.concatenationin formal language theory computer programming string concatenation operation joining character strings endtoend.example concatenation snow ball snowball.certain formalisations concatenation theory also called string theory string concatenation primitive notion.concurrencythe ability different parts units program algorithm problem executed outoforder partial order without affecting final outcome.
Glossary of computer science	allows parallel execution concurrent units significantly improve overall speed execution multiprocessor multicore systems.technical terms concurrency refers decomposability property program algorithm problem orderindependent partiallyordered components units.conditionalalso conditional statement conditional expression conditional construct.a feature programming language performs different computations actions depending whether programmerspecified boolean condition evaluates true false.apart case branch predication always achieved selectively altering control flow based condition.containeris class data structure abstract data type adt whose instances collections objects.words store objects organized way follows specific access rules.size container depends number objects elements contains.
Glossary of computer science	underlying inherited implementations various container types may vary size complexity provide flexibility choosing right implementation given scenario.continuationpassing style cpsa style functional programming control passed explicitly form continuation.contrasted direct style usual style programming.gerald jay sussman guy l. steele jr. coined phrase ai memo sets first version scheme programming language.control flowalso flow control.the order individual statements instructions function calls imperative program executed evaluated.emphasis explicit control flow distinguishes imperative programming language declarative programming language.creative commons ccan american nonprofit organization devoted expanding range creative works available others build upon legally share.organization released several copyrightlicenses known creative commons licenses free charge public.cryptographyor cryptology practice study techniques secure communication presence third parties called adversaries.
Glossary of computer science	generally cryptography constructing analyzing protocols prevent third parties public reading private messages various aspects information security data confidentiality data integrity authentication nonrepudiation central modern cryptography.modern cryptography exists intersection disciplines mathematics computer science electrical engineering communication science physics.applications cryptography include electronic commerce chipbased payment cards digital currencies computer passwords military communications.csvsee commaseparated values.cyberbullyingalso cyberharassment online bullying.a form bullying harassment using electronic means.cyberspacewidespread interconnected digital technology.daemonin multitasking computer operating systems daemon computer program runs background process rather direct control interactive user.traditionally process names daemon end letter clarification process fact daemon differentiation daemon normal computer program.
Glossary of computer science	example syslogd daemon implements system logging facility sshd daemon serves incoming ssh connections.data centeralso data centre.a dedicated space used house computer systems associated components telecommunications data storage systems.generally includes redundant backup components infrastructure power supply data communications connections environmental controls e.g.air conditioning fire suppression various security devices.databasean organized collection data generally stored accessed electronically computer system.databases complex often developed using formal design modeling techniques.data miningis process discovering patterns large data sets involving methods intersection machine learning statistics database systems.data mining interdisciplinary subfield computer science statistics overall goal extract information intelligent methods data set transform information comprehensible structure use.
Glossary of computer science	data mining analysis step knowledge discovery databases process kdd.aside raw analysis step also involves database data management aspects data preprocessing model inference considerations interestingness metrics complexity considerations postprocessing discovered structures visualization online updating.data sciencean interdisciplinary field uses scientific methods processes algorithms systems extract knowledge insights data various forms structured unstructured similar data mining.data science concept unify statistics data analysis machine learning related methods order understand analyze actual phenomena data.employs techniques theories drawn many fields within context mathematics statistics information science computer science.data structurea data organization management storage format enables efficient access modification.
Glossary of computer science	precisely data structure collection data values relationships among functions operations applied data.data typealso simply type.an attribute data tells compiler interpreter programmer intends use data.programming languages support common data types real integer boolean.data type constrains values expression variable function might take.data type defines operations done data meaning data way values type stored.type value expression may take value.debuggingthe process finding resolving defects problems within computer program prevent correct operation computer software system whole.
Glossary of computer science	debugging tactics involve interactive debugging control flow analysis unit testing integration testing log file analysis monitoring application system level memory dumps profiling.declarationin computer programming language construct specifies properties identifier declares word identifier means.declarations commonly used functions variables constants classes also used entities enumerations type definitions.beyond name identifier kind entity function variable etc.declarations typically specify data type variables constants type signature functions types may also include dimensions arrays.declaration used announce existence entity compiler important strongly typed languages require functions variables constants types specified declaration use used forward declaration.
Glossary of computer science	term declaration frequently contrasted term definition meaning usage varies significantly languages.digital datain information theory information systems discrete discontinuous representation information works.numbers letters commonly used representations.digital signal processing dspthe use digital processing computers specialized digital signal processors perform wide variety signal processing operations.signals processed manner sequence numbers represent samples continuous variable domain time space frequency.discrete event simulation desa model operation system discrete sequence events time.event occurs particular instant time marks change state system.consecutive events change system assumed occur thus simulation directly jump time one event next.disk storagealso sometimes called drive storage general category storage mechanisms data recorded various electronic magnetic optical mechanical changes surface layer one rotating disks.
Glossary of computer science	disk drive device implementing storage mechanism.notable types hard disk drive hdd containing nonremovable disk floppy disk drive fdd removable floppy disk various optical disc drives odd associated optical disc media.distributed computinga field computer science studies distributed systems.distributed system system whose components located different networked computers communicate coordinate actions passing messages one another.components interact one another order achieve common goal.three significant characteristics distributed systems concurrency components lack global clock independent failure components.
Glossary of computer science	examples distributed systems vary soabased systems massively multiplayer online games peertopeer applications.divide conquer algorithman algorithm design paradigm based multibranched recursion.divideandconquer algorithm works recursively breaking problem two subproblems related type become simple enough solved directly.solutions subproblems combined give solution original problem.dnssee domain name system.documentationwritten text illustration accompanies computer software embedded source code.either explains operates use may mean different things people different roles.domainis targeted subject area computer program.term used software engineering.
Glossary of computer science	formally represents target subject specific programming project whether narrowly broadly defined.domain name system dnsa hierarchical decentralized naming system computers services resources connected internet private network.associates various information domain names assigned participating entities.prominently translates readily memorized domain names numerical ip addresses needed locating identifying computer services devices underlying network protocols.providing worldwide distributed directory service domain name system essential component functionality internet since .doubleprecision floatingpoint formata computer number format.represents wide dynamic range numerical values using floating radix point.downloadin computer networks receive data remote system typically server web server ftp server email server similar systems.

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