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OPINION HENDLEY, Judge. Plaintiff appeals the trial court’s dismissal of his common law personal injury action and his workmen’s compensation action on summary judgment motions. The personal injury action was dismissed because workmen’s compensation was determined to be plaintiff’s exclusive remedy. The workmen’s compensation action was dismissed as barred by the statute of limitations. We discuss defendants’ motion to dismiss the appeal, the child labor law, and the Workmen’s Compensation Act, and reverse. Plaintiff was injured on or about February 12, 1977, when he worked as a carry out boy/stocker at the Foodmart grocery store in Las Cruces. As he bent over to price jars in cases on the floor of a grocery aisle, four cases of canned goods, which were stacked on a cart with other cases before being put on the shelves, fell on his back. Plaintiff was knocked “flat on the case” on the floor by the impact. Following the accident, plaintiff was very stiff and sore. He was under the care of a chiropractor until approximately May 1977. Plaintiff’s birth date is December 1, 1961. He was fifteen years old at the time of the accident. He did not receive workmen’s compensation, but the employer, Bobby G. Stevens, personally paid his medical bills. Plaintiff did not file this action based on the accident until December 1, 1980, after he had enlisted in the Navy and then been discharged because of the discovery of permanent back damage. Plaintiff seeks relief under two causes of action: common law personal injury and workmen’s compensation. Defendants are Bobby G. Stevens (d/b/a Foodmart, Stevens Enterprises, Inc.), who owned and operated the Foodmart store at the time of the accident; Tri-State Wholesale Associated Grocers, Inc., whose employees allegedly stacked the cases on the cart; and John Doe and the John Doe insurance company, the company which provided Foodmart’s workmen’s compensation coverage. Bobby G. Stevens (d/b/a Foodmart, a/k/a Stevens Enterprises, Inc.) and American Fire and Casualty Company are the defendants-appellees in this appeal. A personal injury action against Tri-State is pending in the trial court but Tri-State is not a party in this appeal. Defendants’ Motion to Dismiss the Appeal Defendants have filed a motion to dismiss plaintiff’s appeal pursuant to NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App. Rules 102 and 404 (Repl.Pamp.1983). We find the arguments are without merit and do not bear repeating. Defendants cannot distinguish between violations of rules which are insufficient to warrant dismissal and plaintiff’s arguments of law. Defendants have not demonstrated any prejudice from plaintiff’s errors in failing to cite the record and carelessly quoting a single statute. Defendants’ argument that “Plaintiff’s appeal is frivolous and has prejudiced Defendants in having to respond to an appeal without merit” is frivolous. Summary Judgment on the Common Law Personal Injury Action The common law remedy was considered by the court to have been superseded by plaintiff’s exclusive remedy in workmen’s compensation. On appeal, plaintiff presents three arguments. We need only discuss the argument that the employer violated the following child labor law statute in the employment of plaintiff: NMSA 1953, Section 59-6-2 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, 1974) (NMSA 1978, Section 50-6-2). a. Child Labor Law Under Maynerich v. Little Bear Enterprises, Inc., 82 N.M. 650, 485 P.2d 984 (Ct.App.1971), the employment contract of an illegally employed minor is at least voidable, giving that minor employee the right to pursue a common law action against the employer if the minor is injured in the employment. In Maynerich, plaintiff was injured during the course of his employment with defendant when he was told to “climb upon the fork lift to designate the placement of bales of hay after they had been unloaded from the truck.” At the time of the injury, plaintiff was fifteen years old. He brought a common law action for damages. The trial court assumed for the purpose of defendant’s summary judgment motion that plaintiff’s employment fell within the law prohibiting a child under the age of sixteen from working in “ ‘any employment dangerous to lives and limbs, * * Quoting from NMSA 1953, § 59-6-5 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, 1974). The trial court granted the employer’s summary judgment motion finding that plaintiff’s exclusive remedy was under the Workmen’s Compensation Act. We reversed and held that since the employment was in violation of the child labor law the contract was illegal and could not be relied on by the employer in order to come within the protections of the Workmen’s Compensation Act. b. NMSA 1953, Section 59-6-2 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, 1974) (NMSA 1978, Section 50-6-2) 59-6-2. Certificate for children fourteen to sixteen during school term. — No child over the age of fourteen [14] years and under the age of sixteen [16] years shall be employed or permitted to labor at any gainful occupation during the term of the school of the district in which the child resides, unless the child has procured and filed permit certificate as herein provided for. (Emphasis added.) This statute was not discussed in Maynerich, and it does not appear that New Mexico appellate courts have ever applied the statute. The issue of the permit was not raised below by plaintiff. However, it is still an issue in this appeal because defendants had the burden of showing a legal contract of employment. As we stated in Maynerich: “[I]f the employer * * * seeks to avail itself of the Workmen’s Compensation Act as a bar to a common law action, then it must show a valid contract of employment between it and [the plaintiff].” There is not a legal contract of employment without a permit because the employer has committed a misdemeanor by hiring the minor who does not have a permit. See NMSA 1953, § 59-6-13 (2d Repl. Vol. 9, pt. 1, 1974) (NMSA 1978, § 50-6-12). Section 59-6-2 puts the burden on the employee to procure the permit, but it also says “[n]o child * * * shall be employed”, which speaks to the employer’s responsibility. Defendants did not produce a labor permit and, in order to make a prima facie showing of a legal contract of employment, that was their burden. Plaintiff’s employment came within Section 59-6-2 because: 1) he was fifteen years old at the time of the accident, and 2) his employment was during the school term. Defendants read Section 59-6-2 to require a permit only when a child aged fourteen to sixteen works during hours school is in session. They argue that “during the term of school” means during the hours of school. They refer to NMSA 1978, Section 50-6-1. {See NMSA 1953, § 59-6-1 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, 1974).) That statute does not help their interpretation; it refers to children under the age of fourteen. It also specifically refers to “hours during which the schools * * * are in session” (emphasis added) showing that the Legislature knew to specify “hours” when that was its intention. In addition, NMSA 1953, Section 59-6-8(C) (2d Repl. Vol. 9, pt. 1, 1974) in describing the information necessary for a work permit application, details extra information required when the child aged fourteen to sixteen wishes to work “during the session hours of the school * * It would be unnecessary to distinguish between the general application and an application to work during school hours, if the permit were required only when the child wished to work during school hours. Defendants’ reading of Section 59-6-2 is incorrect. The court erred in granting summary judgment against plaintiff on the common law action because defendant movant had not made a prima facie case that workmen’s compensation was plaintiff’s exclusive remedy. A prima facie case must include evidence of a legal contract of employment. There is no legal contract of employment with a worker under the age of sixteen without a permit. As to the argument that plaintiff’s employment fell within the prohibited occupations for children under sixteen, NMSA 1953, Section 59-6-5 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, 1974) (NMSA 1978, Section 50-6-4), we need only state that defendants introduced nothing. We have only plaintiff’s affidavit and deposition which described the carts and how they moved. It was defendants’ burden to show there was no genuine issue of material fact. Plaintiff’s description of the carts raises an issue of how unsteady the carts were; the issue is material because 1,500 to 3,000 pounds of goods were typically stacked on the cart and cases had fallen off before plaintiff’s accident. Defendants failed to carry their burden. Goodman v. Brock, 83 N.M. 789, 498 P.2d 676 (1972). Summary Judgment on the Workmen’s Compensation Claim NMSA 1953, Section 59-10-13.6(A) (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, 1974) (NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-31) provides that the one-year statute of limitations for filing a complaint in workmen’s compensation, which begins to run upon denial or failure of payment, is tolled during the time the injured employee remains employed by the defendant employer up to a period not to exceed one year. This tolling provision applies because plaintiff continued to work at Food-mart after recovery in May 1977 until April 1978. Therefore, the statute of limitations expired in February 1979. Plaintiff’s complaint, filed December 1, 1980, was over one and one-half years late. Plaintiff presents three arguments to show that the' filing was timely. 1) The statute of limitations did not begin to run until October 1980 when plaintiff was discharged from the service because before that time he had not discovered his injury. 2) The statute of limitations was tolled during the time of plaintiff’s minority. 3) The statute of limitations was tolled by employer Stevens’ fraud or misrepresentation in telling plaintiff’s father that plaintiff was not covered by workmen’s compensation. 1) The statute of limitations did not begin to run until October 1980 when plaintiff was discharged from the service because before that time he had not discovered his injury. This is not a case where the injured worker was unaware that there was a compensable injury. The plaintiffs father asked about workmen’s compensation coverage soon after the accident. Plaintiff was unable to return to work for approximately two and one-half months; and even then, he could not perform all of the tasks he had done prior to his injury. Compare Sedillo v. Levi-Strauss Corp., 98 N.M. 52, 644 P.2d 1041 (Ct.App.1982). These facts are not contested; there is no genuine issue of material fact on discovery of a compensable injury. 2) The statute of limitations was tolled during the time of plaintiffs minority. Plaintiff became eighteen on December 1, 1979. The statute of limitations, allowing for the one-year extension for continued employment, expired in February 1979. Therefore, plaintiff was a minor the entire time the limitation period ran. Plaintiff argues that policy and due process require that plaintiff be given a reasonable period of time after his eighteenth birthday in which to sue. This Court has already determined that NMSA 1978, Section 37-1-10, which provides a one-year extension for minors and incapacitated persons on limitation periods on certain actions, does not apply to workmen’s compensation actions. Lent v. Employment Sec. Com’n of State of N.M., 99 N.M. 407, 658 P.2d 1134 (Ct.App.1982). Without the application of this statute and the absence of any such extension provision in the Workmen’s Compensation Act, were plaintiff’s due process rights violated? Assuming the constitutional theory is properly before this Court, it must be considered in the posture of the summary judgment. Defendants made a prima facie showing that the statute of limitations had expired prior to plaintiff’s complaint. It was then plaintiff’s burden to show the existence of a genuine issue of material fact. A material fact to the issue of a denial of due process would be that plaintiff could not file suit prior to the expiration of the limitation period. Plaintiff’s minority does not create an issue as argued by plaintiff. NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 17(c) (Repl.Pamp.1980) does not prevent a minor from filing a lawsuit; it merely provides alternatives, in that a representative of the minor may file suit on his behalf, and the court may appoint a guardian ad litem if necessary to protect the minor’s interest. See 3A J. Moore & J. Lucas, Moore’s Federal Practice § 17.26 (2d ed. 1982). But see J. Walden, Civil Procedure in New Mexico § 6b (1st ed. 1973); Iriart v. Johnson, 75 N.M. 745, 411 P.2d 226 (1965). (Language in Iriart, 75 N.M. at 751, 411 P.2d 226, seems to indicate that a minor is only able to institute a lawsuit through a guardian or representative.) Unlike the 90-day old infant in Tafoya v. Doe, 100 N.M. 328, 670 P.2d 582 (Ct.App.1983), there are no facts in the record to show that plaintiff, employed since the age of fourteen, was unable to file suit. (Tafoya involved giving notice for purposes of the Tort Claims Act; however, it is analogous because notice was jurisdictional and would have defeated the infant’s claim.) Application of the limitation period does not deprive plaintiff of his right of action without due process. 3)The statute of limitations was tolled by employer Stevens’ fraud or misrepresentation in telling plaintiffs father that plaintiffs injury was not covered by workmen’s compensation. Contrary to defendants’ argument, there is evidence in the record to support plaintiff’s factual contention. Defendant Stevens stated in an affidavit that he “may have said Raymond T. Howie’s particular injury was not covered by our workmen’s compensation policy.” If he is now asserting that the existence of workmen’s compensation makes that plaintiff’s exclusive remedy, then the policy must have covered plaintiff’s injury. There is no evidence in the record that the policy did not cover the injury; therefore, the statement was a misrepresentation for the purpose of the summary judgment motion. Defendants argue that they never misled plaintiff into believing he would receive workmen’s compensation, the only circumstance which excuses the plaintiff’s failure to file a timely claim. NMSA 1953, Section 59-10-14 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, 1974) provides: Effect of failure of workman to file claim or bring suit by reason of conduct of employer. — The failure of any person entitled to compensation under the Workmen’s Compensation Act [59-10-1 to 59-10-37] to give any notice, file any claim, or bring suit within the time fixed by the Workmen’s Compensation Act shall not deprive such person of the right to compensation where the failure was caused in whole or in part by the conduct of the employer or insurer which reasonably led the person entitled to compensation to believe the compensation would be paid. Plaintiff argues: 1) the statute of limitations should not run until the employee discovers his injury is covered by insurance where the employer has denied that it is, and 2) denial of coverage estops the employer from later asserting coverage to deny plaintiff a remedy. Plaintiff’s arguments are contra to Stasey v. Stasey, 77 N.M. 436, 423 P.2d 869 (1967). Stasey was a workmen’s compensation case arising out of a compensable injury on July 14, 1962. Defendants paid plaintiff benefits until September 21, 1963. After that date, negotiations between the parties’ attorneys took place; defendants never promised plaintiff that benefits would be paid. Eventually, plaintiff filed a claim on November 11, 1964. During the negotiation time, the insurance adjustor had told plaintiff’s attorney that plaintiff had received benefits through November 25, 1963. In reliance on this information, plaintiff’s attorney planned to file suit before the expiration of the statute of limitations on November 25, 1964. The suit was filed on November 11, after defendants’ attorney told plaintiff’s attorney that he understood benefits had been paid only to September 21, 1963. The trial court determined that plaintiff’s suit was time-barred under Section 59-10-13.6, which provides that the workman has the duty to file suit within one year “after the failure or refusal of the employer or insurer to pay compensation.” The Supreme Court affirmed. The court rejected plaintiff’s argument that the statute of limitations was tolled by the insurance company’s misrepresentation. The legislature has seen fit in some thirty-eight years to enact only the one provision for extending the time in which a claimant may file his claim under the workmen’s compensation act, and this provision does not embrace conduct such as that upon which claimant here relies * * * [T]he legislature has taken action only on the one occasion to provide for reasons or excuses which will extend the time within which suit must be filed, which reasons or excuses are set forth in § 59-10-14, N.M.S.A.1953; we are not inclined to ignore this express statutory language and the legislative intent manifested by that language and by the continued concurrence of the legislature for over thirty-eight years in this court’s construction and application of that language, nor are we inclined to reverse our position so uniformly adhered to over so many years. This reasoning is only strengthened by the passage of approximately fifteen additional years of legislative inaction. Misrepresentation that the employee will receive benefits remains the only reason the workmen’s compensation limitation period is tolled. See NMSA 1978, § 52-1-36. Accordingly, defendants’ motion to dismiss the appeal is denied; summary judgment on the common law right of action is reversed; and summary judgment on the workmen’s compensation claim is affirmed. Plaintiff is awarded appellate costs. IT IS SO ORDERED. NEAL, J., concurs. ALARID, J., concurring in result only.
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OPINION BOSSON, Judge. This case arises out of a claimed easement across the land of Defendants benefitting Plaintiffs who are neighboring landowners. Defendants contend that the trial court erred by interpreting their deed from a predecessor in title to include the creation of an express easement. Plaintiffs cross-appeal arguing that the trial court erred in denying their claim to damages against Defendants for blocking the easement. We affirm the decision of the trial court. FACTS All lands at issue come from a common grantor, Richard Norton, a real estate developer. In 1974 Norton deeded two separate pieces of property to Defendant Dorothy Col-borne and her husband: a five-acre tract (“Colborne Parcel”) and a twenty-acre tract. The granting clause in the deed for the Col-borne Parcel expressly states that the conveyance is “SUBJECT TO a forty (40) foot roadway and utility easement along the entire North boundary.” These five acres are located immediately west of and adjacent to the Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District’s main canal. (See Plat published as Appendix A). The twenty-acre tract is farther to the west, separated by thirty acres which were retained by Norton. The deed to the twenty-acre tract contained the clause “SUBJECT TO reservation by Grantor of a forty (40) foot road and utility easement along the north and west boundary lines.” (Emphasis added.) To reach his land to the west of the Colborne Parcel, Norton periodically drove north on a road abutting the main canal and then turned west traversing the Colborne Parcel over the alleged easement. It was his only means of access. Over time and with use, a dirt road emerged over the alleged easement which became known as Camino Sin Pasada. In 1980, John and Elaine Black purchased from Norton the thirty acres which he had retained between the two conveyances to Colborne. The Blacks created three subdivisions on this property where Plaintiffs reside. Plaintiffs use Camino Sin Pasada, including the portion over the Colborne Parcel, in traveling east to reach the main canal road, and of course returning to their homes heading west. They now have other ingress and egress to the west of their subdivisions, but these routes add one to two miles of additional travel, and are therefore less desirable. Camino Sin Pasada is routinely maintained by Plaintiffs through private grading and other means. Plaintiffs wish to continue their access across the alleged easement on Camino Sin Pasada, which, of course, is contrary to the desire of Defendants. On June 10, 1991, Defendants erected gates over Camino Sin Pasada barring Plaintiffs from crossing the Colborne Parcel by way of that route. Plaintiffs responded by filing a complaint for interference with their claimed easement, in which they requested both injunctive relief and damages for nuisance. Defendants denied the allegations and counterclaimed, alleging that Plaintiffs were mere trespassers and that one of the Plaintiffs, Paul Lutonsky, had assaulted and harassed one of the Defendants. DISCUSSION 1. EXPRESS EASEMENT Defendants maintain that the trial court should have denied Plaintiffs’ claim of easement as a matter of law without reference to extrinsic evidence. Defendants first argue that the phrase “subject to” contained in the deeds from Norton to their predecessors in title is not, by itself, sufficient to create an easement, citing Wild River Adventures, Inc. v. Board of Trustees of Sch. Dist. No. 8, 248 Mont. 397, 812 P.2d 344, 347 (1991) (“subject to” language did not create an easement); Price v. Walker, 95 N.C.App. 712, 383 S.E.2d 686, 689 (1989) (same). We note, however, that there is a definite split of authority on this issue. See Dagrosa v. Calabro, 105 N.Y.S.2d 178, 181 (Sup.Ct.1951) (“subject to” language sufficient to reserve easement). See generally Jon W. Bruce & James W. Ely, Jr., The Law of Easements and Licenses in Land ¶ 3.05[3], at 3-13 (1988) (discussing use of “subject to” language). Defendants emphasize that deeds customarily include additional language which actively creates or reserves the easement to which the conveyance is “subject.” They insist that words like “grant” or “reservation” are a prerequisite to the actual creation of an express easement. See NMSA 1978, § 47-1-32 (Repl. Pamp.1991). We do not agree. Although no New Mexico case discusses “subject to” language in this context, the prevailing rule in New Mexico is that “[n]o particular words of grant are necessary to create an easement. Any words which clearly show intention to grant an easement are sufficient, provided the language is certain and definite in its term.” Martinez v. Martinez, 93 N.M. 673, 675, 604 P.2d 366, 368 (1979) (emphasis added). This is consistent with the general rule. See 1 Arthur R. Gaudio, The American Law of Real Property § 6.02[5][a], at 6-18 (1994) (“[A]ny language manifesting an intent to transfer an easement is sufficient.”); John Leybourn Goddard, A Treatise on the Law of Easements, 108 (1880) (“To constitute a grant of an easement, it is not necessary that the word ‘grant’ should actually be used in a deed; but it is sufficient if the intention to grant be manifested”). In Martinez, there was no specific language of grant. Intent was inferred from language providing for “rights of ingress and egress,” combined with other evidence indicating an intent to convey an easement. In Dyer v. Compere, 41 N.M. 716, 718, 73 P.2d 1356, 1357 (1937), cited by the Supreme Court in Martinez, one deed created an easement with the phrase “ ‘except from the North boundary of said tract a roadway 8 feet in width.’ ” Another deed in Dyer provided that a described right-of-way “ ‘is hereby left open’ ” along a boundary. Id. In both instances the Court considered extrinsic evidence to clarify intent. In Kennedy v. Bond, 80 N.M. 734, 735, 460 P.2d 809, 810 (1969), also cited in Martinez, the easement was created by “ ‘[excepting and reserving the following....’” See Grammer v. New Mexico Credit Corp., 62 N.M. 243, 247-49, 308 P.2d 573, 575-77 (1957) (court looked to extrinsic evidence when deed used the word “excepting,” apparently intending to exclude land conveyed by a prior deed). Plaintiffs contend that the term “SUBJECT TO ...,” as used in these deeds was ambiguous; that is, it was indicative of an intention to grant, but it was also susceptible of clarification through the use of extrinsic evidence. We agree. The general rule to be applied in construing a deed is that the intention of the parties is to be ascertained from the language employed, viewed in light of the surrounding circumstances. Hyder v. Brenton, 93 N.M. 378, 381, 600 P.2d 830, 833 (Ct.App.1979); see also Northrip v. Conner, 107 N.M. 139, 141-42, 754 P.2d 516, 518-19 (1988). Where there is at least some evidence of grantor intent, and the language in this deed creates an inference to that effect, courts have a duty “to ascertain and give effect to the intention of the parties ... as gleaned from all the evidence.” Martinez, 98 N.M. at 675, 604 P.2d at 368. A majority of jurisdictions which have considered the issue have held that the phrase “subject to” is sufficiently ambiguous to justify consideration of other evidence. See Behm v. Saeli, 560 So.2d 431, 432 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1990) (words “subject to” created an ambiguity directing court to look to extrinsic evidence); Star Island Assocs. v. City of St. Petersburg Beach, 433 So.2d 998, 1004 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.), review denied, 440 So.2d 351 (Fla.1983) (no evidence easement was intended despite “subject to” language); Procacci v. Zacco, 324 So.2d 180, 181-82 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1975) (phrase “subject to” leads to unclear and ambiguous results); Aszmus v. Nelson, 743 P.2d 377, 379 (Alaska 1987); Willard v. First Church of Christ, Scientist, Pacifica, 7 Cal.3d 473, 102 Cal.Rptr. 739, 498 P.2d 987, 988-89 (1972) (en banc); Heigert v. Londell Manor, Inc., 834 S.W.2d 858, 867 (Mo.Ct.App.1992); Beebe v. Swerda, 58 Wash.App. 375, 793 P.2d 442, 444-46, review denied, 115 Wash.2d 1025, 802 P.2d 126 (1990); Shanak v. City of Waupaca, 185 Wis.2d 568, 518 N.W.2d 310, 315 (Wis.Ct.App.), review denied, 525 N.W.2d 732 (Wis. 1994). Even one case cited by Defendants, Wild River Adventures, 812 P.2d at 344, considered “subject to” sufficiently vague to look beyond the confines of the document to other evidence of intent. Based on the foregoing, we conclude that the court below was correct in looking beyond the literal language of the deed so as to “glean[ ] ... the evidence,” in the words of our Supreme Court, and ascertain the true intent of the parties. Martinez, 93 N.M. at 675, 604 P.2d at 369. The court properly rejected Defendants’ position which was to limit the inquiry to the deed alone. At trial, the court weighed all the evidence, together with the “SUBJECT TO ...” language in the deed, and concluded that Norton intended to create an express easement and convey it to Colborne by this deed. The evidence supports this conclusion. Richard Norton testified that when he executed the’ deed to the Colborne Parcel, and the deed to the separate twenty-acre tract to Dorothy Colborne and her husband, his intent in both deeds in using the words “SUBJECT TO ...” was to create an express easement over the property conveyed and thereby retain access to his remaining land for purposes of development. He stated that these easements provided the only practical access to his retained lands. In addition, we are drawn to the lack of any explanation for the “subject to” language, other than an intended conveyance. To hold otherwise would render Norton’s “subject to” language useless or surplusage, which courts are loathe to do. See Davis v. Griffin, 298 Ark. 633, 770 S.W.2d 137, 138 (1989); Warren-Boynton State Bank v. Wallbaum, 123 Ill.2d 429, 123 Ill.Dec. 936, 940, 528 N.E.2d 640, 644 (1988). Furthermore, in 1983 Dorothy Colborne recorded a plat of the Colborne Parcel which disclosed this very same forty-foot easement along the northern boundary of her land including the same “subject to” language in the legal description of the plat. Although the plat was ultimately rejected by the governing authority for unrelated reasons, see Colborne v. Village of Corrales, 106 N.M. 103, 739 P.2d 972 (1987), that plat supplies an inference that Mrs. Colborne herself, Norton’s grantee, also believed an easement existed at the very place and with the very description claimed by Plaintiffs. Even the real estate contract between Norton and the Blacks recites this same forty-foot easement along the northern boundary line. Black included this easement on his plats which were duly recorded as part of his subdivision. It is true, as Defendants argue, that Norton employed more precise language (“subject to reservation by grantor”) in his almost simultaneous grant of an easement to Col-borne on the twenty-acre tract further to the west. Defendants correctly contrast the two deeds to produce a negative inference of intent with regard to the first deed. However, this is merely one item of evidence which the court duly weighed and considered; alone it is not persuasive. The trial court could properly find that there was sufficient evidence of grantor intent, and could reasonably conclude that Norton had created an express easement. See Hernandez v. Mead Foods, Inc., 104 N.M. 67, 71, 716 P.2d 645, 649 (Ct.App.1986) (“The question is not whether substantial evidence would have supported an opposite result; it is whether such evidence supports the result reached.”). Defendants argue, alternatively, that if an express easement was created, Norton’s limited, occasional use defined the extent of the permissible burden on their land, which cannot now be expanded to accommodate contemporary needs. With subdivision development, many neighbors now use Camino Sin Pasada, whereas formerly there was only one. Defendants cite Brooks v. Tanner, 101 N.M. 208, 207, 680 P.2d 343, 347 (1984); Posey v. Dove, 57 N.M. 200, 212, 257 P.2d 541, 548 (1953); and Kikta v. Hughes, 108 N.M. 61, 63, 766 P.2d 321, 323 (Ct.App.1988), for the proposition that easements created to benefit a dominant estate (Plaintiffs) cannot be expanded, changed, or modified without the express consent of the servient estate (Defendants). We agree with the general proposition. However, the rule also permits additional burdens which were contemplated or foreseeable at the time the easement was created. See Kikta, 108 N.M. at 63, 766 P.2d at 323. At trial Norton specifically testified that he created the easement to provide access to his other properties, and, as a developer, he anticipated population growth on that land. Therefore, the trial court could reasonably conclude from the evidence that the burden of increased future traffic over the easement was considered at that time. Id. Norton may not have informed Mrs. Colborne specifically of his plans, but the trial court could well conclude from the evidence that such use was reasonably foreseeable. See Heigert, 834 S.W.2d at 868; 3 Richard R. Powell & Patrick J. Rohan, Powell on Real Property § 34.12[2], at 34-192 (1994) (change in use must have been “reasonably foreseeable at the time of establishment of the easement”). We note that our holding does not create a public thoroughfare across the Colborne Parcel. The easement is limited to reasonable use by the owners of the dominant estate and their guests, not the general public. See Schnuck Mkts., Inc. v. Soffer, 213 Ill.App.3d 957, 157 Ill.Dec. 705, 718, 572 N.E.2d 1169, 1182, cert. denied, 141 Ill.2d 560, 162 Ill.Dec. 508, 580 N.E.2d 134 (Ill.1991); Verzeano v. Carpentér, 108 Or.App. 258, 815 P.2d 1275, 1278 (1991), review denied, 312 Or. 589, 824 P.2d 417 (1992); Hayes v. Aquia Marina, Inc., 243 Va. 255, 414 S.E.2d 820, 822 (1992). 2. DAMAGES FOR INTERFERENCE WITH TRESPASS Plaintiffs cross-appeal from the trial court’s decision that they “failed to show that the acts of the Defendants in blocking Plaintiffsf] easement has caused them damage.” We agree with the trial court. See Wirth v. Commercial Resources, Inc., 96 N.M. 340, 343, 630 P.2d 292, 295 (Ct.App.) (“[W]e must view the facts in the light most favorable to the prevailing party, indulge all reasonable inferences in support of the verdict, and disregard all inferences or evidence to the contrary.”), cert.denied, 96 N.M. 543, 632 P.2d 1181 (1981). Plaintiffs contend that blocking the easement caused them damage because they were required to take longer, alternate routes resulting in increased travel time and additional wear-and-tear on their vehicles. At best, Plaintiffs’ proof of damages is speculative. See Mascarenas v. Jaramillo, 111 N.M. 410, 415, 806 P.2d 59, 64 (1991) (damages based on speculation are not sustained). Also, Plaintiff Warren Arthur testified that one of his children was subject to asthma attacks, and he was concerned about the additional time needed to obtain medical assistance when the easement was blocked. However, there was no evidence of any actual medical emergency or that any actual pecuniary damage was incurred. Id. In the same regard, there was no support for Plaintiff Darold Rhodes’ claim of $1,500 in damages to his truck when his daughter struck a railroad tie that had been used as a gatepost by Defendants. 3. PRESCRIPTIVE EASEMENT AND DAMAGES AGAINST PLAINTIFF PAUL LUTONSKY The parties also briefed the issue of whether a prescriptive easement was established over time. After affirming the trial court on the existence of an express easement by deed, we need not address this other issue of prescriptive easement. We also recognize that Defendants have abandoned issues relating to assault and harassment by Plaintiff Lutonsky against Defendant Gay Wilmerding. See In re Doe, 98 N.M. 540, 541, 650 P.2d 824, 825 (1982) (this court should not consider issues the parties fail to raise on appeal). CONCLUSION The decision of the trial court is affirmed. The parties shall each bear their own costs on appeal. DONNELLY and BLACK, JJ., concur. APPENDIX A
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OPINION STOWERS, Justice. The State of New Mexico petitioned this Court on a writ of certiorari to review the judgment of the Court of Appeals in State v. Chapman, Ct.App. No. 7299 (Filed November 23, 1983). The jury found the respondent competent to stand trial and the Court of Appeals reversed. The Court of Appeals determined that the State’s evidence failed to establish that the respondent could rationally consult with his attorney with a reasonable degree of understanding or rationally perceive and comprehend the events in question. The issue we decide on certiorari is whether the Court of Appeals substituted its judgment of the facts for that of the jury by finding that the facts did not support the jury’s determination that the respondent could assist his attorney. We hold that the Court of Appeals improperly substituted its judgment for that of the jury, and therefore’ reverse. The respondent was charged with the murder of his parents. In two prior proceedings, the respondent was adjudged mentally incompetent to stand trial. In late 1982, the State again moved to reevaluate the respondent’s competency. After a jury trial on April 21, 1983, during which both sides presented expert testimony, the jury found the respondent competent to stand trial. Due to the prior adjudication of incompetency, the burden was on the State to go forward with the evidence and to overcome a presumption of incompetency by a preponderance of the evidence. State v. Santillanes, 91 N.M. 721, 580 P.2d 489 (Ct.App.1978). The State contends that it met the burden of proving the respondent’s competency. The State further argues that the reversal of the jury decision was the result of the Court of Appeals’ reweighing the evidence. The competency of an accused must be proven by a preponderance of the evidence rather than beyond a reasonable doubt, and substantial evidence must be presented to support such a determination. See State v. Santillanes. Substantial evidence consists of such relevant evidence which is acceptable to a reasonable mind. State v. Armstrong, 82 N.M. 358, 482 P.2d 61 (1971). In the present case, the jury was given a modified version of NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 41.01 (Repl.Pamp.1982). UJI Crim. 41.01'has subsequently been revised and its present form is found at NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 41.03 (Cum.Supp.1984). In this case, the jury was instructed as follows: Evidence has been presented concerning the defendant’s competency to stand trial. The State has the burden of proving by the greater weight of the evidence that the defendant is mentally competent to be tried. A person is competent to stand trial if he: 1. Understands the nature and gravity of the proceedings against him; 2. understands he is being tried on a serious charge; and 3. is capable of assisting in his own defense. As to this issue only, your verdict need not be unanimous. When, as many as ten of you have agreed as to whether the defendant is competent to stand trial, your foreman must sign the proper form. [Instruction No. 2] The State contends that the Court of Appeals improperly reweighed the evidence presented to the jury and then decided that there was insufficient evidence to show that the respondent met the third element required by former UJI Crim. 41.01. We agree. While conflicting expert testimony was presented at trial, the jury, as the fact finder, was not bound by, nor required to accept, the opinions of any of these experts. State v. Victorian, 84 N.M. 491, 505 P.2d 436 (1973). See also NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 40.50 (Repl.Pamp.1982). The record indicates that the State’s expert witness, Dr. Egelman, testified that the respondent had a good recollection of the events surrounding the killing and the killing itself. Dr. Egelman stated that the reason the respondent gave for killing his parents was a delusion. Furthermore, Dr. Egelman acknowledged that the respondent suffered from a mental illness. However, Dr. Egelman also testified that this illness did not mean that the respondent was not competent to stand trial because he could aid his attorney and was aware of the charges pending against him. On cross-examination, Dr. Egelman maintained that the respondent’s illness affected his reason for acting where his family was concerned, but not his ability to assist his lawyer. A defense expert testified that the respondent understood the charges and was aware of the roles of individuals in court proceedings; however, the respondent was unable to properly consult with and assist counsel. The conflicting expert testimony presented in this case does not change the right of the jury to accept or disregard such testimony. The jury was not required to accept the opinion of any of these experts. See State v. Victorian. In concluding that the delusions suffered by the respondent rendered him unable to assist his attorney in formulating a rational defense, the Court of Appeals impermissibly substituted its own judgment for that of the jury. In State v. Lopez, 91 N.M. 779, 780, 581 P.2d 872, 873 (1978), this Court stated: In reviewing the present case the appellate court should only examine the evidence to determine whether the trial court abused its discretion. The reviewing court cannot substitute its judgment for that of the trial court (citations omitted). Similarly, the appellate court may not substitute its judgment for that of the jury. State v. Martinez, 95 N.M. 795, 626 P.2d 1292 (Ct.App.1979); State v. Elam, 86 N.M. 595, 526 P.2d 189 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 86 N.M. 593, 526 P.2d 187 (1974). In the present case, the Court of Appeals erred in substituting its judgment of the facts for that of the jury by finding that the facts of this case did not support the jury’s determination that the respondent could assist his attorney. Moreover, the verdict of the jury is supported by substantial evidence. The Court of Appeals is reversed. The jury’s determination that this respondent is competent to stand trial is hereby affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., SOSA, Senior Justice and RIORDAN, J., concur. WALTERS, J., dissents.
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. Plaintiff appeals from a judgment entered after trial on the merits denying his claims for workmen’s compensation benefits. We discuss two issues: (1) claim of error in denying opportunity to file requested findings of fact and conclusions of law; and (2) whether the trial court adopted adequate findings of fact and conclusions of law. We affirm. Facts On December 17, 1980, plaintiff, a carpenter, filed a complaint in the Bernalillo County District Court seeking workmen’s compensation benefits for injuries allegedly sustained on December 11, 1978, while he was employed by Steward Construction Company in Albuquerque. Trial on the merits was held more than three years later on January 10, 1983 before District Judge Baiamonte. At the time of trial, Dr. Irvine G. Jordan, an orthopedic surgeon, who had been subpoenaed to appear at trial by the defendant, was unavailable to testify. The trial judge ordered that the trial be bifurcated and that Dr. Jordan’s testimony be taken by deposition and that the deposition be filed with the court for consideration as part of the trial herein. Dr. Jordan’s deposition was taken on January 28, 1983, and filed with the district court on February 1, 1983. Following the taking of the deposition of Dr. Jordan, counsel for the parties, with the approval of the trial court, filed briefs in lieu of presenting closing arguments to the court. Plaintiff delayed in submitting his brief to the trial court until approximately May 4, 1983. Defendant then submitted a responsive brief with the trial court on June 3, 1983. Plaintiff’s attorney, in a letter of transmittal to Judge Baiamonte dated May 4, 1983, forwarded plaintiff’s closing argument brief and stated to the trial court in part: I will await [defense counsel’s] brief and your decision before submitting Findings and Conclusions as well as a Memo and Affidavit on Fees. If you have some other wishes as to procedure, please let me know. [Emphasis added.] Judge Baiamonte, within a few days following receipt of the briefs submitted by counsel, issued a written letter decision dated June 30, 1983. The letter from the judge succinctly stated in part: After reviewing your briefs as well as my notes from the trial regarding the above matter, the Court makes the following Findings: 1. That plaintiff received an accidental injury on December 4, 1978, arising out of and in the course of his employment with defendant, Steward Construction Co. 2. That at the time of his injury, plaintiff was entitled to compensation at the rate of $120.00 per week based on his income at that time. 3. That the plaintiff was temporarily and totally disabled from the period of December 4, 1979 through November 25, 1980 and entitled to a total sum during such period of $12,480.00 which sum has been paid by defendants. 4. That plaintiff is entitled to receive medical expenses incurred as a direct result of the accidental injury described herein and that such expenses have been paid by the defendant. 5. That plaintiff is not entitled to any compensation since November 25, 1980. 6. That'the defendant has paid all of those sum benefits required under the workmen’s compensation laws of New Mexico so that plaintiff is not entitled to an award of attorney’s fees herein. The letter decision of Judge Baiamonte also directed counsel for the plaintiff and defendant to prepare the necessary order and submit it to his successor judge for execution. Thereafter, Judge Baiamonte resigned as district judge. The letter deci sion of Judge Baiamonte was filed in the district court file on July 6, 1983. Defendant’s attorney prepared a proposed final judgment in accordance with Judge Baiamonte’s letter decision of June 30,1983. The proposed final judgment was transmitted by letter dated July 6, 1983, addressed to Judge Sitterly, indicating that a copy of the proposed judgment was being sent to plaintiff’s attorney. Defendant’s attorney indicated in his letter to Judge Sitterly that he advised plaintiff’s attorney that if plaintiff had any objections to the form of the proposed judgment, that either the trial court or defense counsel should be notified by July 15, 1983; otherwise, the proposed judgment would be entered. Plaintiff’s attorney did not notify either the trial court or defense counsel of any objections to the proposed judgment. Some time thereafter, plaintiff’s attorney was appointed a district judge in the Eleventh Judicial District. On July 15, 1983, Judge Sitterly signed a final judgment dismissing plaintiff's complaint with prejudice, based upon the findings enumerated in the letter decision of Judge Baiamonte. Plaintiff obtained other counsel and timely filed his appeal herein. I. Request for Findings and Conclusions Plaintiff asserts that he made a general request to be allowed to file requested findings of fact and conclusions of law prior to entry of final judgment herein and that he was denied that opportunity. Specifically, plaintiff argues that his letter addressed to the trial court, dated May 4, 1983, and his Closing Argument Brief constituted a “general request” to file findings and conclusions. Defendant argues that plaintiff was accorded a reasonable opportunity to submit requested findings of fact and conclusions of law and that he waived the filing of specific findings and conclusions by (1) failing to make a proper demand therefor and (2) his failure to timely submit requested findings and conclusions to the court. NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 52(B) (Repl.Pamp. 1980) directs that upon “the trial of any case by the court without a jury, its decision, which shall consist of its findings of fact and conclusions of law, must be given in writing and filed with the clerk in the cause.” The Rule further provides in subsection (B)(1)(f), that “[a] party will waive specific findings of fact and conclusions of law if he fails to make a general request therefor in writing, or if he fails to tender specific findings and conclusions.” Rule 52(B) as adopted in New Mexico differs from Rule 52 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. See Fed.R.Civ.P. 52; State v. Hardy, 78 N.M. 374, 431 P.2d 752 (1967); State v. Fernandez, 56 N.M. 689, 248 P.2d 679 (1952). The language of Rule 52(B)(1)(f) is unique to New Mexico and is not included in Rule 52 of the Federal Rules. A “general request” for specific findings of fact and conclusions of law as contemplated by Rule 52(B)(1)(f), means a written communication to the trial court sufficient to apprise the trial court of a desire to submit requested findings and conclusions. We interpret Rule 52(B)(1)(f) to be satisfied if counsel makes a written request for permission to file findings of fact and conclusions of law to the trial judge by letter, or by a timely written request filed in the court file of the cause, provided counsel subsequently submits requested findings of fact and conclusions of law in a timely fashion. We do not interpret Rule 52(B)(1)(f) as necessitating a formal written request for findings of fact and conclusions of law be filed in the court file although such practice is commended. Cf. Dollison v. Fireman’s Fund Ins. Co., 77 N.M. 392, 423 P.2d 426 (1966) (holding that correspondence between the court and counsel, not reflected in the court file prior to filing a motion to dismiss under NMSA 1978, Civ. P.R. 41(e) (Repl.Pamp:1980) is not sufficient to evidence and will not be considered in determining whether a diligent attempt to prosecute such action has been made). The record indicates that the plaintiff, by letter addressed to the trial judge and dat ed May 4, 1983, expressed an intent to file requested findings and conclusions after the judge announced his decision. Plaintiffs letter to Judge Baiamonte was sufficient to constitute a general request for leave to file requested findings of fact and conclusions of law. This determination, however, is not conclusive of the issues on appeal. Plaintiff, having filed a general request, never submitted requested findings of fact and conclusions of law. Plaintiff next argues that he was not notified of the trial court’s decision denying his claims until July 6, 1983, the date the letter decision was filed in the court file and therefore, he was not given an adequate opportunity to submit requested findings of fact and conclusions of law. Local Rule 20, adopted by the Second Judicial District, provides that findings of fact and conclusions of law shall be filed in the clerk’s office within ten days after the trial court renders its decision. A valid rule of the district court has the same force and effect as one published by the New Mexico Supreme Court. Spingola v. Spingola, 91 N.M. 737, 580 P.2d 958 (1978); see also NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 83 (Repl. Pamp.1980). Judge Baiamonte’s letter decision was dated June 30, 1983. The judgment entered herein was filed on July 15, 1983. Therefore, fifteen days elapsed between the notification of the decision and the entry of the final judgment. Under these facts, plaintiff has waived the right to tender requested findings of fact and conclusions of law. Judge Baiamonte, by his letter dated June 30, 1983, notified both parties of his decision. Even after allowing three extra days for mailing, as required by NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 6(e) (Repl. Pamp.1980), plaintiff failed to file requested findings of fact and conclusions of law within the time permitted by Local Rule 20 of the Second Judicial District. Under NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 6(a) (Repl.Pamp.1980), the time within which to file requested findings and conclusions commenced to run on July 1, 1983, the day following the trial court’s letter decision. After allowing the ten-day period authorized by Local Rule 20, plus three extra days for mailing, plaintiff failed to timely file his requested findings of fact and conclusions of law. Plaintiff argues that under Local Rule 20, the time for filing findings and conclusions did not begin to run until July 6, 1983, when the trial court’s letter decision was actually filed in the court file. We disagree. The time commenced to run the day after the trial court issued its letter decision of June 30, 1983, that is, on July 1, 1983. See Socorro Livestock Mkt., Inc. v. Orona, 92 N.M. 236, 586 P.2d 317 (1978); see also Rule 6(a). II. Sufficiency of the Trial Court’s Findings and Conclusions Plaintiff contends that even if his request to file findings and conclusions is deemed untimely, the trial court nevertheless failed to comply with Rule 52(B). Plaintiff argues the trial court’s letter decision did not comply with the requirements of Rule 52(B)(1), mandating that a trial court file written findings of fact and conclusions of law in non-jury cases. A decision, as contemplated by Rule 52(B) does not mean a judgment, it means findings of fact and conclusions of law. Trujillo v. Tanuz, 85 N.M. 35, 508 P.2d 1332 (Ct.App.1973). Rule 52(B)(1) requires a trial judge to make and file his decision consisting of such ultimate facts and conclusions of law stated separately, as are necessary to determine the issues in the case and to support the judgment. See Lusk v. First Nat. Bank of Carrizozo, 46 N.M. 445, 130 P.2d 1032 (1942). The decision of the trial court must also be signed and filed in the cause as part of the record proper. Rule 52(B)(1)(d). Although we deem it preferable that a trial court issue findings of fact and conclusions of law separate and apart from any recital of findings and conclusions contained in its letter decision, where the deci sion contains findings and conclusions and the decision is filed in the record proper, this is sufficient to comply with the requirements of Rule 52(B). See Kipp v. McBee, 78 N.M. 411, 432 P.2d 255 (1967) (wherein the court states that Rule 52(B) contemplates that a written decision containing findings of fact and conclusions of law be entered prior to judgment). Judge Baiamonte’s letter decision expressly detailed the findings of fact found by him after hearing the case on the merits. Finding of Fact No. 5 stated that “plaintiff is not entitled to any compensation since November 25, 1980.” Similarly, Finding of Fact No. 6 set forth that plaintiff was not entitled to an award of attorney’s fees. Findings Nos. 5 and 6 contained in the trial court’s letter decision are, in actuality, a mixture of findings and conclusions of law. See Gough v. Famariss Oil and Refining Co., 83 N.M. 710, 496 P.2d 1106 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 83 N.M. 698, 496 P.2d 1094 (1972) (holding in part that the intermixture of matters of fact and conclusions of law do not constitute error where the reviewing court can, upon a fair construction, see enough to justify the judgment of the trial court). Plaintiff’s failure to timely request that the trial court adopt more specific findings of fact and conclusions of law constitutes a waiver of any objections as to the sufficiency of the trial court’s findings and conclusions in its letter decision. See Wagner Land & Inv. Co. v. Halderman, 83 N.M. 628, 495 P.2d 1075 (1972); MacNair v. Stueber, 84 N.M. 93, 500 P.2d 178 (1972); State v. Fernandez; Fidelity Nat. Bank v. Lobo Hijo Corp., 92 N.M. 737, 594 P.2d 1193 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 92 N.M. 675, 593 P.2d 1078 (1979); see also Kipp v. McBee. In Fernandez, Justice Compton stated that the addition of subsection 6 as a part of Rule 52(B) was a recognition of the existing custom and practice in New Mexico that a party will be deemed to have waived any objections concerning a trial court’s failure to adopt specific findings and conclusions if that party has failed to make a timely general request therefor in writing or fails to tender specific findings and conclusions. Plaintiff also argues the trial court erred in failing to comply with Local Rule 18(f) of the Second Judicial District. Local Rule 18(f) specifies that, subject to Rule 52(B), all orders, judgments and decrees shall be filed within fifteen (15) days of the decision. The prevailing party shall be responsible for such filing, and if the approval of opposing counsel cannot be obtained by the 15th day, prevailing counsel shall, no later than the 15th day, request a setting for a hearing before the trial judge. At the hearing, counsel shall submit their proposed order of judgment to the court. Plaintiff contends he did not approve the order entered by Judge Sitterly and hence its entry was improper. We disagree. The supplemental record on appeal indicates defense counsel forwarded a copy of the proposed judgment to plaintiff, expressly asking for notification by July 15, 1983, of any objections he may have had to the form of the judgment. Plaintiff did nothing to alert the court to any objection he may have had to the proposed form of judgment. When counsel is given notice of a proposed form of judgment, and is specifically requested to respond within the fifteen-day period prescribed by Local Rule 18(f), he cannot then be heard to complain of any failure by the trial court to comply with the rule. NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 58(b) (Cum.Supp.1983) similarly specifies that the trial court shall allow counsel a reasonable time to submit or examine a requested form of order and requires the court to promptly enter an appropriate form of order. A reasonable opportunity was accorded counsel to examine the proposed form of judgment and to make objections thereto. Failure to respond cannot be utilized as a means to delay entry of the final order or judgment. NMSA 1978, § 52-1-34, provides that the Rules of Civil Procedure and the Supreme Court Rules shall apply to all claims, actions and appeals under the Workmen’s Compensation Act. NMSA 1978, § 52-1-35(A) (Cum.Supp.1983), directs that district judges shall advance workmen’s compensation cases “on the court’s calendar and dispose of the case as promptly as possible.” Judge Sitterly acted in accordance with the mandate of Section 52-l-35(A) and Civ.P.Rule 58(b). The judgment dismissing plaintiffs action following trial on the merits is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. NEAL and MINZNER, JJ., concur.
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OPINION ALARID, Judge. Defendant appeals his conviction of escape from jail, aggravated battery on a peace officer, aggravated burglary, larceny over $100, and unlawful taking of a motor vehicle. The sole issue raised in the initial docketing statement was whether the trial court erred in denying defendant’s motion, made on the day of trial, for a continuance and for substitution of counsel. See State v. Franklin, 78 N.M. 127, 428 P.2d 982 (1967). We proposed summary affirmance of that issue because the grant or denial of a continuance is within the discretion of the trial court, and in the absence of an abuse of discretion resulting in prejudice to the defendant, there is no ground for reversal. State v. Perez, 95 N.M. 262, 620 P.2d 1287 (1980). Defendant did not show that he was inadequately represented or prejudiced by counsel’s representation. See State v. Orona, 97 N.M. 232, 638 P.2d 1077 (1982); State v. Bell, 90 N.M. 134, 560 P.2d 925 (1977); State v. McGuinty, 97 N.M. 360, 639 P.2d 1214 (Ct.App.1982). Defendant's first memorandum in opposition to our summary calendaring did not address this issue and the issue is, therefore, deemed abandoned. State v. Rael, 100 N.M. 193, 668 P.2d 309 (Ct.App.1983). Defendant’s first memorandum in opposition and first motion to amend the docketing statement raised the issue of whether the trial court imposed an illegal sentence by sentencing defendant to a parole term of seven years to commence after completion of his time of imprisonment. The motion to amend was granted because jurisdictional questions may be raised for the first time on appeal, NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App.Rule 308 (Repl.Pamp.1983); State v. Otto, 98 N.M. 734, 652 P.2d 756 (Ct.App.1982); State v. McNeece, 82 N.M. 345, 481 P.2d 707 (Ct.App.1971), and a trial court has no jurisdiction to impose an illegal sentence, State v. Crespin, 96 N.M. 640, 633 P.2d 1238 (Ct.App.1981); see State v. McNeece. We proposed summary affirmance as to 0 this issue. Defendant has filed a memorandum in opposition to the proposed summary affirmance and a second motion to amend the docketing statement. Finding defendant’s memorandum in opposition unpersuasive, we affirm. In addition, defendant’s second motion to amend is denied for the reasons stated below. DEFENDANT’S SENTENCE For a first, second or third degree felony, the required period of parole is two years. NMSA 1978, § 31-21-10 (Cum.Supp.1984). For a fourth degree felony, the required period of parole is one year. Id. Pursuant to Section 31-21-10(C), the trial court imposed a seven-year parole term on defendant for his convictions of a second degree felony, a third degree felony, and three fourth-degree felonies. Defendant contends that the meaning of Section 31-21-10(C) is that the parole term attaches to the total sentence imposed by the court and not to each felony for which a sentence is imposed. Defendant contends that he should be required to serve only a two-year period of parole. When any convict has been committed under several convictions with separate sentences, the sentences shall be construed as one continuous sentence for the full length of the combined sentences. NMSA 1978, § 33-2-39 (Repl.Pamp.1983). The trial court has discretion to require sentences to be served consecutively. State v. Mayberry, 97 N.M. 760, 643 P.2d 629 (Ct.App.1982); Deats v. State, 84 N.M. 405, 503 P.2d 1183 (Ct.App.1972). Section 33-2-39 is general in its effect and was applied in considering eligibility for parole under the predecessor to Section 31-21-10. Beats v. State; see also State v. Martinez, 92 N.M. 256, 586 P.2d 1085 (1978). Defendant’s contention would require either (1) that the period of parole for each of his first four felonies be served while he was serving the basic sentence for the next felony, (2) that a period of parole not be imposed for four of his felonies, or (3) that a maximum two-year period of parole be imposed whenever a defendant is sentenced on more than one felony count. Parole terms must be served after completion of the time of imprisonment. NMSA 1978, Section 31-18-15(C) (Repl.Pamp. 1981); see State v. Freeman, 95 N.M. 127, 619 P.2d 572 (Ct.App.1980). Therefore, the first alternative suggested above could not be implemented. Alternative two violates the requirement that the trial judge shall include the period of parole as part of the sentence in addition to the basic sentence. NMSA 1978, Section 31-18-15(C) (Repl. Pamp.1981); see State v. Johnson, 94 N.M. 636, 614 P.2d 1085 (Ct.App.1980). There is no statutory authority for the third alternative. However, the legislature has enacted Section 31-21-10, which we construe herein. Because the trial judge may impose consecutive sentences and because Section 33-2-39 applied to. eligibility for parole, under the predecessor to Section 31-21-10, we hold that the trial court did not err in imposing a seven-year parole term pursuant to the current Section 31-21-10(C). THE MOTION TO AMEND A motion to amend will be considered timely when filed prior to the expiration of the time for filing a memorandum in opposition in cases assigned to the summary calendar. State v. Rael. However, State v. Rael does not appear to contemplate that a defendant may file multiple motions to amend the docketing statement. We believe that defendant’s second motion to amend (filed December 27, 1984) was untimely filed because the time to file a memorandum in opposition to the initially proposed summary calendar expired on Monday, December 10, 1984. NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App.R. 207(d)(3) (Repl.Pamp.1983). Even if defendant’s second motion to amend is timely, it must be denied pursuant to the principles set out in State v. Rael. Defendant seeks to raise an issue relating to his right to confront and cross-examine witnesses, and the admissibility of hearsay. The issue apparently arises because statements made by co-defendants being held in Kansas were admitted through the testimony of a sheriff who had spoken to the co-defendants by telephone. Defendant states that he does not know whether this issue was properly preserved below. See App.R. 308. Such an issue is not jurisdictional. State v. Baca, 81 N.M. 686, 472 P.2d 651 (Ct.App. 1970). Defendant does not contend that the admission of the sheriff’s testimony constituted fundamental error. See App.R. 308; State v. Rogers, 80 N.M. 230, 453 P.2d 593 (Ct.App.1969). Defendant’s motion to amend is deficient in that it does not contain all facts material to the issue. See State v. Rael. For example, the motion does not contain sufficient facts from which we may determine whether the testimony complained of was admissible pursuant to NMSA 1978, Evid.Rules 803 or 804 (Repl.Pamp.1983). Absent fundamental error or jurisdictional issues, the motion to amend to add this issue should be denied. State v. Rael. Defendant also seeks to raise the issue of the sufficiency of the evidence linking him to the aggravated burglary, the larceny and the unlawful taking of a motor vehicle. He states that the only evidence presented as to these charges was the sheriff’s testimony regarding statements made by the co-defendants. Defendant does not contend that the evidence was insufficient if such testimony was admissible. Because we hold that defendant may not raise the confrontation and hearsay issue on appeal, there is no issue as to the sufficiency of the evidence. In addition, the motion to amend is deficient with respect to this issue in that it does not contain all facts material to the issue. See State v. Rael. The motion to amend is therefore denied. The trial court’s judgment and sentence is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and NEAL, J., concur.
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OPINION STOWERS, Justice. Petitioner, Southern Pacific Transportation Co. (Southern Pacific), filed a petition for writ of prohibition, writ of mandamus, or writ of superintending control stating that the district court’s denial of its timely motion for a change of venue and subse quent order to proceed to jury trial in Guadalupe County violates its due process rights granted under the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. The issue we determine is whether the district court erred in denying the motion for a change of venue. Albert J. Elevario (Elevario) brought this action in the district court of Guadalupe County seeking damages against Southern Pacific for personal injuries he claimed were suffered while under Southern Pacific’s employ. Elevario filed the claim under the Federal Employers’ Liability Act (FELA), 45 U.S.C. Sections 51 to 60 (1976). See N.M. Const, art. XX, § 16 and art. XXII, § 2; see also Bourguet v. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 65 N.M. 200, 334 P.2d 1107 (1958). He subsequently filed a demand for a twelve person jury. Southern Pacific then filed a timely motion for a change of venue requesting that the court change the venue outside the Fourth Judicial District on the ground that Southern Pacific could not obtain a fair and impartial trial in San Miguel, Mora, or Guadalupe Counties. Alternatively, Southern Pacific sought dismissal of the action without prejudice based on the doctrine of forum non conveniens. Southern Pacific submitted live testimony, affidavits, and exhibits in support of its contention that it could not receive a fair trial; however, the district court denied the motion. The district court subsequently amended its order to allow Southern Pacific to seek an interlocutory appeal. The Court of Appeals denied Southern Pacific’s application for an interlocutory appeal and Southern Pacific filed this petition. The FELA confers concurrent jurisdiction on the state and federal courts over causes of action arising under it. It further provides for venue where the defendant resides, is doing business, or the cause of action arose. 45 U.S.C. § 56 (1976). These generous venue provisions, however, do not preclude application of the doctrine of forum non conveniens in the appropriate case. Although the plaintiff’s choice of forum should be given a great deal of deference, this consideration is not absolute. Foster v. Chicago & North Western Transportation Co., 102 Ill.2d 378, 80 Ill.Dec. 746, 466 N.E.2d 198 (1984). A forum that has no significant factual connections to the cause of action should not try the case. Id. This Court previously discussed the doctrine of forum non conveniens in Buckner v. Buckner, 95 N.M. 337, 622 P.2d 242 (1981). In Buckner we quoted from the leading case, Gulf Oil Corp. v. Gilbert, 330 U.S. 501, 67 S.Ct. 839, 91 L.Ed. 1055 (1947). In Gulf, the United States Supreme Court described factors to be weighed in determining whether the doctrine should be invoked: Important considerations are the relative ease of access to sources of proof; availability of compulsory process for attendance of unwilling, and the cost of obtaining attendance of willing, witnesses; possibility of view of premises, if view would be appropriate to the action; and all other practical problems that make trial of a case easy, expeditious and inexpensive. There may also be questions as to the enforcibility of a judgment if one is obtained. The court will weigh relative advantages and obstacles to fair trial. It is often said that the plaintiff may not, by choice of an inconvenient forum, “vex,” “harass,” or “oppress” the defendant by inflicting upon him expense or trouble not necessary to his own right to pursue his remedy. But unless the balance is strongly in favor of the defendant, the plaintiff’s choice of forum should rarely be disturbed. (Footnote omitted.) Id. at 508, 67 S.Ct. at 843. Although the doctrine has generally been applied in interstate cases, the principles and rationale underlying its application are as valid on an intrastate as on an interstate basis. Torres v. Walsh, 98 Ill.2d 338, 74 Ill.Dec. 880, 456 N.E.2d 601 (1983). A review of the factors involved in this case indicate that the accident occurred in Tucumcari, which is in Quay County. The plaintiff was originally treated by doctors in Tucumcari, and many of the witnesses reside in Tucumcari. Moreover, if a view of the premises of the accident is appropriate, that also would occur in Quay County. Most, if not all, of the significant factual connections to the cause of action are in Quay rather than Guadalupe County. For this reason, we determine that the case should be transferred to Quay County on the basis of forum non conveniens. Our disposition of this case on the basis of forum non conveniens makes it unnecessary to determine whether proceeding to trial in Guadalupe County violates Southern Pacific’s constitutional rights. Nevertheless, allegations that a non-resident defendant is unable to receive a fair trial in the Fourth Judicial District concern this Court. The evidence regarding eleven jury verdicts in personal injury cases in Guadalupe County which was obtained by surveying jury verdicts from January 1968 through December 1982 does not furnish a sufficient basis to conclude that non-resident defendants cannot receive a fair trial in that county. Several of the personal injury cases involved FELA actions. Because of the significant difference in the burden of proof required for FELA cases than for ordinary negligence cases, FELA cases cannot be considered valid samples to show general bias or prejudice of the people in Guadalupe County against non-resident defendants. Compare NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 9.15 (Repl.Pamp.1980) (slightest negligence playing any part, however small, in causing or contributing to the injury sufficient for liability in FELA cases) with NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 3.8 (Repl.Pamp.1980) (in ordinary negligence cases “the proximate cause of an injury is that which in a natural and continuous sequence [unbroken by an independent intervening cause] produces the injury, and without which the injury would not have occurred”). See also Clinard v. Southern Pacific Co., 82 N.M. 55, 475 P.2d 321 (1970). Without the FELA actions, only five of the personal injury cases involved a resident plaintiff versus a non-resident defendant, and one of them resulted in a hung jury. Four personal injury cases in fifteen years is not a sufficient sample for this Court to determine that non-resident defendants do not receive a fair trial. However, this Court will not condone a situation that deprives anyone of their right to a fair trial; and if such is the case, drastic solutions will be considered. Since the statute of limitations involved in this case may have run, the result we reach in this case is conditioned on Southern Pacific’s waiver of the statute of limitations defense when the cause is transferred to Quay County. If Southern Pacific refuses to waive the statute of limitations defense, then the cause is remanded to the district court in Guadalupe County. See, e.g., Lowe v. Norfolk & Western Railway Co., 124 Ill.App.3d 80, 79 Ill.Dec. 238, 463 N.E.2d 792 (1984), appeal denied, 102 Ill.2d 121, 81 Ill.Dec. 711, 467 N.E.2d 582 (1984). This cause is remanded to the district court for proceedings consistent with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and WALTERS, J., concur. RIORDAN, J., specially concurring. SOSA, Senior Justice, not participating.
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OPINION BLACK, Judge. Brim Healthcare, Inc. (Brim), a corporation headquartered in Oregon, contracted to provide management services to two hospitals in northern New Mexico. Brim’s services consisted of a management consultant function and a personnel staffing function. In 1991, the New Mexico Department of Taxation and Revenue (the Department) performed an audit of Brim. As a result of that audit, the Department mailed Brim an assessment for more than $39,000.00 in gross receipts tax, penalties, and interest. There is no dispute that Brim’s management consulting fees are subject to New Mexico’s gross receipts tax. Brim, however, filed a protest challenging the assessment of gross receipts tax on the fees it received for staffing the hospitals with management personnel. This appeal results from the hearing officer’s final decision and order upholding the assessment. We affirm. STANDARD OF REVIEW The Department’s assessment of taxes and penalties is presumed to be correct. NMSA 1978, § 7-l-17(C) (Repl.Pamp.1993). This Court may set aside a hearing officer’s decision and order only if it is: “(1) arbitrary, capricious or an abuse of discretion; (2) not supported by substantial evidence in the record; or (3) otherwise not in accordance with the law.” NMSA 1978, § 7-1-25(0 (Repl.Pamp.1993); see Unisys Corp. v. New Mexico Taxation & Revenue Dep’t, 117 N.M. 609, 610-11, 874 P.2d 1273, 1274-75 (Ct.App.1994). While we employ the whole record standard of review, the evidence is viewed in the light most favorable to the decision of the hearing officer. Carlsberg Management Co. v. New Mexico Taxation & Revenue Dep’t, 116 N.M. 247, 249, 861 P.2d 288, 290 (Ct.App.1993). FACTS Brim contracted to provide management services for Holy Cross Hospital in Taos and Northeastern Regional Hospital in Las Vegas. The contracts called for two separate payments, a “management fee,” and a reimbursement of salaries, fringe benefits and expenses for Brim’s management employees working at the hospitals. These executive employees, a director of nursing at Taos, and chief financial officers and chief executive officers at both hospitals, are recruited and employed by Brim subject to the approval of the boards of the respective hospitals. Under the contracts, Brim is to supervise and direct the day-to-day management and operation of the hospitals, including financial management, data processing, personnel staffing, payroll, records management, staff development, and marketing. Brim must make monthly and annual reports to the hospital boards and serve the hospitals as a consultant in all areas of hospital management, including the recommendation of long range plans. The contracts explicitly provide that Brim is acting at all times as an independent contractor in performing its services and is not an agent of the hospitals. Brim, then, is essentially responsible for the management function of the hospitals, subject to the general supervision of the hospital boards. The hospitals are required to reimburse Brim, dollar for dollar, for the cost of salaries, payroll-related expenses, benefits, travel, and moving expenses incurred by the management personnel. Although these management personnel costs are subject to approval by the hospitals, nothing in the contracts gives the hospitals the right to determine the timing of payments and benefits to the management personnel provided by Brim. Brim selects the management personnel for each hospital. The personnel remain Brim employees, and Brim reports them for tax purposes, carries them on its payroll, provides for them under its own benefit and retirement programs, and may transfer them among the various hospitals with which it has contracts. Indeed, under the terms of the contracts, the hospitals are expressly prohibited from soliciting such Brim personnel to become hospital employees. Although the Brim management personnel keep the hospital boards informed about hospital operations, they are primarily accountable to Brim for their performance in carrying out the Brim management plan for the general operation of the hospitals. The contracts provide for the indemnification of Brim by the hospitals, and of the hospitals by Brim, only in situations where negligence results in a claim or liability against either party. With respect to any other circumstances from which claims may arise, the contracts explicitly eschew any liability of either party for the debts, obligations or liabilities of the other party. DISCUSSION The gross receipts tax “is imposed on any person engaging in business in New Mexico.” NMSA 1978, § 7-9-4(A) (Repl. Pamp.1993). The tax is imposed upon gross receipts, which means “the total amount of money or the value of other considerations received from selling property or from performing services.” New Mexico Enters. v. Bureau of Revenue, 86 N.M. 799, 800, 528 P.2d 212, 213 (Ct.App.1974). Where the taxpayer claims an exemption from the gross receipts tax, the exemption must be unambiguously expressed in the statute and clearly established by the taxpayer. Security Escrow Corp. v. Taxation & Revenue Dep’t, 107 N.M. 540, 543, 760 P.2d 1306, 1309 (Ct.App.1988). The taxpayer therefore has the burden of overcoming the statutory presumption that all receipts of a person engaging in business are subject to the gross receipts tax. See Wing Pawn Shop v. Taxation & Revenue Dep’t, 111 N.M. 735, 740-41, 809 P.2d 649, 654-55 (Ct.App.1991). Brim relies upon Carlsberg Management Co. v. New Mexico Taxation and Revenue Department, 116 N.M. 247, 861 P.2d 288 (Ct.App.1993), to support its claim that the money received from the hospitals as reimbursement for salaries and benefits paid to the Brim employees working at the hospitals should be exempt from gross receipts tax. The present record is, however, distinguishable from Carlsberg. Brim is not merely a conduit for funds to be paid to third parties. Brim is receiving the payments from the hospitals for its own account and then expending them to meet its own responsibilities. We agree with the hearing officer that the most significant distinction between this case and Carlsberg “lies in the fact that in the instant ease, there is no broad indemnification clause which has the effect of shifting the duty to pay wages to the employees to the hospitals.” In his final decision and order, the hearing officer also enumerated several other significant facts that argue against a finding that Brim (Taxpayer) is an agent: The contracts reserve to the Taxpayer the right to make changes in the management employees. Although the hospitals must approve such changes, they may not unreasonably withhold such approval. The Taxpayer controls when the employees are paid, not the hospitals. Mr. Gary Elings, comptroller for the Taxpayer testified that the management personnel report to the Taxpayer on a first line basis, as their employer. Thus, when they do report to the hospitals, they report as part of the management team of the Taxpayer, as part of the Taxpayer’s overall management responsibilities. Under these circumstances it is clear that the obligation to pay the management personnel lies with the Taxpayer. As an obligation of the Taxpayer which does not arise in the context of negligence, the hospitals have no liability for this obligation under the terms of the indemnification language of the contract. This indicates that the Taxpayer is not an agent of the hospitals with respect to the obligation to pay these employees. Brim therefore does not meet the primary test set forth in Carlsberg because Brim alone was responsible to its employees for their salaries and benefits. Moreover, unlike the contracts in Carlsberg, which expressly characterized the relationship as one of agency, id. at 251, 861 P.2d at 292, the present contracts expressly state that Brim is not an agent of the hospitals, but rather is an independent contractor. Thus, the language of Carlsberg that seems most applicable to the present case is found in this Court’s conclusion that “[o]ur ruling on a less-pervasive agency relationship will have to await another day.” Id. at 252, 861 P.2d at 293. That day has now arrived. The legal precedent for Carlsberg came in large measure from California cases. The California opinion cited in Carlsberg that is most analogous to the present facts is Programming-Enterprises v. City of Los Angeles, 215 Cal.App.3d 281, 263 Cal.Rptr. 558 (1989), review denied (Jan. 31, 1990). In that case, the taxpayer kept the resumes of several engineers and computer programmers (professionals) on file and, when contacted, would place them with client firms. Id. 263 Cal.Rptr. at 560. As under the Brim contracts, the professional who was placed at a job was not a party to the taxpayer’s agreement with the client firm. Id. The professional could choose either to have the taxpayer pay the workers’ compensation coverage and withhold taxes, or to be legally eonsid ered an independent contractor and be personally responsible for those obligations. Id. As in the present case, the professional also was not given the option of becoming an employee of the client firm. Id. The taxpayer in Programming-Enterprises did not contest payment of the Los Angeles City gross receipts tax for the professionals who were its actual employees and were simply placed with a client firm. Id. at 561. Rather, the taxpayer only challenged payment of gross receipts tax for those professionals who chose to be treated as independent contractors. Id. The trial court entered judgment in favor of the taxpayer. Id. at 562. In reversing, the California Court of Appeals focused on the legal obligation test, id, which we later adopted in Carlsberg. See Carlsberg, 116 N.M. at 251, 861 P.2d at 292. In discussing the gross receipts exemption for agents, the court said that the exemption appears to apply ... when a taxpayer receives monies not for its own use and benefit but rather as an intermediary between two parties dealing with each other. For example, a travel agent or a stockbroker could apparently exclude from their gross receipts sums received from clients to purchase airline tickets or investment securities, respectively. Sums the taxpayer pays out pursuant to its own obligations cannot be subtracted from its gross receipts subject to tax. Programming-Enters., 263 Cal.Rptr. at 562-63 (citations omitted). As we recognized in Carlsberg, these principles are consistent with the New Mexico policy of excluding from the gross receipts tax, money that a party receives as a trustee or agent. Carlsberg, 116 N.M. at 251, 861 P.2d at 292; see Westland Corp. v. Commissioner of Revenue, 83 N.M. 29, 33, 487 P.2d 1099, 1103 (Ct.App.), cert. denied 83 N.M. 22, 487 P.2d 1092 (1971); see also Wing Pawn Shop, 111 N.M. at 740, 809 P.2d at 654 (transactions by a non-agent taxpayer were not beyond reach of taxation statutes). An earlier California Court of Appeals case also rejected application of the agency exception on analogous facts. In Independent Casting-Television, Inc. v. City of Los Angeles, 49 Cal.App.3d 502, 122 Cal.Rptr. 416 (1975), the taxpayer provided actors to perform as extras for movie producers. Id. 122 Cal.Rptr. at 417. The taxpayer kept a file that included hundreds of actors. Id. When a producer called about a role, the taxpayer selected an actor with the appropriate background and told the actor where and when to report. Id. After the assignment, the producer sent the actor with an authorized voucher to the taxpayer. Id. Before paying the actor, the taxpayer computed the amount earned and subtracted the appropriate tax and insurance withholdings. Id. at 418. The taxpayer then invoiced the producer for the wages paid to the employee, as well as the estimated taxes, which the taxpayer forwarded to the appropriate federal and state agencies “ ‘as if it were the employer’ of the extras.” Id. The taxpayer also invoiced the producer for all workmen’s compensation and health care benefits. Id. The trial court upheld the taxpayer’s claim for refund of the gross receipts paid on amounts received to reimburse the taxpayer for wages, taxes, and benefits. Id. at 419. The California Court of Appeals recognized that the proper legal analysis was dependent “upon characterization of the relationship of the extras, Taxpayer, and the producers.” Id. The court set forth the agency test within the shared employee context as contingent upon whether the amounts paid to the actors by the taxpayer “were advanced by it as agent for the producers to satisfy payroll obligations of the producers to their employees.” Id. The court recognized that if “those sums were paid by Taxpayer to satisfy its own obligation to its own employees and were includable within a charge for their services made by Taxpayer to the producers, then the entire amount paid by the producers is includable within Taxpayer’s gross receipts.” Id. When the court applied this rule to the facts, it concluded, “It is the fact that Taxpayer meets its own payroll and incidental expenses and not the technicalities of the joint employment relationship that results in the payments from the producers being includable in taxpayer’s gross receipts.” Id. at 420. As in Programming-Enterprises and Independent Casting, the relationship between Brim and the two hospitals was one in which one company merely assigned its employees to work temporarily at another location operated by a second company. The employees continued their relationship with their employer, Brim, and their salaries remained the legal obligation of Brim, even though Brim was reimbursed for the salaries. We affirm the conclusion of the hearing officer that “[t]he reimbursements of [Brim’s] management personnel costs were not received by the Taxpayer as reimbursement of expenses incurred as an agent of the hospitals pursuant to its contracts with the hospitals.” Affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. ALARID and BUSTAMANTE, JJ., concur.
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OPINION FLORES, Judge. The opinion filed November 1, 1994, is withdrawn and the following substituted therefor. Defendant pled guilty to trafficking by possession with intent to distribute cocaine, reserving the right to appeal the trial court’s denial of his pre-trial motions. The trial court denied Defendant’s motions to suppress physical evidence and oral statements and Defendant appeals. On appeal Defendant raises the following issues: (1) whether the standard of review of the trial court’s ruling on the motion to suppress physical evidence in the instant case is de novo review; (2) whether the search and seizure of Defendant was unlawful because (a) the warrant was not valid, (b) Defendant was not a resident of the premises searched, and (c) the detention was an illegal arrest; (3) whether the statements made and the waiver signed by Defendant were voluntary; and (4) whether the cocaine seized from Defendant at the police station was a product of an illegal arrest. We reverse. FACTS On November 26, 1991, Detective Brian Sallee (Sallee) obtained a search warrant for certain premises identified in the affidavit for search warrant as 636 Grove S.E., #C in Albuquerque. The affidavit also included a description of persons to be searched as “any persons and/or vehicles which can be shown to be involved in drug dealing (purchasing or selling).” On December 4, 1991, Sallee executed the warrant. Accompanying Sallee in the execution of the warrant were Detectives Samora and Roberts, Sergeant Chavez, and Officers Carroll, Salcido, and Tanuz. Defendant was present during the execution of the search warrant and was taken into the living room, along with several other individuals in the house. All these individuals, including Defendant, and with the exception of the children, were then handcuffed. The police officers then searched Defendant and all the individuals who were handcuffed and sat them down. At some point during the search the officers discovered a gas bill made out to Cindy Hicks, who was the tenant of the premises searched. The police knew that Defendant was not a resident of the premises. Defendant, while sitting on the couch and handcuffed from behind, was observed squirming and trying to get into his front pocket. Defendant was then searched again, and crack cocaine was found in his left front pocket. Defendant was then placed under arrest and transported to a police substation. Although the length of Defendant’s detention from the time of the execution of the warrant to the time of his formal arrest is unclear, it appears the detention lasted approximately thirty minutes. At the substation, Defendant gave Sergeant Chavez another “stone” of crack cocaine, allegedly made some incriminating statements, and signed an advice of rights form. STANDARD OF REVIEW Defendant contends that the standard of review of the motion to suppress in the present case is de novo review. We agree. In State v. Attaway, 117 N.M. 141, 870 P.2d 103 (1994), our Supreme Court dealt with the standard of review for the determination of exigent circumstances. The standard of review set out in Attaway is that any predicate findings of historical fact on the part of the trial court below should be given deference. Id. at 144, 870 P.2d at 106. However, when a mixed question of law and fact implicates constitutional rights, that question resembles a conclusion of law more closely than a historical fact; in resolving such a question, the appellate court reviews it de novo. Id. at 144-46, 870 P.2d at 106-08. We perceive no difference between the question of exigent circumstances and the issue of the legality of Defendant’s detention. Therefore, we review de novo the court’s determination regarding that issue. Cf. State v. Werner, 117 N.M. 315, 316-17, 871 P.2d 971, 972-73 (1994) (reviewing issue of whether defendant was subjected to de facto arrest as issue of law). DISCUSSION The trial court found that Defendant gave the officers probable cause to search him because of Defendant’s “obvious effort to conceal something.” The trial court also found that this probable cause was “separate and apart from the search warrant,” and that the officers had a right to detain Defendant. We disagree. Initially, we address the issue of whether Defendant was subject to the search warrant. The affidavit for search warrant contains language authorizing the search of “any persons and/or vehicles which can be shown to be involved in drug dealing (purchasing or selling).” Defendant contends that this language did not serve to authorize the seizure or subsequent search of Defendant. We agree. In State v. Valdez, 91 N.M. 567, 568, 577 P.2d 465, 466 (Ct.App.1978), this Court found that the ‘“all persons’ ” language did not make the warrant invalid, but was surplusage. Since the warrant in this case did not specifically authorize the seizure or subsequent search of Defendant, the State bears the burden of proof to show that its conduct with respect to Defendant was reasonable. See Ybarra v. Illinois, 444 U.S. 85, 91, 100 S.Ct. 338, 342, 62 L.Ed.2d 238 (1979) (mere propinquity of indi vidual to others independently suspected of criminal activity does not, without more, give rise to probable cause to search that person). For the reasons that follow, we believe the State has failed to meet this burden. Regarding whether non-residents on the premises can be lawfully detained while a search warrant is being executed, Defendant contends that the police should not have detained him simply because he was found on the premises when the officers executed the search warrant. We agree, and hold that the police cannot detain a nonresident unless they have a reasonable basis to believe that the non-resident has some type of connection to the premises or to criminal activity. See Michigan v. Summers, 452 U.S. 692, 101 S.Ct. 2587, 69 L.Ed.2d 340 (1981); Ybarra, 444 U.S. at 91, 100 S.Ct. at 342. Thus, the dispositive issue here is whether the detention of Defendant on the premises during the course of the search was legal. The traditional justification for detention is probable cause; however, other detentions are constitutionally permissible under certain circumstances. See Dunaway v. New York, 442 U.S. 200, 208-10, 99 S.Ct. 2248, 2254-55, 60 L.Ed.2d 824 (1979) (a Terry stop is based on the rationale that some seizures are substantially less intrusive than arrests and may be warranted to protect officers and aid them in their efforts to detect and prevent crime); Adams v. Williams, 407 U.S. 143, 146, 92 S.Ct. 1921, 1923, 32 L.Ed.2d 612 (1972) (“A brief stop of a suspicious individual ... may be most reasonable in light of the facts known to the officer[s] at the time.”). Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968), and its progeny have attempted to balance the competing interests of effective law enforcement and individual privacy. In order for this to be accomplished, the government must be able to demonstrate a “ ‘reasonable suspicion’ ” that the individual was engaged in criminal activity. United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 7, 109 S.Ct. 1581, 1585, 104 L.Ed.2d 1 (1989). In Summers, the United States Supreme Court established another limited exception to the probable cause requirement and ruled that a resident of the premises being searched could be detained for the duration of the search. In that case, police officers encountered the defendant walking down his front steps as they were about to execute a search warrant. They requested entrance into his house and detained him during the search. After finding drugs in the basement of the house, the police arrested the defendant and found heroin in his pocket. Summers, 452 U.S. at 693, 101 S.Ct. at 2589. Summers reaffirmed the holding in Dunaway that an official seizure of a person must be supported by probable cause even if no formal arrest is made. It also added that some seizures, significantly less intrusive than formal arrest, may be constitutionally permissive. Id. at 699-700, 101 S.Ct. at 2592-2593. Summers stated that “[i]n assessing the justification for the detention of [a resident] of premises being searched for contraband pursuant to a valid warrant, both the law enforcement interest and the nature of the ‘articulable facts’ supporting the detention are relevant.” Id. at 702, 101 S.Ct. at 2594. The Court defined these law enforcement interests as (1) preventing flight in the event that incriminating evidence is found; (2) minimizing the risk to law enforcement officers; and (3) facilitating the search. Id. at 702-03, 101 S.Ct. at 2594-95. Although the Court recognized that it also had to consider the nature of the articulable and individualized suspicion on which the police based the detention of the resident, it noted that a search warrant provided an objective justification for the detention. Id. at 703, 101 S.Ct. at 2594. We now determine whether Summers applies in the instant case and whether Defendant’s detention was reasonable under the circumstances. Summers did not address whether the search warrant authorized the detention of the defendant as a non-resident. Summers appears not to have made a distinction between residents and non-residents since the defendant in that case was a resident. In the present case the police knew Defendant was not a resident of the premises. The decision in Summers was founded on the logical conclusion that a resident’s control over premises which are the subject of a search warrant provides a sufficient connec tion with the suspected illegal activities so that it is reasonable to detain that individual for the duration of the search. Id. at 703-04, 101 S.Ct. at 2594-95. Additionally, the Court in Summers discussed the practicality of having the resident nearby to open locked doors or locked containers, etc., and otherwise help expedite the search. Thus, while a resident may be detained during the execution of a residential search warrant, we believe that this limited exception to the probable cause requirement cannot reasonably be extended to those merely present on the premises, since the foregoing justifications are inapplicable to a visitor. Although New Mexico courts have not directly addressed this issue, the issue of the detention of non-residents was briefly discussed in Valdez. In Valdez, where the defendant reentered the premises being searched and was visibly under the influence of heroin, this Court held that “it is reasonable to detain persons found on the premises while the search is being conducted pursuant to a search warrant.” Valdez, 91 N.M. at 569, 577 P.2d at 467. Valdez also quotes a 1925 case, City of Olympia v. Culp, 136 Wash. 374, 240 P. 360, aff'd, 136 Wash. 694, 240 P. 362 (1925), which states: “Officers making a search of premises under a search warrant may lawfully detain all persons found therein until the search is concluded. Any other rule would frustrate the purposes of the search; the officers would be compelled to stand idly by while the articles for which the search was instituted were carried away.” Valdez, 91 N.M. at 568-69, 577 P.2d at 466-67. At first glance, Valdez appears to allow police to detain non-residents as well as residents. However, Valdez deals with facts that can be readily distinguished from the present case. In Valdez the defendant reentered the premises being searched, was observed to be under the influence of heroin, and the police officer knew the defendant was a heroin user. Id. Because these facts or similar facts are clearly absent here, Valdez is not applicable to the present case. Secondly, other cases decided after Valdez address whether police can lawfully detain non-residents as well as residents in a much clearer fashion. See, e.g., Summers; Ybarra. Casés in other jurisdictions since Summers and YT)arra have recognized the value of the standardized procedure permitted by Summers, but limited the applicability of that procedure. See generally 2 Wayne R. LaFave, Search and Seizure § 4.9(e), at 309-10 (2d ed. 1987) (suggesting Summers’ use of the word “occupants” be construed as a limiting term). Alternatively, police should have facts that would render a detention reasonable under the circumstances. We believe this approach would be in line with Summers’ examination of “the law enforcement interest and the nature of the ‘articulable facts’ ” and with New Mexico case law. Summers, 452 U.S. at 702, 101 S.Ct. at 2594; see State v. Cohen, 103 N.M. 558, 561, 711 P.2d 3, 6 (1985) (the ultimate test is one of reasonableness of the detention under the circumstances including the facts the detaining officer observed), cert. denied, 476 U.S. 1158, 106 S.Ct. 2276, 90 L.Ed.2d 719 (1986). Accordingly, we adopt the “presence plus” approach adopted in State v. Broadnax, 98 Wash.2d 289, 654 P.2d 96, 103 (1982) (en banc) and State v. Carrasco, 147 Ariz. 558, 560, 711 P.2d 1231, 1233 (Ct.App.1985). See also Lippert v. State, 664 S.W.2d 712, 720 (Tex.Crim.App.1984) (en banc) (mere presence at a place for which the police have a search warrant does not alone constitute grounds to detain). In Broadnax, the petitioner, Thompson, was present during the execution of a search warrant. Thompson was detained and then searched by the police. Broadnax ruled that “ ‘mere presence’ is not enough; there must be ‘presence plus’ to justify the detention or search of an individual, other than [a resident], at the scene of a valid execution of a search warrant.” Broadnax, 654 P.2d at 103. Several recent cases illustrate what type of additional circumstances justify a detention. See, e.g., United States v. Holder, 990 F.2d 1327, 1329 & n. 3 (D.C.Cir.1993) (when person found inside apartment being searched was only five feet from a drug-laden table, it didn’t matter “[w]hether he was entering, exiting, or merely present”); United States v. Pace, 898 F.2d 1218, 1240 (7th Cir.) (fact that persons were inside another’s home with money and drugs out in the open suggested that resident trusted them and that they were involved in his drug operation, thus providing probable cause to arrest them), cert. denied, 497 U.S. 1030, 110 S.Ct. 3286, 111 L.Ed.2d 795 (1990); cf. State v. Lovato, 112 N.M. 517, 817 P.2d 251 (Ct.App.) (where officers had reason to believe that suspects may have been involved in a drive-by shooting and that suspects may have been armed and dangerous, detention by handcuffing the defendants immediately permissible), cert. denied, 112 N.M. 388, 815 P.2d 1178 (1991). This approach was also followed in Carrasco, where the defendant was a visitor present during the execution of a search warrant. Carrasco, in interpreting Summers, found that a resident’s “control over premises which are the subject of a search warrant provides a sufficient connection with the suspected illegal activities so that it is reasonable to detain that individual for the duration of the search.” Carrasco, 711 P.2d at 1234. However, this exception to the probable cause requirement does not apply to visitors, and in order to justify the detention of visitors there must be facts present that would render it reasonable under the circumstances. Id. 711 P.2d at 1234 (suggesting balancing test be applied to determine if seizure of property was reasonable under the circumstances) (citing United States v. Place, 462 U.S. 696, 103 S.Ct. 2637, 77 L.Ed.2d 110 (1983)). In this case, Defendant was not shown to have any connection with the drugs and paraphernalia discovered on the searched premises, and there is no showing the officers had grounds to suspect such a connection. No circumstances were presented to give rise to a reasonable suspicion Defendant was involved in criminal activity. There is no articulable reason given why Defendant was detained for at least thirty minutes while the search progressed. It appears to this Court that recognizing presence alone as sufficient to detain a person found on premises subject to a search warrant would provide unlimited and unreviewable discretion. Such discretion, we believe, would betray the underlying principles of the Fourth Amendment. Accordingly, we hold that “mere presence” does not justify the arrest or detention of a person, other than the resident, at a residence lawfully being searched. See Summers; Ybarra. We now look to determine whether there were any facts presented which would, nevertheless, justify the detention of Defendant in the present case and render it reasonable under the circumstances. In examining whether a detention is reasonable under the circumstances, a court must determine, looking at the totality of the circumstances, whether “the officers diligently pursued a means of investigation that would dispel or confirm their suspicions quickly.” United States v. Winfrey, 915 F.2d 212, 217 (6th Cir.1990), cert. denied, 498 U.S. 1039, 111 S.Ct. 709, 112 L.Ed.2d 698 (1991). As discussed below, in this case, the record indicates that the police were not acting diligently to confirm or dispel whether Defendant was involved in the “purchasing or selling” of drugs. See Werner, 117 N.M. at 318-19, 871 P.2d at 974-75. In the present case, the polieé detained a total of eight individuals, including both adults and children. There were seven officers present during the execution of the warrant. When the police first entered the premises, there were no attempts to flee, no furtive gestures or sudden movements towards a weapon, no threats were made, and Defendant did not resist detention. There was no testimony that the police feared Defendant or feared that evidence would be destroyed by Defendant, nor was Defendant the target of the search warrant. Before being placed in handcuffs, Defendant was not shown to be committing or about to commit any criminal offense, nor to be under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Moreover, there is no evidence that the police had any knowledge of Defendant’s prior criminal record. Once it was established that (1) Defendant was not a resident of the house being subjected to a warranted search, (2) the police had no specific reason to fear Defendant, and (3) the police had no more than a bare suspicion that he might be connected with the contraband expected to be found in the premises, the police should have released Defendant from any further detention. See Berkemer v. McCarty, 468 U.S. 420, 439-40, 104 S.Ct. 3138, 3149-50, 82 L.Ed.2d 317 (1984) (a brief stop of a suspicious individual may be most reasonable in light of the facts known to the officers at the time, but, “unless the detainee’s answers provide the officer with probable cause to arrest him, he must then be released” (footnote omitted)); State v. Lopez, 109 N.M. 169, 172-73, 783 P.2d 479, 482-83 (Ct.App.) (absent reasonable suspicion, an officer may not restrain a person), cert. quashed, 109 N.M. 131, 782 P.2d 384 (1989). By detaining Defendant for approximately thirty minutes, sitting him on the couch, and handcuffing him, the police did not perform or permit a speedy, focused investigation to confirm or dispel individualized suspicion of criminal activity. See Werner, 117 N.M. at 319, 871 P.2d at 975 (“The concept of diligence has an aspect of speed or haste.”). Therefore, we hold that the detention of Defendant was not reasonable under the circumstances, and thus was illegal. Accordingly, we reverse the trial court’s denial of Defendant’s motions to suppress physical evidence and statements made by Defendant. CONCLUSION We hold that the detention of Defendant was unjustified and illegal. We further hold that the physical evidence and statements obtained were a product of the illegal detention, and therefore fruit of the poisonous tree and must be suppressed. See Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 83 S.Ct. 407, 9 L.Ed.2d 441 (1963). Accordingly, we need not reach Defendant’s remaining issues. We reverse the trial court’s denial of Defendant’s motions to suppress all evidence as a result of the illegal detention. IT IS SO ORDERED. MINZNER, C.J., and DONNELLY, J., concur.
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OPINION PER CURIAM. This matter came before the Court for imposition of discipline on Leo C. Kelly for conversion of client funds from his trust account. For the reasons set forth below, we decline to adopt the recommendation of the disciplinary board that Kelly receive a partially deferred indefinite suspension. Rather, we hereby disbar Leo C. Kelly from the practice of law for violations of the Rules of Professional Conduct, SCRA 1986, 16-101 to 16-805 (Repl.Pamp.1991 & Cum.Supp.1994), and Rules Governing Discipline, SCRA 1986, 17-101 to 17-316 (Repl.Pamp.1991 & Cum. Supp.1994). During the years 1993 and 1994, Kelly converted approximately $65,000.00 from his attorney trust account in funds belonging to a number of different clients. Most of the funds converted should have been paid to medical vendors from settlement proceeds. In some cases, the clients believed the medical vendors had been paid from the settlement proceeds, but Kelly failed to notify the clients that the medical vendors were not paid. Some of the funds converted by Kelly were funds that should have been distributed to clients from settlement proceeds. Kelly failed to notify these clients that their eases had been settled. Kelly also converted funds that should have been paid to his co-counsel, Bruce Barnett, on certain cases that Kelly had settled. In addition, Kelly failed to adequately safeguard his trust account, making it possible for his daughter to write checks and convert client funds from the trust account. Finally, Kelly advanced funds from his trust account to pay for litigation costs when no funds had been received from the client for whom costs were being advanced. Throughout this period of time, Kelly failed to maintain accurate and complete records of his trust account transactions. Kelly’s conduct violated Rule 16-804(0 by engaging in conduct involving deceit, dishonesty, and misrepresentation; Rule 16-115(A) by failing to hold his clients’ funds separate from his own; Rule 16-115(B) by failing to promptly notify clients of the receipt of funds belonging to them; Rule 16-115(A) by failing to maintain trust account records that conform to the requirements of Rule 17-204; Rule 16-116(D) by failing to protect the interests of his clients at the termination of the representation; Rule 16-104 by failing to keep his clients advised of the status of their legal matters; Rule 16-804(D) by engaging in conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice; and Rule 16-804(H) by engaging in conduct adversely affecting his fitness to practice law. A number of aggravating and mitigating circumstances are present in this case. Aggravating factors listed in the ABA Standards for Imposing Lawyer Sanctions (1991), which are relevant here, include that Kelly’s conduct evinced a dishonest or selfish motive; that Kelly’s clients were vulnerable to his misconduct because they were dependent on him to notify them when their cases settled and to follow through on his commitment and responsibility to pay medical vendors; that one or more clients experienced adverse effects on their credit because of Kelly’s failure to pay medical providers; and, that Kelly has substantial experience in the practice of law, having received his license to practice law in New Mexico in 1974. Among the mitigating circumstances is Kelly’s demonstration of recovery from alcohol addiction. During the period in which he converted client funds, Kelly was suffering from acute alcoholism. Although addiction cannot provide a defense to unethical conduct, In re Siler, 106 N.M. 292, 742 P.2d 504 (1987), recovery from such conditions as substance abuse or mental illness can be considered in mitigation if the respondent can demonstrate a prolonged period of rehabilitation. In re Jones, 119 N.M. 229, 889 P.2d 887 (1995); In re Smith, 115 N.M. 769, 858 P.2d 857 (1993). In February 1994, about the time the disciplinary board began receiving complaints about his misappropriation of client funds, Kelly responded positively to a substance abuse intervention conducted by members of the State Bar of New Mexico Lawyers’ Assistance Committee and other concerned individuals. Kelly sought help for his addiction by attending psychological counseling through Veterans Administration Hospital and by attending Alcoholics Anonymous meetings once and sometimes twice a day. Kelly has demonstrated the requisite period of rehabilitation necessary for this to be considered a mitigating factor. Other mitigating factors include Kelly’s cooperation throughout the disciplinary process, his voluntary partial restitution , his good reputation, and his show of remorse. On the basis of these mitigating circumstances, the disciplinary board agreed with the hearing committee and recommended that Kelly be indefinitely suspended for a minimum period of three years with all except the first year of suspension deferred and probation during the deferral period. The recommendation to this Court also included that Kelly be ordered to make full restitution to his victims, pay the costs of this proceeding within sixty days, pass the Multi state Professional Responsibility Examination, and participate in a substance abuse monitoring program. We cannot adopt this recommendation, however, because suspension is not an appropriate sanction under the circumstances presented in this case. Stealing client funds is perhaps the most egregious violation of a lawyer’s ethical responsibilities; it is a violation of the trust placed in lawyers by their clients. A lawyer’s trust account should be held sacred; wilfully taking funds from a trust account cannot and will not be tolerated by this Court. In such cases, disbarment is the appropriate sanction. In re Rawson, 113 N.M. 758, 833 P.2d 235 (1992); In re Wilson, 108 N.M. 378, 772 P.2d 1301 (1989). In reaching this conclusion, the Court is not unmindful of the mitigating circumstances present in this case. Rule 17-214(A) provides that a motion for reinstatement may not be filed for a period of at least three years from the date of disbarment unless otherwise stated in the order of disbarment. In consideration of Kelly’s showing of rehabilitation and his voluntary effort to make restitution, along with other mitigating circumstances, Kelly may apply for reinstatement after a period of two years from the effective date of disbarment, but only upon a showing that he has made full restitution to all victims of his misconduct, paid all eosts of this proceeding, and successfully completed the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination. The other conditions recommended by the disciplinary board, including that he maintain sobriety, will be matters to be considered upon a petition for reinstatement. NOW, THEREFORE, IT IS ORDERED that Leo C. Kelly hereby is disbarred from the practice of law in the State of New Mexico effective April 19, 1995. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that Kelly shall make restitution to the following persons and entities in the following amounts: Department of the Air Force $23,960.00 Richard R. Weber, M.D. $ 386.00 MRI Associates $ 940.50 Mark J. Caruso, Esq. $ 5,847.08 Caremore Chiropractic $ 2,700.98 William Levitt, D.O. $ 6,107.00 Lovelace Health Systems $ 1,461.50 Biasing Court Reporters $ 136.71 Steven Shaw $ 1,174.09 Family Health Center $ 349.00 Megan Shepherd $ 48.00 Myron Rosenbaum, M.D. $ 377.00 Saint Joseph Healthcare System $' 23.22 Michael Ryan, M.D. $ 103.00 Albuquerque Ambulance $ 122.00 Lucy Vigil $ 2,266.00 IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that Kelly may petition for reinstatement after a period of two years from the effective date of disbarment, but in no event before he has made full restitution, paid the costs of this proceeding in the amount of $4,421.54, and passed the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that interest shall accrue at the rate of fifteen percent (15%) per annum on the amounts owed in restitution and the costs of this proceeding from October 24, 1994, until paid. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that this opinion shall be published in New Mexico Reports and Bar Bulletin. IT IS SO ORDERED. . Although it is undisputed that Kelly converted some funds that should have been paid to Mr. Barnett, a legitimate dispute exists concerning the amount owed Mr. Barnett. These amounts are not included in the restitution Kelly is ordered to make. . Kelly paid approximately $17,000 of the money converted as of the date this matter was heard by this Court, leaving a balance of $46,000 still to be repaid.
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OPINION HENDLEY, Judge. Plaintiff appeals an adverse jury verdict in a medical malpractice action which alleged negligence by defendant doctors in administering certain drugs to plaintiff during postoperative care. We discuss whether the trial court erred in 1) admitting a medical opinion letter into evidence, and 2) granting extra peremptory challenges. We reverse as to 1) and discuss 2) because of the remand for a new trial. The defendants important to this appeal are the three doctors who were involved in plaintiffs cardiac surgery and postoperative care. Surgical Associates, with which the three doctors are associated, by prior stipulation of the parties received a verdict consistent with that rendered the doctors. Plaintiff claims that his loss of hearing and vestibular function (balance) were caused by defendants’ prescription or administration of drugs, including Gentamicin, after the cardiac surgery. Opinion Letter The opinion letter, Defendants’ Exhibit F, was to plaintiff from a Dr. John B. Roberts and stated in part: “I suspect that the dizziness relates to the operated left ear and not to the drugs that you received.” Dr. Roberts was never a witness at trial. Plaintiff’s objection that the letter was hearsay was overruled. Plaintiff contends that admission of Exhibit F was error because it is inadmissible hearsay. He argues that because the opinion expressed in the letter went to the heart of plaintiff’s case and because he did not have an opportunity to cross-examine its author, the error was prejudicial. Three questions must be addressed to decide this issue. 1) Was the letter hearsay? 2) Was the letter admissible? 3) Was admission of the letter harmless error? 1) Was the letter hearsay? The letter was introduced and admitted into evidence during the testimony of Dr. Kilgore, the defendants’ medical expert. Defense counsel moved for the admission of Exhibit F as follows: Your Honor, I previously had referred to a number of Defendants’ Exhibits which Dr. Kilgore had identified as records and reports that he reviewed in reaching his opinion in this case. And I would like to offer Defendant’s Exhibit F which is a letter from Dr. Roberts to Dr. Sewell [plaintiff] in March of 1977; Defendant’s Exhibit L which is Dr. Shay’s operative report in 1972; Defendant’s Exhibit M which is Dr. Shay’s report, his examination report in 1972; and Defendant’s Exhibit 0 which is a letter from Dr. Bicknell dated October 9, 1975. (Emphasis added.) Plaintiff’s objection, defendants’ response, and the court’s ruling, were as follows: [PLAINTIFF] Yes, Your Honor, I think it’s proper for him to testify about what he has relied upon, but I don’t think it’s proper for you to admit those documents into evidence; it’s hearsay. [DEFENDANT] That's the basis of what he did rely on and it’s proper to offer them for that basis. I think the jury should be entitled to see what the documents are. THE COURT: Wait just a minute, gentlemen, please. To permit the jury to understand what are the facts or data upon which Dr. Kilgore based his opinion, the Defendant’s Exhibits for identification marked F, L, M and 0, will be admitted. This is in accordance with Rule 703 of the rules of evidence. Defense counsel offered the letters to show the “basis of what [Dr. Kilgore] did rely on” in forming his opinion. Although defense counsel sought to avoid a hearsay problem by not offering Exhibit F for the truth of the matter asserted, Dr. Kilgore’s testimony contradicts counsel’s characterization of the purpose of admitting that letter. Dr. Kilgore’s direct examination on Exhibit F follows: Q. Doctor, I want to ask you if in reviewing this case you also considered a letter from Dr. Roberts, which I have marked as Defendant’s Exhibit F. A. I’ve seen the letter, yes. ‡ ‡ i): ‡ Q. Did you rely to any extent on the letter—the language contained in Dr. Roberts’ letter, which I also showed to you? A. Again, I had my opinion already before I read this. My interpretation of Dr. Roberts’ letter is that his opinion is essentially the same as Dr. Bicknell’s. (Emphasis added.) Dr. Kilgore’s testimony is not that he relied on Dr. Roberts’ letter, but that he had already formed his opinion before he read the letter. Therefore, the letter should not have been admitted to show the basis of Dr. Kilgore’s opinion. 2) Was the letter admissible? The trial court ruled that Exhibit F was admissible under NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 703 (Repl.Pamp.1983). Rule 703 provides: The facts or data in the particular case upon which an expert bases an opinion or inference may be those perceived by or made known to him at or before the hearing. If of a type reasonably relied upon by experts in the particular field in forming opinions or inferences upon the subject, the facts or data need not be admissible in evidence. Admission into evidence of reports of non-testifying physicians was considered in Wilson v. Leonard Tire Co., Inc., 90 N.M. 74, 559 P.2d 1201 (Ct.App.1976). We held that Rule 703 did not apply because there was no evidence that the challenged reports were relied on by the testifying physicians. We also held: “Even if the physicians had relied on hearsay in forming their opinions, that would not make the hearsay itself admissible [under Rule 703].” In O’Kelly v. State, 94 N.M. 74, 607 P.2d 612 (1980), our interpretation of Rule 703 was seemingly approved. O’Kelly was a criminal appeal in which defendant successfully challenged his shoplifting conviction on the ground that admission into evidence of the hearsay opinion of a non-testifying psychiatrist on the defendant’s ability to form specific intent was error. Although the State argued that Rule 703 allowed admission of the hearsay opinion, the court disagreed based on Wilson: “Rule 703 is not applicable. It has no bearing upon the admission in evidence of the opinion of a non-testifying expert.” O’Kelly. Defendant Dr. Gerety argues that the letter is admissible under Rule 703 on the basis of Matter of Dean, 94 N.M. 45, 607 P.2d 132 (Ct.App.1980). In that case, the court affirmed the district court’s order of involuntary commitment of defendant. Defendant alleged error in her commitment because the court had considered opinions of two absent doctors. The opinion states that defendant raised the issue as a matter of constitutional law; however, the appellate court decided the issue on the basis of the rules of evidence, Rules 703 and 705. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 705 (Repl.Pamp.1983) provides that an expert may testify on the underlying facts or data which form the basis of his opinion if so required by the court or by cross-examination. The trial judge in Dean, in announcing the decision to commit defendant, stated that he relied on the opinions of the absent doctors “ ‘as taken into consideration by [the testifying medical witness].’ ” (Emphasis omitted.) Dean. Since the reports were considered, not for the truth of the matter asserted, but as the basis of another opinion, the reports were not hearsay and thus not comparable to Defendants’ Exhibit F in dispute here. For this reason, Dean is not controlling, and does not call for admission of the letter under Rule 703. Defendant Dr. Gerety also argues that the letter in whole or part was admissible as a statement for purposes of medical diagnosis or treatment under NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 803(4) (Repl.Pamp.1983), and State v. Ruiz, 94 N.M. 771, 617 P.2d 160 (Ct.App.1980). This argument assumes the letter was hearsay, although at trial defendant characterized it as not being hearsay. Unlike the emergency room records excluded by the trial court in Ruiz, there is no showing that a witness other than the person who prepared the letter (Dr. Roberts) could have laid the proper foundation to admit the letter. The same problem exists with defendants’ argument for admission of the letter pursuant to Rule 803(6), records of regularly conducted activity. Ruiz is not on point. The letter was not admissible under either Rule 803(4) or 803(6) for lack of the foundation required by those rules. Accordingly, we do not consider whether the letter would have been admissible if the proper foundation had been laid. Dr. Gerety points out that, in the trial court, Dr. Sewell did not object to the admissibility of the letter for lack of a proper foundation. We agree. However, the letter was offered in the trial court under either evidence rule. The question of the admissibility of the letter under these rules has been raised for the first time in the appeal and has been presented on the basis that the letter was admissible, under either of the two rules, as a matter of law. That is incorrect. Defendants, Drs. Wilson and Bhati, argue for admission of the letter under Rule 705. Rule 705 provides: The expert may testify in terms of opinion or inference and give his reasons therefor without prior disclosure of the underlying facts or data, unless the judge requires otherwise. The expert may in any event be required to disclose the underlying facts or data on cross-examination. There are three problems with application of this rule. 1) The letter contains Dr. Roberts’ opinion which does not fall within “facts or data.” See O’Kelly. 2) This letter was admitted during direct examination, not cross-examination. 3) Dr. Kilgore’s testimony was that he had formed his opinion before he read the letter. Rule 705 is not applicable. Defendants’ final argument is that because Dr. Kilgore testified about Dr. Roberts’ letter and its conclusion without objection, plaintiff waived his right to object to admission of the letter as an exhibit. Dr. Kilgore’s testimony about the content of Dr. Roberts' letter was only that it seemed to express the same opinion as that expressed in Dr. Bicknell’s letter. Although Dr. Kilgore read Dr. Bicknell’s conclusion during his testimony, he never read from Dr. Roberts’ letter. For this reason, that the text of Dr. Roberts’ letter was not revealed to the jury, plaintiff did not waive his hearsay objection by failing to object to the first mention of Dr. Roberts’ letter. 3) Was admission of the letter harmless error? Defendants argue that even if admission of the letter was error, it was harmless error because the evidence was cumulative. A comparison of defendants’ experts’ expertise and conclusions follows. Dr. Kilgore Specialist in otolaryngology (ear, nose and throat); 90% of his practice is ear surgery. Conclusions: Plaintiff’s physical complaints were caused by these factors: history of middle ear disease and surgery; history of otosclerosis (“otosclerosis” is a disease where bone formation causes hearing loss); history of repeated surgeries to middle ear; trauma of the January 1975 cardiac surgery. Dr. Cronin Specialist in internal medicine (nonsurgical) with subspecialty in nephrology (disease of the kidney). Conclusions: Defendant doctors properly prescribed, administered, and monitored the three drugs plaintiff complains of. Nothing, was wrong with plaintiffs kidney during his hospital stay in January 1975. Dr. Hodgin Specialist in internal medicine with sub-specialty in infectious diseases. Conclusions: It was appropriate to use Gentamicin, Lasix, and Keflin for postoperative treatment of plaintiff. Defendant doctors did not violate the applicable standard of care. Dr. Bicknell Professor of neurology (diseases of the nervous system) and practicing physician in field of neurology. Conclusions: The causes of the conditions of which plaintiff complains are his history of otosclerosis and multiple ear procedures. Dr. Bieknell’s letter of October 9, 1975, to defense counsel, concludes that Dr. Sewell’s problems of dizziness and ear dysfunction are related to his middle ear disease, not to the drugs administered after the cardiac surgery. (Defendants’ Exhibit 0) Dr. Roberts’ Letter The letterhead indicates that Dr. Roberts is an ear, nose and throat specialist. Dr. Kilgore testified that Dr. Roberts is an otolaryngologist. Conclusions: Plaintiff’s dizziness “relates to the operated left ear and not to the drugs ... received.” (Defendants’ Exhibit F) For the following reasons we hold that Dr. Roberts’ letter is not cumulative evidence. 1) Drs. Cronin and Hodgin did not offer medical opinions of the causes of plaintiff’s dizziness and ear dysfunction. 2) Dr. Bicknell is a neurologist, not an otolaryngologist. Dr. Bieknell’s conclusion in Exhibit 0 and at trial is suspect because he seems to have changed his opinion about the possible ototoxic effect of the drugs after he learned that a lawsuit was filed. See also Sewell v. Wilson, 97 N.M. 523, 641 P.2d 1070 (Ct.App.1982). Thus, Dr. Roberts’ letter added significant support to the theory that plaintiff’s complaints were related to his past medical history, and not the administration of drugs. See Wilson. Admission of the letter was reversible error. Defendant Dr. Gerety argues that this Court should affirm the trial court regardless of any alleged error against plaintiff because of the trial court’s error in failing to render a directed verdict for defendant doctors at conclusion of plaintiff’s case. Dr. Gerety makes this appeal on the basis of NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 3(b) (Cum.Supp.1983), which allows an appellee to obtain review of errors without a cross-appeal for the purpose of enabling the appellate court to affirm. “[I]t is error for the court to direct a verdict in favor of a defendant at the close of plaintiff’s case unless plaintiff has presented no facts which would support a judgment in his favor.” Jones v. New Mexico School of Mines, 75 N.M. 326, 404 P.2d 289 (1965). Defendant Dr. Gerety did not supply this Court with a complete transcript of plaintiff’s case. It is impossible to determine if failure to grant a directed verdict was error without reviewing all the evidence presented by plaintiff. It is Dr. Gerety who seeks the review. It was his obligation to furnish the transcript.' It is not plaintiff’s obligation as suggested at oral argument. State v. Duran, 91 N.M. 756, 581 P.2d 19 (1978). Peremptory Challenges Over plaintiff’s objection, defendant Dr. Gerety was granted five separate per emptory challenges in addition to the five joint challenges for Drs. Wilson and Bhati because of his antagonism of interest with them. Plaintiff argued to the trial court that there was no “diversity of interest” among the three doctors. Although the three doctors were originally represented by a single counsel, at the time of trial Dr. Gerety was represented by separate counsel and had filed a separate answer which raised independent intervening cause and the tortious conduct of others as affirmative defenses. Plaintiff claims that the trial court erred by giving defendant Dr. Gerety five separate peremptory challenges. Because we reverse, we discuss this issue, which we assume will arise on retrial. Peremptory challenges are governed by NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 38(e) (Cum.Supp. 1983), which reads in part: (e) Challenges in civil cases. When there are two or more parties defendant, or parties plaintiff, they will exercise their peremptory challenges jointly ____ However, if the relief sought by or against the parties on the same side of a civil case differs, or if their interests are diverse, or if cross-claims are to be tried, the court shall allow each such party on that side of the suit ... five peremptory challenges if the case is to be tried to a jury of twelve. Plaintiff relies on Strickland v. Roosevelt County, Etc., 94 N.M. 459, 612 P.2d 689 (Ct.App.1980); and Trotter v. Callens, 89 N.M. 19, 546 P.2d 867 (Ct.App.1976). In Trotter, plaintiffs, a number of individuals, sued defendants (flying service, insurance company, and manufacturer) for damages arising out of aerial spraying of pesticide. The jury found that the flying service was not liable, and plaintiffs appealed. On appeal, plaintiffs argued that the trial court erred in allowing plaintiffs to exercise only five peremptory challenges. We affirmed, stating: The issue is whether they were entitled to more than five. That issue is determined by whether the plaintiffs sought different relief or whether their interests were diverse. The plaintiffs employed the same attorneys. There is nothing showing their interests were antagonistic____ The amount of damages was not tried; that issue would be tried at a later date ____ The relief sought—that Flying Service caused damage—did not differ. Nothing indicates plaintiffs’ interests were diverse. Plaintiff’s case is distinguishable based on the factors identified by the Trotter court. At the time of trial, defendants were represented by different counsel and had been since July 12, 1982, which was a few weeks after certiorari was denied in Bartlett v. New Mexico Welding Supply, Inc., 98 N.M. 152, 646 P.2d 579 (Ct.App.1982), which abolished joint and several liability. At the time of trial, defendant Dr. Gerety had filed a separate answer which raised independent intervening cause and negligence of others as affirmative defenses. Strickland, the other case plaintiff relies on, reversed the trial court and granted a new trial. Two judges agreed in that result, one judge dissented. Thus, the result went only to reversal and not the discussion. See NMSA 1978, § 34-5-11 (Repl. Pamp.1981); Casias v. Zia Co., 94 N.M. 723, 616 P.2d 436 (Ct.App.1980). The discussion in Strickland serves no precedential value and is not considered. Defendants’ argument is that comparative negligence, plus the abolition of joint and several liability, means that multiple defendants will automatically seek to establish the others’ liability. Distad v. Cubin, 633 P.2d 167 (Wyo.1981), is relied on by defendant Dr. Gerety. Distad was an appeal from a verdict against plaintiff in a wrongful death action; the Supreme Court of Wyoming affirmed. An issue on appeal was whether the trial court erred in allowing each defendant separate peremptory challenges. The defendants were a doctor and a hospital. The Wyoming rule differed from the New Mexico rule; it provided that “each side is allowed three (3) peremptory challenges.” Distad, 633 P.2d at 170, quoting from § 1-11-202, W.S.1977. Therefore, the question on appeal was what was meant by “side.” The court concluded that a determination of whether multiple defendants constituted separate sides involved looking at the claim against them and “whether the defendants’ interests are or may be antagonistic.” Antagonistic interests must also be considered under New Mexico’s Rule 38(e). Trotter. The Distad court focused on the different acts of negligence attributed to the defendants. In this case, plaintiff accuses only Drs. Wilson and Bhati of negligence in prescribing drugs. When different independent acts of negligence are alleged in a suit governed by comparative negligence, “very seldom will multiple defendants not have antagonistic interests. There is ... a triangle of parties as actors.” Distad. Accordingly, we hold that the trial court properly granted defendant Dr. Gerety five separate peremptory challenges because his interests were antagonistic to those of the other defendants based on the pleadings and the effect of the comparative negligence doctrine. Reversed and remanded for a new trial. Plaintiff is awarded appellate costs. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and ALARID, JJ., concur.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. Plaintiffs Central Adjustment Bureau and Vista Sandia Hospital (Central Adjustment) obtained a default judgment against defendant Corrine Vener Thevenet for a debt on an open account. When they were unable to collect from Corrine, a garnishment was issued and a judgment entered against Equitable Life Assurance Society (garnishee), the employer of defendant’s husband, Stanley Thevenet (Stanley). A judgment against garnishee in the amount of one-half of twenty-five percent of Stanley’s disposable income each pay period ultimately was entered in favor of plaintiffs. Because some of the issues raised on appeal concern procedural matters, we detail the history of this action. Stanley moved to intervene in the garnishment proceedings to quash the writ. The motion was denied and Stanley petitioned this Court for a writ of prohibition and an order quashing the writ of garnishment. We issued a writ in that cause, No. 14,511, ordering that “all garnishment orders that relate to [Stanley Thevenet] * * * are directed to be set aside and held for naught,” and remanding the cause for an evidentiary hearing on the marital status of Corrine and Stanley Thevenet, the nature of the debt, and Corrine’s interest in her husband’s salary. Following a hearing on the mandate, the trial court on December 13, 1983, vacated its earlier order and judgment, and awarded $1776.00 to Stanley for services rendered by his attorney in the prohibition proceeding. The December 13th order was subsequently vacated to allow findings of fact and conclusions of law to be filed. A second order was entered in February which again set aside all garnishment or ders relating to Stanley, and awarded Stanley an attorney’s fee of $1776.00. It is from this February order that Central Adjustment appeals even though, prior to filing the notice of appeal, the trial court once again set aside and vacated the February order to allow filing of findings and conclusions, entering a “final” judgment on March 14, 1983. In the March judgment the trial court incorporated its findings and conclusions and entered the garnishment order against Stanley’s employer as described above. Central Adjustment was also awarded an attorney’s fee in accordance with NMSA 1978, Section 35-12-16(A). Central Adjustment appeals the trial court’s award of an attorney’s fee to Stanley. Stanley cross-appeals, arguing that the trial court erred in entering a judgment for Central Adjustment against garnishee. Against this background, the following issues on appeal and cross-appeal are raised: (1) Whether the trial court exceeded its jurisdiction in awarding an attorney’s fee to Stanley. (2) Whether setting aside all garnishment orders amounted to a “quashing” of the writ of garnishment so that the trial court’s judgment of March 14 was without a writ upon which to act. (3) Whether the wages of one spouse can be garnished to pay the separate debt of the other spouse if the debtor spouse’s separate property is not sufficient to satisfy the debt. (4) Whether the New Mexico garnishment statute is void because it fails to provide due process for persons whose property is garnished. 1. Award of Attorney’s Fee The district court exceeded the mandate by awarding attorney’s fees to Stanley for services performed by his attorney in obtaining the writ of prohibition. [District courts have only such jurisdiction on remand as the opinion and mandate of an appellate court specifies * * *. It is well settled that the duty of the lower court on remand is to comply with the mandate of the appellate court, and to obey the directions therein without variation, even though the mandate may be erroneous. Vinton Eppsco Inc. of Albuquerque v. Showe Homes, Inc., 97 N.M. 225, 226, 638 P.2d 1070, 1071 (1981). (Citations omitted.) In this matter, we remanded for an evidentiary hearing on specific questions. Whereas it was implicitly intended that the trial court take action of some sort upon the facts adduced at the hearing ordered, we said nothing in our mandate about awarding attorney’s fees. In the absence of an authorizing statute or rule of court, or the applicability of an exception as discussed in Aboud v. Adams, 84 N.M. 683, 507 P.2d 430 (1973), attorney’s fees are not recoverable. Southern Union Exploration Company v. Wynn Exploration Company, Inc., 95 N.M. 594, 624 P.2d 536 (Ct.App.1981). NMSA 1978, Civ.P.Rule 27(B) (Repl. Pamp.1984), provides, however, that appellate courts may award attorney’s fees where permitted by law or “may award such other costs as, in its judgment, may be deemed proper.” Through oversight, we neglected to award an attorney’s fees when we issued our writ in Cause No. 14,511. We are satisfied that Stanley Thevenet’s counsel proved at the December 13, 1982, hearing in the trial court that he had earned an attorney’s fee for his successful services in the prohibition proceeding. It cannot be questioned that, upon the Court’s own motion or upon motion of any of the parties, the Court may recall its mandate to correct or clarify a matter inadvertently overlooked. Southwestern Inv. Corp. v. City of Los Angeles, 38 Cal.2d 623, 241 P.2d 985 (1952); cf. Weeks v. Lister, 62 N.J. Eq. 813, 53 A. 1125 (1901). We do so now on our own motion; and upon the record made in the trial court on the matter of Thevenet’s attorney’s fees for services in this Court, we modify the mandate in Cause No. 14,- 511 to grant such attorney’s fees to Thevenet’s counsel in the amount of $1500.00, plus costs of $68.60. 2. Status of the Writ There is no merit to cross-appellee Thevenet’s claim that because the trial court’s December 13,1982, order quashed the writ, there was nothing to support the trial court’s judgment of March 14, 1983. The December 13th order quashing the writ was vacated on December 15th to permit filing of findings and conclusions concerning award of an attorney’s fee. It was replaced by an order of February 10, 1983 which set aside all garnishment orders relating to Stanley Thevenet and awarded a fee to his attorney. The February 10th order subsequently was vacated so the parties could submit findings and conclusions on the merits of the garnishment action, and in March, 1983, the court filed its findings and conclusions and a judgment on the merits. None of the trial court’s orders or judgment, subsequent to the order of December 13, 1982 which was set aside, provided for dissolution of the writ. That provision in the December 13th order was effectively retracted by the court’s proper exercise of its jurisdiction, on December 15th, over its orders and decrees within the 30-day period after entry. NMSA 1978, § 39-1-1. The trial court correctly proceeded to final judgment on a valid writ of garnishment in this matter. 3. Wages of Non-debtor Spouse The trial court’s findings that Corrine’s debt to Central Adjustment was her separate debt, that Central Adjustment had exhausted all possibilities of collecting the judgment from Corrine’s separate property, that Stanley and Corrine had been married since 1973, and that Stanley’s salary from garnishee was community property, are not contested. The question is whether the trial court properly applied NMSA 1978, Section 40-3-10 (Repl.Pamp.1983), in concluding that one-half of twenty-five percent of Stanley’s disposable income, representing Corrine’s community property interest in her spouse’s non-exempt income under NMSA 1978, Section 35-12-7 (Cum. Supp.1983), was available to satisfy Corrine’s debt to Central Adjustment. Section 40-3-10(A) provides: The separate debt of a spouse shall be satisfied first from the debtor spouse’s separate property, excluding that spouse’s interest in property in which each of the spouses owns an undivided equal interest as a joint tenant or tenant in common. Should such property be insufficient, then the debt shall be satisfied from the debtor spouse’s one-half interest in the community property or in property in which each spouse owns an undivided equal interest as a joint tenant or tenant in common * * *. Stanley relies on Field v. Sammis, 12 N.M. 36, 73 P. 617 (1903), to assert that the garnishee can have no greater liability to a creditor than he has to the defendant debt- or. Although he acknowledges that a spouse has a vested interest in “tangible” community assets, he contends that because wages normally are payable only to the person who has earned them, as a matter of public policy one spouse should not be able to demand from an employer one-half of the other spouse’s wages. Stanley’s position is that since Corrine should not have been able to obtain payment of one-half of his wages, neither should Central Adjustment, her creditor, have the right to garnish his wages in order to satisfy their judgment against Corrine. The law does not support Stanley’s arguments. The Court of Appeals declared in Herrera v. Health and Social Services, 92 N.M. 331, 587 P.2d 1342 (Ct.App.1978), that a wife has a “present, vested, one-half interest” in her husband’s income. Id. at 334, 587 P.2d at 1345. In Duran v. New Mexico Dept. of Human Services, 95 N.M. 196, 619 P.2d 1240 (Ct.App.1980), it again observed that “the wife has income equal to one-half the total community income re gardless of what proportion of that income is actually paid to that spouse in the form of wages or rents.” Id. at 200, 619 P.2d at 1244. Duran noted that the wife does not have a mere “technical income” from her husband’s earnings; her one-half share in the community income is sufficient to provide the legal basis for her “creditor” daughter’s claim on that one-half interest. 95 N.M. at 201, 619 P.2d at 1245. See also McDonald v. Senn, 53 N.M. 198, 204 P.2d 990 (1949); Beals v. Ares, 25 N.M. 459, 185 P. 780 (1919). Considering the wife’s vested one-half interest in all of the community property, the provisions of Section 40-3-10, the trial court’s findings that the creditor had exhausted the possibilities of recovering the debt from Corrine’s separate property, and that Stanley’s income was community property, we hold that the trial court correctly concluded that one-half of Stanley’s income from garnishee was available to satisfy Corrine's debt to Central Adjustment. 4. Due Process Stanley finally argues, citing Finberg v. Sullivan, 634 F.2d 50 (3d Cir.1980), that the holdings of the United States Supreme Court with respect to the due process requirements of pre-judgment garnishments apply also to post-judgment garnishments. According to Finberg, we are urged, NMSA 1978, Section 35-12-1, as applied to post-judgment garnishments, fails to provide (1) the required proper notice to the person whose property is to be seized, and (2) opportunity for a prompt hearing. Stanley further contends that the New Mexico garnishment statute unlawfully allows the seizure of the property of a third person, not just of the property of the judgment debtor. These arguments are answered by our holding that one-half of Stanley’s income is available to satisfy Corrine’s separate debt, because Corrine has a legally recognized interest in one-half of Stanley’s income. Consequently, Central Adjustment moved to effect a post-judgment garnishment of its judgment debtor’s (Corrine’s) property, not Stanley’s. Corrine has not claimed that she was denied due process; Stanley is without standing to raise that argument for Corrine. See Campbell v. Benson, 97 N.M. 147, 637 P.2d 578 (Ct.App.1981). Under such circumstances, the New Mexico garnishment statutes did not operate to deprive Stanley of his property without affording him due process of law. See Komm v. Dept of Soc. & Health Serv., 23 Wash.App. 593, 597 P.2d 1372 (1979). The judgment of the district court is affirmed. An award of attorney’s fees in Cause No. 14,511 in the amount of $1500.00, plus costs of $68.60, to Stanley Thevenet’s attorney is granted. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and SOSA, Senior Justice, concur.
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OPINION MINZNER, Justice. Defendant-Appellant, State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Company (State Farm), appeals an order of summary judgment entered in favor of Plaintiff-Appellee, Tony R. Samora (Samora). We address the question not answered in Mountain States Mutual Casualty Co. v. Martinez, 115 N.M. 141, 144, 848 P.2d 527, 530 (1993) (Ransom, J., specially concurring); that is, whether an injured passenger’s “Class I” coverage is reduced by a liability payment made by a “Class II” insurer when the same liability payment also reduced the “Class II” insurer’s coverage for the same injured passenger. For the reasons discussed below, we reverse and remand to the trial court for entry of summary judgment in favor of State Farm. I. FACTS The relevant facts are uncontested. Samora was injured when he was a passenger in a vehicle that was involved in a one car accident. The driver was insured by American States Insurance Company (American States). The American States policy provided for a $50,000 limit on liability per person per accident. The policy also contained a provision limiting uninsured/underinsured motorist (UIM) coverage to $50,000 per person per accident. In addition, the American States policy included an offset provision that required any amount of UIM coverage to be offset by any liability amounts paid. Accordingly, Samora was paid only $50,000 under the liability provision. The parties do not dispute that the contractual offset is valid and that Samora is not entitled to UIM coverage under the American States policy. At the time of the accident Samora was covered by a family insurance policy held by his parents and issued through State Farm. The State Farm policy provided for $25,000 in UIM coverage. When American States refused to pay Samora any additional damages under its policy because of the offset provision, Samora sought payment under the UIM clause of the State Farm policy. After State Farm refused to pay Samora any additional amounts under the policy, Samora filed a declaratory relief action requesting that the district court declare the rights and liabilities of the parties with respect to the insurance policy. The trial court entered summary judgment in favor of Samora. The trial court concluded that under the insurance contract with State Farm, Samora’s “Class I” insurer, Samora had a reasonable expectation that he would be covered for damages he sustained as a result of an accident involving an underinsured/uninsured driver. The trial court determined that a policy exclusion such as the one contained in the American States policy was not contemplated by Samora. State Farm’s argument on appeal is twofold. First, State Farm claims that it is entitled to the statutory offset contained in NMSA 1978, Section 66-5-301(B) (Repl. Pamp.1994), because it is a “Class I” insurer, even though the American States policy also contained an offset provision. Second, State Farm contends that Samora could not have reasonably expected UIM benefits under the State Farm policy. II. DISCUSSION Our inquiry begins with the definitions of “Class I” and “Class II” insureds. While Class I insureds include “the named insured, the spouse, and those relatives that reside in the household]!,] ... Class II insureds are insured by virtue of their passenger status in an insured vehicle.” Tarango v. Farmers Ins. Co. of Arizona, 115 N.M. 225, 226, 849 P.2d 368, 369 (1993). Samora was directly insured by State Farm through his parents’ policy with State Farm; therefore, Samora is a Class I insured of State Farm. Similarly, Samora is a Class II insured of American States because his coverage under the American States policy arises from his status as a passenger in an insured vehicle. A. Contractual Offset Our determination whether both a statutory offset and a contractual offset may be applied against the liability payment made to an injured party by a Class II insurer necessarily requires us to determine what UIM benefits were available to Samora in this case. Samora contends that the State Farm UIM coverage of $25,000 and the American States UIM coverage of $50,000 should be stacked for a total of $75,000 available coverage. Samora reasons that the American States contractual offset of $50,000 should be applied against the $50,000 liability payment, relieving American States of any further obligation and leaving $25,000 in UIM benefits to be paid by State Farm. In contrast, State Farm argues that $75,-000 is not the total available UIM coverage. State Farm reasons that the offset clause contained in the American States policy reduced the UIM coverage to zero under that policy because Samora was paid the liability limit of $50,000. Thus, there is no coverage to “stack” with the coverage provided under the State Farm policy. State Farm further reasons that since there is no UIM coverage under the American States policy, there is nothing against which the mandatory statutory offset may be applied. As a result, State Farm argues that it is entitled to the offset, meaning that it is not required to pay any additional amount to Samora. We have stated in earlier decisions that public policy favors the stacking of coverage in underinsured/uninsured motorist cases, see, e.g., Jimenez v. Foundation Reserve Ins. Co., 107 N.M. 322, 325, 757 P.2d 792, 795 (1988); therefore, we understand how Samora arrived at the figure of $75,000 as the amount of UIM coverage available. However, we believe State Farm’s calculation of available UIM coverage more accurately reflects our reasoning in Mountain States Mutual Casualty Co. v. Martinez. In that case we upheld a contractual exclusion contained in an insurance policy under which UIM coverage was offset by the amount paid under the liability portion of the policy. We determined that the exclusion did not violate public policy because it affected a Class II insured rather than a Class I insured. 115 N.M. at 142, 848 P.2d at 528. In this case, since Samora is a Class II insured under the policy issued by American States and held by the negligent driver, the contractual offset provision contained in the American States policy is valid and enforceable and is not in violation of public policy. Because of the American States policy exclusion, no UIM benefits were available to Samora under the policy because he was paid the liability limit of $50,000. B. Statutory Offset Section 66-5-301(B) defines an “underinsured motorist” as “an operator of a motor vehicle with respect to the ownership, maintenance or use of which the sum of the limits of liability under all bodily injury liability insurance applicable at the time of the accident is less than the limits of liability under the insured’s uninsured motorist coverage.” In Schmick v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co., 103 N.M. 216, 223, 704 P.2d 1092, 1099 (1985), we interpreted the statutory definition of “underinsured” as inherently including an offset equal to the tortfeasor’s liability coverage. Specifically, we noted that because Section 66-5-301(B) limits the insured’s recovery to the amount of uninsured motorist coverage purchased for his or her benefit, see id., — assuming the insured’s damages exceed the amount of that coverage — a person will be underinsured only “when the aggregate of the insured’s uninsured motorist coverage reduced by the, tortfeasor’s liability coverage is greater than zero.” Thus offset is required to ensure that the insured does not receive payment from his or her insurer greater than the coverage purchased. State Farm contends that the offset mandated by Section 66-5-301(B) entitles it to offset the $50,000 liability-insurance payment made to Samora by American States against the $25,000 UIM coverage provided under its own insurance policy. Thus, State Farm reasons, Samora is not entitled to any additional payment because he received twice the amount of the $25,000 limit contained in the State Farm policy. State Farm contends that as a Class I insurer, it is entitled to the statutory offset. We agree with State Farm that it is entitled to the statutory offset. Our determination is consistent with the second part of Section 66-5-301(B), which refers to the “insured’s” UIM coverage, and, therefore, necessarily refers to the injured party’s insurance company, the Class I insurer. Applying the statutory offset to this case, the $25,000 in UIM coverage provided by Samora’s State Farm policy is completely offset by the $50,-000 paid to him by American States. According to the definition of Section 66-5-301(B), the negligent driver was not underinsured because the negligent driver’s liability coverage of $50,000 exceeded Samora’s UIM coverage of $25,000. See Schmick, 103 N.M. at 223, 704 P.2d at 1098. Therefore, Samora was not entitled to any additional payment from State Farm. C. Insured’s Contractual Expectations Relying on our decision in Padilla v. Dairyland Insurance Co., 109 N.M. 555, 787 P.2d 835 (1990), the trial court concluded that Samora could reasonably expect UIM coverage by virtue of his contractual relationship with State Farm, the Class I insurer, and that an offset under the present circumstances was not contemplated by the parties. While the trial court is correct that Padilla stands for the proposition that an insured has reasonable expectations in a contractual relationship with an insurance company, we do not believe those expectations extend to the facts of the instant case. Specifically, an insured cannot reasonably expect to recover more than the UIM coverage for which he or she paid. Here, Samora paid for $25,000 of UIM coverage and received $50,000 in benefits from the driver’s insurance company. Samora therefore could not expect to recover payment from State Farm. We are cognizant of Samora’s argument that permitting both a statutory and a contractual offset results in a “double” offset on behalf of the insurers. Contrary to Samora’s assertion, we believe the two types of offset are distinct. In this case the contractual offset contained in the American States policy affects Samora’s status as a Class II insured. In contrast, the mandatory statutory offset contained in Section 66-5-301(B) applies to the Class I insurer, State Farm. We are unpersuaded that any double offset occurred, especially given the fact that Samora did not recover an amount less than his UIM coverage under the State Farm policy, and in fact recovered in excess of that amount. III. CONCLUSION State Farm was entitled to offset the $50,-000 paid to Samora by American States against the $25,000 of UIM coverage provided by its policy. Therefore, State Farm owed no additional payment to Samora. The judgment entered in favor of Samora is vacated. We reverse and remand to the trial court for entry of judgment in favor of State Farm. No costs are awarded. IT IS SO ORDERED. RANSOM and FROST, JJ., concur. . We construe the term "insured” as used in Section 66-5-301(B) to mean the party injured in the accident. This definition is consistent with our interpretation of Section 66-5-301(B) in Schmick v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co.
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OPINION WOOD, Judge. NMSA 1978, § 57-1-1 (Cum.Supp.1982), part of our Antitrust Act, pertains to restraint of trade. Prohibited restraints of trade may be dealt with in civil or criminal proceedings. NMSA 1978, §§ 57-1-3 and 57-1-6 (Cum.Supp.1982). Defendant was charged with criminal restraint of trade. The charge was in the alternative, that defendant violated either Paragraph A or Paragraph B of § 57-1-1. The trial court granted defendant’s motion to dismiss the Paragraph A charge; the State appealed. The appeal is concerned with the meaning of Paragraphs A and B. The motion to dismiss was granted after the State “agreed that either alternative charge was based on an alleged conspiracy among competitors to fix the retail price of gasoline.” The trial court concluded: “Where an allegation of fixing prices is the complained of activity * * * the charge must be brought under Section 57-l-l(B) because that subsection specifically refers to conspiracies that control prices whereas Section 57-l-l(A) refers only to conspiracies in restraint of trade.” The trial court misread the statute; we reverse. A comparison of federal action with New Mexico action aids in understanding the meaning of the New Mexico statute. The Sherman Antitrust Act was enacted in 1890. Section 1 of that Act, see 15 U.S. C.A. § 1 (Supp.1982), reads: Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal. New Mexico enacted a restraint of trade statute by Laws 1891, ch. 10, § 1. It is compiled as NMSA 1978, § 57-1-1 (orig. pamp.), and reads: Every contract or combination between individuals, associations or corporations, having for its object or which shall operate to restrict trade or commerce or control the quantity, price or exchange of any article of manufacture or product of the soil or mine, is hereby declared to be illegal. This 1891 statute did not track the federal statute. United States v. United States Gypsum Co., 438 U.S. 422, 98 S.Ct. 2864, 57 L.Ed.2d 854 was decided in 1978. Gypsum held: (a) 15 U.S.C.A. § 1 is not a strict liability statute. (b) “[I]ntent is a necessary element” of a federal criminal antitrust violation; “criminal offenses defined by the Sherman Act should be construed as including intent as an element.” (Id. 438 U.S. at 443, 98 S.Ct. at 2876.) By Laws 1979, ch. 374, § 1, § 57-1-1 was amended to its present wording, which is: A. Every contract, agreement, combination or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce, any part of which trade or commerce is within this state, is hereby declared to be unlawful. B. Every contract, agreement, combination or conspiracy which controls the quantity, price or exchange of any article of manufacture, product of the soil or mine or any goods or services in restraint of trade is hereby declared to be unlawful. NMSA 1978, § 57-1-15 (Cum.Supp.1982), also enacted in 1979, reads: Unless otherwise provided in the Antitrust Act [57-1-1 to 57-1-15 NMSA 1978], the Antitrust Act shall be construed in harmony with judicial interpretations of the federal antitrust laws. This construction shall be made to achieve uniform application of the state and federal laws prohibiting restraints of trade and monopolistic practices. The similarity between 15 U.S.C.A. § 1 and § 57-l-l(A) is obvious. Here the State claims a conspiracy. Both statutes require a conspiracy in restraint of trade. We look to federal decisions to determine the meaning of “restraint of trade”. Section 57-1-15. A conspiracy to fix prices is a per se restraint of trade. ■This means that the reasonableness of the prices is not an issue. The “rule of reason” does not apply to per se restraints of trade. Compare Elephant Butte Alfalfa Ass’n. v. Rouault, 33 N.M. 136, 262 P. 185 (1926). United States v. Trenton Potteries, 273 U.S. 392, 47 S.Ct. 377, 71 L.Ed. 700 (1927), explains: The aim and result of every price-fixing agreement, if effective, is the elimination of one form of competition. The power to fix prices, whether reasonably exercised or not, involves power to control the market and to fix arbitrary and unreasonable prices. The reasonable price fixed today may through economic and business changes become the unreasonable price of tomorrow. Once established, it may be maintained unchanged because of the absence of competition secured by the agreement for a price reasonable when fixed. Agreements which create such potential power may well be held to be in themselves unreasonable or unlawful restraints, without the necessity of minute inquiry whether a particular price is reasonable or unreasonable as fixed and without placing on the government in enforcing the Sherman Law the burden of ascertaining from day to day whether it has become unreasonable through the mere variation of economic conditions. [Id. 273 U.S. at 397, 47 S.Ct. at 379.] 5jt * * * * * The charge of the trial court * * * fairly submitted to the jury the question whether a price-fixing agreement * * * was entered into by the respondents. Whether the prices actually agreed upon were reasonable or unreasonable was immaterial in the circumstances. * * * [Id. 273 U.S. at 401, 47 S.Ct. at 381.] United States v. Socony-Vacuum Oil Co., 310 U.S. 150, 218, 60 S.Ct. 811, 842, 84 L.Ed. 1129 (1940), states: [T]his Court has consistently and without deviation adhered to the principle that price-fixing agreements are unlawful per se under the Sherman Act and that no showing of so-called competitive abuses or evils which those agreements were designed to eliminate or alleviate may be interposed as a defense. Price-fixing agreements, without more, are unreasonable restraints of trade. A crime occurs under 15 U.S.C.A. § 1, and § 57-l-l(A), if there is a conspiracy to fix prices with the requisite intent. The anti-competitive effect—the price fixing—does not have to occur. Gypsum explains: Our question instead is whether a criminal violation of the antitrust laws requires, in addition to proof of anticompetitive effects, a demonstration that the disputed conduct was undertaken with the “conscious object” of producing such effects, or whether it is sufficient that the conduct is shown to have been undertaken with knowledge that the proscribed effects would most likely follow. While the difference between these formulations is a narrow one, see ALI, Model Penal Code, Comment on § 2.02, p. 125 (Tent. Draft No. 4, 1955), we conclude that action undertaken with knowledge of its probable consequences and having the requisite anticompetitive effects can be a sufficient predicate for a finding of criminal liability under the antitrust laws. [Id. 438 U.S. at 444, 98 S.Ct. at 2877.] As to the treatment of intent where anti-competitive effects have been demonstrated, Note, Criminal Intent and the Sherman Act: The Label Per Se Can’t Take Gypsum Away, 32 Hastings L.J. 499 (1980). It being stipulated that the criminal charge was based on an alleged conspiracy among competitors to fix the retail price of gasoline, the charge was properly under § 57-l-l(A) unless § 57-l-l(B) makes § 57-l-l(A) inapplicable. Section 57-l-l(B) has no counterpart in the federal statute. It is similar to § 57-1-1(A) in that it applies to a conspiracy in restraint of trade. However, Paragraph B has an additional requirement, a consequence is required—a “conspiracy which controls the quantity, price or exchange of any article of manufacture, product of the soil or mine or any goods or services[.]” This language comes from the New Mexico statute of 1891. Inasmuch as “control” is not required to violate § 57-l-l(A), see United States v. Socony-Vacuum Oil Co., why was the “control” language carried forward into the amendment enacted in 1979? State v. Gurley, 25 N.M. 233, 180 P. 288 (1919), provides the answer. Gurley, discussing our 1891 Act, states: In order for the contract to be violative of the statute it must have been one having for its object, or which would operate to restrict trade or commerce, or control the quantity, price, or exchange of the broom corn in question. In 19 R.C:L. p. 115, it is said: “It is generally agreed that if the necessary effect of the contract or combination is to stifle or directly or necessarily to restrict free competition or lessen it to an unreasonable extent, such contract or combination is under the ban of the law, whatever may have been the intention of the parties.” This we believe to be generally accepted as a correct statement of the law. [Id. 25 N.M. at 237, 180 P. 288.] Having followed Gypsum, and its requirement of intent, in enacting § 57-1-1(A), the Legislature enacted § 57-l-l(B) as a no intent crime. Compare State v. Barber, 91 N.M. 764, 581 P.2d 27 (Ct.App. 1978). Where the conspiracy to fix the price of gasoline results in actual control of the price of gasoline, § 57-l-l(B) is violat ed “whatever may have been the intention of the parties.” Summarizing: (a) Section 57-l-l(A) is violated by a conspiracy to fix prices with the requisite intent. (b) Section 57-l-l(B) is violated by a conspiracy to fix prices if the result is control of the price. No intent is required. The trial court erred in dismissing the charge under § 57-l-l(A), and in ruling that a conspiracy to control must be prosecuted under § 57-l-l(B). The charges, being in the alternative, were proper in that one crime was charged as having been committed in two ways. See State v. Ortiz, 90 N.M. 319, 563 P.2d 113 (Ct.App.1977); State v. Gurule, 90 N.M. 87, 559 P.2d 1214 (Ct.App.1977). Trial should proceed under the alternative charges. If the State’s proof is insufficient to show that the alleged conspiracy resulted in control of gasoline prices,' the charge under § 57-l-l(B) should not be submitted to the jury. The order dismissing the charge under § 57-l-l(A) is reversed. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, J., concurs. LOPEZ, J., dissents. Footnote 21 to Gypsum states: In so holding, we do not mean to suggest that conduct undertaken with the purpose of producing anticompetitive effects would not also support criminal liability, even if such effects did not come to pass. Cf. United States v. Griffith, 334 U.S. 100, 105 [68 S.Ct. 941, 944, 92 L.Ed. 1236] (1948). We hold only that this elevated standard of intent need not be established in eases where anticompetitive effects have been demonstrated; instead, proof that the defendant’s conduct was undertaken with knowledge of its probable consequences will satisfy the Government’s burden. [Id. 438 U.S. at 444, 98 S.Ct. at 2877.]
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. The respondent, Rita D. Winters, surviving widow of decedent Kenneth D. Harcrow, appeals from an order of the trial court denying her motion for the payment of a lump sum award of workers’ compensation benefits following her remarriage. On appeal respondent raises two issues: (1) error in denial of lump sum award; and (2) denial of attorneys fees. We reverse. Facts On October 15, 1979, Kenneth D. Harcrow, respondent’s deceased husband, was injured while working at a drilling site near Artesia. The injuries subsequently result ed in his death. Respondent and her deceased husband are the parents of Chad Lee Harcrow, a minor. Following the death of decedent, his employer, WEK Drilling Company (WEK), and Employers National Insurance Company (Employers), its worker’s compensation insurance carrier, voluntarily paid compensation benefits pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-46, to the respondent and her minor child, in the amount of $186.38 per week. On December 23, 1982, respondent remarried. Following her remarriage, respondent made demand upon Employers and WEK for the payment of a lump sum benefit equal to two years’ payment of weekly compensation benefits pursuant to Section 52-1-46(0). Employers refused to pay the lump sum benefits and filed a declaratory judgment action in the District Court of Lea County. The action sought judicial determination as to whether respondent was entitled to receive two years’ lump sum compensation benefits and, if so, whether any lump sum payments so payable should be deducted from the remaining compensation benefits otherwise payable to her minor child. Respondent filed an answer and counterclaim asserting that she was entitled to the lump sum award of worker’s compensation benefits which Employers had refused to pay and seeking an award of attorneys fees. The trial court appointed a guardian ad litem to represent the minor child. Following a hearing on Employers’ motion for summary judgment, the district-court found that the essential facts underlying the disagreement between the parties were undisputed. The court granted summary judgment denying respondent’s request for the payment of lump sum benefits and adopted inter alia the following conclusions of law: 4. Winters [respondent], the widow of Kenneth D. Harcrow, was a spouse entitled to compensation benefits as a result of the death of Kenneth D. Harcrow as provided in Sec. 52-1-46 N.M.S.A. (1978). 5. By virtue of remarriage, Winters is not entitled to two years’ compensation benefits in one lump sum as provided in Sec. 52-1-46(0(4) N.M.S.A. (1978) until such time as the benefits to the minor child are terminated as provided in Sec. 52-1-17(E). 6. Winters is not entitled to receive any additional weekly compensation benefits unless the conditions set forth in Sec. 52-l-46(F) occur. 7. Winters is not entitled to any attorney fees in this action. The trial court’s order denying the award of lump sum benefits also directed that weekly compensation benefits of $186.38 should be continued to be paid to respondent on behalf of her minor child and should be deposited by her in an interest bearing account, not to be withdrawn without prior court approval. Respondent filed a timely appeal from the trial court’s order denying her counterclaim seeking a lump sum award and attorneys fees, I. Denial of Lump Sum Award Respondent contends that she is entitled to the payment of two years’ compensation benefits in one lump sum award under the provisions of Section 52-1-46. That statute provides: Subject to the limitation of compensation payable under Subsection G of this section, if an accidental injury sustained by a workman proximately results in his death within the period of two years following his accidental injury, compensation shall be paid in the amount and to the persons entitled thereto, as follows: jji sjt jjc j|e ;Js sje B. if there be eligible dependents at the time of the workman’s death, pay ments shall consist of * * * compensation benefits to the eligible dependents as hereinafter specified, subject to the limitation of the maximum period of recovery of compensation of six hundred weeks; C. if there are eligible dependents entitled thereto, compensation shall be paid to the dependents or to the person appointed by the court to receive the same for the benefit of the dependents in such portions and amounts, to be computed and distributed as follows: (1) to the child or children, if there be no widow or widower entitled to compensation, sixty-six and two-thirds percent of the average weekly wage of the deceased; * * * * * * (3) to the widow or widower, if there be a child or children living with the widow or widower, forty-five percent of the average weekly wage of the deceased, or forty percent, if such child is not or all such children are not living with a widow or widower, and in addition thereto, compensation benefits for the child or children which shall make the total benefits for the widow or widower and child or children sixty-six and two-thirds percent of the average weekly wage of the deceased. When there are two or more children, the compensation benefits payable on account of such children shall be divided among such children, share and share alike; and (4) two years’ compensation benefits in one lump sum shall be payable to a widow or widower upon remarriage; however, the total benefits shall not exceed the maximum compensation benefit as provided in Subsection B of this section; * * * * * * F. in the event of the death or remarriage of the widow or widower entitled to compensation benefits as provided in this section, the surviving children shall then be entitled to compensation benefits computed and paid as provided in Paragraph (1) of Subsection C of this section for the remainder of the compensable period. In the event compensation benefits payable to children as provided in this section are terminated as provided in Subsection E of Section 52-1-17 NMSA 1978, a surviving widow or widower shall then be entitled to compensation benefits computed and paid as provided in Paragraphs (2) and (4) of Subsection C of this section for the remainder of the compensable period * * * * G. no compensation benefits payable by reason of a workman’s death shall exceed the maximum weekly compensation benefits as provided in Section 52-1-41 NMSA 1978 and no dependent nor any class thereof, other than a widow, or widower or children, shall in any event be paid total benefits in excess of seven thousand five hundred dollars ($7,500) exclusive of funeral expenses and the expenses provided for medical and hospital services for the deceased paid for by the employer. [Emphasis added.] Respondent argues that the language of Subsection C(4) is mandatory and establishes a widow’s entitlement upon demand to two years’ compensation benefits payable in one lump sum upon remarriage, even though her son’s separate right of recovery of compensation benefits may be thereby reduced. Respondent also asserts that payment of the lump sum award to her would not result in the total benefits paid to her exceeding the 600-week maximum permissible period of recovery. Employers, however, contends that Sections 52-l-46(C)(4) and (F) should logically be construed together, so as to mean that the lump sum benefit to a widow is payable immediately only in the case where she has no minor children who are eligible to receive compensation benefits. Decedent died on or about October 15, 1979, and up until the time of respondent’s remarriage on December 23, 1982, approximately 220 weeks had elapsed, leaving approximately 380 weeks of remaining recoverable benefits. Employers points out that the full 600-week period of benefits allowed under Section 52-l-46(B) will expire before respondent’s minor child attains the age of eighteen. Employers argue that the direct result of any immediate payment of a two-year lump sum to respondent would be to favor respondent and deprive her minor child of his right to recover two full years of compensation benefits. Employers argues for a construction of Section 52-1-46, which although denying respondent the immediate right to receive payment of a lump sum award at the time of her remarriage, would nevertheless preserve and prolong the right of her minor child to continue receiving worker’s compensation benefits up to the maximum period of 600 weeks. The statutory construction urged by Employers is an interpretation that Section 52-1-46 permits a surviving widow to receive payment of a lump sum award upon her remarriage only after any benefits otherwise payable to an eligible surviving minor child have terminated. The issue before us is whether upon remarriage of respondent she is entitled to the payment of a lump sum award of compensation benefits (subject to the 600 weeks limitation on the maximum period of recovery) or whether the trial court may deny the payment of the lump sum award to her in order to prolong the right of her minor son to receive the payment of compensation benefits. The issue thus presented is a matter of first impression in this jurisdiction. We conclude that under Section 52-1-46, the legislative intent was to permit a surviving widow or widower who is currently receiving compensation benefits to recover as of the date of any remarriage, a lump sum award equal to two years’ compensation benefits. The right to such recovery is mandatory, subject, however, to the limitation that any recovery may be reduced by the 600-week maximum payment limitation. Under Section 52-1-46(C)(4), a surviving widow or widower is entitled to a lump sum payment of two years’ compensation benefits upon remarriage, even though the concomitant effect of such award may reduce the benefits payable to a surviving child. A similar result was upheld in Blankenship v. Highlands Insurance Co., 594 S.W.2d 147 (Tex.Civ.App.1980), where the Court of Civil Appeals of Texas construed a provision of the Texas worker’s compensation law. Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann. art. 8306 § 8 (Vernon Supp.1978). The court in Blankenship held that both a surviving spouse and the minor children have a vested interest in workmen’s compensation benefits as of the date of the death of the deceased worker, and where the spouse has remarried and received the two years’ lump sum benefit, the minor children have a reversionary interest in the remaining death benefits previously paid to the spouse. Although the exact language of the Texas statute differs in form from Section 52-1-46 of our law, we conclude that the rationale adopted by the court in Blankenship is also persuasive here. See also Freeman v. Texas Compensation Insurance Co., 586 S.W.2d 172 (Tex.Civ.App.1979). Cf. Garcia v. Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District, 99 N.M. 802, 664 P.2d 1000 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 99 N.M. 740, 663 P.2d 1197 (1983); Employers Mutual Liability Insurance Company of Wisconsin v. Jarde, 73 N.M. 371, 388 P.2d 382 (1963). The effect of any denial of the right of respondent to receive a lump sum award would be to relegate her to a lesser beneficiary priority under the statute than that of her minor child. See Aragon v. Anaconda Mining Co., 98 N.M. 65, 644 P.2d 1054 (Ct.App.1982). Employers contends that since respondent has remarried, her new husband is obligated to support her, and thus her right to collect worker’s compensation benefits should now be secondary to that of the minor child. See NMSA 1978, § 40-2-1 (Repl.Pamp.1983). However, as set forth by the legislature in the statutory scheme it adopted in Section 52-1-46 for the distribution of death benefits to the worker’s survivors, the surviving spouse and children of the deceased worker are of the same co-equal class of depend ents eligible for death benefits. While in New Mexico, under Section 40-2-1, husband and wife both have a mutual obligation to support the other, the mother still has a primary duty to support her minor child and is entitled to compensation benefits in her own right. We construe Subsection F of Section 52-1-46, providing for the continued payment of compensation benefits to surviving eligible children of a deceased workman, to be subject to the entitlement of a surviving spouse on remarriage to the payment of lump sum benefits provided in Section 52-l-46(C)(4). As noted in 2 A. Larson, The Law of Workmen’s Compensation § 64.42 (1983), one underlying purpose in providing for the payment of a lump sum award to a surviving widow on remarriage is to lessen the disincentive to remarriage that would be inherent in a flat cut-off of dependency benefits. Respondent is entitled to immediate payment of the lump sum award of weekly compensation benefits. However, under Section 52-l-46(C)(3), respondent’s weekly benefit before her remarriage was $125.81, and the child’s weekly benefit was $60.57. The lump sum payment to which respondent is entitled is $125.81 per week multiplied by 104 weeks. For 104 weeks the minor child is to receive his weekly benefits of $60.57. See Section 52-l-46(G). Upon the expiration of 104 weeks, the child is entitled to receive weekly payments of 66% % of the average weekly wage ($186.38) pursuant to Section 52-l-46(C)(l). See Blankenship v. Highlands Insurance Co. The sums paid during the pendency of this litigation shall first be applied to the child’s accrued benefits; the remainder shall be applied toward the lump sum payment. II. Attorneys Fees Respondent asserts that she is entitled to an award of reasonable attorneys fees in prosecuting her right to recover payment to her of the lump sum award. We agree. Recovery of compensation or obtaining a benefit. under the Workmen’s Compensation Act is a prerequisite to any entitlement to attorneys fees, Morgan v. Public Service Co. of New Mexico, 98 N.M. 775, 652 P.2d 1226 (Ct.App.1982). The former widow has obtained a benefit, as stated in this opinion. We have determined that respondent was entitled to an award of attorneys fees for her counsel in district court. The order on summary judgment is reversed and the cause remanded for proceedings consistent with this opinion. Plaintiff is awarded $1,200 as attorneys fees on appeal. . No costs are awarded. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and HENDLEY, JJ., concur.
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OPINION RIORDAN, Justice. Plaintiffs Larry and Janet Sprague (Spragues) brought suit in district court seeking a declaratory judgment that City of Las Vegas Resolution No. 68-32 (First Resolution) relinquished defendant City of Las Vegas’ (City) ownership of certain public land and that City of Las Vegas Resolution No. 70-10 (Second Resolution), which cancelled and revoked the First Resolution, was null and void. After a hearing, the district court granted the City’s motion for summary judgment and determined that the First Resolution was void. The Spragues appeal. We affirm in part and reverse in part. The issues we address are: I. Whether the district court erred in determining that the First Resolution was void. II. Whether the district court erred in granting the City’s motion for summary judgment. In June, 1970, a certain tract of land was dedicated to the City for use only as a driveway and parking area. The dedication was formally approved by the Planning Commission of the City of Las Vegas (Planning Commission) and was duly recorded in September, 1970. On June 18, 1980, the City Council of the City of Las Vegas (City Council), without referring the matter to the Planning Commission, adopted the First Resolution vacating the City’s title and interest to the dedicated land. Part of the vacated land is adjacent to land owned by the Spragues. The First Resolution was duly recorded on July 15, 1981. The Las Vegas City Attorney (City Attorney) requested that the Spragues prepare and submit to the City Council a quitclaim deed for conveyance of a portion of the vacated land adjacent to the Spragues’ property. However, the City Attorney later advised the City Council against executing a quitclaim deed to the Spragues because by vacating the land, the City had abandoned any interest therein. The City Council unanimously agreed not to sign the Spragues’ quitclaim deed. On October 21, 1981, the City Council adopted the Second Resolution, which revoked and cancelled the First Resolution. The City Attorney recommended this revocation to the City Council because of pending litigation between two other abutting property owners. On January 4, 1982, the Spragues filed suit in district court seeking a declaratory judgment that the First Resolution was valid and binding without issuance of a deed and that it could not be rescinded. The City filed its answer and then filed a motion for summary judgment. After a hearing, the district court granted the City’s motion for summary judgment, finding in part that “procedures required by law with respect to partial vacation of [the dedicated land] were not complied with and, therefore, [the First Resolution] is void and partial vacation did not take place.” I. First Resolution. On appeal, the Spragues argue that the First Resolution is not void because the City Council possessed legal authority to adopt it without consulting the Planning Commission. They claim that the City Council substantially complied with the provisions of NMSA 1978, Section 3-20-12 in vacating the dedicated land. We disagree. Pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 3-19-1, the City created, by ordinance, the Planning Commission and therein granted it “all of the powers and duties now or which may hereafter be conferred or imposed upon such commission by the laws of the State of New Mexico.” The Planning Commission was thereby delegated “the power, authority, jurisdiction and duty to enforce and carry out the provisions of law relating to planning, platting and zoning." NMSA 1978, § 3—19—1(B)(1) (emphasis added). Under NMSA 1978, Subsection 3-19-4(A)(1), a planning commission is also granted powers necessary to “fulfill and perform its functions.” Included among the laws relating to planning and platting is the law of vacation. 3-20-12. Section 3-20-12 sets forth the procedures for vacating a plat as follows: A. Any plat filed in the office of the county clerk may be vacated or a portion of the plat may be vacated provided: (1) The owners of the land in the territory proposed to be vacated sign a statement, duly acknowledged, declaring the plat or a portion of the plat to be vacated; and (2) the statement is endorsed “Approved” by the planning authority of the municipality within whose platting jurisdiction the subdivision lies. B. In approving the vacation or partial vacation of a plat, the planning authority of the municipality shall consider if the vacation or partial vacation of a plat will adversely affect the interest or rights of persons in contiguous territory or within the subdivision being vacated. In approving the vacation or partial vacation of a plat, the planning authority of the municipality may require that streets dedicated to the municipality in the original plat shall continue to be dedicated to the municipality. The owners of lots on the vacated plat or on the portion of the plat being vacated may enclose in equal proportions the adjoining streets and alleys which are authorized to be abandoned by the planning authority of the municipality. C. The statement declaring the vacation or partial vacation of a plat and having the proper endorsements shall be filed in the office of the county clerk wherein the original plat is filed. The county clerk shall mark the applicable words “Vacated” or “Partially Vacated” across the plat and shall refer on the plat to the volume and page on which the statement of vacation or partial vacation is recorded. (Emphasis added). The Spragues argue that the City “substantially complied” with the requirements of Section 3-20-12. They contend that the City Council has in- effect construed itself to be the “planning authority” and that by passing, signing, and filing the First Resolution, the City substantially complied with Section 3-20-12. Section 3-20-12 makes it clear that in order to vacate property, three requirements must be fulfilled: (1) the owners of the property sought to be vacated must sign a statement declaring the property to be vacated; (2) the owners’ statement must be approved by the planning authority; and (3) the owners’ statement must be appropriately filed. The first requirement was fulfilled because the City, which owns the property, acts through the City Council and the City Council signed the First Resolution. Since the City delegated to the Planning Commission the powers necessary to carry out the laws relating to planning and platting, we determine that for the purposes of the second requirement the Planning Commission is the “planning authority”. Where a municipality has created a planning commission, it is necessary for that commission to approve the statement declaring the property to be vacated. We therefore also determine that by not obtaining the Planning Commission’s approval of the vacation, the City failed to comply with the requirements of Section 3-20-12. We therefore hold that the dedicated land was never vacated, and that the First Resolution is void. Because we hold that the First Resolution is void, it is not necessary for us to discuss the validity and effect of the Second Resolution. II. Summary Judgment. Holding the First Resolution invalid does not necessarily resolve the entire matter. In the court below, the Spragues alleged that they had detrimentally relied on the First Resolution and that the City was therefore estopped from asserting its invalidity. See Dale J. Bellamah Corp. v. City of Santa Fe, 88 N.M. 288, 540 P.2d 218 (1975). However, the district court did not address this argument. Summary judgment is proper if “there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and * * * the moving party is entitled to a judgment as a matter of law.” NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 56 (Repl.Pamp.1980). In the present case, there is an issue of fact as to whether the Spragues detrimentally relied on the First Resolution. This Court cannot review this issue because the record does not contain the evidence the Spragues assert as a basis for this argument. Matsu v. Chavez, 96 N.M. 775, 635 P.2d 584 (1981). We therefore determine that summary judgment was improper and remand this case to the district court to hear evidence on and to decide the issue of estoppel. The judgment of the district court is affirmed in part and reversed in part, and the cause is remanded for proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and SOSA, J., concur.
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OPINION WOOD, Judge. The historical and current public policy of this state is to favor the settlement of disputed claims. Ratzlaff v. Seven Bar Flying Service, Inc., 98 N.M. 159, 646 P.2d 586 (Ct.App.1982). This policy applies to the settlement of lawsuits. Jones v. United Minerals Corp., 93 N.M. 706, 604 P.2d 1240 (1979); Bogle v. Potter, 68 N.M. 239, 360 P.2d 650 (1961); Esquibel v. Brown Construction Co., 85 N.M. 487, 513 P.2d 1269 (Ct.App.1973). The settlement of a lawsuit will be enforced by the courts. Jones. A party seeking relief from such a settlement has the burden of persuasion. Marrujo v. Chavez, 77 N.M. 595, 426 P.2d 199 (1967). Plaintiff (Gonzales) filed this lawsuit seeking damages for personal injuries allegedly sustained in an automobile accident. The parties orally settled the lawsuit. Gonzales reneged, refusing to carry out the settlement. Defendants moved that the settlement be enforced. Gonzales contended the settlement could not be enforced because of the Release Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 41-1-1 and -2 (Repl.Pamp. 1982). The trial court ordered Gonzales to comply with his settlement. Gonzales appeals. The question is whether noncompliance with the Release Act bars application of the public policy and prevents settlement of this lawsuit. We hold that the Release Act does not apply. We (a) state the background facts; (b) identify items not used in deciding the appeal; and (c) state the basis for our decision. Background The accident occurred in January 1981. Gonzales, the driver, and Castro, a passenger, sued. Castro’s complaint was filed in July 1982, Gonzales’ in September 1982. The cases were consolidated for trial, which was scheduled to begin February 6, 1984. An oral agreement of settlement was reached on January 19, 1984. The settlement provided that each plaintiff was to receive $32,500 and was on the condition that both plaintiffs settled all claims against defendants based on the accident. The trial setting and the depositions of two physicians were vacated because of the settlement. Gonzales’ attorney was the person who agreed to the settlement with defendants. The attorney’s agreement to the settlement was conveyed to defendants only after a conference among Gonzales, Castro and their respective attorneys. There is no issue in this case concerning Gonzales’ assent to the settlement or concerning his attorney’s specific authority to settle. Augustus v. John Williams & Associates, Inc., 92 N.M. 437, 589 P.2d 1028 (1979). There is no issue in this case involving fraud, misrepresentation, overreaching of authority or mutual mistake. See Garcia v. Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District, 99 N.M. 802, 664 P.2d 1000 (Ct.App.1983). There is no claim that a settlement of a lawsuit is unenforceable if the settlement is oral. See Augustus and Esquihel. In seeking to meet his burden of persuading the trial court that the settlement should not be enforced, Gonzales relies solely on the Release Act. Section 41-1-1 provides: A. No person whose interest is or may become adverse to a person injured who is either under the care of a person licensed to practice the healing arts, or confined to a hospital or sanitarium as a patient shall, within fifteen days from the date of the occurrence causing the person’s injury: (1) negotiate or attempt to negotiate a settlement with the injured patient; or (2) obtain or attempt to obtain a general release of liability from the injured patient; or (3) obtain or attempt to obtain any statement, either written or oral[,] from the injured patient for use in negotiating a settlement or obtaining a release. B. Any settlement agreement entered into, any general release of liability or any written statement made by any person who is under the care of a person licensed to practice the healing arts or is confined in a hospital or sanitarium after he incurs a personal injury, which is not obtained in accordance with the provisions of Section 2 [41-1-2 NMSA 1978] of this act, requiring notice and acknowledgment, may be disavowed by the injured person within fifteen days after his discharge from the care of the persons licensed to practice the healing arts or his release from the hospital or sanitarium, whichever occurs first, and such statement, release or settlement shall not be evidential in any court action relating to the injury. C. Any settlement agreement, any release of liability or any written statement shall be void unless it is acknowledged by the injured party before a notary public who has no interest adverse to the injured person. Section 41-1-2 states a procedure for effecting a settlement with a person coming within the provisions of Section 41-1-1(B). Gonzales testified, at the hearing on the motion to enforce the settlement, that he changed his mind about the settlement be cause “I didn’t realize that I still had to be under the doctor’s care” and “I just made a mistake.” Gonzales’ reliance on the Release Act involves being under the care of a physician, Section 41-1-1(B), the failure to follow the procedures of Section 41-1-2, and the failure of the settlement to be acknowledged by Gonzales before a notary public, Section 41-1-1(C). The trial court ruled: In this case the oral settlement was made after the controversy had been pending in court for almost a year and a half, and after extensive pre-trial discovery. The plaintiff Gonzales was represented by competent counsel. The oral settlement was not in the nature of a rush release, nor was such the subject of an oppressive practice, which are the acts prohibited by the Release Act * * *. To deny enforcement might prejudice the settlement made by the co-plaintiff Castro since the offer was to pay a total of $65,000.00, i.e., $32,500.00 each on condition that such would settle all matters in controversy with both parties. * * * * * * [T]he facts in this proceeding are such that the statute is not applicable. The oral settlement agreement was made by the attorney for Gonzales, with his express authorization, and such was within the scope of his duties in representing his client in this proceeding, and the agreement is enforceable. The trial court was of the view that its ruling was in accordance with, and not contrary to, Bolles v. Smith, 92 N.M. 524, 591 P.2d 278 (1979). Items Not Used In considering the impact of the Release Act upon Gonzales’ settlement, the following items have not been considered. (a)Do subparagraphs B and C of Section 41-1-1 have independent effect or do they depend upon subparagraph A of Section 41-1-1? This issue has not been expressly decided. Bolles and Mitschelen v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co., 89 N.M. 586, 555 P.2d 707 (Ct.App.1976), suggest that subparagraphs B and C have independent effect. We assume that sub-paragraphs B and C have independent effect and, thus, we do not consider the interrelationship of the subparagraphs in Section 41-1-1. The assumption is pertinent because subparagraph A is not involved in this case. (b) Subparagraphs B and C of Section 41-1-1 refer to both settlement agreements and releases of liability. The terms are not necessarily synonymous. See Burton v. Jennings Brothers, 88 N.M. 95, 537 P.2d 703 (Ct.App.1975); Financial Indemnity Co. v. Bevans, 38 Or.App. 369, 590 P.2d 276 (1979). Inasmuch as the statute refers to settlement agreements, and this case involves a settlement agreement, we do not consider any distinction between a settlement and a release. (c) Sections 41-1-1(B) and 41-1-2 refer to one who is under the care of a person licensed to practice the healing arts. Gonzales testified he “had to be under the doctor’s care.” We assume, but do not decide, that this sparse testimony was sufficient to infer that the doctor’s care was provided in good faith, was reasonably required, and was being provided at the time of the oral settlement or within the time for disavowal of a settlement. See Bolles and Section 41-1-1(B). Thus, we assume there was a factual basis for Gonzales’ reliance on Sections 41-1-1(B) and 41-1-2. (d) There are facts raising questions as to equity or “fairness.” Gonzales settled. Deposition settings and the trial setting were vacated on the strength of the settlement. Should Gonzales’ attempt to renege be successful, what is the impact on defendants’ opportunity to dispose of this case by trial at the scheduled time? The settlement was conditioned on both plaintiffs settling their claims. Should Gonzales’ attempt to renege be successful, it would deprive Castro of his settlement; Castro wants to retain his settlement. We have not considered these matters in reaching our decision. Basis for Decision This appeal involves the impact of the Release Act upon the settlement of a lawsuit. Three of the four New Mexico appellate decisions which discuss the Release Act did not involve this impact. In Ratzlaff, Catalano v. Lewis, 90 N.M. 215, 561 P.2d 488 (Ct.App.1977), and Mitschelen, the release was signed before there was a lawsuit concerning the injuries involved. Ratzlaff states: “Releases, being contractual in nature, are governed by the laws of contracts generally, as well as any specific legislative acts prescribing the manner by which such agreements may be validated.” 98 N.M. at 162, 646 P.2d 586. We are not concerned with legislative requirements for a valid release where there is no litigation. The Ratzlaff statement is not controlling because it did not consider the issue we must decide. That issue is whether the Release Act operates to invalidate the settlement of a lawsuit. Although the opinion in Bolles does not specifically state that the purported settlement in that case occurred after the lawsuit was filed, that was in fact the posture of that case. Thus, the meaning of Bolles is necessarily involved in our decision. Counsel for both parties informed us at oral argument that neither the “Release” statutes nor the decisions involving those statutes in other jurisdictions provide assistance in resolving the impact issue. Our research also indicates that decisions of other jurisdictions involving release statutes are not helpful in resolving the issue of our Release Act upon the settlement of a lawsuit. Before discussing Bolles, we consider the purpose of the Release Act and the extent of the legislative intent in enacting the Release Act. Ratzlaff states that the Release Act “evinces a clear legislative purpose to prevent injustice to an injured claimant in the execution of releases while he is hospitalized or under the care of a doctor.” 98 N.M. at 163, 646 P.2d 586. Mitschelen comments that the Release Act was directed to “rush releases” because of the great possibility for error in such a release. Mitschelen also indicates that the purpose of the Release Act was to require fairness and avoid oppressive practices in reaching á settlement. There is no claim that the settlement in this case was rushed; the elapsed time shows otherwise. There is no claim that an oppressive practice was involved in reaching the settlement or that the settlement was unfair to Gonzales. There is no claim of any injustice in this settlement. The settlement in this case does not thwart the purposes of the Release Act. Gonzales’ position is that it makes no difference whether the purposes of the Release Act are involved and that those purposes are not pertinent. He points out that subparagraphs B and C of Section 41-1-1 refer to “any” settlement agreement, and a meaning of “any” is “all.” O’Brien v. Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District, 94 N.M. 562, 613 P.2d 432 (Ct.App.1980). Gonzales reminds us that a statute is to be given effect as written, and that a decision excluding some settlement agreements from the Release Act would be contrary to the legislative use of “any.” This argument is facile because it fails to consider that it leads directly to a constitutional problem. The constitutional issue would be whether the Release Act attempts to regulate either practice or procedure in the courts. Such would be a violation of the power reserved to the judiciary by the constitution. See Ammerman v. Hubbard Broadcasting, Inc., 89 N.M. 307, 551 P.2d 1354 (1976). “Trial courts have supervisory control over their dockets.” Birdo v. Rodriguez, 84 N.M. 207, 210, 501 P.2d 195 (1972). “Trial courts have inherent power to manage their own affairs so as to achieve the orderly and expeditious disposition of cases.” Miller v. City of Albuquerque, 88 N.M. 324, 329, 540 P.2d 254 (Ct. App.1975). To allow Gonzales to renege on an otherwise valid settlement after the trial setting has been vacated would affect the trial court’s docket control. Even without a trial setting, if Gonzales may renege, the trial court’s power to achieve an orderly and expeditious disposition of cases would be affected. The public policy expressed in our decisions favoring the. settlement of lawsuits would also be affected if the Release Act applies to “any” settlement of personal injury claims. Gonzales’ argument clearly implicates “practice” in the courts. NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 41(a)(1) (Repl. Pamp.1980) states: “Subject to the provisions of Rule 23(e) and of any statute, an action may be dismissed by the plaintiff without order of the court * * NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 23(e) (Repl.Pamp. 1980) is not applicable; it pertains to the dismissal of class actions. The only statute involved is the Release Act and it does not prevent an injured party from dismissing his lawsuit. Could a plaintiff, who has dismissed his lawsuit under Civ.P. Rule 41(a)(1), avoid the effect of that dismissal on the basis that the dismissal resulted from a settlement subsequently disavowed under the Release Act? In addition, Section 41-1-2 states a procedure for obtaining a release from a person coming within Section 41-1-1(B). In turn, Section 41-1-1(B) states that a release not in accordance with Section 41-1-2 “shall not be evidential in any court action relating to the injury.” Gonzales’ argument clearly implicates “procedure” in the courts. Any legislative scheme which would “control or exercise the inherent powers of the judiciary would be violative of Article III and Article VI, Section 1 of the New Mexico Constitution.” Mowrer v. Rusk, 95 N.M. 48, 53, 618 P.2d 886 (1980). Of course “[i]t is to be presumed that the Legislature, in enacting the statute, has performed its duty of keeping within constitutional bounds.” State ex rel. Hannah v. Armijo, 38 N.M. 73, 80, 28 P.2d 511 (1933). “Where statutes may be construed in alternate ways one of which would result in the statutes being constitutional and the other being unconstitutional the former construction will be applied.” State ex rel. Norvell v. Credit Bureau of Albuquerque, Inc., 85 N.M. 521, 529, 514 P.2d 40 (1973). In this case the constitutionality of the Release Act has not been directly raised. The constitutional issue arises indirectly as a result of Gonzales’ argument that there is no limitation on the reach of the Release Act and that the Act applies to the settlement of lawsuits. We have discussed the constitutional issue, not to decide it, but to show that the issue is a substantial one. We doubt that the legislature intended to hazard the loss of the beneficent purpose of the Release Act by requiring compliance with the Act in order to settle a personal injury lawsuit. With this background — no purpose of the Release Act is thwarted by enforcement of the settlement in this case and our doubt that the Release Act is constitutional if the settlement of a personal injury lawsuit is subject to the act — we consider the meaning of Bolles v. Smith. Both parties assert that Bolles supports their position. The arguments of counsel are to the effect that Bolles is ambiguous. We must decide what Bolles means. Gonzales points out that Bolles was a case involving the settlement of a lawsuit, and the opinion held that the Release Act applied. Defendants point out that Bolles discusses an attorney’s authority to settle if the attorney has specific authority to do so. Defendants assert that Bolles holds that the Release Act does not apply to such a settlement. Neither view is complete. The published opinion in Bolles was substituted for a prior withdrawn opinion. Both the supreme court and this court have examined withdrawn opinions for assistance in resolving issues. See Stang v. Hertz Corp., 81 N.M. 69, 463 P.2d 45 (Ct. App.1969), aff'd 81 N.M. 348, 467 P.2d 14 (1970); City of Artesia v. Carter, 94 N.M. 311, 610 P.2d 198 (Ct.App.1980). We do so in this case. The prior withdrawn opinion states: “The issue * * * is whether the oral settlement agreement entered into * * * by appellant's attorney on behalf of appellant, but later rejected by appellant before approval of the settlement by the court, can be enforced. We hold that it cannot. The Release Act * * * prohibits settlement * * unless certain conditions are met.” The withdrawn opinion goes on to hold that the requirements of the Release Act had not been met. The published opinion states that the pri- or opinion was withdrawn because “it was deemed necessary to add language to restrict the application of the rule of law announced to cases arising under [Section] 41-1-1 * * * and to the specific facts in this case.” 92 N.M. at 525, 591 P.2d 278. Counsel recognize a restriction on the application of the Release Act was intended; they are uncertain as to the extent of the restriction. Both Bolles opinions answer the argument that there is no limitation on the application of the Release Act to the settlement of personal injury lawsuits. The Act does not apply if the trial court has entered judgment on the basis of an oral settlement or if the trial court has dismissed the lawsuit on the basis of a settlement. The published opinion states another limitation. It is that the Act does not apply if a “dismissal had been filed by the parties to the oral agreement under Rule 41 [Civ.P.R. 41].” 92 N.M. at 527, 591 P.2d 278. This last stated limitation avoids a conflict between the Release Act and Civ.P. Rule 41. The limitations stated in the preceding paragraph are pertinent in that they establish that limitations do exist. However, those specific limitations are not applicable in this case. There had been no judgment, no court-ordered dismissal, and no dismissal by stipulation of the parties. Gonzales reneged before any of these occurred. The settlement on behalf of Gonzales was by his attorney; it is undisputed that the attorney had specific authority to do so. Our reading of the published opinion in Bolles is that a settlement of a lawsuit by an attorney with specific authority to settle is binding on the client. Thus, the settlement in this case is binding on Gonzales. This holding disposes of this appeal. Our holding does not, however, dispose of two problems. First, if a personal injury claimant’s attorney has specific settling authority, but no lawsuit has been filed, does the attorney’s settlement bind the client? Inasmuch as Bolles involved the settlement of a lawsuit, does Bolles speak to this at all? Second, Bolles held that the attorney in that case lacked specific settling authority and seems to indicate that in the absence of specific settling authority, the Release Act applies. How would the Release Act be applicable to a non-settlement? Inasmuch as a resolution of these problems is unnecessary to dispose of this appeal, they are not decided in this opinion. The problems with the Release Act identified herein were fairly raised by this appeal. They emphasize uncertainty as to the legislative intent. In enacting the Release Act, did the legislature intend to regulate the disposition of lawsuits or an attorney’s specific settling authority? Legislative clarification would be helpful to litigants, attorneys and judges; a clarification might save both time and money. We urge the legislature to clarify its intent. The order of the trial court is affirmed. Gonzales is to bear the appellate costs. IT IS SO ORDERED. BIVINS and MINZNER, JJ„ concur.
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OPINION HENDLEY, Judge. The State appeals the trial court’s dismissal with prejudice of the charges against defendant of aggravated burglary and criminal sexual penetration in the first degree for failure to bring the matter to trial within six months. We reverse. On January 30, 1981, a petition was filed in the children’s court charging defendant with aggravated burglary and criminal sexual penetration. A transfer hearing was held and the matter was transferred to district court. The defendant appealed the transfer, but was unsuccessful. State v. Doe, 97 N.M. 263, 639 P.2d 72 (Ct.App. 1981). On November 8, 1982, a criminal information charging defendant with aggravated burglary and criminal sexual penetration was filed against defendant in district court. He was arraigned in the district court on these charges on November 23, 1982. Defendant, on January 6, 1983, then moved for an order dismissing the information or in the alternative remanding it to the magistrate court for a preliminary examination. The motion for a preliminary examination was granted on February 16, 1983, on the grounds that defendant was entitled to a preliminary examination and had not been given one. A complaint was filed in magistrate court on March 4, 1983. The preliminary examination was held on April 25, 1983, and the defendant was bound over to district court on the charges of aggravated burglary and criminal sexual penetration. Thereafter, defendant waived his arraignment set for May 25, 1983. On August 25, 1983, notice of trial setting was given for November 3, 1983. Defendant filed a motion to dismiss pursuant to NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 37 (Cum.Supp.1983) on September 28, 1983. Hearing was held on'the motion on October 14, 1983, and the order granting the motion was filed on November 9, 1983. The running of the six-month rule set forth in Rule 37 does not commence during the pendency of a case in the children’s court. See State v. Howell, 89 N.M. 10, 546 P.2d 858 (Ct.App.1976). See generally State v. Garcia, 93 N.M. 51, 596 P.2d 264 (1979). The applicable part of the rule in effect from November 23, 1982, to date remains unchanged and states in part: (b)'Time limits for commencement of trial. The trial of a criminal case or an habitual criminal proceeding shall be commenced six months after whichever of the following events occurs latest: (1) the date of arraignment, or waiver of arraignment, in the district court of any defendant[.] The State argues that the proceedings against defendant were “abated” upon defendant’s motion for a preliminary examination, which had the effect of nullifying the November 23, 1982, arraignment of the defendant. Consequently, the State argues the May 26, 1983, waiver of arraignment commences the six-month period and the trial date of November 3, 1983, was within the six-month rule. We agree. Defendant argues that the Rules of Criminal Procedure no longer contemplate a plea in abatement and, further, that the proceedings were not “abated” upon the trial court’s remand for a preliminary examination. Defendant further argues that even if the time had been tolled between the remand for a preliminary examination on February 16, 1983, and the bind over order of April 25, 1983, the six-month period would have expired some time in September 1983. Defendant concludes that the time under Rule 37 began to run from his first arraignment on November 23, 1982. Where the defendant is charged by an information he has a state constitutional right, unless waived, to a preliminary examination before an examining magistrate. N.M. Const, art. II, § 14. Did the time commence to run from the date of the first arraignment or did it run from the date of the waiver of arraignment? The first question we must answer is what was the status of the “case” prior to the waiver of arraignment. To answer this question we discuss the nature of a preliminary examination. Waiver of the preliminary examination is not an issue in this case. Further, no issue is raised as to the sufficiency of the transfer hearing having fulfilled the purposes of a preliminary examination. See State v. Archuleta, 82 N.M. 378, 482 P.2d 242 (Ct.App.1970). Two things must be proved at a preliminary examination: the fact that a crime has been committed and probable cause to believe that the person charged committed the crime. State v. Melendrez, 49 N.M. 181, 159 P.2d 768 (1945). State v. Garcia, 79 N.M. 367, 443 P.2d 860 (1968), states the purpose of a preliminary examination as: The preliminary hearing is to determine whether a crime has been committed, the connection the accused has with it thereby informing him of the nature and character of the crime charged, to perpetuate testimony, and to establish bail, if the offense is bailable. State v. Melendrez, 49 N.M. 181, 159 P.2d 768 (1945). See also Archuleta. The preliminary examination is a critical stage of a criminal proceeding and counsel must be made available to the accused. See Williams v. Sanders, 80 N.M. 619, 459 P.2d 145 (1969), and cases cited therein. See also State v. Vaughn, 74 N.M. 365, 393 P.2d 711 (1964). Vaughn states: When violation of a constitutional right in the proceedings before the magistrate is brought to the attention of the trial court and found to exist, the accused’s right and the court’s duty is to abate the information until there has been a proper preliminary examination, and remand the accused to the magistrate for such examination unless it be competently waived. State v. Bailey, 62 N.M. 111, 305 P.2d 725; State ex rel. Hanagan v. Armijo [72 N.M. 50, 380 P.2d 196], The district court does not lose jurisdiction of the information theretofore filed by abating it and remanding the accused to the magistrate for a proper preliminary hearing, nor is there any requirement for the filing of a new information after such new preliminary examination. State v. Bailey, supra. State ex rel. Hanagan v. Armijo, 72 N.M. 50, 380 P.2d 196 (1963), makes it clear that the effect of denying an accused a constitutional right at a preliminary examination is the same as though there was no examination. The same reasoning applies in the instant case. The New^ Mexico Constitution requires that before a person shall be held to answer on an information, a preliminary examination shall be held. N.M. Const, art. II, § 14. Furthermore, there is case law to the effect that jurisdiction of the district court may be “lost” because of the failure to afford defendant a preliminary examination when its absence is timely brought to the attention of the district court. See Mascarenas v. State, 80 N.M. 537, 458 P.2d 789 (1969). Implicit in these authorities is the proposition that the district court’s authority to conduct an arraignment commences only after a finding of probable cause or a waiver of such an inquiry. Thus, an arraignment cannot occur until after the preliminary examination is held. Since a preliminary examination, unless waived, is a prerequisite to the district court’s holding a person to answer an information lodged against him (N.M. Const, art. II, § 14; see also State v. Sexton, 78 N.M. 694, 437 P.2d 155 (Ct.App. 1968)), the first so-called arraignment in this ease was not effective to commence the operation of Rule 37. See Vaughn. Thus, the time constraints of Rule 37 did not start to run until defendant waived his arraignment filed in the district court on May 26, 1983. The six months would not have expired until November 26, 1983. The trial setting for November 3, 1983, was timely. The trial court is reversed and the cause is remanded for reinstatement on the trial court’s calendar. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and MINZNER, J., concur.
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OPINION PER CURIAM. This matter having come before this Court after disciplinary proceedings conducted pursuant to SCRA 1986, Rules Governing Discipline, wherein attorney Mike L. Benavidez was found to have committed violations of the former Code of Professional Responsibility and of the present Rules of Professional Conduct involving invasion of a trust account, failure to maintain appropriate records, dishonesty, negligence, conflict of interest, and cumulative misconduct that adversely reflects on his fitness to practice law, the Court adopts the Disciplinary Board’s findings and conclusions. We modify the Disciplinary Board’s recommendation with regard to sanction and indefinitely suspend Mike L. Benavidez pursuant to SCRA 1986, 17-206(A)(3). The Specification of Charges evolved from eight disciplinary complaints; six of the charges have resulted in findings of disciplinary violations. During October of 1985, Benavidez filed a claim for worker’s compensation benefits on behalf of his client Lorenzo Abad. A lump-sum settlement was entered into by the parties on or about May 8, 1986, with Abad to receive the sum of $9,000.00. Prior to the time that Benavidez deposited the settlement check in his trust account, however, Benavidez made several advances to his client out of the trust account in the total sum of $1,573.42. Benavidez’ conduct is in this instance violative of NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp., Rules 9-102(A), 9-102(B)(3), 5-103(B), and 1-102(A)(6) (now SCRA 1986, 16-115[A], 16-108[A], and 16-804[H]. Artemisa Felix retained Benavidez during the summer of 1984 to consolidate records of title in her name subsequent to the death of her husband. A formal probate proceeding was initiated by Benavidez during August of that same year, but the probate had not been completed nor the title to the real property transferred to Mrs. Felix by the date of the hearing in this disciplinary matter on November 11, 1987. Neither the withdrawal of Benavidez’ associate nor the termination of his secretary materially affected his ability to complete the matter for which he had been retained; his actions were without excuse. Benavidez’ conduct violated NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp., Rule 6-101(A)(3) (now SCRA 1986, 16-103). Buel and Shirley Adkins hired Benavidez to represent them in a case involving an automobile accident and a subsequent bankruptcy. Citizens’ Bank in Las Cruces had a first lien on the automobile which was involved in the accident and, as a lien-holder, had an interest in the insurance proceeds that were paid as a result of damage to that automobile. Allstate Insurance Company issued a draft jointly payable to “Buel Adkins, Mike L. Benavidez and Citizens’ Bank of Las Cruces,” and the draft was received by Benavidez. Benavidez and Adkins endorsed the draft, but it was not endorsed by a representative of Citizens’ Bank of Las Cruces. On February 28, 1986, Benavidez negotiated the draft and deposited it into his trust account at the Western Bank of Las Cruces although the Citizens’ Bank had authorized neither the negotiation nor the deposit. Upon becoming aware of the location of the check on or about March 21, 1986, the attorney for Citizens’ Bank demanded release of the draft. The demand was reiterated at the first meeting of creditors in the Adkins’ bankruptcy. Benavidez falsely told the Bank’s attorney that the draft’s proceeds had been transferred to the trustee in bankruptcy. The insurance proceeds were never inventoried as part of the Adkins’ bankruptcy estate, however. Citizens’ Bank ultimately received full proceeds by check drawn on Benavidez’ Trust Account on or about November 13, 1986. During February of 1986, Benavidez wrote a letter to the Bank in which he stated that Mr. and Mrs. Adkins had filed a bankruptcy and that an “automatic stay” existed which prevented the enforcement of any liens. This statement was untrue. The bankruptcy was not filed until on or about July 24, 1986. Benavidez’ actions during his representation of the Adkins violated NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp., Rules 1-102(A)(4), 1-102(A)(6), and 7-102(A)(5) (now SCRA 1986, 16-804[C], 16-804[H], and 16-401[A]). Cynthia Gonzales retained Benavidez during May of 1985 to represent her in a dispute against Memorial General Hospital in Las Cruces and in a subsequent bankruptcy. In August of the same year, Brokerage Services, Inc. issued a medical insurance check payable to Memorial General Hospital for medical services rendered to Ms. Gonzales and forwarded the check to her. Without being authorized to do so by the Hospital, Benavidez deposited the check in his trust account. Benavidez did not notify the Hospital of his actions, and he subsequently ignored three demands made by the Hospital’s attorney for the return of the proceeds. Only after suit was filed in January of 1987 were the funds restored to the Hospital. Benavidez’ conduct in this case violated NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp., Rule 1-102(A)(4) (now SCRA 1986, 16-804[C]). Dorothy Hatch mortgaged six hundred (600) acres of real estate in Rio Arriba County as collateral for a bail bond in the amount of $80,000 during December of 1983. The cost of the bond was $16,200.00. During May of the following year, suit was filed against Ms. Hatch for collection of the $16,200.00 and to foreclose on the mortgage. Ms. Hatch retained Benavidez, who helped her decide to sell a portion of her property to satisfy her obligation. Benavidez then introduced Hatch to Frank Luchini as a potential purchaser, although Benavidez and Luchini had an on-going attorney/client relationship (about which Hatch was not advised). Hatch and Luchini entered into an agreement for purchase by Luchini of 250 acres for $28,000. On or about November 12, 1985, Luchini tendered the purchase price to Benavidez with the understanding that Benavidez was acting as his (Luchini’s) attorney. There was no written contract, and Benavidez negotiated a $28,000 draft without accounting for the proceeds. Benavidez subsequently opened an account at Western Bank designated as the “Mike L. Benavidez ITF Frank Luchini” account in the amount of $25,000. Benavidez made no accounting for the $3,000 difference between the amount tendered by Luchini and the amount deposited. In fact, the $3000 was used by Benavidez to pay a portion of the legal fees owed to him by Hatch. Benavidez closed the Luchini account on or about April 7, 1987, by withdrawing the sum of $25,312.91. He neither deposited these funds into his trust account nor accounted for them. Subsequently, in June 1987, Benavidez deposited $27,000 into his trust account; that sum consisted of a $13,000 check from L & C Construction Co. Inc. (payable to Hatch and Benavidez); a $9,000.00 settlement check (payable Lorenzo Abad); and Benavidez’ personal check for $6,000. The account’s balance prior to this deposit was $3,488.91. After the $27,000 deposit, Benavidez wrote a trust account check to the order of Luchini in the amount of $29,242.37. Such conduct violated NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp., Rules 1-102(A)(6), 4-101(B)(2), 5-105(A), 9- 102(A), and 9-102(B)(3) (now SCRA 1986, 16-804[H], 16-106[A], 16-108[A], 16-109[A], 16-109[B], 16-107[A], 16-202[B] and 16-115[A]). In another worker’s compensation matter Benavidez represented Velia Saenz during January of 1987. Benavidez entered into a stipulation on Saenz’ behalf which provided that Saenz would receive $24,351.00 in settlement and that the sum included his own attorney fees in the amount of $3,500.00. Prior to his depositing $20,851.00 in his trust account, Benavidez advanced $450.00 to Saenz. He then wrote two checks to Saenz which totaled $18,750. Saenz later executed a partial satisfaction acknowledging the sum of $20,851.00, and Benavidez executed a partial satisfaction of a judgment acknowledging his receipt of $3,500.00 in full payment of his fees. Benavidez kept the balance of Saenz’ portion of the settlement in the amount of $1,651.00, falsely advising his client that the District Court had approved additional attorney’s fees in that amount. We note that Benavidez has since made restitution to Saenz in this amount pursuant to the recommendation of the disciplinary board. Benavidez’ actions nonetheless violated SCRA 1986, 16-105(A), 16-115(A), and 16-804(H). Although commendable, restitution after a finding of misconduct is entitled to no weight as a mitigating factor. Magdalena Serna retained Benavidez during April of 1985 to represent her in a suit for damages that resulted from personal injury and property damages she sustained in an automobile accident. Benavidez received a draft in the amount of $29,-000.00 from Western Farm Bureau Insurance Company representing the settlement amount from Serna’s damages. He then deposited the settlement funds into his trust account, and prior to payment of his client’s medical expenses, negotiated a reduction of $218.15 from the bill of the treating physician. Ultimately, Benavidez paid the costs and expenses of litigation and Serna’s medical expenses from the settlement proceeds. Some of the medical bills were paid belatedly in part due to Benavidez’ own neglect and in part due to difficulties regarding the processing of claims on his client’s health insurance. Benavidez’ neglect in promptly notifying and disbursing the settlement proceeds to the medical providers from his trust account violated SCRA 1986, 16-115(B). Benavidez’ unethical behavior casts doubt upon his fitness to possess a license to practice law. The Court, however, considers Benavidez’ efforts at rehabilitation in recent months as having been made in good faith and as constituting a serious attempt to rid himself of the substance abuse problems that existed during the period in which the cited disciplinary infractions occurred (1985-1987). The Court believes that an indefinite suspension will adequately ensure the protection of the public. We issue this opinion with the caveat that whether or not Benavidez resumes the practice of law will depend upon the extent of his own ability and willingness to achieve recovery goals that he currently has undertaken. While the judicial and disciplinary systems are not bereft of compassion for troubled lawyers, this compassion must be tempered with the understanding that the protection of the public must be predominant in our consideration of these matters. IT IS THEREFORE ORDERED that Mike L. Benavidez be and hereby is indefinitely suspended from the practice of law pursuant to SCRA 1986, 17-206(A)(3) effective September 15, 1988. His reinstatement will not be automatic but shall occur only after a reinstatement proceeding conducted pursuant to SCRA 1986, 17-214 wherein Benavidez will have the burden of demonstrating that he has the requisite moral qualifications and is fit to resume the practice of law without endangering the public, the reputation of the profession, or the administration of justice. Any petition for reinstatement must be accompanied by a showing that Benavidez has continued to successfully participate in a substance abuse program and has remained temperate for a protracted period of time. As an additional precondition to petitioning for reinstatement, Benavidez must take and pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that should Benavidez be successful in any petition for reinstatement he will be placed on supervised probation for a period of one (1) year with specific emphasis on trust account management and the handling of funds entrusted to him by or for his clients. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that pursuant to SCRA 1986, 17-213, Joseph M. Holmes, Esq., be and hereby is appointed to inventory all of Benavidez’ open files and to take any actions necessary to protect the interests of these clients until they can obtain new counsel. Reasonable costs of this inventory and any costs incurred by any client as the result of Benavidez’ suspension will be assessed against Benavidez upon an appropriate showing to this Court and must be paid prior to any application for reinstatement. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that Benavidez shall file with this Court on or before September 26, 1988 evidence of his compliance with all of the requirements of SCRA 1986, 17-212, and serve a copy of his affidavit of compliance upon disciplinary counsel. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that the Clerk of the Supreme Court remove the name of Mike L. Benavidez from the roll of those persons permitted to practice in New Mexico and that this Opinion be published in both the New Mexico Reports and the State Bar of New Mexico Bar Bulletin. Costs in the amount of $4,429.71 are hereby assessed against Benavidez and must be paid to the Disciplinary Board no later than July 1, 1989. IT IS SO ORDERED. STOWERS, WALTERS and RANSOM, JJ., concur. SCARBOROUGH, C.J., and SOSA, Senior J., not participating.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. This is a direct appeal from the New Mexico Public Service Commission (Commission) pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 62-11-1 (Repl.Pamp.1984). Robert and Kathy Gonzales (appellants) appeal from the Commission’s order in New Mexico Public Service Commission (N.M.P.S.C.) Case No. 1828 which approved “the concept” of the Transfer Agreement entered into by Public Service Company of New Mexico (PNM) and Mora-San Miguel Rural Electric Cooperative (Co-op). Appellants contend that the Commission’s order is unlawful, not supported by substantial evidence, and that affected customers were not given proper notice. We affirm. On June 14, 1983, PNM and Co-op jointly petitioned the Commission for approval of the Transfer Agreement, dated February 28, 1983. The Transfer Agreement amends a 1977 Service Agreement between PNM and Co-op which generally defined the service responsibilities of the two utility companies in the area of Las Vegas, New Mexico. The Transfer Agreement proposes to eliminate pockets of overlap in which PNM continues to serve some customers in Coop’s designated service area and Co-op continues to serve some customers in PNM’s designated service area. To implement this plan, the Transfer Agreement provides that PNM and Co-op exchange certain customers, plant, equipment, and money. Appellants are PNM customers who would become Co-op customers under the terms of this agreement. On August 8, 1983, the Commission-appointed hearing examiner, Leonard A. Helman, issued a procedural order scheduling the public hearing on the matter for September 15, 1983, and specifying requirements for intervention, notice, filing of testimony and pleadings. At the hearing Robert and Kathy Gonzales presented a pro se petition for leave to intervene. Although Co-op objected to the intervention at this point in the proceedings on the grounds of timeliness, the examiner allowed appellants to intervene. Mary Helen Romero and Ted L. Romero signed a petition filed with the Commission objecting to the proposed transfer of their electrical service from PNM to Co-op but did not formally intervene. They have joined with appellants in the briefs filed with this Court but have filed no motions requesting intervention as parties. We consider them to be amici curiae. On January 19, 1984, the Commission adopted with slight changes the Recommended Decision of the Hearing Examiner approving “the concept” of the Transfer Agreement. Decisions of the New Mexico Public Service Commission are to be reviewed by this Court solely on the record made before the Commission. NMSA 1978, § 62-11-3 (Repl.Pamp.1984). Appellants have the burden of showing that the Commission’s order was unreasonable or unlawful. NMSA 1978, § 62-11-4 (Repl.Pamp.1984). The standard of review for appeals from administrative agencies is whether there is substantial evidence in the record as a whole to support the agency’s decision. Duke City Lumber Co. v. New Mexico Environmental Improvement Board, 101 N.M. 291, 681 P.2d 717 (1984). Appellants contend that the Commission’s order is unlawful insofar as it requires Co-op to serve several customers within the city limits of Las Vegas. Of the seven reasons cited by appellants for the order’s unlawfulness, two concern alleged conflicts with the New Mexico Rural Electric Cooperative Act, NMSA 1978, §§ 62-15-1 to -32 (Repl.Pamp.1984). Appellants maintain that the order violates Section 62-15-31 of the Rural Electric Cooperative Act by allowing Co-op to operate in a non-rural area and also by permitting it to operate in a municipality without first obtaining a franchise from the governing authorities. The record does not indicate if Co-op ever received such a franchise. It is clear, however, that the Commission in a 1967 order permitted Co-op to provide service within the city limits of Las Vegas and in its 1977 order approving the Service Agreement allowed it to continue to deliver such service. In the event of any conflict between the Public Utility Act (PUA) and the Rural Electric Cooperative Act, both Acts provide that the PUA will control. NMSA 1978, §§ 62-3-2(C), 62-15-32 (Repl.Pamp.1984). The Commission in this case was acting within its authority to prevent “unnecessary duplication and economic waste” between utility companies, a primary objective of the PUA. NMSA 1978, §§ 62-3-2, 62-6-4 (Repl.Pamp.1984). Its order permitting Co-op to continue its limited service within the city limits of Las Vegas effectuates a stated purpose of the PUA and is controlling. Appellants further argue that the order is unlawful, because Co-op did not receive a certificate of public convenience and necessity to extend service within the City of Las Vegas or to abandon a portion of their service. NMSA 1978, §§ 62-9-1, 62-9-5 (Repl.Pamp.1984). A certificate, however, is not necessary for an extension of service within any municipality where a public utility has already been lawfully operating. § 62-9-1. Co-op has lawfully been operating within the City of Las Vegas since it received its initial certificate of public convenience and necessity in 1967 in N.M.P.S.C. Case No. 860. It is not required that Co-op obtain a new certificate for the purpose of providing service to the few customers who are to be transferred from PNM to Co-op. Also, a certificate is no longer necessary for an abandonment of service. All that is required is the Commission’s permission and approval. § 62-9-5. Although it is doubtful that a transfer of customers from one public utility to another constitutes an abandonment, the Commission’s approval was clearly given and meets the statutory requirements for abandonment. Appellants contend that the Commission’s order unlawfully allows PNM to avoid its contractual obligations to affected customers. First, we note that the record contains no reference to contracts between PNM and the affected customers. If contracts are found to exist, they must be implied contracts. A public utility’s obligation to provide “adequate, efficient and reasonable service” is, however, statutory and not contractual. NMSA 1978, § 62-8-2 (Repl.Pamp.1984); Southwestern Public Service Co. v. Artesia Alfalfa Growers’ Association, 67 N.M. 108, 353 P.2d 62 (1960). We know of no obligation that provides for a utility to continue electrical service to a customer for an indefinite term at a set rate. The utility companies in the present case have complied with their rights and obligations as set forth by the PUA. We also disagree with appellants’ contention that the Transfer Agreement in this case constitutes an illegal contract in restraint of trade. The agreement was entered into pursuant to a comprehensive state statutory scheme, with the approval and encouragement of a state regulatory commission, and is subject to continuing regulation. See Gas Light Co. v. Georgia Power Co., 313 F.Supp. 860 (M.D.Ga.1970), aff'd 440 F.2d 1135 (5th Cir.1971), cert. denied, 404 U.S. 1062, 92 S.Ct. 732, 30 L.Ed.2d 750, rehearing denied, 405 U.S. 969, 92 S.Ct. 1162, 31 L.Ed.2d 244 (1972). In addition, NMSA 1978, Section 57-1-16 (Cum.Supp.1983) of the New Mexico Antitrust Act specifically exempts from the Act arrangements that are approved by a regulatory body acting under statutory authority- Appellants also claim the Commission’s order violates NMSA 1978, Section 62-8-6 (Repl.Pamp.1984) by discriminating against the affected customers. Such an interpretation misconstrues this statute. The statute is applicable to a utility, not to the Commission itself. The Commission sets rates for each utility based upon that utility’s unique circumstances, and as a result rates often differ from utility to utility for a particular group of customers. Such variation between rates of different utilities is not discrimination within the meaning of Section 62-8-6. Appellants next assert that there is not substantial evidence to justify the transfer of the 14 customers from PNM to Co-op. Recognizing that substantial evidence is “such relevant evidence as a reasonable mind might accept as adequate to support a conclusion,” Rinker v. State Corporation Commission, 84 N.M. 626, 627, 506 P.2d 783, 784 (1973), we find that the evidence is more than adequate to support the Commission’s decision. The evidence shows that approval of the entire agreement is in the best interests of the public and will prevent economic waste, duplication, and further territorial disputes. Finally, it is appellants’ contention that notice should have been given in accordance with Rule 8-4 of the N.M.P.S.C. Second Revised General Order No. 1. The hearing examiner in his procedural order provided that the Commission’s Rules of Practice and Procedure, which usually are applicable only to rate cases, apply to this case except as modified by the terms of the order itself. The order’s requirements and schedule for notice, therefore, supersede any conflicting provisions in the rules. Furthermore, the rules themselves provide that a hearing examiner may modify the rules in any manner not prohibited by statute. N.M.P.S.C. Rule 1-4, Second Revised General Order No. 1. We find that appellants had reasonable notice and an opportunity to be heard. See Jones v. New Mexico State Racing Commission, 100 N.M. 434, 671 P.2d 1145 (1983). The form and content of the notice was specifically approved by the hearing examiner. PNM exceeded the requirements of the hearing officer’s procedural order by hand-delivering notice to 12 of the 14 affected customers including appellants. Moreover, appellants wére allowed to intervene despite their failure to file a timely petition, to question the witnesses at the hearing, and to present their views. In conclusion, we hold that the Commission’s order is reasonable, supported by substantial evidence, and a lawful exercise of the Commission’s authority under the Public Utility Act. The Commission’s order is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED RIORDAN and STOWERS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. This is a wrongful death action wherein recovery is sought against an emergency room physician and a hospital due to the alleged negligence of the emergency room physician and a nurse. Plaintiff appeals an order granting summary judgment in favor of the defendant hospital. Two issues are presented: (1) claim of error in the granting of summary judgment for the hospital; and (2) error in restricting discovery. We reverse. The plaintiff, Melsciner Reynolds, brought this action alleging that the death of her 16-month-old daughter, Coretta Reynolds, was due to the negligence of Rehoboth Christian Hospital (hospital) and Oliver Swigert, M.D. Doctor Swigert is not a party to this appeal. On the morning of December 28, 1978, plaintiff noticed that her daughter was feverish and listless. Plaintiff took the child first to a federal clinic, unaffiliated with the defendant hospital herein, and received several prescriptions. Three days later when the child showed no improvement, plaintiff took her to the emergency room of the defendant hospital. Doctor Swigert was on duty in the hospital emergency room. During the time the child was examined at the emergency room she was feverish. Plaintiff also alleged that the child acted as though she did not want to be picked up or touched, and her neck was stiff. An emergency room nurse, Melba Cooper, talked to the plaintiff concerning the child and recorded on the record the word “fever.” The nurse did not take the child’s vital signs. Doctor Swigert talked to plaintiff and stated that plaintiff informed him only that the child had a fever, had been coughing, and had a head cold. Doctor Swigert examined the child, ordered an x-ray of her lungs, and diagnosed the illness as “bronchopneumonia.” He gave plaintiff several prescriptions, but did not recommend that the child be admitted to the hospital. According to Dr. Swigert, at that time he was unaware that the child had been examined a few days earlier for the same complaint and had been given prescriptions. The child’s condition did not improve. On January 2, 1979, the child’s neck was stiff, and she was not eating. Plaintiff took her daughter back to the hospital emergency room the following day. Another emergency room physician was on duty and, after examining the child, he ordered tests made, and diagnosed the infant to be suffering from spinal meningitis. The child was then admitted to the hospital. Despite hospitalization and medical care, the child's condition deteriorated, and she died on January 6, 1979. Plaintiff brought suit against the hospital and Dr. Swigert, alleging medical malpractice and wrongful death. Plaintiff alleged that the hospital was liable for the negligence of both Dr. Swigert and also “one or more of its nurses, physician’s assistants, agents, servants or employees.” Plaintiff contended that Dr. Swigert was negligent in failing to make a proper diagnosis of the child at a time when the meningitis was treatable, and that he and the emergency room nurse failed to conduct an adequate physical examination and did not observe appropriate standards of medical care. At the time plaintiff’s daughter was taken to the hospital and treated, the hospital had a written contract with Dr. Swigert which provided in part: 1. The Physician [Swigert] agrees to furnish professional medical services to all patients who are admitted to the Hospital’s emergency room for treatment, during his tour of duty, other than those patients arranging for treatment by their personal physician * * *. ****** 3. The Hospital will pay the Physician fees for his professional services * * *. ****** 5. The Physician shall charge no private fees for professional services, it being understood that his sole renumeration [sic] * * * shall be the fees specified in this agreement * * *. 6. The relationship between the Hospital and the Physician is that of contractor and provider of services, and the Hospital, acting through its active medical staff and its administrator, retains the right to exercise control over all details of the professional work performed by the Physician in the hospital’s emergency room. The hospital filed a motion for summary judgment contending that the relationship between the hospital and Dr. Swigert was not that of employer-employee, but that of a hospital and an independent contractor. The hospital also asserted that any alleged acts or omissions of Nurse Cooper were not the proximate cause of any injury resulting to the deceased child. The hospital’s motion for summary judgment was supported by the pleadings, answers to interrogatories, depositions of witnesses, and the affidavit of Ann Schauman, the hospital administrator. No hearing was requested on defendant’s motion. The trial court, on the basis of briefs of the parties, and the depositions, pleadings and affidavits submitted, granted the hospital’s motion for summary judgment. The court determined that: (1) the hospital was not liable for any alleged acts or omissions of Dr. Swigert, since he was an independent contractor; and (2) any alleged acts or omissions of Nurse Cooper, toward plaintiff’s daughter, did not proximately cause the death of the child. The trial court denied summary judgment as to Dr. Swigert. I. Grant of Summary Judgment Was it proper for the trial court to grant the hospital’s motion for summary judgment? The plaintiff’s amended complaint alleges that the hospital is vicariously liable for the negligence of Dr. Swigert and also for the acts and omissions of Nurse Cooper. (a) Dr. Swigert The hospital contends that the relationship between Dr. Swigert and the hospital was one of hospital-independent contractor, and not that of employer-employee. The hospital submitted in support of its motion for summary judgment the affidavit of Ann Schauman, hospital administrator. The affidavit stated in part that the “contract with Dr. Swigert was not intended to reserve to the hospital the right to dictate * * * how he would perform examinations, make diagnosis [sic] or render treatment to emergency room patients.” If a physician is in fact an employee of a hospital, under the doctrine of respondeat superior the hospital may be held liable for the tortious acts of the physician which are done in the scope of his employment. Cooper v. Curry, 92 N.M. 417, 589 P.2d 201 (Ct.App.1978); Evans v. Bernhard, 23 Ariz.App. 413, 533 P.2d 721 (1975); Bing v. Thunig, 2 N.Y.2d 656, 163 N.Y.S.2d 3, 143 N.E.2d 3 (1957); NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 11.23 (Repl.Pamp.1980). See also Annot., 69 A.L.R.2d 305 (1960); Cunningham, The Hospital-Physician Relationship: Hospital Responsibility for Malpractice of Physicians, 50 Wash.L.Rev. 385 (1975). As stated in Cooper v. Curry, however, under the majority view, when a physician is an independent contractor, and not an employee of a hospital, the hospital is not liable for the doctor’s malpractice. See also Cramer v. Hoffman, 390 F.2d 19 (2d Cir.1968). In granting summary judgment in favor of the hospital, the trial court based its ruling upon the premise that the hospital had no right to control or dictate to a physician how he should diagnose or treat plaintiff’s daughter. Support for this rationale appears to have its genesis in the early decision of Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital, 211 N.Y. 125, 105 N.E. 92 (1914). This concept, however, was overruled by the same court that originally adopted it, in Bing v. Thunig. The principle enunciated in Schloendorff has been criticized in a number of subsequent recent decisions. Beeck v. Tucson General Hospital, 18 Ariz.App. 165, 500 P.2d 1153 (1972); Wilson v. Lee Memorial Hospital, 65 So.2d 40 (Fla.1953); Edmonds v. Chamberlain Memorial Hospital, 629 S.W.2d 28 (Tenn.App.1981); Adamski v. Tacoma General Hospital, 20 Wash.App. 98, 579 P.2d 970 (1978). Although a hospital as an entity cannot practice medicine, diagnose an illness or prescribe a course of treatment, it does not follow that it is not liable for the negligence of its employees, including its professional servants. South Bend Osteopathic Hospital, Inc. v. Phillips, Ind. App., 411 N.E.2d 387 (1980). As stated in Rice v. California Lutheran Hospital, 27 Cal.2d 296, 163 P.2d 860 (1945), “a nurse or physician may be the servant of a hospital, thus requiring the application of the doctrine of respondeat superior even though they are performing professional acts.” This concept was analyzed in Cooper v. Curry, and in Beeck v. Tucson General Hospital. A hospital is not insulated from liability where its professional employees act negligently within the scope of their employment and proximately cause injury to another. See UJI Civ. 11.23. See also Annot., 72 A.L.R.2d 396 (1960). The principal test for determining whether an employer-employee relationship exists, as contrasted with that of an independent contractor, turns on the right of the employer to control the work of the employee. Jelso v. World Balloon Corp., 97 N.M. 164, 637 P.2d 846 (Ct.App.1981); Suhor v. Medina, 421 So.2d 271 (La.App.1982). Where there is a material factual issue as to the employment status of an emergency room physician it is error to grant summary judgment. Suhor v. Medina; Edmonds v. Chamberlain Memorial Hospital. The affidavits, pleadings and depositions, and particularly the contract of Dr. Swigert with the hospital, indicate the existence of material issues of fact concerning whether Dr. Swigert was an employee or an independent contractor at the time of the acts and omissions alleged to constitute negligence. Whether a physician is an employee of a hospital rests upon the particular facts of each case. Carranza v. Tucson Medical Center, 135 Ariz. 490, 662 P.2d 455 (App.1983). Summary judgment is an extreme remedy, is to be employed with great caution, and does not properly lie if a single issue of material fact is present. Jelso v. World Balloon Corp.; Serna v. Roche Laboratories, Ct. App. No. 7718 (Filed July 17, 1984); NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 4.4 (Repl.Pamp.1980). (b) Alleged Negligence of Other Employees In addition to the allegation that the hospital was liable for the claimed negligence of Dr. Swigert in his failing to properly diagnose the illness of plaintiff’s child, plaintiff also alleged inter alia that the hospital was vicariously liable for the failure of its emergency room nurse in assisting Dr. Swigert. Under New Mexico law a hospital may be liable for the negligent acts or omissions of its agents or employees, including nurses, committed during the scope of their employment. See Patterson v. Van Wiel, 91 N.M. 100, 570 P.2d 931 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 91 N.M. 3, 569 P.2d 413 (1977); UJI Civ. 11.23. See also 1 S. Pegalis & H. Wachsman, American Law of Medical Malpractice § 3:38 (1980). A hospital is held to a standard of care commensurate with that degree of care, skill and knowledge which is expected of a reasonably well-operated hospital, giving due consideration to all the circumstances involved. NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 11.22 (Repl.Pamp. 1980). See also Patterson v. Van Wiel; Pharmaseal Laboratories, Inc. v. Goffe, 90 N.M. 753, 568 P.2d 589 (1977). One of plaintiff’s theories of negligence against the hospital is that the emergency room nurse had a duty to obtain an adequate medical history of the child, check the patient’s vital signs, record this information on the emergency room chart, and to call this information to the attention of the emergency room physician on duty. The emergency room medical form required to be used at the hospital on December 31, 1978, had a space for insertion of the patient’s temperature, blood pressure, pulse, respiration and any known allergies. Nurse Cooper testified in her deposition that she took the child’s temperature, but that she did not elicit any prior medical history concerning the child, nor obtain any information as to whether the child had been examined or treated elsewhere for the same complaints. She also testified that she did not feel it was necessary to take the other vital signs of the child or to record them on the medical room chart, because she thought the doctor would obtain the information if he felt it was necessary. The plaintiff testified in her deposition that when she took her daughter to the hospital emergency room, the child was feverish, her neck was stiff, and she was whining and listless. She also stated that she told the nurse that the child was ill and had a fever. Plaintiff testified that the nurse did not ask her for any other information and asked her to undress the child so she could be examined by Dr. Swigert. Nurse Cooper stated that she recorded only what she felt was relevant — the child’s temperature and the word “fever.” Plaintiff also testified that she told both Nurse Cooper and Dr. Swigert that she had taken her daughter a few days earlier to the Northside Clinic; that a physician’s assistant at the clinic had given her amoxicillin and penicillin and told her to give the child aspirin; and, if her condition worsened, to take the child to McKinley General Hospital. No entry was made in the emergency room chart concerning the child’s prior medical treatment. Cooper testified that during Dr. Swigert’s examination of the child plaintiff told her and the doctor that the child had a fever, a head cold and a cough. This information was typed on the emergency room chart by Dr. Swigert. Dr. Swigert testified in his deposition that he “assume[d] that the pulse or blood pressure [of the child] had not been taken because that responsibility was, if indicated, Nurse Cooper’s task,” but he believed “in this case it was probably not indicated.” He also testified that the nurse’s failure to list the vital signs of the child would not have changed anything with respect to his diagnosis or treatment. Doctor Swigert further testified that he was not aware on December 31,1978, when he examined the child, that she had previously been seen at the Northside Clinic and given medication. Doctor Swigert was asked if he recalled eliciting any history of previous medical treatment of the child. He responded, “I would have listed it if she [plaintiff] had reported it to me.” He was also asked: “Q: You don’t normally ask a patient whether they have been seen by anybody else? A: No, I don’t, not in the emergency room context. If they don’t volunteer information to me, I don’t routinely ask. Q: Did she advise you that she had given the child anything in particular, medication of any type? A: No. She led me — I should say she did not inform me that the child had been taking any medication. If she had informed me that the child had been taking Ampicillin, which I later discovered that she had, then I certainly would not have prescribed another type of Penicillin.” Plaintiff’s expert witness, George R. Schwartz, M.D., testified by deposition that part of a nurse’s training requires that she write down the medical history as it is given by the patient. Doctor Schwartz stated that there was a marked discrepancy between the medical history recorded on the hospital emergency room chart, and what the plaintiff testified that she told Nurse Cooper and Dr. Swigert. Doctor Schwartz also testified that it is the “responsibility of the nurse in the emergency department to take the vital signs without being ordered to do so,” and that it was “routine, standard practice in emergency departments throughout our country ... These vital signs are usually taken — not always — taken by the nurse in the emergency department * * He stated that the signs “in this case might have had significance.” Doctor Schwartz also testified that knowing the patient’s respiratory rate is important in formulating a diagnosis of certain illnesses. Doctor Schwartz’s deposition testimony conflicted as to whether or not the nurse’s failure to record the child’s vital signs contributed in any way to the death of the child. Where the testimony of a single witness conflicts on a material fact, the issue is properly a question for the jury. Mills v. Kelly, 99 N.M. 482, 660 P.2d 124 (Ct.App.1983). After the district court issued its letter informing counsel that it would grant the hospital’s motion for summary judgment, but prior to the entry of the order granting summary judgment, plaintiff filed the affidavit of Dr. Schwartz. The affidavit stated, “[assuming the facts to be true as claimed by Plaintiff from which could be anticipated [that there existed a] marked abnormality of the [child’s] vital signs,” it was his opinion that “based upon a reasonable degree of medical certainty, the failure of Nurse Melba Cooper * * * to adequately check and record the vital signs of Coretta Reynolds proximately contributed to her death on January 6, 1979.” Courts have discretion to allow the filing of a late affidavit. Richards v. Upjohn Co., 95 N.M. 675, 625 P.2d 1192 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 94 N.M. 675, 615 P.2d 992 (1980). Absent a motion to strike or an objection to affidavits on summary judgment, any formal defects in the affidavits are deemed waived. Serna v. Roche Laboratories, Inc.; Peralta v. Martinez, 90 N.M. 391, 564 P.2d 194 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 636, 567 P.2d 485 (1977). Plaintiff also filed the deposition of David Daining, M.D., a physician who saw plaintiff’s daughter on January 3, 1979, and ordered the child hospitalized following his diagnosis that she had meningitis. Doctor Daining testified that certain drugs can mask the signs of meningitis. He stated that “any antibiotic could potentially mask the signs of meningitis” and that “the diagnosis would be less obvious to a person examining that child.” He further stated that in such case “the fever might not be as high as it would be otherwise or perhaps other obvious signs of meningitis such as a stiff neck * * * might be slightly less evident at the time of an examination.” The trial court in its order granting the hospital’s motion for summary judgment concluded that the “acts or omissions of the nurse, Melba Cooper, in taking the history of the illness of [the child], did not proximately cause, either directly or indirectly the death of Coretta Reynolds.” The hospital argues that even if the nurse failed to obtain and record the vital signs of the child and to take a complete medical history when the child was brought to the emergency room, the responsibility for making a diagnosis and determining treatment rested upon Dr. Swigert, not the nurse. The hospital also contends that Dr. Swigert conducted an examination of the child, independently took a history, and could have ordered vital signs taken if he felt it necessary. The hospital contends that any omissions on the part of the nurse did not raise a factual issue concerning whether the alleged omissions of the nurse proximately contributed to the death of the child. We disagree. The issue of proximate cause is generally deemed a factual issue, unless all facts regarding causation are undisputed or, where as a matter of law, there is an independent, intervening cause. Richards v. Upjohn Co. See also Harless v. Ewing, 80 N.M. 149, 452 P.2d 483 (Ct.App.1969). A factual discrepancy exists as to whether plaintiff told Nurse Cooper and Dr. Swigert about the child having a stiff neck and whether she informed them of the child’s prior medical history and the medication that her daughter was taking. Doctor Swigert testified he did not ask plaintiff for the history of the child’s prior medical treatment. Doctor Daining testified that certain medication could “mask” the symptoms of meningitis. The affidavit of Dr. Schwartz stated that in his opinion the medical care given to the child was not up to standard. Conflicting inferences can be drawn from this testimony. A party opposing a motion for summary judgment is entitled to have drawn from all the matters properly before the trial court all reasonable inferences. Goodman v. Brock, 83 N.M. 789, 498 P.2d 676 (1972). It is the duty of a party seeking summary judgment to show the absence of any material issues of fact. Id. In LeBlanc v. Northern Colfax County Hospital, 100 N.M. 494, 672 P.2d 667 (Ct.App.1983), this court considered a case wherein a plaintiff contended that her husband’s death was due in part to negligence on the part of hospital emergency room personnel, including a nurse. Summary judgment was reversed on the basis that a material fact question existed as to the negligence of the hospital and staff. In LeBlanc this court cited with approval Ramsey v. Physicians Memorial Hospital, Inc., 36 Md.App. 42, 373 A.2d 26 (1977) and McNeill v. United States, 519 F.Supp. 283 (D.S.C.1981) (alleging negligent failure of physician to diagnose meningitis). The court in Ramsey held that a hospital is vicariously liable for the negligent conduct of its nurses committed within the scope of their employment and for the failure of a nurse to relate to a physician that a child’s mother had informed her that she had removed ticks from her son who was subsequently determined to have Rocky Mountain spotted fever. The court held: [T]here was ample evidence that the failure of the nurse to communicate this element of the patient’s history to the attending physician was a serious violation of her duties as a nurse * * *. There was further evidence that the failure of the nurse to relate the information to the attending physician was a contributing proximate cause to the death of [one child] and the serious illness of [the other]. Similarly, in Goff v. Doctors General Hospital of San Jose, 166 Cal.App.2d 314, 333 P.2d 29 (1958), it was held that the failure of a nurse to call to the attention of an attending physician excessive hemorrhaging was a proper basis of liability against a hospital. Where reasonable minds may differ on the question of proximate cause, summary judgment is not proper and the matter should be resolved by the fact finder. LeBlanc v. Northern Colfax County Hospital; Galvan v. City of Albuquerque, 85 N.M. 42, 508 P.2d 1339 (Ct.App.1973). The negligent act of a defendant resulting in damages to another need not be the sole proximate cause but merely a concurring cause. LeBlanc v. Northern Colfax County Hospital; see also Lopez v. Maez, 98 N.M. 625, 651 P.2d 1269 (1982). It is not necessary to discuss plaintiff's second point on appeal in view of our ruling upon plaintiff’s first point. The order granting summary judgment should be reversed. IT IS SO ORDERED. NEAL and ALARID, JJ., concur.
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OPINION WOOD, Judge. Jaramillo purchased a gas regulator from Cotton Butane Company (Cotton). The regulator was manufactured by Fisher Controls Company (Fisher). The function of the regulator was to control the amount of propane gas moving from a tank of propane to an appliance. Arrow Gas Company (Arrow) had filled the propane tank. Jaramillo took the regulator to the home of his mother and stepfather, Isabel and Roberto Mondragon, in order to test a stove. He connected the regulator into a line between the tank and stove. A few seconds after opening the valve on the propane tank, Jaramillo heard a noise as if something had “given,” became aware that gas was escaping and yelled for everyone to get out of the house. Jaramillo reentered the house looking for his son. After hearing that his son was outside, he decided to close the valve on the propane tank. An explosion occurred as he was closing the valve. A second explosion and fire also occurred. Jaramillo suffered personal injury; the Mondragons suffered property damage. The case against Cotton and Fisher was submitted to the jury on a theory of products liability, and the case against Arrow was submitted on a theory of negligence. The jury attributed the cause of Jaramillo’s personal injury and the Mondragons’ property damage as fifty percent to Jaramillo, ten percent to Isabel Mondragon (Isabel) and forty percent to Fisher. Jaramillo, the Mondragons and Fisher appealed. We (1) identify the appellate posture of the case and divide our discussion of the issues into the following categories: (2) jury selection; (3) evidentiary rulings; (4) comparative fault rulings; and (5) computation of the Mondragons’ judgment and assessment of costs. Appellate Posture Inasmuch as separate appeals were filed by plaintiffs and by Fisher, we consolidated the appeals and ordered that Fisher be treated as a cross-appellant. The issues involving jury selection, evidence and comparative fault are raised by Jaramillo and the Mondragons, who ask that judgment be entered in their favor for the full amount of their damages, without reduction for their negligence. Cotton and Arrow point out that the jury determined they were not liable to any plaintiff, and ask that the judgment in their favor be summarily affirmed. Plaintiffs respond that their alternative requested disposition was for a new trial. This alternative request would require us to determine which of plaintiffs’ issues involve Cotton or Arrow should we remand for further proceedings. Such a determination is unnecessary because plaintiffs’ appellate claims are without merit. Accordingly, in discussing the contentions of Jaramillo and the Mon-dragons, we do not determine against which defendant the contention is directed. The issues involving the computation of the Mondragons’ judgment and the assessment of costs are raised by Fisher in its cross-appeal. We decide those issues. Fisher raised additional issues but asks that the additional issues not be considered unless one or more of plaintiffs’ issues are meritorious. Because plaintiffs’ issues are without merit, we neither identify nor consider these additional issues in the cross-appeal. Jury Selection Plaintiffs contend the trial court erred in failing to excuse five prospective jurors for cause. We assume five were challenged even though we have found only four challenges in the transcript. One of the five was excused on grounds separate from the challenge. Plaintiffs used peremptory challenges for three of the five. However, none of the five actually sat as a juror. “A defendant cannot claim prejudice for failure to dismiss prospective jurors if he fails to exercise available peremptory challenges.” State v. Smith, 92 N.M. 533, 540-41, 591 P.2d 664 (1979). Plaintiffs ignore the fact that they did not use all of their peremptory challenges. They assert, citing State v. Sims, 51 N.M. 467, 188 P.2d 177 (1947), that “[i]t is reversible error for a trial judge to refuse to excuse a juror for cause if a juror is disqualified by bias from sitting on the panel.” In Sims the disqualified person sat as a juror; in this case none of the persons challenged sat as a juror. Plaintiffs make a generalized claim of prejudice, but they do not assert that “the jury, which finally heard the case, was in any way biased, prejudiced or unfair.” State v. Martinez, 95 N.M. 445, 450, 623 P.2d 565 (1981); see also State v. Gonzales, 82 N.M. 388, 482 P.2d 252 (Ct.App.1971). Plaintiffs’ claim is meritless. Evidentiary Rulings A. Fisher’s Testing Procedures Over the objection of plaintiffs, the trial court permitted Fisher to introduce evidence as to its testing procedures for regulators of the type purchased by Jaramillo. Plaintiffs contend this evidence was improperly admitted under strict products liability law because a manufacturer is liable for injuries caused by a defective product even if the manufacturer has exercised all possible care during manufacture. See NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 14.6 (Cum.Supp. 1984), which was given, and Grammer v. Kohlaas Tank & Equipment Co., 93 N.M. 685, 604 P.2d 823 (Ct.App.1979). The evidence was not admitted to show care, or the absence of negligence, on Fisher’s part. Plaintiffs sought recovery from Fisher on the basis of products liability; one of the theories of liability submitted to the jury was that there was a defect in the regulator. The trial court admitted the evidence on the question of the existence of a defect when the regulator left Fisher's control. See Perfetti v. McGhan Medical, 99 N.M. 645, 662 P.2d 646 (Ct.App.1983). In Livingston v. Begay, 98 N.M. 712, 652 P.2d 734 (1982), plaintiff sought recovery from Montgomery Ward on a theory of products liability in supplying a defective heater. Livingston held that summary judgment in favor of Montgomery Ward was proper inasmuch as it made “a prima facie showing that the heater was not defective when sold, and since the opposing parties have failed to present any contrary evidence * * 98 N.M. at 717, 652 P.2d 734. The showing of “no defect” was (1) the heater had been tested prior to sale and approved as safe; and (2) there was no direct evidence of a design or manufacturing defect. Livingston established that evidence of testing procedures may be introduced in a case involving a defect. The question is when the testing procedures are admissible. Brown v. General Foods Corp., 117 Ariz. 530, 573 P.2d 930, 934 (Ct.App.1978) states: It should be noted that a manufacturer will rarely have available anything other than circumstantial evidence to disprove a plaintiffs claim relating to the discovery and existence of an alleged defect in a product. The circumstantial evidence is admissible, not to show lack of fault or the presence of due care on the manufacturer's part, but rather, as relevant evidence tending to show the improbability of the defect as alleged by the plaintiff. We can hypothesize a fact situation in which, by reason of the intrinsic nature of the defect and the impossibility of its occurrence other than in the manufacturing process, evidence of the manufacturer’s quality control procedures would not be relevant and therefore would be inadmissible. However, such is not the case before us. The presence of the banana peel in the cereal box was not a defect of such a nature that it had to have occurred before the product left the possession and control of the defendant-manufacturer. See also Johnesee v. Stop & Shop Companies, 174 N.J.Super. 426, 416 A.2d 956 (1980). Although testing procedures may be admissible, plaintiffs assert those procedures were not relevant in this case. We disagree. Only two components of the regulator survived the explosion and they were distorted in the fire. There was no direct evidence that the regulator was defective. Plaintiffs’ evidence of a defect came from expert testimony based on circumstantial evidence. Fisher’s evidence of testing procedures, also circumstantial, was to show that the defects postulated by plaintiffs’ expert would not have passed any of Fisher’s tests. Fisher’s evidence tended to show that no defect existed; it was relevant. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 401 (Repl. Pamp.1983). B. New Mexico Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Code Propane, defined to be a liquefied petroleum gas, is regulated by the Liquefied Petroleum Gas Bureau, which has authority to adopt rules and regulations. NMSA 1978, §§ 70-5-4 and -5. Plaintiffs do not assert an absence of rules and regulations concerning the storage and handling of LPG. Fisher introduced evidence during cross- or recross-examination that the installation at the Mondragon home was in violation of the rules and regulations. Plaintiffs assert this testimony was improper for the three reasons discussed under this issue. (1) Relevancy Legislatively authorized rules and regulations have the force of law. Brininstool v. New Mexico State Board of Education, 81 N.M. 319, 466 P.2d 885 (Ct.App.1970). Violation of a properly adopted and filed rule or regulation is negligence per se. Maestas v. Christmas, 63 N.M. 447, 321 P.2d 631 (1958); cf State v. Joyce, 94 N.M. 618, 614 P.2d 30 (Ct.App.1980). Plaintiffs claim that testimony concerning violation of the rules and regulations was irrelevant because the testimony went to negligence per se on the part of Jaramillo, and his negligence was not relevant in a products liability claim. This is incorrect. See Marchese v. Warner Communications, Inc., 100 N.M. 313, 670 P.2d 113 (Ct.App.1983). We discuss this further under the heading “Comparative Fault Rulings.” (2) Knowledge of the Rules and Regulations Plaintiffs assert that testimony going to violation of the rules and regulations was improper because “[t]he gas code was merely an administrative regulation which was not promulgated to the public. According to L.P.G. witnesses, the Plaintiff [Jaramillo] could not be expected to have any knowledge of the regulations.” Plaintiffs seem to be arguing that if Jaramillo lacked knowledge of the rules and regulations they may not be used to measure the propriety of his conduct. We disagree. The rules and regulations, having the force of law, Brininstool, imposed the standard and imposed upon Jaramillo the duty of complying with the standard. See Sanchez v. J. Barron Rice, Inc., 77 N.M. 717, 427 P.2d 240 (1967). His ignorance does not excuse noncompliance with the standard and did not make the testimony inadmissible. See State v. Carr, 95 N.M. 755, 626 P.2d 292 (Ct.App.1981); State v. Montoya, 91 N.M. 262, 572 P.2d 1270 (Ct.App.1977). (3) Improper Questions Plaintiffs state: “Defendants were allowed to argue the law throughout the case by repeatedly asking witnesses whether the regulator installation violated the law * * They also state: “Defendants were allowed, over objection, to question witnesses about specific portions of the rules and the witnesses[’] interpretation of the rules.” “It was not the function of the witnesses to state whether Plaintiff broke the law.” Transcript references are given as support for the above claims. However, plaintiffs do not identify the context of the questions they assert were objectionable. We first consider the context. Cf. Payne v. Tuozzoli, 80 N.M. 214, 453 P.2d 384 (Ct.App.1969). The rules and regulations involved are referred to in trial testimony as NFPA-58, identified by plaintiffs’ expert witness Feldman as the National Fire Protection Association Rules. Both the record and the trial testimony indicate that NFPA-58 was adopted as a rule in New Mexico. Feldman testified that NFPA-58 applied to Jaramillo's installation and that an installation like Jaramillo’s violated NFPA58. Feldman also testified as to several specific violations of NFPA-58. This testimony came in during the cross-examination of Feldman by Fisher. Feldman also testified concerning “reasonably prudent conduct” and that any individual could install a propane system in his or her home. On recross, Fisher was permitted to question Feldman as to prudent conduct and the certification requirements of “Property-owner installed systems” under NMSA 1978, Section 70-5-6(B). Over plaintiffs’ objection, the trial court permitted Fisher’s questioning on the basis that it was proper to test Feldman’s knowledge, see NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 705 (Repl.Pamp.1983), and that the questions did not invade the “province of the jury,” see NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 704 (Repl.Pamp.1983). Plaintiffs’ transcript references go to a small portion of the testimony of Feldman, but most of the references are to questioning of witnesses who testified after Feldman. All involve testing the knowledge of plaintiffs’ several experts. We agree that Fisher’s questioning of these experts was proper under Evid.Rules 704 and 705. This answers plaintiffs’ contention concerning the questioning of Feldman. There are additional reasons there was no error in the questioning of the subsequent witnesses. Plaintiffs have not attempted to demonstrate how any particular question harmed them. Accordingly, we do not set forth the questions appearing in their transcript references. Having reviewed those references, the questions were not error under one or more of the following grounds: (a) There was no proper objection. NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 11 (Repl.Pamp. 1984). (b) The questions were repetitive of questions answered by Feldman, but plaintiffs did not object on the basis of cumulative evidence. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 403 (Repl.Pamp.1983). (c) The questions were in response to questions by plaintiffs as to the meaning and coverage of NFPA-58; specifically, the matter had been opened up by questions asked by plaintiffs’ attorneys, either on direct or redirect. The questions were proper cross- or recross-examination under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 611(b) (Repl.Pamp. 1983). As an example, plaintiffs’ expert witness Boggess testified twice on direct examination that he. was familiar with NFPA-58, and testified on direct to at least one violation of that rule. Questioning of Boggess as to his knowledge of pressure requirements in NFPA-58 was proper cross-examination under both Evid.Rule 611(b) and NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 703 (Repl.Pamp.1983). Fisher’s questioning tended to show that Jaramillo’s conduct was not in accord with the legal standard. The questioning also tended to show the knowledge, or lack thereof, of plaintiffs' experts who testified as to defects and causation. This information was properly before the jury for its use in deciding the facts of the case. The questioning was not improper. C. Testimony That the Regulator Was Installed Backward Langhorst, an investigator for the State Fire Marshal, was permitted to testify over plaintiffs’ objections that shortly prior to the first explosion, Jaramillo stated that the regulator was backward. Langhorst’s testimony, as to the regulator being backward, came in by the reading of his handwritten field notes from his investigation on the day of the fire. Plaintiffs contend that the reading of the notes to the jury was error because of hearsay. We do not identify all the arguments of the parties for or against admissibility; rather, we identify the evidence rules under which the testimony was admissible. Langhorst did not hear the remark attributed to Jaramillo. According to Langhorst, he was informed of the remark by Gerry, the sister of Jaramillo. Thus, our analysis involves three steps. Gerry, a witness for plaintiffs, testified on direct examination that shortly pri- or to the explosion Jaramillo “said something about turning back assward.” The context is that this remark occurred either while Jaramillo was connecting the regulator into the propane line in the utility room adjacent to the kitchen or, shortly after the connection was made. Gerry’s testimony was proper; Jaramillo’s remark was an admission of a party opponent, and not hearsay under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 801(d)(2) (Repl.Pamp.1983). Langhorst testified that Gerry informed him of Jaramillo’s remark. Gerry testified at the trial and was cross-examined concerning the statement. Gerry’s statement was not hearsay if the statement was inconsistent with her trial testimony. At trial, Gerry had no recollection of ever talking with anyone from the State Fire Marshal’s office and denied that on the day of the fire that she had told Langhorst that Jaramillo had said the regulator was in backwards. This denial of a conversation with Langhorst is inconsistent with Langhorst’s testimony, but it is not inconsistent trial testimony by Gerry. The inconsistency is that at trial Gerry characterized Jaramillo’s remark as about something “turning back assward.” According to Langhorst’s note, “ ‘He said that the regulator was backward * * *.’” The statements are inconsistent; the difference is between something turning backward and the regulator being installed backwards. Plaintiffs’ cross-examination of Langhorst suggested that Jaramillo’s remark should be understood as referring to fittings on the regulator that turned backwards. Gerry’s statement to Langhorst was not hearsay under NMSA 1978, Evid. Rule 801(d)(1) (Repl.Pamp.1983). Plaintiffs assert that Evid.Rule 801(d)(1) is not applicable because Langhorst was uncertain of the identity of the person making the remark. This argument overlooks Langhorst's testimony, before the jury, that he was certain that it was Gerry that informed him of Jaramillo’s remark. This testimony of identity sufficiently distinguishes Torres v. Sierra, 89 N.M. 441, 553 P.2d 721 (Ct.App.1976), on which plaintiffs rely. Gerry’s statement was recorded in Langhorst’s field notes, and those notes were read to the jury. Plaintiffs assert the reading of the,field notes was error because the notes were hearsay. Langhorst testified to the foundational requirements for the reading of the notes to the jury under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 803(5) (Repl. Pamp.1983), which deals with recorded recollection. Cf. State v. Bazan, 90 N.M. 209, 561 P.2d 482 (Ct.App.1977). His testimony also supplied the foundational requirement for admission of the notes under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 803(6) (Repl.Pamp.1983), which deals with regularly conducted activity. Thus, the reading of the notes to the jury was not excluded as hearsay by Evid. Rule 803. Plaintiffs contend that the field notes were insufficiently reliable to be read to the jury or admitted as evidence under either Evid.Rule 803(5) or (6). Their argument proceeds on the basis that their view of the facts demonstrates error as a matter of law. They overlook the care with which the trial court considered Langhorst’s foundational testimony and the circumstances under which Langhorst obtained the information contained in the field notes. The transcript shows an exercise of discretion by the trial court and evidence supporting the trial court’s exercise of discretion. We cannot limit our review to plaintiffs’ view of the facts. We hold there was no abuse of discretion by the trial court in permitting the reading of the field notes to the jury. Plaintiffs assert the field notes were not admissible under Evid.Rule 803(6) because it was not Gerry’s business to supply information contained in the notes. This argument is based on a misreading of the rule. The “regularly conducted business activity” portion of the rule applies to Langhorst. The “information transmitted by ... a person with knowledge” portion of the rule applies to Gerry. The rule does not require that Gerry be in the business of supplying information of the type contained in the notes. D. Jaramillo’s Conduct This issue involves four separate items of conduct. Plaintiffs characterize the trial court’s rulings as to these items as permitting the defendants to attack Jaramillo’s character. This is incorrect. Character evidence under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 404(a) (Repl.Pamp.1983) is not involved. What is involved is the credibility of Jaramillo, see NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 607 (Repl.Pamp.1983), the relevance of certain testimony, see Evid.R. 401, and the facts considered by a tendered expert, see Evid.R. 705. We consider each of the four items. (1) Prior Conviction On cross-examination Fisher asked, and Jaramillo admitted, that he had pled guilty to shoplifting. This crime involved dishonesty. State v. Melendrez, 91 N.M. 259, 572 P.2d 1267 (Ct.App.1977). The question was proper for the purpose of attacking the credibility of Jaramillo. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 609(a)(2) (Repl.Pamp. 1983). Jaramillo contends the shoplifting conviction was irrelevant. This is incorrect. The adoption of Evid.Rule 609 by the supreme court is tantamount to a determination that conviction of the type of crimes identified in the rule bears on credibility. State v. Lucero, 98 N.M. 311, 648 P.2d 350 (Ct.App.1982). Plaintiffs also contend that the probative nature of the conviction was outweighed by its prejudicial impact upon the jury. See Evid.R. 403; State v. Day, 91 N.M. 570, 577 P.2d 878 (Ct.App.1978). The appellate question is whether the trial court abused its discretion in permitting the question concerning the prior conviction. State v. Lucero. Abuse of discretion occurs when the trial court’s ruling is “clearly against the logic and effect of the facts and circumstances before the court.” Id. 98 N.M. at 314, 648 P.2d 350. Jaramillo was the only witness to the actual connection of the regulator and what happened during the test. These events are crucial. Jaramillo’s testimony and credibility were of the utmost importance in the jury’s determination. Minor v. City of Chicago, 101 Ill.App.3d 823, 57 Ill.Dec. 410, 428 N.E.2d 1090 (1981). In these circumstances there was no abuse of discretion, and Evid.Rule 403 did not require exclusion of the evidence. This disposition of the claim under Evid.Rule 403 also applies to Evid. Rule 403 claims made in connection with items 2 and 3. (2)Subsequent Conviction The explosion and fire occurred in April 1980. Fisher was permitted to ask whether and Jaramillo admitted that, on August 31, 1981, he was convicted of being under the influence of intoxicating liquor, reckless driving, disorderly conduct by using obscene and abusive language and failure to obey one-way street signs. Plaintiffs incorrectly claim this testimony was irrelevant. The above activities were relevant to and properly admitted as substantive evidence on the question of Jaramillo’s “life expectancy and the number of years for which damages for permanent injury and pain and suffering should be assessed.” De La O v. Bimbo’s Restaurant, Inc., 89 N.M. 800, 805, 558 P.2d 69 (Ct.App.1976). The above activities were also properly used to impeach Jaramillo. He failed to reveal the 1981 convictions when his deposition was taken, although he was asked questions that called for these convictions to be revealed. Thus, the question about the 1981 convictions was a proper attack on Jaramillo’s credibility. His false answer at his deposition was a prior inconsistent statement. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 613 (Repl.Pamp.1983). (3) Insufficient Funds Checks On cross-examination Jaramillo admitted that he “was asked to leave” an employment subsequent to the explosion and fire. He admitted there was a conflict between the manager and himself; he denied that insufficient funds checks were a reason for his termination. Fisher proposed to impeach Jaramillo by prior inconsistent statements and to offer deposition testimony of the manager that “bad checks” were a part of the reason for the termination. The trial court indicated that the reason for the termination was relevant to the claim of lost earnings because the reason was “an explanation that jobs were terminated for noninjury related reasons subsequent to the accident * * Thereafter, the parties agreed upon the information to be given to the jury. The jury was told that the testimony of insufficient funds checks was admitted to show a possible reason for termination, that this testimony was not a reflection on Jaramillo’s character and “there were no criminal ramifications to the matter.” Subsequently, the manager was called as a witness by Fisher and examined and cross-examined as to Jaramillo’s employment, his duties, his termination and the “bad checks.” Jaramillo’s claim that evidence of the insufficient funds checks was irrelevant is incorrect. This evidence was tendered to show termination of employment was for noninjury reasons, and was relevant to the damage claim for lost wages. Any question of criminal conduct in connection with the checks was removed by the instruction that limited the evidence to its proper scope. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 105 (Repl. Pamp.1983). (4) Cross-Examination of Jaramillo’s Psychologist Jaramillo proposed to call a psychologist to testify as “to the psychological effects the fire, explosion and resulting injuries had on * * * Jaramillo * * V’ Fisher informed the trial court that if the psychologist testified, Fisher proposed to cross-examine (a) as to what the psychologist was told and not told, (b) as to what the psychologist considered significant and not significant and his reasons, and (c) in connection with the claimed “psychological” damages to “fully explore the bases for his opinion.” There was an extensive tender; Fisher’s tendered cross-examination was along the lines proposed. The tendered cross-examination brought out that Jaramillo had told the psychologist of his conviction for possession of heroin; that the psychologist did not consider Jaramillo’s attitude toward the conviction as relevant to a psychological evaluation; that Jaramillo had not told the psychologist about the items discussed under (1), (2) and (3) of this issue; that if what Jaramillo told the psychologist differed from what Jaramillo testified to under oath this “might” make a difference to the psychologist in giving credence to what Jaramillo had told the psychologist. The psychologist stated that Jaramillo’s inaccuracies, inconsistencies and mistakes of reporting were not germane. The trial court ruled that if the psychologist testified that Jaramillo could not function as he did prior to the accident then Fisher could cross-examine “as to events that are supported by the evidence that are reasonably related in time and circumstance to the event in question.” After this ruling, Jaramillo’s counsel announced the “withdrawing” of the psychologist as a witness. The psychologist’s name was Foote. Plaintiffs state: Based on Dr. Foote’s testimony that in his professional opinion the prior drug use and incarceration were irrelevant to his psychological evaluation, Plaintiffs contended that Defendants should not be able to introduce the drug use and other specific incidents through Dr. Foote. The trial court, however, ruled that if Dr. Foote testified any past acts of Plaintiff could be inquired into on cross-examination. *' * * Because of that ruling Plaintiffs withdrew Dr. Foote as a witness * * and were deprived of his testimony. [Our emphasis.] Plaintiffs conclude with a general claim of prejudice by the trial court’s ruling. We have pointed out that the psychologist was withdrawn as a witness after the trial court’s ruling. However, we cannot say that the witness was withdrawn because of the ruling. There was more to the tendered cross-examination than incidents involving the conduct of Jaramillo; it included discrepancies between what Jaramillo told the psychologist and what was revealed by medical records as to what Jaramillo could or could not do. This aspect of the tendered cross-examination related directly to the damage claim. The psychologist may well have been withdrawn as a witness to avoid cross-examination as to this type of discrepancy. However, we decide this issue on the merits. We assume, but do not decide, that the psychologist was withdrawn as a witness because the trial court ruled that cross-examination would be permitted as to events reasonably related to Jaramillo’s claim. In connection with cross-examination of a defendant’s character witness in a criminal case, State v. Christopher, 94 N.M. 648, 651, 615 P.2d 263 (1980), states: [T]he prosecutor is permitted to test the witnesses’ grounds of knowledge. [Citations omitted.] If the witness knows of reputed prior bad acts of the defendant which do not affect his opinion, the witness may be discredited and if the witness does not know of reputed prior bad acts of the defendant which may be generally known in the community, the basis of the witness’ opinion is deficient. Inquiry into the basis of the witness’ information, accuracy and credibility is almost universally admissible. [Our emphasis.] Cross-examination extends to matters that may modify, supplement, contradict, rebut or make clearer the facts testified to in chief by the witness on direct examination. State v. Wilcoxson, 51 N.M. 501, 188 P.2d 611 (1948); see State v. Garcia, 78 N.M. 136, 429 P.2d 334 (1967). Evid.Rule 611(b) is not to the contrary. The psychologist in this case was tendered as an expert witness. The expert is not to be sheltered from a testing of the basis of his opinion; rather, such a testing is expressly authorized. Evid.Rules 703 and 705; see State v. Turner, 81 N.M. 450, 468 P.2d 421 (Ct.App.1970). Jaramillo may have been prejudiced by a searching cross-examination of the psychologist. The prejudice would have been to the credibility of the psychologist’s testimony. “The fact that competent evidence may tend to prejudice [a party] is not grounds for exclusion of that evidence.” State v. Hogervorst, 90 N.M. 580, 588, 566 P.2d 828 (Ct.App.1977). Comparative Fault Rulings A. Negligence in a Products Liability Case Plaintiffs’ brief-in-chief identifies this issue in general terms — that the trial court erred in ruling that a plaintiffs ordinary negligence is a defense in a products liability case. They refer us to the instruction given by the trial court which identified the theories of Fisher and Cotton that Jaramillo was negligent. They also refer us to their objections to the instruction: “We reiterate our objection to any and all instructions on negligence as incorporating the negligence concept into a products liability case.” In the brief-in-chief, plaintiffs relied on New Mexico decisions that did not specifically decide this general claim and on decisions of other jurisdictions that had decided the issue consistent with plaintiffs’ general claim. The answer briefs of Fisher and Cotton relied principally on Marchese v. Warner Communications, Inc. Marchese states: “[P]laintiff’s negligence is a partial defense to a products liability claim in that the percentage of plaintiff’s fault, due to negligence, reduces the amount of damages that plaintiff may recover.” 100 N.M. at 317, 670 P.2d 113. Instead of citing specific cases in support of this proposition, Márchese cited two texts where the supporting cases could be found. Woods, The Trend Toward Comparative Fault 20 Trial at 16 (Nov.1984) discusses more recent cases and states, at page 20: “[T]he ascendency of comparative fault seems inevitable.” In their reply briefs, plaintiffs attempt to change the issue, asserting that other portions of the instructions were error. We do not consider these arguments because they were not made in the brief-in-chief. “Such a procedure forecloses a response from appellees, and leaves them with an argument directed only toward what they were able to surmise from the ... point stated in the Brief-in-Chief.” Doe v. City of Albuquerque, 96 N.M. 433, 436, 631 P.2d 728 (Ct.App.1981). An issue raised for the first time in the reply brief will not be considered. Sanchez v. Bernalillo County, 57 N.M. 217, 257 P.2d 909 (1953). The reply briefs also discuss arguments in the answer briefs of Fisher and Cotton. These arguments need not be considered because they were presented as alternatives, in the event Márchese was not applied. We follow Márchese. Plaintiffs contend that Márchese should not be followed because it had not been decided when this case was tried. Our answer comes from the court of appeals opinion adopted in Scott v. Rizzo, 96 N.M. 682, 634 P.2d 1234 (1981). That opinion had been adopted before the trial of this case. The opinion states, see 96 N.M. at 688, 634 P.2d 1234, that the effect of comparative negligence upon products liability claims was not decided, and that the court relied upon the capability of the trial judge to resolve such issues when confronted with special factual situations requiring adaptation of the rule of comparative negligence. The trial court resolved the problem in this case, instructing the jury (a) that defendants had the burden of proving that Jaramillo’s alleged negligence was a proximate cause of the injury and resulting damages, and (b) “If you find that plaintiffs have proved any one of their claims, and that defendants have proved a defense to that claim, then you will determine the degree to which the acts of each party contributed to cause the injury and resulting damages.” This instruction was consistent with Scott v. Rizzo. The trial court proceeded in accordance with Scott v. Rizzo. The fact that Márchese was decided after the trial of this case did not make the trial court’s instruction erroneous, and did not make the rule adopted in Márchese inapplicable. B. Evidence That Isabel Was Negligent The question of Isabel’s negligence was submitted to the jury. Our discussion under this heading is limited to the question of whether there was such negligence. Plaintiffs contend there was no evidence of negligence. We disagree. The stove that Jaramillo was testing was located in Isabel’s home and was one that Isabel and Jaramillo were planning to use in their business known as La Belle’s Catering. Isabel was present and cooking on a stove fueled with natural gas at the time of the test; thus there was an open flame. The cook stove and the stove being tested were in the same room. Isabel raised no objection to the circumstances of the test. The line from the stove being tested went into the adjacent room where the propane tank was located and where Jaramillo installed the regulator into the line. An exhibit indicates the distances involved were not great. Isabel had been in the food preparation business for several years and had experience in the use of propane fueled stoves. Jaramillo also had such experience but this experience had been acquired more than five years before. The testing occurred without any venting to the outside. There was evidence that the pressure in the tank was excessive for the hookup for the test, that a second regulator was needed. The foregoing is evidence of negligence on the part of Isabel. Plaintiffs assert that the foregoing evidence of negligence on the part of Isabel was no more than a duplication of the fault assessed to Jaramillo. Plaintiffs conclude that the jury was allowed “to assess fault against Plaintiffs twice for the same activity____” This is a non sequitur. Both Isabel and Jaramillo could be found negligent for their part in the testing. Moreover, their activity was not the same. Isabel continued to cook with an open flame during the test of equipment using propane, which, at a minimum, Isabel should have known to be dangerous because of her experience. Jaramillo conducted the test. There was evidence that his hookup was improper. In addition, there was evidence of separate negligence by Jaramillo in reentering the home after reaching a place of safety. C. How Isabel’s Negligence Applies Only Arrow identified a theory of negligence as to Isabel. Neither Fisher nor Cotton identified a theory of Isabel’s negligence. On this basis plaintiffs raise two issues. (1) Absence of Duty Arrow’s theory of Isabel’s negligence was that (a) Isabel failed to adequately instruct and supervise Jaramillo in the use and operation of the regulator, and (b) Isabel negligently permitted Jaramillo to store, handle and attach the tank to a stove inside the house. Plaintiffs assert that, even if there was evidence of negligence as to these items, Isabel could not be held negligent as to Jaramillo because she owed no duty to Jaramillo. We need not decide the question of a duty owed to Jaramillo. However, see 2 Restatement (Second) of Torts § 318 (1965). The argument concerning a duty to Jaramillo is an attempt to misdirect the issue. Our inquiry is how the evidence of Isabel's negligence is to be applied. Isabel had a duty to exercise ordinary care for her own safety and the safety of her property. NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 16.4 (Repl.Pamp.1980). The jury was so instructed. It was also instructed as to the meaning of ordinary care, and negligence was defined with respect to the pres ence or absence of ordinary care. A plaintiffs recovery may be reduced on the basis of the plaintiff’s breach of the duty to exercise ordinary care for the safety of the plaintiff’s property. Cf. Thomas v. Henson, 696 P.2d 1010 (Ct.App.1984). Arrow’s theories of Isabel’s negligence are predicated on the facts of the test made by Jaramillo and circumstances involving both Isabel and Jaramillo, but the viability of those theories are not dependent upon a duty to Jaramillo. Rather, the viability is based upon Isabel’s duty to care for herself and her property. (2) Failure of Fisher and Cotton to Identify a Theory of Negligence Plaintiffs assert that neither Fisher nor Cotton can benefit from Isabel’s negligence because neither Fisher nor Cotton identified a theory that Isabel was negligent. This disregards Bartlett v. New Mexico Welding Supply, Inc., 98 N.M. 152, 646 P.2d 579 (Ct.App.1982), and how the jury was instructed. Bartlett holds that the jury is to determine the fault of all participants in the occurrence regardless of whether the participants are parties to the litigation. The reason is that damages are to be apportioned on the basis of fault. A special verdict was submitted to the jury which required it to consider the cause of the injuries to Jaramillo and the property damage to the Mondragon home. The jury considered the fault of Fisher and Cotton in terms of products liability. It considered the fault of Arrow, Jaramillo and Isabel in terms of negligence. In addition, it considered the fault of Allan Kossman, a non-party, and any other party in terms of negligence. The special verdict covered the fault of participants in the occurrence that caused the damage to plaintiffs. This was proper under Bartlett and under the evidence. The determination of the fault of all participants depends on the evidence showing fault or nonfault by the participants. The determination does not depend on pleading or whether a party identified a theory in requested instructions; it cannot. Participants who are not parties neither plead nor submit requested instructions. The jury properly assessed Isabel’s percentage of fault; the fact that Fisher and Cotton failed to submit a theory of Isabel’s negligence in their requested instructions did not prohibit the jury from making that assessment. Computation of the Mondragons’ Judgment and Assessment of Costs The jury determined that the total damage to the Mondragons was $190,000; the amount is not challenged. State Farm Fire and Casualty Company (State Farm) insured the Mondragons; it paid, to the Mon-dragons or on their behalf, the sum of $92,465.01. In exchange for this payment the Mondragons released State Farm and executed a subrogation receipt. The receipt subrogated State Farm to all of the Mondragons’ rights and claims against any party, person or corporation liable for the loss covered by the release. The receipt authorized State Farm to sue or settle, in the Mondragons’ name, “to the extent of said payment.” State Farm intervened as a party-plaintiff. Its complaint in intervention named Fisher and Cotton as defendants. The problem of computation arises because State Farm settled its portion of the Mon-dragons’ damage claim prior to trial. State Farm was paid $60,500 for the settlement. The only defendant held liable was Fisher. The jury determined that Fisher’s percentage of fault was forty percent. The trial court subtracted State Farm’s subrogation amount of $92,465.01 from the Mon-dragons’ total damages of $190,000 and multiplied the remainder by forty percent. It entered judgment against Fisher and in favor of the Mondragons in the amount of $39,013.68. Fisher’s cross-appeal contends the trial court’s computation was wrong. Because Fisher was found to be liable for only forty percent of the Mondragons’ damage, Fisher asserts that the judgment results in , an overpayment to the Mondragons. How does- Fisher support an overpayment? It states the basic question is, “[A]t what point in the computation of the judgment against Fisher was the credit for the settlement to be given”? Fisher would apply its forty percent liability against the $190,000 damages, for a total liability of $76,000. It would subtract from this $76,-000, the total amount of the subrogation claim that was settled. The result would be a negative figure. It asks that the trial court be directed to amend the judgment so that the Mondragons recover nothing from Fisher. It asserts that if this is not done the Mondragons’ damages are not “discounted” a full sixty percent for the fault attributed to Mondragon and Isabel. Its discount argument credits the Mondragons with the amount of the State Farm subrogation plus the $39,013.68 amount in the judgment and points out that the sum exceeds the $76,000 for which Fisher is liable. The Mondragons' respond with two illustrations. The first illustration accords with the trial court’s computation by subtracting the total amount of the subrogation claim from the total damages and applying the forty percent factor to the remainder. The second illustration accepts Fisher’s argument that its total liability was $76,000. It points out that the portion of that liability that could have been recovered by State Farm was forty percent of $92,465.01. This amount is $36,986. If the amount is subtracted from $76,000, the remainder is $39,014, which is the amount of the judgment. Fisher and the Mondragons agree that the settlement of State Farm’s subrogation is to be credited and that State Farm’s right to recover is dependent upon the Mondragons’ right to recover. See Fireman’s Fund American Insurance Companies v. Phillips, Carter, Reister & Associates, Inc., 89 N.M. 7, 546 P.2d 72 (Ct.App.1976). Their dispute is over the proper method of applying that settlement. Our view, expressed in Wilson v. Galt, 100 N.M. 227, 668 P.2d 1104 (Ct.App.1983), is that the portion of the case which was settled was completely disposed of by the settlement without regard to Fisher’s liability. The settlement occurred prior to trial. The jury was not informed of State Farm’s payment; however, the damages covered by that payment were included in the damage evidence submitted to the jury. Thus, the total damages awarded by the jury included the damages paid by State Farm. Those damages were removed from the suit by the settlement. The trial court properly subtracted the total subrogation claim from the total damages and applied the forty percent factor to the remainder. Fisher asserts that Wilson is distinguishable on its facts. This is correct; the settling party in Wilson was out of the case. In Wilson, the nonsettling parties sought to take advantage of what turned out to be an overpayment by the settling party. Fisher remained in the case; it settled only the portion of the Mondragons’ claim to which State Farm was subrogated. Fisher seeks to take advantage of its settlement by applying its liability factor before considering the settlement. This is inappropriate. What was settled is to be removed from the total damages awarded before the liability factor is applied. This result is supported by the discussion in Wilson. Wilson states: “If the injured person settles and releases one tortfeasor, the consideration paid would satisfy only that tortfeasor’s percentage of fault, even though no jury determination of the amount of his liability exists at the time of settlement.” 100 N.M. at 232, 668 P.2d 1104. Fisher’s settlement satisfied only its percentage of fault for the portion of the Mondragons’ damages (the subrogation) which was settled. Wilson states: [T]he injured person, by settling, would not recover more than his total damages, because each tortfeasor would pay, by settlement or judgment, only his respective share. * * * If the settling tortfeasor paid more in settlement than his apportioned share of the total damages * * * the injured person, without reduc tion, would retain the benefit of the contractually made bargain. 100 N.M. at 232, 668 P.2d 1104. Fisher paid more than its apportioned share of damages (the forty percent factor) in settling the subrogation portion of the Mon-dragons’ damage claims. Nevertheless, Fisher settled only its respective share. State Farm, as subrogee of the Mondragons, retains the benefit of the contracted overpayment. The overpayment is not to be used to reduce the unsettled portion of the Mondragons’ damages. As stated in Wilson: “Policy considerations favor this approach. It encourages settlements.” 100 N.M. at 232, 668 P.2d 1104. There was no error in the computation of the Mondragons’ judgment. Fisher contends that even if the computation was correct it, nevertheless, is entitled to the benefit of the amount State Farm paid to the Mondragons. “Fisher should be entitled to a credit against any amounts payable to the Mondragons by Fisher to the extent of the payments made to the Mondragons by State Farm ... that is, $92,465.01.” This claim is frivolous. State Farm paid the Mondragons pursuant to an insurance contract between those parties. Fisher identifies nothing indicating it was a beneficiary of the contract. The subrogation provisions of the policy and the release and subrogation receipt negate the argument that Fisher was a beneficiary. Cf. Gantt v. L & G Air Conditioning, 101 N.M. 208, 680 P.2d 348 (Ct.App.1983). The judgment provides that Cotton and Arrow shall recover their costs from Jaramillo and the Mondragons. The judgment also provides that Jaramillo and the Mondragons shall recover their costs from Fisher. In the trial court Fisher contended that it should be liable for only forty percent of plaintiffs’ costs. It abandons that position on appeal because of our decisions. See Robison v. Campbell, 101 N.M. 393, 683 P.2d 510 (Ct.App.1984); Eichel v. Goode, Inc., 101 N.M. 246, 680 P.2d 627 (Ct.App.1984). Fisher recognizes that the award of costs is in the trial court’s discretion; it asserts the trial court failed to exercise its discretion. We disagree. The judgment of the trial court is affirmed. No appellate costs are awarded; each party shall bear its appellate costs. IT IS SO ORDERED. BIVINS and MINZNER, JJ., concur.
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. Appellant Apostolic Tabernacle de Las Cruces (Church) appeals from an order of the district court restraining it from operating a school on its church premises in Las Cruces contrary to the city zoning code. The Church raises three issues on appeal: (1) claim that the operation of a school is an incidental or accessory use of its church premises; (2) claim that the operation of a school is a preexisting use of its church premises; and (3) claim of violation of its first amendment rights. We affirm. FACTS The Church owns a building on a tract of land on East Missouri Street in Las Cruces where it has conducted religious services for several years. At the time the Church originally constructed its building in 1979, the land in question was zoned as R-l residential, which permitted the building of single-family dwellings, churches, and incidental church facilities when located on arterial streets. After the building of the Church, the City enacted a new zoning code which became effective August 3, 1981. Under the new zoning plan the area in which the Church premises are located continued to be designated as an R-l residential district, but the plan provided that private, public and parochial schools could be established in the district only if a special use permit was granted by the Planning and Zoning Commission after a public hearing. The plan also provided that churches in such areas required a special use permit. The trial court found that the Church started construction of the school facilities and church offices at its church premises in May or June 1981, but did not commence actual classroom teaching on the premises until September 7, 1981. The trial court also found that the Church refused to apply for a Special Use Permit to operate its school within the R-l residential zone. Testimony offered at trial indicated that the Church school is conducted daily, Monday through Friday, approximately 180 days per year. Classroom instruction is not limited to religious instruction, but includes other areas of study, including mathematics, English and science. The City petitioned the district court for a restraining order enjoining the operation of the parochial school in violation of the 1981 zoning code. At the time of the hearing on the City’s application for a restraining order, in September 1983, the Church had twenty-three pupils enrolled in its school. Daniel Huerta, pastor of the Church, testified that the school could accommodate approximately sixty pupils in its present facilities and had plans to expand its facilities to accommodate between 150 and 200 pupils. Following the hearing, the court adopted findings of fact and conclusions of law and issued an order enjoining the operation of a school on the existing Church premises. The trial court found that the operation of the school was a more intensive use than a church, that the conduct of the school on the premises “unduly increases the level of noise in the immediate vicinity, disturbing the peace and quiet of the neighborhood,” “creates, or may create a safety hazard,” and that the conduct and operation of the parochial school did not commence until after the effective date of the 1981 zoning code. The court further found that although the Church has a right to continue operating as a church at its present location, the operation of a parochial school after the effective date of the new zoning ordinance was illegal and could not be continued without the issuance of a special use . permit by the City. I. CLAIM OF ACCESSORY AND PREEXISTING USE We discuss the Church’s first and second points jointly. The Church contends that the conduct of a parochial school is a subordinate part and incidental to its primary use of the premises as a church. Specifically, the Church argues that the school is an accessory, incidental, or auxiliary use of its principal or main use of the Church for religious purposes. The Church argues that an “accessory” or “incidental” use is necessarily encompassed within the parameters of the primary use of its Church premises. The Church argues, in effect, that its right to conduct church operations, which is an unchallenged non-conforming use under the 1981 Code, carries with it a right to conduct accessory activities. The City notes that under the 1981 Code, both churches and schools are special uses. See §§ 6.1A-3 and 6.1A-4. Under these circumstances, the City claims the Church’s argument fails unless the school represents a non-conforming use. We assume, without deciding, that the Church is entitled to conduct some uses accessory to its operation as a church, by virtue of its right to continue operating as a church under the 1981 Code. The 1981 Zoning Code adopted by the City of Las Cruces provided that “[ajccessory uses which are incidental to and customarily found within the R-l District are also permitted.” “An accessory, incidental or auxiliary use is one which is dependent on or pertains to the principal or main use, and which may be considered an integral part of the primary use.” 8 E. McQuillin, Municipal Corporations § 25.-125 at 377 (3d ed. 1983) (footnotes omitted). We recognize, as have other courts, that the right to establish and maintain a religious use includes the right to establish and maintain accessory uses. See Annot., 11 A.L.R.4th 1084 (1982). We adopt the rule articulated in Damascus Community Church v. Clackamas County, 45 Or.App. 1065, 1071, 610 P.2d 273, 276 (1980), appeal dismissed, 450 U.S. 902, 101 S.Ct. 1336, 67 L.Ed.2d 326 (1981), that while “certain types of ancillary uses ‘usually connected with a church' are implicitly encompassed by * * * permits for churches * * •* it is clear that full-time parochial schools are not among the uses which could be regarded as implicit * * * for a church under this ordinance.” [Emphasis in original.] While it is clear that the parameters of religious use of a church building are not limited to actual prayer or worship services, a factual issue may exist under a zoning ordinance when a new or enlarged use of the church premises is implemented. The use of the property must in fact exist prior to the effective date of a zoning ordinance in order to qualify as a lawful nonconforming use. A mere intention or an unimplemented usage is insufficient to create a prior existing use. Board of Clark County Commissioners v. Excite Corp., 98 Nev. 153, 643 P.2d 1209 (1982); Anderson v. Island County, 81 Wash.2d 312, 501 P.2d 594 (1972). As observed in 8A E. McQuillin, Municipal Corporations § 25.188 at 34 (3d ed. 1976): The general rule is that actual use as distinguished from merely contemplated use when a zoning restriction opposed to it becomes effective is essential to its protection as a lawful nonconforming use. * * * [I]t is not the present intention to put property to a future use but the present use of the property which must be the criterion * * * [M]ere in tentions or plans at the time a zoning ordinance becomes effective to use particular land or dwellings for a certain use does not entitle one to that use in contravention of the ordinance. * * * A purchase of property with an intention to use it for a particular purpose does not in itself give a right to use it for that purpose as against a subsequent zoning ordinance or restriction. [Footnotes omitted.] It is essential to the establishment of the right to a lawful non-conforming use that the use was commenced before the enactment of a zoning ordinance restricting such use. The use must be the same both before and after the zoning law becomes effective. Lane v. Bigelow, 135 N.J.L. 195, 50 A.2d 638 (1947); Parks v. Board of County Commissioners of Tillamook County, 11 Or.App. 177, 501 P.2d 85 (1972). While a non-conforming use existing at the time of the effective date of a zoning ordinance may be continued, the burden of proof is upon the party asserting the existence of the non-conforming use to establish the legality and existence of the actual use at the time of the enactment of a zoning ordinance affecting such use. Texas National Theatres Inc. v. City of Albuquerque, 97 N.M. 282, 639 P.2d 569 (1982); Melton v. City of San Pablo, 61 Cal.Rptr. 29, 252 Cal.App.2d 794 (1967). Whether a use is non-conforming is generally a question of fact. Application of Brandt, 15 Wis.2d 6, 112 N.W.2d 157 (1961). Each case must be decided on its own particular facts. Vogl v. City of Baltimore, 228 Md. 283, 179 A.2d 693 (1962). The Church contends that it conducted religious services on its premises prior to the effective date of the 1981 city ordinance and has a right to continue its non-conforming use, including the operation of a parochial school despite the adoption and implementation of the new zoning plan. Whether the Church school can be classified as a preexisting use of the Church premises depends on whether the school was in use prior to the enactment of the 1981 zoning code. Reverend Daniel Huerta, the pastor of the Church, was questioned about when the Church school first began. He stated that at the time the Church was initially built he had the “intention” of conducting a church school in the church structure, but that the church school program in fact began in September 1981: Q: [Y]ou actually didn’t start * * * teaching * * * until September of 1981 has been your testimony; is that correct? A: We started our teaching ministry, teaching the children, in that month, yes. Reverend Huerta also testified that in early 1981 the Church began building cubicles in the Church to be used as classrooms but did not obtain a building permit from the City. Reverend Joseph Garland, a consultant for a state Christian education certification program (ACE), testified that ACE approval of the Church’s religious education program was granted some time in the middle or latter part of August 1981. However, the trial court found that the operation of the parochial school by the Church did not actually commence until after the effective date of the 1981 zoning code. This finding is supported by substantial evidence. The trial court also found that the operation of the school was an unlawful non-conforming use under the 1981 code and was prohibited unless a special use permit was obtained. No issue has been asserted that the operation of the school constitutes an enlargement of a pri- or lawful non-conforming use. The trial court did not err in finding that the use of the Church for parochial school purposes was an impermissible non-conforming use, not incidental to the use of the premises as a church. See Seward Chapel, Inc. v. City of Seward, 655 P.2d 1293 (Alaska 1982). II. FREE EXERCISE OF RELIGION The Church asserts that its right to use its property for school purposes is protect ed by the Free Exercise Clause of the first amendment of the United States Constitution and by Article II, Section 11 of the New Mexico Constitution. Reverend Huerta contends that the furnishing of a Christian education is an inherent part of the denomination’s religious tenets. Under both the federal and state constitutions, the right to the free exercise of religion is a cherished and protected right. As important as these rights are, however, “[rjights protected by the First Amendment are not immune from governmental regulation; the city may impose reasonable restrictions on the time, place, and manner in which such rights are exercised.” Seward Chapel Inc. at 1300. Courts in other jurisdictions have generally upheld the right of a municipality to impose rational and reasonable zoning ordinances upon churches and religious organizations. See Allendale Congregation of Jehovah’s Witnesses v. Grosman, 30 N.J. 273, 152 A.2d 569 (1959), appeal dismissed, 361 U.S. 536, 80 S.Ct. 587, 4 L.Ed.2d 538 (1960) (holding that the refusal to issue a permit to construct a church did not violate free exercise of religion where church could not comply with parking regulations); Damascus Community Church v. Clackamas County (holding no violation of first amendment in denying a church under a zoning ordinance the right to operate a parochial school in a church building); American Communications Association, C.I.O. v. Douds, 339 U.S. 382, 70 S.Ct. 674, 94 L.Ed. 925, reh’g denied, 339 U.S. 990, 70 S.Ct. 1017, 94 L.Ed. 1391 (1950) (noting that the Supreme Court had dismissed for want of substantiality an appeal involving a claim by a church that its First Amendment rights were violated by a city ordinance precluding the building of churches in certain residential areas); Seward Chapel, Inc. v. City of Seward (holding city could exclude a parochial school from a specific residential zone). In Abram v. City of Fayetteville, 281 Ark. 63, 661 S.W.2d 371 (1983), the court considered a claim similar to that raised by the Church in the present case. There, appellants asserted that both the federal and state constitutional guarantees of religious freedom encompassed the right to operate a parochial school as a tenet of their religious beliefs regardless of municipal zoning restrictions. Appellant also argued that operating a parochial school is an integral function of the exercise of church activities and that it is not within the province of a municipality to restrict those activities. The Supreme Court of Arkansas held that the municipal zoning ordinance, requiring the issuance of a conditional use permit for a church did “not automatically authorize the operation of a full-time parochial school.” Id., 661 S.W.2d at 373; see also Annot., 62 A.L.R.3d 197 (1975); Annot., 64 A.L.R.3d 1087 (1975). In the present case, the trial court found that the operation of a church school in an R-l residential area would create a safety hazard, disturb the peace and quiet of the neighborhood, and unduly increase the noise level in the neighborhood. The Church has not challenged the trial court’s finding about the existence or creation of a safety hazard. Under these facts, the 1981 municipal zoning ordinance requiring the issuance of a special use permit as a prerequisite to the operation of a parochial school does not impose an unreasonable restriction upon the Church’s free exercise of religion. Nor does the ordinance preclude the Church from operating a parochial school at another location compatible with the surrounding area and uses. The zoning ordinance as applied to the Church does not impose an infringement upon its members’ religious beliefs. See Damascus Community Church v. Clackamas County. The ordinance in question as it applies to the Church constitutes a reasonable exercise of the police power of the municipality. The judgment of the district court is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. HENDLEY and MINZNER, JJ., concur.
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OPINION HENDLEY, Judge. This court granted defendant Roche Laboratories’ application for an interlocutory appeal from the district court’s denial of its motion for summary judgment. The issue is whether Richards v. Upjohn Co., 95 N.M. 675, 625 P.2d 1192 (Ct.App.1980), precludes summary judgment as a matter of law, in favor of a manufacturer, in a products liability case when the theory of liability is the inadequacy of prescription drug warnings. The trial court found that Richards controlled to prohibit summary judgment. We reverse and remand with directions to the trial court to grant Roche Laboratories’ motion for summary judgment. Plaintiff’s claims against the remaining defendants are not involved in this appeal. The following facts are from the depositions, exhibits, and affidavits filed in the district court. In December 1979 and January 1980, Dr. Deming treated plaintiff for prostatitis (prostate infection). The doctor initially prescribed tetracycline. After finishing two prescriptions of tetracycline, plaintiff returned to Dr. Deming on January 17, 1980, and complained of burning during urination and slight lower back pain. The doctor prescribed Bactrim. After approximately five days on the Bactrim, plaintiff alleges that he experienced nausea and that blisters appeared on his penis. Later these symptoms grew worse and he had a high temperature, dizziness, red eyes, pain on the bottom of his feet, splotches over his body, and he was depressed and unable to sleep. Plaintiff claims that he reported nausea and the splotches on his penis to Dr. Deming at his appointment on January 25, 1980. Dr. Deming’s chart for that visit shows that plaintiff was feeling better except for some skin irritation and an inflammation of the penis. Dr. Deming made a diagnosis of nonspecific balantitis and prescribed an ointment and continuation of the Bactrim. After the January 25, 1980, visit, plaintiff did not return to Dr. Deming’s office, although Dr. Deming claims that plaintiff was instructed to return as needed or in a week. Plaintiff admits he had not been released from care. Instead, plaintiff finished the Bactrim prescription and, less than a week after finishing it, he admitted himself to the hospital emergency room. In his deposition plaintiff testified that “[t]he decision to take, me to the hospital was made, I would say, in an instant when I instructed her [his wife] that my throat and my mouth were swelling so much that if I didn’t get in the hospital, I might choke to death.” Defendants’ experts who have filed affidavits in this case, including defendant, Dr. Deming, identify plaintiff’s symptoms at the time of hospitalization as a reaction to Bactrim called Stevens-Johnson Syndrome. Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary 1298 (26th ed. 1981) defines the syndrome: [T]he severe form of erythema multiforme [lesions on the skin] in which, in addition to other symptoms * * * there is involvement of the oronasal and anogenital mucosa [mucous membrane], the eyes, and viscera [large interior organs]; constitutional symptoms include malaise, prostration, headache, fever, and arthralgia [pain in a joint]. It may be fatal. The only allegations in plaintiff’s complaint which go to Roche Laboratories’ liability are those in count I. 3. Roche Laboratories, Division of Hoffman-LaRoche, Inc. manufactured the drug under its brand name Bactrim. 4. Plaintiff took the prescribed drug as directed by the doctor. 5. The defendants knew or should have known of the dangers involved with use of the drug and each could foresee that harm may result to plaintiff as the user of the drug. 6. None of the defendants provided any warnings to plaintiff of the dangers involved and plaintiff was unaware of the dangers involved in the taking of the prescribed drugs. 7. As a proximate result of the failure to warn, the plaintiff suffered serious injury and attendant pain and suffering all to his damage in an amount deemed reasonable by the fact finder. New Mexico has adopted the basis for products liability found in Restatement (Second) of Torts § 402A (1965). Stang v. Hertz Corporation, 83 N.M. 730, 497 P.2d 732 (1972). § 402A. Special Liability of Seller of Product for Physical Harm to User or Consumer (1) One who sells any product in a defective condition unreasonably dangerous to the user or consumer or to his property is subject to liability for physical harm thereby caused to the ultimate user or consumer, or to his property, if (a) the seller is engaged in the business of selling such a product, and (b) it is expected to and does reach the user or consumer without substantial change in the condition in which it is sold. (2) The rule stated in Subsection (1) applies although (a) the seller has exercised all possible care in the preparation and sale of his product, and (b) the user or consumer has not bought the product from or entered into any contractual relation with the seller. Plaintiff does not allege that Roche Laboratories is liable because of a physical defect in the drug Bactrim, but because no warnings about the possible dangers of the drug were given. This allegation states a theory of liability because, where dangers from use can be anticipated, the manufacturer must provide adequate warnings or the product is defective. Restatement, § 402A comment h. See also Perfetti v. McGhan Medical, 99 N.M. 645, 662 P.2d 646 (Ct.App.1983); First National Bank, Albuquerque v. Nor-Am Agricultural Products, Inc., 88 N.M. 74, 537 P.2d 682 (Ct.App.1975). Where the product is a prescription drug, the manufacturer’s duty to warn is fulfilled if it warns the physician, not the patient. Perfetti. In Richards v. Upjohn Co., this court adopted the five criteria originally given in Nor-Am for determination of the adequacy of a warning to a physician. These criteria are: 1. the warning must adequately indicate the scope of the danger; 2. the warning must reasonably communicate the extent or seriousness of the harm that could result from misuse of the drug; 3. the physical aspects of the warning must be adequate to alert a reasonably prudent person to the danger; 4. a simple directive warning may be inadequate when it fails to indicate the consequences that might result from failure to follow it and, most importantly, in the context of the present case; 5. the means to convey the warning must be adequate. In evidence, as the warnings provided by Roche Laboratories to physicians, were the package insert and the excerpt on Bactrim from the Physicians’ Desk Reference (PDR). In support of its motion for summary judgment, defendant Roche Laboratories filed affidavits of four doctors, including that of defendant Dr. Deming. Although Roche Laboratories claims that the affidavits of Drs. Kolosseus and Friedman go to the adequacy of the warning, they do not. Their affidavits go instead to the safety of the product and its proper prescription in this case. However, the affidavits of Drs. Lackner and Deming do go to the adequacy of the warning and establish a prima facie case that the warning was adequate based on the five factor test in Richards. Factors 1 & 2—the warning “must adequately indicate the scope of the danger * * * [and] reasonably communicate the extent or seriousness of the harm that could result from misuse of the drug”. Drs. Lackner and Deming stated in their affidavits: The warnings provided by Roche Laboratories of the risks potentially associated with Bactrim or with any trimethoprim or sulfamethoxazole were adequate and sufficiently indicated the scope of any associated dangers. The warnings reasonably communicated the extent or seriousness of any possible harm that could result from misuse of the drug. Factors 3, j, & 5—“physical aspects of the warning must be adequate to alert a reasonably prudent person to the danger * * * [the] warning * * * [should] indicate the consequences that might result from failure to follow it and * * * the means to convey the warning must be adequate.” Drs. Lackner and Deming stated in their affidavits: The Roche warnings provided through the package insert and the literature were also sufficiently adequate to alert a reasonably prudent person to the associated dangers of the use of Bactrim. They were also adequate to indicate the consequences that might result from failing to follow the warnings provided. Although the affidavits of Drs. Lackner and Deming mechanically track the test for adequate warnings in Richards without explanation as to why the warnings were adequate under the five factors, they are evidence by qualified experts, and there is nothing in the record to show that plaintiff objected to them as being conclusory and unable to support a summary judgment motion. See Smith v. Klebanoff, 84 N.M. 50, 499 P.2d 368 (Ct.App.1972). Further, plaintiff does not raise this on appeal. Accordingly, we do not consider the conclusory aspect of the affidavits. In addition to the foregoing, the documents themselves support a prima facie showing of adequacy. The package insert and PDR list “Stevens-Johnson Syndrome” in the section on allergic reactions. Defendant Roche Laboratories points out that the single symptoms plaintiff complained of were also listed separately under adverse reactions. The above evidence is sufficient to support a prima facie ease of summary judgment for defendant Roche Laboratories on the adequacy of the warnings provided to physicians. Goodman v. Brock, 83 N.M. 789, 498 P.2d 676 (1972). Plaintiff introduced no evidence which would support a factual question as to the adequacy of the warnings. Plaintiff's evidence went only to the malpractice claim. The trial court read Richards to mean that as a matter of law the adequacy of prescription drug warnings is always a jury question which may not be resolved without trial through summary judgment proceedings. This is incorrect. Richards did not change the law on summary judgment. The holding in Richards was that when the nonmovant presents evidence of the inadequacy of the warnings, it is improper for the court to grant summary judgment for the drug manufacturer. Here, plaintiff presented no evidence of the inadequacy of the warnings and summary judgment is proper. Reversed and remanded. Defendant Roche Laboratories is awarded appellate costs. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and ALARID, J., concur.
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OPINION NEAL, Judge. This case concerns the division of property after a divorce. We discuss the value of pension benefits, disposition of the house, and the effect of the wife’s untimely filing of her cross-appeal. Manuel Madrid (husband) began working for Kennecott Copper Corporation in 1939. He and Anne Madrid (wife) were married in 1950. He retired in 1971 and the parties were divorced in 1980. The husband died in 1982; the appeal is brought by his personal representative (estate). The court awarded the wife the marital residence and lot, valued at $30,000; household furnishings, and her social security benefits. The court awarded the husband a car and a truck, his social security benefits, and his Kennecott pension benefits. The property division was appealed to the Supreme Court which, in an unpublished decision, remanded the case to the district court for a determination of the discounted present value of the pension. See Copeland v. Copeland, 91 N.M. 409, 575 P.2d 99 (1978). See also Leckie v. Leckie, 101 N.M. 254, 680 P.2d 635 (Ct.App.1984). The major issue in this appeal concerns an issue not addressed in the Supreme Court decision: At what point is the pension valued? 1. Value of the pension. The parties stipulated that on February 4, 1980, the date of the divorce, the husband was receiving $215.23 per month in pension benefits. Negotiations between the company and the union resulted in increased benefits for retired employees, and in January 1981 the husband began receiving $245.36 per month. In January 1982, the husband began receiving $275.49 per month. The decision of the district court, on remand, was filed November 14, 1982. In that decision, the district court valued the pension based on the monthly benefit of $275.49. The estate contends that the pension should be valued using the monthly benefit of $215.23, which the husband was receiving at the time of the divorce. We agree. In holding that the pension must be valued at the time of the divorce we rely on Copeland v. Copeland and Hurley v. Hurley, 94 N.M. 641, 615 P.2d 256 (1980). Copeland states: The cases are in agreement that at the time of the divorce the court must place a value on the pension rights and include it in the entire assets, then make a distribution of the assets equitably. Hurley v. Hurley concerned the value of a doctor’s practice, and held that “the value of the practice as a business at the time of dissolution of the community is community property.” (Emphasis added.) The rule concerning the valuation of community property in Copeland and Hurley is a corollary of the general rule that divorce dissolves the community. See 15 Am.Jur.2d Community Property § 101 (1976). The increases, coming after the date of the divorce, are the husband’s separate property. “Separate property” means property “acquired ... after entry . of a decree of dissolution of marriage.” NMSA 1978, § 40-3-8(A)(l) (Repl.Pamp.1983). “The word ‘acquired’ contemplates inception of title.” Hollingsworth v. Hicks, 57 N.M. 336, 258 P.2d 724 (1953). At the time of the divorce the increases were not even in existence. The increases, coming after the divorce, were not “acquired” until after the divorce, and were the separate property of the husband. 2. The husband’s separate contribution to the pension plan. The trial court did. not give the estate credit for the husband’s contribution to the pension plan made before marriage. The estate contends this was error. However, the Supreme Court decision states: Manuel Madrid also contends that the portion of his pension earned prior to marriage should be considered his separate property. LeClert v. LeClert, 80 N.M. 235, 453 P.2d 755 (1969). The record indicates, however, that he failed to present evidence as to when the pension plan was instituted and the amount or proportion of contributions made prior to his marriage. The trial court was justified in determining he failed to meet his burden of proof. Ohl v. Ohl, 97 N.M. 175, 637 P.2d 1230 (1981). This is the law of the case, Varney v. Taylor, 79 N.M. 652, 448 P.2d 164 (1968), and the Supreme Court having decided the issue, we are bound by its disposition. Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973). 3. Disposition of the house. The court awarded the parties’ home and lot to the wife. To apportion the community more equitably the court awarded the estate a lien on the house of $4815.00, plus interest of 10% per year. The judgment states that the lien would be paid “in whole or in party by the Petitioner [wife] at any time or upon her death or sale of the property.” The estate contends that it should receive its interest “within a reasonable time.” At the remand hearing the estate requested that the house be sold. We review the disposition of community realty for an abuse of discretion. Cunningham v. Cunningham, 96 N.M. 529, 632 P.2d 1167 (1981); Chrane v. Chrane, 98 N.M. 471, 649 P.2d 1384 (1982); Hertz v. Hertz, 99 N.M. 320, 657 P.2d 1169 (1983). In the initial appeal the Supreme Court stated that in apportioning community property the court must consider the needs of the parties in light of all the circumstances. Laughlin v. Laughlin, 49 N.M. 20, 155 P.2d 1010 (1944). In its decision the Supreme Court noted that the wife was seriously ill and incapacitated. Since the initial appeal the husband has died. At the remand hearing the court said that the wife “didn’t look too good.” Considering that the wife was ill and living on a marginal income, and that the husband had died, the court did not abuse its discretion when it refused to order that the house be sold or that the estate should receive its interest within a reasonable time. 4.The late cross-appeal. The wife’s cross-appeal mainly concerns the trial court’s failure to include a $2700.00 car in the community. Notice of cross-appeal would have been timely if filed by December 5, 1983. See NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App.R. 202(a) (Repl.Pamp. 1983). The notice of appeal was filed on November 23, 1983, but the notice of cross-appeal was not filed until December 8, 1983. In the calendar assignment for the cross-appeal the parties were directed to brief the issue of whether the late filing of the cross-appeal deprived this court of jurisdiction to consider it. The parties did not brief the issue, apparently relying on an extension of time granted by the trial court on December 28, nunc pro tunc as of November 30. However, the nunc pro tunc order, entered more than forty days after the judgment was filed on November 14, 1983, is ineffective. Gonzales v. City of Albuquerque, 90 N.M. 785, 568 P.2d 621 (Ct.App.1977). The cross-appeal is dismissed. Jones & Laughlin Supply v. Dugan Production Corp., 85 N.M. 51, 508 P.2d 1348 (Ct.App.1973). In light of our decision reducing the valuation of the pension the trial court may want to increase the lien on the house to arrive at a more equitable disposition. The case is remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. ALARID, J., concurs. DONNELLY, C.J., dissents.
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OPINION WOOD, Judge. The United States issued an oil and gas lease for lands in Eddy County, New Mexico. Plaintiff sought to quiet title, alleging that he was “the owner and holder in fee simple of (i) a 10% net profits interest, and (ii) an overriding royalty of 1% of the amount of all oil, gas, casinghead gas and other hydrocarbon substances which may be produced, each under” the United States lease. The case was tried on stipulated facts. The trial court dismissed plaintiffs quiet title claims with prejudice. Plaintiff appeals. We discuss: (1) the net profits interest, and (2) dismissal with prejudice in light of the undisputed overriding royalty interest. Gallo was the original lessee; he assigned the lease to Petrol Resources Corporation (Petrol), reserving an overriding royalty equal to 3% of %ths of production. Thereafter Petrol executed, contemporaneously, two documents in favor of plaintiff. One document conveyed a 1% of %ths overriding royalty to plaintiff. The second document assigned a 10% net profits interest in the lease to plaintiff. Thereafter Petrol assigned the lease to Cibola Energy Corp., formerly Coronado Exploration Corporation (Cibola), reserving a 1% of %ths overriding royalty. Cibola owns the lease in fee simple, subject to (a) 12%% royalty reserved by the United States; (b) 3% overriding royalty reserved by Gallo; (c) 1% overriding royalty reserved by Petrol; and (d) plaintiff’s claims. In seeking to quiet title, plaintiff’s claim is that each of his two interests was an interest in the title to real property. NMSA 1978, § 42-6-1; Rock Island Oil & Refining Co. v. Simmons, 73 N.M. 142, 386 P.2d 239 (1963); Lanehart v. Rabb, 63 N.M. 359, 320 P.2d 374 (1957), overruled on other grounds in Ortega, Snead, Dixon & Hanna v. Gennitti, 93 N.M. 135, 597 P.2d 745 (1979). If either of plaintiff’s interests was not an interest in the title to real property, the trial court properly dismissed the quiet title suit as to that interest. Net Profits Interest Petrol assigned plaintiff a 10% net profits interest in the lease. The phrase “net profits interest” has not been defined in New Mexico appellate decisions. The only New Mexico appellate decision that we have found which uses the phrase is Boylin v. United Western Minerals Co., 72 N.M. 242, 382 P.2d 717 (1963). What does the phrase mean? Plaintiff suggests that we should treat a “net profits interest” in the same manner as overriding royalty is treated, citing J. Sherrill, Net Profits Interest — A Current View, 19th Oil & Gas Inst, at 165 (Matthew Bender 1968), and 2 H. Williams & C. Meyers, Oil and Gas Law § 424.1 (1983). Plaintiff’s argument fails to recognize that both texts assign a meaning to the phrase’ “net profits interest” and likens the interest, as defined, to an overriding royalty. J. Sherrill, supra, explains that the “typical” net profits interest requires the working interest owner to advance all moneys necessary for the development and operation of the property, and entitles the working interest owner to receive all of the proceeds attributable to the production until he recovers all amounts previously advanced. J. Sherrill, supra, at 165, states: “Thus, traditionally, within the oil and gas industry, the ‘net profits’ of a net profits interest exist only when total receipts from the property exceed total expenditures with respect thereto, and it is in this sense that net profits are herein considered.” 2 H. Williams & C. Meyers, supra, at § 424 states that net profits are fractional interests in oil and gas property and at § 424.1 states “[a] net profits interest is a share of gross production from a property measured by net profits from the operation of the property.” See also 8 H. Williams & C. Meyers, Oil and Gas Law at 457 (1982). The definitions in both texts involve production from the property. Plaintiff’s “net profits interest” is not based on production. This distinction makes the definitions in the above texts inapplicable in this case. Plaintiff also suggests that his “net profits interest” should be treated as proceeds from the property. He relies on Fullerton v. Kaune, 72 N.M. 201, 382 P.2d 529 (1963) and cites Hodges v. Rutherford, 34 N.M. 664, 287 P. 289 (1930) as being contrary to Fullerton but inapplicable because Hodges has never been followed. The syllabus in Hodges, prepared by the court, states: “A contract for one-half of the net proceeds of all mineral and oils taken from lands is a personal contract and does not convey an interest in realty.” We have no authority to override a supreme court decision. Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973). However, we may consider whether the Hodges decision is applicable. See Peralta v. Martinez, 90 N.M. 391, 564 P.2d 194 (Ct.App.1977); State v. Scott, 90 N.M. 256, 561 P.2d 1349 (Ct.App.1977) and cases cited in Scott. Hodges has never been cited in other New Mexico decisions. Fullerton held that an oral contract for a percentage of the value of all oil and gas produced and saved was an interest in realty within the statute of frauds. A written contract to execute an oil and gas lease is a contract for the sale of an interest in land. Vanzandt v. Heilman, 54 N.M. 97, 214 P.2d 864 (1950); see also Keirsey v. Hirsch, 58 N.M. 18, 265 P.2d 346 (1953). If Hodges ever accurately stated New Mexico law, cf. Terry v. Humphreys, 27 N.M. 564, 203 P. 539 (1922), it was not to be followed after the decisions in Vanzandt, Keirsey and Fullerton. Hodges is not applicable; therefore, we answer plaintiffs argument which is based on Fullerton. Fullerton considered the argument that the production (in that case, gas) was realty, but the value of the gas was personalty. Fullerton states: “[I]t matters not whether the production from a mineral well is claimed or whether a portion of the fund resulting from the sale of the production is claimed; in New Mexico, both assets are realty.” 72 N.M. at 205, 382 P.2d 529. Plaintiffs “net profits interest” is not based on production or a fund resulting from the sale of production. Fullerton does not determine whether plaintiffs “net profits interest” is an interest to which title may be quieted. The fallacy in plaintiffs argument is to assume that the phrase “net profits interest” has a meaning that may be analogized to interests which have been determined to be real property. J. Sherrill, supra, states: The frequent use through the years of net profits interest arrangements has tended to lead many practitioners to consider the words “net profits interest” to be words of art describing a unique interest — almost in the same sense as do the words “overriding royalty.” The nature of a net profits interest is much too indefinite to deserve such independent status, and our inarticulate use of net profits interest arrangements has led to substantial litigation, usually in connection with the income tax. * * * Thus any consideration of the nature of a net profits interest arrangement, which contains no further specificity beyond the words “net profits interest” per se, is a leap into fantasy, for such words have no independent meaning. Id. at 165-66 (emphasis added). 5 E. Kuntz, Oil and Gas § 63.5 (1978) states there are “many decisions” by the United States Supreme Court which deal with the nature of a “net profits interest” for purposes of the federal income tax. Unfortunately, there is not the same volume of cases dealing with the nature of the net profits interest for purposes other than the federal income tax. As a result there is no body of law clearly defining the net profits interest, its nature, and its incidents. The only thing that can be said with any assurance is that a net profits interest may or may not be an interest in land and that the nature of the interest and the rights of its owner must be determined from the provisions of the instrument which created it. Id. at 228 (emphasis added). In deciding whether plaintiffs “net profits interest” is an interest in the title to real property, we proceed on the following basis: (1) the phrase “net profits interest” has no independent meaning, and (2) the nature of plaintiff’s interest must be determined from the provisions of the instrument which created plaintiff’s interest. This approach accords with New Mexico decisions which hold that it is immaterial by what name plaintiffs interest is called and that the courts will look to the language used in the instrument to determine its legal effect. Rock Island Oil & Refining Co.; Terry v. Humphreys. See also Atlantic Refining Co. v. Beach, 78 N.M. 634, 436 P.2d 107 (1968). The document assigning a “net profits interest” to plaintiff provides: (1) Net profits are to be computed “by deducting from the cash bonus received for the sale of the Lease” certain costs identified in the assignment. (2) “The decision to sell the Lease and the bonus consideration for which it is sold shall be made solely by PETROL * * *.” (3) The sale by Petrol “must be made to an independent third party for a cash bonus and overriding royalty not exceeding a total of five percent (5%), which in the opinion of * * * [a named individual] is not less than fair market value * * *.” (4) Plaintiff is not to receive any interest in the overriding royalty retained by Petrol other than the 1% overriding royalty assigned to plaintiff contemporaneously with the assignment of the “net profits interest.” “However, if PETROL RESOURCES CORPORATION retains any economic interest in the Lease other than an overriding royalty of not more than five percent (5%), such as a net profts [sic] or carried interest, S.B. CHRISTY IV shall be entitled to an assignment of ten percent (10%) of such additional retained interest.” The “however” clause, quoted in the preceding paragraph, states that plaintiff would be entitled to an interest in addition to the 10% net profits interest assigned to plaintiff if Petrol retained an economic interest other than an overriding royalty of not more than 5%. The stipulated facts show that Petrol did not retain such an interest. Accordingly, we are not concerned with the nature of such a nonexistent interest. Petrol sold the lease to Cibola; it was stipulated that Cibola was an independent third party. Cibola paid a cash consideration. There is no claim the cash consideration was other than the cash bonus referred to in the assignment. There is no claim that the decision to sell for an amount that was stipulated was by other than Petrol or that the amount paid was other than fair market value. Plaintiffs “net profits interest” was 10% of the cash bonus amount remaining after identified costs were deducted. Plaintiffs “net profits interest” was an interest in the cash bonus received by Petrol when it sold to Cibola. “Bonus” is the consideration paid, in this case the consideration paid by Cibola for Petrol’s assignment of the lease. The bonus is usually a sum of money, but may take other forms. Griffith v. Taylor, 291 S.W.2d 673 (Tex. 1956); see also Kelly v. Zamarello, 486 P.2d 906 (Alaska 1971); 1 H. Williams & C. Meyers, Oil and Gas Law § 301 (1983); 8 H. Williams & C. Meyers, supra, at 65. In this case the bonus was cash. Plaintiff’s net profits interest was an interest in the cash received by Petrol for its assignment of the lease to Cibola; it was not an interest in the proceeds of production (a royalty interest) as in Fullerton v. Kaune. Plaintiff’s percentage interest in the cash bonus received by Petrol was not an interest in the title to land; it was money due by contract. 5 E. Kuntz, supra. Seeking to avoid this result, plaintiff asserts the parties intended the “net profits interest” as an interest in real estate and the assignment should be construed to give effect to that intention. Construction is inappropriate where the language is not ambiguous. In the absence of ambiguity the court’s function is to interpret the contract which the parties made for themselves. Davies v. Boyd, 73 N.M. 85, 385 P.2d 950 (1963). There is no ambiguity in the assignment to plaintiff. Accordingly, we do not construe the assignment; rather, we interpret the assignment. The assignment provides that plaintiff was to have a net profits interest in the cash bonus received by Petrol. Cf. Boylin v. United Western Minerals Co. The trial court properly dismissed plaintiff’s complaint seeking to quiet title to plaintiff’s interest in the cash bonus. Dismissal With Prejudice as to the Overriding Royalty Interest “An overriding royalty is, first and foremost, a royalty interest.” 2 H. Williams & C. Meyers, supra, § 418.1. See also 8 H. Williams & C. Meyers, supra, at 518. A royalty interest is real property. Duvall v. Stone, 54 N.M. 27, 213 P.2d 212 (1949). Plaintiff sued to quiet title to a 1% overriding royalty interest. Cibola’s answer admitted that plaintiff owned this overriding royalty. The trial court’s order refers only to plaintiff's claim concerning the “net profits interest,” yet it dismissed the entire complaint with prejudice. Did the trial court intend no further proceedings in connection with the overriding royalty? See Chavez v. Chenoweth, 89 N.M. 423, 553 P.2d 703 (Ct.App.1976). The trial court’s order, as to the overriding royalty, is ambiguous. It should be clarified. The order of the trial court dismissing plaintiff’s suit to quiet title to a net profits interest is affirmed. The order of the trial court dismissing plaintiff’s suit to quiet title to an overriding royalty is vacated. The cause is remanded for further proceedings as to the overriding royalty. No costs are awarded. IT IS SO ORDERED. HENDLEY and NEAL, JJ., concur.
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OPINION WOOD, Judge. Plaintiffs, the widow and minor children of Robert Shaw, Sr., assert that the worker’s compensation law provides two separate and unrelated methods by which dependents (see NMSA 1978, § 52-1-17) may obtain compensation on the basis of the death of a worker. The specific contention is that NMSA 1978, Sections 52-l-31(B) and 52-1-46 each authorize compensation benefits for death, and that these two statutory provisions are unrelated. The argument is that legislation enacted since the decision in Gonzales v. Sharp & Fellows Contracting Co., 51 N.M. 121, 179 P.2d 762 (1947), has not changed the part of that decision that held that dependents had two remedies. We disagree. Our discussion is in three parts: (a) the background of this appeal; (b) the relation of Gonzales to subsequent statutory provisions; and (c) death benefits under the current statute. Background This appeal is from the trial court’s denial of defendant’s motion to dismiss the plaintiffs’ complaint. Defendant sought dismissal on the basis that the complaint failed to state a claim upon which relief could be granted. NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 12(b)(6) (Repl.Pamp.1980). For the purposes of this appeal, we consider the factual allegations in the complaint as true and decide whether plaintiffs can recover under those facts. Bottijliso v. Hutchiuson Fruit Co., 96 N.M. 789, 635 P.2d 992 (Ct. App.1981). Shaw suffered a compensable injury July 23, 1979, and obtained an award of compensation benefits after a trial on March 25-26, 1981. The judgment, filed April 29, 1981, awarded Shaw compensation benefits for total disability from August 3, 1979, to date of trial. The trial court found that Shaw’s total disability was temporary and that total disability was expected to continue for two years from the date of trial; the judgment awarded total disability benefits for two years from the date of trial. The temporary total disability was, in part, based on a traumatic neurosis. The complaint alleged that as a result of traumatic neurosis, Shaw committed suicide on September 28, 1981. On the date of death the disability benefits awarded in the judgment of April 29, 1981, were being paid. Death, however, was more than two years after the accidental injury of July 23, 1979. Section 52-1-46. On October 27, 1982, a motion was filed in Shaw’s compensation case to compel the payment of compensation benefits. The motion was denied February 16, 1983. The denial was appealed. Our memorandum decision in Shaw v. Contractors’ Equipment & Supply Company, (Ct.App.) No. 7089, filed April 5, 1983, recognized that the motion was “artfully ambiguous as to who is a plaintiff” and assumed that the motion was “a claim for compensation benefits by the widow and minor children.” This assumption was based on NMSA 1978, Section 52-l-47(C) which provides that compensation benefits for the disability of Shaw ended at his death. We summarily affirmed denial of compensation benefits for the widow and children on the basis that their claim was not made within one year of Shaw’s death. Section 52-l-31(B); Selgado v. New Mexico State Highway Department, 66 N.M. 369, 348 P.2d 487 (1960). Defendant was the attorney for Shaw in the court proceedings resulting in the judgment of April 29, 1981. In June 1983, plaintiffs sued defendant for legal malpractice. The amended complaint alleged that the widow consulted defendant as her attorney. The Defendant negligently advised the Plaintiff that she and her children had no right to compensation benefits and in reliance upon this advice the Plaintiff did not employ any other attorney or seek further legal advice until October of 1982 when the Plaintiff consulted other attorneys who filed claim on her behalf but such claim was denied as being outside the one year Statute of Limitations provided by 52-l-31(B) N.M.S.A.1978. The damages claimed in the malpractice complaint included claims for compensation, funeral benefits and attorney fees under the compensation act. Defendant moved to dismiss the complaint on the basis that it failed to state a claim upon which relief could be granted. The motion alleged: It is clear from the face of the Complaint in the applicable workmen’s compensation law that plaintiffs were not entitled to any workmen’s compensation as a result of the death of Robert Shaw, Sr. Therefore, there could have been no negligence on the part of defendant in advising the plaintiffs concerning same, and thus, the Complaint does not state a cause of action against defendant * * Concerned with the relationship of Gonzales v. Sharp & Fellows Contracting Co. to our current statutes, the trial court denied the motion to dismiss. We granted defendant’s application for an interlocutory appeal. Relationship of Gonzales to Current Statutory Provisions Section 52-1-46 states requirements for the payment of compensation benefits for death. It requires that the death proximately result from the accidental injury within two years following the accidental injury. Shaw’s death did not occur in this time period. Plaintiffs do not claim that they could have recovered compensation under Section 52-1-46. Since at least 1929, our compensation statute has required that death occur within a specified time following the accidental injury. See 1929 N.M.Laws, ch. 113, § 17. The applicable provision in Gonzales v. Sharp & Fellows Contracting Co. was NMSA 1941, Section 57-918. Section 57-918 required that death result from the injury within a one-year period. Gonzales was injured in 1939 and died in 1943. His widow could not recover death benefits under Section 57-918. Gonzales held that the widow could recover compensation benefits on the basis of NMSA 1941, Section 57-913. Section 57-913 provided: In case death of any workman who would himself have been entitled had such death not occurred, to recover from such employer on account of any such injuries under the terms hereof, claim may be filed therefor on behalf of his dependents as provided in section 8 [§ 57-917] * * * * NMSA 1941, Section 57-917 required that the claim be filed within one year after the date of death. The claim in Gonzales was filed within one year of that .death. Gonzales held that Sections 57-913 and 57-917 “support the widow’s contention that she and her four children have succeeded to the statutory benefits that had theretofore been awarded to her husband.” Prior to death, Gonzales had been awarded 550 weeks of compensation and 343 weeks remained at the time of death. The Gonzales result was that the widow and children were entitled to receive the remaining 343 weeks of compensation awarded to Gonzales for his disability. Gonzales held that recovery under Section 57-913 for disability benefits awarded prior to death was unrelated to death benefits under Section 57-918. The opinion stated that benefits under Section 57-918 were benefits in which the decedent never had an interest. The opinion stated that Section 57-913 “provides for the succession of property rights of a deceased person to his dependents, which prior to his death had been awarded to him personally * * ” Compare Cranford v. Farnsworth & Chambers Company, 261 F.2d 8 (10th Cir. 1958). This concept, of disability benefits awarded to a worker succeeding to his dependents, is no longer New Mexico law. Disability benefits do not continue after the death of the injured worker. Section 52-1-47(C). Plaintiffs do not claim they succeeded to the portion of the disability award to Shaw which was unpaid at the time of his death. Relying on Gonzales, plaintiffs contend they had two remedies upon the death of the worker. One remedy, not relied on in this case, was under Section 52-1-46, whose predecessor was Section 57-918. The other remedy was under Section 52-1-31(B), whose predecessor was Section 57-913. Recognizing that a successor to disability benefits theory was foreclosed by Section 52-l-47(C), plaintiffs assert that the “remedy” under Section 52-l-31(B) is a second method, under current statutes, to recover death benefits. Plaintiffs’ theory is that Gonzales held that Section 57-913 provided a remedy, that Section 52-l-31(B) is the current version of Section 57-913 and it also provides a remedy, and that the remedy in Section 52-l-31(B) is independent of Section 52-1-46. On the basis that two independent remedies exist by which to obtain death benefits, plaintiffs outline the differences between the two asserted remedies. For example, plaintiffs assert that to recover death benefits under Section 52-l-31(B) the claimant must comply with notice requirements, but that one can recover death benefits under Section 52-1-46 without notice because notice is not required. Another example is that under Section 52-1-46 death must proximately result from an accidental injury, but such is not required under Section 52-l-31(B). The basic premise of plaintiffs is that the separate remedy that Gonzales found in Section 57-913 continues to exist in Section 52-l-31(B). “Since the Gonzales decision in 1947, the Legislature has not repealed § 52-l~31(B).” This is a false premise. 1957 N.M.Laws, ch. 246 enacted a new compensation law. This law repealed the three statutes discussed in Gonzales —Sections 57-913, 57-917 and 57-918. The provisions for benefits in case of death were not at all similar to Section 57-913. See 1957 N.M.Laws, ch. 246, §§ 23 and 26. This 1957 law was held to be unconstitutional in State ex rel. Hovey Concrete Products Company v. Mechem, 63 N.M. 250, 316 P.2d 1069 (1957). It was also held that the repealing provisions of the 1957 law were ineffective, thus keeping the old law in effect. See 63 N.M. 255, 316 P.2d 1069. 1959 N.M.Laws, ch. 67 amended certain provisions of the old law, repealed others and enacted new provisions. Sections 57-913, 57-917 and 57-918 of NMSA 1941 had been recompiled in NMSA 1953, but as recompiled, were repealed. See 1959 N.M. Laws, ch. 67, § 32. 1959 N.M.Laws, ch. 67, § 10 was a new section, not an amendment of Section 57-913. The “remedy” of Section 57-913 having been repealed, it does not exist unless the remedy was established by the new section. Section 52-l-31(B) is the current version of the new section which was enacted in 1959. It reads: B. in case of the death of a workman who would have been entitled to receive compensation if death had not occurred, claim for compensation may be filed on behalf of his eligible dependents to recover compensation from the employer or his insurer. Payment may be received or claim filed by any person whom the court may authorize or permit on behalf of the eligible beneficiaries. No claim shall be filed, however, to recover compensation benefits for the death of the workman unless he or someone on his behalf, or on behalf of his eligible dependents, has given notice in the manner and within the time required by Section 52-1-29 NMSA 1978, and unless the claim is filed within one year from the date of the workman’s death. This section authorizes a claim for benefits for the death of a worker. It is part of the same statute which enacted another new section, 1959 N.M.Laws, ch. 67, § 25, providing a basis for paying compensation benefits for death. The current version of this new section is Section 52-1-46. Statutes are to be read as a whole, so that each provision may be considered in its relation to every other part. State ex rel. Newsome v. Alarid, 90 N.M. 790, 568 P.2d 1236 (1977). Statutes are also to be read in accordance with common sense and reason. Westland Development Co. v. Saavedra, 80 N.M. 615, 459 P.2d 141 (1969). Applying these concepts, the 1959 law which repealed Section 57-913 and which enacted new sections concerning death benefits, did not, as plaintiffs contend, provide two independent methods of obtaining death benefits. The two separate remedies discussed in Gonzales no longer existed under the 1959 law. In so holding, we recognize that Employers Mutual Liability Insurance Co. of Wisconsin v. Jarde, 73 N.M. 371, 388 P.2d 382 (1963), stated that the 1959 law made no basic changes in how death benefits were to be paid and only made the contents of former Section 57-918 more manageable. However, this statement of no basic change did not refer to what is now Section 52-l-31(B). Other statements in Jarde suggest that notice requirements apply to any claim for compensation benefits and that any claim for death benefits must be filed within one year of the death. Our point, simply, is that Jarde does not support plaintiffs’ claim of two unrelated methods of obtaining compensation for death. Plaintiffs contend that the result we have reached is contrary to the “public policy” and the “primary purpose” of the statute, which is to pay compensation. They cite Aranda v. Mississippi Chemical Corporation, 93 N.M. 412, 600 P.2d 1202 (Ct.App.1979), which dealt with evidence of disability. The issue in this appeal involves the provisions of our statute. The plaintiffs’ view that the statutory provisions should be bent to reach the result desired by plaintiffs is answered in Lent v. Employment Security Commission of State of New Mexico, 99 N.M. 407, 658 P.2d 1134 (Ct.App.1982). Death Benefits Under the Current Statute Our compensation statute provides only one remedy where the worker dies from injuries suffered in a compensable accident. That remedy is hedged with various requirements. We consider only the time requirements in this case. Compare Hubbs v. Sandia Corporation, 98 N.M. 389, 648 P.2d 1202 (Ct.App.1982). Under Section 52—1—31(B), the claim must be filed within one year of death. Under Section 52-1-46, death must have occurred within two years of the accidental injury. Death not having occurred within two years of the accidental injury, defendant’s advice to plaintiffs was not negligent. The motion to dismiss should have been granted. The trial court erred in denying the motion. The order denying the motion to dismiss is reversed. The cause is remanded with instructions to grant the motion. Defendant shall recover his appellate costs. IT IS SO ORDERED. HENDLEY and NEAL, JJ., concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. Plaintiffs originally appealed to this court from an order granting summary judgment in favor of defendant bank. Two issues were raised: (1) whether the trial court erred in granting summary judgment in favor of bank; and (2) whether the trial court erred in granting summary judgment rather than partial summary judgment. Because this court reversed on the first issue, we did not reach the second issue. The supreme court granted certiorari, reversed this court and remanded for a decision on the remaining second issue. 691 P.2d 465 (N.M.1984). The supreme court held that “The bank has the right to notify the account debtors at any time. Thus, the bank did not breach the security agreement.” Having so held, it remains to be determined whether plaintiffs have any further cause of action against bank. We hold they do not and affirm the summary judgment in favor of bank. Plaintiffs claim that their first claim for relief alleges not only breach of the security agreement, but also “malicious intent and bad faith on the part of the Bank.” Plaintiffs’ first claim does allege that “the acts of defendant in sending the demand letters * * * were maliciously intended, fraudulent, oppressive, or committed recklessly, or with a wanton disregard of the rights of Nau Enterprises, Inc.”; however, these allegations seek punitive damages, not a claim separate and apart from breach of contract. See Stewart v. Potter, 44 N.M. 460, 104 P.2d 736 (1940). Because there can be no recovery for compensatory damages for breach of contract in sending the demand letters, there can be no punitive damages. See Trigg v. Allemand, 95 N.M. 128, 619 P.2d 573 (Ct.App.1980). To the extent these allegations may be considered as stating a separate ground for relief, plaintiffs still must fail. Plaintiffs rely on language in Pedi Bares, Inc. v. First National Bank of Neodesha, 223 Kan. 477, 575 P.2d 507 (1978), to the effect that if a bank proceeds to collect from account debtors, it must proceed in a commercially reasonable manner and act in good faith. The Kansas Supreme Court said that where reasonable men might differ as to that issue, summary judgment is inappropriate. In making these statements, that court discussed portions of the Uniform Commercial Code as adopted in Kansas which correspond to NMSA 1978, Section 55-9-502. See also NMSA 1978, § 55-1-203. Assuming, but not deciding, that bad faith or failing to proceed in a commercially reasonable manner may give rise to an independent cause of action, plaintiffs have failed to provide any evidence to overcome bank’s prima facie showing of no genuine issue of fact. Goodman v. Brock, 83 N.M. 789, 498 P.2d 676 (1972). The interpretation that bank had a right to notify the account debtors without first notifying borrower and that no breach resulted therefrom satisfied bank’s burden. It was then up to plaintiffs to come forward and demonstrate the existence of a genuine issue of fact requiring trial. Goodman v. Brock. This plaintiffs failed to do. The record is devoid of evidence other than a representative letter sent by bank to the account debtors and this letter does not raise an issue as to bad faith or lack of commercial reasonableness. The situation here is more like Kersten v. Continental Bank, 129 Ariz. 44, 628 P.2d 592 (App.1981), a case cited by the supreme court in its decision in this case as supportive of the result reached. In Kersten, as here, the bank had a contractual right to send the demand letters and no evidence was presented that other banks would have done differently under the circumstances. Plaintiffs further argue that their second claim for relief alleges “interference with beneficial contractual relations” and that summary judgment on the breach of contract claim does not dispose of this additional issue. With regard to interference with existing contracts, Wolf v. Perry, 65 N.M. 457, 339 P.2d 679 (1959) speaks of acts by one “without justification or privilege to do so * * Id. at 461, 339 P.2d 679. Because the bank here had a contractual right to notify the account debtors, it was privileged to send the letters and therefore no liability could result therefrom. See Bank of New Mexico v. Freedom Homes, Inc., 94 N.M. 532, 612 P.2d 1343 (Ct.App.1980). This court in M & M Rental Tools, Inc. v. Milchem, Inc., 94 N.M. 449, 612 P.2d 241 (Ct.App.1980) drew a distinction between interference with existing contracts and interference with prospective contracts, adopting for the latter Restatement (Second) of Torts § 766B (1979). We said in that case that ‘.‘Whether the tort is described as improper interference or without privilege, either an improper motive (solely to harm plaintiff), or an improper means is required for liability.” Id. at 454, 612 P.2d 241 (citation omitted). See also Kelly v. St. Vincent Hospital, 692 P.2d 1350 (Ct.App.1984). As with our previous discussion on bad faith, plaintiffs offer no evidence to overcome bank’s prima facie showing of no genuine issue of fact. The security agreement authorized bank to send the letters. If a genuine issue as to improper motive or improper means existed, it was up to plaintiffs to come forward and demonstrate its existence. We note that plaintiffs’ complaint also contains a claim of fraudulent misrepresentation of the terms of the security agreement and individual claims by David H. Nau and Barbara J. Nau. Plaintiffs do not contend on appeal that these claims should be reviewed, nor do they present any argument or authority. They have abandoned these issues. See State v. Padilla, 88 N.M. 160, 538 P.2d 802 (Ct.App.1975); Novak v. Dow, 82 N.M. 30, 474 P.2d 712 (Ct.App.1970). Summary judgment in favor of bank is affirmed. Plaintiffs shall pay costs of appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J. and WOOD, J., concur.
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OPINION APODACA, Chief Judge. Michael Guebara (Defendant) appeals the trial court’s denial of his motion to suppress the Vehicle Identification Number (VIN) seized from a motor vehicle. We must decide whether, in order to observe a VIN generally and otherwise observable from outside an automobile, a police officer may reach into the passenger compartment of an unoccupied, parked and locked vehicle to move papers obscuring the VIN, without probable cause. We answer this question negatively. We hold that, in the circumstances of this case, Defendant’s Fourth Amendment rights were violated when police searched his vehicle without probable cause. We thus reverse. I. FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND In January 1992, a blue 1992 Chevrolet pickup truck (the vehicle) was stolen from Casa Chevrolet in Albuquerque, New Mexico. In late April or early May 1992, Robert Hudson asked Deborah Cook to store the vehicle on her property in Artesia, New Mexico. Hudson explained that a friend of his was going through a divorce and that his friend’s spouse might “tear up” the vehicle. Cook then gave Hudson her permission to park the vehicle at her home. Approximately one week later, when Cook returned home, the vehicle was parked in her yard. Cook did not know who brought the vehicle to her yard, and no one came to check on it for about three weeks. The vehicle was parked behind the house and was not visible from the street. Nearly three weeks later, Cook asked a mutual friend, Donny Self, to tell Hudson to remove the vehicle from her property. Before Hudson could comply with this request, however, Cook’s husband contacted the Artesia Police Department to express his concern about the vehicle left on his property and indicated that he thought it might be stolen. Police Officers Jerry Privetts and Raymond Gates responded to the call. They observed that the vehicle had no license plates but had a temporary registration sticker in the back window made out to Dynamite Motors in Roswell, New Mexico. The officers attempted to check the VIN located on the dashboard, but it was covered with an envelope. The officers contacted the person whose name appeared on the envelope, but he knew nothing about the vehicle. The officers unsuccessfully attempted to contact Dynamite Motors about the vehicle. The Sheriff of Chaves County informed the officers that Dynamite Motors was not a registered car dealer in Chaves County. The officers unsuccessfully tried to open the vehicle with a “slim-jim” because the keys were unavailable. Because of bad weather, the officers decided to return at another time. The officers returned the following day and inserted a coat hanger through the window to move the envelope covering the VIN to expose it. The officers read the VIN from outside the vehicle, through the front windshield. Because a check of the VIN revealed that the vehicle had been stolen from Casa Chevrolet, the officers seized the vehicle. No further search of the vehicle’s interior was conducted. The police later arrested Defendant and charged him with one count of receiving or transferring a stolen motor vehicle in violation of NMSA 1978, Section 66-3-505 (Repl.Pamp.1994), and one count of conspiracy to receive or transfer a stolen motor vehicle in violation of NMSA 1978, Section 30-28-2 (Repl.Pamp.1994). Defendant filed two separate motions, one to suppress the VIN seized from the vehicle, the other to dismiss the case against him on other grounds. Following the suppression hearing, the trial court denied Defendant’s motion to suppress, summarily holding that the search was legal under the facts, without offering any other basis for its decision. The trial court then immediately conducted a hearing to address Defendant’s motion to dismiss. At the conclusion of this second hearing, Defendant requested additional rationale from the trial court for its denial of the motion to suppress. The trial court elaborated on its earlier ruling on the suppression issue, stating: We have a vehicle that’s parked at a private residence in Artesia for about three weeks by some guy named Hudson or some guy named Self. The property owner called the sheriffs department and said, “Come out here and check out this vehicle — I think it’s stolen.” They get out there and they find the VIN number is covered up and they try to locate whoever might own the car and in order to check on whether it’s stolen or not, because it’s been abandoned at this private residence. I’m going to find that it was — it was originally placed there with this guy’s wife’s permission, but he called the cops and said, “This thing has been here for three weeks and I’m afraid it’s stolen.” I think the police actions of putting a coat hanger through the window to move the envelope which covered the VIN number out of the way so that they could find out if it was stolen were very reasonable under the circumstances of this case and were not unlawful. The trial court also determined that the officers had time to get a warrant but that a warrant was not necessary. Defendant plead no contest to one count of receiving or transferring a stolen motor vehicle, reserving the right to appeal the denial of the motion to suppress. II. DISCUSSION A. Standing Initially, the State argues that Defendant did not have standing to object to the search of the vehicle because he did not show any lawful personal or possessory interest in the vehicle and was not present when police actually searched the vehicle. The State, however, failed to raise this issue in the trial court. In light of this Court’s decision in State v. Porras-Fuerte, 119 N.M. 180, 889 P.2d 215, (Ct.App.), cert. granted, 119 N.M. 21, 888 P.2d 467 (1994), we decline to decide the issue of Defendant’s standing because “standing may not be raised for the first time on appeal.” This ruling “does not, however, preclude the State from raising [the issue of standing] upon remand.” Id. B. Abandonment Defendant argues that the trial court erred in determining that Defendant abandoned the vehicle and, in so doing, relinquished his Fourth Amendment reasonable expectation of privacy. See State v. Esguerra, 113 N.M. 310, 314, 825 P.2d 243, 247 (Ct.App.1991); State v. Clark, 105 N.M. 10, 12-13, 727 P.2d 949, 951-52 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 104 N.M. 702, 726 P.2d 856 (1986). One who has no reasonable expectation of privacy lacks standing to complain of an illegal search. Esguerra, 113 N.M. at 314, 825 P.2d at 247. In a Fourth Amendment context, [t]he issue is not abandonment in the strict property-right sense, but whether the person prejudiced by the search had voluntarily discarded, left behind, or otherwise relinquished his interest in the property in question so that he could no longer retain a reasonable expectation of privacy with regard to it at the time of the search. United States v. Colbert, 474 F.2d 174, 176 (5th Cir.1973) (citing United States v. Edwards, 441 F.2d 749, 753 (5th Cir.1971)). Abandonment, in this sense, is primarily a matter of acts and intent. Clark, 105 N.M. at 13, 727 P.2d at 952; Colbert, 474 F.2d at 176. Intent “may be inferred from words spoken, acts done, and other objective facts.” Colbert, 474 F.2d at 176. “The intent to abandon will not be presumed and must be affirmatively shown by the party relying on abandonment. The showing must be by clear, unequivocal and decisive evidence.” Clark, 105 N.M. at 13, 727 P.2d at 952. The trial court’s conclusion that Defendant abandoned the vehicle, and thus relinquished his legitimate expectation of privacy, is not supported by the record. First, the time lapse was not accompanied by any acts indicating an intent to abandon the vehicle. Second, the vehicle was parked on private property with the consent of the property owners. Whether the withdrawal of that consent was ever communicated to Defendant was never shown. Also, the Cooks did not have the keys to the vehicle. The only evidence presented that might indicate abandonment was the length of time the vehicle was parked at the Cooks’ residence. That fact, standing alone, however, is insufficient to establish by “clear, unequivocal and decisive evidence” that the vehicle was aban doned. We hold that, in the circumstances of this case, the parking of a locked vehicle on private property for several weeks, with the consent of the property owners, did not signify that the vehicle was abandoned. C. Expectation of Privacy in a VIN The State relies primarily on New York v. Class, 475 U.S. 106, 106 S.Ct. 960, 89 L.Ed.2d 81 (1986), for the proposition that Defendant had no reasonable expectation of privacy in the VIN. In that case, a motorist was stopped for a traffic violation. Id. at 108,106 S.Ct. at 962-63. He stepped out of the car and approached one of the officers. Id. The other officer opened the car door to look for the VIN, which was located on the left door jamb in pre-1969 automobiles. Id. When the officer did not find the VIN on the door jamb, he reached into the car’s interior to move some papers obscuring the area of the dashboard where the VIN was located on later-model automobiles. Id. In so doing, the officer saw the handle of a gun protruding from underneath the driver’s seat and seized the gun. Id. The defendant was then arrested. In Class, the Supreme Court held that the officer’s actions constituted a search but that “this search was sufficiently unintrusive to be constitutionally permissible in light of the lack of a reasonable expectation of privacy in the VIN and the fact that the officers observed respondent commit two traffic violations.” Id. at 119, 106 S.Ct. at 968. In reaching that conclusion, the Court noted “[h]ere, where the object at issue is an identification number behind the transparent windshield of an automobile driven upon the public roads, we believe that the placement of the obscuring papers was insufficient to create a privacy interest in the VIN.” Id. at 114, 106 S.Ct. at 966. The Court went on to hold that “[t]he mere viewing of the formally obscured VIN was not, therefore, a violation of the Fourth Amendment.” Id. At first glance, Class appears to easily resolve the issue involved in this appeal in favor of affirming the trial court’s denial of Defendant’s motion to suppress. On closer examination, however, we conclude that Class does not compel such a decision. We reach this conclusion for several reasons. 1. Scope of Class First, Class does not clearly articulate when one has a reasonable expectation of privacy in a VIN located inside an automobile because the focus of the alleged unconstitutional search in Class was on a gun. This same conclusion was reached by the Utah Supreme Court: Because the focus of the alleged ... search in Class was the gun rather than the VIN itself, the Court, while holding that there is no reasonable expectation of privacy in a VIN, did not clearly articulate when one has a reasonable expectation of privacy in a VIN located inside one’s automobile. State v. Larocco, 794 P.2d 460, 464 (Utah 1990). Thus, a Fourth Amendment analysis is necessary. 2. Class Distinguished Second, Class is distinguishable from this case. In United States v. $277,000 U.S. Currency, 941 F.2d 898, 902 (9th Cir.1991), the court was presented with a ease factually similar to this appeal. That case involved two trucks parked by the owner in the backyard of another person. Id. at 899. When police responded to a complaint of loud music on the premises, they noticed two vehicles covered with opaque car covers bearing Mexican license plates parked in the backyard. Id. One officer, aware that American vehicles were often stolen and sold in Mexico with Mexican license plates, removed the car covers on each vehicle to determine by crosschecking the VIN if the vehicles had been reported stolen. Id. When the officer could not find the VIN plates, he opened the locked trucks and he conducted a search of the interior of the defendant’s vehicles, finding a large amount of cash. Id. at 899-900. $277,000 U.S. Currency held that, although the owner of the vehicles in question had no legitimate expectancy of privacy in the residence or backyard, he did have a reasonable expectation of privacy inside the trucks. Id. at 900-01. Consequently, the police needed probable cause to search the vehicles. The court held that the police did not have probable cause to search the vehicles. The vehicles were parked in a backyard and had not been involved in any traffic violation. Id. at 901. Additionally, the police only had generalized information that some vehicles with Mexican license plates had been involved in illegal activities. In reaching this conclusion, the Ninth Circuit distinguished Class: In the case at hand, the vehicles were not being driven on the roads; they were parked in a backyard. The occasion for the inspection was not brought about by traffic violations; it was merely the discovery of two vehicles with Mexican license plates parked in a backyard. The factors carefully balanced in the Class opinion, such as the necessity of vehicle regulation on the public highways, officer safety and the minimal intrusion involved by removing a paper from the dashboard of a vehicle already stopped for traffic violations, are simply inapplicable here. Surely the careful balancing revealed in the Class opinion is not to be extended so as to permit a search of any parked vehicle without probable cause just because the VIN is obscured in some way. Id. at 902. The court then set out the policy rationale for its decision: To create a precedent whereby the police may uncover or enter a car at any time to inspect the VIN would permit the police to rove the streets, to remove car covers, or break into any automobile where the VIN number is obscured in some way. In this ease, the removal of the car cover without probable cause was an unlawful search. Such a precedent would be equally applicable to a car that was not covered but where the location of the VIN was obscured in some other way. Thus, if a car owner happens to have a sun deflector on the windshield or a paper covering the VIN in his or her parked car, police would be authorized, without any probable cause, to break into the car merely to determine whether the VIN has been “removed, defaced, altered or destroyed.” The language of the Class opinion does not lend itself to such an intrusive extension. Id. (footnote omitted). Thus, the Ninth Circuit refused to extend Class to defeat the privacy interest in an unoccupied, parked vehicle. We find this reasoning persuasive. $277,000 U.S. Currency is factually similar to the present case and distinguishable from Class. In both this case and $277,-000 U.S. Currency, the vehicles were parked on private property with the consent of the property owner. Unlike Class, the vehicles were not inspected as a result of a traffic stop. Additionally, the factors carefully balanced by the Court in Class, such as the necessity of vehicle regulation on the public highways, officer safety, and the minimal intrusion involved by removing a paper from the dashboard of a vehicle already stopped for traffic violations, are inapplicable to both this case and $277,000 U.S. Currency. Following the Ninth Circuit’s holding in $277,000 U.S. Currency, we hold that the search of the vehicle in this appeal violated Defendant’s Fourth Amendment constitutional guarantees against unreasonable searches and seizures. 3. New Mexico VIN Statute Finally, New Mexico law provides a procedure for law enforcement officials to follow when a vehicle’s VIN is “removed, defaced, covered, altered or destroyed,” in violation of NMSA 1978, Section 66-3-508 (Repl. Pamp.1994). In such a case, “the vehicle may be impounded for a period of time not to exceed six days.” NMSA 1978, § 66-3-507(B) (Repl.Pamp.1994). At the expiration of the stated period, the vehicle or motor vehicle shall be returned to the person from whom it was taken at no cost unless an ex parte order allowing continued impoundment is issued by a magistrate or district court judge after finding that probable cause exists to believe that the manufacturer’s serial number, engine number or other distinguishing number or mark or identification mark or number placed thereon under assignment of the division has been removed, defaced, covered, altered or destroyed. Id. (emphasis added). Thus, probable cause is a prerequisite for police to impound a vehicle for more than six days. Here, because the VIN was covered, the police officers should have acted under the authority of Sections 66-3-507 and -508 and impounded the vehicle. Having failed to do so, the officers had no right to enter the vehicle, however slight this entry may have been. D. Application of the Fourth Amendment Under the Fourth Amendment, a search of private property without proper consent is unreasonable, except in certain carefully delineated situations, unless the police officer has prior authorization in the form of a valid search warrant. Mincey v. Amona, 437 U.S. 385, 390, 98 S.Ct. 2408, 2412, 57 L.Ed.2d 290 (1978). Because of an automobile’s mobility, the complex scheme of regulations governing motor vehicles, and the lesser expectations of privacy the public holds with regard to private cars, an officer may search an automobile without a warrant, but the requirement of probable cause remains inviolate. California v. Carney, 471 U.S. 386, 394-95, 105 S.Ct. 2066, 2070-71, 85 L.Ed.2d 406 (1985); United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 809, 102 S.Ct. 2157, 2164, 72 L.Ed.2d 572 (1982); Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132, 45 S.Ct. 280, 69 L.Ed. 543 (1925). As the Court emphasized in Almeidar-Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266, 269, 93 S.Ct. 2535, 2537-38, 37 L.Ed.2d 596 (1973), the “automobile exception” to the warrant requirement, established in Carroll, did not “declare a field day for the police in searching automobiles. Automobile or no automobile, there must be probable cause for the search.” Accord State v. Bidegain, 88 N.M. 384, 385, 540 P.2d 864, 865 (Ct.App.), rev’d in part, 88 N.M. 466, 541 P.2d 971 (1975). Under the facts of this appeal, the police lacked probable cause to believe that the vehicle was stolen or that it contained contraband, and therefore lacked probable cause to search the vehicle. Thus, the search abrogated Defendant’s constitutional right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. Because we conclude that probable cause did not exist, we do not reach the question of whether a search warrant would be required if there were probable cause or whether the automobile exception would permit the search without a warrant. III. CONCLUSION We conclude that the police lacked probable cause to believe that the subject vehicle was stolen or that it contained contraband. Consequently, the officers’ actions of inserting a wire into the vehicle and disturbing papers on the dashboard, in a search for the VIN, violated Defendant’s right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. We therefore hold that the trial court erred in not suppressing the VIN as a result of an unlawful search and reverse. IT IS SO ORDERED. FLORES, J., concur. BLACK, J., dissenting. . The New Mexico Supreme Court approved the use of conditional plea agreements in State v. Hodge, 118 N.M. 410, 882 P.2d 1 (1994). . The few narrow, carefully drawn exceptions to the rule barring the police from searching a vehicle except upon probable cause, none of which are relevant to the instant case, include the right of the police, as a protective measure and in accordance with standard procedures, to conduct an inventory search of a vehicle impounded after the motorist is arrested, South Dakota v. Opperman, 428 U.S. 364, 96 S.Ct. 3092, 49 L.Ed.2d 1000 (1976), and, upon making a lawful custodial arrest of a motorist, to search the person’s vehicle, New York v. Belton, 453 U.S. 454, 101 S.Ct. 2860, 69 L.Ed.2d 768 (1981).
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OPINION FROST, Justice. Petitioners, several citizens and three New Mexico legislators, filed their verified petition seeking a writ of mandamus from this Court directing Respondents, who together serve as the State Canvassing Board, not to certify the vote held on November 8, 1994, on Amendment 8. Amendment 8 authorized a state-operated lottery and wagering on video machine games of chance. Petitioners allege that Amendment 8 consisted of two independent proposals improperly joined together and submitted to the voters in violation of Article XIX, Section 1 of the New Mexico Constitution. The State Canvassing Board, whose function is primarily ministerial, took no position on the merits of this case. Consequently, several parties moved to intervene including New Mexicans for Lottery Games (Yes-on-8) and Ruidoso Downs Racing (Ruidoso) in support of Respondents and the Attorney General in support of Petitioners. Their requests to intervene were subsequently granted. Given the great public importance of the issue involved in this case, this Court properly exercises original jurisdiction over the petition for a writ of mandamus. See State ex rel. Chavez v. Vigil-Giron, 108 N.M. 45, 46, 766 P.2d 305, 306 (1988); State ex rel. Sego v. Kirkpatrick, 86 N.M. 359, 363, 524 P.2d 975, 979 (1974). In addition, this Court may properly conduct a post-election review of a proposed constitutional amendment. See Chavez, 108 N.M. at 47, 766 P.2d at 307. Voter approval of a challenged amendment gives rise to a presumption of validity but does not cure a violation of Article XIX of the New Mexico Constitution. City of Raton v. Sproule, 78 N.M. 138, 142-43, 429 P.2d 336, 340-41 (1967). After the initial submission of the petition, this Court issued an alternative writ of mandamus and stay directing the Canvassing Board to refrain from certifying the vote on Amendment 8 until we had the opportunity to fully consider the amendment’s constitutionality. We now find that Amendment 8 violates Article XIX of the Constitution and accordingly direct that the vote for Amendment 8 not be certified. FACTS In 1993 the New Mexico state legislature passed House Joint Resolution 11, which proposed an amendment to the New Mexico Constitution permitting the legislature to set up a statewide lottery and legalizing wagering on video machine games of chance. 1993 N.M. Laws, H.J. Res. 11, at 4457-58. As required by Article XIX of the New Mexico Constitution, this resolution was submitted to the electors as Amendment 8 in the 1994 general election. The voters approved Amendment 8 with an unofficial final tally of approximately 235,000 in favor to 200,300 against. Before the State Canvassing Board certified the final vote, however, Petitioners brought this action, claiming that Amendment 8 violated Article XIX, Section 1 of the New Mexico Constitution. Amendment 8 provides: A JOINT RESOLUTION PROPOSING AN AMENDMENT TO ARTICLE 20 OF THE CONSTITUTION OF NEW MEXICO TO ADD A NEW SECTION TO PERMIT A STATEWIDE LOTTERY AND CERTAIN GAMES OF CHANCE. BE IT RESOLVED BY THE LEGISLATURE OF THE STATE OF NEW MEXICO: Section 1. It is proposed to amend Article 20 of the constitution of New Mexico by adding a new Section 22 to read: “A. A state operated lottery to be conducted statewide and wagering on video machine games of chance to be conducted statewide shall be lawful from the first moment of the ninetieth day following the adjournment of the next regular session of the legislature held subsequent to any general election or special election in which a majority of voters, voting on the question, vote in favor of the adoption of this amendment. B. The legislature may enact such laws governing the conduct of the lottery and games of chance as deemed necessary and in the public interest, including imposition of taxes, wagering limits, restrictions on the hours of operation and limitations on the locations and facilities where wagering can occur.” Section 2. The amendment proposed by this resolution shall be submitted to the people for their approval or rejection at the next general election or at the next special election prior to that date which may be called for that or any other purpose. 1993 N.M. Laws, H.J. Res. 11, at 4457-58. The Petitioners allege that the authorization of a state-operated lottery and the legalization of wagering on video machine games of chance are two separate objects which were improperly joined in a single amendment. DISCUSSION Article XIX, Section 1 of the New Mexico Constitution provides, in pertinent part, “If two or more amendments are proposed, they shall be so submitted as to enable the electors to vote on each of them separately____” The purpose of this provision is to prevent the abusive practice of “logrolling,” whereby the legislature joins two or more independent measures to ensure that voters who support any one of the measures will be coerced into voting for the entire package in order to secure passage of the individual measure they favor. Chavez, 108 N.M. at 47, 766 P.2d at 307; Sproule, 78 N.M. at 142, 429 P.2d at 340. We noted in Sproule that “the particular vice in ‘logrolling,’ or the presentation of double propositions to the voters, lies in the fact that such is ‘inducive of fraud,’ and that it becomes ‘uncertain whether either [of] two or more propositions could have been carried by vote had they been submitted singly.’” Sproule, 78 N.M. at 144, 429 P.2d at 342 (quoting State ex rel. Sch. Dist. v. Gordon, 223 Mo. 1, 122 S.W. 1008, 1018 (1909) (Graves, J., dissenting)). Indeed, we recently reaffirmed that “the joinder of two or more amendments is no mere irregularity, and that the constitutional prohibition against joinder goes to the heart of the amendment process mandated by the people in the adoption of their Constitution.” Chavez, 108 N.M. at 48, 766 P.2d at 308. Of course, in reviewing constitutional amendments submitted to the voters, we afford the legislature substantial deference in its determination of both the overall purpose of a proposed amendment and the changes incidental to and necessary for that purpose. Id at 47, 766 P.2d at 307. Thus, “as with legislative enactments, every presumption is to be indulged in favor of the validity and regularity of a constitutional amendment, and we must therefore hesitate to overturn a legislative determination that a proposal actually constitutes but one amendment.” Id. (citation omitted). However, “while we will accord strong deference to the [legislature], it is for this Court in the final analysis to rule on issues of constitutionality.” Ryan v. Gonzales, 114 N.M. 346, 348, 838 P.2d 963, 965 (1992). Accordingly, the standard of review to be applied is the reasonable or rational basis test, Chavez, 108 N.M. at 47, 766 P.2d at 307, and the principal question to be answered is “whether the legislature reasonably could have determined that a proposed amendment embraces but one object.” Id. at 48, 766 P.2d at 308. Our examination of whether an amendment embraces one object is governed by the proposition that “when distinct changes to the Constitution are not dependent on each other, and there is no direct, necessary, or logical connection between the operation of each, they should be submitted separately to the voters.” Id. In addition, we note that the examination of whether a proposed constitutional amendment comports with the single proposition requirement is highly fact specific. As we stated in Sproule, 78 N.M. at 144, 429 P.2d at 342, while most states have adopted a rule similar to that set out above, “[t]he difficulty arises in the application of the rule to the concrete factual situations presented in the many cases.” In examining the factual situation presented in this case, we find that Amendment 8 consists of two measures that fail to demonstrate any direct, necessary, or logical connection. Ruidoso and Yes-on-8 argue that Amendment 8 is constitutional because its two prongs relate to the single overarching theme of “gambling,” specifically, “relaxing New Mexico’s gambling laws.” For support, they point to Chavez, 108 N.M. at 49, 766 P.2d at 309, in which this Court upheld a multi-faceted constitutional amendment involving various aspects of judicial reform. The amendment at issue in Chavez contained provisions ranging from new methods for selecting and retaining justices and judges, as well as new requirements for holding those offices, to increasing the number of judicial districts and providing for the periodic redrawing of those districts. Id. at 46-47, 766 P.2d at 306-07. In upholding the amendment, this Court noted that the proposed changes were “germane to an overarching theme of ‘judicial reform.’ ” Id. at 49, 766 P.2d at 309; Although we agree that both prongs of Amendment 8 also relate to an overarching theme, more is required to demonstrate a single object. The Chavez Court noted, “We cannot ignore the rational linchpin that joins the qualifications and merit selection of judges, their numbers, their districting, and the selection of their chief administrative officers.” Id. (emphasis added). In addition to relating to an overarching theme, the elements of the amendment in Chavez were all interdependent and each was necessary to effectuate the desired reform. The requirement of a rational linchpin joining the various elements of an amendment serves to prevent the linking of independent propositions simply by the selection of a sufficiently broad overarching theme. The Oklahoma Supreme Court articulated this same requirement under comparable facts in In re Initiative Petition No. 314, 625 P.2d 595 (Okla.1980). After examining an amendment involving on-premises consumption of alcohol, franchising for brewers, alcohol advertising, and control of liquor traffic under a single-subject constitutional requirement similar to New Mexico’s, the Oklahoma court held, Even under the “rational relationship” test, the initiative fails for each of the major proposals — advertising, franchising and liquor by the drink — is an important, substantial change in our constitution. None is reasonably “subordinate” to the other. There is no interdependence between proposals permitting advertising, franchising and liquor by the drink. Allowing franchising is not incidental or supplemental to permitting advertising, nor is it an administrative detail. They are certainly not so “interrelated and interdependent” that they form an “interlocking package” and they do not have a common underlying purpose, as each proposal has its own purpose. Id. at 607 (citations omitted); see also Johnston v. Board of Educ., 65 N.M. 147, 150, 333 P.2d 1051, 1053 (1958) (“The general rule gleaned from the authorities is that in order to constitute a single proposition or question there must exist a natural relationship between the objects covered by the ballot so that they form but one rounded whole or single plan.” (quoting Buhl v. Joint Indep. Consol. Sch. Dist. No. 11, 249 Minn. 480, 82 N.W.2d 836, 838 (1957))). It is precisely this rational linchpin of interdependence or necessary connection that is lacking from the two prongs of Amendment 8. The rights created, the means of implementation, and the subject matter and purpose of the two prongs are distinct, not rationally interrelated, and do not form an interlocking package necessary to effectuate a common object, as was the situation in Chavez. First, the two prongs of Amendment 8 create separate rights that are distinct and unrelated. The lottery portion of the amendment establishes a purely public right, authorizing the legislature to create a lottery. However, the public right created by Amendment 8 merely permits the legislature to do that which it is already capable of doing. Currently, there is no constitutional prohibition against a state-run lottery. The laws prohibiting the creation of a lottery are purely statutory, see NMSA 1978, §§ 30-19-1 to -15 (Repl.Pamp.1994), and as such, the Legislature is empowered to adjust them at any time without the aid of a constitutional amendment. The Legislature did not need Amendment 8 to be approved by the public .in order to create a state-operated lottery. Thus, the public right purportedly created by Amendment 8 is illusory; it does not vest the Legislature with any new powers. Instead, it simply reaffirms what the Legislature was already capable of doing prior to Amendment 8. Nor does Amendment 8 require the legislature to establish a lottery. It merely legalizes state-operated lotteries while leaving the decision whether to create one entirely up to the legislature. In contrast, the gaming portion of Amendment 8 creates a new private right to wager on video machine games of chance unconnected to the public right to create a lottery. The second prong of Amendment 8 bypasses the legislature and directly elevates certain forms of gambling to the level of constitutionally protected activities. Under Amendment 8, the legislature may only regulate how certain forms of gambling are conducted, not whether they are conducted. Indeed, because video gaming would be a private constitutional right, it is not clear to what extent the legislature or local communities could limit where video gaming takes place, who may operate such games, or who is eligible to participate in video gaming. In addition, legislative regulations regarding video gaming would be reviewed under a more exacting scrutiny similar to other constitutionally protected activities. ■ Thus, the private right to video gaming has no logical interconnection with the public right to enact a state lottery in furthering the goal of gambling reform. Second, there is no rational relation between the implementation of the two prongs of the amendment. The first prong merely allows the legislature to institute a lottery. If the state chooses to establish a lottery, additional legislation would still be required to effect that goal. If, however, the state decides not to follow through with any supplemental legislation, the lottery will not come into existence. The state’s ability to implement a lottery, however, is in no way dependent on or related to the creation of a private right to gamble. Conversely, the private right to wager on certain games of chance set out in the second prong of Amendment 8 is self-executing, becoming effective ninety days after the next legislative session adjourns. This right will come into existence regardless of whether the legislature takes any action on private gambling. It also is not dependent on and has no logical connection to any action that the state may take toward establishing a lottery. Finally, the subject matter and purpose of the two prongs are not the same. A state-operated lottery authorized under the first prong of Amendment 8 is a single, limited form of gambling involving the purchase of chances and a drawing of lots to determine a winner. See, e.g., Poppen v. Walker, 520 N.W.2d 238, 247 (S.D.1994) (reviewing both the history of lotteries and the predominant state-run lotteries in the midwest, and concluding that the term lottery does not include video games of chance). It is administered by the state in order to generate revenues for public services. The funds flow directly into the state coffers with a portion set aside for administrative costs. It is in many ways akin to a voluntary tax. See, e.g., Ronald J. Rychlak, Lotteries, Revenues and Social Costs: A Historical Examination of State-Sponsored Gambling, 34 B.C.L.Rev. 11, 48-49 (1992). In comparison, the category of “video machine games of chance” is extremely expansive. It would encompass video poker, black jack, keno, slot machines and potentially any other form of gambling that incorporates video technology. Furthermore, absent additional legislation authorizing state-run video gambling, all video gaming would be privately operated, solely for profit. While the state may be able to tax the activity of video gambling to raise revenues, any connection between private gambling receipts and state revenues would be indirect, with the state’s share dependent on the amount of private profit realized by the individual organizations operating the video gaming. The difference in the breadth and application of the two categories of Amendment 8 demonstrate that they are aimed at accomplishing two distinct goals pertaining to gambling. We hold that, because the rights created, the means of implementation, and the subject matter and purpose of the two prongs of Amendment 8 are not interdependent, and have no direct, necessary, or logical connection in their operation, they should have been submitted separately to the voters. See Chavez, 108 N.M. at 48, 766 P.2d at 308. As further support for our holding, we conclude that the ballot language used to describe Amendment 8 contributed to the logrolling of the state-run lottery and private video gambling' measures together. The ballot description reads: “Proposing an amendment to Article 20 of the Constitution of New Mexico to add a new section to permit a statewide lottery and certain games of chance.” We agree with Yes-on-8 that the title of Amendment 8 printed on the ballot complied with the technical requirement set out in Article XIX, Section 1 of the Constitution which directs the Secretary of State to include the full title of the joint resolution proposing the constitutional amendment and the constitutional amendment number assigned to it. However, we also agree with the Arkansas Supreme Court that a ballot title should be intelligible, and impartial. “[I]t should be complete enough to convey an intelligible idea of the scope and import of the proposed law[,]” and “be free from any misleading tendency whether of amplification, of omission, or of fallacy.” Plugge v. McCuen, 310 Ark. 654, 841 S.W.2d 139, 140 (1992) (citation omitted), overruled on other grounds by Bailey v. McCuen, 318 Ark. 277, 884 S.W.2d 938, 942 (1994). Accordingly, we find that the title of the amendment, while technically proper, exacerbated the problems inherent in the vice of logrolling. The expression “and certain games of chance” does not alert the voter as to the nature or scope of the second prong of the amendment regarding video gaming. Instead of informing the voter, the title serves to highlight the state lottery aspect of the amendment while downplaying the fact that the amendment creates a private right to wager on video games of chance. In so doing, the ballot language may have lured the voters into casting their votes based on the portion of the amendment that creates a state lottery rather than on the amendment as a whole. Thus, the ballot language, while not defective in and of itself, reinforces our conclusion that Amendment 8 logrolled together two independent objects by piggybacking the passage of one on the popularity of the other. It is important for us to note that in holding that Amendment 8 violates Article XIX, Section 1 of the New Mexico Constitution, we have not reached any decision regarding the legality or desirability of either a state-operated lottery or video machine games of chance. The legislature is still free to pursue the legalization of either or both forms of gaming through legislation or proposed amendments to the New Mexico Constitution, as long as any such amendments are proposed individually. In addition, we emphasize that in invalidating Amendment 8, this Court is not attempting to usurp the power of the legislature or circumvent the will of the electorate with respect to video gaming or a lottery. Indeed, by enforcing the prohibition against logrolling, we ensure that the voters are provided with the means to fully and accurately express their will on each and every issue that is presented to them as guaranteed by the New Mexico Constitution. CONCLUSION A peremptory Writ of Mandamus shall issue ordering the Respondents acting as the State Canvassing Board to comply -with its mandated non-diseretionary duty to comply with the Constitution of the State of New Mexico and not to canvass the results of the election held on November 8, 1994, with regard to proposed Amendment 8. The State Canvassing Board shall treat the purported ratification of said amendment as a nullity. IT IS SO ORDERED. FRANCHINI, Justice, DONNELLY and FLORES, Judges, concur. RANSOM, Justice, specially concurs. . Ryan differs from the case at bar in that it involved the consideration of a different constitutional provision than the one dispositive here. In Ryan, this Court interpreted Article IX, Section 8 of the New Mexico Constitution, which requires voter approval of the assumption of public debt. Ryan, 114 N.M. at 347, 838 P.2d at 964. Article IX, Section 8 provides that before the proposed debt can be approved by the electorate it must first have been "authorized by law for some specified work or object.” In addition, the Ryan Court noted that the legislature had made specific findings that the projects at issue were interrelated and necessary to further a common purpose. Id. at 348, 838 P.2d at 965; id. at 350, 838 P.2d at 967 (Frost, J., dissenting). No such findings, however, were made regarding the differing aspects of Amendment 8. . The language of Amendment 8 is unclear as to what limitations, if any, exist regarding the scope of the types of gambling that fall within the category of "video machine games of chance.” It potentially could include betting on sporting events that are broadcast on television, as well as any form of casino style gambling, such as roulette or craps, that incorporates a video monitor.
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ORDER PER CURIAM. An opinion was filed in this case on September 6, 1994. Chief Justice Montgomery authored the opinion. Justice Franchini concurred. Justice Frost filed a special concurrence, joined by Justice Baca. Justice Ransom dissented. On motion for rehearing filed by the Plaintiffs-Petitioners, we now withdraw that opinion. We nonetheless reaffirm the holding of the four-member majority of this Court that, in considering the constitutionality of NMSA 1978, Section 41-4-19(A)(2) (Repl.Pamp.1989) (the damages limitation on governmental tort liability), the trial court was mistaken in limiting the evidence to facts applicable solely to the City of Albuquerque. The City had the burden of demonstrating that enforcement of the statutory cap is substantially related to an important state interest. See Richardson v. Carnegie Library Restaurant, 107 N.M. 688, 695, 763 P.2d 1153, 1160 (1988) (burden under intermediate scrutiny). At trial, the district court considered only the City’s treasury when evaluating empirical evidence of the relationship of the cap to the protection of public treasuries, as weighed against the individual interest in full recovery. We thus do not have comprehensive empirical evidence of the necessary relationship. As to the existence of a statewide relationship, we remain unwilling to rely on “anecdotal or speculative showings of a fit between means and ends,” and on “Brandéis briefs.” Trujillo v. City of Albuquerque, 110 N.M. 621, 680, 632, 798 P.2d 571, 580, 582 (1990). In the withdrawn opinion, only Chief Justice Montgomery and Justice Franchini were of the belief “that we must decide, based on the facts available to us now, aided by the parties’ and our own legal research, whether the caps as enacted in 1976 and as potentially applicable to the plaintiffs in 1984 and 1985, were substantially related to an important governmental interest.” Justice Frost, in his specially concurring opinion, stated that “in order to properly address the constitutionality of the damage limitation, we would need further development of the factual record regarding the application of the damage cap on the remainder of the state outside Albuquerque.” Having been unable to convince a majority that a remand should be ordered, and recognizing that the inadequate record was not the fault of the City, Justices Baca and Frost concurred only in the resulting judgment of the trial court. On rehearing, a majority of this Court is of the opinion that the City was unable to carry its burden of showing a substantial relationship between the tort cap and the public treasury as an indivisible and statewide whole. Because this failure was due in large part to error in the trial court’s exclusion of evidence, we remand for a further evidentiary hearing. The trial court shall consider the relationship of the cap to public treasuries as an indivisible and statewide whole, both at the time the cap was enacted and at the time the causes of action accrued. A majority of this Court remains convinced that it would not serve the interests of justice or the Constitution to limit our holding to this case. Because of the significant work already done, the parties appear best positioned to aid us in our decision. IT IS SO ORDERED.
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OPINION SOSA, Senior Justice. Plaintiff-Appellant, Shawn Smith (Smith) filed a claim for benefits under New Mexico Workmen’s Compensation Act (Act), NMSA 1978, Sections 52-1-1 through 52-1-69 (Orig.Pamp. and Cum.Supp.1982) against his former employer Dowell Corporation (Dow). The district court granted summary judgment for Dow, stating plaintiff’s claim was barred by his failure to timely file under Section 52-l-31(A). In a memorandum opinion, the Court of Appeals affirmed. We granted certiorari and reverse the Court of Appeals. The sole issue before the Court is when will a worker with a latent injury be held to reasonably recognize the nature and probable, compensable character of the injury, thus activating the running of the statute of limitations. While in Dow’s employ on August 12, 1980, Smith suffered an accidental injury when a cement truck he was driving left the road and flipped over, crushing the cab. Smith continued working his regular job, but a month following the accident he had to be placed on light duty for a three week period. He then returned to his normal job. He continued to work for Dow until he was terminated December 4, 1981. The record reflects that at Dow’s request Smith was examined and treated at least twice by Dr. Hillmer, an orthopedic specialist, chosen by the company. Two letters written by Dr. Hillmer were placed in evidence as exhibits. The insurance company and Dow received the letters. In a June 1, 1981 letter, Dr. Hillmer noted the following: Smith had three weeks of light duty about a month after the accident and then returned to his normal duties; his present job (at Dow) involved “heavy duty” work; his visits to a chiropractor were decreasing in frequency; and “[cjomplaints will become less severe * * * I do not feel he will have any permanent impairment from this accident.” There was no finding of disability in the letter. In a second letter dated October 19, 1981, Dr. Hillmer concluded: “I still feel he will ultimately make a good recovery.” Two months later Smith was terminated. He then joined the army. Approximately three months after Dr. Hillmer’s October letter, on January 25, 1982, army doctors informed Smith he had a permanent disability to his back resulting from the August 1980 accident. He received a medical discharge from the army. Thereafter, he attempted to find light duty work but was unsuccessful. Smith filed a workmen’s compensation complaint on November 18, 1982, within a year of the time the army doctors informed him of his disability. The complaint for benefits was denied by the district court under the statute of limitations bar, Section 52-l-31(A). First, we set forth principles that are fundamental to the concept of the Workmen’s Compensation Act. Since its inception, we have held that the Act was adopted to provide a humanitarian and economical system of compensation for the injured worker and should be liberally construed in favor of the claimant. Gonzales v. Chino Copper Co., 29 N.M. 228, 222 P. 903 (1924). That is still the law today. Transport Idemnity Co. v. Garcia, 89 N.M. 342, 552 P.2d 473 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 9, 558 P.2d 621 (1976). If no guidelines are given by statute, fundamental fairness must be the guideline. Id. The Act was adopted for the protection of the worker, not the employer. Clark v. Electronic City, 90 N.M. 477, 565 P.2d 348 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 636, 567 P.2d 485 (1977). Smith relies on De La Torre v. Kennecott Copper Corp., 89 N.M. 683, 556 P.2d 839 (Ct.App.1976) as authority for the date to begin the running of the limitations statute. De La Torre holds: “Time does not begin to run until the disability is discovered rather than from the accidental occurrence.” Id. at 686, 556 P.2d at 842 (emphasis added). The De La Torre court used the rationale that to hold otherwise would oppose the public policy of the State and the philosophy underlying the Workmen’s Compensation Act. Id. Under Section 52-1-30 of the Act the employer is obligated to pay compensation on the “occurrence of disability.” In a case recognizing the occurrence of latent injuries, the Court of Appeals has explained the difference between the terms “date of disability” and “date of accident” by stating: [I]f the claimant suffers an accident in the course of his employment which does not disable but ultimately leads to a later “malfunction of the body” resulting in disability, the continuing pain and degenerating ability to function constitute the operative “accident” which brings about the compensable “accidental injury” on the date of disability. Casias v. Zia Co., 93 N.M. 78, 79, 596 P.2d 521, 522 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 93 N.M. 8, 595 P.2d 1203 (1979). The record states that Smith was performing his regular job, one which Dr. Hillmer’s letter described as “heavy duty.” While Smith does not deny he had pain, he functioned in his regular job and the company doctor reported he would not have “permanent impairment from this accident,” and would “make a good recovery.” The Court of Appeals states that “[t]he physician’s reports, contained in the record, do not affirmatively state that plaintiff was not disabled.” Smith continued to work, but because he had pain, the Court of Appeals held he could not reasonably rely on the diagnosis of the company’s medical specialist. The Court of Appeals concluded “the workman was aware at all times of a compensable injury, even though he may not have appreciated its degree.” The rule for the discovery of a disability is that discovery occurs “[a]s soon as it becomes reasonably apparent, or should become reasonably apparent, to a workman that he has an injury on account of which he is entitled to compensation * * *” ABF Freight System v. Montano, 99 N.M. 259, 260, 657 P.2d 115, 116 (1982), (quoting Noland v. Young Drilling Co., 79 N.M. 444, 447, 444 P.2d 771, 774 (Ct.App.1968)). It is essential to this limitations issue that we decide whether Smith should have known he was disabled prior to being so advised by army doctors. Here we have an employee performing his normal work duties. Additionally he is reassured twice by a company doctor, specializing in back injuries, that he has no permanent impairment. It would be patently unfair to expect the common laborer to have greater knowledge than the medical expert. See Duran v. New Jersey Zinc Co., 83 N.M. 38, 487 P.2d 1343 (1971); Pena v. New Mexico Highway Department, 100 N.M. 408, 671 P.2d 656 (Ct.App.1983); Sedillo v. LeviStrauss Corp., 98 N.M. 52, 644 P.2d 1041 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 98 N.M. 336, 648 P.2d 794 (1982); see also, 3 A. Larson, The Law of Workmen’s Compensation, § 78.-42(a) at 15-221 (1983). A sister state dealt with a similar fact pattern by holding the worker should not be barred by limitations. Bowerman v. Employment Security Commission, Mont., 673 P.2d 476 (1983). In Bowerman the worker fell down a stairwell in 1976. He continued to work, but saw medical specialists in 1977 and 1979. When his symptoms worsened in March, 1980, his job performance was impaired. The claim he submitted in December, 1980 was disallowed by the trial court because it was not timely filed. The Montana Court in reversing referred to 3 A. Larson, supra, Sections 78.40 to 78.42. Larson states: It is odd indeed to find, in a supposedly beneficent piece of legislation, the survival of this fragment of irrational cruelty surpassing the most technical forfeitures of legal statutes of limitation. Statutes of limitation generally proceed on the theory that a man forfeits his rights only when he inexcusably delays assertion of them, and any number of excuses will toll the running of the period. But here no amount of vigilance is of any help. The limitations period runs against a claim that has not yet matured; and when it matures, it is already barred. A. Larson, supra, § 78.42(b), at 15-225, 15-226. (emphasis added). Agreeing with the logic in Larson, supra, the Montana Supreme Court held that “in cases of latent injury * * * the time period for notice of claim does not begin to run until the claimant, as a reasonable man, should recognize the nature, seriousness and probable, compensable character of his latent injury.” Bowerman, Mont., 673 P.2d at 479. This standard should apply as well in New Mexico. Here, we are concerned with the date of the “occurrence of disability” under Section 52-1-31. The letters from the company doctor assured both the employer and the worker that there was no permanent impairment. Under the facts of this case, it could not have been reasonably apparent to the worker or his employer that he had a latent disability while being told by a specialist he would make a “good recovery.” Under the Montana standard adopted by this Court for recognizing a latent injury, Smith could not have recognized the nature, seriousness and probable, compensable character of his back injury until he was so advised by army doctors on January 25, 1982. The statute of limitations therefore began to run on that date. Smith filed his workmen’s compensation complaint on November 18,1982, well within the limitations time under Section 52-1-31(A). See Montano. Accordingly, we conclude that the district court erred in granting summary judgment. A full trial is proper on the issues presented by plaintiff Smith’s claim, including the question of when the plaintiff discovered that there was a compensable injury- The district court is reversed and the cause remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and RIORDAN, J., concur. WALTERS, J., not participating. STOWERS, J., dissenting.
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OPINION FRANCHINI, Justice. In this case, members of an association had been found jointly and severally liable for an unpaid debt to a printing company. Several members of the association sued the law firm that had represented the association for legal malpractice and received a judgment compensating them for the money owed the printing company. The printer filed a writ of garnishment against the law firm for the malpractice judgment, and when the garnishment was satisfied assigned the judgment for the unpaid debt to the members of the association who had sued the law firm. Those association members then filed a motion to take depositions of other association members to aid in the execution of the judgment. The trial court ruled that contribution must be sought in a separate action, denied the motion, and issued an order of satisfaction of judgment. The trial court’s ruling is affirmed. I. In an action on an open account, Charles P. Young Company (Young) sued eleven members of the Committee of Concerned Shareholders for a New Beginning, also known as El Nuevo Comienzo (Committee), for goods and services provided the Committee in connection with a proxy solicitation. The members of the Committee were shareholders in Westland Development Company (Westland), a New Mexico corporation organized to develop and sell land that had once been part of the Atrisco Land Grant. The Committee sought proxies from Westland shareholders in order to call a special shareholder’s meeting to remove the existing directors and replace them with the Committee’s nominees. In order to comply with the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the Committee was required to prepare, file, and mail a proxy statement to all shareholders. The chairman of the Committee, Kenneth Romero; hired Young to print the proxy statement and other materials pertinent to the solicitation, to mail the statement to the shareholders, and to file the statement with the Securities and Exchange Commission. Young estimated the cost at $4,210.00 based on the original specifications for the job. On Kenneth Romero’s request, however, Young performed additional work, which caused the cost of the job to escalate to over $24,000. Following a bench trial, judgment was entered against the defendants holding them jointly and severally liable to Young in the amount of $24,428.29. An appeal and a cross-appeal were taken, and on appeal this Court affirmed the judgment and ordered the trial court to award Young prejudgment interest. Charles P. Young Co. v. Anaya, No. 19,763 (N.M. May 1, 1992). A supplemental judgment was entered against two of the defendants — Abelino Herrera and Polecarpio Anaya — for prejudgment interest in the amount of $11,340. The Committee had retained a law firm to represent the Committee in its efforts to have its members elected to the board of directors of Westland, which efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. Three members of the Committee — Kenneth Romero, Toby Romero, and Jesus Anaya (collectively, “Appellants”) — sued for legal malpractice concerning this representation. On December 3, 1992, judgment was entered in favor of Appellants in the amount of $24,428.29, plus costs and interest. The next week Young served a writ of garnishment on the law firm. On January 13, 1993, Young released the garnishment, and in exchange for $35,768.29 assigned the judgment against the Committee and the supplemental judgment against Abelino Herrera and Polecarpio Anaya to Toby Romero and Kenneth Romero (collectively, “Romeros”). The Romeros subsequently released themselves, Jesus Anaya, Abelino Herrera, and Polecarpio Anaya from operation of the judgment and supplemental judgment. The Romeros then subpoenaed four of the remaining Committee members for depositions to be taken pursuant to SCRA 1986, 1-069 (Repl.Pamp.1992) (Rule 69). Three of those Committee members — Estevan Saavedra, Leopaldo Romero, and Juan Sanchez (collectively, “Appellees”) — filed motions to quash the subpoenas and compel the filing of a satisfaction of judgment. Following a hearing the court ruled: “The right to contribution only arose once Toby Romero and Kenneth Romero paid the judgment and supplemental judgment____ The right to contribution is a right that must, by its nature in light of the facts of this case, be prosecuted in a separate lawsuit.” The court issued an order on April 29, 1993, granting the motion to quash the subpoenas in aid of execution of judgment, requiring that a satisfaction of judgment be entered, and releasing any judgment liens. Appellants appeal this order, and in addition to pursuing this appeal have filed a complaint for contribution in Bernalillo County District Court against five Committee members, including Appellees, among others. The action for contribution is pending as of the filing of this opinion. II. Appellants contend that they are successors in interest to the judgment by virtue of the assignment, and that as successors in interest to a judgment creditor they are entitled to discovery under Rule 69 to aid in the enforcement of the judgment. The assignment of the judgment was ineffective, however, because the garnishment was sufficient to satisfy the judgment, and “once a judgment debtor has paid the amount of the judgment such payment discharges the lien and renders it unassignable.” Medina County Agric. Soc’y v. Swagler, 34 Ohio App.3d 336, 518 N.E.2d 589, 591 (1987). “[S]uch payment discharges the judgment and leaves nothing due which the judgment plaintiff could assign to a cojudgment debtor defendant.” Cameron v. Gunter, 406 So.2d 964, 965 (Ala.Civ.App.1981). As explained in a leading treatise on judgments, Where one of several defendants against whom there is a joint judgment pays to the other party the entire sum due, the judgment becomes thereby extinguished, whatever may be the intention of the parties to the transaction. It is not in their power, by any arrangement between them, to keep the judgment on foot for the benefit of the party making the payment. If, therefore, in such a case, a defendant take an assignment to himself, or, unless under special circumstances, even to a third person for his own benefit, the assignment is void and the judgment satisfied. 2 A.C. Freeman, A Treatise on the Law of Judgments § 1133, at 2358-59 (Edward W. Tuttle rev., 5th ed. 1925) (quoting Harbeck v. Vanderbilt, 20 N.Y. 395, 397-98 (1859)); see also 2 Henry C. Black, A Treatise on the Law of Judgments § 995, at 1468 (2d ed. 1902) (“[Pjayment of a judgment by one of two joint defendants operates as a satisfaction and extinguishment of the judgment, and the defendant paying cannot take an assignment of it, or be subrogated to the rights of the creditor as against his eo-defendant, or keep the judgment alive in any manner or for any purpose.”). The assignment of the judgment by Young to the Appellants was ineffective because the judgment had been satisfied. The trial court therefore ruled correctly in requiring that a satisfaction of judgment be entered, in granting the motion to quash the Rule 69 subpoenas in aid of execution of judgment, and in releasing all judgment liens against the co-debtors. Appellants also contend that they have a right to contribution and that they should be allowed to enforce that right using Rule 69. While Appellants can not step into Young’s shoes and wield the judgment in favor of Young against Appellees, they can use the procedures set forth in Rule 69 to enforce their right to contribution, if, in fact, that right has been reduced to judgment. See Jar-Be Distribs., Inc. v. Williford, 152 Ga.App. 485, 263 S.E.2d 262, 263 (1979) (holding that claim for contribution could not be enforced until reduced to judgment). The question whether Appellants have a right to contribution has not been determined by the court, however, and thus steps to enforce contribution cannot be taken until the right is adjudicated, quantified, and incorporated into an enforceable judgment. Appellants further argue that the court erred in ruling that contribution could not be sought in the same action in which the Committee was found liable to Young. It is true that defendants may raise actions for contribution in a number of different procedural settings. For example, a “[defendant may seek contribution by bringing a separate and independent action, or by bringing a cross claim, counterclaim, or other third party action, in the same proceeding involving the underlying damage claim.” 18 C.J.S. Contribution § 25 (1990) (footnotes omitted). We note that the court ruled that contribution must be sought in a separate action, “in light of the facts of this case. ” Appellants did not make a cross claim for contribution against the other Committee members during the trial; therefore they were required to bring a separate action in order to assert their claim for contribution. Appellants have in fact brought a complaint for contribution against Appellees and other Committee members, and the respective rights of the parties should be determined therein. The judgment of the trial court is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. . RANSOM and FROST, JJ., concur. . Rule 69 provides in part: When a .judgment for the payment of money has been entered by or docketed in any district court, the judgment creditor or his successor in interest may, in aid of the judgment or execution, examine any person, including the judgment debtor, touching the property of the judgment debtor and his ability to satisfy such judgment.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. The earlier decision issued in this matter is withdrawn. Plaintiff Miller & Associates, Ltd. (Miller) brought this action to recover attorney’s fees from defendants. On the first of the two causes of action, the trial court directed a verdict against defendants for $70,328.60, the full amount of the open account alleged by Miller in the verified complaint. Defendants appeal that ruling. In April, 1981, Miller filed a verified complaint for debt and money due, incorporating by reference a statement of account. In an answer which was not signed under oath, defendants admitted that they owed Miller a reasonable fee, but denied that $70,328.60 was reasonable. In directing the verdict against defendants, the trial court concluded that the account was a duly verified open account within the meaning of NMSA 1978, Section 38-7-1, and since defendants did not deny the account under oath in a writing filed as part of the pleadings prior to trial, the court was obliged to direct a verdict in plaintiff’s favor. On appeal, defendants claim that Section 38-7-1 is inapplicable to the type of account sued for in this action; that the account was not properly verified; and that, in any ease, Section 38-7-1 unconstitutionally infringes on the exclusive authority of this court over procedural matters. Section 38-7-1 provides: Except as provided in the Uniform Commercial Code [55-1-101 to 55-9-507 NMSA 1978], accounts duly verified by the oath of the party claiming the same, or his agent, and promissory notes and other instruments in writing, not barred by law, are sufficient evidence in any suit to enable the plaintiff to recover judgment for the account thereof, unless the defendant or his agent denies the same under oath. It was held in Alexander Concrete Co. v. Western States Mechanical Contractors, 84 N.M. 558, 505 P.2d 1234 (1973), that the statute requires that denial of the account alleged must be under oath, in writing, and filed as a part of the pleadings before trial. In the early case of Richardson v. Pierce, 14 N.M. 334, 339, 93 P. 715, 716 (1908), this court noted that “a litigant may often be willing to swear that he had no knowledge or information sufficient to form a belief of the correctness of an account, when he would not be willing to deny under oath the truth of an account sued on.” Iniight of our more recent rules of civil procedure and of evidence, we hold that Section 38-7-1 no longer enjoys constitutional validity. See Prieto v. Home Educ. Livelihood Program, 94 N.M. 738, 616 P.2d 1123 (Ct.App.1980). The purpose of the statute “would seem to be to obviate the necessity of the introduction of the books of original entry, often a tedious proceeding, in the proving up of verified accounts * * * where the truth of such accounts is not directly denied under oath.” Richardson v. Pierce, at 339, 93 P. at 716. Our present rules of evidence make provision for admission of business records or summaries thereof, thus facilitating introduction the kind of evidence to which the statute was addressed when enacted. See, e.g., NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 803(6) and 1006 (Repl.Pamp.1983). In Wagner v. Hutton, 76 N.M. 194, 413 P.2d 474 (1966), we said that Section 38-7-1 was “merely a rule of evidence.” Such rules are procedural, and the New Mexico Constitution reposes the inherent power to regulate all pleading, practice and procedure affecting the judicial branch exclusively in the Supreme Court. Maestas v. Allen, 97 N.M. 230, 638 P.2d 1075 (1982); Ammerman v. Hubbard Broadcasting, Inc., 89 N.M. 307, 551 P.2d 1354 (1976), cert. denied, 436 U.S. 906, 98 S.Ct. 2237, 56 L.Ed.2d 404 (1978). “[T]he legislature lacks the power to prescribe by statute rules of practice and procedure * * * * for the constitutional power [to do so] is vested exclusively in this Court.” State ex rel. Anaya v. McBride, 88 N.M. 244, 246, 539 P.2d 1006, 1008 (1975). Consequently, Section 38-7-1 does not'withstand constitutional analysis. However, citing Keeth Gas Co. v. Jackson Creek Cattle Co., 91 N.M. 87, 570 P.2d 918 (1977), Miller argues that we are foreclosed from reviewing the constitutionality issue on appeal because the defendants failed to raise that question before filing an amended motion for a new trial. In Keeth, the Court wrote simply and without further detail that the defendant’s constitutional challenge to the verified account statute “was not raised before the trial court and will not be considered upon review * * * [and] also does not fall within the specified exception to this rule. DesGeorges v. Grainger, 76 N.M. 52, 412 P.2d 6 (1966).” 91 N.M. at 91, 570 P.2d at 922 (citations omitted). Plaintiff’s argument overlooks the fact that defendants did place the issue before the trial court here in a motion for new trial, thus affording the court the opportunity to reconsider the issue and to amend the final judgment. See NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 59 (Repl.Pamp.1980) (on a motion for new trial, the court may reopen the judgment, take additional testimony, amend findings and conclusions, or make new findings and conclusions and direct the entry of a new judgment). See also Martinez v. Martinez, 678 P.2d 1163 (1984) (respondent’s failure to request a specific conclusion of law on attorney fees prior to a letter decision was not fatal to appeal on the fee issue where respondent moved the court to reconsider its decision). As we said in N.H. Ranch Co. v. Gann, 42 N.M. 530, 541, 82 P.2d 632, 639 (1938), “justice has been done if the party complaining has in some manner called the attention of the trial court to the claimed error.” We hold Section 38-7-1 unconstitutional and expressly overrule all prior cases to the contrary. We therefore reverse and remand the matter to the trial court, directing that the judgment on Count I be set aside and that matter reinstated for trial. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and STOWERS, J., concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. Respondent, Catherine Quintana (respondent), brought this workman’s compensation action in Santa Fe District Court against petitioners, the Board of Education of the Española Municipal Schools and the Board’s insurer, Mountain States Mutual Casualty Company (petitioners), to recover benefits for an injury she sustained while employed as a teacher with the Española municipal schools. The trial court found for respondent and awarded her $12,509.35 for unpaid medical expenses incurred as a result of the injury, $2,915.08 for 14.5 weeks of total disability, and $40.20 per week for a 20% partial disability not to exceed 585.5 weeks or until further order of the trial court. The trial court also ordered petitioners to furnish all reasonable surgical, medical, and hospital services necessary for the continued treatment of respondent’s injury and awarded respondent attorney fees of $20,000. Petitioners appealed the attorney fees award to the Court of Appeals contending that it was excessive and that the trial court failed to apply the appropriate standards in determining the fees. Finding no error, the Court of Appeals affirmed the trial court. We granted certiorari to consider the propriety of the amount of the attorney fees in light of our recent opinion, Woodson v. Phillips Petroleum Co., 102 N.M. 333, 695 P.2d 483 (1985). We reverse the Court of Appeals and the trial court. Upon conclusion of the trial, the trial court entered judgment for respondent and awarded respondent attorney fees in the amount of $5,000. Respondent filed a motion to set aside the judgment and for a new trial, and a motion to amend the trial court’s findings of fact, arguing in part that the attorney fees award was invalid, because the court had not received evidence as required by Johnsen v. Fryar, 96 N.M. 323, 630 P.2d 275 (Ct.App.1980), cert. quashed, 96 N.M. 543, 632 P.2d 1181 (1981). After subsequently receiving memoranda from petitioners and respondent, the trial court entered an amended judgment which increased the attorney fees to $20,000. In his memorandum to the trial court on attorney fees, respondent’s attorney presented argument on the statutory considerations required by NMSA 1978, Section 52-l-54(D) and on each of the factors specified in Fryar v. Johnsen, 93 N.M. 485, 601 P.2d 718 (1979). He stated that he had expended 192 hours on this case, that eight depositions had been taken, that interrogatories had been filed, and that he had to review medical records and resist petitioners’ summary judgment motion. The trial took two days and respondent introduced the testimony of seven witnesses and over thirty exhibits. The trial court found that the issues were many and vigorously contested, that the case was complex with novel issues, and that the “approximately 200 hours” expended by respondent’s attorney were reasonable. The trial court also noted the inflation rates, the relative skill of respondent’s attorney, and that the fees usually charged in the community vary from $75 to $100 per hour, with respondent’s attorney normally charging $80 per hour. The trial court did not make a finding on the present value of respondent’s award, but instead itemized payments to date and commented that “plaintiff’s future compensation benefits are not presently capable of being calculated.” In Woodson v. Phillips Petroleum Co., 102 N.M. 333, 695 P.2d 483 (1985), we held that a percentage of the workman's compensation award could be considered as a factor in setting attorney fees, along with the statutory and Fryar factors. We also noted that although attorney fees will vary from case to case, 21% of recovery was at the high end of the general range of acceptable fees as indicated by New Mexico case law. In the present case, the attorney fee is almost 60% of the recovery if future medical benefits are not considered. Since this fee is outside the parameters of what we considered in Woodson to be generally permissible, to be upheld it must find support in an analysis of the statutory and Fryar factors. NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-54(D)(2) directs the trial court to take into consideration “[t]he present value of the award made in the workman’s favor.” Petitioners argue that the trial court erred by not considering this factor. We agree. The trial court apparently determined that the present value of the compensation award could not be calculated because of the uncertainty of future medical costs. We recognize that medical expenses are compensation for purposes of awarding attorney fees. Schiller v. Southwest Air Rangers, Inc., 87 N.M. 476, 535 P.2d 1327 (1975). Such expenses, however, are those that have already occurred, not expenses that might occur in the future. A trial court is prohibited from making a present compensation award for future medical expenses due to their speculative nature. Hales v. Van Cleave, 78 N.M. 181, 429 P.2d 379 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 78 N.M. 198, 429 P.2d 657 (1967). Similarly, a trial court should not consider future medical expenses in the present value of the workman’s compensation award for purposes of determining attorney fees. In addition, although the trial court specifically made future medical services which are reasonably necessary as a result of the injury a part of the judgment, an employer is required by statute to furnish continuing medical or surgical attention as needed unless the workman refuses to allow it to be so furnished. NMSA 1978, § 52-1-49. If related to the compensable injury, future medicals are granted by the statute as a matter of right. Chavira v. Gaylord Broadcasting Co., 95 N.M. 267, 620 P.2d 1292 (Ct. App.), cert. denied, 95 N.M. 299, 621 P.2d 516 (1980). If future medical expenses were considered, therefore, the present value of a compensation award would always be incapable of calculation and this factor would become meaningless. Petitioners also contend that the trial court erred in “rounding off” the time respondent’s attorney expended on the case from approximately 192 hours, as stated in respondent’s memorandum on attorney fees, to approximately 200 hours and erred in awarding respondent a fee that is in excess of her attorney’s normal hourly rate. While the time expended by an attorney and the fees normally charged are additional factors to be considered under Fryar, no one factor by itself ought to be controlling. Nevertheless, it is clear that in this case the hours expended by respondent’s attorney through closing arguments and the hourly fee he normally charges do not support the attorney fee awarded respondent. Although the existence of an injury, its extent, and whether it occurred within the course and scope of employment were contested, these issues were not particularly unusual or complex. An examination of the record reveals the following: a two-page complaint containing one cause of action; eight depositions of which only three were requested by respondent and two were requested by both parties; three sets of interrogatories, two directed to respondent and one to petitioners; and respondent’s response to petitioners’ memorandum in support of their motion for summary judgment. The record also indicates that petitioners’ law firm expended approximately 95 hours on the case (as opposed to the 192 hours of respondent’s attorney) and that their fee was approximately $5,500. In light of the principles set forth in Woodson, we find respondent’s $20,000 attorney fees award excessive. The present value of respondent’s recovery, which is approximately $33,540 and the other statu tory and Fryar factors do not support a 60% award in this case. The attorney fees award is reversed and the case is remanded to the trial court to enter a new award consistent with this opinion. A new evidentiary hearing is not required. Each party shall bear his or her own costs and attorney fees on appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and RIORDAN, STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. Petitioners Petra B. Rivas and Jo Etta New brought this action in the District Court of Dona Ana County appealing the decision of the respondent Board of Cosmetologists (Board) denying New’s application for a license to practice cosmetology and suspending Rivas’ ownership license. The district court reversed. The Board appeals. We affirm. The issue on appeal is whether the Board, in repealing one of its regulations, failed to follow correct statutory procedure, thereby both nullifying the repeal of the regulation and denying both New and Rivas due process. Rulemaking. Petitioners contend that in repealing Rule 106, the Board did not conform to statutory requirements. An administrative agency has no power to create a rule or regulation that is not in harmony with its statutory authority. New Mexico Board of Pharmacy v. New Mexico Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners, 95 N.M. 780, 626 P.2d 854 (Ct.App.1981); Public Service Co. of New Mexico v. Environmental Improvement Board, 89 N.M. 223, 549 P.2d 638 (Ct.App.1976). The Legislature can delegate legislative powers to administrative agencies but in so doing, boundaries of authority must be defined and followed. In New Mexico, action taken by a governmental agency must conform to some statutory standard, State ex rel. Lee v. Hartman, 69 N.M. 419, 367 P.2d 918 (1961), or intelligible principle, State Park & Recreation Commission v. New Mexico State Authority, 76 N.M. 1, 411 P.2d 984 (1966). The rulemaking amendments to the Uniform Licensing Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 61-1-1 through 33 (Repl.Pamp.1981) extend all required procedures to the repeal of regulations. NMSA 1978, § 61-1-29. “No regulation or amendment or repeal thereof shall be adopted by the board until after a public hearing by the board.” NMSA 1978, § 61-1-29(B). Moreover, additional notice is encouraged for licensees. “The board shall make reasonable efforts to give notice of any rulemaking proceeding to its licensees and to the members of the public. Notice * * * shall be given at least thirty days prior to the hearing date. * * * [And] shall also state where interested persons may secure copies of any proposed regulations.” NMSA 1978, § 61-1-29(C). Regulation 106 would have granted New a cosmetology license under reciprocity considerations and, by custom, would have protected Rivas from a charge of having employed an unlicensed cosmetologist. The Board of Cosmetology was engaging in its rulemaking capacity when it repealed Regulation 106. In denying New a cosmetology license and suspending Rivas’ ownership license, the Board was performing a quasi-judicial function. The issue before us on appeal is whether the action of the Board in repealing Regulation 106 complied with statutorily conferred authority. When repealing a regulation an agency must conduct a hearing, if required by statute, Bi-Metallic Investment Co. v. State Board of Equalization of Colorado, 239 U.S. 441, 36 S.Ct. 141, 60 L.Ed. 372 (1915), within the area of the state which the action concerns. See New Mexico Municipal League, Inc. v. New Mexico Environmental Improvement Board, 88 N.M. 201, 539 P.2d 221 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 88 N.M. 318, 540 P.2d 248 (1975), at which data, views or arguments may be submitted to the agency by any interested person. NMSA 1978, § 12-8-4(A)(3). Only when public welfare, health or safety is endangered or when the public interest would not be served, can the Board proceed without a hearing. NMSA 1978, § 12-8-4(B). Notice Agencies are required to give notice of proposed action regarding the adoption, amendment or repeal of any rule. All interested parties must be given the oppor tunity to present data, views, arguments and witnesses. NMSA 1978, § 12-8-4(A). Furthermore, if the agency adopts or repeals a contested rule, a concise statement of rationale must be issued by the agency. Id. Also, it is required that the record disclose the Board’s reasoning and the basis on which it adopted the regulation. Bokum Resources Corp. v. New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission, 93 N.M. 546, 603 P.2d 285 (1979). Due process generally requires that affected parties receive reasonable notice. Bell Telephone Co. of Pennsylvania v. Federal Communications Commission, 503 F.2d 1250 (3d Cir.1974), cert. denied, 422 U.S. 1026, 95 S.Ct. 2620, 45 L.Ed.2d 684 (1975); Mobil Oil Corp. v. Federal Power Commission, 483 F.2d 1238 (D.C.Cir.1973). Case law suggests that “the minimum protections upon which administrative action may be based, [are] according to interested parties a simple notice and right to comment.” Mobil Oil, 483 F.2d at 1253. Filing of Regulation by Board Furthermore, no rule, or repeal thereof, is effective until it has been filed with the State Records Administrator. NMSA 1978, § 14-4-5. The Board failed to file the repeal with the State Records Administrator. In a recent New Mexico case, because the Museum of New Mexico failed to file its regulatory changes with regard to trespass, a trespass conviction was reversed. State v. Joyce, 94 N.M. 618, 614 P.2d 30 (Ct.App.1980). There, the failure to file its changes in accordance with certain provisions of the State Rules Act, found at NMSA 1978, Sections 14-4-2, 14-4-4 and 14-4-5, rendered its new policy unenforceable for lack of compliance with the procedural requirements. In the instant case, the regulatory changes made by the Board were unenforceable. The fact that New filed her application after the Board repealed Regulation 106 is of no consequence, since the repeal by the Board was a nullity by virtue of the Board’s failure to file the repeal with the State Records Administrator. Court’s Power of Review The district court may review the decision of the Board and reverse the Board’s action if it is “in excess of the statutory authority or jurisdiction of the board; or made upon unlawful procedure; or affected by other error of law.” NMSA 1978, § 61-1-20 (Repl.Pamp.1981). Standards for appellate review of regulations as set forth at NMSA 1978, Section 61-1-31(C) (Repl.Pamp.1981) of the Uniform Licensing Act, provide that: C. Upon appeal, the court of appeals shall set aside the regulation only if it is found to be: (1) arbitrary, capricious or an abuse of discretion; (2) contrary to law; or (3) against the clear weight of substantial evidence of the record. This principle is equally applicable to the repeal of regulations by an administrative agency. In this case, the Board failed to (1) comply with the repeal procedure of the statute in failing to give notice to interested parties and to hold a hearing prior to taking action; and (2) failed to file the record of its regulatory proceedings with the State Records Administrator. The action of the Board was therefore contrary to law and the repeal of Regulation 106 is invalid. The judgment of the district court is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and RIORDAN and WALTERS, JJ., concur. STOWERS, J., dissents.
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OPINION RIORDAN, Justice. John J. Chapman, Troy H. Elliott, and N. Altom (Petitioners) filed suit in district court seeking a declaratory judgment that the operation and enforcement of the joint Albuquerque-Bernalillo County Motor Vehicle Emissions Inspection Program (Program) is unlawful. After a non-jury trial, the district court dismissed Petitioners’ complaint and entered an order upholding the Program. Petitioners appeal. We affirm in part and reverse in part. The issues we address are: I. Whether state law prohibits the City from imposing an inspection fee for the Program. II. Whether the Program violates equal protection standards by allowing exemptions not based on reasonable distinctions. III. Whether the Program’s criminal penalty provisions are invalid. IV. Whether the ordinances’ severability clauses should be given effect. In 1979, the Albuquerque City Council (Council) and the Bernalillo County Commission (Commission) enacted ordinances which established prohibitions against excessive air pollutant emissions from motor vehicles in the city of Albuquerque and in Bernalillo County. The ordinances delegated the power to regulate the operation of a vehicle emissions inspection and maintenance program to the Albuquerque-Bernalillo County Air Quality Control Board (Board). The Board, pursuant to its authority, adopted regulations for the establishment and operation of the Program. The Program requires that all private motor vehicles manufactured in 1968 and thereafter undergo an emissions inspection. Any vehicle failing the initial inspection may obtain a waiver from compliance with Board emission standards if the vehicle receives a prescribed low-emissions tune-up, or up to $75.00 worth of repairs in attempting to bring the vehicle into compliance ($75.00 Repair Provision). Upon payment of an inspection fee (Inspection Fee), the vehicle owner is given an inspection certificate (Certificate) to be displayed on the vehicle. Violation of any provision of the Program is a misdemeanor punishable by a fine of not more than $300.00 and/or not more than 90 days imprisonment for operating a registered vehicle without a Certificate. The Program was to go into effect on December 31, 1982. Petitioners filed a petition for writ of mandamus seeking to halt operation and enforcement of the Program on statutory and constitutional grounds. The district court granted a motion for leave to intervene by Hamilton Test Systems, Inc. (Hamilton) on the basis of Hamilton’s status as a party to the contract with the City of Albuquerque (City) for design and operation of the Program’s test stations. On January 7, 1983, the district court ordered operation and enforcement of the Program ceased until January 17, 1983. The district court subsequently designated the action as a suit for declaratory judgment. I. Inspection Fee. Petitioners argue that the imposition of the Inspection Fee constitutes the charging of fees for vehicles subject to registration under the Motor Vehicle Code, NMSA 1978, Sections 66-1-1 to 8-140 (Orig.Pamp. and Cum.Supp.1983), and that Section 66-6-25 prohibits imposition of the Inspection Fee. Section 66-6-25 provides: No county or municipality shall require registration or charge fees for any vehicle subject to registration under the Motor Vehicle Code * * *. (emphasis added). The Council, Commission, and Hamilton argue that the Inspection Fee is not a “fee” within the meaning of Section 66-6-25. They claim that the purpose of Section 66-6-25 is to prohibit cities and counties from using vehicles as a means of raising general revenues and that the Inspection Fee is only for defraying the administrative costs of an environmental program that was specifically delegated to local authorities by the State. They also argue that the Inspection Fee is a valid exercise of local authorities’ home rule power. We disagree. This Court has the duty of construing statutes, if possible, to resolve any apparent conflict. Runyan v. Jaramillo, 90 N.M. 629, 567 P.2d 478 (1977). However, where a statute makes sense as written, we will not read language into it which is not there. Burroughs v. Board of County Commissioners, 88 N.M. 303, 540 P.2d 233 (1975). Section 66-6-25 states that no city or county shall charge fees for motor vehicles. It does not limit cities and counties to the imposition of only certain fees as the Council, Commission and Hamilton argue. Instead, Section 66-6-25 makes clear the legislative intent that cities and counties are prohibited from charging any fees for motor vehicles, regardless of the purpose of the fees. We therefore determine that the imposition of the Inspection Fee is prohibited under Section 66-6-25. N.M. Const. Art. X, Section 6, the municipal home rule amendment, provides in pertinent part: D. A municipality which adopts a charter may exercise all legislative powers and perform all functions not expressly denied by general law or charter. (emphasis added). The major case discussing “municipal home rule” in New Mexico is Apodaca v. Wilson, 86 N.M. 516, 525 P.2d 876 (1974). The issue in Apodaca was whether the City of Albuquerque could increase water and sewer rates and apply the increased revenue to municipal functions other than those set out by statute. The statutes at that time specifically allowed the City to use water and sewer revenues for “maintaining, enlarging, extending, constructing and repairing’ ” water and sewer systems. Id. at 519, 525 P.2d at 880 (quoting NMSA 1953, Repl.Vol. 3, (1968)), § 14-26-4 and § 14-25-2(A). The statutes did not authorize the revenue to be used for any other purpose nor did it forbid its use for other municipal functions. In ruling in favor of the City, this Court stated: The [Municipal Home Rule Amendment] and art. I of the City Charter enable the City, as a municipal corporation, to exercise all legislative powers and to perform all functions not expressly denied by the City Charter or general state law. Apodaca, 86 N.M. at 520, 525 P.2d at 880 (emphasis added). This Court defined “general law” as “a law that applies generally throughout the state, or is of statewide concern * * *.” Apodaca, 86 N.M. at 521, 525 P.2d at 881. This Court also determined that “not expressly denied” means that “some express statement of the authority or power denied must be contained in such general law in order to be applicable * * * or otherwise no limitation exists.” Apodaca, 86 N.M. at 521-522, 525 P.2d at 881-882. The law at issue here, Section 66-6-25, applies generally throughout the state and is of statewide concern because the people of the state have an interest in maintaining a uniform system of conditions and charges for operating motor vehicles in the state. Section 66-6-25 is therefore a “general law”, and it clearly and expressly states that cities and municipalities are prohibited from charging fees for motor vehicles subject to registration. Therefore, we also determine that the imposition of the Inspection Fee is not a valid exercise of local authorities’ home rule power. II. Equal Protection. Petitioners argue that the Program violates equal protection standards because: (1) it exempts from coverage vehicles manufactured before 1968 and all vehicles less than one year old; and (2) the $75.00 Repair Provision is discriminatory in its application. We have previously determined that: Equal protection does not prohibit classification for legislative purposes, provided that there is a rational and natural basis therefor, that it is based on a substantial difference between those to whom it does and those to whom it does not apply, and that it is so framed as to embrace equally all who may be in like circumstances and situations. Gruschus v. Bureau of Revenue, 74 N.M. 775, 778, 399 P.2d 105, 107 (1965) (citations omitted). Furthermore, a presumption exists that legislative acts of a municipality are legal and valid, and their provisions are presumed constitutional. City of Albuquerque v. Jones, 87 N.M. 486, 535 P.2d 1337 (1975). Since the Program is “legislative in nature”, the presumption extends to it. Wylie Bros. Contracting Co. v. Albuquerque-Bernalillo County Air Quality Control Bd., 80 N.M. 633, 637-638, 459 P.2d 159, 163-164 (Ct.App.1969). Petitioners first argue that there is no significant difference between 1967 model vehicles and 1968 model vehicles which justifies exempting 1967 model vehicles from the Program. They claim that the fact that pre-1968 model vehicles were not required by the EPA to have anti-pollution devices installed does not provide a rational basis for the exemption. We disagree. The record indicates that the pre-1968 model vehicle exemption was decided upon for several reasons. First, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) did not require pre-1968 model vehicles to have pollution control devices. .Second, EPA recommends that pre-1968 model vehicles and vehicles more than 15 years old be exempted from emissions inspection maintenance programs that grant age exemptions. The record indicates that such exemptions are granted in Connecticut, Missouri, and Colorado, while other programs exempt an even larger group of vehicles. Third, mechanical differences render pre1968 vehicles more difficult to test for emission levels than vehicles manufactured in 1968 and thereafter. In addition, the State of New Mexico, pursuant to Section 66-3-844(C), requires that all vehicles manufactured in 1968 and thereafter be “maintained in good working order with the factory-installed devices and equipment * * * designed to prevent, reduce or control exhaust emissions or air pollution.” Testimony at trial indicated that pre-1968 model vehicles cannot be measured by state-of-the-art testing equipment and that it is difficult to obtain parts in repairing and tuning-up pre-1968 model vehicles. Testimony at trial also indicated that it would be impossible to bring pre-1968 model vehicles within applicable emission standards without unfairly applying these standards. After reviewing the record, we determine that the pre-1968 model vehicle exemption does not violate equal protection standards because there are significant differences between 1967 and 1968 model vehicles which provide a rational basis for exempting pre-1968 model vehicles. Petitioners also argue that the $75.00 Repair Provision is discriminatory in its application. The Program establishes a maximum required low emission-related repair cost of $75.00 for vehicles to qualify for a certificate of waiver. However, the $75.00 Repair Provision does not apply to the cost of replacing or repairing anti-pollution equipment that has been removed or rendered inoperable by any person. Petitioners claim that by requiring the latter group of vehicles to come into compliance, regardless of cost, this exception denies equal protection to those persons whose anti-pollution devices have been removed or rendered inoperable through no fault of their own. It is rational and proper to single out persons who have intentionally removed or rendered inoperable anti-pollution devices. However, the Program allows vehicles whose anti-pollution devices that do not function properly or have been rendered inoperable or removed by another means to undergo no more than $75.00 worth of repairs even if those repairs do not bring the vehicle into compliance. The Federal Government has required all vehicles manufactured in a current year to meet certain emission standards. 42 U.S.C. § 7521(a) (Supp.V.1981). It is a violation of Federal law to remove or render inoperable the manufacturer’s anti-pollution devices. 42 U.S.C. § 7522(a)(3)(A) (Supp.V.1981). In our opinion, it is not unfair or unreasonable to single out this group of violators and require them to spend whatever it takes to bring their vehicles into compliance. Nor is it unreasonable to exempt new cars from testing since Federal law requires that they meet the federal standards when manufactured. 42 U.S.C. § 7521(a) (Supp.V.1981). This does not, however, address the real issue involving the $75.00 exemption. The Program, through testing, identifies vehicles that pollute. However, by paying up to $75.00 to a private individual, a mechanic, it allows the violators who are in effect “certified” as the worst polluters to continue to operate their vehicles. This is not rational. It does not have any reasonable basis, nor is it designed to further the objectives of cleaning up the air. Allowing cars that fail the test to undergo no more than $75.00 worth of repairs, violates the Program’s stated purpose which is to protect the health and welfare of the citizenry by reducing pollutant levels. If the Program is to operate fairly and pursue its stated purpose, then it is essential that all vehicles tested and proved to be operating below the Program’s emission standards be required to undergo sufficient repairs to bring them into compliance regardless of the expense involved. We therefore determine that the $75.00 Repair Provision is invalid. III. Criminal Penalties. Petitioners also argue that the Program is invalid because it imposes a criminal penalty in violation of state law. Article X, Section 6 provides in pertinent part: E. The purpose of this section is to provide for maximum local self-government. A liberal construction shall be given to the powers of municipalities, (emphasis added). In reviewing city legislation, we consider that: [A] home rule municipality no longer has to look to the legislature for a grant of power to act, but only looks to legislative enactments to see if any express limitations have been placed on their power to act. To adopt any other interpretation in New Mexico would make the home rule amendment meaningless. Apodaca, 86 N.M. at 521, 525 P.2d at 881 (emphasis added). In determining the authority of the Council to enact its ordinance, including its penalties, we must look at the applicable legislative enactment, the state Air Quality Control Act, NMSA 1978, Section 74-2-1 to Section 74-2-17 (Repl.Pamp.1983). Section 74-2-3(A) grants the Environmental Improvement board enforcement authority except in “municipalities within A class counties or A class counties which have elected, by adopting the appropriate ordinance, to assume jurisdiction for the administration and enforcement of the Air Quality Control Act.” ' The Act specifically provides in Section 74-2-4(A) that: A class counties and any municipality within an A class county which provides for air quality control shall, by ordinance, provide for the local administration and enforcement of the Air Quality Control Act * * *. The provisions of any such ordinance shall be consistent with the substantive provisions of the Air Quality Control Act * * *. (emphasis added). The enforcement under the Act is civil in nature with two exceptions which are contained in Section 74-2-14. Section 74-2-14 provides in pertinent part: A. [A]ny A class county or municipality within an A class county may prescribe penalties for violations of an ordinance: ****** (2) prohibiting the removal of motor vehicle emission control devices installed as required by law and requiring the maintenance of [motor vehicle emission control] devices in operating condition. B. [I]t shall be a petty misdemeanor to violate any regulation of the environmental improvement board: ****** (2) prohibiting the removal of motor vehicle emission control devices installed as required by law or requiring the maintenance of [motor vehicle emis- • sion control] devices in operating condition, (emphasis added). The question becomes whether the Act, which under Apodaca is a “general state law”, in any way “expressly denies” the City the authority to provide for criminal sanctions. Our reading of Apodaca leads to the inescapable conclusion that not only is there no express denial of that authority, but the Legislature specifically authorized it in Section 74-2-14. The fact that the Legislature provided additional civil penalties and prescribed the penalty for violation of board regulations does not eliminate that authority. We therefore determine that the criminal ■ penalty provisions of the Program are not invalid. IV. Severability Clause. Having determined that at least two provisions of the ordinances are invalid, we address the effect of our decision. The ordinances have the following sever-ability clause: If any section, subsection, sentence, clause, word or phrase of this ordinance is for any reason held to be unconstitutional or otherwise invalid by any court of competent jurisdiction, such decision shall not affect the validity of the remaining portions of this ordinance. We have previously addressed the effect of the inclusion of a severability clause in an ordinance. In Schwartz v. Town of Gallup, 22 N.M. 521, 529, 165 P. 345, 348 (1917) we stated: A part of the law may be unconstitutional and the remainder of it valid, where the objectionable part may be properly separated from the other without impairing the force and effect of the portion which remains, and where the legislative purpose as expressed in such valid portion can be accomplished and given effect, independently of the void provisions, and where if the entire act is taken into consideration it cannot be said that the enacting power would not have passed the portion retained had it known that the void provisions must fall, (citation omitted). We have determined that a severability clause raises a presumption that the legislating body would have enacted the rest of the ordinance without the void section. Barber’s Super Markets v. City of Grants, 80 N.M. 533, 458 P.2d 785 (1969). The severability clause in this case is emphatic in its statement that the ordinances would have been enacted even if the invalid provisions were not included. We therefore determine that the invalid provisions do not invalidate the ordinances. V. Conclusion. We are aware of the tremendous problem the government faces in trying to alleviate air pollution, some of which can be attributed to motor vehicle emissions. We are also aware of the difficulty involved in developing a program that meets the objective of clean air while complying with statutory and constitutional limitations. However, it is not for the courts to develop such a program, but rather it is the responsibility of the Legislature, the City, and the County to do so. We conclude that the Program may be continued without imposition of a fee and without a repair cap for vehicles that do not come into compliance; otherwise, the Council and Commission will have to discontinue the Program. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, specially concurring. FEDERICI, C.J., and STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ., concurring in part and dissenting in part. . The issues we address on appeal are limited and specific. A number of other issues discussed at oral argument, but not raised in the briefs, might effect the validity of the Program. Therefore, this opinion is not to be construed as an approval of the Program. . An "A class county" is defined by NMSA 1978, Section 4-44-1 (Repl.Pamp.1980) as counties "having a final, full assessed valuation of over seventy-five million dollars (175,000,000) and having a population of one hundred thousand persons or more as determined by the last official United States census[.]”
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. Both parties appeal the trial court’s determination of the meaning of the terms in a written lease agreement. Plaintiff Falcon Research and Development Company (Falcon) leased office space from defendant James Craddock (Craddock) on October 8, 1976. The lease provided for an initial five-year term with an option to renew for an additional five years. In 1981 Falcon exercised its option. A controversy then arose over the amount of rent due during the renewal term. Falcon filed a declaratory judgment action against Craddock in order to resolve the controversy. Falcon appeals and Craddock cross-appeals the trial court’s interpretation of the lease agreement. We affirm. 1. Falcon’s appeal The rental rate during the renewal term depends on the meaning of Paragraph 35 of the lease. In pertinent part, it provides as follows: The base rental [during the renewal term] shall be computed upon the existing base rental for the base term together with an increase that may be computed based solely upon increases in real estate taxes, insurance, utilities and building management expenses. Findings 6 and 7 made by the trial court were: The provisions of paragraph 35 of the written Lease Agreement between the parties as to the rental rate for the option period are not clear or unambiguous. Defendant understood * * * [paragraph 35] to provide for an increase in rent proportional to the increase in operating cost. No evidence of Plaintiff’s understanding was presented at trial. The preponderance of the evidence supports the proposition that the lease provided for an increase in rent proportional to the increase in operating costs. The parties stipulated that the operating costs had increased by 59%. The trial court found that the base rental for the base term had been $5.04 per square foot per year, and concluded that Falcon’s rent during the renewal term would be $8.01 per square foot per year. Falcon argues that Paragraph 35 provides for a “pass-through” of the increase in operating costs; i.e., that Paragraph 35 has an additive rather than a multiplier effect on the base rental. Under that approach, Falcon’s rent during the renewal term would be $5.69 per square foot per year. Falcon’s three contentions of error are: (1) Paragraph 35 is not ambiguous; (2) The trial court made no finding of mutual understanding of the parties on the meaning of Paragraph 35; and (3) the trial court failed to recognize, in Finding 7, Falcon’s presentation of testimony regarding its understanding of Paragraph 35. Whether the lease is ambiguous is a question of law. See Young v. Thomas, 93 N.M. 677, 604 P.2d 370 (1979). The word “compute,” one of whose synonyms is “calculate,” Websters’ Third New Int’l Dictionary (1966), refers to the application of mathematical processes, and is fairly susceptible of meaning any number of ways in which the computation may be accomplished. The trial court properly determined that Paragraph 35 is ambiguous. See Vickers v. North American Land Developments, Inc., 94 N.M. 65, 607 P.2d 603 (1980). Falcon misperceives the law to be applied once it is determined that an agreement is ambiguous. It argues, citing Trujillo v. Glen Falls Insurance Co., 88 N.M. 279, 540 P.2d 209 (1975); Higgins v. Cauhape, 33 N.M. 11, 261 P. 813 (1927); and Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 20(2) (1981), that the trial court’s Finding 7 is in error because it does not reflect that there was a mutual understanding of the meaning of Paragraph 35. The cases and authority cited by Falcon, however, refer either to agreements which were not ambiguous (Higgins) or to whether a contract was actually formed (Trujillo; Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 20(2) (1981)), rather than to the construction of an ambiguous agreement. There is no requirement that a court find that the parties to an agreement have a mutual understanding of the ambiguous provisions. Once it is determined that an agreement is ambiguous, the court must ascertain the intent of the parties from such extrinsic evidence as is produced concerning their conversations, conduct, the surrounding circumstances at the time the agreement was executed, and the objectives sought to be accomplished by the writing. Shaeffer v. Kelton, 95 N.M. 182, 619 P.2d 1226 (1980). The trial court’s construction of the meaning of terms of an agreement is one of fact, id., and its determination will not be disturbed if it is supported by substantial evidence. Montoya v. Travelers Insurance Co., 91 N.M. 667, 579 P.2d 793 (1978). There was ample evidence upon which the trial court could have based its finding that the parties intended the increase in rent during the renewal term to be proportional to the increase in operating costs. Although there was testimony at trial that Falcon understood the Paragraph 35 provision as establishing a “dollar-for-dollar pass-through of the operating costs,” the rule of construction is that the intent of the parties is to be determined as of the time when the lease was executed. Shaeffer v. Kelton; Keeth Gas Co., Inc. v. Jackson Creek Cattle Co., 91 N.M. 87, 570 P.2d 918 (1977). On appeal, we view the evidence in the light most favorable to the trial court’s findings. Lujan v. Pendaries Properties, Inc., 96 N.M. 771, 635 P.2d 580 (1981). There is substantial evidence to support the trial court’s apparent belief that the testimony regarding Falcon’s interpretation of the paragraph in dispute was an “ex post facto” understanding of the parties’ intent. Because we uphold the trial court on its resolution of the parties’ intent and the meaning of Paragraph 35, we affirm its decision that the base rent during the renewal period should reflect a 59% increase over the base rent paid during the base term. 2. Craddock’s appeal Craddock attacks the trial court’s finding that the base rent during the initial five-year term was $5.04 per square foot per year. The court arrived at this figure by dividing the total amount to be paid under the lease for the five-year term, $265,708.80, first by five years, then by 10,544, the number of square feet of office space leased. In the initial five-year period, the monthly rental rate was stated to be $4,920.53, but it was provided that the first three months’ and last three months’ rent were free. Craddock argues that, in the renewal term, there should be no months of free rental, in which ease the base rent would be 60 months times $4,920.53, or $295,231.80. That would translate to a rate of $5.60 per square foot per year. The 59% increase of operating costs would then result in a base rent during the renewal term of $8.90 per square foot per year. With respect to a determination of the base rent during the initial five-year term, the lease is unambiguous. It clearly provides for total payment of $265,708.80. That is equivalent to a base rental of $5.04 per square foot per year. Paragraph 35 clearly provides that the base rental for the renewal term is to be computed upon the base rental for the base term together with the increase attributable to increased operating costs. The trial court did not err in its calculations that the rent during the initial five-year period was $5.04 per square foot per year, and that the rent during the renewal term, reflecting a 59% increase in operating cost, should be $8.01 per square foot per year. The judgment of the trial court is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and STOWERS, J., concur. . This figure is calculated as follows: The dollar increase in operating costs was stipulated to be $20,821.00 per year. Falcon, as a tenant occupying one-third of the premises, was responsible for paying 'A of that amount, which, divided by 10,544 square feet, would be $.65 per square foot per year.
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OPINION STOWERS, Justice. Defendant Walter Scott Finnell was tried by jury and convicted in the District Court of Grant County of first degree murder of Richard Bejarano, attempted murder of Karen Bejarano with firearm enhancement, armed robbery with firearm enhancement, and motor vehicle theft with firearm enhancement. For the murder of Richard Bejarano, the jury, pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 31-20A-5(G) (Repl.Pamp. 1981), found the aggravating circumstance of killing a witness. The jury unanimously agreed that defendant be sentenced to death for the first degree murder. Defendant was also sentenced to ten years on the count of attempted murder, ten years on the armed robbery, and two and a half years on the car theft. These sentences were to be served concurrently with each other, but consecutively to the sentence under the murder verdict. We affirm defendant’s conviction on all charges. However, because of errors in the sentencing phase of the trial, we reverse and remand the case for a new sentencing proceeding only as to the conviction for first degree murder, pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 31-20A-4 (Repl.Pamp. 1981). Sentencing Jury Selection Defendant contends that it was error to exclude for cause those jurors who, following the guilt phase of the trial, stated that, although hot unequivocally opposed to the death penalty, they were convinced that defendant should not be sentenced to death. Defendant asserts that this violated his constitutional right to a fair and impartial jury. Defendant argues that the death sentence is invalid because the exclusion resulted in a sentencing jury uncommonly willing to impose the death penalty, contrary to the Sixth and Fourteenth Amendment right to an impartial jury. Rather than conducting voir dire on the death penalty at the beginning of the trial as is properly done, examination of the jurors regarding the death penalty was postponed until after trial on the merits. Defendant had filed a pre-trial motion to limit initial voir dire of the jury. Prior to trial, defendant and the prosecution entered into a stipulation agreeing to no death penalty voir dire or mention of the death penalty during the guilt phase of the trial. The trial court accepted this stipulation. Twelve jurors and six alternates were then selected. On voir dire during the penalty phase, the trial court first asked the jurors if they were opposed to the death penalty. Second it asked if the juror, regardless of the facts and circumstances which have been presented by the evidence during the trial and which may be presented during the sentencing proceeding, would automatically refuse to vote for the sentence of death. See NMSA 1978,' UJI Crim. 1.10 (Repl. Pamp.1982). Those jurors who expressed opposition were examined further to determine if any of them should be stricken for cause. Of the eighteen jurors and alternates questioned, eight initially answered yes to both questions. Defendant then requested the trial court to dismiss the penalty portion of the case because eight of the original trial jurors were not death qualified, leaving only ten jurors, including the alternates. Defendant would not stipulate to a ten-person jury or the calling of new jurors. The prosecutor requested leave to conduct further voir dire. The trial court limited the voir dire to those who indicated they had opposition to the death penalty. The trial court also agreed to defendant’s request to voir dire the death qualified jurors to determine if any of them would automatically impose the death penalty in every case. In subsequent voir dire, one juror was stricken for cause because of her unequivocal opposition to the death penalty on religious grounds. Three jurors were excused for cause after indicating that although there were circumstances in which they would impose the death penalty, based on the evidence at trial, they could not sentence defendant to death, regardless of the evidence presented in the sentencing phase. Two jurors were excused by the court for cause at defendant’s request because they indicated that their minds were already made up on this case. The sentencing jury consisted of six jurors who had originally deliberated defendant’s guilt and the six alternates. The Capital Felony Sentencing Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 31-20A-1 to -6 (Repl. Pamp.1981), provides for sentencing in capital cases. Section 31-20A-1(B) provides in pertinent part: In a jury trial, the sentencing proceeding shall be conducted as soon as practicable by the original trial judge before the original trial jury. This did not occur in the present case. The sentencing proceeding was conducted before six of the original trial jurors and the six alternates. The stipulation which was entered into violated the procedures set forth by the Legislature for capital felony sentencing, and should never have been permitted. The result was to create a confusing situation. In cases decided subsequent to defendant’s trial, this Court has pointed out the potential problems with utilizing this method of jury selection. See State v. Simonson, 100 N.M. 297, 669 P.2d 1092 (1983); State v. Hutchinson, 99 N.M. 616, 661 P.2d 1315 (1983). In this case, defendant was not sentenced by the original trial jury which found him guilty as required by Section 31-20A-1(B). Therefore, we are remanding this case for a new sentencing proceeding on the first degree murder conviction, pursuant to Section 31-20A-4(E), which provides in relevant part: In cases of remand for a new sentencing proceeding, all exhibits and a transcript of all testimony and other evidence admitted in the prior trial and sentencing proceeding shall be admissible in the new sentencing proceeding, and: (1) if the sentencing proceeding was before a jury, a new jury shall be impaneled for the new sentencing proceeding. Witness Killing Defendant filed a motion to preclude the imposition of the death penalty arguing that Mr. Bejarano was not a witness as contemplated by NMSA 1978, Section 31-20A-5(G) (Repl.Pamp.1981). A stipulation of facts was presented to the trial court for the motion hearing. After the hearing, the trial court ruled that it was going to deny the motion to preclude the imposition of the death penalty. Defendant argues that Mr. Bejarano was not a witness within the meaning of Section 31-20A-5(G). Defendant contends that the trial court extended Section 31-20A-5(G) in a manner that would make the death penalty applicable whenever an intentional killing occurs in the course of any felony or misdemeanor. Defendant also asserts that the evidence was insufficient to support the jury’s finding that Mr. Bejarano was a witness to a crime, resulting in a charge of the aggravating circumstance. The court sentencing procedure is provided in NMSA 1978, Section 31-20A-3 (Repl.Pamp.1981), which states in relevant part: In a jury sentencing proceeding in which the jury unanimously finds beyond a reasonable doubt and specifies at least one of the aggravating circumstances enumerated in * * * this act, and unanimously specifies the sentence of death- * * * the court shall sentence the defendant to death. This provision clearly states that the jury must find whether the aggravating circumstance exists. See also NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 39.10, 39.13, 39.20, 39.31, 39.32, and 39.33 (Repl.Pamp.1982). Because we are remanding this case for a new sentencing hearing, it will be up to the jury to first determine whether the aggravating circumstance exists. Errors by the Prosecution and the Trial Court Defendant first argues that the prosecution’s argument during the sentencing phase of the trial was inflammatory and prevented consideration of the proper statutory mitigating and aggravating circumstances. Second, defendant argues that the ambiguity of the jury instructions concerning the weighing of aggravating and mitigating circumstances undermines the reliability of the jury’s imposition of the death sentence. Third, defendant argues that the trial court’s refusal to strike a juror who said he thought the defendant should testify and then permitting that jur- or to sit on the sentencing phase jury undermines the reliability of the death penalty. Because of our remand for a new sentencing hearing, it is unnecessary for us to address the first and third points raised by the defendant. The Capital Felony Sentencing Act requires that aggravating and mitigating circumstances be weighed against each other to determine whether a life or death sentence is appropriate. NMSA 1978, § 31-20A-2(B) (Repl.Pamp.1981). This Court has adopted uniform jury instructions which explain the death penalty sentencing-proceeding. See NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 39.10 to .43 (Repl.Pamp.1982). These instructions explain to the jury the statutory requirements for imposition, set forth the applicable matters for jury consideration, limit the jury’s consideration to those specific matters, and guide the jury’s discretion. Relying on State v. Wood, 648 P.2d 71, 77-85 (Utah), cert. denied, 459 U.S. 988, 103 S.Ct. 341, 74 L.Ed.2d 383 (1982), defendant argues that principles of statutory construction require that the death penalty be limited to instances where the jury is persuaded beyond a reasonable doubt that aggravating circumstances outweigh mitigating factors. However, Wood is inapplicable to the present case because it dealt with a statute that provided no burden of proof, persuasion, or even required that a comparison be made between the aggravating and mitigating factors. Id. at 79, fn. 4. The United States Supreme Court has never stated that a beyond a reasonable doubt standard is required when determining whether a death penalty should be imposed. There is no requirement in the Capital Felony Sentencing Act or in the jury instructions which requires that the aggravating circumstances outweigh the mitigating circumstances beyond a reasonable doubt. If the Legislature had intended for this burden to be beyond a reasonable doubt in death penalty cases, it would have stated so in the Capital Felony Sentencing Act. The jury instructions adopted by this Court give the jury the guidance ■they need in order to determine whether the death sentence is appropriate. Aggravating v. Mitigating Circumstances Defendant contends that because the evidence shows that he was a young man with no significant history of prior criminal activity and a significant history of mental disorder and emotional problems, acting under duress, that the mitigating circumstances outweigh the aggravating circumstances. Therefore, he argues that this Court is required to vacate the death sentence. However, in light of our remand of this case for a new sentencing hearing, we find it unnecessary to address this issue at this time. Systematic Review and Proportionality Defendant argues that effective appellate review of the excessiveness of a death sentence is constitutionally required, and that the lack of a systematic review procedure prohibits imposition of death in this case. Alternatively, defendant contends that the sentence of death in this case is disproportionate to the sentences given others convicted of similar crimes who have fewer mitigating circumstances. In view of our remand for a new sentencing proceeding, we find it unnecessary to address this issue. We note, however, that in State v. Garcia, 99 N.M. 771, 664 P.2d 969, cert. denied, — U.S. -, 103 S.Ct. 2464, 77 L.Ed.2d 1341 (1983), this Court set forth the guidelines for proportionality review. We continue to adhere to that procedure. Constitutionality of the Death Penalty Defendant asserts that the death penalty is cruel and unusual punishment, applied arbitrarily and capriciously in violation of the state and federal Constitutions. We discussed this challenge to the death penalty in State v. Garcia, 99 N.M. 771, 664 P.2d 969, cert. denied, — U.S. -, 103 S.Ct. 2464, 77 L.Ed.2d 1341 (1983). We continue to hold that the death penalty, in and of itself, does not violate federal or state constitutional mandates against cruel and unusual punishment. Duress Instruction Defendant requested an instruction which would have informed the jury that if he was forced to kill Richard Bejarano under threats against his life, he was not guilty. The instruction was denied. As to both murder and attempted murder, the trial court instructed that acting under threat was no defense. Defendant failed to object to these instructions. On appeal, defendant urges that the refusal to give a duress instruction was error. Two forms of NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 41.21 (Repl.Pamp.1982) were given by the trial court: Evidence has been presented that the defendant killed RICHARD NATHAN BEJARANO under a threat of death or great bodily harm from Charles Ralph Cobb. The fact that the defendant may have acted under a threat from another is no defense to an intentional killing of an innocent person. [Instruction No. 4.] Evidence has been presented that the defendant intended to kill KAREN BEJARANO under a threat of death or great bodily harm from Charles Ralph Cobb. The fact that the defendant may have acted under a threat from another is no defense to an attempted killing of an innocent person. [Instruction No. 6.] The trial court submitted the correct instructions to the jury. The duress defense has traditionally been refused for homicide. See Jackson v. State, 558 S.W.2d 816 (Mo.App.1977); State v. Toscano, 74 N.J. 421, 378 A.2d 755 (1977). We agree with the court’s reasoning in Jackson, which reiterated that the common law has steadfastly refused to recognize any compulsion, even the threat of death, as sufficient to excuse taking the life of another. The Jackson court noted that: Legal recognition of duress as a defense to crimes other than homicide necessarily assumes a working hypothesis that a harm or crime of greater magnitude is avoided when the subjected person succumbs to the duress. This hypothesis disappears when duress is sought to be invoked as a defense in a homicide case. 558 S.W.2d at 820. This analysis in Jackson was cited with approval in Wright v. State, 402 So.2d 493 (Fla.App.1981). The Wright court stated: The rationale is sound. The paucity of cases which have addressed the issue is, hopefully, a reflection that the rule that duress will never justify the killing of an innocent third party accords with the mores of our society. We unhesitatingly adopt the rule that duress is not a defense to an intentional homicide. Id. at 498 (footnote omitted.) Other states have also rejected the duress defense in a homicide context either on the basis of common law or statute. See State v. Encinas, 132 Ariz. 493, 647 P.2d 624 (1982) (duress barred by statute as defense to either felony murder or premeditated murder); State v. Brock, 305 N.C. 532, 290 S.E.2d 566 (1982) (no degree of duress is sufficient at common law to excuse the intentional killing of an innocent person); State v. Robinson, 622 S.W.2d 62 (Tenn.Cr.App.), (reaffirming established case law that duress is not a defense to homicide) appeal dismissed, 454 U.S. 1096, 102 S.Ct. 667, 70 L.Ed.2d 636 (1981). We agree with the rationale of these cases, and reaffirm the traditional common law doctrine that duress is not a defense to homicide. The trial court was correct in refusing defendant’s jury instruction. We find no error in this regard. Exhibition of Bloody Clothing Defendant argues that a mistrial should have been declared when the prosecutor exhibited bloody clothing to the jury during the testimony of an already sobbing witness. The witness, Karen Bejarano, was the wife of the victim, and had been shot during the robbery. Defendant asserts that there was little, if any, probative value to the exhibits because the nature of Karen Bejarano’s wounds had been fully described. Therefore, defendant contends that the only possible value of the evidence was to arouse the passion of the jury by showing them gore and an hysterical witness. We have reviewed the record and find that the refusal to grant a mistrial because of this incident was a sound and proper exercise of the trial court’s discretion. The record does not show that the witness, Karen Bejarano, was crying or hysterical at the time that she was shown the exhibit. Defendant did not establish that the evidence was introduced solely to arouse the passion of the jury. Moreover, defendant did not show that any prejudice resulted from the introduction of the evidence. See State v. Perez, 95 N.M. 262, 620 P.2d 1287 (1980). Abuse of discretion must be shown and will not be presumed. State v. Greene, 92 N.M. 347, 588 P.2d 548 (1978). The trial court did not abuse its discretion by refusing to grant a mistrial. Defendant’s Statement Defendant contends that a statement made after an inadequate advice of Miranda rights should have been suppressed. See Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966). The Arizona Highway Patrol engaged the defendant and an accomplice in a high speed chase over a gravel road. Another law enforcement vehicle approached defend ant’s vehicle from the front and there was a head-on collision. The suspects began running across the desert while being chased by police officers. When they were apprehended, an officer read the suspects their Miranda rights. Subsequently at the jail, another officer asked defendant if he had been advised of his rights and if he understood them. The officer then asked defendant what happened. Defendant said that he wanted to cooperate and help. Defendant subsequently stipulated that he had received a complete, proper advice of rights from the first officer. Our review of the record shows that the trial court did not abuse its discretion by allowing such admission. See State v. Greene, 92 N.M. 347, 588 P.2d 548 (1978). However, even assuming defendant’s statement was inadmissible, the evidence of defendant’s guilt in this case was overwhelming. The statements in question contributed nothing to defendant’s conviction. Any error in their admission was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt. State v. Trujillo, 95 N.M. 535, 624 P.2d 44 (1981); see also State v. Moore, 94 N.M. 503, 612 P.2d 1314 (1980). Conclusion Defendant’s conviction on all charges is affirmed. This case is remanded to the trial court for a new sentencing proceeding as to the first degree murder conviction pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 31-20A-4 (Repl.Pamp.1981). IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and RIORDAN, J., concur. SOSA, Senior Justice, and WALTERS, J., specially concurring.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. This matter is before us upon recommendation of the Judicial Standards Commission to remove Respondent Joseph A. Lucero, Magistrate Judge, Santa Fe County, Division III, from office by reason of his violations of NMSA 1978, Code of Judicial Conduct, Canons 1, 2 and 3 (Repl.Pamp. 1983). The proceedings against Respondent were commenced because of two criminal complaints having been filed by Respondent in his own court against a visitor to one of Respondent’s tenants, and against one of Respondent’s former tenants. The first complaint charged criminal trespass, and the second, criminal damage to property, even though the facts alleged to support the complaints would indicate that both cases were civil in nature. Respondent charged in the first case that he had directed the defendant not to visit the premises rented by one of his tenants, and when his direction was disregarded, he filed criminal trespass charges in his own court against the visitor. He scheduled an arraignment in that case for six days later in his own court, and three months later he recused himself from further proceedings. In the second case, Respondent issued a warrant for arrest of the individual named in that complaint (which he had filed in his own court), arraigned that person upon his arrest, and committed him to jail for four days when defendant was unable to post a cash bond for his release. The matter was ultimately dismissed by Respondent, without prejudice, when an agreement was reached that floor damage to the premises which had been rented from Respondent would be repaired by the defendant. We have reviewed the evidence, the report and recommendations of the Judicial Standards Commission, and we have heard argument of counsel for the Commission and for Respondent in this matter. Respondent, before the Commission and in this Court, asserted that he knew he should not hear any cases filed by himself, so “I did recuse myself on the first one and I entered a not guilty plea for defendant on the second one.” While we might agree that the mere filing of the complaints would not constitute a violation per se of the canons contained in the Code of Judicial Conduct, we cannot overlook Respondent’s failure to promptly disqualify himself by signing a recusal immediately upon filing each complaint. Indeed, his proceeding to order arrest, to arraign, and to detain the defendant in the second case occurred almost six months after he realized the necessity to recuse himself in the first case. Respondent has asked us to consider his non-lawyer status, his limited education, his lack of legal training, and his violation of judicial conduct by ignorance and inadvertence rather than by intent, in mitigation of the recommendation of the Commission. We cannot ignore the prohibition of N.M. Const, art. VI, § 18, which provides that “no * * * judge * * * of any court shall, except by consent of all parties, sit in any case in which * * * he has an interest.” Canon 1 of the Code of Judicial Conduct requires each judge to establish, maim tain, enforce and observe high standards of conduct “so that the integrity and independence of the judiciary may be preserved.” Canon 2 commands judges to respect and comply with the law, and to conduct themselves at all times “in a manner that promotes public confidence in the integrity and impartiality of the judiciary,” and Canon 3 requires a judge to know his personal and financial interests and to disqualify himself whenever the spectre of personal bias, prejudice, knowledge or interest in the outcome of the case arises. Respondent’s untimely recusal in the first case, and his exercise of judicial authority in the second case, are clear violations of the canons and of the Constitution. We recognize that the Legislature has established inferior courts which do not require the judges to be legally trained. NMSA 1978, §§ 34-7-1 to -25 (Repl.Pamp. 1981); § 35-2-1 (Cum.Supp.1984); § 35-14-3. Nevertheless, when anyone, layman or lawyer, learned or ignorant, assumes to gain election to the position of judge of any one of the courts of New Mexico, upon his election thereto he is committed and shall be held accountable to the standards of conduct imposed upon all judges, without exception. The recommendation of the Judicial Standards Commission is adopted. Respondent is hereby removed from office effective immediately. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and STOWERS, J., concur. SOSA, Senior Justice, specially concurring. RIORDAN, J., not participating.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. This is an appeal from the District Court in Rio Arriba County, wherein plaintiff-appellant, Chromo Mountain Ranch (Chromo) brought an action for reformation of a land sale contract against defendant-appellee and cross-appellant Consuelo Gonzales (Gonzales). The trial court granted judgment for Chromo and, on equitable principles of reformation, ordered a refund of the ratable portion of overpayment on the original purchase price of the land. However, the court did not grant relief by way of an award of interest and denied loss of bargain damages. Chromo appeals and Gonzales cross-appeals. We affirm in part and reverse in part. Evidence was presented at trial which established that in 1973 Chromo contracted to purchase 7,493.93 acres from Gonzales for $1,000,000. Gonzales employed Joseph C. Lujan (Lujan), third-party defendant in this case, to survey the property. At the time of the sale, Gonzales had in her possession a survey done earlier by George Rivera (Rivera), indicating a discrepancy in the amount of acreage she was to sell to Chromo. Arrangements for payment for the land were as follows: Chromo was to pay $10,-000 to Gonzales upon execution of the sale and $90,000 at closing. On the first, second, third, fourth and fifth anniversaries of the sale, Chromo was to pay $63,000, which represented interest at the rate of 7% per annum on the unpaid principle of the purchase price. $90,000 was to be paid annually together with interest on the unpaid balance at the rate of 7% per annum on the sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth anniversaries. The balance, together with interest, was to be paid on the tenth anniversary. In 1976, Chromo entered into an agreement with Dr. Richard A. Gooding (Gooding) to sell the 6,124.53 acres east of New Mexico Highway 85, as delineated by the Lujan survey, for $200.00 per acre or a gross price of approximately $1,225,000. Pursuant to the Chromo-Gooding agreement, Gooding had the land surveyed and found that the tract contained 5,885 acres, a deficiency of 240.253 acres. Chromo made demand on Gonzales for adjustment in the purchase price. Gonzales refused to make such adjustment, whereupon Chromo brought suit for reformation of the contract, for refund on interest paid at the rate of 7% per annum from October 1, 1973 until paid, and for judgment in the amount of $66.56 per acre for 240.253 acres, or $15,991.24 plus interest of 7%% per annum from February 4, 1977 until paid, representing plaintiff’s loss of the benefit of the bargain. Chromo also sought exemplary damages for constructive fraud, attorney fees and costs of the suit. The trial court found Gonzales in pari delicto as a result of constructive fraud and applied the equitable remedy of reformation to Chromo, ordering a refund on a ratable proportion of the original price. The issues presented are: (1) Did the trial court properly apply reformation as a remedy, and (2) Did the trial court err in refusing to grant to Chromo a refund of interest paid on the purchase price. 1. Reformation. Chromo states that reformation is the proper remedy for constructive fraud regarding a land sale contract. We agree. Kimberly, Inc. v. Hays, 88 N.M. 140, 537 P.2d 1402 (1975). The court found that Chromo acted under a reasonable unilateral mistake insofar as it relied upon the survey made by Lujan showing an acreage of 7,493.9. Chromo justifiably relied upon this statement, and tendered payment to Gonzales according to the terms of the contract. In Kimberly, the trial Court found the original amount in the acreage stated in the contract was in error, by mutual mistake of the parties, and reformed the contract to comply with the accurate survey acreage. The court also adjusted the price on a pro rata basis, except for one plot. On appeal, this Court stated: “An instrument may be reformed if (1) there has been mutual mistake, or (2) a mistake by one party accompanied by fraud or other inequitable conduct by the other party.” Id. at 143, 144, 537 P.2d at 1405, 1406. See also Morris v. Merchant, 77 N.M. 411, 423 P.2d 606 (1967); Wright v. Brem, 81 N.M. 410, 467 P.2d 736 (Ct.App.1970). Gonzales, the trial court found, was aware of the discrepancy between the Rivera survey and the survey presented by Lujan. The court found that this was sufficient to justify a finding of constructive fraud and thereby reform the agreement accordingly. The record supports this finding made by the trial court. Conduct on the part of the defendant need not be egregious to summon an equitable reformation. Kimberly v. Hays, 88 N.M. 140, 537 P.2d 1402 (1975). The rule is stated in Restatement of Contracts Section 505 (1932): [I]f one party at the time of the execution of a written instrument knows not only that the writing does not accurately express the intention of the other party as to the terms to be embodied therein, but knows what that intention is, the latter can have the writing reformed so that it will express that intention. This statement conforms with the evidence presented and the findings made by the trial court. Restatement (Second) of Contracts Sections 155 and 166 (1979), sets forth the instances in which mistake justifies reformation. Section 166 of the Restatement reads: If a party’s manifestation of assent is induced by the other party’s fraudulent misrepresentation as to the contents or effect of a writing evidencing or embodying in whole or in part an agreement, the court at the request of the recipient may reform the writing to express the terms of the agreement as asserted, (a) if the recipient was justified in relying on the misrepresentation, and (b) except to the extent that rights of third parties such as good faith purchasers for value will be unfairly affected. In land contract sales where there has been some indicia of fraud or mistake, and when courts have elected to award out-of-pocket damages based on reformation of the agreement, the courts traditionally have determined the pro rata price per acre to be the correct measure of damages. Wilbur v. Wilson, 179 Cal.App.2d 314, 3 Cal.Rptr. 770 (1960); Flygare v. Brundage, 76 Wyo. 350, 302 P.2d 759 (1956); Annot., 57 A.L.R. 1253, 1508 (1928). We affirm the trial court on the iskue of reformation. 2. Interest. The trial court refused to order repayment of interest to Chromo. In Gonzales v. Garcia, 89 N.M. 337, 339, 552 P.2d 468, 470 (1976), this Court enunciated the rule regarding interest. “[Purchasers’ damages under the theory of mistake are generally limited to ratable abatement of the purchase price plus interest.” The award of interest is a matter of right, and is not left to the discretion of the trial judge. The trial court erred in failing to allow interest to Chromo. In Jones v. United States, 258 U.S. 40, 42 S.Ct. 218, 66 L.Ed. 453 (1922), the United States Supreme Court established that where a party’s real property is wrongfully taken or has been converted, interest is allowable as a matter of right. In Jones, the Ünited States was induced to purchase land as a result of the vendor’s fraud. The Court clearly stated the rule regarding interest: “[WJhen the wrong consists of depriving the owner of property having a definite or ascertainable value there would seem to be the same reason for allowing interest as if there had been a misappropriation of money.” Id. at 49, 42 S.Ct. at 220. The Maryland Court of Appeals in 1972 held, regarding interest, that the measure of compensatory damages for negligent misrepresentation of amount of acreage is the same as the measure for damages for fraud. Downs v. Reighard, 265 Md. 344, 289 A.2d 299 (1972). In that case the appellate court affirmed the trial court’s award of interest. In jurisdictions which choose to award out-of-pocket damages rather than benefit of the bargain damages, interest has generally been awarded, especially in cases involving fraud. Thompson v. Walker, 56 Idaho 461, 55 P.2d 1300 (1936); Annot., 13 A.L.R.3d 875 §§ 4(a), 12(b) (1967). Other rulings in which courts have awarded out-of-pocket damages have also included the interest on the refunded money. See, e.g., Montgomery v. Cook, 76 N.M. 199, 413 P.2d 477 (1966); J.P. (Bum) Gibbins, Inc. v. Utah Home Fire Ins. Co., 202 F.2d 469 (10th Cir.1953); Davis Cattle Co., Inc. v. Great Western Sugar Co., 393 F.Supp. 1165 (D.Colo.1975), aff'd, 544 F.2d 436 (10th Cir.1976), cert. denied, 429 U.S. 1094, 97 S.Ct. 1109, 51 L.Ed.2d 541 (1977); Steward v. Yoder, 86 Ill.App.3d 223, 41 Ill.Dec. 709, 408 N.E.2d 55 (1980); Long v. Brown, 593 S.W.2d 371 (Tex.Civ.App.1979). In State Trust & Savings Bank v. Hermosa Land & Cattle Co., 30 N.M. 566, 595, 240 P. 469, 480 (1925), this Court said: Where a sum certain becomes due at a fixed time—an undoubted liquidated claim—it is generally considered that interest is recoverable as an element of damages, regardless of contract or statute * * *. The reason of the rule allowing interest as damages on liquidated claims is plain. It is essential to compensation, and compensation is the fundamental principle of damages. The plat surveyed by Gonzales indicated an acreage above the amount of land actually purchased. Chromo has made all contractually required payments of interest. Thereby Gonzales has been unjustly enriched in having received payment for the deficient acreage and interest thereon in an amount exceeding $20,000. We hold the trial court to be in error regarding repayment for the interest and remand on the issue of interest. Insofar as the judgment of the trial court failed to award interest to Chromo, it is reversed. The cause is remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. Chromo shall recover its costs on appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and WALTERS, J., concur.
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. Appellant, Dominick Manfre, appeals from an order entered by the Human Services Department (Department) following an administrative adjudication by the Department involving the interception of appellant’s income tax refund and application of the monies to unpaid child support arrearages. We dismiss appellant’s appeal for lack of jurisdiction. The Department rendered a fair hearing decision, following appellant’s challenge of the Child Support Enforcement Bureau’s action in submitting his name to the Internal Revenue Service in 1982 for the interception of his federal income tax refund. The issue before the Department was whether the Child Support Enforcement Bureau was correct in requesting that appellant’s federal income tax refund check be intercepted in order to partially reimburse the Department for Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), granted on behalf of his children from 1978 to 1980. Appellant contested the agency's action on various grounds. The fair hearing decision, however, rejected his contentions and affirmed the interception of the check. Public Law 97-35, 95 Stat. 860, § 2331 (1982) (enacted August 13, 1981), authorizes the Secretary of the Treasury to remit all or a portion of a taxpayer’s overpayment of federal income tax to the child support enforcement agency of a state to be applied toward the satisfaction of the taxpayer’s delinquent child support pursuant to Section 664 of the Social Security Act. See also C.F.R. § 301.6402-5 (1984). Appellant wrote to the Department asking how to appeal the fair hearing decision. The Department informed appellant that he should file a notice of appeal with this court. Appellant, acting through his out-of-state counsel, did so by sending a letter to this court, stating his intention to appeal and requesting this court to direct the Department to return the intercepted check. This court issued an order to show cause why the appeal should not be dismissed for lack of jurisdiction. The order to show cause pointed out that while NMSA 1978, Section 27-3-4 (Repl.Pamp.1984) allows appeals generally from fair hearing decisions of the Human Services Department, that statute specifically limits the right of appeal to applicants or recipients of services or assistance from the Department. Our order stated that there was no showing that appellant comes within the class of persons contemplated by the statute. Our order to show cause also cautioned appellant’s non-resident counsel that NMSA 1978, Civ.App.Rule 24(e) (Repl. Pamp.1984) and NMSA 1978, Section 36-2-27 (Repl.Pamp.1984) require counsel, not admitted to practice in this state, to associate with resident counsel. Our order set a response date. Prior to the response date, this court received a letter from appellant’s counsel responding to the order to show cause and also requesting an extension of time to comply with all elements of the order. We denied the extension of time because Rule 24(e) states that, “Counsel not admitted to practice law in the state may not be heard in any matter unless resident counsel be associated with him or them.” The response date has now passed and no further response has been received from the appellant. Of the items mentioned in our order to show cause, we limit our discussion to the question of our subject matter jurisdiction. We consider the response filed by appellant’s counsel only to the extent that it bears on the jurisdictional issue we decide. Because we have a duty to determine whether the court has jurisdiction of an appeal, Rice v. Gonzales, 79 N.M. 377, 444 P.2d 288 (1968), we shall consider all reasons why this court does or does not have jurisdiction over this appeal. Appellant contends that this court has jurisdiction over his appeal because the Department told him to file his appeal in this court and because he is an “applicant” for the return of funds that were alleged to have been wrongfully taken from him. He is incorrect. This court is a court of limited jurisdiction. See State ex rel. Townsend v. Court of Appeals, 78 N.M. 71, 428 P.2d 473 (1967); see also Kennecott Copper Corp. v. Environmental Improvement Board, 84 N.M. 193, 500 P.2d 1316 (Ct.App.1972). Our constitution states that the Court of Appeals may be authorized by law to review directly, decisions of state administrative agencies, and this court may be authorized by rule of the supreme court to issue writs. In all other cases, this court exercises appellate jurisdiction as provided by law. N.M. Const, art. VI, § 29. The statute defining our jurisdiction allows us to review, on appeal, decisions of administrative agencies of the state when express legislative authorization specifies a right of direct appeal. NMSA 1978, § 34-5-8 (Cum.Supp. 1984). However, New Mexico’s legislative scheme is such that our jurisdiction over administrative appeals is created separately from the general statute defining our jurisdiction. Id. (the appellate jurisdiction of the court of appeals includes appeals from decisions of state administrative agencies where direct review is provided by law). It is the rule in New Mexico that specific statutes control over general statutes. State v. Blevins, 40 N.M. 367, 60 P.2d 208 (1936); State v. Martinez, 91 N.M. 804, 581 P.2d 1299 (Ct.App.1978). Thus, Section 34-5-8 does not automatically give this court jurisdiction over all decisions of administrative agencies. Rather, the jurisdiction of this court is limited to those appeals provided for by specific statutes such as Section 27-3-4. See also, e.g., NMSA 1978, § 7-1-25 (Repl.Pamp.1983) (tax); § 22-10-20 (Repl.Pamp.1984) (board of education); § 74-4-5 (Repl.Pamp.1983) (environment). Our attention has not been called to any statute other than Section 27-3-4 which would allow a direct appeal to this court from a decision of the Department; nor has our independent research located one. In the absence of a statute or other provision of law specifically authorizing an appeal to this court, we have no jurisdiction. See Eastern Indemnity Co. of Maryland v. Heller, 102 N.M. 144, 692 P.2d 530 (Ct.App.1984). Under Section 27-3-4, an applicant for the return of an intercepted tax refund is not an applicant or recipient. Section 27-3-4 refers to appeals from decisions rendered under NMSA 1978, Section 27-3-3 (Repl.Pamp.1984) (the section refers to applicants for or recipients of assistance or services under any provision of the Public Assistance Act, Social Services Act or Special Medical Needs Act). The terms “applicants” or “recipients”, under Section 27-3-4, mean the same thing as applicants or recipients under Section 27-3-3. Because appellant’s fair hearing had nothing to do with any application by him for or receipt of assistance or services, we hold that we have no jurisdiction over his appeal pursuant to Section 27-3-4. In so ruling, we express no opinion on the authority of the Department to conduct a fair hearing on appellant’s application for the return of his federal tax refund. We hold that he may not appeal an adverse decision from the Department to this court. Our determination that a right of appeal to this court does not exist from an order of the Department denying the return of appellant’s federal income tax refund, does not leave appellant without a remedy. NMSA 1978, § 44-6-2; see Roberson v. Board of Education of Santa Fe, 78 N.M. 297, 430 P.2d 868 (1967) (holding that where there is no statutory provision providing for an appeal from a decision of an administrative agency, a common law right of review by writ of certiorari may lie). See also Kennecott Copper Corp. v. Environmental Improvement Board (recognizing a right of review by means of a declaratory judgment before the district court). The appeal is dismissed. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and HENDLEY, JJ., concur. . The applicable federal law states that no court of the United States shall have jurisdiction of any legal or equitable action brought to restrain or review the collection of certified amounts, such as offsetting past-due child support payments against federal tax refunds owed to the taxpayer. Under federal law, sole jurisdiction to dispute any offset of a federal tax refund against child support arrearages shall be in a state court or state administrative agency. 26 U.S.C. § 6305(b) (1982); 26 C.F.R. § 301.6305-1(a), (d)(3) (1984); 20 Fed.Proc.L.Ed. §§ 48.711, 48.738 (1983). . This state’s constitutional provision that "an aggrieved party shall have an absolute right to one appeal,” is not inconsistent with our holding. N.M. Const, art. VI, § 2. This court held in State v. Giraudo, 99 N.M. 634, 661 P.2d 1333 (Ct.App.1983), that a party's absolute right to one appeal specifically deals with appeals from the district court. This opinion does not restrict defendant’s right to pursue his legal or equitable remedies in district court.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. Plaintiff Yolanda Yvonne Blake appeals from a Supplemental Decree of Dissolution of Marriage entered August 11, 1983 disposing of the issues of child custody, child support, alimony, division and distribution of the community property and debts, and attorney fees. A final decree dissolving the marriage had previously been entered on April 25, 1983. In her appeal wife claims trial court error as follows: (1) in denying wife discovery of the books and records of a closely held corporation in which husband has an interest; (2) in allowing the introduction of certain documentary evidence; (3) abuse of discretion in the terms provided for child support, alimony, and division of property; (4) in refusing to award wife attorney fees; (5) in determining that wife had no interest in husband’s bonus for the fiscal year ending July 31, 1983; and (6) in awarding joint custody of the minor children. In his cross-appeal husband contends lack of evidence to support a finding of a community interest in certain real estate he claims as his separate property. We reverse in part and affirm in part. This case involves substantial property interests, including community and separate holdings of husband. Wife entered the marriage with no separate estate and acquired none except for stock given her by husband’s parents and gifts husband made to her during the marriage. The parties married in 1967, and had four children ranging in age from nine to thirteen. They separated in May, 1980 and wife filed her petition to dissolve the marriage in November of that year. During the almost three years from filing until entry of the supplemental decree the parties engaged in extensive discovery, including interrogatories, motions to produce and depositions. Each party received in excess of $300,000 worth of community property; however, a substantial portion of each spouse’s share was set apart for child support. The court awarded wife alimony of $9,000 payable monthly over three years. WIFE’S APPEAL 1. Discovery of the books and records of TSV (a) Background Husband personally controls 26% of the stock of Taos Ski Valley, Inc. (TSV) and, together with other members of the Blake family, controls 75% of the outstanding shares of the company. At all times material husband served on the board of directors of TSV as well as its executive committee. The corporation employed him as its vice-president and general manager. Because husband’s answers to the initial set of interrogatories set his monthly net income at $1,241 with no exception of any bonus for 1981, wife claims she agreed to temporary support of $1,000 a month with husband to pay the mortgage on the residence, plus gasoline for her car. Subsequently, and in response to a motion to produce, wife received copies of all federal income tax returns filed since the parties’ marriage. These returns reflected that husband’s earnings from TSV increased in each year from 1975 to 1980. His annual earnings included a bonus. In the spring or early summer of 1982, when wife received a copy of the 1981 tax return, she noted a marked decrease in earnings from the previous year’s high of $102,950 to $52,573 in 1981. Because husband’s duties had not diminished, wife contends the filing of her petition for dissolution of the marriage offers the only plausible explanation for this dramatic reduction in earnings. This new information prompted wife to file a second set of interrogatories with request for production “relating to the affairs of the family corporation.” The requested documentation included a demand for copies or the right to inspect TSV tax returns since the date of marriage, the corporate minute book for the same time period, the stock register book, financial statements for five years past, cash receipts and disbursement journals with supporting documentation for the past five years, and the payroll journal. Husband responded to the interrogatories but, as to the corporate books and records of TSV, he claimed to have no “possession, custody or control.” Wife filed a motion to compel discovery and to set temporary support. A hearing on this motion was vacated when husband agreed to increase support and to furnish the requested corporate records. When wife failed to receive the corporate books and records she filed a second motion to compel, to which husband responded claiming wife’s request included documents bearing no relation to these proceedings, and that he had already provided all relevant documents relating to his financial situation, including some records of TSV. Husband claimed that the president of TSV had declined to turn over the requested documents on instructions from non-Blake family directors and officers because of the “extensive and unreasonable demand” and the costs involved. Following a hearing held in April, 1983, the trial court found that husband did not have “custody, possession or control” of the books and records of TSV, that TSV had declined to make its books and records available, and that wife’s motion should be denied. See NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 37 (Repl. Pamp.1980). Because wife owned thirty-five shares of TSV in her own name, she instituted a separate shareholder’s suit to exercise her rights under NMSA 1978, Section 53-11-50 (Repl.Pamp.1983) (providing for examination of records). When she realized that this suit would not be heard before trial in the divorce proceedings, wife then issued a subpoena duces tecum to John A. Mitchell, president of TSV, directing him to appear for a deposition and to bring with him certain books and records of the corporation. TSV objected to the subpoena and moved to have it quashed. NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 45(b) (Repl.Pamp.1980). Wife moved to compel production under Civ.P. Rule 37. Following a hearing held in June, 1983, the trial court quashed the subpoena duces tecum. On appeal wife contends that the trial court abused its discretion in denying her access to records that would have verified or disproved husband’s representations concerning his earnings and earning capacity. In addition to the sudden drop in earnings, wife points to evidence developed on cross-examination that husband maintained at one time during the marriage a savings and checking account under his former name, Michael H. Block. Husband admitted he had not previously disclosed the existence of these accounts in his answers to interrogatories. Further, on cross-examination husband discussed interest-free loans he had received from TSY which he repaid at the time he received his year-end bonus. These factors were sufficient, according to wife, to raise a suspicion that earnings had been concealed. Both sides appear to agree that abuse of discretion is the proper standard of review and may occur only when the trial court bases its decision on an erroneous conclusion of law or where no rational basis can be found for the ruling. In re Coordinated Pretrial Proceedings, Etc., 669 F.2d 620 (10th Cir.1982). We do not consider any rights wife might have, as a shareholder of TSV, to examine the records under Section 53-11-50. (b) General considerations In New Mexico we have no cases dealing specifically with close-corporation discovery in a matrimonial proceeding. In this type case, the trial court faces at least two competing considerations. On the one hand, the trial court must consider the requesting party’s need for information to adequately present his or her case, coupled with the court’s obligation to make an informed decision. On the other hand, the corporate entity itself as well as its shareholders have a legitimate interest in the privacy of their business affairs and the right to be free from unreasonable harrassment, disadvantage and expense. Cases which have denied discovery in circumstances similar to those here, have done so because of the need, in some circumstances, to protect privacy. Rifkind v. Superior Court of Los Angeles County, 123 Cal.App.3d 1045, 177 Cal.Rptr. 82 (1981); see Wells v. Wells, 108 Misc.2d 501, 437 N.Y.S.2d 622 (1981); Borg v. Borg, 32 Ill.App.3d 1075, 337 N.E.2d 391 (1975); In re Coordinated Pretrial Proceedings, Etc. Requests for discovery similar to-those here have also been denied on the grounds of insufficient specificity of the request. Melnick v. Melnick, 85 A.D.2d 531, 444 N.Y.S.2d 649 (1981); see Mari v. Strater, 91 A.D.2d 579, 457 N.Y.S.2d 73 (1982); Roussos v. Roussos, 106 Misc.2d 583, 434 N.Y.S.2d 600 (1980). Similar to the “specificity” reasoning is the reasoning that discovery should be denied if a request is speculative and discovery would amount to a mere “fishing expedition.” Quick v. Quick, 305 N.C. 446, 290 S.E.2d 653 (1982); Borg v. Borg. If it appears that the party requesting discovery has already been granted sufficient information, discovery might be denied. Borg v. Borg. We recognize, as did the court in Merns v. Merns, 185 N.J.Super. 529, 449 A.2d 1337 (1982), the need for broad and liberal discovery in matrimonial actions. See United Nuclear Corp. v. General Atomic Co., 96 N.M. 155, 629 P.2d 231 (1980). A different rule would hamper the trial court’s ability to fulfill its duties. See Gerson v. Gerson, 148 N.J.Super. 194, 372 A.2d 374 (1977); Fox v. Fox, 96 A.D.2d 571, 465 N.Y.S.2d 260 (1983); Frankel v. Frankel, 89 A.D.2d 654, 453 N.Y.S.2d 265 (1982). The corporate form should not be used as a shield behind which parties can conceal assets or earnings. Gerson. “Manipulation would be too tempting.” Merns, 449 A.2d at 1338. Here the husband and TSV both sought and successfully obtained what amounted to protective orders. Did the trial court err in granting those orders? Because we find error in quashing the subpoena duces tecum directed to Mr. Mitchell, we need not reach the issue as to whether the trial court erred in refusing to compel husband to produce the corporate book and records. (c) The Subpoena Duces Tecum In quashing the subpoena duces tecum served on Mr. Mitchell, president of TSV, the trial court ruled, first, that wife’s motion to compel was erroneously filed under Civ.P. Rule 37 when it should have been filed under Civ.P. Rule 45. Second, the trial court did not believe it could rule on the various items listed in the subpoena individually or act as a settling court where the request was overly broad. So ruling, the trial court determined the subpoena unreasonable and oppressive and therefore quashed it. We first consider the procedural ruling. We agree that wife’s motion to compel filed under Civ.P. Rule 37 was inappropriate. Civ.P. Rule 45 provides the mechanics for invoking a ruling by the trial court on behalf of either the party subpoenaed or the party in whose behalf the subpoena is issued. Because TSV filed objections, the matter was properly before the trial court. We now turn to the question of whether the trial court erred in determining the subpoena unreasonable and oppressive. The trial court ruled that it could not act as a settling court where the request was overly broad. It said, “The Court agrees that at this stage it has to, in effect, affirm the subpoena as it is, or quash it as it is, becuase [sic] there’s no middle ground. And the Court, incidentally, philosophically, is not a settling Court.” We disagree. TSV objected on the grounds that the materials covered by the subpoena were not relevant to the divorce proceedings, and that the materials were voluminous and located at different places. This was a proper objection since Civ.P. Rule 45(d)(1) makes the subpoena subject to NMSA 1978, Civ.P.Rule 26(B) (Repl.Pamp. 1980). Civ.P.Rule 45(d)(1) further provides that, “... the subpoena will be subject to the provisions of Subsection (C) of Rule 26 and Subsection (b) of this Rule 45.” NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 26(C) (Repl.Pamp. 1980) deals with protective orders and provides alternatives short of an absolute bar to discovery in order to protect a party or person from annoyance, embarrassment, oppression or undue burden of expense. Similarly, Civ.P.Rule 45(b) permits the trial court to modify the subpoena if it is unreasonable or oppressive. Before the trial court can enter a protective order, or modify the subpoena, there must be some showing that it is unreasonable and oppressive. That burden rests upon the party seeking to quash, here TSV. United States v. 25.02 Acres of Land, Douglas County, Colo., 495 F.2d 1398 (10th Cir.1974). No evidence was presented at the June 23, 1983 hearing; only argument of counsel. Even if the subpoena alone could be considered as overly broad and a “shot-gun” approach to discovery, see Mari v. Strater; still the trial court should have required specificity from wife and then provided appropriate conditions as authorized under Civ.P.Rule 26(C). We note that when the trial court asked if there was not a middle ground, TSV’s president expressed his willingness to provide relevant information but wanted the records redefined according to need. By the silence of her counsel, wife apparently took an all or nothing position. The trial court then quashed the subpoena. While we disapprove of the failure of wife’s counsel to assist the trial court, nevertheless, this will not justify a foreclosure of discovery without exploring available avenues that would allow discovery while protecting against annoyance, oppression and the like. We repeat the policy which favors liberal discovery. Griego v. Grieco, 90 N.M. 174, 561 P.2d 36 (Ct.App.1977). “Until the extent of the property of the community has been determined, the trial court was in no position to make a fair and just division.” Otto v. Otto, 80 N.M. 331, 455 P.2d 642 (1969). That statement applies also to other issues involved in a divorce proceeding, including earnings and earning capacity. We hold that the trial court erred in not seeking an alternative to quashing the subpoena. On remand, if TSV believes that any of the requested books or records contain privileged or confidential information, it must carry its burden of making that known to the court. In any event, the applicable rules offer options that will provide a middle ground that will allow wife access to the information she needs and at the same time protect TSV from unreasonable harassment, disadvantage or expense. Production of books and records of TSV shall be limited to husband’s earnings and earning capacity. After completion of that discovery, the trial court may conduct a hearing and receive additional evidence resulting from the production of records as relates to husband’s earnings and earning capacity. To the extent that such evidence may affect any or all issues resolved, the trial court is at liberty to revise its decision or make new findings and conclusions. Because this matter must be remanded and in order to avoid further litigation, we discuss the remaining issues based on the record before us. We do not consider whether or to what extent additional discovery may affect these issues, leaving that to the trial court to determine. As noted, any additional discovery is to be limited to husband’s earnings and earning capacity. 2. Propriety of admitting documents into evidence which had not been made available during discovery At trial, wife objected to the admission into evidence of fifteen exhibits offered by husband to trace claimed separate funds into assets purchased during marriage. Wife says none of the exhibits were made available before June 30, 1983, and most were not produced until July 6,1983, on the morning the trial began. Claiming “trial by ambush,” wife argues that husband should be prohibited from introducing any evidence of his separate property claims other than what he produced during discovery, citing Civ.P. Rule 37(B)(2)(b). Wife fails to analyze the exhibits or for that matter describe how she was prejudiced by their introduction into evidence. Compare State ex rel. State Highway Department of New Mexico v. Branchau, 90 N.M. 496, 565 P.2d 1013 (1977), where prejudice was shown in permitting landowner’s expert to testify even though not listed in the pretrial order. Here no prejudice has been shown. As a matter of fact six of the exhibits relate to the Des Montes property, claimed by the husband as his separate property, which the trial court found to be a community asset. Absent a showing of prejudice, we will not find abuse of discretion. Even if wife could demonstrate prejudice, the proposed sanction under Civ. P.Rule 37 would not be appropriate because husband did not violate any order to provide discovery. See Bellamah Corp. v. Rio Vista Apartments, 99 N.M. 188, 656 P.2d 238 (1982). This point is without merit. 3. Claimed abuse of discretion in the terms trial court provided for child support, alimony, and division of property Under this point wife argues that in deciding three interrelated matters, the trial court abused its discretion. She claims any one of the three considered alone constitutes an abuse of discretion, but when considered together, the cumulative effect demonstrates “extraordinary unfairness to the wife.” (a) Funding the trust for child support The first claimed error involves the manner in which the trial court funded a trust for child support. The trial court ordered the liquidation of seventy shares of TSV stock (thirty-five owned by each party as separate property), valued at $70,000, and their community residence at Ranchitos, valued at $330,000. It then ordered the proceeds from the sale of the stock and residence invested in tax-free municipal bonds, to be owned equally by the parties, and held by a custodian appointed by the trial court. The objective was to attain $6,000 per child per year, or as close to that figure as possible. As each minor attains age eighteen or is sooner emancipated, bonds for the support of that child shall be returned to the parties in equal shares. Of course, when the youngest or last surviving child becomes emancipated, husband and wife will have restored to them the full benefits of the assets committed to this trust. NMSA 1978, Section 40-4-14 (Repl. Pamp.1983) authorizes this type plan. See also NMSA 1978, § 40-4-7(B) (Repl.Pamp. 1983). Wife does not argue against the concept of this novel and creative method of providing for child support; rather she challenges the funding of the trust. Wife contends the trial court abused its discretion in requiring equal shares when a significant disparity exists between the parties’ respective earnings and net worth. While recognizing that the mother’s obligation for support is no different from that of the father, wife contends that a dollar-for-dollar contribution as compared to an equally proportionate contribution is not only unfair, it undercuts the best interests of the child. In other words, wife says that to limit the contribution of the wealthier parent to that of the poorer parent deprives the child of total resources available upon dissolution of the marriage. Moreover, she claims it ignores the significantly greater contribution imposed on her as the parent having primary physical custody of the children. The answer to this argument requires a consideration as to the adequacy of the child support as established, and the respective financial resources of the parents after portions of their properties have been set apart for the maintenance and education of their children. NMSA 1978, Section 40-4-11 (Repl. Pamp.1983) provides that in determining liability for child support the trial court shall consider “the financial resources of the parent____” Spingola v. Spingola, 91 N.M. 737, 580 P.2d 958 (1978) states that this section is mandatory and requires that evidence of current financial resources be fully considered by the court and that a finding be made on that evidence. Wife argues this was not done and the trial court’s refusal was “arbitrary, capricious, and beyond the bounds of reason.” Our review of the record satisfies the inquiry that $6,000 a year for each of the children is supportable by the evidence, given the resources of the parties. The trial court considered the private schooling and activities in which the children had been involved in arriving at that figure. The trial court carefully followed the directive of Spingola in providing advan tages within reason. The Spingola court said, “This does not mean providing ‘luxuries or fantastic notions of style ... not normal for the stable, conservative, natural upbringing of a child____Id. at 743, 580 P.2d 958. As to the financial resources of the parties, we examine their respective assets and earnings or earning ability. Each party received in excess of $300,000 in community property. After deducting one-half of the value of the Ranchitos residence, wife will have approximately $150,000. On the husband’s side, he has separate assets which widen the gap between his resources and that of wife. The parties disagree as to value of husband’s separate estate and an exact approximation is not possible since the trial court did not place a value on all of husband’s separate property. As to the separate property that was valued, or as to which there is no dispute, husband’s separate estate approximates or exceeds $500,-000. In addition, husband owns as his separate property an interest in a partnership which wife claims should be valued at a minimum of $1.2 million, while husband contends this interest is worth approximately $65,000. With regard to earnings, the trial court found that husband had a dependable net monthly income of approximately $3,700. Wife does not work out of the house, and therefore, has no present earnings. Based on her earning potential, as found by the trial court, she would not likely earn close to what husband does. Because the setting apart of a portion of each spouse’s property and the creation of the custodial trust are authorized by Sections 40-4-7 and 40-4-14, the trial court did not abuse its discretion in establishing the trust for maintenance and support of the minor children. Moreover, the facts support the arrangement. The trial court found the parties lived up to or beyond their means. Wife admitted she could not manage money very well. Husband’s fixed salary is relatively moderate and his bonus income is subject to the vagaries of the weather. That the trial court properly ■ applied the law does not fully answer the question. While a dollar-for-dollar contribution may be appropriate in some cases, each case having to be decided on its own merits, we are unable to say that the facts here rationally support that result. First, Spingola v. Spingola requires that the financial resources be considered and that findings be made thereon. While it is clear that the trial court considered the existence of husband’s separate properties, no findings were made as to the value and income producing potential of all of these assets. In order to consider the resources of the parent and make an assessment for child support, the trial court must have all the facts available. Because of the lack of findings as to all of husband's resources, including earning potential, we must remand for further consideration of this point. We answer other questions raised by wife concerning the propriety of the trust insofar as it requires utilization of her assets. Relying in Hertz v. Hertz, 99 N.M. 320, 657 P.2d 1169 (1983), wife claims that in establishing the custodial trust, the trial court abused its discretion in denying her “complete and immediate control” over her share of the former community residence. She claims that because no evidence shows husband would be unable to pay monthly child support out of his earnings, the trial court’s order effectively divests her of her share of the equity in the community residence. Wife contends the $9,000 in alimony is wholly insufficient to compensate her for this deprivation. The plan for child support does not deprive wife of her interest in community property; it requires conversion of non-income producing assets into an income-producing asset for the benefit of the children. Section 40-4-7(B)(3) and Section 40-4-14 authorize this. Hertz held that a payout by husband to wife for her community interest in the residence denied her “complete and immediate control” over her share where there was no showing that the husband was unable to pay wife immediately. See Chrane v. Chrane, 98 N.M. 471, 649 P.2d 1384 (1982) (error to allow spouse use of home until she dies or remarries). Those cases are distinguishable. We are not concerned with giving an advantage to one spouse at the expense of the other spouses. Here the interest of both spouses was set apart for the children. Wife also argues that she should not have to sell her share of the remaining community property in order to supplement the amount allowed her to meet living expenses of herself and her children. See Hurley v. Hurley, 94 N.M. 641, 615 P.2d 256 (1980). In that case the supreme court held that $1,000 a month was insufficient. Ellsworth v. Ellsworth, 97 N.M. 133, 637 P.2d 564 (1981), overruled Hurley to the extent that it precluded any consideration of the community property awarded a spouse in reaching an equitable award of alimony. Again, the setting apart of a portion of each parties’ property for child support does not result in an exhaustion for living expenses. The corpus is preserved; only the income is put beyond the reach of the parties, at least until each child is emancipated. The question is not whether this can be done, but whether it was done properly in this case. (b) Alimony The trial court concluded that: The Court should award, as a single sum, alimony of $9,000, the same to be paid by Mickey Blake in thirty-six non-interest bearing installments of $250 each. Claiming abuse of discretion as to the amount of alimony, wife contends that the trial court failed to consider the lifestyle of the parties during marriage, it failed to consider the income productive nature of the assets awarded wife, and even if these requirements were met or do not apply, wife says the amount was so unreasonably low, with regard to rehabilitative needs alone, as to constitute an abuse of discretion. Whether or not to award alimony rests within the sound discretion of the trial court, and this court will alter that decision only on a showing of abuse of discretion. Ellsworth; Hertz. Factors to be considered in determining whether to award alimony and, if awarded, the adequacy of the amount, include the wife’s needs, her age, health and means she has available to support herself, the husband’s earning capacity, the duration of the marriage, and the amount of property owned by each party. Michelson v. Michelson, 86 N.M. 107, 520 P.2d 263 (1974); Hertz; Ellsworth; Hodges v. Hodges, 101 N.M. 67, 678 P.2d 695 (1984). Here we have a thirty-seven-year-old woman, in good health and as the trial court found “possessing assets by way of a reasonably good liberal arts education, high intelligence with a pleasing and considerate personality, and entree to the more important social and financial circles in the community.” The trial court also found the wife “currently employable.” Wife received property over and above the assets set aside for the children having a value of approximately $150,000. The trial court no doubt considered the income producing potential of this property or the proceeds, if sold, as well as the other awards made. For this thirteen-year marriage, we are unable to say that the trial court abused its discretion in the amount awarded wife. We are satisfied that the trial court carefully considered the parties’ previous lifestyle. It found, “Mickey and Yolanda Blake consistently have lived up to or beyond their means.” Consideration of the wife’s needs does not require a lavish lifestyle, even though the parties may have pursued such during their marriage. With regard to wife’s rehabilitative needs, wife provides us with no evidence of any real desire to rehabilitate herself. In Lovato v. Lovato, 98 N.M. 11, 644 P.2d 525 (1982), the supreme court said that “a trial court must not allow a spouse to abdicate the responsibility for his or her own support and maintenance and place that upon the other.” Id. at 13, 644 P.2d 525. Although the husband offered to pay wife $1,000 monthly for a thirty-six month period, we do not read Hurley as requiring anything more than consideration of that offer. The trial court did not abuse its discretion in the amount of alimony awarded wife. (c) Payout The trial court awarded wife, among other assets: The sum of $54,185, of which sum Mickey Blake should pay to Yolanda Blake upon entry of judgment herein $29,050 in cash, representing the one-half of his profit sharing plan, and of which sum Mickey Blake should pay the remainder, being a deficiency of $25,135, either in a single sum, or in equal monthly installments of $750 inclusive of interest at 7.75% per annum upon unpaid principal balances until the entire principal and interest thereon shall have been fully paid, as Mickey Blake at his option may select. The payout represents a portion of the equalization money, and under Cunningham v. Cunningham, 96 N.M. 529, 632 P.2d 1167 (1981), no abuse of discretion has been demonstrated. 4. Attorney fees Wife claims abuse of discretion by the trial court in refusing to award her attorney fees. The trial court found: This divorce case has taken far too long to conclude; each party evidently has beleived there would be some advantage found in protracting this case; each party has emphasized, unduly it would appear, certain aspects of the case, such that it can hardly be said that the work of counsel was necessarily consumed in an effort to make an efficient preparation and presentation of the case. Yolanda Blake at no time sought an order of this court, relative to the expenses of the proceeding, as would assure her an efficient preparation and presentation of her case. Both parties have the funds to pay for the work of their attorneys done in accordance with the emphasis prescribed by that party. Payment by each party of his attorney fee will not deprive him of subsistence or the children of support. This case was filed in November, 1980 and the supplemental decree was entered in August, 1983, almost three years later. Much of that time was consumed with discovery. Almost four hundred pages of the district court records relate to interrogatories (multiple sets propounded by each side to the other totalling close to 300 questions), answers to interrogatories, supplemental answers, motions for production, responses, objections, and orders on hearings previously discussed. The trial court probably failed to see the need for such extensive discovery for the efficient preparation of the case. Nor do we. Where neither wife nor husband is economically oppressed, trial court may in its discretion require each side to bear his and her own attorney fees. Allen v. Allen, 98 N.M. 652, 651 P.2d 1296 (1982); Corliss v. Corliss, 89 N.M. 235, 549 P.2d 1070 (1976). The record supports the trial court’s finding that the parties have the funds to pay their respective counsel. We find no abuse of discretion. Wife also asks for attorney fees on appeal. Considering the relative success in this appeal together with resources available to her, we award $4,000 to wife as her attorney fees on appeal. 5. Wife’s interest in 1983 Bonus At the time of the hearing husband had not received his bonus for' 1983, but estimated it would be about $45,000. Wife contends that the trial court erred in determining that wife had no interest in the expected bonus. Because husband argued at trial that wife should receive no interest in the bonus because husband was “pre-paying” that to her by way of temporary support during 1983, wife premises her argument on that theory. Wife refers us to paragraph N of the Supplemental Decree of Dissolution of Marriage which provides: Following separation, Mickey Blake expended the community income for support of the family and to pay community expenses. She then states that this “finding” apparently furnished the factual predicate for the following conclusions of law of the trial court’s Decision: 10. Wife has no claim to Husband’s community earnings or income from the date of their separation. 11. Wife has no claim to the bonus anticipated to be received by Husband after July 31, 1983 from Taos Ski Valley, Inc. From this wife forcefully argues that the trial court could not offset the temporary support she and the children received against her community interest in the 1983 bonus payable July 31, 1983. Wife claims that since the parties were not divorced until April 25, 1983, she is entitled to one-half interest to at least three-quarters of the bonus. Absent any proof that husband borrowed against his bonus to pay the temporary support, we might be inclined to agree with wife’s argument; however, wife premises her argument on a nonfinding. The trial court filed its Decision on July 27, 1983 which contains the court’s findings of fact and conclusions of law. This carefully drawn decision complies with NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 52 (Repl.Pamp.1980). In it the trial court found: 56. During the course of this case, and in determining Husband’s dependable monthly net income, the court has included Husband’s anticipated year-end bonus, and further has considered such bonus in connection with child support, alimony and division of property set forth in the conclusions of law hereinbelow, and finds that inclusion of bonus within regular monthly net income of Husband is necessary to arrive at an ordered disposition in this case. (Emphasis added.) In the same Decision the trial court concluded that wife had no claim to the anticipated bonus (see conclusion number 11 set out above). Wife resorts to paragraph N of the Supplemental Decree of Dissolution of Marriage filed August 11, 1983, which does not appear in the Decision. It is the decision containing the trial court’s findings of fact that we must look to in order to find support for its conclusion of law. The decision of the trial court constitutes the factual and legal basis for the judgment. University of Albuquerque v. Barrett, 86 N.M. 794, 528 P.2d 207 (1974). “It is fundamental that a judgment cannot be sustained on appeal unless the conclusion upon which it rests finds support in one or more findings of fact.” Thompson v. H.B. Zachry Co., 75 N.M. 715, 716, 410 P.2d 740 (1966) (citations omitted). The conclusion that wife has no claim to the 1983 bonus finds support in the finding that the trial court considered the bonus in connection with, among other things, the division of property. We note, however, that from a review of the decision we are unable to determine just how the 1983 bonus was considered in dividing the community property. Since this case must be remanded for retrial, we will not speculate on how the trial will handle the bonus which, if paid on or after July 31, 1983, can now be ascertained as to amount. We only point out that any division of the bonus should take into consideration the tax consequences. Cunningham v. Cunningham. 6. Joint custody Wife argues abuse of discretion in awarding joint custody, claiming the parties never agreed to this arrangement, that the deep divisions between the parties makes the arrangement improbable, and that the evidence shows little involvement and interest on the part of the husband in the development of the children and, by contrast, wife’s dedication toward that end. Wife then follows with a discussion of the law without providing us with the substance of all evidence bearing on her attack. The trial court found that the children enjoyed a good relation with both parents; that both parents were fit parents; that the children have a good relationship with the grandparents on both sides; and that the children are well adjusted in all respects. If a party contends that a finding is not supported by substantial evidence, he must set forth the substance of all evidence bearing in that proportion. NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 9(d) (Repl.Pamp. 1984); State ex rel. Thornton v. Hesselden Construction Co., 80 N.M. 121, 452 P.2d 190 (1969). This wife failed to do. NMSA 1978, Section 40-4-9.1 (Repl.Pamp.1983) states that in any proceeding in which custody of a minor child is at issue, the court should first consider an award of joint custody if it is in the best interests of the minor. See Strosnider v. Strosnider, 101 N.M. 639, 686 P.2d 981 (Ct.App.1984). In light of the legislative policy and the unchallenged findings, we hold that there was no abuse of discretion in awarding joint custody. HUSBAND’S CROSS-APPEAL The Des Montes real estate, containing approximately 23.513 acres and valued at $220,000, forms the basis of husband’s cross-appeal. Husband contends the trial court erred in finding that husband intended to make a gift to wife of a community interest in this property. He asks that we consider this issue only if “any of the property distribution or alimony provisions are held to be in error.” Because we find error with respect to the funding of the trust for child support, we consider husband’s cross-appeal. The trial court found that husband paid the full purchase price of $25,000 for Des Montes out of his separate funds at the time of purchase in 1972. The deed showed title to husband and wife “as joint tenants.” The trial court further found that while husband deliberately had title conveyed to himself and wife, he did not know until the divorce that the conveyance was in joint tenancy. As to wife, the trial court found she did not know the nature of the holding. The trial court found that “[hjusband intended at the time of purchase to make a gift to Wife of a community interest in the Des Montes real estate.” Because his separate funds were used to purchase the Des Montes property, husband argues that this real estate is his separate property unless wife can prove a transmutation by clear, strong and convincing proof. Allen v. Allen. Husband contends wife failed to meet that difficult burden. Wife recognizes that Allen v. Allen holds that the fact of the deed in the name of the parties as grantees does not alone establish transmutation, nor does the passing of funds through a joint account, as was the case here. LeClert v. LeClert, 80 N.M. 235, 453 P.2d 755 (1969). She contends, however, those facts coupled with wife’s initial search for the property, her participation in the negotiations, and husband’s listing himself and wife as co-owners on a credit application shortly before initiation of the divorce proceeding satisfies the heavy burden. We disagree. See Allen v. Allen; Cf. Nichols v. Nichols, 98 N.M. 322, 648 P.2d 780 (1982). Husband testified that he never intended to make a gift to wife of any interest, and purchased the property as an investment. There was never any discussion as to the preparation of the deed, the conveyance having been prepared by the title company. Husband did not know title was in joint tenancy until the divorce proceedings. Wife’s proof does not establish a transmutation. See In re Trimble’s Estate, 57 N.M. 51, 253 P.2d 805 (1953). The fact that a transmutation from separate to community property has not been established does not, however, answer the inquiry. Title takes its status at the time and by the manner of acquisition. See Allen v. Allen. Here title was taken by the parties as joint tenants. We are not concerned with transmutation or the burden of proof to establish it as announced in In re Trimble’s Estate. We are concerned with the effect of NMSA 1978, Section 47-1-16 which applies because title was taken in joint tenancy. Section 47-1-16 provides: An instrument conveying or transferring title to real or personal property to two or more persons as joint tenants, to two or more persons and to the survivors of them and the heirs and assigns of the survivor, or to two or more persons with right of survivorship, shall be prima facie evidence that such property is held in a joint tenancy and shall be conclusive as to purchasers or encumbrancers for value. In any litigation involving the issue of such tenancy a preponderance of the evidence shall be sufficient to establish the same. In Estate of Fletcher v. Jackson, 94 N.M. 572, 613 P.2d 714 (Ct.App.1980) we said that Section 47-1-16 applies in determining whether the initial legal status of the property is held in joint tenancy. A joint tenancy deed does no more than provide prima facie evidence that the property is held in that status in the absence of other evidence. Estate of Fletcher. The quantum of proof necessary to either rebut or sustain the prima facie evidence of joint tenancy is preponderance of the evidence, not clear, strong and convincing proof. Estate of Fletcher. The supreme court applied these principles in Ohl v. Ohl, 97 N.M. 175, 637 P.2d 1230 (1981). See also Corley v. Corley, 92 N.M. 716, 594 P.2d 1172 (1979). In Ohl the supreme court affirmed a finding of no joint tenancy. The problem in the case before us is that the trial court did not make a determination as to whether the Des Montes was held in joint tenancy; it found the wife acquired a community interest through gift from husband at the time of purchase. To reach that finding would require a change in the legal status through transmutation. Since a prima facie showing of wife’s interest was made by the deed itself, the proper inquiry then is not whether a transmutation took place, but whether the proof offered by both parties sustained or rebutted the prima facie evidence of joint tenancy. The burden here would be on husband since he is claiming a separate property interest. That burden may be met by a preponderance of the evidence. Estate of Fletcher. Because a determination of joint tenancy has not been made, we must remand since it is for the trial court to make the determination. Ohl. If the trial court determines wife has a joint tenancy interest, the result would be essentially the same as the finding of a community interest, at least for the purpose of dividing the property as was done here. See NMSA 1978, § 47-1-36 (defining joint tenancy). On the other hand, if the trial court finds no joint tenancy then the Des Montes property will belong to husband as his separate property. Such a finding would necessarily implicate the disposition of other issues; therefore, in resolving this issue, the trial court may make whatever adjustments as necessary to achieve a fair and equitable division and disposition of the parties’ property and other interests. CONCLUSION We set aside the supplemental decree entered August 11, 1983 and remand for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. Husband shall pay wife's attorney fees on appeal of $4,000 plus applicable tax and costs of appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and NEAL, J., concur. . At a pretrial hearing held in April, 1983 husband testified that the decrease in bonus had nothing to do with the divorce proceeding and was due solely to economic factors relating to a poor ski season and inflation. The president of TSV corroborated this explanation. .The Subpoena Duces Tecum required the witness to bring: 1. The stock register and minute book of Taos Ski Valley, Inc. for the past 10 years. 2. The general ledgers maintained by the corporation for the last 5 years. 3. The disbursement journals maintained by the corporation for the last 5 years. 4. The payroll journals maintained by the corporation for the last 5 years. 5. The accounts receivable ledgers maintained by the corporation for the last 5 years. 6. The accounts payable ledgers maintained by the corporation for the last 5 years. 7. The payroll tax returns setting forth the salary of the corporation’s officers and managerial employees for the last 5 years. 8. The five most recent U.S. Corporate Income Tax Returns for Taos Ski Valley, Inc. 9. All audited and unaudited financial statements prepared for Taos Ski Valley, Inc. for the period beginning January 1, 1977, and ending June 8, 1983. 10. All documents pertaining to any profit sharing for pension plan and relating to Michael Herbert Blake for the period beginning January 1, 1977, and ending June 8, 1983, including statements of account for Michael Herbert Blake. . The trial court stated it did not find it necessary to consider other objections and this may have accounted for counsel’s not offering to seek a middle ground.
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OPINION FROST, Justice. Defendants-Appellants, Kenneth and Jacqueline Yelin (the Yelins), appeal from the district court’s order dismissing their third-party complaint against Third-Party-Defendant-Appellee, Carvel Corporation (Carvel). The district court held that the third-party complaint was improperly filed under SCRA 1986, 1-014(A). We affirm. FACTS Carvel is in the business of licensing individuals to manufacture and sell ice cream and frozen dessert products under the Carvel name. In December 1986 the Yelins entered into a franchise agreement with Carvel to sell ice cream products in Albuquerque. As part of the agreement, Carvel’s wholly owned subsidiary, Franchise Stores Realty Corporation, leased retail space in Albuquerque from George Doolittle and Jeanette Doolittle Ingram (the Doolittles). Franchise Stores Realty Corporation then assigned its entire interest in the lease to the Yelins as owners of the franchise. The term of the lease was for a period of nine years and ten months, beginning on February 1, 1987, and its provisions included payments for rent, taxes, insurance, and other miscellaneous charges. The Yelins operated the Carvel franchise for approximately &k years. Over the course of this period, however, the franchise lost money, and, ultimately, the Yelins were forced to close the business. In September 1991 the Doolittles filed suit against the Yelins for breach of the lease agreement. The Doolittles claimed that the Yelins breached the lease by failing to continue to operate their business at the leased premises, and by failing to pay rent and their proportionate share of taxes, insurance, and other costs. The Yelins, in turn, filed a third-party complaint against Carvel seeking to recover, in addition to other damages, all amounts adjudged against them in the Doolittles’ suit. The Yelins claim that Carvel’s negligent misrepresentations induced them to enter the franchise agreement and that Carvel breached the terms of the franchise agreement by failing to provide advertising and necessary supplies on a timely basis. The Yelins argue that Carvel’s failures and wrongful conduct interfered with their ability to make a profit and thereby precluded them from fulfilling their obligations under the lease agreement. Carvel moved to dismiss the third-party complaint on the grounds that it was improper under SCRA 1-014(A), which governs third-party practice. The district court granted the motion to dismiss, finding that Carvel’s potential liability to the Yelins was not dependent on the outcome of the Doolittles’ suit. The Yelins now appeal the dismissal. DISCUSSION The issue on appeal is whether the Yelins may properly implead Carvel under SCRA 1-014(A) of the New Mexico Rules of Civil Procedure. SCRA 1-014(A) allows a defendant to implead “a person not a party to the action who is or may be liable to him for all or part of the plaintiffs claim against him.” This Court has consistently interpreted this requirement to mean that the third party’s potential liability must be derivative of or dependent upon the outcome of the primary claim against the defendant. Yates Exploration, Inc. v. Valley Improvement Ass’n, 108 N.M. 405, 408, 773 P.2d 350, 353 (1989); Grain Dealers Mut. Ins. Co. v. Reed, 105 N.M. 586, 587, 734 P.2d 1269, 1270 (1987). See also 6 Charles A. Wright et al., Federal Practice and Procedure § 1446 (2d ed.1990) (noting that the secondary or derivative liability notion is central to impleader); United States v. Joe Grosso & Son, Inc., 380 F.2d 749, 751 (5th Cir.1967) (noting that Fed eral Rules of Civil Procedure require derivative liability). Traditionally, we have held that derivative or secondary liability to the defendant, on the basis of indemnity, contribution or some similar theory, is essential for maintaining a third-party action. Yates Exploration, 108 N.M. at 408, 773 P.2d at 353; Grain Dealers, 105 N.M. at 587, 734 P.2d at 1270; cf. Tipton v. Texaco, Inc., 103 N.M. 689, 693, 712 P.2d 1351, 1355 (1985) (allowing continued impleader of concurrent tortfeasors, whose liability for contribution was abolished after the adoption of comparative negligence). Thus, we note that although SCRA 1-014 should be interpreted liberally to facilitate judicial economy, Tipton, 103 N.M. at 693, 712 P.2d at 1355; 3 James W. Moore & Richard D. Freer, Moore’s Federal Practice ¶ 14.07[1] (2d ed.1994), “it was not intended to be used to resolve every controversy between the defendant and a third-party which may have some relationship with the transaction at issue in the original complaint.” Yates Exploration, 108 N.M. at 408, 773 P.2d at 353. The only question in this appeal is whether Carvel’s potential liability is derivative of or independent from the Doolittles’ main claim against the Yelins. The Yelins argue that a defendant sued for breach of contract has a right of implied indemnity against a third person whose wrong caused the defendant’s breach. They claim that Carvel’s wrongful conduct and breach of the franchise agreement made it impossible for them to fulfill their obligations under the lease agreement and that Carvel’s actions give rise to a claim for implied indemnity. New Mexico courts have allowed an action for indemnification in several situations. See Amrep Southwest, Inc. v. Shollenbarger Wood Treating, Inc. (In re Consol. Vista Hills Retaining Wall Litigation), 119 N.M. 542, 546, 893 P.2d 438, 441-42 (1995). Traditional indemnification is based on an independent, preexisting legal relationship, and the right to indemnification typically arises from an express or implied contract. Id. New Mexico courts have also held that indemnification can arise by operation of law to prevent an inequitable result. Consequently, we have applied equitable indemnity in cases involving vicarious or derivative liability, “as when an employer must pay for the negligent conduct of its employee under the doctrine of respondeat superior or when a person is directed by another to do something that appears innocent but is in fact wrongful.” Id. We have also applied indemnification principles “in both negligence and strict liability cases involving persons in the chain of supply of a product, and in breach of warranty cases.” Id. (citations omitted). In addition, this Court recently recognized the theory of proportional indemnification, which applies when both a defendant and a third party would be concurrently liable to the plaintiff but, because of the plaintiffs choice of remedy, the liability is placed only on the former and cannot be prorated between the wrongdoers. Id. at 551, 893 P.2d at 447-49. The Yelins’ indemnity claim, however, does not implicate any of these designated theories; nor do the underlying facts of this case fall within one of the aforementioned situations in which we have applied indemnity principles in order to avoid inequitable results. Instead, the Yelins rely on University Ford v. Marlin, 87 N.M. 203, 531 P.2d 937 (1974) for support of their proposition that equitable indemnity also arises when a defendant’s breach is caused by the wrongful acts of a third person. In University Ford, the plaintiff sued the defendant, Louis Motors, for failing to turn over the proceeds of a sale Louis Motors made on the plaintiff's behalf. Louis Motors was unable to turn over the proceeds because the third-party defendant bank had negligently allowed another individual to cash the proceeds check which had been issued in defendant’s name. Id. at 204-OS, 531 P.2d at 938-39. The University Ford Court upheld the trial court’s finding that the bank was liable to Louis Motors for the loss of the proceeds under the circumstances. Id. at 205, 531 P.2d at 939. We are not persuaded that University Ford supports the Yelins’ position in this matter. An examination of the opinion in University Ford does not reveal the legal theory or rationale which the University Ford court employed in arriving at its conclu sion. The Court never focused upon or discussed the principles of indemnification. In our view, all that can be said of University Ford is that it held that the bank was negligent in cashing a check without proper authorization and endorsement, and therefore the bank owed the lost proceeds to its customer on whose account the cheek was drawn. In view of the potential for confusion which is inherent in University Ford, to the extent that it can be read as inconsistent with this opinion, it is overruled. The Yelins’ claim for indemnity is much closer to the claim the court in Southeast Mortgage Co. v. Mullins, 514 F.2d 747 (5th Cir.1975), rejected as improper under Rule 14 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, the federal counterpart to SCRA 1-014. In Southeast Mortgage, the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) helped the defendant, Mullins, take out a loan to purchase a home. After Mullins defaulted on the loan and the mortgage company instituted foreclosure proceedings against Mullins, she attempted to implead HUD. Mullins alleged that HUD had violated the National Housing Act by failing to enforce certain regulations thereby causing the foreclosure proceeding. Id. at 748-49. The court noted, The sole connection between the [main claim and the third-party claim] is the contention that, but for HUD’s failure to adopt and enforce adequate regulations, there would have been no foreclosure proceedings. The suggestion that a separate and independent claim can be made the proper subject of a third party complaint because, but for the violation of duty alleged the main claim would not have matured, has been rejected by this and other courts. Id. at 750. After examining two related cases, the court concluded The common thread running through these cases, and our own, is that the right or duty alleged to have been violated in the third party complaint does not emanate from the main claim but exists wholly independent of it. In each, the nexus with the principal action is not that it establishes the right to relief, but merely the need for relief. Id. National Bank of Canada v. Artex Industries, Inc., 627 F.Supp. 610 (S.D.N.Y.1986), also addressed the issue before us. In Artex, the plaintiff bank paid a supplier on defendant Artex’s behalf and then mistakenly credited the payment back to Artex’s account. The bank then sued Artex for return of the mistaken payment. Artex impleaded Seaport, the corporation for whom it had acquired the supplies, claiming that Seaport had not paid Artex an outstanding balance on the construction contract. Id. at 612. The Artex court found that the “minimal overlap” between the main claim and the disputes involved in the third-party claim was insufficient to allow the latter to stand. Id. at 613. “The outcome of the third-party claim must be contingent on the outcome of the main claim, and here Seaport’s liability to Artex under their contract involves many issues unconnected with NBC’s claim for the return of a mistaken payment.” Id. The court dismissed the impleader claim without prejudice as improper under Rule 14 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. Id. The court in AAA Excavating, Inc. v. Francis Construction, Inc., 678 S.W.2d 889, 894 (Mo.Ct.App.1984), similarly dismissed defendant’s claim for indemnity that was based on third-party defendant’s alleged negligent misrepresentation. In AAA Excavating, the excavating company brought suit against the general contractor for unpaid work. The contractor, in turn, impleaded a consultant who the contractor claimed was negligent in performing soil samples and compaction tests. The contractor argued that it was unable to pay AAA Excavating because it had spent the funds on other repairs necessitated by the consultant’s misrepresentations regarding soil stability. Id. at 892. The court dismissed the claim, noting, “If a third party plaintiff could proceed and recover against the third party defendant even if the third party plaintiff were to win in the suit brought by the plaintiff the petition would not be covered by [the rules governing third-party practice].” Id. at 894. The court held: “Regardless of the outcome of AAA Excavat ing’s claim, defendant will still have a claim against [third-party defendant] for all of its claimed damages____ Defendant’s claim is in no way dependent upon the disposition of plaintiffs petition against defendant.” Id. at 892. In the case at bar, the Yelins’ claim against Carvel also involves the resolution of many issues legally and factually unconnected with the Doolittles’ claim, and similarly is not contingent upon the outcome. The Yelins are asserting a claim against Carvel for the amounts they are alleged to owe the Doolittles, as items of damage for Carvel’s alleged wrongful conduct and misrepresentations which induced the Yelins to enter into the lease. This is not really a claim that the third-party defendant is liable for the rent due from the Yelins; it is a claim that is independent of the lease itself. The Yelins maintain that their claim against Carvel is derivative of the Doolittles’ claim because the main claim will determine whether the Yelins have been damaged by Carvel’s actions. However, this argument mistakes the nature of derivative liability. The only effect resolution of the Doolittles’ claim might have on the Yelins’ claim will be to establish the amount of a portion of the damages that Carvel may owe if they are found to be liable to the Yelins. Carvel’s actual liability is entirely separate from the Yelins’ breach of the lease agreement. If the Yelins’ allegations against Carvel are found to be true, the Yelins would be entitled to recover damages for breach of contract or misrepresentation regardless of whether the Doolittles recover against the Yelins. Thus, while the Yelins’ claim against Carvel may be transactionally related to the Doolittles’ main claim, it is not derivative of that claim and is not the proper subject of a third-party complaint. In addition, the presence of Carvel as a party in this matter would complicate rather than simplify resolution of the issues involved. See Yates Exploration, 108 N.M. at 410, 773 P.2d at 355. Accordingly, the district court properly dismissed the third-party complaint for failing to demonstrate derivative liability as required under SCRA 1-014. Indeed, “[t]o refuse to dismiss a third-party complaint which did not meet the standards of Rule 1-014 ... would be an abuse of discretion.” Id. We note that the Yelins are still free to pursue their claims against Carvel in a separate action if they so choose. CONCLUSION For the foregoing reasons, we affirm the judgment of the trial court. IT IS SO ORDERED. BACA, C.J., and RANSOM and MINZNER, JJ., concur. FRANCHINI, J., dissenting. . See also United States v. Olavarrieta, 812 F.2d 640, 642-43 (11th Cir.) (holding that under Florida law defendant’s claim against third party for fraud and breach of contract in failing to award . defendant a J.D. degree was independent of plaintiff's suit for repayment of defendant’s student loans), cert. denied, 484 U.S. 851, 108 S.Ct. 152, 98 L.Ed.2d 107 (1987); Rozelle v. Connecticut Gen. Life Ins. Co., 471 F.2d 29, 30 (10th Cir.1972) (finding that ”[t]he obligation of [defendant] to pay was not conditioned upon the actions of the [third-party defendants],” and that resolution of the main claim "did not ... preclude [defendant] from recovery of any damage which he might have sustained if able to show wrongdoing in the exercise of [third-party defendants] reserved timber rights.’’), cert. denied, 411 U.S. 921, 93 S.Ct. 1549, 36 L.Ed.2d 314 (1973); Jobe v. King, 129 Ariz. 195, 197, 629 P.2d 1031, 1033 (App.1981) (dismissing as too tenuous to support indemnity under Rule 14(a) defendant’s third-party claim alleging that neighbor’s wrongful act made it financially impossible for defendant to pay rent); Robertson v. TWP, Inc., 656 P.2d 547, 551 (Wyo.1983) (finding that third-party defendant’s alleged wrongful acts were too remote a cause of defendant’s injury to form the basis for indemnity). But see Bear Creek Planning Comm. v. Title Ins. & Trust Co., 164 Cal. App.3d 1227, 211 Cal.Rptr. 172, 178 (1985) (noting that under California law, implied contractual indemnity is based upon the premise that a contractual obligation carries an implied promise to indemnify for foreseeable damages resulting to the indemnitee from the indemnitor’s improper performance), disapproved on other grounds, 50 Cal.3d 1012, 269 Cal.Rptr. 720, 791 P.2d 290 (1990).
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. The Court of Appeals upheld the trial court’s dismissal of petitioner’s complaint on the basis of her failure to state a claim upon which relief may be granted. The complaint had alleged that respondents’ agents did not respond to a call reporting a crime in progress and requesting assistance, and that petitioner suffered a brutal rape and torture as a result of the agents’ inaction. We granted certiorari and now reverse the dismissal by the trial court and the decision of the Court of Appeals. The question presented is whether a governmental entity and its law enforcement officers may be held liable, after receiving notice, for negligently failing to take adequate action to protect a citizen from imminent danger and injuries. On a motion to dismiss, we assume the truth of the facts alleged in the complaint. Buhler v. Marrujo, 86 N.M. 399, 524 P.2d 1015 (Ct.App.1974). Those facts are fully described in the opinion of the Court of Appeals and we need not repeat them. Schear v. Board of County Commissioners, 23 SBB 192 (Ct.App.1984). Petitioner alleged that respondents’ negligence in failing to adopt proper procedures for responding to reported criminal acts, and in failing to respond or investigate, was the direct and proximate cause of her injuries. Negligence is generally a question of fact for the jury. New Mexico State Highway Department v. Van Dyke, 90 N.M. 357, 563 P.2d 1150 (1977). A finding of negligence, however, is dependent upon the existence of a duty on the part of the defendant. White v. City of Lovington, 78 N.M. 628, 435 P.2d 1010 (Ct.App.1967). Whether a duty exists is a question of law for the courts to decide. Southern Union Gas Co. v. Briner Rust Proofing Co., 65 N.M. 32, 331 P.2d 531 (1958). Our statutes place a duty on law enforcement officers to investigate violations of the criminal law. It is hereby declared to be the duty of every sheriff, deputy sheriff, constable and every other peace officer to investigate all violations of the criminal laws of the state which are called to the attention of any such officer or of which he is aware * * * * NMSA 1978, § 29-1-1 (Repl.Pamp.1979) (emphasis added). The Court of Appeals, relying on its opinion in Doe v. Hendricks, 92 N.M. 499, 590 P.2d 647 (Ct.App.1979), held that the duty imposed by Section 29-1-1 was a duty owed to the general public and that, absent a “special duty” owed to petitioner, failure to perform the duty or an inadequate or erroneous performance would not give rise to an individual cause of action. The Court of Appeals noted the absence of a special duty owed to petitioner in this case and held that the “public duty-special duty” rule precluded petitioner’s action. Doe is not controlling. Although the facts in Doe are similar to the facts in this case, the operative statute in that case was the Peace Officers Liability Act, NMSA 1953, Sections 39-8-1 to -17 (Supp. 1975), not the Tort Claims Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 41-4-1 to -29 (Repl.Pamp. 1982 and Supp.1983). Section 39-8-4 of the Peace Officers Liability Act protected police officers from liability while in the performance of a public duty. The court in Doe, declaring that the applicable statute imposed a duty on the officer to the gener al public and that no “special relationship” (i.e., “privity, a direct relationship or contact between the victim and the police,” 92 N.M. at 503, 590 P.2d at 651) existed which would give rise to a “special duty,” held that no liability could be imposed on the basis of the officer’s failure to act. With the enactment of the Tort Claims Act, the Police Officers Liability Act was repealed in 1976. 1976 N.M. Laws, ch. 58, § 27. Unlike Doe, liability in this case is dependent upon an interpretation of the Tort Claims Act. The extent of its application is set forth in Section 41-4-2(B): The Tort Claims Act shall be read as abolishing all judicially-created categories such as “governmental” or “proprietary” functions and “discretionary” or “ministerial” acts previously used to determine immunity or liability. Liability for acts or omissions under the Tort Claims Act shall be based upon the traditional tort concepts of duty and the reasonably prudent person’s standard of care in the performance of that duty. Section 41-4-12 provides further: The immunity granted pursuant to Subsection A of Section 41-4-4 NMSA 1978 does not apply to liability for personal injury, bodily injury, wrongful death or property damage resulting from assault, battery, false imprisonment, false arrest, malicious prosecution, abuse of process, libel, slander, defamation of character, violation of property rights or deprivation of any rights, privileges or immunities secured by the constitution and laws of the United States or New Mexico when caused by law enforcement officers while acting within the scope of their duties. Nothing in the statute refers to performance of either public or special duties. The Court of Appeals held that the court in Doe relied not on the Police Officers Liability Act, but rather on the “common-law public versus special duty distinction,” and that that distinction is one of the “traditional tort concepts of duty” which the Tort Claims Act did not abolish. That statement is too broad. As we discuss hereafter, the “public duty” distinction is too closely linked to the concept of sovereign immunity, from which Section 41-4-12 provides an exception, to have been included by the legislature within the meaning of “traditional tort concepts of duty.” The Court of Appeals’ opinion further declares that the language: “when caused by law enforcement officers,” requires “direct causation” by the officers in order for there to be liability. Its observation that “the assault was committed not by a law enforcement officer but by a third party” demonstrates its misunderstanding of Methola v. County of Eddy, 95 N.M. 329, 622 P.2d 234 (1981), where we said that “caused by” does not mean “committed by,” but instead has the usual meaning of “proximate cause” as a requirement for liability in an ordinary negligence case. Id. at 332, 622 P.2d at 237. We again specifically hold that law enforcement officers need not be the direct cause of injury (in the sense of having inflicted it) in order for liability to attach. We disagree, too, with the Court of Appeals’ interpretation of the basis for decision in Doe. It appears to us that the “public duty-special duty” discussion in Doe necessarily arose from the statutory (rather than any common law) provision excepting police officers from liability when engaged in performance of public duty. Repeal of that statute undercut any precedential effect of Doe. It is clear to us, in any event, that the Tort Claims Act abolished the “public duty-special duty” distinction in this jurisdiction. The “public duty-special duty” rule bears a direct relationship to the doctrine of sovereign immunity. Adams v. State, 555 P.2d 235 (Alaska 1976); Martinez v. City of Lakewood, 655 P.2d 1388 (Colo.App.1982). “[I]t is clear that [the “general duty-special duty” dichotomy] * * * is a function of municipal sovereign immunity and not a traditional negligence concept which has meaning apart from the governmental setting. Accordingly, its efficacy is dependent on the continuing vitality of the doctrine of sovereign immunity.” Com mercial Carrier Corp. v. Indian River County, 371 So.2d 1010, 1015 (Fla.1979). Although many jurisdictions have relied on the distinction (see, e.g., Massengill v. Yuma County, 104 Ariz. 518, 456 P.2d 376 (1969); Trautman v. City of Stamford, 32 Conn.Supp. 258, 350 A.2d 782 (1975); Simpson’s Food Fair, Inc. v. City of Evansville, 149 Ind.App. 387, 272 N.E.2d 871 (1971); Riss v. City of New York, 22 N.Y.2d 579, 293 N.Y.S.2d 897, 240 N.E.2d 860 (1968); Walkowski v. Macomb County Sheriff, 64 Mich.App. 460, 236 N.W.2d 516 (1975)), the development in the law has been to abolish it in those jurisdictions where the matter has been more recently considered or reconsidered. See Ryan v. State, 134 Ariz. 308, 656 P.2d 597 (1982) (overruling Massengill)', Adams v. State; Martinez v. City of Lakewood; Commercial Carrier Corp. v. Indian River County (declaring Modlin v. City of Miami Beach, 201 So.2d 70 (Fla.1967) to have no effect following legislative waiver of governmental immunity); Wilson v. Nepstad, 282 N.W.2d 664 (Iowa 1979); Brennen v. City of Eugene, 285 Or. 401, 591 P.2d 719 (1979); Coffey v. City of Milwaukee, 74 Wis.2d 526, 247 N.W.2d 132 (1976). “[T]he trend in this area is toward liability. The ‘public duty’ doctrine has lost support in four of the eight jurisdictions relied upon by the city [for its argument that it owed no duty of ordinary care to an individual citizen].” Wilson v. Nepstad, 282 N.W.2d at 667. Those courts have demonstrated a reasoned reluctance to apply a doctrine that results in a duty to none where there is a duty to all. See Adams v. State; Martinez v. City of Lakewood. The court, in Adams, said: [W]e consider that the “duty to all, duty to no-one” doctrine is in realty a form of sovereign immunity, which is a matter dealt with by statute in Alaska, and not to be amplified by court-created doctrine. An application of the public duty doctrine here would result in finding no duty owed the plaintiffs or their decedents by the state, because, although they were foreseeable victims and a private defendant would have owed such a duty, no “special relationship” between the parties existed. Why should the establishment of duty become more difficult when the state is the defendant? Where there is no immunity, the state is to be treated like a private litigant. To allow the public duty doctrine to disturb this equality would create immunity where the legislature has not. 555 P.2d at 241-42 (footnote omitted). The distinction between “public duty” and “private duty” or “special duty” is no less arbitrary and no less a vestige of the doctrine of sovereign immunity than are the “governmental-proprietary” and “discretionary-ministerial” distinctions abolished by Section 41-4-2(B) of the Tort Claims Act. See Coffey v. City of Milwaukee. In the context of this case there is no significant difference between the provisions of our Tort Claims Act and the statute discussed by the court in Brennen v. City of Eugene. We apply to Section 41-4-2(B) the holding of Brennen: [W]e conclude * * * that any distinction between “public” and “private” duty is precluded by statute in this state * * * [Our statute] provides that “ * * * every public body is liable for its torts and those of its officers, employes [sic] and agents * * * whether arising out of a governmental or proprietary function.” 285 Or. at 411, 591 P.2d at 725 (footnote omitted) (emphasis supplied by Oregon Court). We agree with those jurisdictions, cited above, which hold that the “public duty-special duty” rule has no viability outside the context of sovereign immunity. Our confidence in the correctness of this approach is bolstered by the fact that neither Sections 41-4-2 nor 41-4-12 of the Tort Claims Act excludes peace officers from liability while performing “any public duty,” as was provided by Section 39-8-4 before that statute was repealed. We abolished sovereign immunity as a part of the common law of this jurisdiction in Hicks v. State, 88 N.M. 588, 544 P.2d 1153 (1975). The Tort Claims Act, which re-established sovereign immunity and specifically except ed certain governmental employees from that immunity, is in derogation of the common law and is to be strictly construed to the extent that it modifies the common law. Methola v. County of Eddy, 95 N.M. 329, 622 P.2d 234 (1980). Had the legislature intended the dichotomy between a law enforcement officer’s special (or private) duty and public duty to continue as a basis for immunity rather than to have been abolished entirely by repeal of Section 39-8-4, we are confident that Section 41-4-12 would have been amended at the same time to so provide. Moreover, were we to apply the “public duty” rule to this case, we would resurrect a doctrine which, if it ever had been part of the common law of this jurisdiction, has not been applied to any case of which we are aware since passage of the Tort Claims Act. In Holiday Management Co. v. City of Santa Fe, 94 N.M. 368, 610 P.2d 1197 (1980), we held that a city may be liable to a property owner for damage caused by the negligent maintenance of its sewage system. Apparently no argument was made that the public nature of the city’s duty to maintain the sewage system should preclude its liability. We stated that “[njegligence resulting from a failure to use or the improper use of sewer maintenance funds was not intended to be swept under a governmental immunity rug, where such negligence has resulted in damage to private property.” 94 N.M. at 369, 610 P.2d at 1198. In Methola v. County of Eddy we interpreted Section 41-4-12. Methola concerned three cases in which jail inmates sued those responsible for operating the jails for negligent supervision when plaintiffs were assaulted by other inmates. The Court of Appeals reversed the judgments for plaintiffs in all three cases on the ground that defendants were immune from suit. We reversed the Court of Appeals, holding that Section 41-4-12 excepted from immunity the negligence of law enforcement officers which caused injuries: Since the Tort Claims Act is in derogation of the common law, and apparent legislative intent to expand liability of law enforcement officers is shown in the 1977 amendment discussed above [to include liability for “personal injury”], we conclude that the Legislature intended “caused by” in Section 41-4-12 to include those acts enumerated in that section which were caused by the negligence of law enforcement officers while acting within the scope of their duties. 95 N.M. at 333, 622 P.2d at 238 (emphasis in original). The Court of Appeals in this case attempted to distinguish Methola on the basis that “defendants in Methola had a common law duty of custodial care whereas here the only duty is to the public at large.” Upon that perceived distinction, the Court of Appeals held that the law enforcement officers in this case had to have been the “direct cause” of petitioner’s injury in order to fall within the scope of Section 41-4-12. We cannot agree with the analysis of the Court of Appeals. Not only does it conflict with our Methola opinion regarding the meaning of “caused by,” but it also creates an exception to Section 41-4-12 dependent upon the public or private nature of the injured party that does not exist in the statute itself. Either all actions for injuries suffered by an officer’s negligence were within the contemplation of the Legislature when it drafted Section 41-4-12, or they were not. We specifically held in Methola that such actions do come within the scope of Section 41-4-12; as an element of an action for negligence, “cause” applies to acts of omission as well as of commission. Thus, the fact that this petitioner’s injuries were inflicted by a third party does not automatically preclude her action against respondents, nor does the fact that the Sheriff’s Department owed a duty to the public mean that it owed no duty to those persons who make up the public. We would observe that the duty of custodial care discussed in Methola could as well have been characterized as a duty to a certain segment of the public, i.e., the jail population. Although we did not apply the “public duty” rule in Methola, respondents seemingly persuaded the Court of Appeals that it should control in this case upon the dubious ground that the officers’ duty of reasonable and ordinary care was owed to a “larger” public. That is just the sort of arbitrary distinction the legislature abolished in Section 41-4-2(B). The Court of Appeals itself held, in Fireman’s Fund Insurance Co. v. Tucker, 95 N.M. 56, 618 P.2d 894 (Ct.App.1980), that the highway department could be sued for negligent maintenance of fences along state highways. The applicable section of the Tort Claims Act, Section 41-4-ll(A), pertinent to that case provides: The immunity granted pursuant to ... [this Act] does not apply to liability for damages resulting from bodily injury, wrongful death or property damage caused by the negligence of public employees while acting within the scope of their duties in the maintenance of or for the existence of any bridge, culvert, highway, roadway, street, alley, sidewalk or parking area. The Court of Appeals said: In providing the highway exception to the general grant of governmental immunity, the New Mexico Legislature intended to protect the general public from injury by imposing liability upon governmental agencies when they fail to maintain safe public highways. No new duties are created by the Tort Claims Act. The duty of the Highway Department to construct and maintain certain fences along state highways existed before the Tort Claims Act was enacted. 95 N.M. at 59, 618 P.2d at 897. We see no significant difference between Fireman’s Fund and the instant case. Just as Section 41-4-ll(A) provides that there shall be no immunity for damages caused by public highway employees who negligently perform their duties, Section 41-4-12, as interpreted in Methola, provides that law enforcement officers are liable for the harm caused by the negligent performance of their duties. Section 41-4-12 does not create new duties for law enforcement officers; their duty to investigate reported violations of the criminal law is imposed by Section 29-1-1. That duty is no more nor less a “public duty” than is the duty of the highway department to construct and maintain fences along state highways for the protection of those who use the highways. Both law enforcement officers and employees of the highway department are government employees. We are unable to find a basis in the Tort Claims Act or a rationale in public policy for holding that, while employees of the highway department may be held liable to individuals for the negligent performance of a public duty, law enforcement officers may not. Indeed, to do so would be to interpret portions of the Tort Claims Act relating to “within the scope of their duties” differently, providing immunity through the “public duty” test in one instance and ignoring it in the other. If any such distinctions to preserve immunity are to be made, they must be made by the legislature. See, e.g., Sections 41-4-4(A) and 41-4-13. We are mindful of the special and important role played in our society by law enforcement agencies. Nevertheless, we are not persuaded that our decision today will create an undue burden on either law enforcement agencies or the governmental units which must ultimately bear the financial burden of liability. Strict liability for failure to adequately perform a duty is not imposed by this opinion. Liability will not attach until all of the elements of negligence have been proved, including duty, breach of duty, and proximate cause. The spectre of dire financial consequences to municipalities raised by some courts and referred to by the Court of Appeals is no more real in the context of law enforcement officers’ liability for negligence than it has proved to be in any other area in which sovereign immunity has been abolished. This case may represent only an isolated incident. No matter; we are confident that any amounts associated with programs aimed at reducing law enforcement officers’ negligence, or awarded to victims of negligent performance of duty, will be far outweighed by the advantage to society of more responsive agencies. We have consistently demonstrated our support for those enlightened trends in tort law which reflect concern for tort victims, and the compensatory nature of tort remedies. See Ramirez v. Armstrong, 100 N.M. 538, 673 P.2d 822 (1983) (tort of negligent infliction of emotional distress exists in New Mexico); Lopez v. Maez, 98 N.M. 625, 651 P.2d 1269 (1982) (tavern keepers liable to third parties for continuing to serve intoxicated patrons who thereafter inflict injuries); Scott v. Rizzo, 96 N.M. 682, 634 P.2d 1234 (1981) (abolition of contributory negligence as a complete bar to recovery). We will not now breathe new life into a rule which, as a ghost of sovereign immunity, operates as a denial of a cause of action and is inconsistent with both Hicks v. State and Section 41-4-2(B) of the Tort Claims Act. We hold that no distinction shall hereafter be drawn with regard to the “public” or “special” duty of governmental employees whose immunity to suit for acts of negligence has been excepted under the Tort Claims Act. We therefore hold that petitioner’s complaint states a claim for relief against members of the Bernalillo County Sheriff’s Office and their principals. Accepting the allegations in the complaint as true, it shall be for the jury demanded in this ease to determine whether the duty to investigate, imposed by Section 29-1-1, was breached and, if so, whether such conduct was negligence that proximately caused petitioner’s injuries. The judgment of the trial court and the decision of the Court of Appeals are reversed. The cause is remanded for reinstatement on the trial court’s jury docket. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and SOSA, Senior Justice, concur. RIORDAN and STOWERS, JJ., dissent. . A boy, age 12, was stopped on his way home from school and dragged into a vacant house by an adult male. Two children witnessed the incident and ran to tell their brother and sister who then called the police. The dispatcher immediately informed the Chief of Police, who chose to continue a conversation with a visitor rather than to respond. In the meantime, the child was sexually assaulted by the adult male.
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OPINION RANSOM, Justice. Alfonso and Arlene Medina, husband and wife, sued Sunstate Realty, Inc., for breach of contract and specific performance, among other claims, in connection with a residential construction contract. Sunstate counterclaimed against the Medinas for breach of contract and to foreclose materialmen’s and mechanics’ liens that it held on the home it had built for the Medinas. After the trial court entered an interlocutory order finding that the building agreement between the Medinas and Sunstate was a fixed-price con tract, it held a bench trial on all claims and awarded specific performance and attorney’s fees to the Medinas. The court dismissed Sunstate’s counterclaims. Sunstate appeals. Because we find as a matter of law that the building agreement between the Medinas and Sunstate was unambiguously a cost-plus contract with a fixed contractor’s fee, we reverse the trial court and remand for a determination of the reasonable construction costs incurred by and to be awarded to Sun-state. Further, because we find that the contract could have been modified by express or implied agreement, we remand for a determination whether the contract actually was modified. Facts and proceedings. In early 1992 the Medinas decided to have a home built on land they had purchased in Las Cruces, New Mexico. They secured bids from various contractors, one of whom was Sunstate. In its proposal Sunstate offered to “build the home on a cost plus basis of eight one half percent (8.5%).” The Medinas accepted Sunstate’s proposal and the parties entered into a formal contract on September 2, 1992. The contract required the Medinas to pay Sunstate approximately $108,000, in exchange for which Sunstate agreed to build a home for the Medinas in accordance with certain plans and specifications. Paragraph sixteen of the contract provides in part: “This is a Cost Plus contract. The Contraer tor will be paid 8 and % percent of the total cost to construct the home.” Although the contract expressly allows modification of the original plans and specifications, it requires such modifications to be in writing. During construction, the parties modified the contract by executing three written change orders. The third change order, executed shortly before Sunstate completed construction, provides in part that “Contractor has agreed to base the cost plus fee of 8)6% only on the original approximate price of $108,-000 — wMch is equal to $9,180.00.” As the time for closing drew near, the Medinas and Sunstate began to dispute the amount due under the contract. Sunstate contended that the contract was a cost-plus contract with a fixed contractor’s fee and that the Medinas were obligated to pay all construction costs in excess of the initial $108,-000 contract sum. Sunstate also contended that the Medinas had orally agreed to several modifications, some of which were partially paid for by the Medinas and some of which were not paid for at all. The Medinas contended that the contract was a fixed-price contract calling for payment of $108,000 for construction costs and $9,180 for the contractor’s fee. The Medinas agreed that some modifications to the original agreement had been made but insisted that those modifications had been paid for. Based on their understanding of the contract, the Medinas estimated that they owed Sunstate $120,724. After subtracting payments totaling $94,094 from this estimate, the Medinas tendered $26,680 to Sunstate. Believing that payment in full had not been tendered, Sunstate rejected the Medinas’ tender and refused to close. This suit followed. At a preliminary hearing the trial court entered an order determining that the building agreement between the Medinas and Sunstate was a fixed-price contract calling for payment of $108,000 in construction costs and $9,180 in contractor’s fees. The trial court prohibited Sunstate from showing that the costs of constructing a home for the Medinas had increased because of increases in material and labor costs. Although at trial Sunstate was allowed to make offers of proof reflecting alleged oral modifications and offers of proof reflecting that actual costs had exceeded contract allowances, the court ruled that Sunstate would be allowed to show only amounts due on the original written contract, amounts due because of written change orders, and amounts voluntarily paid by the Medinas. The building agreement between the Medinas and Sunstate is a cost-plus contract with a fixed contractor’s fee. Sunstate argues that the building agreement between itself and the Medinas is a cost-plus contract with a fixed contractor’s fee and that Sunstate thus should be entitled to recover the actual reasonable costs of construction. The Medinas counter that the trial court correctly concluded that the contract is a fixed-price contract and hence excluded evidence that labor and material costs had exceeded the initial contract sum of $108,000. When interpreting a contract, we give force and effect to the intent of the parties. Shaeffer v. Kelton, 95 N.M. 182, 185, 619 P.2d 1226, 1229 (1980). In determining the intent of the parties we must consider the entire contract and not just selected portions. Id. When the parties’ expressions of mutual assent are clear and unambiguous, we must give effect to those expressions. Whether the parties’ expressions of mutual assent are clear and unambiguous is a question of law. Levenson v. Mobley, 106 N.M. 399, 401, 744 P.2d 174, 176 (1987). In determining whether an agreement is clear and unambiguous, we may consider “evidence of the circumstances surrounding the execution of the agreement.” Mark V, Inc. v. Mellekas, 114 N.M. 778, 781, 845 P.2d 1232, 1235 (1993). If this evidence is so plain that reasonable minds could not differ, we may inteipret the agreement as a matter of law. Id. Prior to entering this agreement, Sunstate provided the Medinas with a proposal in which it offered to “build the home on a cost plus basis of eight one half percent (8.5%).” The Medinas accepted this proposal without modification. This pre-contract proposal is consistent with paragraph sixteen of the building agreement. That paragraph provides that “this is a Cost Plus contract” and “[t]he Contractor will be paid 8 and % Percent of the total cost to construct the home.” Finally, the third written change order, which modified the original agreement and became part of it, provides that “Contractor has agreed to base the cost-plus fee of 8%% only on the original approximate price of $108,000.” The meaning of this building agreement is clear and unambiguous as a matter of law. The plain meaning of paragraph sixteen and of the third written change order was that Sunstate would build a house for the Medinas and the Medinas would pay the actual labor and material costs. The parties’ pre-contract negotiations are consistent with this plain meaning and do not establish an ambiguity. The original building agreement was a cost-plus contract. The third written change order did not make the agreement a fixed-price contract; it simply fixed the contractor’s fee. Hence we reverse the trial court and remand for a determination of the actual and reasonable construction costs. Whether the construction costs are reasonable depends on the circumstances existing within the construction industry while the Medinas’ house was being built. It does not depend on the original estimated price of $108,000. There is no claim of misrepresentation in the original estimate. In a cost-plus contract the owner and not the builder enjoys the advantage or suffers the risk of costs that are lower or higher than estimated. Allen Co. v. Thoroughbred Motor Court, Inc., 272 S.W.2d 343, 345 (Ky.1954) (noting that “the owner assumes certain risks under a cost-plus contract, such as increases in prices of materials and wages”). The contract could be modified by express or implied agreement of the parties as shown by their words and conduct. At trial Sunstate sought to introduce evidence that the written contract between itself and the Medinas, as well as the original plans and specifications, had been modified orally. The trial court excluded all evidence of oral modification except insofar as the Medinas had tendered payment to Sunstate for work and material costs not specified in either the original building agreement or written change orders. Sunstate contends that a written contract may be orally modified by agreement of the parties even when the contract itself specifies that all modifications must be in writing. Thus Sunstate argues that it was error for the trial court to exclude evidence that the building agreement had been orally modified. In Wendell v. Foley, 92 N.M. 702, 705, 594 P.2d 750, 753 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 92 N.M. 675, 593 P.2d 1078 (1979), the Court of Appeals noted that “in the absence of a prohibiting statute, a written contract may be orally modified by the parties who made the original agreement.” The Court also noted that oral modifications may be made even though the contract itself requires all modifications to be in writing. Id. Thus the Court held that oral agreements by the parties calling for additional architectural services to be performed were enforceable modifications to a written contract, even though the contract itself specified that all modifications had to be in writing. Id., 92 N.M. at 703-05, 594 P.2d 750. In Driver-Miller Plumbing, Inc. v. Fromm, 72 N.M. 117, 118-19, 381 P.2d 53, 54 (1963), this Court, while not directly addressing the oral-modification issue raised in Wendell, upheld the oral modification of a written contract to install a heating system. See also Mercury Gas & Oil Corp. v. Rincon Oil & Gas Corp., 79 N.M. 537, 539, 445 P.2d 958, 960 (1968) (“[P]arol modification relied on by one of the parties may give rise to estoppel.”); Tyner v. DiPaolo, 76 N.M. 483, 485-86, 416 P.2d 150, 152 (1966) (upholding finding that there was insufficient evidence of oral modification). Thus New Mexico adheres to the general rule set forth in Professor Williston’s treatise on contracts that “a written contract may be modified, rescinded or discharged by subsequent oral agreement.” 4 Samuel Williston & Walter H.E. Jaeger, A Treatise on the Law of Contracts, § 591, at 203 (3d ed. 1961) (quoting Nickel v. Scott, 59 A.2d 206, 207 (D.C.1948); see also Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 150 (1979) (stating that oral modification to written agreement may be enforced despite the Statute of Frauds if one party changes position in reliance on oral agreement). The parties to a written contract may modify that contract by express or implied agreement as shown by their words and conduct. Atokad Agricultural and Racing Association v. Governors of the Knights of Ak-Sar-Ben, 237 Neb. 317, 466 N.W.2d 73, 78 (1991) (“ ‘[I]t is not essential that the mutual assent of the parties to modify the contract be express!;] ... it may be implied from acts and circumstances!,] ... from a course of conduct!,] ... and from acts of one party in accordance with the terms of a change proposed by the other.’ ” (quoting 17A C.J.S. Contracts § 375, at 427 (1963) (citation omitted))) Even -if the trial court had been correct when it ruled that the budding agreement between the Medinas and Sunstate was a fixed-price contract, it was an abuse of discretion to exclude evidence that the building agreement had been orally modified. In order for the Medinas to be entitled to specific performance of the building agreement, they had to prove that they had fully performed their obligations under the contract, including the obligation to make full payment. See Hopper v. Reynolds, 81 N.M. 255, 260, 466 P.2d 101, 106 (1970). Sunstate contended that the original plans and specifications had been orally modified and that the Medinas had not paid for labor and materials used in building their home in accordance with the modified plans and specifications. By excluding all evidence of oral modification, the trial court severely prejudiced Sunstate in its ability to show that the Medinas were not entitled to specific performance and, in fact, owed Sunstate money for services performed under the contract as modified. Conclusion. The plain meaning of the building agreement between the Medinas and Sunstate demonstrates that the parties entered a cost-plus contract with a fixed contractor’s fee. Further, the trial court erroneously restricted the evidence of the amount due Sunstate to payments required under the written contract and written change orders, and it never determined whether the contract had in fact been modified by the express or implied agreement of the parties. We thus reverse the trial court and remand for a determination of the reasonable construction costs to be awarded to Sunstate and for a determination whether the Medinas and Sunstate, by their words and conduct, expressly or impliedly agreed to modify the terms of their building agreement. IT IS SO ORDERED. FRANCHINI, J., and PATRICIO M. SERNA, District Judge, concur.
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OPINION MINZNER, Judge. Wellborn Paint Manufacturing Company (“Wellborn”) appeals the district court’s affirmance of a decision by the New Mexico Employment Security Department (“ESD”). ESD’s decision declared certain employees of Wellborn eligible for benefits under the New Mexico Unemployment Compensation Act (“Act”), NMSA 1978, Sections 51-1-1 to -54 (Repl.Pamp.1983) for a period during which Wellborn instituted a lockout. We reverse. Wellborn and union officials began negotiations in November 1982 to replace the collective bargaining agreement that would expire on January 5, 1983. By January 5, the parties had reached agreement on all contract issues except wages. On that date, Wellborn proposed what it characterized as its “last and final” wage increase offer. Union members rejected the proposal later the same day. Wellborn shut down the plant on January 6 for yearly maintenance work. Wellborn sent a letter to its employees on January 11 advising them that it would institute a lockout on January 17 unless an agreement was reached. Wellborn officials testified that they preferred not to continue plant operations without a contract including a no-strike provision, primarily because they feared that the union might call a strike during the plant’s busy season in the spring. The parties maintained contact during this period through an exchange of letters. Neither party changed its position and the parties did not reach a wage agreement, although each indicated a willingness to continue negotiating. Wellborn instituted the lockout on January 17. The employees then filed for unemployment compensation. The ESD hearing officer concluded that the employees were not entitled to unemployment compensation, applying Section 51-1-7(D), because their unemployment was the result of a labor dispute. Section 51-1-7 provides, in relevant part, “An individual shall be disqualified for, and shall not be eligible to receive, benefits * * * for any week with respect to which the department finds that his unemployment is due to a labor dispute at the factory ****’’ He also found that negotiations were at an impasse and that the claimants were interested in the labor dispute. The ESD Board of Review reversed, holding that the lockout was not a disqualifying labor dispute under the statute because the employees were exercising their legal right to bargain prior to the lockout and, since negotiations were not at an impasse, Wellborn was unilaterally responsible for the employees’ unemployment. The district court, after independent review of the record, adopted findings and conclusions consistent with those of the Board. Wellborn argues that the district court erred as a matter of law in holding that a lockout is not a labor dispute unless negotiations between the parties are at an impasse. Wellborn further contends that, even if the statute authorizes such an exception, the district court’s finding that negotiations between the parties were not at an impasse is not supported by substantial evidence. The question raised on appeal is one of first impression in New Mexico. Although the reviewing court generally may not substitute its judgment for that of the administrative decision-maker, it may correct the decision-maker’s misapplication of the law. Conwell v. City of Albuquerque, 97 N.M. 136, 637 P.2d 567 (1981). See also Mitchell v. Lovington Good Samaritan Center, Inc., 89 N.M. 575, 555 P.2d 696 (1976). I. “UNEMPLOYMENT ... DUE TO A LABOR DISPUTE” AS INCLUDING LOCKOUTS WHETHER OR NOT NEGOTIATIONS HAVE REACHED AN IMPASSE. The function of this court in construing a statute is to give effect to legislative intent. Salazar v. St. Vincent Hospital, 95 N.M. 150, 619 P.2d 826 (Ct.App.), rev’d in part on other grounds, 95 N.M. 147, 619 P.2d 823 (1980). Legislative intent is to be determined primarily by the language used. Santa Fe Downs, Inc. v. Bureau of Revenue, 85 N.M. 115, 509 P.2d 882 (Ct.App.1973). We must interpret the language as the legislature understood it when the statute was enacted. The legislature passed the original Act in 1936. 1936 N.M.Laws (S.S.) Ch. 1. The general purpose of the Act is to relieve involuntary unemployment. Section 51-1-3. The Act calls for liberal construction to accomplish the remedial and humanitarian ends intended by the legislature. Parsons v. Employment Security Commission, 71 N.M. 405, 379 P.2d 57 (1963). All states have unemployment compensation legislation, and each state has a specific disqualification provision barring from benefits workers unemployed due to labor disputes. Shadur, Unemployment Benefits and the “Labor Dispute” Disqualification, 17 U.Chi.L.Rev. 294 (1950). Prior to 1979 our statute disqualified claimants whose “unemployment [is] due to a stoppage of work which exists because of a labor dispute at the factory, establishment, or other premises at which he is or was last employed.” See NMSA 1953, § 59-9-5(d) (Supp.1975). In Albuquerque-Phoenix Express, Inc. v. Employment Security Commission, 88 N.M. 596, 544 P.2d 1161 (1975), the New Mexico Supreme Court interpreted this language as not disqualifying strikers when the strike did not stop work at the employer’s premises. The court reasoned that the phrase “stoppage of work” referred to a stoppage of work by the employer rather than the employee. The 1979 amendment eliminated the phrase “stoppage of work.” 1979 N.M.Laws Ch. 280, § 14. Our statute, as a result of this amendment, is unique. See generally An-not., 62 A.L.R.3d 437 (1975). Appellant has argued that the 1979 amendment evidences a legislative intent to broaden the exception. We agree. The language of the amendment, however, established a general phrase, “unemployment * * * due to a labor dispute,” that must be applied to specific facts. At trial in the district court and on appeal, the parties have argued that the question for interpretation is whether the legislature intended to include all lockouts within the term “labor dispute” or only lockouts which result after the parties have reached an impasse in collective bargaining. We believe that this statement of the issue is too narrow: the entire phrase requires interpretation. A. THE INCLUSION OF LOCKOUTS WITHIN THE TERM “LABOR DISPUTE.” It seems clear that the legislature intended ; to include a lockout within the term “labor dispute.” The language of the particular provision within which the term appears, New Mexico case law interpreting the term in another context, and the interpretation given the term in other jurisdictions support this conclusion. Although the legislature did not explicitly define “labor dispute” in Subsection (D) of the statute, in Subsection (C)(2)(a), directly preceding the provision in question, the legislature refers to “strike, lockout or other labor dispute.” This is strong evidence of legislative intent to include lockouts as potentially disqualifying labor disputes for purposes of this statute. See In re North River Logging Co., 15 Wash.2d 204, 130 P.2d 64 (1942). See also Buchholz v. Cummins, 6 Ill.2d 382, 128 N.E.2d 900 (1955). Further, Section 308(E) of the ESD’s own Rules and Regulations, dealing with the employer’s duty to give notice of a labor dispute, also uses the phrase “strike, lockout or other labor dispute.” Our courts have been called upon to define “labor dispute” as used by the legislature in the context of NMSA 1978, Section 50-3-1, which restricts the situations in which our courts may issue permanent injunctions. In Pomonis v. Hotel, Restaurant & Bartenders Union, Local Union No. 716, 56 N.M. 56, 239 P.2d 1003 (1952), the court defined “labor dispute” as including “ ‘any controversy concerning terms or conditions of employment, or concerning the association or representation of persons in negotiating, fixing, maintaining, changing, or seeking to arrange terms or conditions of employment, regardless of whether or not the disputants stand in the proximate relation of employer and employee.’ ” 56 N.M. at 61, 239 P.2d at 1006 (quoting the Norris-La Guardia Act, 29 U.S.C.S. § 113(c) (Law.Co-op.1975)). See also Romero v. Journeymen Barbers, Hair Dressers, Cosmetologists and Proprietors International Union of America, Local Union No. 501, A.F. of L.-C.I.O., 63 N.M. 443, 321 P.2d 628 (1958); 29 U.S.C.S. § 152 (Law.Co-op.1975). This definition of “labor dispute” is consistent with the way in which other courts have defined the term in disqualifying statutes. Buchholz; Gorecki v. State, 115 N.H. 120, 335 A.2d 647 (1975). An employer’s lockout may be a cessation of furnishing work to employees in an effort to obtain for the employer more desirable contract terms, or the suspension of operations by an employer resulting from a dispute with his employees over wages, hours, or working conditions. See BE-MAC Transport Co. v. Grabiec, 20 Ill.App.3d 345, 314 N.E.2d 242 (1974). When a term is not defined by statute, we will interpret the term in accordance with its usual and ordinary meaning unless a different intent is clearly indicated. McCurry v. City of Farmington, 97 N.M. 728, 643 P.2d 292 (Ct.App.1982). A lockout is potentially a labor dispute, given the ordinary and usual definitions of these terms. There is no clear indication in the statute of a different intent. Finally, New Mexico follows the general rule that the court, in construing statutory law adopted from other countries, should look to the source for definitions and interpretation. Laughlin v. Laughlin, 49 N.M. 20, 155 P.2d 1010 (1944). As both the Buchholz and North River courts have observed, most unemployment compensation acts, including our own, were borrowed from the original English act, and “English decisions are uniform in holding that a lockout is a labor dispute in contemplation of the national insurance acts.” North River, 15 Wash.2d at 208-09, 130 P.2d at 66. For these reasons, we conclude that lockouts generally fall within the labor dispute disqualification. We next consider whether our labor dispute disqualification excludes lockouts that result when negotiations have not reached an impasse. B. THE “IMPASSE” EXCEPTION. ESD argues that because the term “labor dispute” is not explicitly defined by statute, we should construe the term in light of the Act’s intent to protect against involuntary unemployment. Consequently, ESD would have this court inject an impasse requirement into the labor dispute determination, limiting the cases where a disqualifying lockout is found to those where an impasse in negotiations exists between the parties. See Bootz Manufacturing Co. v. Review Board of Indiana Employment Security Division, 143 Ind.App. 17, 237 N.E.2d 597 (1968); National Gypsum Co. v. Administrator, Louisiana Department of Employment Security, 313 So.2d 230 (La.), appeal dismissed, 423 U.S. 1009, 96 S.Ct. 439, 46 L.Ed.2d 381 (1975); Montana Ready Mixed Concrete Association v. Board of Labor Appeals, 175 Mont. 143, 572 P.2d 915 (1977). ESD contends that an impasse requirement is necessary to prevent employers from unilaterally and unreasonably locking out employees and gaining unfair advantage in the negotiation process. It also claims that an impasse requirement is necessary to ensure that all employees who are unem ployed “through no fault of their own” receive benefits. We find the “impasse” requirement an inappropriate judicial insertion under well-settled rules of statutory construction. First, the disqualification provisions in Section 51-1-7 create specific exceptions to the generally declared purpose of the Act. When a statute expresses first a general intent and then an inconsistent particular intent, the latter will be construed as an exception to the former and both will stand. North River. To the extent that there is a conflict between the general intent of the Act to protect against involuntary unemployment and the specific disqualification of some employees who may nevertheless be involuntarily unemployed, the specific exceptions control. See City of Alamogordo v. Walker Motor Co., 94 N.M. 690, 616 P.2d 403 (1980). Second, ESD’s argument requires that we add language to the statute excepting lockouts from qualification as disqualifying labor disputes where no impasse in negotiations exists. On appeal ESD concedes that lockouts are disqualifying labor disputes if the parties have reached an impasse in negotiations. We ought not read language into the statute where, as here, the statute makes sense as written. Perez v. Health & Social Services, 91 N.M. 334, 573 P.2d 689 (Ct.App.1977). In addition, the decision to distinguish among lockouts seems to us a legislative decision, with respect to which various options are available. Several states specifically exempt lockouts or their equivalents from labor dispute disqualification in their unemployment compensation acts. Ark. Stat.Ann. § 81-1105(f) (1976 Repl.); Ky. Rev.Stat. § 341.360(1) (1983); Miss.Code Ann. § 71-5-513(5)(a) (Cum.Supp.1983); W.Va.Code § 21A-6-3(4) (Cum.Supp.1983). These statutes vary in detail. Had the legislature intended to exclude lockouts from the labor dispute disqualification provision where no impasse in negotiations had been reached, it could have easily done so. If the legislature desires to exclude lockouts, it may choose among different models. Under these circumstances, we ought not read the impasse exception into the statute. The impasse exception seems to require that the administrative agency or the court determine whether one party or another caused or was more responsible for the unemployment. Such a tendency would violate the policy that the state should remain neutral in labor disputes. As the New Mexico Supreme Court has stated: “It is one of the fundamental tenets of the unemployment compensation law that the administering agency remain neutral in the labor dispute and refrain from passing on the merits of the dispute. Courts almost unanimously hold that the merits of a labor dispute are immaterial in determining the existence of the dispute, the rationale being that the unemployment compensation fund should not be used for the purpose of financing a labor dispute any more than it should be withheld for the purpose of enabling an employer to break a strike.” Albuquerque-Phoenix Express, 88 N.M. at 599, 544 P.2d at 1164 (citations omitted). In fact, the impasse exception for which ESD has argued might tend to discourage collective bargaining. An employer might be induced to reach a final position earlier in the process than otherwise, in order to prevent a finding that no impasse had occurred. We believe that the most effective method of upholding the policy of neutrality and the policy of encouraging collective bargaining under the present statute is to treat lockouts as potentially disqualifying labor disputes and to require a finding that the unemployment resulted from a labor dispute. C. THE CAUSAL CONNECTION BETWEEN A LOCKOUT AND A LABOR DISPUTE. The question of whether an employee qualifies for unemployment benefits or falls within the disqualifying labor dispute provision requires not only a determination that a labor dispute existed but also a determination that the employee’s unemployment resulted from the labor dispute. See Smith v. Michigan Employment Security Commission, 410 Mich. 231, 301 N.W.2d 285 (1981), aff'd sub nom. Doerr v. Universal Engineering Division, Houdaille Industries, Inc., 414 Mich. 1101, 322 N.W.2d 711 (1982). Our statute- requires that the employee’s unemployment be “due to” a labor dispute. This language imposes a requirement of causal connection between the unemployment for which benefits are claimed and a labor dispute. Our former statute imposed two causation requirements: (1) unemployment must have been “due to” a stoppage of work, and (2) the work stoppage must have existed “because of” a labor dispute. In amending the statute, the legislature appears to have broadened the exception by eliminating the requirement of a work stoppage and the causal connection between work stoppage and a labor dispute. The resulting exception is shorter but not necessarily simpler. It continues to require the existence of a labor dispute from which unemployment results. The lockout is an economic weapon in the hands of the employer which is a counter1 part to the employees’ strike weapon. North River. Employees covered by federal law who are unilaterally and unreasonably locked out by their employer have a remedy under 29 U.S.C. Section 158(a) for unfair labor practices within the meaning of the National Labor Relations Act. See American Ship Building Co. v. National Labor Relations Board, 380 U.S. 300, 85 S.Ct. 955, 13 L.Ed.2d 855 (1965). We need not decide whether our disqualification provision would encompass a lockout that represented an unfair labor practice. In this case the employees filed an unfair labor practice charge against Wellborn, which the National Labor Relations Board ultimately dismissed. The trial court’s findings and conclusions evidence a concern that an interpretation of the statutory term “labor dispute” that includes lockouts and does not recognize an impasse exception permits unilateral and unreasonable conduct by the employer. We respect that concern, but we believe the federal statute provides significant protection against such conduct. Further, our statute requires more than a determination that a lockout occurred. The statute stipulates that the disqualifying event is unemployment due to a labor dispute. The phrase requires a determination that the unemployment arose because of a labor dispute. In the context of a lockout, the phrase requires a causal connection between the employer’s decision and a controversy relating to terms or conditions of employment. See Pomonis. II. WELLBORN’S LOCKOUT AS CAUSALLY CONNECTED TO A LABOR DISPUTE. The trial court did not make an express finding on this issue. However, based on the findings of fact made by the district court, we conclude that the unemployment was due to a labor dispute. The employer’s decision to institute a lockout was made as a result of a controversy relating to terms and conditions of employment. Wellborn and its employees, having engaged in collective bargaining, were in disagreement over wage terms for a new contract. Although the employees were willing to work without a contract, Wellborn was not willing to operate under those terms. Thus, the parties were in disagreement over terms and conditions of employment, and a labor dispute existed. Wellborn locked out its employees after the expiration of the existing contract. At that point a labor dispute existed. There was substantial evidence that the employer’s decision represented a response to the parties’ failure to agree on terms and conditions of employment. There was no evidence of improper motive. Under these circumstances, the lockout by Wellborn had a sufficient causal connection to a labor dispute. The employees’ “unemployment [was] due to a labor dispute.” We reverse the trial court as to its interpretation of the scope of the statutory term “labor dispute.” The case is remanded to the district court so that it may enter an order requiring the ESD to relieve Well-born’s unemployment compensation account from any charges attributable to payments made to Wellborn’s employees. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and NEAL, J., concur.
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OPINION APODACA, Judge. Defendant Dr. Harry Thomas (Defendant) appeals a judgment after a jury verdict finding him liable for negligent spoliation of evidence. Defendant raises the following issues on appeal: (1) whether New Mexico should recognize the tort of negligent spoliation of evidence; (2) if New Mexico does recognize this cause of action, whether the claim failed in this case because Plaintiff Mary Bush (Plaintiff), as personal representative of the estate of Janice Bush (Decedent), failed to prove that Defendant had a legal or contractual duty to preserve his records of Decedent’s treatment; and (3) whether the claim failed because Plaintiff did not prove that loss of the records significantly impaired her ability to present her underlying claim for medical malpractice, an essential element of negligent spoliation of evidence. Assuming that New Mexico would recognize a cause of action for negligent spoliation of evidence and that Defendant had a duty to preserve the records, we hold that Plaintiff nevertheless failed to prove that loss of the medical records impaired her ability to prove her claim of malpractice against Defendant. We therefore reverse the trial court’s judgment. In light of our holding, we need not determine whether negligent spoliation of evidence should be recognized as an independent tort in New Mexico and whether a physician under the facts of this appeal had any duty to preserve a patient’s medical records for use in a potential civil action brought by the patient. BACKGROUND 1. Evidence Related to Plaintiffs Underlying Medical Malpractice Claim. Plaintiff sued Defendant for medical malpractice in connection with the death of Decedent, Plaintiff’s daughter. Although Defendant’s medical records of Decedent were not found, Decedent’s treatment by Defendant was paid for by Medicaid. As a result of such payment, the Medicaid records showed the date of each visit, the diagnosis, and any prescriptions ordered. The evidence showed that Defendant first saw Decedent on September 3, 1986, at which time he prescribed Valium, known genericaUy as diazepam. Defendant first prescribed Darvon, known genericaily as propoxyphene hydrochloride, for Decedent in January 1988. He prescribed Darvon for Decedent seventeen times, the last prescription being made on June 6, 1989, the day before Decedent’s death. According to the Medicaid records, a diagnosis of “opioid dependence” originated from Defendant’s office in connection with six of Decedent’s visits. Other evidence unrelated to Defendant’s treatment, including University of New Mexico Hospital records and the testimony of another doctor, Dr. Kassicieh, who had also treated Decedent, showed that Decedent had a history of drug abuse. Defendant testified that Decedent did not exhibit symptoms indicating she was abusing Darvon. Decedent saw Defendant four times on the date her Darvon prescription would have been used up if taken as prescribed; on aU other occasions, she came in a week or two after the prescription would have been used up. Defendant’s former office manager testified that she noted the Medicaid codes for the diagnoses on Defendant’s biUs and that Defendant never gave her a chart with the diagnosis “opioid dependence.” On the evening before her death, Decedent sniffed paint for thirty to forty-five minutes before going to bed. She was discovered dead the next morning. The bottle of Darvon prescribed for Decedent by Defendant the previous day was found in her purse. It contained forty-five of the seventy-two tablets that had been prescribed. The autopsy report noted that Decedent’s body contained Darvon, in the amount of 3.5 milligrams per Uter, and toluene, a propeUant found in spray paint, in an undetermined amount. The report concluded that Decedent’s death was caused by “[djrug (propoxyphene) intoxication.” Plaintiffs expert testified that, based on the police report, autopsy report, depositions, and Medicaid records, Defendant failed to use the knowledge and skill ordinarily used by reasonably qualified doctors under similar circumstances. He also expressed the opinion that Defendant’s failure to treat Decedent’s pain with less addictive drugs and his failure to intervene in her drug abuse problem contributed to her death. The amount of Darvon in Decedent’s body was within the range associated with overdose. Defendant’s expert disagreed with the autopsy report’s conclusion that Decedent died from an overdose of Darvon. Instead, he opined that her death was caused by a combination of Darvon and inhalation of spray paint fumes. He testified that the amount of Darvon in Decedent’s body was not consistent with the number of tablets missing from the bottle; rather, had Decedent taken twenty-seven tablets of Darvon just before her death, the level of Darvon in her body would have been much higher. He stated that, according to some medical literature, for persons who are not tolerant to Darvon, the average level of the drug that causes death was 8.9 milligrams per liter. He was of the opinion that, to a person tolerant of Darvon, such as Decedent, 3.5 milligrams of Darvon would not be lethal and that it was not lethal in this case. 2. Evidence Related to the Negligent Spoliation of Evidence Claim. Before Decedent’s death, Defendant was investigated by the Medicaid Fraud Unit. On March 13 or 14,1989, the Medicaid Fraud Unit searched Defendant’s medical office and confiscated about 6,000 patient files. Decedent’s file did not appear on the Medicaid inventory of the confiscated files. Defendant testified that he usually created a temporary chart for a patient when the patient’s chart could not be found. He did not know what had happened to the temporary chart he would have created for Decedent if her file had been confiscated in March 1989. He had no records of her four visits between March 1989 and June 6,1989. He also testified that his office loses records all the time. Following Defendant’s failure to produce the medical records in connection with the underlying claim, Plaintiff amended her complaint to include allegations of both intentional and negligent spoliation of evidence. At the close of Plaintiffs case, Defendant moved for a directed verdict on those claims. The trial court granted a directed verdict on the intentional spoliation of evidence claim and denied it on the negligent spoliation of evidence claim. In connection with Plaintiffs underlying malpractice claim, the jury found in a special verdict form that Defendant was negligent in his treatment of Decedent but that such treatment was not a proximate cause of her death. However, the jury found in connection with Plaintiffs negligent spoliation of evidence claim that Defendant negligently destroyed or concealed Decedent’s records and that this destruction or concealment was a proximate cause of Plaintiffs injuries and damages in presenting her malpractice case. The jury awarded Plaintiff $3,000 in actual damages and $50,000 in punitive damages. Defendant’s motion for a new trial, remittitur, or judgment notwithstanding the verdict was denied by the trial court. DISCUSSION “Spoliation of evidence in a prospective civil action occurs when evidence pertinent to the action is destroyed, thereby interfering with the action’s proper administration and disposition.” Hirsch v. General Motors Corp., 266 N.J.Super. 222, 628 A.2d 1108, 1113 (Law Div.1993) (citations omitted). New Mexico has not recognized either negligent or intentional spoliation of evidence as a tort. Three states, Alaska, California, and Florida, have done so. See Hazen v. Municipality of Anchorage, 718 P.2d 456, 463 (Alaska 1986); Smith v. Superior Court, 151 Cal.App.3d 491, 198 Cal.Rptr. 829, 832 (1984); Miller v. Allstate Ins. Co., 573 So.2d 24, 27 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1990), review denied, 581 So.2d 1307 (Fla.1991); Bondu v. Gurvich, 473 So.2d 1307, 1312 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1984), review denied, 484 So.2d 7 (Fla.1986). The cause of action has been rejected or not recognized for various reasons in numerous jurisdictions. See, e.g., Edwards v. Louisville Ladder Co., 796 F.Supp. 966, 971-72 (W.D.La.1992) (no special relationship between the parties gave rise to any duty to preserve evidence); Parker v. Thyssen Mining Constr., Inc., 428 So.2d 615, 618 (Ala.1983) (employer had no duty to preserve evidence relevant to employee’s third-party claim); La Raia v. Superior Court, 150 Ariz. 118, 722 P.2d 286, 289 (1986) (en banc) (alternative cause of action available); Rodgers v. St. Mary’s Hosp., 198 Ill.App.3d 871, 145 Ill.Dec. 295, 556 N.E.2d 913, 916 (1990) (statutory cause of action available), aff'd, 149 Ill.2d 302, 173 Ill.Dec. 642, 597 N.E.2d 616, 619-20 (1992); Koplin v. Rosel Well Perforators, Inc., 241 Kan. 206, 734 P.2d 1177, 1183 (1987) (absent independent source of duty, tort not recognized); Federated Mut. Ins. Co. v. Litchfield Precision Components, Inc., 456 N.W.2d 434, 439 (Minn.1990) (resolution of underlying claim necessary to prove damages and prevent speculative recovery); Hirsch, 628 A.2d at 1118 (where defendant raised spoliation claim against plaintiff, discovery sanctions adequate); see generally Thomas G. Fischer, Annotation, Intentional Spoliation of Evidence, Interfering with Prospective Civil Action, as Actionable, 70 A.L.R.4th 984 (1989). The various reasons given by courts rejecting the tort can be summarized as lack of agreement or duty to preserve the evidence; availability of alternative remedies, such as sanctions; uncertainty as to the extent or existence of damages; and the fact the evidence was spoliated by a third party that was not involved in the action in which the evidence would have been used. Edwards, 796 F.Supp. at 969 (citing Philip A. Lionberger, Comment, Interference with Prospective Civil Litigation by Spoliation of Evidence and Should Terns Adopt a New Tort?, 21 St. Mary’s L.J. 209 (1989)). However, as we noted previously, we need not decide in this appeal whether negligent spoliation of evidence should be recognized as a cause of action in New Mexico because we conclude that, even if it were recognized, Plaintiffs claim would fail for the reasons discussed below. One court has held that the elements of the tort of negligent spoliation of evidence are: (1) existence of a potential civil action; (2) a legal or contractual duty to preserve evidence that is relevant to the potential civil action; (3) destruction of that evidence; (4) significant impairment of the ability to prove the civil action; (5) a causal relationship between the destruction of the evidence and the inability to prove the civil action; and (6) damages. Continental Ins. Co. v. Herman, 576 So.2d 313, 315 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1990), review denied, 598 So.2d 76 (Fla.1991). In this case, even assuming that all the other elements of Plaintiffs claim for negligent spoliation of evidence were satisfied, we are com pelled to conclude that Plaintiff failed to prove her ability to present her malpractice claim was impaired, based on the jury’s verdict form returned on the underlying malpractice claim. “A directed verdict is proper only when the jury could not reasonably and legally reach any other conclusion, given the facts and circumstances of the case before it.” Plummer v. Devore, 114 N.M. 243, 246, 836 P.2d 1264, 1267 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 114 N.M. 82, 835 P.2d 80 (1992). On appeal, the court resolves all contradictions in the evidence in favor of the party resisting the motion. Id. However, if the facts bearing on the issue of proximate cause are not in dispute and the reasonable inferences to be drawn from the facts are plain and consistent, the issue becomes one of law. See Adamson v. Highland Corp., 80 N.M. 4, 8, 450 P.2d 442, 446 (Ct.App.1969). Even without Defendant’s medical records, Plaintiff was able to present considerable evidence that Defendant’s treatment of Decedent was negligent, and in fact the jury explicitly found that Defendant’s treatment rose to the level of negligence. However, faced with conflicting evidence on the cause of Decedent’s death, the jury concluded that Defendant’s negligent treatment was not a proximate cause of Decedent’s death. Plaintiff has not appealed this finding. Consequently, we are bound by that finding on appeal, see SCRA 1986, 12-213(A)(3) (Cum. Supp.1994), which ultimately forms the basis for our disposition. Plaintiff contends that the medical records would have helped her establish that Defendant’s treatment was a proximate cause of Decedent’s death because the evidence in those records might have contradicted Defendant’s testimony. There was no evidence, however, indicating that the records would have shed any light on the cause of Decedent’s death. The only issue on which the records would have been of use was on the question of whether Defendant’s treatment of Decedent fell below the required standard of care. Because the jury, in its verdict form, expressly concluded that Defendant’s treatment of Decedent did indeed rise to the level of negligence, clearly the lack of the records did not hinder Plaintiff’s attempt to persuade the jury on this issue. Instead, it was on the basis of the conflicting and independent evidence and testimony concerning the actual cause of death that Plaintiff’s underlying malpractice claim failed. This testimony on causation was separate and apart from any evidence that could have been produced from the missing medical records. It necessarily follows that Plaintiff failed to prove that the destruction or loss of the records significantly impaired her ability to prove her medical malpractice claim. See Continental Ins. Co., 576 So.2d at 315. We thus reverse the trial court’s denial of Defendant’s motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict. CONCLUSION We hold that, even assuming that New Mexico would recognize the tort of negligent spoliation of evidence, Plaintiff did not prove that the loss or destruction of the evidence impaired her ability to prove her underlying cause of action. Thus, Plaintiff failed to prove an essential element of the tort. Consequently, this is not an appropriate case to address the issue of whether or not the tort should be recognized in New Mexico. We therefore reverse the trial court’s judgment and remand for the entry of judgment for Defendant. No costs are awarded on appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. FLORES and BOSSON, JJ., concur.
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OPINION HARTZ, Judge. Phelps Dodge/Chino Mines (Employer) appeals the award to Samuel Carrasco (Worker) of a lump-sum payment of disability benefits to replace periodic payments. Employer contends that a portion of the lump-sum payment was not permitted by the Workers’ Compensation Administration Act because it was to pay a debt that had not accumulated during Worker’s disability. We agree and reverse. The parties stipulated that Worker suffered a compensable injury on May 31, 1991 and that the controlling law is the 1990 enactment governing lump-sum payments. See Jojola v. Aetna Life & Casualty, 109 N.M. 142, 144, 782 P.2d 395, 397 (Ct.App.1989) (worker’s claim for benefits is ordinarily governed by law in effect at time cause of action accrued). The pertinent provisions of NMSA 1978, Section 52-5-12 (Repl.Pamp.1991) (effective Jan. 1, 1991), state: A. It is stated policy for the administration of the Workers’ Compensation Act ... that it is in the best interest of the injured worker or disabled employee that he receive benefit payments on a periodic basis. Except as provided in Subsections B, C and D of this section, lump-sum payments in exchange for the release of the employer from liability for future payments of compensation or medical benefits shall not be allowed. C. After maximum medical improvement and with the approval of the workers’ compensation judge, a worker may elect to receive a partial lump-sum payment of workers’ compensation benefits for the sole purpose of paying debts that may have accumulated during the course of the injured or disabled worker’s disability. Employer also relies on NMSA 1978, Section 52-5-1 (Repl.Pamp.1991) (effective Jan. 1, 1991), which expresses legislative intent that the courts interpret the workers’ compensation laws evenhandedly, favoring neither workers nor employers. According to the parties’ stipulation, Worker became temporarily totally disabled on April 10, 1992 and remained temporarily totally disabled until he achieved maximum medical improvement on February 22, 1993. He was left with a thirty percent permanent impairment to his body as a whole. On June 30, 1993 the Workers’ Compensation Judge (WCJ) entered a stipulated compensation order providing for periodic disability benefit payments. In February 1994 Worker petitioned for a lump-sum payment of disability benefits to cover ten separate debts listed in the petition. The debts were $11,392.82 owed to the Chino Federal Credit Union (the credit union debt), an aggregate of $5,530.57 for five debts owed to individuals, $300 owed to two separate medical care providers, $109.82 owed to a medical information service, and $1,250 owed to his lawyer. After an evidentiary hearing on the petition, at which Worker testified concerning the amount of the debts and the manner in which they were incurred, the WCJ granted the petition. At the hearing Employer argued that a lump-sum payment for the credit union debt was not authorized by Section 52-5-12(C) because the debt had not “accumulated during the course of the injured or disabled worker’s disability.” Employer pointed to Worker’s testimony that (1) the debt, although represented by a note dated August 14, 1992, was a refinancing of a 1990 debt incurred to purchase a van and (2) Worker had not been behind in his payments on the vehicle. Employer does not challenge the portion of the lump-sum award based on the other nine debts listed in Worker’s petition. The first issue before us is whether the credit union debt “accumulated during the course of [Worker’s] disability.” We hold that it did not. The debt continued during Worker’s disability; it did not grow. One whose wealth remains constant does not accumulate wealth. By the same token, a constant debt does not accumulate during the period that it continues. Although the renewal of a promissory note may for some purposes be considered a new debt, a renewal does not constitute an accumulation of debt within the scope of Section 52-5-12(C). Worker, however, suggests a second ground for including the amount of the credit union debt in the lump-sum payment. He contends that Section 52-5-12(C) permits a lump-sum payment of all debts if some debts have accumulated. He argues as follows: The statute looks at what occurred with the entire debt package, what have all of the debts done together. If the debts, used in the plural form, accumulated, then the judge can order that they be paid, and the worker may elect to have them paid. [Employer] admits that at least the nine debts they agreed to pay were new during the disability. These nine debts accumulated, piled up and amassed with the one owed Chino Federal Credit Union for a van. This reading of the statute is too strained. The statute permits awarding a lump sum for the sole purpose of paying “debts that may have accumulated.” Section 52 — 5—12(C). The natural reading of the statutory language is that only those debts that have been added during the worker’s disability may be paid off with a lump sum; other debts are not eligible for lump-sum payment. Section 52-5-12(A) confirms this interpretation. It reflects a legislative intent to avoid lump-sum payments except in exceptional circumstances because of the risk that shortsighted payment of a lump sum will ultimately lead to placement of the worker on the public dole. See Cabazos v. Calloway Const., 118 N.M. 198, 200-01, 879 P.2d 1217, 1219-20 (Ct.App.) (stating purposes behind the provisions of Section 52-5-12), cert. denied, 118 N.M. 198, 889 P.2d 203 (1994); Riesenecker v. Arkansas Best Freight Sys., 110 N.M. 654, 655-56, 798 P.2d 1040, 1041-42 (Ct.App.) (decided under prior law), judgment vacated, 110 N.M. 451, 796 P.2d 1147 (1990). In light of Section 52-5-12(A) one must conclude that Section 52-5-12(0 is not intended to permit lump-sum payments of those debts that the worker is able to keep current during disability with the help of periodic disability benefit payments. We need not rely on Section 52-5-1 to reach this conclusion. Thus, because the credit union debt did not accumulate during Worker’s disability, the WCJ erred in awarding a lump sum to pay that debt. We reverse the order approving the lump-sum payment and remand with directions to the WCJ to enter an amended order that provides for a lump-sum payment of $7,190.39, the sum of the nine debts accumulated during Worker’s disability. IT IS SO ORDERED. PICKARD and FLORES, JJ., concur.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. We granted certiorari to the district court, pursuant to SCRA 1986, 12-501, to review the district court’s denial of a motion to correct or modify the petitioner’s sentence. The petitioner, convicted of a fourth degree felony and a misdemeanor, was sentenced consecutively to eighteen months’ imprisonment for the felony and 364 days for the misdemeanor. The trial court also imposed a one-year parole period to be served upon “completion of said prison terms.” The petitioner complains that the trial court erred in requiring him to serve his parole period after the completion of the entire sentence, eighteen months and 364 days, instead of allowing him to begin his parole after the term for the felony had expired and concurrently with the term for the misdemeanor. The State interprets NMSA 1978, § 31-18-15(C) (Repl.Pamp.1987) to prescribe a period of parole after the “actual time of imprisonment” imposed to include any non-felony imprisonment period which may be part of an aggregate sentence. NMSA 1978, Section 31-21-10(0 (Repl. Pamp.1987), which refers to the parole provisions for a singular offense, offers some elucidation: “An inmate who was convicted of a fourth degree felony and who has served the sentence of imprisonment imposed by the court * * * shall be required to undergo a one-year period of parole.” (Emphasis added). There is no statutory provision imposing parole after service of a misdemeanor conviction. We are per suaded that Section 31-21-10(C) requires commencement of the parole period as soon as the felony sentence has been completed. This conclusion is supported by our decision in Brock v. Sullivan, 105 N.M. 412, 733 P.2d 860 (1987). In interpreting Section 31-18-15(C), we declared in Brock that when a defendant is sentenced to consecutive terms of imprisonment for fourth degree felonies, the parole period for each offense commences immediately after the completion of the period of incarceration for each offense so that the parole period attached to each felony will run concurrently with any subsequent sentence then being served. Id. at 414, 733 P.2d at 862. In response to petitioner’s request for modification of the language of the judgment and sentence, the State cites State v. Smith, 102 N.M. 350, 695 P.2d 834 (Ct. App.), cert. denied, 102 N.M. 492, 697 P.2d 492 (1985), to urge that parole should be served after completion of the entire term of imprisonment. To the extent that State v. Smith is inconsistent with our more recent decision in Brock and the analysis in this opinion, we overrule it. The trial court is reversed, and we order that the one-year period of parole commence immediately upon the expiration of the term of imprisonment for the felony conviction. The judgment shall be vacated and a new judgment entered accordingly. SCARBOROUGH, C.J., SOSA, Senior J., and RANSOM, J., concur. STOWERS, J., dissents.
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OPINION ALARID, Judge. Plaintiffs appeal the dismissal of their worker’s compensation claims. The appeals were consolidated pursuant to our first calendar notice. Plaintiffs’ brief-in-chief raises two issues on appeal: (A) whether their suits were properly dismissed as premature, and (B) whether their suits were properly dismissed as moot. Plaintiffs raised a third issue concerning attorney fees in their docketing statements; however, this issue has been incorporated into plaintiffs’ second issue. In resolving this consolidated appeal, we need only resolve the second issue. Plaintiffs assert that their claims are not moot for two reasons: (1) that attorney fees are unresolved in both cases, and (2) that defendant improperly credited its payment of paid accident leave toward its liability for worker’s compensation benefits. Jacquez also argues that his suit was not moot because there was an unpaid medical bill still at issue. We affirm the dismissal of both claims to establish the right to compensation, but reverse as to Jacquez’s claim for payment of the medical bill. Redhouse was injured on February 14, 1985, and Jacquez was injured on October 1, 1984. Both received paid accident leave for a short period of time after their injuries. Paid accident time is equivalent to the worker’s full-time wage. It is paid in lieu of worker’s compensation benefits until defendant knows whether an employee will be out for an extended period of time, in which case the employee will receive worker’s compensation benefits. The payroll department continues to pay accident leave until the accounts payable department starts paying worker's compensation benefits. The employee’s supervisor codes the injured employee’s time slips to indicate that the employee is receiving paid accident leave. At the discretion of the supervisor, the employee may receive supplemental income in addition to worker’s compensation benefits. Supplemental income is the difference between worker’s compensation and an employee’s regular salary. Supplemental income can continue for up to five months from the employee’s injury, but any paid accident leave is credited toward supplemental income. Redhouse began receiving worker’s compensation benefits on March 4, 1985, at an incorrect weekly rate. He also received supplemental income from March 4 until July 13, 1985. Jacquez began receiving worker’s compensation benefits on November 5, 1984, also at an incorrect weekly rate. Jacquez also received supplemental income from November 5, 1984 until March 2, 1985. Plaintiffs’ attorney formally informed defendant, by separate letters on March 5th and 6th, of the discrepancy in plaintiffs’ weekly compensation amounts. Defendant responded by letter dated March 10, 1986, indicating that it would review plaintiffs’ payroll histories. Plaintiffs’ complaints for worker’s compensation were filed April 2, 1986. Defendant subsequently moved for summary judgment. The trial court dismissed both cases on the ground that they were prematurely filed. Summary judgment is proper when there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Westgate Families v. County Clerk of Los Alamos, 100 N.M. 146, 667 P.2d 453 (1983); see Goodman v. Brock, 83 N.M. 789, 498 P.2d 676 (1972). A reviewing court looks to the whole record and views matters in the light most favorable to support a trial on the merits. North v. Public Serv. Co., 97 N.M. 406, 640 P.2d 512 (Ct.App.1982). Also, the decision of a trial court is to be upheld if correct for any reason. H.T. Coker Constr. Co. v. Whitfield Transp., Inc., 85 N.M. 802, 518 P.2d 782 (Ct.App.1974). Plaintiffs do not contest defendant’s assertion that it has paid all worker’s compensation arrearages due to its incorrect calculation of benefits. Accordingly, plaintiffs’ claims for these arrearages are moot. See Patterson v. City of Albuquerque, 99 N.M. 632, 661 P.2d 1331 (Ct.App. 1983). Plaintiffs also make no claim that defendant refused to pay these arrearages. Consequently, plaintiffs have no right to attorney fees for these arrearages. See NMSA 1978, § 52-1-54 (Orig.Pamp.) (revised in 1987). See also Tafoya v. Leonard Tire Co., 94 N.M. 716, 616 P.2d 429 (Ct.App.1980). Plaintiffs’ counter-argument, based on Cromer v. J.W. Jones Constr. Co., 79 N.M. 179, 441 P.2d 219 (Ct.App.1968), overruled on other grounds, Schiller v. Southwest Air Rangers, Inc., 87 N.M. 476, 535 P.2d 1327 (1975), is misplaced. In Cromer, the defendant believed it had negotiated a lump sum settlement with the plaintiff and therefore had no duty to pay installments. Accordingly, defendant refused to pay installments. The facts are otherwise in this case. Hence, plaintiffs’ assertion that their claims are not moot due to undetermined attorney fees for the arrearages is without merit. Plaintiffs’ assertion that defendant’s act of crediting the paid accident leave toward its worker’s compensation liability precludes a determination that plaintiffs’ claims are moot is also without merit. We believe that defendant may properly credit its payment of accident leave toward its worker’s compensation liability. The parties all agree that Carter v. Mountain Bell, 105 N.M. 17, 727 P.2d 956 (Ct.App. 1986), is not controlling here since defendant had no contractual plan or policy of the type considered in Carter. Moreover, plaintiffs do not disagree with defendant’s claim that its paid accident leave is nothing more than an accounting label for an employee’s straight time wages. Defendant’s claim that paid accident leave is actually another label for wages is supported by uncontradicted deposition testimony of Vicki Abercrombie, defendant’s worker’s compensation administrator. Ms. Abercrombie essentially testified that paid accident leave is simply the continuation of an employee’s straight time wages, paid by the payroll department, and coded as such on the employee’s time slips until it is determined that the employee would be absent for an extended period, at which time compensation is changed from actual wages to worker’s compensation benefits. Ms. Abercrombie also testified that the payment of accident leave was in lieu of worker’s compensation. We believe defendant could properly credit its accident leave payments toward its worker’s compensation liability pursuant to Roybal v. County of Santa Fe, 79 N.M. 99, 440 P.2d 291 (1968). In Roybal, our supreme court determined that the allowance of credit for payment of wages toward worker’s compensation is dependent upon the employer’s intent. The supreme court indicated that whether an injured employee really earned his wages was the most important measure of the employer’s intent. If the employee is paid his regular wage although he does no work at all, it is a reasonable inference that the allowance is in lieu of compensation. Id. In the instant case, we have direct, uncontradicted testimony that the wages were paid in lieu of worker’s compensation benefits. It is also uncontested that the employees did not perform any work while receiving paid accident leave. Based upon these facts, defendant may properly credit its paid accident leave payments towards its worker’s compensation liability. See Roybal v. County of Santa Fe. We find plaintiffs’ assertion that Roybal was limited to its facts unpersuasive. Furthermore, plaintiffs’ claim that the Roybal case was considered unusual is of no aid here. Roybal is unusual because the plaintiff’s position as the elected sheriff established his right to his salary and to worker’s compensation benefits, even though he was unable to fully perform his required duties after a serious car accident in the course of his employment. Also, plaintiffs’ reliance on Hathaway v. New Mexico State Police, 57 N.M. 747, 263 P.2d 690 (1953), is misplaced. In Hathaway, the supreme court considered whether the plaintiff’s suit was premature since the employer continued to pay plaintiff’s salary and the salary was equivalent to worker’s compensation benefits. The supreme court declined to hold that payment of salary suspended the right to sue under the Act. Thus, Hathaway left the credit issue to be decided later in Roybal. We believe that Roybal controls the resolution of these consolidated appeals. Defendant is entitled to credit for its payment of paid accident leave toward its worker’s compensation liability. Since plaintiffs are not entitled to both paid accident leave and worker’s compensation under the facts of this case, claims to establish their right to compensation are moot and were properly dismissed. See Patterson v. City of Albuquerque; H.T. Coker Constr. Co. v. Whitfield Transp., Inc. Therefore, no attorney fees are permitted for seeking additional recovery. See Tafoya v. Leonard Tire Co. Finally, the parties agree that the part of Jacquez’s complaint seeking payment of a medical bill was improperly dismissed by the trial court. We agree with the parties. See Briscoe v. Hydro Conduit Corp., 88 N.M. 568, 544 P.2d 283 (Ct.App.1975). Hence, the trial court is reversed to the limited extent that Jacquez may seek payment of the medical bill. However, since Jacquez has yet to establish his right to medical expenses, this court cannot award him any attorney fees. Cf. Schiller v. Southwest Air Rangers, Inc. For the foregoing reasons, we affirm the dismissal of plaintiffs’ claims to establish their right to worker’s compensation, but reverse the dismissal of that part of Jacquez’s claim seeking payment of the medical bill. Should the trial court determine that defendant is liable for the medical bill, then it should consider the appellate efforts of Jacquez’s attorney to preserve the claim. We deem oral argument unnecessary. Garcia v. Genuine Parts Co., 90 N.M. 124, 560 P.2d 545 (Ct.App.1977). IT IS SO ORDERED. MINZNER and APODACA, JJ., concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. Citizens Bank of Clovis (Citizens Bank) sued to foreclose a judgment lien against real estate in Dona Ana County. It named as defendants Robert C. and Mary L. Hodges (the Hodges), purchasers of the property under an unrecorded executory contract; Charles Rutledge (Rutledge), record owner of the property at the time Citizens Bank filed its transcript of judgment and the vendor who sold the property to the Hodges; and Western Bank and Mutual Savings Association of El Paso (Mutual Savings), holders of mortgage liens against the property. The Hodges and Western Bank appeal from an order granting Citizens Bank’s cross-motion for summary judgment, foreclosing the judgment lien and ordering the sale of the property. Neither Rutledge nor Mutual Savings is a party to this appeal. This appeal presents the question of whether a lien on real estate resulting from a recorded transcript of judgment has priority over the interest of the purchasers under an earlier executed but unrecorded contract. The Hodges and Western Bank argue that it does not, under the facts presented, for two reasons. First, under the doctrine of equitable conversion, they claim the interest of Rutledge, the judgment debtor, became personalty as a result of the contract of sale and, therefore, his interest was not subject to a lien, since a transcript of judgment attaches only to real estate; and, second, even if a lien did attach, Citizens Bank had constructive notice of the Hodges’ interest because they were in actual possession of the property at the time of filing of the transcript of judgment. This court submitted the case to an advisory committee of lawyers pursuant to an experimental plan. See Patterson v. Environmental Improvement Div., 105 N.M. 320, 731 P.2d 1364 (Ct.App.1986). The committee rendered a unanimous opinion recommending affirmance of the district court. All parties to this appeal filed responses to the committee’s recommended opinion. We reverse the district court. Because Citizens Bank had constructive notice of the Hodges’ interest through the Hodges’ actual possession of the property, their judgment lien cannot attach to the property. Having so concluded, we need not decide whether the doctrine of equitable conversion applies. FACTS The relevant facts are not in dispute. In January 1979, Rutledge, the record owner of the real estate, executed a mortgage in favor of Mutual Savings that was recorded. All parties recognize the priority of Mutual Savings’ mortgage. On June 23,1979, Rutledge entered into an executory contract to sell the property to the Hodges. The contract was not recorded. Pursuant to that contract, a warranty deed conveying the property from Rutledge to the Hodges was placed in escrow with Western Bank, the escrow agent named in the contract. Under the terms of the contract, the Hodges assumed the first mortgage in favor of Mutual Savings, as well as a promissory note on the swimming pool, and also agreed to pay Rutledge the balance of the purchase price with interest in five years. After executing their contract with Rutledge in 1979, the Hodges took possession of the property and have continuously occupied it as their residence. They have made improvements to the property in excess of $25,000. On July 11, 1983, Citizens Bank obtained a judgment for $52,130.33 against Rutledge in the district court of Curry County and subsequently recorded a transcript of that judgment with the county clerk of Dona Ana County on August 29, 1983. At that time, although Rutledge had contracted to sell the property to the Hodges and a warranty deed was being held in escrow, nothing of record evidenced that sale. According to the county records, Rutledge owned the property. On February 18,1985, escrow was closed and the warranty deed was delivered to the Hodges and recorded on that date. At the same time, the Hodges executed a mortgage in favor of Western Bank to secure a loan for $34,000. Western Bank’s mortgage was also recorded on February 18, 1985. At the time Citizens Bank filed its transcript of judgment, it had no knowledge of the contract of sale between Rutledge and the Hodges. In fact, Citizens Bank did not even know that Rutledge owned property in New Mexico. The first indication Citizens Bank had of the Rutledge-Hodges contract was a telephone call from Mr. Hodges in April 1985 informing Citizens Bank that the judgment lien was interfering with a pending sale of the property. This suit followed. The Hodges and Western Bank counterclaimed for cancellation of the transcript of judgment, removal of cloud on the title and slander of title. Where the facts are not in dispute, only their legal effect, summary judgment may be properly granted. Lovato v. Duke City Lumber Co., 97 N.M. 545, 641 P.2d 1092 (Ct.App.1982). We turn to the issue raised by the facts to determine if summary judgment was proper and, if so, in whose favor it should have been granted. DISCUSSION Constructive Notice by Possession “All deeds, mortgages, United States patents and other writings affecting the title to real estate, shall be recorded in the office of the county clerk of the county or counties in which the real estate affected thereby is situated.” NMSA 1978, § 14-9-1. “Such records shall be notice to all the world of the existence and contents of the instruments so recorded from the time of recording.” NMSA 1978, § 14-9-2. “No deed, mortgage or other instrument in writing, not recorded in accordance with Section 14-9-1 NMSA 1978, shall affect the title or rights to, in any real estate, of any purchaser, mortgagee in good faith or judgment lien creditor, without knowledge of the existence of such unrecorded instruments." NMSA 1978, § 14-9-3 (emphasis added). Section 14-9-3 is considered a “notice” recording statute, Angle v. Slayton, 102 N.M. 521, 697 P.2d 940 (1985), and does not distinguish between purchasers, mortgagees in good faith and judgment lien creditors. Indeed, in F & S Co. v. Gentry, 103 N.M. 54, 702 P.2d 999 (1985), the supreme court ruled that the holder of a judgment lien was entitled to foreclose the interest of its judgment debtor in real estate notwithstanding the judgment debtor had conveyed that interest to a third party by deed prior to the filing of the transcript of judgment. The reason: the deed was not recorded until after filing of the transcript of judgment. Pointing to the undisputed evidence that the Hodges had occupied the real estate as their residence openly since they bought the property in 1979, defendants argue that Citizens Bank had constructive notice of the Hodges’ interest by reason of their actual possession. The key question then is whether the Hodges’ actual possession of the property was sufficient to put Citizens Bank on notice of the Hodges’ legal interest. Under New Mexico law, we hold that it was. As early at 1914, our supreme court held that one who purchases real estate in the possession of some one other than his vendor is, in good faith, bound to inquire of such possessor what right he has in the property, and, failing to make such inquiry, equity charges him with notice of all facts that such inquiry would disclose. McBee v. O’Connell, 19 N.M. 565, 145 P. 123 (1914). In Nelms v. Miller, 56 N.M. 132, 241 P.2d 333 (1952), the supreme court held: “It is a general rule that open, notorious and exclusive possession of real estate under claim of ownership, is constructive notice to the world of whatever claim the possessor asserts, whether such claim is legal or equitable in its nature.” Id. at 156, 241 P.2d at 349 (citing McBee v. O’Connell and other cases). Quoting from 8 Thompson on Real Property Section 4514, the Nelms court said: The author says: “ * * * Possession does not amount to constructive notice of the nature and extent of the rights of the person in possession, but it puts the purchaser upon inquiry as to such rights. He is bound to pursue the inquiry with diligence, and to ascertain what those rights are. * * * A purchaser who negligently or intentionally fails to inquire as to the fact of possession, or as to the title or interests of the person in possession, is affected with notice of such title or interest as the possessor actually has. * * * tf Id. at 157, 241 P.2d at 349. Accord First Nat’l Bank of Belen v. Luce, 87 N.M. 94, 529 P.2d 760 (1974); Conway v. San Miguel County Bd. of Educ., 59 N.M. 242, 282 P.2d 719 (1955). Although no New Mexico cases apply the rule of constructive notice by possession to judgment lien creditors, we discern no reason to treat that class any differently than purchasers or mortgagees. Citizens Bank argues that if there is a rational basis for possession constituting constructive notice, it must be found in the qualifying words “good faith” which, under the rule of last antecedent, In re Goldsworthy’s Estate, 45 N.M. 406, 115 P.2d 627 (1941), apply only to~ purchasers and mortgagees, not judgment lien creditors. We disagree. As Citizens Bank concedes, the phrase “without knowledge of the existence of such unrecorded instruments” under Section 14-9-3 applies equally to purchasers, mortgagees and judgment lien creditors. Here, the specific language of Section 14-9-3 controls, not “good faith.” In Chaffin v. Solomon, 255 Or. 141, 465 P.2d 217 (1970) (In Banc), a case with almost identical facts as here, the Oregon Supreme Court held that possession and improvements, payment of taxes and the posting of a “For Sale” sign were sufficient to give a judgment lien creditor notice of plaintiffs claim of ownership, thus preventing the lien attaching to the property. See also Malamed v. Sedelsky, 367 Pa. 353, 80 A.2d 853 (1951) (barring priority of judgment lien creditor because of constructive notice of unrecorded deed inferred from /possession by such deed’s grantee); Texas Am. Bank/Levelland v. Resendez, 706 S.W.2d 343 (Tex.App. 7 Dist.1986) (to prevail, a creditor njnst be without notice of the unrecorded instrument; “It is well-settled than an open, exclusive, and visible possession of the premises, such as that admittedly held by appellees, at the time when the right of a creditor attaches, is notice of the right under which it is held.” Id. at 347). Citizens Bank argues that notice by possession is an anachronism, pointing out it has no place in a modern society where it would be difficult to observe the occupants’ presence since sixty percent of the wives work and, if someone was found, most people questioned would likely tell the inquirers “it is none of their business.” Citizens Bank urges that “[pjossession as constructive notice has been dead a long time and merits its judicial burial.” Since this rule was adopted by the supreme court, any last rites will have to be offered by the supreme court since we are bound by its decisions. Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973) (not considered good form for lower court to reverse a superior one). In any event, we see no reason why a judgment creditor should occupy a favored position over purchasers and mortgagees. Since 1923, judgment creditors have had the same protection as purchasers and mortgagees against a prior unrecorded instrument. 1923 N.M. Laws, ch. 11, § 1; Wells v. Dice, 33 N.M. 647, 275 P. 90 (1929). The recording act does not, however, protect judgment creditors to any greater extent than a purchaser or a mortgagee who has constructive notice of a prior, unrecorded deed or instrument. See Malamed v. Sedelsky. Under the facts of this case, where Citizens Bank did not attempt to learn even if Rutledge owned real estate in New Mexico, much less inquire as to occupants of the property in question, to hold otherwise would require innocent third parties to pay the debts of someone else. On balance, we believe the rule of constructive notice by possession is still viable and should continue. An exception to that rule is made where the subsequent purchaser, mortgagee or judgment lien creditor shows he pursued an inquiry, with proper diligence, but failed to obtain the knowledge of the unrecorded instrument, or of the right of the parties claiming under it. McBee v. O’Connell. Generally, we would remand for a factual determination as to that exception; however, reversal is proper where, as here, the judgment lien creditor concedes no inquiry was made. We note that an affidavit filed on behalf of Citizens Bank indicates it spent almost a year trying to locate Rutledge before finding him in California. This fact alone should have alerted Citizens Bank that if Rutledge had previously owned property in Dona Ana County, it could reasonably assume someone else might possess it now. Having made no such inquiry, Citizens Bank must suffer the consequences. While the parties do not argue for any distinction between defendants, we note that our holding regarding constructive notice by possession as to the Hodges does not apply to Western Bank. Western Bank cannot claim possession. Additionally, its mortgage lien was filed more than a year after Citizens Bank filed its transcript of judgment. Nevertheless, Citizens Bank is charged with notice of all facts that reasonable inquiry would disclose, and that would include ownership of the real estate interest in the Hodges, rather than Rutledge. See Marks v. City of Tucumcari, 93 N.M. 4, 595 P.2d 1199 (1979) (by application of doctrine of equitable conversion, purchaser treated as owner of real estate with seller’s interest considered personalty). NMSA 1978, Section 39-1-6 (Cum. Supp.1987) allows a judgment lien only upon real estate. At the time Citizens Bank filed its transcript of judgment, Rutledge owned no interest in the real estate. At the time Western Bank filed its mortgage, the Hodges did own an interest in the real estate. Therefore, the transcript of judgment was a nullity as to the real estate in question, and Western Bank’s mortgage lien is not affected thereby. CONCLUSION We reverse this case and remand for entry of a judgment in favor of defendants. We assess costs of the appeal against Citizens Bank. The motion for oral argument is denied. Garcia v. Genuine Parts Co., 90 N.M. 124, 560 P.2d 545 (Ct.App.1977). IT IS SO ORDERED. This court acknowledges the aid of attorneys Norman S. Thayer, Richard J. Grodner and Bruce P. Moore in preparing of this opinion. These attorneys constituted an advisory committee selected by the chief judge of this court, and we express our gratitude to them for their voluntary service and the quality of their work. ALARID and GARCIA, JJ., concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. Defendant-appellant Sophie Martin (defendant) appeals her conviction in Bernalillo County District Court of first degree murder for the death of her husband Jack Martin (decedent). We reverse and remand for a new trial. Defendant raises twelve points of error. We reverse on two grounds: (I) that the prosecutor made improper comments pertaining to defendant’s decision to exercise her constitutional right to remain silent; and (II) that the cumulative impact of errors committed in this trial was so prejudicial that it deprived defendant of a fair trial. I. PROSECUTION COMMENTS ON DEFENDANT’S PRE-TRIAL SILENCE Defendant claims that the prosecution made improper comments pertaining to her decision to exercise her constitutional right to remain silent in three separate instances: questions concerning a purported prior inconsistent statement on life insurance forms she had completed; questions on cross-examination of defendant concerning the fact that she remained silent and did not testify until she had had a chance to hear all of the State’s evidence; and questions regarding her failure to tell close family members that she shot her husband. A. Defendant’s Statements On Life Insurance Forms Following decedent’s death, defendant received two life insurance claim forms. Defendant had been given her Miranda rights prior to the time she filled out the insurance forms. With one form she included a death certificate which stated the cause of death as “Shot by unknown assailants) with firearm.” On the other form, in response to the question, “How did the accident happen? (Describe fully),” de fendant wrote “Shot by unknown assailants.” The prosecution argues that these statements on the life insurance forms are inconsistent with defendant’s claim at trial that she shot decedent. The prosecution contends that these statements are admissible as prior inconsistent statements under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 801(d)(1)(A) (Repl. Pamp.1983) and as admissions under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 801(d)(2)(A) (Repl. Pamp.1983). The prosecution further claims that there is no issue of silence involved, since defendant did not remain silent. We agree. New Mexico’s Constitution, N.M. Const, art. II, Section 15, and the United States Constitution, U.S. Const, amend. V, prohibit impeachment on the basis of a defendant’s silence following Miranda warnings, Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966). See State v. Ramirez, 98 N.M. 268, 648 P.2d 307 (1982); Doyle v. Ohio, 426 U.S. 610, 96 S.Ct. 2240, 49 L.Ed.2d 91 (1976). However, defendant in this case made affirmative statements in response to the questions on the forms. The United States Supreme Court has held that cross-examination that merely inquires into prior inconsistent statements makes no unfair use of silence, because a defendant who voluntarily speaks after receiving Miranda warnings has not remained silent. Anderson v. Charles, 447 U.S. 404, 100 S.Ct. 2180, 65 L.Ed.2d 222 (1980). The same logic applies to the right to remain silent provided by N.M. Const, art. II, Section 15. Defendant in the instant case voluntarily provided the information requested on the forms. She was not in custody at the time she did so. Therefore, Miranda does not apply, and these statements may be used for proper impeachment purposes at trial. B. Cross-Examination of Defendant as to Credibility Defendant also objects to the prosecutor’s questioning defendant about whether she had heard all of the State’s evidence before testifying. Defendant argues that these questions comprise an improper comment on her right to remain silent because they would tend to lead the jury to incorrectly infer that defendant had an affirmative duty to reveal her defense before the presentation of her case. The State disagrees and claims that the question merely implies that, having heard all of the evidence, defendant is in a good position to conform her story to what the jury has already heard. When a defendant waives her right to remain silent and takes the stand in her own defense, she subjects herself to cross-examination on the credibility of her testimony. State v. Robinson, 157 N.J.Super. 118, 384 A.2d 569, certif. denied, 77 N.J. 484, 391 A.2d 498 (1978). The prosecutor’s question as to whether defendant had heard the previous testimony was a proper inquiry into the credibility of her testimony. State v. Hoxsie, 101 N.M. 7, 677 P.2d 620 (1984). C. Defendant’s Failure to Disclose That She Had Shot Decedent The final instance complained of by defendant pertaining to her right to remain silent relates to the prosecutor’s questions concerning whether she told anyone, before the trial, that she had shot decedent. This line of questioning was clearly a comment on defendant’s pre-trial silence which followed her receipt of Miranda warnings. The question before us is whether this comment is impermissible under U.S. Const, amend. V, XIV, or N.M. Const, art. II, Section 15. Comments on a defendant’s silence instituted by the State which follow Miranda warnings have an intolerable prejudicial impact requiring reversal, unless the defendant’s silence has a significant probative value. United States v. Hale, 422 U.S. 171, 95 S.Ct. 2133, 45 L.Ed.2d 99 (1975); State v. Baca, 89 N.M. 204, 549 P.2d 282 (1976); State v. Lara, 88 N.M. 233, 539 P.2d 623 (Ct.App.1975). Comment of this type constitutes “plain error.” NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 103(d) (Repl.Pamp.1983); State v. Ramirez, 98 N.M. 268, 648 P.2d 307 (1982). The State argues that the right to remain silent applies only to silence in the context of custodial interrogation. We refuse to accept such a narrow interpretation of this constitutional right. The important determination to be made on this issue is whether the silence has any probative value. In United States v. Hale, 422 U.S. 171, 95 S.Ct. 2133, 45 L.Ed.2d 99 (1975), the United States Supreme Court addressed the propriety of using a defendant’s silence, after Miranda warnings had been given, for purposes of impeachment. In Hale, the Court stated, “In most circumstances silence is so ambiguous that it is of little probative force.” Id. at 176, 95 S.Ct. at 2136. The Court noted that there was particularly little value in the silence of one who has been given Miranda warnings. The Court also pointed out that there is a high danger, “that the jury is likely to assign much more weight to the defendant’s previous silence than is warranted.” Id. at 180, 95 S.Ct. at 2138. In Doyle v. Ohio, 426 U.S. 610, 619, 96 S.Ct. 2240, 2245, 49 L.Ed.2d 91 (1976), under a similar fact pattern, the Court held that “the use for impeachment purposes of petitioners’ silence * * * after receiving Miranda warnings, violated the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.” The circumstances in Hale and Doyle were very similar to those in the case before us. In each case the defendant presented exculpatory testimony at trial which had not been presented at any earlier time. In each case the prosecution argued that the failure to relate the exculpatory facts to someone at an earlier time supported a theory of recent fabrication, and was therefore probative. The Court in Hale and Doyle rejected this argument, primarily on the grounds that silence which follows official notification of the constitutional right to remain silent is very ambiguous and therefore is not highly probative. One important difference between this case and Hale and Doyle is that defendant in this case did not tell either her daughters or the police what had happened. There is some probative value in defendant’s silence because it is more likely that a suspect in a crime will tell family members, as opposed to police, about the surrounding circumstances of the act. However, defendant is not under any compulsion to divulge information to family members. The value of the failure to tell family members is especially weak in this case because there is evidence that emotional trauma limited defendant’s ability to speak. Also, there is evidence that the police were treating defendant as a suspect and were questioning family members about the homicide. Notwithstanding the limited value of defendant’s failure to tell her daughters that she shot decedent, the prosecutor directly commented on defendant’s post-Mranda, post-arrest silence when he asked, “[Ijsn’t it a fact that you didn’t tell them [your family] anything so that I couldn’t learn about it [your story] in October when I called them to the witness stand?” This statement alone constitutes grounds for reversal of defendant’s conviction. State v. Ramirez, 98 N.M. 268, 648 P.2d 307 (1982); State v. Lara, 88 N.M. 233, 539 P.2d 623 (Ct.App.1975). However, the prosecutor compounded the error by repeatedly arguing this improper inference before the jury in closing arguments. Defendant is not required to reveal her theory of defense to the prosecution before trial and any inference that she should have done so is highly improper. The State’s reliance on Jenkins v. Anderson, 447 U.S. 231, 100 S.Ct. 2124, 65 L.Ed.2d 86 (1980), to support the proposition that pre-arrest silence is probative for impeachment purposes is misdirected because that case involved a defendant's silence before Miranda warnings were given. We reverse on this issue. We address the remaining points of error individually in order to assess the degree, if any, to which each contributed to the accumulation of error which also requires reversal in this case. II. CUMULATIVE ERROR We agree with defendant that the errors in this trial, in the aggregate, denied her of her right to a fair trial. Cumulative error requires reversal of a defendant’s conviction when the cumulative impact of errors which occurred at trial was so prejudicial that the defendant was deprived of a fair trial. State v. Vallejos, 86 N.M. 39, 519 P.2d 135 (Ct.App.1974). We recognize that in New Mexico the doctrine of cumulative error is to be strictly applied. State v. Hamilton, 89 N.M. 746, 557 P.2d 1095 (1976). The doctrine cannot be invoked if no irregularities occurred, State v. Stephens, 99 N.M. 32, 653 P.2d 863 (1982), or if the record as a whole demonstrates that a defendant received a fair trial, State v. Victorian, 84 N.M. 491, 505 P.2d 436 (1973). We have the responsibility, however, to insure that a person convicted of a crime has a fair trial. State v. Gomez, 75 N.M. 545, 408 P.2d 48 (1965). We must reverse any conviction obtained in a proceeding in which the cumulative impact of irregularities is so prejudicial to a defendant that he is deprived of his fundamental right to a fair trial. U.S. Const, amend. VI, XIV; N.M. Const, art. II, § 14. Much of the State’s argument on appeal is based on defense counsel’s failure to make timely objections. Errors not specifically objected to at trial may be reviewed by this Court if they concern: jurisdictional questions or questions involving: (a) general public interest; (b) fundamental rights of a party; or (c) facts or circumstances occurring or arising, or first becoming known after the trial court lost jurisdiction. NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App.R. 308 (Repl.Pamp.1983). See State v. Vallejos, 86 N.M. 39, 519 P.2d 135 (Ct.App.1974). We review the errors complained of in this case to determine whether their accumulation amounted to fundamental error. We hold that the following points of error which were raised by defendant on appeal contributed to an accumulation of error which requires reversal. A. State’s Cross-Examination of Defendant Regarding Her Relationship With Her Previous Husband The prosecution was allowed to cross-examine defendant about her prior marriage to Richard Esquibel, who is now deceased. Initially, the questioning involved possible physical abuse that may have been inflicted on defendant by Esquibel. Over defense objection, the prosecutor was also allowed to question defendant about Esquibel’s criminal record. Defense counsel objected to the questions because they elicited irrelevant testimony and because they were outside the scope of the direct examination. It is within the discretion of the trial court to expand the scope of cross-examination. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 611(b) (Repl. Pamp.1983). Inquiry into additional matters must, however, be conducted as if on direct examination. Id. Rule 611(b) does not allow the trial court discretion to admit evidence which is otherwise inadmissible because it is irrelevant, NMSA 1978, Evid. Rule 402 (Repl.Pamp.1983), or if the probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 403 (Repl.Pamp.1983). In this case, evidence of prior abuse of defendant by Esquibel is probative. It tends to support the State’s claim that it gave defendant special knowledge which would be useful in fabricating a claim of abuse by decedent. Evidence concerning Esquibel’s burning defendant with cigarettes is particularly relevant in light of expert testimony that it is impossible to determine the actual age of scar tissue. However, evidence of Esquibel’s pri- or criminal history and drug use have no probative value in relation to defendant’s actions toward decedent. This evidence, plus reference to Esquibel as “Richard the Roach,” was an improper attempt to present the jury with the implication that since defendant was previously married to a person of bad character, she was also of poor character or lacked credibility. Cf. State v. Mills, 94 N.M. 17, 606 P.2d 1111 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 94 N.M. 628, 614 P.2d 545 (1980). The evidence offered by the prosecution failed to show a logical connection between Esquibel’s prior crimi nal history, his drug use, his nickname, or defendant’s ability to divorce him, and the defendant’s actions toward decedent. It was error for the court to admit any evidence on these issues. B. Trial Court’s Refusal to Allow the Defense to Show Films Admitted Into Evidence The State stipulated to the entry of four sexually explicit films which were retrieved from decedent’s home by personnel from the Albuquerque Police Department, Internal Affairs Division. After the films were admitted the judge denied defense counsel's request that the films be shown to the jury. Instead, the films were passed to the jury so that they could see the representative photographs on the covers. The judge also told the jury they could see the films if they determined, during their deliberations, that there was some materiality or relevance beyond the photographs on the covers of the films. The jury was instructed to send the judge a note if they determined they needed to view the films. The State claims this is sufficient opportunity to view the evidence. We do not agree. The prosecution’s stipulation in this case should not be allowed to eviscerate the value of the evidence presented. Even though a judicial admission generally does away with the necessity of proof by the benefiting party, such an admission does not necessarily prohibit the benefiting party from presenting his evidence to the jury. See State v. Upton, 60 N.M. 205, 290 P.2d 440 (1955). “A cold stipulation can deprive a party ‘of the legitimate moral force of his evidence’* * *. In most cases, a party has the right ‘to present to the jury a picture of the events relied upon.’ ” United States v. Grassi, 602 F.2d 1192, 1197 (5th Cir.1979) (citations omitted), vacated on other grounds, 448 U.S. 902, 100 S.Ct. 3041, 65 L.Ed.2d 1131 (1980), on remand, 626 F.2d 444 (5th Cir.1980), cert. denied, 450 U.S. 956, 101 S.Ct. 1415, 67 L.Ed.2d 381 (1981). In Grassi, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals found that it was fair for the trial court to allow the prosecution to show three of five films in a trial involving the interstate shipment of pornographic material, although the trial court should have required the prosecution to accept the defense’s offer to stipulate to the obscene nature of the remainder of the films. In the case before us, after the films were admitted into evidence, the defense was not allowed to show any of the films to the jury. This was an improper limitation on defendant’s right to present her evidence to the jury. Defendant sought to use the films to corroborate her testimony regarding decedent’s tendencies towards violent sexual conduct and his abuse of defendant. The decision to admit the films carried with it a determination that the films were relevant to the issue. The determination of whether evidence is relevant, and therefore admissible, rests within the discretion of the trial court. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 104(a) (Repl. Pamp.1983); Wilson v. Hayner, 98 N.M. 514, 650 P.2d 36 (Ct.App.1982). Allowing the jury to determine whether the films were relevant, and whether they should therefore view the films, amounts to exclusion of otherwise relevant and admissible evidence. This is error. See State ex rel. State Highway Commission v. Bassett, 81 N.M. 345, 467 P.2d 11 (1970). It is for the trial court, not the jury, to determine whether evidence is relevant and admissible. Given the nature of these films, the requirement that a viewing had to be specifically requested by the jury placed an unreasonable burden on any juror or jurors who had legitimate concerns as to the import of the evidence. A jury should not be forced to “second-guess the favorable ruling of the court on admissibility and to disregard the evidence if they find the evidence inadmissible; their function is to determine weight and credibility, not admissibility.” M. Graham, Handbook of Federal Evidence § 104.1 (1981). The trial court erred in its refusal to show the sexually explicit films, without a specific request by the jury for a viewing. C. Conduct of the Trial Judge Defendant claims that throughout the course of the trial the judge made comments and rulings which demonstrated extreme bias against the defendant’s case. Defendant also claims that the judge made facial gestures, shook his head and smiled as defendant testified. Defendant argues that this misconduct denied defendant her constitutional right to trial by an impartial tribunal. U.S. Const, amend. VI, XIV; N.M. Const, art. II, § 14. A trial judge must exercise great care to assure a criminal defendant a fair and impartial trial. See Annot., 34 A.L.R.3d 1313 (1970). This required fairness and impartiality may often run counter to natural human reaction, particularly where the case involves a heinous crime, State v. Nordstrom, R.I., 408 A.2d 601 (1979), or the demeanor of an attorney has been particularly disrespectful or antagonistic, United States v. Spears, 558 F.2d 1296 (7th Cir.1977); People v. Di Carlo, 242 App.Div. 328, 275 N.Y.S. 40 (1934). Nonetheless, fairness and impartiality are required of a judge and necessitate that the judge “be patient, dignified and courteous to litigants, jurors, witnesses, lawyers and others with whom he deals in his official capacity.” NMSA 1978, Code of Judicial Conduct, Canon 3(A)(3) (Repl.Pamp.1983). In the present case, defendant contends that certain improprieties on the part of the trial judge took place off the record. Defendant relies on affidavits attached to her new trial motion in challenging the purported comments and gestures. Affidavits so presented do not establish the record. State v. Haar, 94 N.M. 539, 612 P.2d 1350 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 94 N.M. 674, 615 P.2d 991 (1980). Defense counsel did, at one point, attempt to make a record concerning comments he claimed the trial judge had made during a recess. The trial judge, however, refused defense counsel the opportunity to establish a record on defense counsel’s objections to the trial judge’s conduct. This was improper. Butler v. United States, 188 F.2d 24 (D.C.Cir.1951). In order for this Court to review a defendant’o claim of improper conduct on the part of a trial judge, some evidence of the conduct must be included in the record. State v. Gurule, 90 N.M. 87, 559 P.2d 1214 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 254, 561 P.2d 1347 (1977). Although tape-recorded transcripts do give an appellate court some indication of the tone of statements made in the transcript, they cannot reflect whether a trial court indulged in improper mannerisms, gestures, or outside statements, unless counsel is given an opportunity to record fully and accurately what has transpired. See State v. Herrera, 90 N.M. 306, 563 P.2d 100 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 637, 567 P.2d 485 (1977); Annot., 49 A.L.R.3d 1186 (1973). Defendant also argues that the taped transcript contains a number of unnecessary statements made by the judge to defense counsel. See Annot., 62 A.L.R.2d 166 (1958). At trial, defendant made no objection to the statements. NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. and W/C App.R. 308 (Repl.Pamp.1983). The issue was not properly brought to the attention of the trial court and was therefore not preserved as an independent point for review. State v. Wilson, 86 N.M. 348, 524 P.2d 520 (1974). We consider the issue, however, only for purposes of determining whether the cumulative impact of irregularities, including the trial judge’s conduct, deprived defendant of her right to a fair trial. After reviewing the comments complained of, we hold that, while none is so prejudicial as to require reversal in and of itself, they add to the totality of irregularities which occurred in the trial of this case and which resulted in the cumulative error that deprived defendant of a fair trial. D. Admissibility of Certain Testimonial Evidence Defendant claims that the court erred when it refused to allow Fay Hansen to testify as to whether defendant had ever told her of decedent’s sexual impotence. Defense counsel’s argument for admissibil ity essentially contains two points. One is that the statement is not offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted. The other is that, if it is hearsay, it is admissible under the “existing state of mind” exception to the hearsay rule, NMSA 1978, Evid. Rule 803(3) (Repl.Pamp.1983). NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 801(c) (Repl.Pamp.1983) defines hearsay as, “a statement, other than one made by the declarant while testifying at the trial or hearing, offered in evidence to prove the truth of the matter asserted.” This Court has made it clear that, Such extrajudicial statements or writings are subject to the exclusionary impact of the hearsay rule only when they are offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted therein. Obviously, proof of utterances or writings may be made for a number of purposes other than to prove the truth of the matter asserted. McCord v. Ashbaugh, 67 N.M. 61, 64, 352 P.2d 641, 643 (1960) (citations omitted). The tendered testimony in this case was not hearsay as it was not offered to show that decedent was impotent, but merely to counter the prosecution’s repeated questions regarding whether defendant had ever told anyone of the problems that she and decedent had been experiencing. Since we hold that this testimony was not hearsay, we need not address the Rule 803(3) issue. E. Limitation of Defense Examination of Police Department Personnel Concerning Films Which Were Recovered From Decedent’s Home The State stipulated to the entry of four sexually explicit films and a sex dictionary which were retrieved from the scene of the killing by personnel from the Albuquerque Police Department, Internal Affairs Division. Defense counsel attempted to ask further questions of a witness who was a Captain in Internal Affairs regarding a possible police cover-up and the failure of Internal Affairs to turn over a purported “snuff film.” The judge found this line of questioning to be irrelevant in light of the fact that the films and dictionary had already been admitted. The evidence which defense counsel attempted to elicit through his proposed questioning tended to show bias on the part of the witness in investigating the crime. Evidence that discredits a witness by showing possible bias is admissible. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 607 (Repl.Pamp.1983); See State v. White, 58 N.M. 324, 270 P.2d 727 (1954). Therefore, the trial court abused its discretion in limiting defendant’s examination of witnesses on these issues. III. ADDITIONAL POINTS RAISED BY DEFENDANT We hold that no error exists in the remaining points raised by defendant on appeal. We address them, however, in order to clarify the issues for the trial court on remand. A. State’s Asserted Failure to Preserve Exculpatory Evidence Defendant claims her conviction should be reversed because the State failed to preserve a tissue that was used to pick up the gun found lying next to the victim. We have previously adopted a three-part test to determine whether the deprivation of evidence constitutes reversible error: 1) The State either breached some duty or intentionally deprived the defendant of evidence; 2) The improperly ‘suppressed’ evidence must have been material; and 3) The suppression of this evidence prejudiced the defendant. State v. Chouinard, 96 N.M. 658, 661, 634 P.2d 680, 683 (1981), cert. denied, 456 U.S. 930, 102 S.Ct. 1980, 72 L.Ed.2d 447 (1982). See also State v. Johnson, 99 N.M. 682, 662 P.2d 1349 (1983). The record in this case contains no evidence that defendant was intentionally deprived of the tissue. There is no indication in the record as to what happened to the tissue. However, testimony was given which indicated that the police were not concerned with the tissue because they believed that it did not have any evidentiary value. Upon review of the record, we find this belief to have been reasonable. State v. Johnson; State v. Stephens, 93 N.M. 368, 600 P.2d 820 (1979). The tissue was not material, and its unavailability did not prejudice the defendant. As the United States Supreme Court has said, “The mere possibility that an item of undisclosed information might have helped the defense, or might have affected the outcome of the trial, does not establish ‘materiality’ in the constitutional sense.” United States v. Agurs, 427 U.S. 97, 110-111, 96 S.Ct. 2392, 2400-2401, 49 L.Ed.2d 342 (1976). The failure of the State to preserve the tissue used by officers to pick up the gun found next to the victim was not reversible error, and was not error of such a nature that it added substantially to the aggregate of errors which took place at trial. B. Instruction to Prospective Jurors That the State Would Not Be Seeking the Death Penalty During voir dire the judge told veniremen that the State would not be seeking the death penalty. Defendant alleges that she was not properly notified that this explanation would be given. Defendant further argues that NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 50.06 (Repl.Pamp.1982), prohibits the jury from considering the consequences of its verdict. The State contends that defendant did not object when the explanation was made, and that it is proper to give this information on voir dire, notwithstanding any objection, citing the Use Note to UJI Crim. 50.06. The Use Note states, in pertinent part: “In a capital case it is proper for the state or court in the voir dire or in the court’s opening or closing remarks to tell the jury that the state will not seek the death penalty.” Id. This language was added to the Use Note in 1982. We hold that since this was a capital case it was proper for the judge to give this information to prospective jurors during voir dire. To the extent which State v. Gallegos, 96 N.M. 54, 627 P.2d 1253 (Ct.App.1981), conflicts with this holding, it is expressly overruled. C. Trial Court’s Limitation of the Testimony of Defendant’s Expert Witness Defendant’s expert psychological witness, Dr. Samuel Roll, was not allowed to testify as to his opinion that defendant was telling the truth when she described the events leading up to the killing. Defendant argues that this was improper because the testimony would have helped the jury in its decision, and opinion testimony as to an ultimate issue is allowed under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 704 (Repl.Pamp.1983). Dr. Roll was qualified as an expert witness in clinical psychology. He was allowed to testify that he had conducted and reviewed various personality tests on defendant and that he had interviewed her about her relationship with decedent on several occasions. Dr. Roll outlined the general characteristics of a sexual sadist and said that defendant’s description of decedent fit very closely with the classical picture of a sexual sadist. Defense counsel then introduced evidence to try to establish that Dr. Roll had special expertise in detecting deception in persons undergoing psychological testing. Thereafter, defense counsel attempted to ask Dr. Roll whether he had formed a conclusion, based on tests, interviews and other corroborative information, as to whether there was any fabrication or deception in defendant’s account of events preceding the killing. At this point the prosecution objected, the jury was excused and the witness was voir dired. The trial court ultimately ruled in favor of the State. The State had two objections to the proposed question. The first was that the credibility of a witness is for the jury to determine. The State bases this claim on a general argument that no expert, with the possible exception of polygraphers, can determine witness credibility any better than jurors can. This argument runs counter to the policy which underlies the admissibility of expert testimony. Expert testimony is admissible even if “it embraces an ultimate issue to be decided by the trier of fact.” NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 704 (Repl.Pamp.1983); see State v. Ellis, 89 N.M. 194, 548 P.2d 1212 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 89 N.M. 206, 549 P.2d 284 (1976). This Court recognizes the dangers inherent in allowing expert testimony on the issue of a witness’ credibility or a witness’ character in terms of his tendencies towards truthfulness. These dangers have led to the development of certain safeguards. Expert testimony on the issue must be relevant, NMSA 1978, Evid.Rules 401, 402 (Repl.Pamp.1983); State v. Blea, 101 N.M. 323, 681 P.2d 1100 (1984), and it must meet evidentiary requirements for the admissibility of character evidence, NMSA 1978, Evid.Rules 404, 405, 608 (Repl.Pamp.1983); cf. State v. Lopez, 84 N.M. 805, 508 P.2d 1292 (1973). In the case of polygraph examinations, additional requirements were established to insure the reliability of the testimony. See State v. Dorsey, 88 N.M. 184, 539 P.2d 204 (1975). This Court has now formalized additional requirements in our rules of evidence, NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 707 (Repl.Pamp. 1983). There is, however, nothing magical about a polygraph exam. It is merely a scientific technique which has been held in New Mexico to be a useful tool in appropriate situations, in assisting the jury in its ultimate goal of discerning the truth. Other techniques, under approved circumstances, are similarly admissible. See Simon Neustadt Family Center, Inc. v. Bludworth, 97 N.M. 500, 641 P.2d 531 (1982); State v. Beachum, 97 N.M. 682, 643 P.2d 246 (Ct.App.1981), cert. denied, 98 N.M. 51, 644 P.2d 1040 (1982). The trial judge in this case applied the wrong standard to the quantum of evidence which must be presented in order to support the admissibility of this type of expert testimony. Dr. Roll testified that he could give an opinion with a reasonable degree of medical probability as to whether defendant was fabricating her recent history in this particular case, given the specific surrounding circumstances. When Dr. Roll stated that he could tell when a person is telling the truth in some, but not all, cases, the court replied: Well, I’m glad you take that position, because otherwise we would have nothing to do but envy your clairvoyance, your omnipotence, and your intelligence. Maybe only God can do some of those things. This is a misstatement of the test. The New Mexico Rules of Evidence do not require clairvoyance or omnipotence. The court must merely determine whether the scientific procedure which supports the testimony is “based on a well-recognized scientific principle or discovery and whether it is capable of supporting opinions based on a reasonable probability rather than conjecture.” State v. Blea, 101 N.M. 323, 681 P.2d 1100, 1103 (1984). In the instant case, it does not appear that any evidence was tendered which would support a finding that the particular technique relied upon by Dr. Roll for gauging the credibility of a witness has gained general acceptance in the field of clinical psychology. See State v. Trimble, 68 N.M. 406, 362 P.2d 788 (1961). Therefore, we cannot say that the trial judge abused his discretion by denying the testimony on this particular theory. The State’s second, more specific argument, is that Dr. Roll was never properly qualified as an expert in credibility and fabrication. A trial judge has discretion to determine whether an expert is sufficiently qualified to testify in a particular case. This discretion will be interfered with only when it has been abused. State v. Garcia, 76 N.M. 171, 413 P.2d 210 (1966). We hold that the evidence which was brought to our attention on appeal does not establish that the discretion allowed the trial judge was abused in this case. D. Admissibility of Certain Testimonial Evidence Defense counsel, during direct examination of Fay Hansen, attempted to elicit testimony to the effect that defendant had told her that decedent had threatened defendant. The prosecution objected on the basis of hearsay, and the judge sustained the objection saying, “I’m not going to allow any hearsay in * * *. No hearsay today.” In another statement the judge implied that he would allow testimony as to what defendant said but not as to what defendant said decedent said. This hearsay within hearsay was properly rejected. Later the same day, on rebuttal, the prosecution tendered testimony by Anita Campbell that six years earlier, following a sexual relationship between Campbell and decedent, decedent had told her that defendant had threatened decedent and Campbell. Defense counsel objected on the basis of hearsay. Nonetheless, the judge ruled the testimony was admissible under the “statement of recent perception” exception to the hearsay rule, NMSA 1978, Evid. Rule 804(b)(2) (Repl.Pamp.1983). In order for a statement to be admissible under an exception to the hearsay rule it must be “clothed with the indicia of reliability.” State v. Robinson, 94 N.M. 693, 698, 616 P.2d 406, 411 (1980). Rule 804(b)(2) contains a list of considerations which, if met, support the reliability of the statement. In this case all of the “indicia of reliability” exist. Defense counsel argues that this statement is not “recent” because it was made six years ago. The important time period, however, is the time between when the event occurred and when the statement was made. See State v. Maestas, 92 N.M. 135, 584 P.2d 182 (Ct.App.1978). In this case that appears to have been a matter of hours, while declarant’s recollection of the event was still clear. Although the hearsay rule was applied unequally by the trial court, the court did not err in admitting this evidence. E. Additional Points Claimed to Contribute to Cumulative Error Defendant raises three additional errors which she claims added to the cumulative error which occurred at this trial: (1) denial of a change of venue; (2) repetitive and cumulative instructions on the charge of murder; and (3) failure to give a self-defense instruction alerting the jury to subjective factors, such as physical characteristics of defendant, which she claims made her actions more reasonable. Defendant failed to direct this Court to any authority and failed to otherwise make an argument in support of her contention that the court erred in denying a change of venue. Defendant’s brief does not suffice to present the question for our review. State v. Rhodes, 77 N.M. 536, 425 P.2d 47 (1967). The trial court possesses broad discretion in dealing with motions for change of venue, and its decisions on the issue will not be disturbed on appeal absent a showing of an abuse of that discretion. State v. Montano, 93 N.M. 436, 601 P.2d 69 (Ct.App.), cert. - Jury instructions 11 and 20 given by the trial court repeated the order of deliberations which the jury was to follow in this case. These two instructions were based on NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 2.40 and 50.12 (Repl.Pamp.1982). The Use Note for the current version of NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 50.12 (Supp.1983), explains that the instruction should not be given for homicide charges. We note that a court should refrain from giving repetitive jury instructions. See White Auto Stores v. Reyes, 223 F.2d 298 (10th Cir.1955). The repetition in this case was, however, not prejudicial. State ex rel. State Highway Commission v. Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Co., 76 N.M. 587, 417 P.2d 68 (1966). Defendant failed to tender any self-defense instruction similar to the one she now contends should have been given. We will not review instructions on appeal where defendant neither objected at trial to the instruction given nor tendered her desired instruction. State v. Blea, 101 N.M. 323, 681 P.2d 1100 (1984). IV. CONCLUSION Notwithstanding that several points of error raised by the defendant are without merit, we hold that the accumulation of error in this case deprived defendant of a fair trial. The result we have reached in this case renders unnecessary a discussion of defendant’s contention that the evidence presented at trial was insufficient to support a finding of guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. Defendant’s conviction is reversed. The cause is remanded for a new trial. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, S.J., concurs. RIORDAN and WALTERS, JJ., specially concurring. STOWERS, J., dissenting.
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OPINION NEAL, Judge. Plaintiff brought suit for libel against the defendants. A default judgment was entered, and then on motion of the defendants, the default was set aside. The court reinstated the default when defendants failed to comply with the terms of the order setting aside the default. Defendants appeal. The case has an extensive procedural history. The complaint was filed June 2, 1980, and the defendants were served on June 3, 1980. The defendants filed a motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim which was granted. The plaintiffs appealed to this court which reversed the trial court and returned jurisdiction of the case to the trial court on January 20, 1982. See Kutz v. Independent Publishing Co., 97 N.M. 243, 638 P.2d 1088 (Ct.App.1981). On February 26, 1982, thirty-five days after the court of appeals mandate, plaintiff filed a motion for default judgment as defendants had not answered or filed a responsive pleading within the thirty-day limit of the New Mexico Rules of Civil Procedure. That motion was denied by an order dated May 17, 1982. Plaintiff propounded requested admissions of fact to defendants on April 3, 1982. On August 16, 1982, the plaintiff moved for summary judgment based on NMSA 1978, Civ.P.Rule 36 (Repl.Pamp.1980) that all matters not objected to or denied within thirty days after service of the request are admitted unless denied, and therefore the admissions disposed of all issues of material fact. The defendants then filed answers or objections to the request on August 31, 1982. By its order of September 13, 1982, the court denied the motion, stating that the response filed April 31 (but apparently meaning August 31) would not prejudice the plaintiff and would serve the presentation of the cause on the merits. In the same order the court granted the motion of defendants’ counsel to withdraw, and directed the defendants to obtain new counsel by October 9, 1982. The court also ordered the defendants to pay $800.00 in attorney’s fees to plaintiff “on or about November 9, 1982, under penalty of appropriate sanctions.” On November 16, 1982, after defendants failed to pay the attorney’s fees, the plaintiff filed a motion for order to show cause why the defendants should not be held in contempt for failure to comply with the September 13 order. The defendants’ response, filed the same date by the defendants, pro se, states that the defendants had never heard of the order or the requirement to pay the attorney’s fees, despite the fact that the order had been approved as to form by their attorneys, and referred to plaintiff’s attorney as an “alleged attorney.” The court issued an order to show cause in which the court ordered the defendants to appear on December 6, to show cause why they should not be held in contempt. The record does not contain any information regarding the outcome of the hearing. A pretrial conference was scheduled for April 4, 1983. The defendants failed to attend. They had also failed to obtain counsel, despite being informed orally by the court that the corporate defendant could not proceed without counsel. The court had ordered that they be represented by April 4, 1983. The plaintiff moved for a default judgment on that date. The court found “[tjhat the continuous failure of the Defendants to appear for scheduled hearings and their failure to comply with the directions of this Court justify the entry of a Default Judgment against them.” The judgment was in the amount of $2,500.00. The defendants then filed a motion to set aside the default judgment on April 25, 1983, having obtained counsel. The court issued an order setting aside default judgment on May 20, 1983. The order also contained the following specific conditions: 1. The court ordered that counsel for the defendants would not be allowed to withdraw under any circumstances; 2. that one of the defendants personally be present at all hearings or default would be entered; 3. that all discovery must be complied with or default would be entered; and, 4. that the defendants pay attorneys’ fees to the plaintiff in the amount of $800.00 by June 16, 1983. On June 21, 1983, the plaintiff filed a motion for default judgment based on the failure of the defendants to pay the attorney’s fees awarded in the order of September 13, 1982 and required to be paid before June 16, 1983, by the May 20, 1983 order setting aside default judgment. The defendants paid the $800.00 on July 5, 1983, after notice of the plaintiff’s motion. The motion was granted on July 29, 1983 and the default judgment in the amount of $2,500.00 was reinstated. On appeal the defendants argue that the court had no power to enter a default judgment based on untimely compliance with an order of the court and that the court abused its discretion in doing so. We disagree. NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 55(a) (Repl. Pamp.1980) states: “When a party against whom a judgment for affirmative relief is sought has failed to plead or otherwise defend as provided by these rules and that fact is made to appear by affidavit or otherwise, the clerk shall enter his default.” (Emphasis added.) Subsection (b) provides that default judgment may be entered on three days written notice when the opposing party has appeared in the action. Whether a default judgment should be entered rests with the sound discretion of the trial court. Gallegos v. Franklin, 89 N.M. 118, 547 P.2d 1160 (Ct.App.1976). While default judgments are not favored by the law and cases should be decided on their merits whenever possible, Springer Corporation v. Herrera, 85 N.M. 201, 510 P.2d 1072 (1973), the default judgment remedy protects a diligent party from continual delay and uncertainty as to his rights. Gallegos, 89 N.M. at 122, 547 P.2d 1160. The trial court entered the initial default judgment for failure of defendants to attend the pretrial conference. At this point we need not consider the failure to pay attorney’s fees. The failure to attend the pretrial conference and the failure to obtain counsel as ordered by the court were failures to “otherwise defend.” See 6 J. Moore, W. Taggart & J. Wicker, Moore’s Federal Practice H 55.02[3] (2d ed. 1983), and cases cited in footnote 12. The court had authority to enter default judgment on the basis of these failures. Rule 55(c) provides that a default judgment may be set aside in accordance with Rule 60. Our concern here is not with the fact that the May 20, 1983 default judgment was set aside, but with the conditions imposed by the court for setting aside that judgment. Rule 60 allows the court to relieve a party from a final judgment for various reasons which the rule details, on “ * * * such terms as are just.” NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 60(b) (Repl.Pamp.1980). It has been held that the quoted language vests broad discretion in the trial court to impose conditions which must be met by the party seeking relief under the rule. Qualls v. Qualls, 589 S.W.2d 906 at 910 (Tenn.1979). Conditions may include the payment of costs and fees. Trueblood v. Grayson Shops of Tennessee, Inc., 32 F.R.D. 190 (E.D.Va.1963); Hendricks v. Alcoa Steamship Co., 32 F.R.D. 169 (E.D.Pa. 1962). Such conditions have been unanimously held to be proper. Annot., 3 A.L.R. Fed. 956 (1970). In Chase v. Contractors’ Equipment & Supply Co., 100 N.M. 39, 665 P.2d 301 (Ct.App.1983), we pointed out that the granting of relief from the entry of default involved equitable considerations and that imposition of conditions in granting relief was proper. The granting of relief from a default judgment also involves equitable considerations, and the above-cited authorities show that conditions for granting relief from a default judgment are also proper. Chase quoted from 10 C. Wright, A. Miller & M. Kane, Federal Practice and Procedure: Civil 2d § 2700 (1983). That section also applies to relief from default judgments, and we now quote it in full: Rule 60(b) expressly provides that relief from a default judgment may be granted “upon such terms as are just.” The court’s inherent power and use of discretion also enables it to set aside default entries on various conditions. The imposition of conditions as part of granting a Rule 55(c) motion can be used to rectify any prejudice suffered by the nondefaulting party as a result of the default and the subsequent reopening of the litigation. The most common type of prejudice is the additional expense caused by the delay, the hearing on the Rule 55(c) motion, and the introduction of new issues. These burdens can be eased by requiring the defaulting party to provide a bond to secure costs, to pay court costs, or to cover the expenses of the appeal. Imaginative and flexible use of the power to impose conditions on the granting of relief under Rule 55(c) can serve to promote the positive purposes of the default procedures without subjecting either litigant to their drastic consequences. The use of conditions also permits the court to be responsive to the special problems raised by particular situations in order to avoid possible inequities. Terms and conditions can be used to facilitate discovery, compensate for obstructionist tactics, and protect the ability of the nondefaulting party to obtain an appropriate remedy. Of course, the imposition of conditions is subject to appellate review for arbitrariness or abuse, and when the conditions chosen are unusual, the trial court may be required to support them with findings indicating their appropriateness. Id. at 537-540 (footnotes omitted). The defendants consistently delayed and ignored deadlines imposed by the court and by the Rules of Civil Procedure, failing to act unless faced with coercive remedies. Plaintiff expended time and legal fees to compel defendants to proceed. Given the course of conduct by the defendants, we find no abuse of discretion in the conditions established by the court under which it set aside the default. The defendants argue that the court abused its discretion by entering a default for what they characterize as a sanction for late payment of the attorney’s fees. That characterization is not accurate. Rather, the court reinstated the default judgment which it had set aside when the defendants failed to comply .with the conditions of the order setting aside the default. When the conditions were not met, the plaintiff moved for default judgment and the default was reinstated. As it was not an abuse of discretion to place conditions on the setting aside of the initial default, the reinstatement of the default for lack of timely compliance cannot logically be an abuse of discretion. While it is true that default judgments are not favored, the conduct of the defendants throughout the proceeding compelled the use of the court’s most coercive remedy. Without the authority to reinstate a default judgment, the court’s authority to impose conditions on the setting aside of a previous default judgment would become meaningless. There is no doubt that the defendants were unresponsive to the court’s orders and deadlines. They failed to answer or file a responsive pleading within the alloted time, and only answered after plaintiff moved for a default judgment. The defendants failed to respond to plaintiff’s requested admissions of fact for approximately five months and only responded after plaintiff moved for summary judgment based on the failure to deny or object to the requested admissions. The defendants were ordered to obtain new counsel by October 9,1982, and to pay plaintiffs attorney’s fees by November 9, 1982. When they did not pay by November 16, plaintiff moved for an order to show cause why the defendants should not be held in contempt for failure to comply with the court’s order regarding obtaining counsel and paying attorney’s fees; the defendant’s response claimed no knowledge of the court’s order to pay the fees despite the fact that the order was approved as to form by their attorney, and made sarcastic references to plaintiff’s attorney. The defendants failed to attend a pretrial conference scheduled for April 4, 1983. They had not yet obtained counsel or paid the fees. The plaintiff again moved for a default judgment, which was granted April 13, 1983. Only then did the defendants obtain counsel. They moved to set aside the default. The court gave another deadline for payment of the same fees. When that deadline passed, the plaintiff again moved for a default judgment. Only then were the fees paid. The court provided the defendants every opportunity to defend the action yet they continually delayed and ignored deadlines set by the rules and the court. Faced with similar conduct in Gallegos, this court stated: “To grant the defendants a reversal now means that we would give credence to essentially unresponsive parties, and consent that they may halt the adversary process and endlessly delay the rights of plaintiff. The philosophy of the law of civil procedure militates against this protracted wearisome conduct.” 89 N.M. at 123, 547 P.2d 1160. The trial court did not abuse its discretion in reinstating the default judgment; we affirm. Defendants shall bear the appellate costs. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and HENDLEY, JJ., concur.
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OPINION ALARID, Judge. Plaintiffs filed an action to eject defendant from certain lands to which they claimed ownership. Defendant moved to dismiss or for judgment on the pleadings. That motion was denied. After a non-jury trial, the trial court held that defendant had no right to be in possession of the property and that plaintiffs did have such right. Accordingly, plaintiffs’ claim in ejectment was granted and defendant’s counterclaim to quiet title was denied. Defendant appeals the trial court’s refusal to dismiss plaintiffs’ claims, and the court’s grant of the ejectment claim. He does not appeal the court’s denial of his counterclaim. We reverse. FACTS George and Felicita Sandoval moved onto the subject property in approximately 1944, after they were married. At the time, the property was allegedly owned by Felicita’s family. The Sandovals and their family were the only people in possession of the property for over forty years, and George remained in possession at the time this lawsuit was filed. While the Sandovals were living on the property, Felicita attempted to buy it from one of her uncles. She paid him $300, but no deed was ever given to the Sandovals. Plaintiffs paid the taxes on the property. In 1982, plaintiffs and plaintiff Quintana’s daughter filed a quiet title action naming George, Felicita and several other people as defendants. Although George defaulted in the prior action, Felicita defended and filed a counterclaim to quiet title in herself. In a non-jury trial, the trial court dismissed both plaintiffs’ claims against Felicita with prejudice, and Felicita’s counterclaim with prejudice. One week later, the trial court issued a judgment defaulting George and the other defendants except Felicita, and quieting title to the other defendants’ interests in the property in plaintiffs. Plaintiffs appealed the trial court’s decision regarding their claims against Felicita to the supreme court, which issued a non-published decision affirming the judgment. Felicita died in May 1985, shortly after the supreme court decision was filed. Plaintiffs immediately filed the instant action, seeking to eject George from the property. George answered and moved to dismiss the complaint, or alternatively, for judgment on the pleadings, claiming that the prior decision in the quiet title action was res judicata and barred plaintiffs’ action. The trial court, after reviewing the pleadings in the earlier case, denied the motion to dismiss. The court issued an order to that effect, and included language stating that there was “no just cause for delay” and that the order should be filed immediately. After a non-jury trial, the trial court issued a letter decision containing what we interpret as findings of fact and conclusions of law, although they were not denominated as such. Pursuant to that decision, a judgment was entered on October 14, 1986, granting plaintiffs’ claim for ejectment. DISCUSSION Plaintiffs raise two procedural arguments to preclude our consideration of defendant’s appeal. First, they argue that the order denying the motion to dismiss was a final appealable order because it contained the “no just cause for delay” language. Since defendant did not appeal from that order within thirty days of its entry, plaintiffs contend that he is barred from appealing that denial now. This contention, however, is without merit. SCRA 1986, 1-054(C)(1), provides that “when more than one claim for relief is presented in an action, * * * the court may enter a final judgment as to one or more but fewer than all of the claims only upon an express determination that there is no just reason for delay.” (Emphasis added.) The court’s denial of the motion to dismiss was not a final judgment as to any of plaintiffs’ or defendant’s claims. The order did not dismiss any of those claims, but merely disposed of an issue affecting those claims. Therefore, it was not a final appealable order. See Graham v. Cockerell, 105 N.M. 401, 733 P.2d 370 (Ct.App.1987). Accordingly, defendant’s appeal from the denial of the motion to dismiss was neither waived nor untimely. Second, plaintiffs argue that defendant’s failure to submit findings of fact and conclusions of law precludes this court from reviewing the trial court’s decision ejecting defendant and entitling plaintiffs to possess the property. We recognize that the failure to submit findings of fact and conclusions of law precludes a review of the evidence on appeal. Smith v. Maldonado, 103 N.M. 570, 711 P.2d 15 (1985); see SCRA 1986, l-052(B)(l)(f). However, this merely prevents us from reviewing the factual basis of any findings the trial court may have made. This court may still review the trial court’s decision to determine whether it is legally correct, and whether it is supported by findings of fact, if any, made by the trial court. Smith v. Maldonado. Defendant predicated his motion to dismiss on the assertion that the prior judgment was res judicata to plaintiffs’ claims in this case. The effect that judgment has, or should have had, on this case is a legal question that does not require a review of the facts. Similarly, we may review the effect of that prior judgment on the trial court’s determination that plaintiffs are now entitled to possession of the property, because it is also a legal issue which does not require a review of the evidence. If, on the other hand, defendant had argued that the trial court’s judgment was not supported by the facts adduced at trial, review of that claim would be prohibited. See Martinez v. Martinez, 101 N.M. 493, 684 P.2d 1158 (Ct.App.1984). Defendant has raised no such evidentiary issue, and we may address only the issues he has raised. See Smith v. Maldonado. Although defendant contends that the judgment in the quiet title action was res judicata to plaintiffs’ claims in the ejectment suit, the applicable doctrine is collateral estoppel. The quiet title action was a completely different cause of action than plaintiffs’ ejectment claim, although one of the ultimate facts necessary for the decision in each case was the extent of plaintiffs’ ownership or possessory interests. When a subsequent suit involves a different cause of action than the prior suit, collateral estoppel should be applied to determine which issues plaintiffs or defendants may not relitigate. See Adams v. United Steelworkers of Am., 97 N.M. 369, 640 P.2d 475 (1982); Thompson v. Barngrover, 101 N.M. 216, 680 P.2d 356 (Ct.App. 1984). Applying collateral estoppel principles, we hold that the prior judgment in the quiet title action precludes plaintiffs from claiming superior title to defendant and, thus, that plaintiffs should not have prevailed in their action for ejectment. EFFECT OF DEFENDANT’S DEFAULT IN PRIOR ACTION In an ejectment action, the plaintiff must win on the strength of his own title, not on the weakness of defendant’s title. See Romero v. Herrera, 27 N.M. 559, 203 P. 243 (1921); see also Burke v. Permian Ford-Lincoln-Mercury, 95 N.M. 314, 621 P.2d 1119 (1981) (the very foundation of the right to maintain an action of ejectment is the plaintiff’s right to possession of the premises). A party in possession of land is entitled to remain in possession until ousted by one having a better title than the party in possession. Hallmark v. Baca, 61 N.M. 420, 301 P.2d 527 (1956); Harrison v. Gallegos, 13 N.M. 1, 79 P. 300 (1905). Accordingly, where no legal title is shown in either party, the party showing prior possession in himself, or those through whom he claims, will be held to have the better right to possession. Sandoval County Bd. of Educ. v. Young, 43 N.M. 397, 94 P.2d 508 (1939); Romero v. Herrera. Plaintiffs claim, and the trial court agreed, that the default judgment entered against defendant in the prior quiet title action quieted title to defendant’s interest in the property in plaintiffs. Hence, plaintiffs contend that they have superior title to defendant and are thus entitled to eject him. It is therefore crucial to determine whether defendant’s default in the prior action has collateral estoppel ramifications. There is ample authority for the proposition that a default judgment has no collateral estoppel effect. See Restatement (Second) of Judgments § 27 e, at 257 (1982); Grip-Pak, Inc. v. Illinois Tool Works, Inc., 694 F.2d 466 (7th Cir.1982), cert. denied, 461 U.S. 958, 103 S.Ct. 2430, 77 L.Ed.2d 1317 (1983); In re McMillan, 579 F.2d 289 (3d Cir.1978); Lynch v. Lynch, 250 Iowa 407, 94 N.W.2d 105 (1959). The Restatement formulation and the foregoing cases recognize that default judgments do have res judicata effect, but distinguish collateral estoppel from res judicata. The basis of the distinction is the doctrine that res judicata bars consideration, in a subsequent suit, of all matters that could properly have been raised in the prior case, while collateral estoppel bars consideration only of issues actually litigated and determined by a valid and final judgment. See Parklane Hosiery Co. v. Shore, 439 U.S. 322, 99 S.Ct. 645, 58 L.Ed.2d 552 (1979); In re McMillan; Romero v. State, 97 N.M. 569, 642 P.2d 172 (1982). The Restatement and the foregoing federal cases recognize that in a default judgment, the issues are not actually litigated. The Restatement also states that the policy of preventing endless litigation does not apply as strongly in the collateral estoppel context as it does when parties are repeatedly attempting to relitigate the same cause of action. Hence, while it may be proper to accord res judicata effect to a default judgment, it is not appropriate to give such a judgment collateral estoppel effect. When an issue is disposed of by default, there has been little expenditure of judicial resources or the parties’ resources; thus, it is not unfair to allow the defaulting party an opportunity to actually litigate the issue in a subsequent different cause of action. We recognize that there is contrary authority to the foregoing position. See Ortega v. Board of County Comm’rs, 683 P.2d 819 (Colo.App.1984); Quality Sheet Metal Co. v. Woods, 2 Haw.App. 160, 627 P.2d 1128 (1981). These cases hold that a default in a prior action precludes relitigation of issues that might have been, but were not properly litigated in that action. The preclusion applies even though the subsequent lawsuit is based on a different cause of action than the first. Colorado and Hawaii courts thus do not distinguish between res judicata and collateral estoppel when determining what issues are precluded by a decision in a prior lawsuit. These two jurisdictions apparently apply a blanket proscription against raising any issue that might have been litigated in a prior case, even in collateral estoppel situations. See Ortega v. Board of County Comm’rs; Quality Sheet Metal Co. v. Woods. New Mexico courts, on the other hand, explicitly distinguish res judicata from collateral estoppel. Torres v. Village of Capitan, 92 N.M. 64, 582 P.2d 1277 (1978). Under the doctrine of res judicata, a judgment on the merits in a prior suit bars a subsequent suit involving the same parties or their privies based on the same cause of action. Id. Under the doctrine of collateral estoppel, the second action is upon a different cause of action and the judgment in a prior action precludes relitigation of issues actually litigated and necessary to the outcome of the first action. Edwards v. First Fed. Sav. & Loan Ass’n, 102 N.M. 396, 696 P.2d 484 (Ct.App.1985) (citing Parklane Hosiery Co. v. Shore, 439 U.S. 322, 99 S.Ct. 645, 58 L.Ed.2d 552 (1979)). Collateral estoppel differs from res judicata in that the issue to be estopped must actually have been litigated, whereas res judicata bars relitigation of any issue which was, or might have been, litigated in the first suit. Romero v. State, 97 N.M. 569, 642 P.2d 172 (1982). Moreover, collateral estoppel bars relitigation of ultimate facts or issues actually and necessarily decided in a prior suit. Silva v. State, 106 N.M. 472, 745 P.2d 380 (1987). In New Mexico, we recognize that default judgments do not have collateral estoppel effect in future litigation, although they may have res judicata effect. The only New Mexico case directly addressing this issue was decided in the res judicata context. In First State Bank v. Muzio, 100 N.M. 98, 666 P.2d 777 (1983), the supreme court specifically distinguished collateral estoppel from res judicata noting that Muzio involved res judicata. The court held that a prior default judgment bars a subsequent suit on issues that were, or could have been, determined in the earlier action. Muzio thus comports with the distinction that New Mexico and other jurisdictions make regarding the effect of the application of res judicata or collateral estoppel to issues that were not actually litigated. In accordance with this distinction, we hold that a default judgment has no collateral estoppel effect. Therefore, defendant in this case was not estopped from claiming equivalent or superior title to plaintiffs as a defense to their ejection action. EFFECT OF DISMISSAL WITH PREJUDICE OF QUIET TITLE ACTION Plaintiffs and defendant’s deceased wife, Felicita, actually litigated the issue of title to the property. The result of that litigation was a dismissal with prejudice of plaintiffs’ claims against Felicita and a dismissal with prejudice of her claims. We must now determine whether that judgment has any effect on plaintiff’s ejectment action. Where multiple defendants are involved in a single suit, and some of those defendants default, the defaulting defendants are entitled to take advantage of a successful defense interposed by the non-defaulting defendants. See United Salt Corp. v. McKee, 96 N.M. 65, 628 P.2d 310 (1981); see also State ex rel. Everett v. Sanders, 274 Or. 75, 544 P.2d 1043 (1976). This doctrine applies unless the defense interposed was personal to the non-defaulting defendant. See City of Albuquerque v. Huddleston, 55 N.M. 240, 230 P.2d 972 (1951); see also Annotation, Successful Defense by One Codefendant, or a Finding for “Defendants,” as Inuring to Benefit of Defaulting Defendant, 78 A.L.R. 938 (1932). It is widely accepted that when there are multiple parties involved in a single suit, entry of a default as to one party will not result in a default judgment prior to termination of the matter with the non-defaulting parties, Nichiro Gyogyo Kaisha, Ltd. v. Norman, 606 P.2d 401 (Alaska 1980); 47 Am.Jur.2d, Judgements Section 1160 at 189 (1969). This theory is especially germane here since plaintiffs failed to prove any sort of title in their quiet title action. Therefore, they should not have been allowed to obtain a default judgment quieting title to any part of the property. In a quiet title action, a plaintiff must recover on the strength of his own title or not at all. Blumenthal v. Concrete Constructors Co., 102 N.M. 125, 692 P.2d 50 (Ct. App.1974). Plaintiffs should not have been allowed to obtain a default judgment against defendant, whose ownership and possessory interests were equal to those of his wife, who successfully defended against the quiet title action. Therefore, Felicita’s successful defense against that action inured to defendant’s benefit. Cf. City of Albuquerque v. Huddleston. As noted, collateral estoppel is the correct theory to apply here, where there is an allegation that plaintiffs are attempting to litigate an issue already decided in an earlier different cause of action. Before a judgment may be given collateral estoppel effect, four conditions must be met: first, the parties in the second suit must be the same or in privity with the parties in the first suit; second, the causes of action must be different; third, the issue or fact must have been actually litigated in the first case; and, fourth, the issue must have been necessarily determined in that case. International Paper Co. v. Farrar, 102 N.M. 739, 700 P.2d 642 (1985). Here, plaintiffs and defendant were both parties to the prior suit, and defendant, through Felicita, successfully litigated the question of plaintiffs’ lack of title to the property. In addition, the cause of action in the first case was to quiet title, and the cause of action here is in ejectment. Therefore, the first three requirements for the application of collateral estoppel have been met. Plaintiffs contend that the judgment in the prior case was not a judgment on the merits, and that, accordingly, the issues in that case were never determined. This contention is not reconcilable with the facts. Plaintiffs maintain that the judgment in the quiet title case was entered because both sides failed to file proposed findings of fact and conclusions of law as requested by the trial court, and thus was not a decision on the question of their title to the property. However, the trial judge, in asking that the parties submit those pleadings, stated that he had serious questions about either parties’ title to the property. The judgment entered in that case stated that the court heard evidence and arguments of counsel, considered the parties’ trial briefs, and was otherwise informed in the premises. The judgment does document the parties’ failure to file the requested findings of fact and conclusions of law, but even on its face, it does not rest solely on the parties’ noncompliance with the court’s request. Moreover, after the judgment was entered, plaintiffs attempted to have it set aside. In denying plaintiffs’ motion, the trial court stated, “the Court obviously, as shown by its Decision, didn’t think that either the plaintiff [sic] or defendant established title to the property.” Later, the court reiterated: “Because of the Court’s Judgment and the proof that has been submitted to the Court, Mr. Armijo, I am going to deny your mo tion at this time.” Oral comments of a trial court may be used to explain the trial court’s theory, although they may not be used to overturn a finding máde by that court. See Chapman v. Jesco, Inc., 98 N.M. 707, 652 P.2d 257 (Ct.App.1982); cf. Ledbetter v. Webb, 103 N.M. 597, 711 P.2d 874 (1985). Similarly, the trial court’s comments in this case clarify the bases of the court’s judgment. The judgment itself, buttressed by the comments of the trial judge, demonstrates that the decision in the prior case was a decision on the merits, and that it actually determined the issue of title to the property. Since all of the requirements for the application of collateral estoppel were met, the prior judgment may be used to determine the issue of title in this case. The prior judgment established that neither plaintiffs nor defendant have title to the property. It is well-established that where no legal title is shown in either party, the party showing prior possession in himself, or those through whom he claims, will be held to have the better right to possession. Romero v. Herrera; see also Hallmark v. Baca (where plaintiff and his predecessors had occupied land for more than ten years, plaintiff was entitled to possession until ousted by someone showing better right thereto). The prior judgment, therefore, precludes plaintiffs from claiming title to the property, and accordingly, precludes them from ejecting defendant. Based on the application of collateral estoppel, defendant’s motion to dismiss should have been granted. Because of our resolution of this issue, we need not address the other issue defendant raised on appeal. Pursuant to the foregoing, the judgment in ejectment is hereby reversed and the case is remanded with instructions to dismiss plaintiffs’ action. No costs are awarded. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and GARCIA, J., concur.
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OPINION ALARID, Judge. Plaintiffs appeal the trial court’s orders: 1) granting defendant summary judgment and denying their own motion for summary judgment; and 2) construing the testator’s will as devising to plaintiffs’ deceased a life estate in a portion of the income from real property owned by testator. Our calendar notice proposed summary affirmance. Plaintiffs have timely filed a response to proposal for summary affirmance. Defendant has timely filed a memorandum in support of proposed summary affirmance. Not persuaded by plaintiffs’ memorandum, we affirm the trial court. In construing a will, the court must attempt to give effect to the testator’s intent. Gregg v. Gardner, 73 N.M. 347, 388 P.2d 68 (1963). The testator’s intent should be ascertained from the instrument itself. In re Estate of Kyreazis, 103 N.M. 2, 701 P.2d 1022 (Ct.App.1984); NMSA 1978, § 45-2-603. Technical rules of construction should be resorted to only if the language of the will is ambiguous or the testator’s intent is for any reason uncertain. Gregg v. Gardner. The parties agree that the testator’s will is clear and unambiguous. In paragraph 6.2 of his will, the testator devised to his sister, the plaintiffs’ deceased, “one-half of any income, rents or profits from any real property ... located in Bull Creek (Valle del Toro) or Colonias, New Mexico____” Plaintiffs argue that the above devise manifests a testamentary intent that plaintiffs’ deceased receive one-half of the real property in fee simple. Plaintiffs rely on the rule, “[A]n absolute gift of the income of realty, in the absence of anything to indicate a contrary intention, passes the realty.” 4 W. Bowe & D. Parker, Page on the Law of Wills § 33.21 (1961). See Annotation, Grant or Gift of Income as Carrying an Absolute Interest in the Property, 174 A.L.R. 319 (1948). But a contrary intent appears in this case. The will contains a residuary bequest in which testator left to his children, if his wife predeceased him, “[M]y interest in any real property owned by me at the time of my death, which I inherited from my family, located in Bull Creek and/or Colonias, San Miguel County[.]” There is no dispute that the property described in this provision is the same real estate referred to in the bequest to Julianita Vigil. Plaintiffs attach significance to the fact that the gift to the testator’s children was a residuary bequest. The devise to the children was by its terms “in addition to those given and devised under Article VI herein[.]” But that language does not mean that the bequest to Juanita Vigil must be construed as broadly as possible. Rather, we look for a reasonable construction that reconciles the provisions devising the property. See In re Estate of Martin, 97 N.M. 773, 643 P.2d 859 (1982). To construe the residuary bequest to the children as of only one-half the fee is to ignore the plain words of the will. But the bequests to Julianita and to the children can be reconciled if the fee estate is devised to the children and the bequest to Julianita is given its natural interpretation of simply one-half of the income, and noth ing further. “If a gift of income, is followed by a gift over of the corpus of the property, such gift over shows that the gift of income was not intended to pass the entire property.” Page on the Law of Wills, supra, § 33.21. By the same token, the devise to the children implies that the devise to Julianita was only a life estate. It would be unreasonable to infer that the testator intended Julianita and her heirs to continue to receive one-half of the income from the property in perpetuity. Such an arrangement could readily lead to serious complications in future management of the property. The trial court correctly construed testator’s intent as devising to Julianita a life estate in a portion of the income from real property left by testator in determining that title to the realty vested in testator’s children. The construction of the devise to Julianita as a life estate in the income is also consistent with what the will provides in the event the testator’s wife survived him. The will states that she would receive “the remainder of all property over which I have the power of testamentary disposition.” It does not require a strained construction to include within that “remainder” the ownership interest in the Bull Creek or Colonias property, subject to Julianita’s life estate in the income. See In re France’ Estate, 75 Pa. 220 (1874). CONCLUSION The orders of the trial court are affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and HARTZ, J„ concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. Defendant appealed his conviction of escape from jail under NMSA 1978, § 30-22-8. We proposed summary affirmance. Defendant’s timely memorandum in opposition challenged only the issue of whether there was sufficient evidence to support defendant’s conviction. The other issues raised in the docketing statement have been abandoned. State v. Martinez, 97 N.M. 585, 642 P.2d 188 (Ct.App.1982). Defendant was lawfully committed to the Eddy County jail. While in the custody of the jail authorities, he was placed on work release, as permitted by NMSA 1978, § 33-3-24 (Repl.Pamp.1983), and employed at a private roofing firm. On March 25, 1983, he failed to return to the jail from his employment. Defendant contends that walking away from a job site while on a work release program does not come within the meaning of “escape from jail.” To be guilty of escape from jail, one does not have to escape from the jail itself. “Reason and common sense require us to recognize that the statute [Section 30-22-8] punishes one who escapes custody while lawfully sentenced to jail.” State v. Gilman, 97 N.M. 67, 68, 636 P.2d 886, 887 (Ct.App.1981). The defendant in the Gil-man case escaped from the county fairgrounds where he was on a work detail pursuant to NMSA 1978, § 33-3-19 (Repl. Pamp.1983). At the time, he was serving a lawful sentence at the Roosevelt County jail. Defendant argues that, because he was on work release and not under the direct supervision of a guard, State v. Gilman does not apply. We disagree. The rationale in State v. Gilman was adopted from State ex rel. Johnson v. Warden, 196 Md. 672, 75 A.2d 843 (1950), in which a defendant legally confined to a reformatory escaped when he was allowed to work outside the reformatory on á private farm during the daytime, without a guard. Escape from jail under Section 30-22-8 includes walking away from a work release program. To convict a defendant of escaping from jail, two of the essential elements which must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt are that defendant was committed to jail and that defendant escaped from jail. NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 22.21 (Repl.Pamp. 1982). There was evidence that defendant had been lawfully committed to jail under a criminal charge at the time he escaped. Cf. State v. Garcia, 98 N.M. 585, 651 P.2d 120 (Ct.App.1982). Defendant concedes that he walked away from work release. As discussed above, this constitutes escaping from jail. Therefore, sufficient evi dence supported defendant’s conviction. We affirm. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and HENDLEY, JJ., concur.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. We affirm the decision of the Court of Appeals which reversed the trial court’s judgment quieting title to the disputed boundary line area in plaintiffs and enjoining defendant from maintaining the fence on the subject land. Since neither party proved the strength of their respective claims to the disputed land, we granted certiorari merely to clarify the Court of Appeals’ decision, to direct that the judgment to be entered by the district court be a judgment quieting title in plaintiff to all lands other than the disputed boundary area and dismissing that portion of plaintiffs’ claim. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, S.J., and RIORDAN and STOWERS, JJ., concur. FEDERICI, C.J., not participating.
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OPINION SOSA, Senior Justice. The State of New Mexico brought suit in Chaves County to adjudicate water rights in the Rio Hondo, Rio Ruidoso and Rio Bonito stream systems, all tributaries of the Pecos River in the Pecos Valley Artesian Basin. Twice the matter was referred by the court to special masters and hearings were held in 1976 and 1981. Both special masters, after hearing relevant evidence, came to similar conclusions supporting the State Engineer’s allocation of water to defendants Forrest Niccum (Niccum) and the Hondo Ranch. The trial court upheld the findings and conclusions of the special masters. We affirm. The key issue is whether or not there is substantial evidence to support the findings of the special masters that the formula to determine “water duty” was correctly applied to the Niccum property. The threshold question is whether the formula used by the State Engineer was correctly applied to the stream users. Niccum maintains that if the formula was not correctly applied, then the result is an unconstitutional taking of his property rights without just compensation. The State Engineer, to determine the correct water duty, prepared a hydrographic survey which grouped users according to the source of their water rights. Using a nationally recognized and proven formula, the State Engineer allotted water duty along each stream. The formula was developed to determine “consumptive use” water by irrigated crops. See Determining Water Requirements For Settling Water Disputes, 4 N.R.J. 29 (1964). The formula uses a procedure to estimate water requirements and may be used to: transpose observed consumptive use data from one area to other areas for which only climatological data are available. The amount of water supplied from natural sources is subtracted from the computed total consumptive use, giving the net consumptive irrigation water requirement that must be met for optimum crop production. This net requirement, divided by the irrigation efficiency, gives the irrigation water requirement of the crop. Id at 31. The numbers used in the formula were based on the average needs of the group of users along each stream, not on the needs of one particular stream user. After reviewing the formula, the methodology used, and after receiving evidence concerning climate and soil variations, both special masters found that the averaging of water duties of user’s along a particular source stream was an appropriate and rea sonable procedure for determining Niccum’s water duty. Niccum does not quarrel with the State Engineer’s choice of formula. Additionally, he agrees that the application of a uniform average duty along a particular source stream is appropriate if climatological and other crucial data is similar along the stream. Niccum argues that it is essential to the proper use of the formula that the group being averaged is homogeneous. He asserts that the group selected by the State Engineer has wide variations as to elevation, rainfall, natural vegetation, cropping patterns, slope and soil measurements. His position is that the lack of homogeneity of the group makes the formula inoperative and unfair to the downstream users. He maintains that the downstream land, where his Hondo Ranch is located, is more arid and the field irrigation is less efficient, thus, he contends his ranch requires more water than the upstream ranches that receive heavier rainfall and have better soil. Niccum purports that the correct use of the formula in the instant case would be on a site by site basis. He argues that the methodology used in applying the formula here destroys the scientific accuracy of the formula, because the averaging of the needs of the stream users was done without consideration for the differences in elevation and rainfall. The special masters made findings that a site by site application of the formula would be too costly, inefficient and would require seasonal re-evaluation. Next Niccum argues that constitutionally, “beneficial use” is the basis of water rights in New Mexico. N.M.Const. art. XVI, § 3. He claims that if the beneficial use is lessened by an incorrect application of a formula, the result is an unconstitutional taking without compensation of his property right to 127 acre feet of water. This water would subsequently revert to public use. The court accepted and adopted the reports submitted by each of the special masters. These reports approved the State Engineer’s use of this particular formula for allocating water duty, and accepted the methodology of grouping of stream source users. Special masters are to be appointed by the court when issues are complicated. NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 53(b) (Repl. Pamp.1980). When there is no jury, “the court shall accept the master’s findings of fact unless clearly erroneous.” Civ.P.R. 53(e)(2) (Repl.Pamp.1980). Only when there is total lack of substantial evidence to support the special master’s findings, is the court warranted in rejecting the master’s report. Lopez v. Singh, 53 N.M. 245, 205 P.2d 492 (1949). When there is substantial evidence the special master’s findings are binding upon the trial court. Id. We have defined substantial evidence as “such relevant evidence as a reasonable mind might accept as adequate to support a conclusion” Toltec International, Inc. v. Village of Ruidoso, 95 N.M. 82, 84, 619 P.2d 186, 188 (1980). The special master’s findings are presumed to be correct and when there is any testimony consistent with the findings, they must be treated as unassailable. Witt v. Skelly Oil Co., 71 N.M. 411, 379 P.2d 61 (1963). Previously we have given deference to those administrative agencies having special knowledge and experience in a field. Groendyke Transport, Inc. v. New Mexico State Corp. Comm., 101 N.M. 470, 684 P.2d 1135 (1984); see also Stokes v. Morgan, 101 N.M. 195, 680 P.2d 335 (1984). Special masters who take- the testimony, examine the evidence, observe and question witnesses receive this similar deference. See Lopez v. Singh. Here the trial court had two special masters’ reports that were essentially in agreement on the correctness of the formula and the methodology used. Niccum convinced neither the special masters nor the trial court that the formula was used inappropriately. Once findings of a special master are adopted and approved by the trial court, this court will not disturb those findings when they are supported by substantial evidence. State ex rel. Reynolds v. Lewis, 74 N.M. 442, 394 P.2d 593 (1964). An appeals court cannot reweigh the evidence based on contrary evidence which could support a finding other than that of the special master. Id.; see also Toltec International, Inc. There is nothing in the record that convinces us to disregard the findings and conclusions of the two special masters and the trial court. We affirm the trial court. IT IS SO ORDERED. RIORDAN and STOWERS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. These cases have been consolidated since they present the same principal question on appeal. Both of these cases, State v. Padilla and State v. Fugate, involve the question of whether the “jurisdictional exception,” as applied to double jeopardy claims, is still the law in New Mexico. We hold that it is. Defendant Padilla was involved in an altercation with several police officers which resulted from Padilla’s attempt to avoid arrest. While two officers were attempting to handcuff Padilla, he kicked a third officer in the groin. Padilla was charged with felony battery on a police officer as well as several misdemeanors, including resisting arrest. Padilla pled guilty to the misdemeanors in magistrate court. At the district court trial on the felony count Padilla moved to dismiss on grounds of double jeopardy, claiming that resisting arrest and battery on a police officer are the “same offense” for double jeopardy purposes. The trial court denied the motion because it found that the jurisdictional exception was applicable in this case. Padilla appealed his conviction to the Court of Appeals. The Court of Appeals found that the jurisdictional exception was not the law in New Mexico and reversed the conviction. The State brought the case before this Court on writ of certiorari. We reverse. Defendant Fugate was involved in a three-vehicle accident which caused great bodily harm, followed by death, to a passenger of one of the other vehicles. Fugate entered a plea of nollo contendré to charges of DWI and careless driving in municipal court. He was found guilty and sentenced to alcohol treatment. Fugate was subsequently tried and convicted of homicide by vehicle in the district court. Fugate appealed his conviction, claiming that the second trial was barred on double jeopardy grounds. The Court of Appeals reversed Fugate’s conviction and the State brought the case before this Court on writ of certiorari. We reverse. We have recently addressed the question of whether the jurisdictional exception, as adopted in State v. Goodson, 54 N.M. 184, 217 P.2d 262 (1950) and State v. James, 93 N.M. 605, 603 P.2d 715 (1979), is still applicable in New Mexico in light of the recent United States Supreme Court opinion of Illinois v. Vitale, 447 U.S. 410, 100 S.Ct. 2260, 65 L.Ed.2d 228 (1980). We held that there was no compelling reason to overrule James. State v. Manzanares, 674 P.2d 511 (1983). The records in each of the cases before us show that the district courts properly denied motions to dismiss the felony charges on double jeopardy grounds. The Court of Appeals is reversed in each case. The causes are remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion and with the holding of State v. Manzanares, Id. The Court of Appeals opinion on the second issue in Padilla, concerning instructions on simple battery, is proper and correct and the court is affirmed on this issue. The Court of Appeals opinion in Fugate concerning the necessary facts exception is also proper and correct. However, in light of our holding with respect to the jurisdictional exception, it is not necessary to reach the “necessary facts” question in Fugate. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and RIORDAN and STOWERS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION APODACA, Chief Judge. This premises liability case involves the issue of an owner’s liability for negligent acts committed by an independent contractor resulting in harm after completion of the work. Defendant Jordon Restaurant Enterprises (Defendant) appeals two rulings of the trial court: (1) a pre-trial grant of partial summary judgment to Plaintiff John Otero (Plaintiff), and (2) the court’s refusal to give certain comparative negligence instructions to the jury. Because we determine there was no error under either issue, we affirm. I. FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND Defendant hired an independent contractor to expand the premises of its restaurant and bar. As part of the expansion project, the contractor assembled metal bleachers where patrons of the restaurant and bar could be seated to view a large-screen television. Approximately four months after the bleachers were installed, they collapsed. Plaintiff, a patron, fell and was injured. As a result of the accident, he filed suit against Defendant. Defendant conceded in the trial court that the cause of the collapse was the contractor’s faulty and negligent assembly of the bleachers. Defendant then filed a third-party complaint against the independent contractor and against the manufacturer and distributor of the bleachers. Defendant’s claims against these third-party defendants are not part of this appeal. Before trial, Plaintiff filed a motion for partial summary judgment, seeking an adjudication that Defendant was vicariously liable, or jointly and severally liable, for the contractor’s negligence in assembling the bleachers. The trial court granted Plaintiff’s motion, ruling that, as a matter of law, Defendant was liable for the contractor’s negligence and that Defendant had a nondelegable duty to maintain safety in areas over which it had control. The trial court based its ruling on this Court’s decision in Broome v. Byrd, 113 N.M. 38, 822 P.2d 677 (Ct.App.1991). At trial, Defendant requested jury instructions that would have allowed the jury to compare the contractor’s negligence with the alleged negligence of the City of Albuquerque (the City), which issued the construction permit for the expansion work, and the alleged negligence of the architect who drew up the plans for the project. The trial court refused those instructions. The jury returned a verdict in favor of Plaintiff for $47,000 and against Defendant and the contractor, jointly and severally. II. DISCUSSION A. Adoption of Restatement Section 422(b) In Broome, this Court adopted Restatement (Second) of Torts Section 422(a) (1965) (the Restatement). There, an employee of a tenant in a commercial building tripped and fell over a drop cloth. The drop cloth had been left outside the door of the tenant’s business by an employee of the independent contractor painter hired by the building owner. Broome, 113 N.M. at 39, 822 P.2d at 678. The employee sued the building owner for negligence, and the trial court entered summary judgment for the building owner. Id. This Court reversed, holding that an owner of a commercial building can be held vicariously liable for an independent contractor’s negligence where the negligence created a dangerous condition causing injury to a business visitor in those areas of the building over which the owner retained control. Id. at 41, 822 P.2d at 680. Generally, an employer is not vicariously liable for the negligence of an independent contractor, but this general rule of nonliability has numerous exceptions. Id. at 39, 822 P.2d at 681. Although Broome is somewhat factually similar to the facts in this appeal, it is not exactly on point. Broome differs because there, the injury occurred while the construction project was in progress and resulted from alleged negligence in keeping the construction area safe. In this case, on the other hand, the injury occurred after the project was completed and resulted from the independent contractor’s defective performance of the work that left the structure in an unsafe condition. Under such circumstances, we conclude that the owner of the premises is liable to the same extent as if the owner had himself defectively performed the work. In so holding, we adopt Section 422(b) of the Restatement. Section 422, in imposing liability on the owner of premises, states that an owner: who entrusts to an independent contractor construction, repair, or other work on the land, or on a building or other structure upon it, is subject to the same liability as though he had retained the work in his own hands to others on or outside of the land for physical harm caused to them by the unsafe condition of the structure (b) after he has resumed possession of the land upon its completion. Thus, Section 422(b) “makes it impossible for a possessor of land to escape liability for the non-performance of his duty to maintain his land in safe condition, so long as he is in possession of it, by delegating the task of doing the work necessary to the performance of that duty to an independent contractor.” Restatement § 422 cmt. e. Liability is imposed on the owner of the premises despite the fact that the owner was not personally at fault in creating the unsafe condition. We realize that in cases like Broome, where the owner has retained possession of the premises during the work, the owner is in the position to prevent injuries because the owner or its agents are present while the independent contractor’s work is ongoing and should be aware of any dangerous condition that develops. Such may or may not be the case in situations where the work has already been completed. Nevertheless, the policy reasons for imposing liability on the owner articulated in Broome apply with equal force to cases such as this appeal, a case involving a latent defect. When adopting Section 422(a) in Broome, this Court reasoned that the owner obtains the benefit of the contractor’s work and that an owner can insure against risks and incorporate those expenses into its overhead if the premises are business premises. Broome, 113 N.M. at 41, 822 P.2d at 680. We also recognized that the owner is in a position to prevent or minimize risks by hiring a financially responsible contractor, by making arrangements for indemnification from the contractor, and by requiring the contractor to follow safety procedures and remedy dangerous conditions. Id.; see Ft. Lowell-NSS Ltd. Partnership v. Kelly, 166 Ariz. 96, 800 P.2d 962, 970-71 (1990) (en banc) (discussing policy rationales behind Section 422(b)); Patton v. Spa Lady, Inc., 772 P.2d 1082, 1084 (Alaska 1989) (same). We consider these policy reasons equally applicable here. We note that other jurisdictions have also held that “a possessor of land is accountable for the negligent failure of an independent contractor to put or maintain buildings or structures in ... reasonably safe condition.” Kelly, 800 P.2d at 970 (citing cases); but see Mai Kai, Inc. v. Colucci 205 So.2d 291, 293 (Fla.1967) (holding that a landowner is not absolutely liable for an independent contractor’s negligence and that he or she has only the duty to exercise reasonable care to prevent or correct an unsafe condition). In adopting Section 422(b) of the Restatement, we necessarily reject Defendant’s argument that an owner’s liability should be limited to situations in which the owner himself is at fault. B. Collateral Negligence Defendant additionally argues that, despite Section 422(b), it should not be held liable for the contractor’s negligence because such negligence was only “collateral negligence.” See Broome, 113 N.M. at 41-43, 822 P.2d at 680-82 (discussing concept of collateral negligence). We disagree with Defendant’s contention. The collateral negligence doctrine is an exception to an exception. That is, the general rule is that an employer is not liable for the negligence of an independent contractor. Broome, 113 N.M. at 39, 822 P.2d at 678. This rule, however, as we have previously noted, is riddled with exceptions, one of which is the one established in this case— that an owner of property is liable for the negligence of an independent contractor in building or making repairs to structures on that property, once the owner resumes possession. In turn, those exceptions are also subject to an exception — that the owner is not liable for collateral negligence of the contractor or the contractor’s employees. See Restatement § 422 cmt. e; Restatement § 426. We must therefore determine the meaning of the term “collateral negligence.” The concept of “collateral negligence” is set out in Section 426 of the Restatement. Section 426 states: [A]n employer of an independent contractor, unless he is himself negligent, is not liable for physical harm caused by any negligence of the contractor if (a) the contractor’s negligence consists solely in the improper manner in which he does the work, and (b) it creates a risk of such harm which is not inherent in or normal to the work, and (c) the employer had no reason to contemplate the contractor’s negligence when the contract was made. Defendant interprets the collateral negligence concept broadly, arguing that a question of fact exists as to whether the contractor’s failure to assemble the bleachers correctly was unusual negligence that could not be anticipated. We agree with Defendant that the question of whether negligence is collateral is often not easy to answer and is usually an issue of fact. See Broome, 113 N.M. at 42, 822 P.2d at 681. In this case, however, the question can be answered as a matter of law. Cases and commentators discussing the collateral negligence doctrine make clear that the concept is limited to negligence that produces a temporarily unsafe condition while the work is in progress. Negligence that produces a poor result or a defect in the final structure, however^ is not considered collateral negligence. See Van Arsdale v. Hollinger, 68 Cal.2d 245, 66 Cal.Rptr. 20, 437 P.2d 508, 512-13 (1968) (en banc) (citing Snyder v. Southern Cal. Edison Co., 44 Cal.2d 793, 285 P.2d 912, 915 (1955)); Saiz v. Belen Sch. Dist., 113 N.M. 387, 397, 827 P.2d 102, 112 (1992); Restatement § 422, at 408, cmt. e (for an owner to be liable for a contractor’s negligence, the negligence must result in a failure to put and maintain the land in that safe condition in which it is the duty of the owner to put and maintain it; the owner is not liable for any casual act of negligence in the operative detail of doing the work that, however injurious to another, does not prevent the land from being put or maintained in safe condition; such negligence is collateral negligence); Talbot Smith, Collateral Negligence, 25 Minn.L.Rev. 399 (1941) (discussing origins of collateral negligence theory and drawing distinction between negligence collateral to the accomplishment of a given result, and the result itself; where the fault lies in the final, completed structure the collateral negligence argument has been denied). Thus, a distinction exists between the negligent manner of ongoing work performed by the contractor, for which the employer of the independent contractor may not be liable under the collateral negligence doctrine, and the condition of the premises that results from the negligence, for which the collateral negligence doctrine does not apply. Here, Defendant had a nondelegable duty to exercise reasonable care that the bleachers were in a safe condition. The contractor’s negligent assembly, therefore, made the completed structure unsafe and affected the result that the owner was under a duty to attain — a result of reasonably safe premises. This was not a situation involving an unsafe condition created only while the work was ongoing. See, e.g., Broome (drop cloth left on floor during progress of work; question of collateral negligence raised issue of fact). We conclude, as a matter of law, that the negligence of the independent contractor was not collateral negligence, and therefore Defendant is liable for that negligence. C. Comparative Negligence Finally, Defendant contends that the architect was negligent in failing to provide specifications for the bleachers. Defendant wanted to have the architect’s and the contractor’s negligence compared, in order to reduce Defendant’s liability. The trial court refused to allow the jury to consider the architect’s negligence. We determine there was no error in the trial court’s refusal. To the extent that the architect was negligent, that negligence, like the contractor’s, allowed the bleachers to be erected and to remain in an unsafe condition. As the record indicates, the architect was either an independent contractor retained by Defendant or an employee or subcontractor of an independent contractor. Therefore, under the same theory as that discussed in the previous sections of this opinion, Defendant was liable to Plaintiff for the architect’s negligence, if any, that caused the bleachers to be unsafe. See Restatement § 422 cmt. d. Defendant also argues that the City was negligent because it granted a permit for the renovations, including the bleachers, without ensuring that the contractor was properly licensed; the contractor was licensed to work on residential premises, but not on commercial premises. Defendant maintains that the City’s negligence in issuing a permit to an improperly licensed contractor should be compared to the contractor’s negligence, to reduce Defendant’s ultimate liability. The trial court refused to instruct the jury concerning the City’s comparative negligence. We start with the premise that, except for a few exceptions, the liability of concurrent tortfeasors is several rather than joint and several — each tortfeasor pays only for its share of the damages in proportion to the comparative fault assigned by the factfinder. NMSA 1978, § 41-3A-1 (Repl. Pamp.1989). There are exceptions to this rule, however, including an exception for situations “having a sound basis in public policy.” Section 41-3A-1(C). We believe that this case presents a situation in which sound public policy dictates that one of the tortfeasors, the independent contractor (and, through the contractor, Defendant in this appeal) should be liable for all of Plaintiffs damages. We therefore determine that Plaintiff was entitled to bring his claim only against Defendant, and to recover all of his damages directly from Defendant, rather than being forced to attempt to collect part of those damages from the City. Our analysis is as follows: (1) Defendant is liable for the defective bleachers to the same extent as the independent contractor would be liable; (2) under the circumstances of this case, the independent contractor, and therefore Defendant, would be required to indem nify the City in the event the City were found to be liable at all to Plaintiff; (3) therefore, Plaintiff should not be required to bring an action against the City, if Plaintiff elects instead to proceed directly against Defendant for his damages. Under Section 422(b) of the Restatement, Defendant is subject to the same liability for the collapsed bleachers as if Defendant had erected the bleachers itself, retaining the work in its own hands. This places Defendant in the same position as the independent contractor, as far as any liability for indemnification to the City. The indemnification analysis is slightly more complicated. Our Supreme Court recently determined that New Mexico tort law retains traditional indemnity principles, even after the adoption of comparative negligence. Amrep Southwest, Inc. v. Shollenbarger Wood Treating, Inc., 119 N.M. 542, 893 P.2d 438 (1995). Amrep specifically recognized a distinction between active and passive negligence, holding that indemnification may be appropriate where one party has been merely passively negligent and the other party has been actively negligent. 893 P.2d at 442-443. The Supreme Court did note that an independent, preexisting legal relationship between indemnitor and indemnitee is sometimes necessary to support a claim for indemnification, but suggested that such a relationship is not necessary where there are exceptional circumstances. 893 P.2d at 442. These exceptional circumstances include cases in which there is a great difference in the degree of fault between concurrent tortfeasors or when the character of the duties owed by the tortfeasors to the plaintiff is vastly different or disproportionate. Id., 893 P.2d at 441, n. 1. We believe that this case presents such exceptional circumstances. As we previously noted, indemnity is often allowed where one tortfeasor’s negligence is entirely passive, while the other’s negligence is active. It is not always easy to determine whether negligence is active or passive, however. One example given by the Supreme Court in Amrep is that active negligence occurs when an individual creates a dangerous condition, and passive negligence occurs when another individual fails to discover and remedy that dangerous condition. 893 P.2d at 443. In other words, the party failing to discover the condition is entitled to indemnification from the party that created the condition, because, as between the two parties, the far greater responsibility is that of the person creating the dangerous condition. Id. In this appeal, the City’s negligence, if any, was even more passive than a failure to discover the unsafe condition created by the independent contractor. The City did not inspect the bleachers after they were erected and was not in control of the premises or in a position to perform such an inspection. The City merely gave the contractor an opportunity to create the dangerous condition by issuing a construction permit to which the contractor was not entitled. The City did not even supply an instrumentality, equipment, or materials used in erecting the bleachers. In addition, there is no proof that the City had any information indicating the contractor had performed shoddy work in the past, which undeniably would have raised its degree of fault somewhat. Since the City’s only fault lay in affording the contractor an opportunity to perform the work, and the City had no part in actually performing the work or in inspecting it afterward, we hold that the City’s negligence in this case, if any, was entirely passive and minimal in degree compared to the negligence of the party that actually created the dangerous condition. We therefore hold that the City would have been entitled to indemnification from the independent contractor, should the City have been held liable to Plaintiff for any of Plaintiffs damages. Cf. id.; cf. also Przybylski v. Perkins & Will Architects, Inc., 95 Ill.App.3d 620, 51 Ill.Dec. 110, 113, 420 N.E.2d 524, 527 (1981) (passively negligent tortfeasor can obtain indemnity from actively negligent tortfeasor; if defendant is held liable merely because of its supervisory power on the job site, liability can be shifted to the more culpable party); Crime Fighters Patrol v. Hiles, 740 S.W.2d 936, 939 (Ky.1987) (where restaurant’s negligence consisted solely in failing to prevent assault, restaurant was entitled to indemnity from assailant); O’Malley v. Peerless Petroleum, 283 Pa.Su per. 272, 428 A.2d 1251, 1262 (1980) (sewer authority that did not detect damaged gas pipe can obtain indemnification from petroleum company that damaged the gas pipe when sewer authority’s liability to plaintiff was due to its failure to discover the defect). This would be true despite the lack of an independent, pre-existing legal relationship between the City and the contractor, because this ease fits squarely within the exceptional circumstances exception to that requirement. We emphasize that our holding on the indemnification question is not an expression of any view as to whether the City’s immunity has been waived for a claim such as the one Plaintiff might have asserted. Cf. Miller v. New Mexico Dep’t of Transp., 106 N.M. 253, 741 P.2d 1374 (1987) (analyzing issuance of permit to determine whether it might be actionable under the Tort Claims Act). This issue was not raised in this appeal and is unnecessary to our decision. We are also not holding that, in any situation in which, traditionally, indemnity has been granted, Amrep would require that indemnity now be afforded as well. The full parameters of Amrep and the pre-existing relationship requirement have yet to be explored. We are holding only that in eases such as this appeal, where one party’s negligence is entirely passive and has nothing to do with the actual performance of the work or its aftermath, that party should, under Amrep, be entitled to indemnity from the party that created the dangerous condition. Having resolved the indemnity question against Defendant, we also hold that there is no reason to require Plaintiff to proceed against both Defendant and the City, when Defendant is ultimately responsible for the entirety of Plaintiffs damages. Cf. Leyba v. Whitley, 118 N.M. 435, 445, 882 P.2d 26, 36 (Ct.App.) (procedure under which child would sue trustee, and trustee would then sue her attorneys for indemnity or contribution, would be unduly complicated), cert. granted, 118 N.M. 430, 882 P.2d 21 (1994). For these reasons, we hold that sound public policy requires that Defendant be hable to Plaintiff for the entire amount of Plaintiffs damages. We therefore conclude it was not error for the trial court to refuse to allow the jury to compare the City’s negligence with that of Defendant. III. CONCLUSION We hold that, under Section 422(b) of Restatement, which we adopt as law in New Mexico, the contractor’s negligence was not collateral negligence. We also hold that the trial court correctly refused Defendant’s requested comparative negligence instructions. We therefore affirm the judgment entered against Defendant. IT IS SO ORDERED. HARTZ and FLORES, JJ., concur.
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OPINION SCARBOROUGH, Chief Justice. Respondents-appellants are Dana McQuinn and the Board of Examiners in Optometry who suspended petitioner-appellee, Robert Molina’s, license to practice optometry for fourteen days. The district court reversed the Board’s decision. McQuinn and the Board appeal, we reverse. The Optometry Act, NMSA 1978, Section 61-2-1 to 61-2-18 (Repl.Pamp.1986) requires that optometrists be certified before they may use topical ocular diagnostic pharmaceutical agents or topical ocular pharmaceutical agents. Id. at § 61-2-10. In June 1985, Molina enrolled in a 105 hour course at Pennsylvania College of Pharmacology to be certified pursuant to section 61-2-10. Upon completion of the course the college sent a list of the names of all persons completing the course to the Board. However, Molina’s name did not appear on the list. In September 1985, Molina phoned a drug store to prescribe an ocular agent for a patient. The pharmacist checked the list naming all qualified optometrists in the use of ocular agents which was provided by the pharmacology board. Molina’s name still was not on the list. After Molina assured the pharmacist that the omission was a mistake and would be corrected by the Board, the prescription was filled. The pharmacist filed a complaint against Molina with the Board of Examiners in Optometry, who then held a hearing and decided to suspend Molina’s license for fourteen days because he was not certified as required by statute. Molina appealed the decision to the district court which overruled the Board’s decision. We reverse. We first address McQuinn’s argument that the district court erred in reversing the Board’s decision. In response, Molina argues that the district court properly concluded the Board exceeded its authority in determining that Molina’s license should be suspended. Furthermore, in support of this argument, Molina asserts that the Board failed to provide discovery or to commence the hearing as required by statute. The statute requires the Board to provide discovery within ten days of request for discovery. NMSA 1978, § 61-1-8 (Repl. Pamp.1986). It also requires the Board to provide Molina with a hearing, after request, within sixty days of service of notice of contemplated action. NMSA 1978 § 61-1-4(D) (Repl.Pamp.1986). The Board did not comply with either of these requirements and now states that none of these issues were raised in the district court. Unfortunately, we are unable to say whether or not this is the case because the record before us is incomplete. However, we note that section 61-1-9 allows the Board to grant a prehearing continuance to assure that the licensee obtains full and complete discovery. The statute also contemplates a prehearing conference in order to simplify the issues. The evidence we have before us reveals that Molina and the Board held a prehearing telephone conference. Molina argues that he either did not approve a continuance during the conference, or if he did it was for the purpose of obtaining full discovery. Regardless of Molina’s understanding of the nature of the conference, the Board granted a continuance to allow him full discovery. Our recent decision in Lopez v. Medical Examiners, 107 N.M. 145, 754 P.2d 522 (1988) deals with the jurisdictional nature of the ninety day time limit within which a decision must be rendered under NMSA 1978, Section 61-1-13 (Repl.Pamp.1986). Lopez interpreted section 61-1-13 to require that a case must be disposed of within ninety days of final submission. Here we are concerned with the Board’s failure to comply with two sections of the same act which impose time limits for the commencement of a case. The statutory scheme provided for the commencement of a case is quite different than that provided for its disposition., The Board had the authority to grant the prehearing continuance, pursuant to section 61-1-9, about which Molina now complains. We next consider McQuinn’s argument that the trial court erred in its conclusion that the Optometry Act does not provide for the manner in which an optometrist may become certified to use topical ocular pharmaceutical agents. The statute does provide a manner in which an optometrist may become certified to use topical ocular pharmaceutical agents. The statute states: C. The board shall issue certification for the use of topical ocular pharmaceutical agents to optometrists who have successfully completed an examination and submitted proof of having satisfactorily completed a course in pharmacology as applied to optometry, with particular emphasis on the application of pharmaceutical agents for the purpose of examination of the human eye, analysis of ocular functions and treatment of visual defects or abnormal conditions of the human eye and its adnexa. The course shall constitute a minimum of one hun dred five classroom-clinical hours of instruction in general and ocular pharmacology, including therapeutic pharmacology, as applied to optometry, and shall be taught by an accredited institution and approved by the board. (Emphasis added) NMSA 1978, § 61-2-10(0) (Repl.Pamp.1986). The statute is not ambiguous. It requires the board to certify an optometrist upon submission of proof that the optometrist has satisfactorily completed an approved course in pharmacology. However, the statute does not specify the manner in which proof of completion of the course requirements should be presented to the Board. In this case, the evidence presented indicated that Pennsylvania College was the source of information relied upon by the Board to certify optometrists to use topical ocular pharmaceutical agents. A list of optometrists ultimately certified by the Board is then sent by the Board to all pharmacists to guide them in filling prescriptions. The statute does not require that the names of all certified optometrists appear on the list circulated to pharmacists by the Board. Rather, an optometrist must pass an examination and submit proof of completion of the course in pharmacology to the Board. “An unambiguous statute should be given effect according to its clear language.” Storey v. University of N.M. Hosp./BCMC, 105 N.M. 205, 207, 730 P.2d 1187, 1189 (1986); New Mexico Beverage Co. v. Blything, 102 N.M. 533, 697 P.2d 952 (1985). In this case, the statute clearly directs that the optometrist submit proof to the Board that he has completed the requirements of the statute. To hold otherwise would render the certification process meaningless. The Board would then have to contact every pharmacology school in the country to ask if any New Mexico optometrists had completed any courses. We have previously held that, “[t]he interpretation of a statute must be consistent with the legislature’s intent and must be accomplished by ‘adopting a construction which will not render the statute’s application absurd, unreasonable, or unjust.’ ” City of Las Cruces v. Garcia, 102 N.M. 25, 26-27, 690 P.2d 1019, 1020-21 (1984); State v. Santillanes, 99 N.M. 89, 90, 654 P.2d 542, 543 (1982). The statute compels an optometrist to submit proof of completion of the course requirement to the Board. The next question is, did Molina “submit proof” that he had successfully completed the course requirements? The trial court examined the evidence and concluded that Molina successfully completed the course at the Pennsylvania College of Optometry on June 15,1985. However, the trial court made no finding that Molina submitted such proof to the Board. Furthermore, there is no evidence in the record to establish that Molina submitted proof of completion of the 105 hours of mandatory classroom instruction to the Board. The proper standard for our review is substantial evidence, which is evidence that a reasonable mind accepts as adequate to support a conclusion. Sandoval v. Department of Employment Sec., 96 N.M. 717, 718, 634 P.2d 1269, 1270 (1981). Absent substantial evidence, the judgment must be reversed. Whorton v. Mr. C’s, 101 N.M. 651, 653, 687 P.2d 86, 88, (1984); Getz v. Equitable Life Assurance Soc’y, 90 N.M. 195, 561 P.2d 468 (1977), cert denied, 434 U.S. 834, 98 S.Ct. 121, 54 L.Ed.2d 95 (1977). There being a lack of substantial evidence, we cannot uphold the trial court’s reversal of the Board’s suspension. McQuinn next argues that the evidence established that Molina violated the statute prohibiting the use of topical ocular pharmaceutical agents. Molina asserts that “use” should not include prescription because the optometrist himself is not “using” the ocular agent: the patient is. We construe the word “use” to extend to prescribing drugs for patients who are treated by an optometrist. Therefore, Molina “used” a topicular agent without being certified in violation of section 61-2-10. Molina also argues that we may not construe section 61-2-10 because it would violate the separation of powers doctrine. We do not agree with this argument. We have previously ruled, “[n]ot only is it fundamental that interpretation of the law is a judicial matter, but where the question is one of construction of state statutes, the state court may pass upon it as an issue of law.” Madrid v. University of Cal., 105 N.M. 715, 718, 737 P.2d 74, 77 (1987); Pan Am. Petroleum Corp. v. El Paso Natural Gas Co., 77 N.M. 481, 424 P.2d 397 (1966). We reverse the trial court and uphold the fourteen day suspension imposed by the Board of Examiners in Optometry against Molina. IT IS SO ORDERED. STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION HENDLEY, Judge. Defendant appeals the district court’s denial of his motions filed pursuant to NMSA 1978, Crim.P.R. 57 (Repl.Pamp.1980). The cause was originally assigned to a summary calendar with dismissal proposed because Rule 57(a) provides that “[t]he order of the district court on a motion under this rule is final and not subject to appeal.” Subsequently, the case was reassigned to a legal calendar with instructions to brief the following issues: whether Rule 57 1) unconstitutionally denies defendant his right to an appeal pursuant to N.M. Const, art. VI, § 2; and 2) denies defendant his rights under NMSA 1978, § 31-11-6. Defendant was charged with thirty-five counts of criminal sexual contact of a mi-' nor, indecent exposure, contributing to the delinquency of a minor, and criminal sexual penetration. Subsequently, defendant entered into a plea and disposition agreement whereby he agreed to plead no contest to three counts of contributing to the delinquency of a minor. The other charges against him were dismissed with prejudice. A judgment of guilty was entered on all three counts and sentence was entered. This is the fourth appeal of this matter. The first two appeals were dismissed as premature. State v. Garcia, Ct.App. No. 5572 (filed February 25, 1982); State v. Garcia, 99 N.M. 466, 659 P.2d 918 (Ct.App.1983). An appeal on the merits resulted in a memorandum opinion affirming defendant’s conviction. State v. Garcia, 100 N.M. 120, 666 P.2d 1267 (App.1983). In this current appeal defendant filed a motion to amend his docketing statement to add the issue of ineffective assistance of counsel. This motion is being held in abeyance pending a determination of the issue of the appealability of defendant’s Rule 57 motion. The motion is denied for the reasons hereinafter stated. We discuss the constitutionality of Rule 57, its relationship to Section 31-11-6, and Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973). Constitutionality of Rule 57 A brief history is necessary. Article VI, Section 2, provides that: Appeals from a judgment of the district court imposing a sentence of death or life imprisonment shall be taken directly to the supreme court. In all other eases, criminal and civil, the supreme court shall exercise appellate jurisdiction as may be provided by law; provided that an aggrieved party shall have an absolute right to one appeal. This section, providing an absolute right to one appeal, was added by constitutional amendment, effective September 28, 1965. Rule 57 was adopted by the Supreme Court on June 24, 1975, and applied to motions filed on or after September 1, 1975. Rule 57, relating to post-conviction motions, provides that the district court’s order on such a motion is final and not subject to appeal. The drafters of Rule 57 recognized that an aggrieved party has an absolute right to one appeal but stated that “[t]his motion is only a further step in the criminal action at the district court level and has no effect on the defendant’s constitutional right to a direct appeal after conviction.” Committee commentary, Rule 57. The current case is distinguishable from State v. Watson, 82 N.M. 769, 487 P.2d 197 (Ct.App.1971), cited by defendant. There, Supreme Court Rule 5(2), NMSA 1953, § 21-2-1(5) (Repl.Vol. 4), barring an appeal from a conviction for criminal contempt committed in the presence of the court, was held to be superseded by the 1965 amendment to Article VI, Section 2. However, Supreme Court Rule 5(2) was adopted prior to the amendment of Article VI, Section 2. The amendment to Article VI, Section 2, had been in effect for almost a decade prior to the adoption of Rule 57. This Court has recognized that Rule 57 motions are not appealable. State v. McGuinty, 97 N.M. 360, 639 P.2d 1214 (Ct.App.1982). Defendant in this case did appeal his conviction on the merits. Because defendant has had a right to appeal his conviction, he has not been denied his right to appeal provided by Article VI, Section 2. Section 31-11-6 Section 31-11-6 provides that a prisoner in custody under sentence of a court established by the laws of New Mexico who claims the right to be released upon certain specified grounds may move the court which imposed the sentence to vacate, set aside or correct the sentence. An appeal may be taken from an order entered on such a motion as from a final judgment in the manner and within the time provided in Section 21-2-1(5). Section 31-11-6(E). This statutory reference is to an appellate rule that was either superseded or repealed by appellate rules adopted in 1974. See Supreme Court Order dated January 2, 1974, adopting appellate rules effective April 1, 1974. The appellate rules were again changed effective September 1, 1975, at which time separate appellate rules for civil and criminal cases went into effect. These rule changes raise a question as to whether Section 31-11-6(E) continued in effect after September 1, 1975, but we need not answer that question in this appeal. Defendant argues that the right to appeal is a substantive right which is within the province of the Legislature. Therefore, he contends that Section 31-11-6 controls when Rule 57 and the statute are in conflict. He asserts a conflict exists as to the right to appeal from a denial of post-conviction relief. For the purpose of this appeal we proceed on the assumption that a conflict exists. While the creation of a right to appeal is substantive, restrictions on the time and place of exercising this right are procedural and within the Supreme Court’s rule-making power. Olguin v. State, 90 N.M. 303, 563 P.2d 97 (1977); State v. Arnold, 51 N.M. 311, 183 P.2d 845 (1947); Durand v. New Mexico Commission on Alcoholism, 89 N.M. 434, 553 P.2d 714 (Ct.App.1976). The inherent power to prescribe rules and regulate pleadings, practice and procedure in all courts of this state is vested in the Supreme Court under N.M. Const, art. III, § 1, and N.M. Const, art. VI, § 3. State ex rel. Anaya v. McBride, 88 N.M. 244, 539 P.2d 1006 (1975); State v. Roy, 40 N.M. 397, 60 P.2d 646 (1936). Rule 57 governs procedure in the district courts on post-conviction motions. It is a rule of procedure and, therefore, is within the power of the Supreme Court to promulgate. Defendant’s motion for relief in the trial court was filed pursuant to Rule 57, which does not provide for an appeal. Thus, any right to appeal depends upon Section 31-11-6(E). This power to prescribe and regulate pleadings, practice and procedure in all courts in New Mexico, including lower courts, is exclusive to the Supreme Court. The Legislature lacks the power to regulate in this area. In re Motion for a Subpoena Duces Tecum, Etc., 94 N.M. 1, 606 P.2d 539 (1980). Statutes purporting to regulate practice and procedure in the courts are not binding. State ex rel. Anaya v. McBride. If Section 31-11-6 purports to regulate practice and procedure, it is not binding and conferred no right upon defendant. That this statute is a procedural statute is clear from its wording. It purports to provide for post-conviction relief. Post-trial mechanisms designed to accomplish a just determination of rights and duties granted by substantive law are procedural mechanisms. Ammerman v. Hubbard Broadcasting, Inc., 89 N.M. 307, 551 P.2d 1354 (1976). Section 31-11-6 provides for a post-trial mechanism. This statute, although not binding on the courts, was to be “given effect until there was a conflict between the statute and a rule adopted by the Supreme Court.” State v. Herrera, 92 N.M. 7, 582 P.2d 384 (Ct.App.1978). When enacted in 1966, Section 31-11-6 was practically identical with former Civ.P.R. 93, which was a Supreme Court rule providing for post-conviction relief. Rule 93, which was adopted November 9, 1965, was effective after December 31, 1965. See NMSA 1953, § 21-1-1(93) (Repl. Vol. 4). This history shows a legislative attempt to regulate procedure already regulated by Supreme Court rule. No problems arose as to this attempted legislative regulation of procedure while Rule 93 remained in effect because Rule 93 and Section 31-11-6 were almost identical. Rule 93, however, was superseded upon the adoption of Rule 57, effective September 1, 1975. Since that date the statute was not effective to provide a post-conviction remedy to the extent it conflicted with Rule 57. The assumed conflict here, the right to appeal, is dependent on the underlying district court procedure. That statutory procedure, not operative when in conflict with Rule 57, provides no basis for an appeal based on the non-operative procedure. Section 31-11-6 does not provide an independent right to appeal. There being no right to appeal under Rule 57, no appeal may be taken from the trial court’s denial of the post-conviction motion. Alexander v. Delgado Considering the issues defendant was instructed to brief, it should be noted that Alexander v. Delgado precludes any attempt by this Court to consider an appeal from an order on a Rule 57 motion. Alexander v. Delgado; State v. Scott, 90 N.M. 256, 561 P.2d 1349 (Ct.App.1977). This Court has held that it must give effect to rules adopted by the Supreme Court. State v. Crespin, 96 N.M. 553, 632 P.2d 1191 (Ct.App.1981). The clear language of Rule 57(a) states that orders of the district court on a motion under the rule are not appealable. See State v. McGuinty. This Court does not have the power to change a rule promulgated by the Supreme Court. Tafoya v. S & S Plumbing Co., 97 N.M. 249, 638 P.2d 1094 (Ct.App.1981). For the foregoing reasons, defendant has no right of appeal under the facts of this case. The appeal is dismissed. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and NEAL, JJ., concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. This case is before us on writ of certiorari from the Court of Appeals. The issue on appeal is whether the fruits of a nighttime search conducted pursuant to a constitutionally valid search warrant must be suppressed for failure to set out in the affidavit a sufficient factual basis giving reasonable cause to execute the warrant after 10:00 p.m. and before 6:00 a.m., pursuant to NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 17(b) (Repl. Pamp.1980). The facts involved are adequately stated in the Court of Appeals opinion, State v. Hausler, 101 N.M. 161, 679 P.2d 829, (Ct.App.1983). In that opinion, the Court of Appeals held that: (1) the factual basis for reasonable cause to make a nighttime search must appear on the face of the affidavit upon which the search warrant was executed; (2) that the affidavit in this case failed to provide such a factual basis; and (3) that the exclusionary rule should be applied to suppress the fruits of the searches which resulted from the issuance of the original search warrant. We reverse the Court of Appeals on its first holding. Due to our determination on this issue, we need not address the other issues raised on appeal. In State v. Dalrymple, 80 N.M. 492, 458 P.2d 96 (Ct.App.1969), improperly seized evidence was excluded because the warrant did not contain an express determination that it could be served at any time. At the time Dalrymple was decided, NMSA 1953, Section 41-18-1(C) (Supp.1967) was in effect, and stated, in part, that: The warrant shall direct that it be served in the daytime, but if the affidavits are positive that the property is on the person or in the place to be searched, the warrant may direct that it be served at any time. (Emphasis added). The Court of Appeals in Dalrymple properly held that, absent language in the warrant authorizing a nighttime search, it was impossible to'determine whether the magistrate exercised the discretion vested in him to allow a nighttime search. In the present ease, the magistrate authorized a nighttime search, but there were no allegations contained in the affidavit stating the reason why it should be allowed. There have been changes in the requirements for search warrants authorizing nighttime searches since Dalrymple was decided. The statutory provision applicable to Dalrymple was replaced by NMSA 1953, Section 41-23-17(b) (Supp.1973). The applicable provision of that rule stated that: A search warrant shall direct that it be served between the hours of 6:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m., according to local time, but if the sworn written statement is positive that the property is on the person or in the place to be searched and states probable cause to believe that the property may be moved or destroyed unless seized immediately, the warrant may direct that it be served at any time. (Emphasis added). We note that the rule still required, as did the statute when Dalrymple was decided, that the affidavit contain the language justifying a nighttime search. The rule was again changed in 1974. The new rule provided that: A search warrant shall direct that it be served between the hours of 6:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m., according to local time, but if the sworn written statement is positive that the property is on the person or in the place to be searched and states probable cause to believe that the property may be moved or destroyed unless seized immediately, the warrant may direct that it be served at any time. NMSA 1953, § 41-23-17(b) (Supp.1975) (emphasis added). The 1974 change still required the sworn written statement to contain the justification for the nighttime search. The rule was once again amended in 1980 and since that time our requirements for issuance of search warrants authorizing nighttime searches has been governed by NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 17(b) (Repl.Pamp. 1980). Rule 17(b) states that: A search warrant shall direct that it be served between the hours of 6:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m., according to local time, unless the issuing judge, by appropriate provision in the warrant, and for reasonable cause shown, authorizes its execution at any time. (Emphasis added.) In its present form, the rule does not require proof positive, nor does it require that the “reasonable cause” necessary for issuance of a search warrant authorizing a nighttime search be contained in the affidavit. In the present case, it was error to automatically exclude the evidence seized pursuant to the original search warrant and the two search warrants which followed. The original warrant was issued explicitly stating that it could be executed “at any time of the day or night.” Even though the affidavit did not provide a substantial factual basis to justify the nighttime search, evidence should have been taken by the trial court to determine whether “reasonable cause” was presented to the magistrate, apart from the affidavit, which would support a nighttime search. We therefore reverse the Court of Appeals. This case is remanded to the trial court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. RIORDAN and STOWERS, JJ., concur. WALTERS, J., and SOSA, Senior Justice, dissent.
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OPINION NEAL, Judge. Defendant automobile dealership (“defendant”) loaned a truck to defendant Gamboa (“driver”) to test drive. She ran a red light and killed plaintiff’s husband. The dispositive issue is whether the dealer may be held liable on a theory of negligent entrustment based on an alleged statutory violation of NMSA 1978, Section 66-5-41 (Repl.Pamp.1984). The section prohibits knowingly permitting an unauthorized driver to operate a motor vehicle. The trial court granted summary judgment in favor of the defendant. Plaintiff appeals from an order of summary judgment dismissing his claim for wrongful death against Mesilla Valley Lincoln Mercury, Inc. We affirm. Facts. On August 29, 1979, the day before the accident, Mr. and Mrs. Gamboa noticed a 1975 Ford truck parked on the lot of Mesilla Valley Lincoln Mercury, Inc. Mr. Gamboa asked Mrs. Gamboa to make arrangements to pick up the truck to enable him to test drive it, and Mrs. Gamboa did-so on August 30, 1979. Neither Mr. Gamboa nor Mrs. Gamboa knew anyone associated with defendant. Mrs. Gamboa’s driver’s license expired on July 17, 1979, about six weeks before she test drove the truck, though Mrs. Gamboa was unaware of that fact until approximately two months after the accident. Mrs. Gamboa first received a- license to drive when she was fifteen or sixteen, approximately fourteen years before the date of the accident, and during that time her license had never been revoked, nor had she ever received a traffic ticket prior to the date of the accident. Mrs. Gamboa had never been in a traffic accident before the accident on August 30,1979. Mrs. Gamboa renewed her license on November 16, 1979; she passed both the written test and driving test. Defendant had a policy of verifying the identity of any person taking a vehicle for test purposes. A salesman would take the name and address of a prospective purchaser and complete a card containing that information as well as the phone number and employer of the prospective purchaser. The salesman would verify the identity of any person taking a vehicle for test purposes by looking at the person’s driver’s license. The driver’s license was referred to for the main purpose of verifying identity of the prospective purchaser. Mrs. Gamboa was asked for her driver’s license by the salesman at Mesilla Valley, who glanced at the picture to see if she was who she said she was. After leaving Mesilla Valley, Mrs. Gamboa drove the vehicle to her residence where it remained parked until she again drove it later that same afternoon. Her brother called, asking for a ride to work. Mrs. Gamboa picked up her brother, delivered him to work, and was returning home at the time of the accident. The only passengers in the vehicle with Mrs. Gamboa were her two children who were sitting in the front of the truck. Mr. Pena stated that defendant allowed customers to test drive cars as a sales technique and that it furthered the company’s business to allow people to test drive cars. He stated that they seldom sell a car without a test drive, and there is almost always a test drive involved in a car sale. The accident occurred when Mrs. Gamboa ran a red light and collided with the car driven by plaintiff's husband. Plaintiff’s husband was killed. She was cited for running the light. Discussion. Plaintiff seeks to impose liability on the dealership through a theory of negligent entrustment. To do so, plaintiff must show that the defendant loaned the car to a person it either knew or should have known was an incompetent driver, and the driver’s incompetence caused the injury. McCarson v. Foreman, 102 N.M. 151, 692 P.2d 537, 24 SBB 70 (Ct.App.1984). The car owner is not liable for injuries to another simply because he owns the car and voluntarily loans it to another. Bryant v. Gilmer, 97 N.M. 358, 639 P.2d 1212 (Ct.App.1982). Here, the plaintiff seeks to show negligence in loaning the car through the alleged statutory violation, rather than attempting to show any facts known to defendant revealing that the driver was incompetent. Section 66-5-41 states: No person shall authorize or knowingly permit a motor vehicle owned by him or under his control to be driven upon any highway by any person who is not authorized hereunder or is in violation of any of the provisions of this article. The language “authorized or knowingly permit” means “know or should have known”. Equitable General Insurance Co. v. Silva, 99 N.M. 371, 658 P.2d 446 (Ct.App.1983). The statute imposes no affirmative duty on the part of the owner to learn the qualifications of the driver, and thus the owner is guilty of a violation only if he knew, or should have known, the driver was not qualified to drive. Id. at 374, 658 P.2d 446. Plaintiff contends that Section 66-5-41 should be construed as a strict liability statute, reasoning that because the statute is for the protection of the public, Equitable, strict liability may be imposed for statutory violations. Defendant responds that in order to hold the owner liable, the violation of the statute must be a proximate cause of the injury. Although it is an issue of first impression in New Mexico, and other jurisdictions which have considered the issue are not in agreement, the better reasoned view supports the defendant’s position, as does the case law on analogous issues regarding statutory violations and proximate cause. See Annot., 69 A.L.R.2d 978, 987 (1960). Plaintiff’s theory of liability is based on the assumption that the defendant violated the statute by loaning the vehicle to a driver with an expired license. Plaintiff also contends that the statute creates a duty, and violation of the statute constitutes a breach of the duty. Plaintiff correctly asserts that there are various lines of authority on the issue. The general rule is that proof of violation of a similar statute does not establish liability on the part of the owner guilty of the violation unless a causal connection between the violation and the injury is shown. Id. As stated in Mt. Nebo Baptist Church v. Cleveland Craft Co., 154 Ohio St. 185, 93 N.E.2d 668 (1950), the possession of a driver’s license might indicate a driver’s competency, but the lack of a license is in itself no evidence of lack of incompetence. Surely no one would contend that the mere want of a driver’s license by one who had long had such a license but which had lapsed or expired at the time of the entrustment and at the time of an accident consequent thereon, would constitute any evidence of incompetency of the driver. Id. 93 N.E.2d at 670. Therefore, there must be other evidence that the owner knew, or should have known, of the incompetency of the driver; see concurring opinion in Mt. Nebo; Gulla v. Straus, 154 Ohio St. 193, 93 N.E.2d 662 (1950). Other cases have held that where entrustment to an unauthorized person is shown, and the driver negligently caused injury, a causal connection exists between the entrustment in violation of the statute and the injury. 69 A.L.R.2d at 989; Frontier Theatre, Inc. v. Whisenant, 291 S.W.2d 395 (Tex.Civ.App.1956). Plaintiff also cites Owens v. Carmichael’s U-Drive Autos, Inc., 116 Cal.App. 348, 2 P.2d 580 (1931) as authority, but that case involved an underage person who had never been licensed and thus, is distinguishable from this case in which the driver had long been licensed. Defendant’s position is more logical; it is also consonant with New Mexico case law on analogous issues indicating that proximate cause must be established when seeking to impose civil liability based on a statutory violation. MRC Properties, Inc. v. Gries, 98 N.M. 710, 652 P.2d 732 (1982); Bouldin v. Sategna, 71 N.M. 329, 378 P.2d 370 (1963). The case comes to the court after defendant’s motion for summary judgment was granted. The stipulated facts reveal no evidence that Mrs. Gamboa was incompetent to drive; she had been a licensed driver for fourteen years without incident. After the accident she passed the driving tests and her license was renewed. Plaintiff presented no evidence that the defendant knew or should have known that Mrs. Gamboa was an incompetent driver. Therefore, defendant was entitled to summary judgment. Cargill v. Sherrod, 96 N.M. 431, 631 P.2d 726 (1981). Plaintiff raises other issues but they are dependent on a finding in favor of plaintiff on the proximate cause issue and, therefore, we need not reach those contentions. Affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and ALARID, J., concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. Plaintiff sued the City of Truth or Consequences for damages resulting from a cat bite. He claims the same cat that bit him had previously bitten a young child and that defendant’s animal control center, after taking the cat into custody following that incident and with knowledge of its vicious propensity, negligently released the cat back into the community by “adopting” it out to a third party. In denying defendant’s motion for summary judgment the district court certified the issues for an interlocutory appeal under NMSA 1978, § 39-3-4. We allowed the appeal and now reverse the district court. The following three issues raised at the summary judgment proceeding form the issues on appeal: 1. Does plaintiff's cause of action fall within any exception to the legislative grant of immunity to governmental entities? 2. Did plaintiff give timely notice as required by the Tort Claims Act, NMSA 1978, § 41-4-16 (Repl.Pamp.1982)? 3. Did defendant owe any duty to plaintiff? At the hearing on defendant’s motion, plaintiff conceded he had no cause of action for strict liability and his claims based on that theory were dismissed with prejudice. Because the first issue is dispositive and requires dismissal of plaintiff’s remaining claims, we do not reach the second and third issue. The parties agree that in order for plaintiff to sue defendant his cause of action must fit within one of the exceptions to the grant of immunity given governmental entities and public employees under the Tort Claims Act, NMSA 1978, § 41-4-4(A) (Repl.Pamp.1982). Because plaintiff relies solely on NMSA 1978, § 41-4-9 (Repl. Pamp.1982), the parties also agree that waiver of immunity, if any, must be found within that section. Of course, it follows that if no waiver can be found, plaintiff’s action must be dismissed. NMSA 1978, § 41-4-17 (Repl.Pamp.1982). Section 41-4-9 provides: The immunity granted pursuant to Subsection A of Section 41-4-4 NMSA 1978 does not apply to liability for damages resulting from bodily injury, wrongful death or property damage caused by the negligence of public employees while acting within the scope of their duties in the operation of any hospital, infirmary, mental institution, clinic, dispensary, medical care home or like facilities. For the purpose of our discussion we assume, but do not decide, that defendant owed plaintiff a duty not to release from its control a vicious animal. The question then is whether the operation of an animal control center by defendant falls within Section 41-4-9. Defendant argues that Section 41-4-9 is clear and that the activities of an animal control center do not fall, and cannot be reasonably interpreted to fall, within “the operation of any hospital, infirmary, mental institution, clinic, dispensary, medical care home or like facilities.” Id. Plaintiff counters with two arguments. While conceding that Section 41-4-9 does not expressly describe the type of activity for which a governmental entity or a public employee may be held liable, he first urges that the list of facilities in the section indicates the kind of activity for which immunity will be waived. From this point plaintiff argues that the Legislature intended to waive immunity for activities of governmental entities whose purpose is to provide for the health of its citizenry. Since the primary purpose of defendant’s Animal Control Ordinance is the protection of the health of its citizens, operation of the animal control center necessarily involves an activity for which waiver of immunity applies under Section 41-4-9. We reject this argument. In McCurry v. City of Farmington, 97 N.M. 728, 643 P.2d 292 (Ct.App.1982), we said that, “[i]n interpreting a statute the intent is to be first sought and the meaning of the words used and when they are free from ambiguity and doubt and express plainly, clearly, and distinctly the sense of the legislature, no other means of interpretation should be resorted to.” 97 N.M. at 731, 643 P.2d 292 (citation omitted). Section 41-4-9 applies to the operation of facilities which provide medical care directly to people. To adopt plaintiff’s argument, we would have to read into the statute language that is not there. This we will not do. See State v. Nance, 77 N.M. 39, 419 P.2d 242 (1966), cert. denied, 386 U.S. 1039, 87 S.Ct. 1495, 18 L.Ed.2d 605 (1967). To read the statute as plaintiff suggests would lead to the inclusion of numerous governmental activities which have a secondary or incidental affect on public health but which do not involve the operation of any of the facilities enumerated. Such an interpretation is not reasonable. Second, plaintiff argues that defendant’s animal control center is a “like facility” and, therefore, falls within the waiver of immunity under Section 41-4-9. The term “or like facilities” as used in Section 41-4-9 follows a list of facilities starting with “hospital” and ending with “medical care home.” Webster’s Third New Collegiate Dictionary (1973) defines “like” as used here as “the same or nearly the same.” An animal control center is not the same or nearly the same as any of the facilities listed in Section 41-4-9. Because the activities complained of do not fall within any exception to the governmental immunity granted defendant, plaintiff’s complaint must be dismissed. The order denying summary judgment is set aside and the cause remanded for entry of an order dismissing this action with prejudice. Plaintiff shall pay the costs of appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and NEAL, JJ., concur.
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OPINION STOWERS, Justice. This appeal arose from the entry of a final order issued by the New Mexico Corporation Commission (Commission) on January 26, 1984, regarding the regulation by the Commission of the rates, terms, and conditions by which cable television systems make attachments to telephone utility poles in New Mexico. In its order the Commission ruled that it has jurisdiction over cable television attachments to telephone utility poles. Intervenors-appellants Las Cruces TV Cable and New Mexico Cable Television Association, pursuant to N.M. Const, art. XI, Section 7 (Cum.Supp. 1984), then filed petitions for removal to this Court. We affirm the order of the Commission. The sole issue we decide on removal is whether the Commission has the authority to regulate the provision of pole attachments by telephone companies to cable television systems. Appellants contend that the Commission cannot regulate pole attachment agreements under federal and New Mexico law and that the Commission’s decision to do so is beyond the intended scope of the Commission’s jurisdiction. We disagree. In 1978 the United States Congress enacted the Federal Pole Attachment Act, now codified at 47 U.S.C. Section 224 (1982). Under subsection 224(b)(1), Congress granted the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) jurisdiction of the following: [T]he Commission shall regulate the rates, terms, and conditions for pole attachments to provide that such rates, terms, and conditions are just and reasonable * * *. However, this authority granted to the FCC is subject to the provisions of subsection 224(c)(1), which provides as follows: “Nothing in this section shall be construed to apply to, or to give the [FCC] jurisdiction with respect to rates, terms, and conditions for pole attachments in any case where such matters are regulated by a State.” Congress has indicated that by granting the FCC jurisdiction to regulate the rates, terms, and conditions of pole attachments, it did not intend to foreclose the states from exercising jurisdiction over pole attachments. The clear congressional intent that the states, not the federal government, should have the principal responsibility for regulation of pole attachments is indicated by the following excerpt from the legislative history of Section 224: The [Senate] committee considers the matter of CATV pole attachments to be essentially local in nature, and that the various State and local regulatory bodies which regulate other practices of telephone and electric utilities are better equipped to regulate CATV pole attachments. Regulation should be vested with those persons or agencies most familiar with the local environment within which utilities and cable television systems operate. S.Rep. No. 580, 95th Cong., 2nd Sess. 16, reprinted in 1978 U.S.Code Cong. & Ad. News 109, 124. The legislative history also states that Section 224 “imposes no rate-setting formula upon the State * * * [because] the States should have maximum flexibility to develop a regulatory response to pole attachment problems * * Id. at 17, 1978 U.S.Code Cong. & Ad.News at 125. In order for a state regulatory body to assume jurisdiction over pole attachments, it must comply with the procedure found in subsection 224(c)(2): Each State which regulates the rates, terms, and conditions for pole attachments shall certify to the [FCC] that— (A) it regulates such rates, terms, and conditions; and (B) in so regulating such rates, terms, and conditions, the State has the authority to consider and does consider the interests of the subscribers of cable television services, as well as the interests of the consumers of the utility services. This subsection was added to Section 224 by a technical amendment to ensure that state regulatory agencies certify to the FCC that they are vested with proper authority to consider the interests of utility customers and cable television customers in an even-handed, fair and reasonable manner. See 124 Cong.Rec. 1598-99 (1978). Appellants argue that the Commission’s authority to regulate the telephone utilities does not extend to the regulation of cable television pole agreements. The Commission contends that the broad plenary grant of authority to the Commission includes all charges and rates of telephone companies. The Commission was created and is governed by the New Mexico Constitution. N.M. Const, art. XI, §§ 1-12 (Orig.Pamp. and Cum.Supp.1984). Article XI, Section 7 of the New Mexico Constitution provides in pertinent part: The commission shall have power and be charged with the duty of fixing, determining, supervising, regulating and controlling all charges and rates of railway, express, telegraph, telephone, sleeping car and other transportation and transmission companies and common carriers within the state * * *. The use of the term “shall” in art. XI, Section 7, in giving the Commission the power and duty to set rates and charges, has been determined to signify a mandatory duty rather than a discretionary one. Mountain States Telephone Co. v. New Mexico State Corporation Commission, 90 N.M. 325, 563 P.2d 588 (1977). This Court has described the broad authority granted to the Commission as follows: It is difficult to conceive of a more clear and all-inclusive grant of power to a governmental agency. The Commission has a duty to be a prime mover in the procedure to see that the public interest is protected by establishing reasonable rates and that the utility is fairly treated Id. at 331, 563 P.2d at 594. Further, “[w]e consider the rate-making power of the [Commission to be plenary, except as restricted by ... principles of constitutional law * * Id. at 334, 563 P.2d at 597, (quoting San Juan Coal & Coke Co. v. Santa Fe, San Juan & Northern Railway Co., 35 N.M. 512, 517, 2 P.2d 305, 307 (1931)). In its January 26, 1984 order, the Commission determined: 1. The Constitution (sic) grant of Authority and jurisdiction of the Commission is plenary in nature and to be broadly construed. 2. Article XI, Section 7, New Mexico Constitution gives the Commission the power to and duty to fix, determine, supervise, regulate and control all charges and rates of telephone companies. 3. The charges of telephone companies to cable television systems for the provision of pole attachment space is a charge and rate of a telephone company within the meaning of said Article XI, Section 7, New Mexico Constitution. 4. The Commission’s duty to fix rates is mandatory rather than discretionary. The determination of the Commission is consistent with the principles governing the power and authority of the Commission announced by this Court. Appellants contend that the Commission lacks the authority to consider the interests of cable television customers and, thus, under 47 U.S.C. Section 224(c)(2) cannot certify to the FCC that it has the authority to regulate pole attachments. We disagree. Article XI, Section 7, of the New Mexico Constitution provides in pertinent part that the Commission has the power to regulate the charges and rates of “telephone * * * and other transportation and transmission companies and common carriers within the state and of determining any matters of public convenience and necessity relating to such facilities * * Although cable television companies may or may not be “transmission companies,” we need not decide that question because it is not presently before this Court. We are convinced that the broad and plenary authority granted to the Commission extends to the rates and charges of a telephone company for the use of facilities which are required for telecommunication services, in this case the rates and charges for cable television attachments to telephone company poles. Moreover, we conclude that the Commission’s duty to act in the public interest, see Mountain States Telephone Co., is not restricted to such ratemaking. We are convinced that the Commission has the power and authority to regulate the terms and conditions of pole attachments, under its constitutional power and duty of determining matters of public convenience and necessity relating to telephone company facilities. The public interest duty of the Commission requires the regulation of the use of telephone pole space by cable television companies and of the policies regarding such use, to eliminate potential discrimination against cable television companies and to avoid potential disruption of telecommunication services. See General Telephone Co. of Upstate New York v. Public Service Commission, 63 A.D.2d 93, 406 N.Y.S.2d 909 (1978). See also S.Rep. No. 580 at 13, 1978 U.S.Code Cong. & Ad.News at 121. Under art. XI, Section 7, of the New Mexico Constitution, the Commission has the power and authority to make rules and issue orders necessary to the exercise of its constitutional duties. We find no constitutional barrier to the Commission’s assertion of jurisdiction over pole attachments. Finally, we note that the bifurcation of jurisdiction between federal and state governments, which would result if the Commission failed to assert its jurisdiction, would not be efficient or beneficial for the governments or the industries involved. The duplication and overlapping of regulatory function would create an unnecessary burden on the federal government and would unnecessarily limit the proper jurisdiction of the Commission. Thus, the Commission properly asserted jurisdiction over cable pole attachments in its order of January 26, 1984. The ruling of the Commission is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and SOSA, Senior Justice, concur.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. We issued a writ of certiorari to the court of appeals to review the affirmance of defendant’s convictions. Defendant raised sixth amendment speedy trial and fifth amendment due process claims and issues concerning hearsay, probable cause, and insufficient evidence. Upon consideration of the case, we affirm the appellate court’s resolution of all but the last issue, and we remand to the court of appeals to consider the claim of insufficient evidence on the charge of escape from custody. The court of appeals advised in its notice of proposed affirmance that the evidence at trial was sufficient to warrant the defendant’s conviction on the escape charge. It thus placed the case on its summary calendar. We agree, as the calendaring notice indicated, that an appellate court must review the evidence in a light most favorable to the State in determining whether the evidence at trial supports conviction, and that an appellate court will not substitute its judgment for that of the jury. See State v. Lankford, 92 N.M. 1, 2, 582 P.2d 378, 379 (1978). But we are perplexed in determining how the court could have reviewed the evidence when, on summary disposition, it did not have a transcript of the trial before it. An appellate court cannot make a determination of the sufficiency of the evidence when it has not reviewed the evidence presented at trial unless the facts of the docketing statement clearly establish no doubt of the sufficiency of the evidence. Resolution of a case on summary calendar is appropriate only when the facts are undisputed or when “the application of legal principles to the facts involved is clear and where no genuine issue of substantial evidence is involved.” State v. Anaya, 98 N.M. 211, 212, 647 P.2d 413, 414 (1982); Garrison v. Safeway Stores, 102 N.M. 179, 181, 692 P.2d 1328, 1330 (Ct. App.), cert. denied, 102 N.M. 225, 693 P.2d 591 (1984). When a case is assigned to summary calendar, the facts in the docketing statement are accepted as true unless contested. State v. Sisneros, 98 N.M. 201, 202, 647 P.2d 403, 404 (1982). The docketing statement, fairly read, relates that defendant was abruptly awakened by the glare of flashlights in his eyes and bolted from the trailer because he didn’t know who was there and was afraid he was being attacked by “enemies” in the neighborhood; and that he was not placed under arrest or in custody until he was tackled and handcuffed. The State did not file anything to dispute the docketing statement. The court of appeals had the obligation to order so much of the transcript as was necessary to resolve the factual issue on the charge of escape from custody. See id. at 203, 647 P.2d at 405 (Riordan, J., specially concurring). We remand the appeal to the court of appeals to review the trial evidence regarding whether defendant was in the custody or control of police officers before he ran from the trailer, and to determine whether there was sufficient evidence to convict him of escape. See NMSA 1978, § 30-22-10 (Repl.Pamp.1984); SCRA 1986, 14-2223. SCARBOROUGH, C.J., SOSA, Senior Justice, and STOWERS and RANSOM, JJ., concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. This is an appeal from the District Court of Bernalillo County, in which the trial court denied a motion filed by Mary Harkins (petitioner) to set aside a stipulated final divorce decree with respect to military retirement and alimony. In her motion, petitioner maintained that it was no longer equitable for the divorce decree to have prospective application. This contention was based on the fact that the decree was entered after the United States Supreme Court’s decision in McCarty v. McCarty, 453 U.S. 210, 101 S.Ct. 2728, 69 L.Ed.2d 589 (1981), but prior to the enactment of the Uniformed Services Former Spouses’ Protection Act (Act), 10 U.S.C. Section 1408 (1982). In McCarty, the Court held that military pay was not community property. The Act provided that state law would determine whether military retirement pay was community property. Based on the evidence, the trial court found that the original property settlement agreement and decree were equitable under the current status of the law. We affirm. Final decrees may be reopened to correct inequities that would result should the judgment have prospective application. NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 60(b)(5) (Repl.Pamp. 1980). The issue on this appeal is whether the trial court acted within its discretion in denying a motion to set aside a stipulated final decree which provided lifetime alimony in lieu of a division of military retirement. Cf. Whenry v. Whenry, 98 N.M. 737, 652 P.2d 1188 (1982); Espinda v. Espinda, 96 N.M. 712, 634 P.2d 1264 (1981). In New Mexico, parties in a divorce may agree and stipulate to a division of property and payment of alimony upon dissolution of marriage. In most cases a stipulation and agreement entered into without fraud or imposition and approved by the trial court is generally enforced and should not be set aside. See Barker v. Barker, 93 N.M. 198, 598 P.2d 1158 (1979); Esquibel v. Brown Construction Co., Inc., 85 N.M. 487, 513 P.2d 1269 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 85 N.M. 483, 513 P.2d 1265 (1973). If equitable, a stipulated agreement should not be vacated merely because an award may have been unwise or unfortunate in light of subsequent events. Herrera v. C & R Paving Co., 73 N.M. 237, 387 P.2d 339 (1963). The stipulated final decree of divorce which the parties entered into in this case provided that Michael Harkins’ (respondent’s) military retirement in the amount of $509.00 per month would be deemed his sole and separate property. The trial court properly applied equity and entered a decree which provided for a division of the real and personal property and debts of the parties. The court also properly applied equity in providing for alimony to appellant in the amount of $600.00 per month for one year, $500.00 per month for six years, $400.00 per month for one year, and thereafter $250.00 per month for the remainder of petitioner’s life. Petitioner’s motion to modify the decree was not subject to automatic denial as a matter of law. Koppenhaver v. Koppenhaver, 101 N.M. 105, 678 P.2d 1180 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 101 N.M. 11, 677 P.2d 624 (1984). In Koppenhaver, the Court of Appeals stated: The wife’s motion to modify the prior decree shall be considered; however, we do not presume to tell the trial court how to rule. Intervening equities or other factors may enter into and affect whether or to what extent modification may be warranted. In ruling on a motion under Rule 60(b) the trial court has discretion, within the confines of justice, to decide and act in accordance with what is fair and equitable. (Citation omitted.) Reversal by the reviewing court will only be ordered for a clear abuse of discretion. Id. at 109, 678 P.2d at 1184. In the instant case, however, petitioner has failed to show that the prospective application of that portion of the decree ordering alimony in lieu of military retirement was inequitable under the circumstances. The trial court did not abuse its discretion in refusing to grant appellant’s motion to set aside the decree. The judgment of the trial court is affirmed. Each of the parties shall bear their own costs and attorney fees on appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and STOWERS, J., concur.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. Defendants A.E. Williamson and F. Williamson (the Williamsons) appeal the trial court’s order denying their motion to set aside a special master’s foreclosure sale of real property. The Williamsons were parties to the foreclosure proceedings and consented to the foreclosure judgment and decree. However, because they were not given personal, actual notice of the time and place of the foreclosure sale, they contend they were denied their interest in property without due process of law. The William-sons also urge that SCRA 1986, 1-005 applies to notices of foreclosure sales and requires that they be given actual notice of the sale. We disagree with both contentions and affirm the trial court’s order. On March 19, 1986, plaintiff Production Credit Association of Southern New Mexico (Credit Association) filed a complaint to initiate foreclosure proceedings. Credit Association held a note in the original principal sum of $446,459 executed by the Williamsons and secured by a mortgage on their Lea County ranch. At the time of default the remaining balance of principal and interest was $311,052. On January 7, 1987, almost nine months after Credit Association filed its complaint, the court entered a judgment and decree of foreclosure which had been approved by both parties. The judgment directed that the property be sold “pursuant to law” and by a special master. The applicable law for the sale of foreclosed' property is NMSA 1978, Section 39-5-1. Pursuant to Section 39-5-1, and commencing on January 30, 1987, Credit Association published notice of the foreclosure sale in the local newspaper. It ran for four weeks, and included the time and place of the sale and a description of the property. On March 2, 1987, the court-appointed special master conducted the sale of the real property in accordance with the judgment and decree of foreclosure, the proceeds from the foreclosure sale satisfying the Williamson’s judgment and their indebtedness to Credit Association. Thereafter, the special master filed his report of sale along with an order approving and confirming the sale and directing delivery of the deed. The Williamsons’ subsequent motion to set aside the special master’s sale for failure of actual notice was denied because the court found that the sale had been conducted in compliance with the legal requirements for judicial sale and with the terms of the judgment of foreclosure, and that notice of sale had been given as required by statute. According to the Williamsons, SCRA 1-005 mandates that they receive personal notice of the foreclosure sale. That rule provides that “every pleading subsequent to the original complaint * * * and every written notice, appearance, demand and similar paper shall be served upon each of the parties affected thereby * * * * ” It is their argument that record owners should be given direct notice in accord with Rule 1-005 because notice of sale is a critical notice and record owners of real property are “affected thereby.” A similar claim was made and rejected in United States v. New Mexico Landscaping, Inc., 785 F.2d 843 (10th Cir.1986) where loan guarantors claimed that their due process rights were violated because they had not been notified of the judgment’s entry, nor of the foreclosure sale of the collateral. They asserted that constructive notice of the foreclosure sale by publication, as provided in Section 39-5-1, was insufficient to satisfy the direct notice requirement of Rule 1-005. The Tenth Circuit noted that Section 39-5-1 provides the only formal notice requirements for a judicial sale, and that if there were any holders of “residual” rights requiring personal notice of the sale, the guarantors had expressly waived such rights under the guarantee agreement. Observing that the lender had complied with Section 39-5-1, the court held that the guarantors had received sufficient notice of the foreclosure sale. Section 39-5-1 explicitly and specifically addresses the kind of notice to be employed in cases of sales under execution and foreclosure. Rule 1-005, on the other hand, makes no specific reference to foreclosure sales. A well established principle of statutory construction recognizes that when one statute deals with a subject in general terms and another deals with a part of the same subject more specifically, the more specific statute will be considered an exception to the general statute, and will apply. City of Alamogordo v. Walker Motor Co., 94 N.M. 690, 616 P.2d 403 (1980); New Mexico Bureau of Revenue v. Western Elec. Co., 89 N.M. 468, 553 P.2d 1275 (1976); State v. Spahr, 64 N.M. 395, 328 P.2d 1093 (1958). Because of Section 39-5-1’s specificity relating to foreclosure sales, and Rule 1-005’s lack of it, Section 39-5-1 governs. Credit Association met the constructive notice provisions of Section 39-5-1. The Williamsons next argue that the notice required by Section 39-5-1 is insufficient to satisfy the minimum constitutional requirements under the fourteenth amendment and the New Mexico Constitution. They contend that, even though they were parties to the foreclosure action and approved the judgment and decree of foreclosure, they are owners of the property with a recorded interest and a known address and, therefore, they should have been given actual notice of the foreclosure sale. Only personal notice, they say, will protect their constitutional guarantee that they will not be deprived of property without due process of law. They cite Mennonite Board of Missions v. Adams, 462 U.S. 791, 103 S.Ct. 2706, 77 L.Ed.2d 180 (1983), and Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co., 339 U.S. 306, 70 S.Ct. 652, 94 L.Ed. 865 (1950), to claim that their status as property owners with a recorded interest in the property entitled them to actual, not merely constructive, notice of the foreclosure sale. Those cases, however, and others that hold notice by publication constitutionally infirm, are cases in which persons other than parties to the foreclosure action, having a recorded interest in the property, were deprived of that property with absolutely no notice that their interests in the property had been foreclosed, and without a hearing concerning those interests. In Mennonite, a mortgagee’s property interest was disposed of by a tax sale, in accordance with the statute but without a judicial hearing, upon posting of a notice of sale in the county courthouse, and after notice had been published in the local paper once a week for three consecutive weeks. The Court held that such notice denied due process to a recorded titleholder of property, and that actual notice of the imminent deprivation of property rights should be provided to any party in interest if the party’s name and address were reasonably ascertainable. Mennonite, 462 U.S. at 800, 103 S.Ct. at 2712. But the Court also noted that the party foreclosing need not make extraordinary efforts to discover the identity and whereabouts of a mortgagee whose identification is not in the public record. Mennonite, 462 U.S. at 798, n. 4, 103 S.Ct. at 2711, n. 4. Similarly, in Mullane, under a New York statute a trust company could petition for judicial settlement of its accounts by publishing the trust company’s name and address, and the name and date of establishment of a common trust fund, and the list of names of participating funds affected. That notice had the effect, after judicial settlement of the trust accounts, of severing the ability of anyone interested in the common trust to assert a claim against the trust company. The Supreme Court held that in any proceeding which is to be accorded finality, due process requires that notice must be given which is reasonably calculated, under all the circumstances, to apprise interested parties of the pendency of the action and to afford them an opportunity to present their objections. Mullane, 339 U.S. at 314, 70 S.Ct. at 657; see also Wylie v. Patton, 111 Idaho 61, 720 P.2d 649 (Idaho App.1986) (statute that required notice of sale to record owners, but not to mortgagee of record who was constructively notified by publication, was violative of the constitutional requirement of due process); Seattle-First Nat’l Bank v. Umatilla Co., 77 Or.App. 283, 713 P.2d 33 (1986) (assignee of recorded beneficial interest in deed of trust who had no notice of the foreclosure proceeding, nor of the sale, but who could have requested notice by mail, had his constitutional right to due process violated when notice was by publication in a local newspaper). All of the above cases, however, differ from the instant case in that they refer to interests of intervening mortgagees or holders of an interest in the foreclosed property. Here, the Williamsons were the mortgagors and had actively participated in the proceedings which resulted in the decree of foreclosure. The decree itself gave notice of an impending foreclosure sale. Accordingly, in cases where there was no actual notice but petitioner had been a party to the foreclosure action and had received constructive notice of sale by publication, the courts have refused to find a due process violation. For example, in Family Savings & Loan Association v. Barkwood Landscaping Co., Inc., 93 Wis. 2d 190, 286 N.W.2d 581 (1980), a subordinate mortgagee and a lien claimant, parties to the foreclosure action and named in the original complaint, argued that judgment of foreclosure had been entered without notice to them, that due process necessitated actual receipt of notice of the foreclosure sale, and that notice by posting and publication in the local paper pursuant to statute was constitutionally deficient. The court rejected the claim, holding that compliance with the posting and publication statute provided sufficient notice. Likewise, in New Mexico Landscaping, Inc., the Tenth Circuit was impressed that although the guarantors of the loan had not received actual notice of the foreclosure sale but knew a foreclosure judgment would be entered against them, they had answered the lender’s complaint and amended complaint, and had submitted argument against summary judgment. Their participation as a party in the foreclosure suit, together with constructive notice by publication, persuaded the court that they had been accorded the process due them. The court also noted, however, that even though the judgment of foreclosure had not been sent to the guarantors, the record indicated that the guarantors “had actual notice some two weeks prior to the impending sale.” Id., 785 F.2d at 849. Though neither of the petitioners in Family Savings or New Mexico Landscaping had received actual notice of a foreclosure sale, it is significant that they had been served with notice of the proceedings; they had been named as parties to the foreclosure action; and they had had the opportunity to respond. Here the William-sons were on notice by the judgment of foreclosure that their property would be sold imminently. They had been served with the complaint initiating the foreclosure action; they appeared at the foreclosure hearing, and they had the opportunity to be heard. They ultimately consented to the foreclosure judgment and decree. That judgment and decree, stipulated to and signed by them, provided that their property was to be sold “pursuant to law” and by a court-appointed special master. As previously noted, the statute applicable to sales under execution and foreclosure prescribes notice of sale by publication in a local newspaper for a period of four weeks. Although appellants repeatedly refer to themselves as “title owners of record” at the time of the foreclosure sale, and thus entitled to Rule 1-005 notice as a party to litigation, appellants overlook the decree of foreclosure divesting them of “any right, title or interest in or to the property, except the right of redemption as provided by law.” As to that right, the Williamsons stipulated they were unable to redeem the property. Thus, even the “right of redemption” was not injured by the sale conducted under constructive notice. We are convinced that when a party with a recorded interest in property has been properly served and has had actual notice of a complaint in foreclosure, and participates in the proceedings to the extent of approving a judgment and decree of foreclosure directing sale of the foreclosed property, and thereafter is on constructive notice of the time and place of sale, he has received all due process to which he is entitled before being deprived of his interest in the property. The judgment of the trial court is AFFIRMED. SCARBOROUGH, C.J., and RANSOM, J., concur.
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OPINION PER CURIAM. Pursuant to its power under New Mexico Constitution Article VI, Section 32, the Judicial Standards Commission of the State of New Mexico petitions this Court for an order permanently removing from office the Honorable Joe Cruz Castellano, Jr., District Judge, Division II, First Judicial District, on the grounds of willful misconduct in office. Judge Castellano contends that his rights to due process have been violated; that, as a result of recent amendments in the state constitution, this Court lacks authority to order his removal from office; that the standard of proof for disciplining a judge should be that the fact-finder is satisfied that the charges are true by proof beyond a reasonable doubt; and that even if this Court adheres to the view that the standard of proof is clear and convincing evidence, the charges against him were not proved by clear and convincing evidence. In answering these contentions, this Court has considered the questions whether the Commission’s findings and conclusions support a determination that Judge Castellano has engaged in willful misconduct within the meaning of Article VI, Section 32 and, if so, whether that conduct merits the sanction of removal. For the following reasons, we grant the Commission’s petition. BACKGROUND The Commission’s petition supplements a prior request for relief. The Commission originally petitioned this Court in May 1994 for an order permanently removing Judge Castellano from office on the basis of a complaint filed in January 1994 by Martha A Frank, Court Administrator for the First Judicial District, and a complaint filed in March 1994 by the Honorable Petra Jimenez Maes, Chief Judge of the District. The original petition invoked this Court’s power of superintending control under New Mexico Constitution Article VI, Section 3, and the Commission’s authority under Article VI, Section 32 and requested an expedited briefing schedule and hearing date. The Commission had consolidated the two complaints, Nos. 94-03 and 94r-25, for hearing and scheduled the matter for trial in April 1994 before three district judges acting as Special Masters: the Honorable Frank H. Allen and the Honorable Gerald R. Cole, district judges for the Second Judicial District, and the Honorable Robert M. Doughty II, district judge for the Twelfth Judicial District. Both Judge Cole and Judge Doughty are also members of the Judicial Standards Commission; Judge Allen is not. On May 6, 1994, the Special Masters issued a report, which included findings of fact and conclusions of law, recommending that the Commission seek the immediate permanent removal of Judge Castellano from office and, in the alternative, immediate temporary removal pending the completion of other pending matters. On the same day the Commission accepted and adopted the report and directed its special counsel, George Gary Duncan, to petition this Court for the recommended relief. On June 20, 1994, this Court heard oral argument on the original petition and on June 22 issued an order immediately suspending Judge Castellano from office, remanding the matter back to the Commission for further consideration, and ordering that the Commission send a final recommendation in no more than six months. In August 1994 the Commission began formal proceedings against Judge Castellano in a consolidated case that encompassed the charges made in Nos. 94-03 and 94-25 and two other matters: No. 93-52, concerning Judge Castellano’s relationship with an organization known as First CASA (Court-Appointed Special Advocates, volunteers for children in dependency proceedings), which regularly engaged in proceedings before him; and No. 94-67, concerning Judge Castellano’s conduct in presiding over the matter of City of Espanola v. Schneider, Rio Arriba County Cause No. 88-1282(c). In October 1994 Special Masters Allen, Cole, and Doughty heard evidence and then issued a second report, which included findings and conclusions, that again recommended permanent removal of Judge Castellano for willful misconduct in office. Judge Castellano filed objections to the report, and the Commission heard oral argument in November 1994. Following oral argument, the Commission overruled Judge Castellano’s objections and adopted the report. Subsequently the Commission’s special counsel filed a supplemental petition for removal with this Court, requesting a briefing schedule and hearing date, renewing its prior request for an order permanently removing Judge Castellano from his judicial office, and assessing costs and expenses against him. This Court heard oral argument on January 11, 1995, and reserved ruling. We begin with Judge Castellano’s argument that this Court lacks constitutional authority to order his removal from office because that argument touches our jurisdiction as well as that of the Commission. We next address his argument that he has been deprived of due process and that the appropriate remedy would be dismissal of the charges. Finally, we consider his remaining arguments, which challenge the sufficiency of the evidence and the findings and conclusions on which the Commission has relied in its supplemental petition for removal. THE SUPREME COURT’S POWER TO REMOVE A DISTRICT JUDGE FROM OFFICE FOR WILLFUL MISCONDUCT Judge Castellano notes that in 1988 the people of New Mexico in adopting a form of merit selection for appellate, district, and metropolitan court judges, see N.M. Const, art. VI, §§ 33-37, described the various ways in which a judicial office becomes vacant, see N.M. Const, art. VI, § 34. That description, he contends, contains an exclusive listing, and because the listing does not mention removal by the Supreme Court, the 1988 amendments have superseded the constitutional authority on which the Commission has relied in petitioning this Court for his removal. We disagree. The language on which Judge Castellano relies is as follows: The office of any justice or judge subject to the provisions of Section 33 of Article 6 of this constitution becomes vacant on January 1 immediately following the general election at which the justice or judge is rejected by a majority of those voting on the question of his retention or rejection or on January 1 immediately following the date he fails to file a declaration of candidacy for the retention of his office in the general election at which the justice or judge would be subject to retention or rejection by the electorate. Otherwise, the office becomes vacant upon the date of the death, resignation or removal by impeachment of the justice or judge. The date for filing a declaration of candidacy for retention of office shall be the same as that for filing a declaration of candidacy in a primary election. N.M. Const, art. VI, § 34. Specifically, he contends that the second sentence precludes this Court from removing him from office because his right to occupy that office continues until his death, resignation, or removal by impeachment pursuant to New Mexico Constitution Article IV, Section 35. Article IV, Section 35 provides that the “sole power of impeachment shall be vested in the house of representatives.” Judge Castellano’s argument asks this Court to read Article VI, Section 34 without regard to the context in which it appears and thus without regard to either the legislative purpose in proposing merit selection or the popular will in approving the amendment. Article VI, Section 34 contains the listing of when a judicial vacancy occurs in order to establish the point at which the appropriate nominating commission must begin its process for recommending names to the governor for appointment to fill that vacancy. Article VI, Section 35 requires the relevant nominating commission to meet within thirty days “[u]pon the occurrence of an actual vacancy,” and Article VI, Sections 36 and 37 incorporate that provision by reference. Article VI, Section 34 defines the date of vacancy for a judge or justice who fails to be retained as January 1 of the year following the general election in which the judge or justice was unsuccessful in his or her attempt to be retained — an event for which no provision had been made prior to 1988. This same section then indicates that in other cases, the vacancy occurs when the judge ceases to serve as a result of death, resignation, or removal by impeachment. We recognize, as Judge Castellano has noted, that the listing does not refer to the possibility of removal by the Supreme Court. We think that fact should be taken into account in construing Article VI, Section 34, but we also think that failure to specify removal by the Supreme Court as an occurrence of vacancy is inconclusive because other portions of the Constitution fill any gap and otherwise make the legislative intent clear. Article VI, Section 35 provides that the relevant commission shall meet within a period of time after an actual vacancy. In the case of removal by the Supreme Court, as in the case of impeachment by the New Mexico House of Representatives, the commission chair should be able to determine on his or her own or with the assistance of the Attorney General when the vacancy actually occurs. Further, Article VI, Section 32 describes the procedures of the Judicial Standards Commission as “alternative to, and cumulative with, the removal of justices, judges and magistrates by impeachment and the original superintending control of the supreme court.” In view of the particular purpose for which Article VI, Section 34 was enacted, we construe Article VI, Section 34 as referring to removal by impeachment or by those methods that under our constitutional scheme are analogous. Because Article VI, Section 32 expressly characterizes this Court’s powers of removal, on petition by the Judicial Standards Commission or under its superintending control, as alternative and cumulative with the legislature’s power of removal by impeachment, we believe that Article VI, Section 34 does not limit this Court’s authority to act upon the Commission’s petition. DUE PROCESS CONCERNS Judge Castellano raises several aspects of the Commission’s procedures in contending that he was denied due process of law. Some of them occurred prior to this Court’s remand in June 1994. For example, he notes that in April he was given less than thirty days to show cause before the Special Masters why he should not be removed from office; further, he notes that the Commission adopted the first report of the Special Masters on the same day that they issued it. Our order remanding the matter to the Commission took into account these objections to the original petition, and Judge Castellano does not contend that the procedures surrounding the second hearing before the Special Masters suffered from all the same defects. Rather, he contends, as he argued before the Commission, that under the Commission’s own rules, Judges Cole and Doughty should have been disqualified. He also contends that the Commission failed to discharge its constitutional responsibilities be cause it referred the critical functions of hearing the evidence, making findings of fact, and reaching conclusions of law to the Special Masters, and then largely or completely deferred to their work. Judge Castellano argues that Judges Cole and Doughty should have been disqualified or should have disqualified themselves as Special Masters because Mr. Duncan, on behalf of the Commission, participated in what might be viewed as plea negotiations prior to the final formulation of the charges made in August 1994 after remand. See State ex rel. Anaya v. Scarborough, 75 N.M. 702, 709, 410 P.2d 732, 736 (1966) (person should not be required to face trial before judge who has in any manner participated in efforts to persuade him to plead guilty); see also Commission Rule 5(b) (“A commissioner shall not participate in any matter if a judge similarly situated would be disqualified in a court proceeding.”). He also argues that Judges Cole and Doughty should have been disqualified or should have disqualified themselves because they had presided in an inferior tribunal when they acted as Special Masters. See id.; see also SCRA 1986, 21-400(0 (Repl.Pamp.1994) (“A judge is disqualified and shall recuse himself in any proceeding in which ... [h]e acted in his official capacity in any inferior court____”). Proceedings before a judicial review board must be conducted to provide the respondent with procedural due process. In re O’Dea, 159 Vt. 590, 622 A.2d 507, 511 (1993). The presence of procedural errors •by the administrative body, in this case the Commission, will not affect a reviewing court’s consideration of a judicial misconduct case unless the errors actually prejudiced the respondent. Id. Neither of Judge Castellano’s arguments provides a basis for dismiss-' ing the charges because of due process violations. There is no evidence in the record that connects either Judge Cole or Judge Doughty to the pre-filing activities of Mr. Duncan. Further, the Commission decided to file charges weeks after these activities occurred. Thus, there is no basis in the record for finding that either Judge Cole or Judge Doughty had participated in an attempt to persuade Judge Castellano to plead guilty, conduct that could be viewed as having predetermined the facts. We also are not persuaded that the hearings before the Special Masters should be viewed as proceedings before an inferior tribunal within the principles on which Judge Castellano bases his argument. Rather, those hearings would appear to be more accurately viewed as a convenient, preliminary division of labor within a large group charged with a number of tasks, some of which were more suited to a smaller group. Such a procedure does not rise to the level of a due process violation. Cf. In re Graham, 620 So.2d 1273 (Fla.1993) (rejecting judge’s claim that administrative body’s dual performance as factfinder and judge violated due process), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 114 S.Ct. 1186, 127 L.Ed.2d 537 (1994); O’Dea, 622 A.2d at 514 (due process violation less likely when administrative body is not final decision making authority). Judge Castellano also argues that the Commission in effect delegated its constitutional responsibilities to the Special Masters. Article VI, Section 32, however, specifically authorizes the appointment of “three masters who are justices or judges of courts of record to hear and take evidence in the matter and to report their findings to the commission” and also provides that “if the commission finds good cause, it shall recommend to the supreme court the discipline, removal or retirement of the justice, judge or magistrate.” We agree that there is a potential in the procedures that the Commission followed for those commissioners who are also judges to have disproportionate influence. In evaluating the complaints that come before the Commission, commissioners who are also judges may be perceived to have influence disproportionate to their numbers, regardless of whether the Commission employs a panel of special masters. Choosing special masters who are not Commissioners might be a wise precaution against an erroneous perception of even greater influence. Nevertheless, the procedures the Commission followed track the language of the constitutional amendment that created the Commission. Thus, we decline to add a provision that restricts the Commission’s flexibility in adopting procedures unless it is constitutionally required. We conclude that the due process arguments advanced do not support dismissal. REMOVAL AS AN APPROPRIATE SANCTION Judge Castellano argues that principles of equal protection require that the Commission be required to find he engaged in willful misconduct in office by proof beyond a reasonable doubt. He acknowledges that we held in In re Martinez, 99 N.M. 198, 208, 656 P.2d 861, 866 (1982), that the standard was proof by clear and convincing evidence, but he asks that we overrule Martinez on the ground there is no basis for treating a judge differently than a county official to whom NMSA 1978, Sections 10-4-1 to -29 (Repl. Pamp.1992), apply. Under those statutes, charges underlying a removal proceeding must be presented to a grand jury, see § 10-4-3, and proof must be beyond a reasonable doubt, see State ex rel. Mitchell v. Medler, 17 N.M. 644, 651, 131 P. 976, 979 (1913). The constitutional guarantee of equal protection does not require the legislature in making statutory distinctions nor the citizens in approving constitutional amendments to treat situations that are different as if they were similar. Rather, the constitutional guarantee demands that like situations be treated alike. A judge, unlike other county officials, has the extraordinary powers of holding persons in contempt, of sentencing, and of making rulings that affect property as well as liberty interests until and unless overturned on appeal. Given the power with which a judge is entrusted, we have no doubt that, as a matter of equal protection principles, he or she may be distinguished from other county officials and be subjected to removal from office on less than proof beyond a reasonable doubt. We decline to overrule Martinez. We note that the standard of clear and convincing evidence represents the standards applied in most states. See In re Nowell, 293 N.C. 235, 237 S.E.2d 246, 254 (1977). We turn now to the findings and conclusions of the Commission. NOS. U-03 AND U-25 The Special Masters found that beginning in January 1990 and continuing into 1994, Judge Castellano harassed and interfered with Martha Frank in her capacity as Court Administrator. In January and February 1990 he directed her to transfer certain sequestered matters contrary to. a standing administrative order, and when she complained to the then Chief Judge, Judge Castellano raised with the Chief Judge concerns about her competence, asked that his memorandum be made part of her personnel file, and began to pursue his own investigation. Eventually, Frank filed a complaint with the New Mexico Judicial Standards Commission, Closed File No. 78-37, and the Chief Judge personally conducted the investigation of Judge Castellano’s charges. At the conclusion of that investigation, the Chief Judge announced that none of the charges had been substantiated and that Frank had acted as was necessary and appropriate. In the fall 1991, the other judges in the First Judicial District began to express concerns about Judge Castellano’s ties to a program known as First CASA, which provided volunteers to assist children involved in abuse and neglect cases. At that time, abuse and neglect eases were assigned to Judge Castellano. In December Chief Judge Maes issued a memorandum to Frank ordering her as Court Administrator to reassign abuse and neglect cases to another judge. On the same date, Judge Castellano ordered Frank to ignore Chief Judge Maes’ order; Chief Judge Maes then advised Judge Castellano by memorandum that he had no authority to countermand her order. A copy of this memorandum went to Frank. On December 10 Judge Castellano sent another memorandum to Frank ordering her not to reassign cases. On December 13 Frank transferred 78 abuse and neglect cases from Judge Castellano to Judge Encimas and directed that new cases would be assigned to Judge Encimas as well. On December 15 Judge Castellano issued an “Order to Show Cause” directed to Frank and served by the deputy sheriff assigned as security at the courthouse. As ordered, the deputy sheriff conducted Frank to Judge Castellano’s courtroom, where the Judge asked her whether she had any reason why he should not hold her in contempt. When she declined to answer until her attor ney arrived, he ordered the deputy sheriff to arrest Frank and place her in the courthouse holding cell. Because the cell was occupied by a penitentiary inmate, the deputy sheriff put Frank in a vacant office near the holding cell. Subsequently Chief Judge Maes entered an order releasing Frank from custody. Acting on Frank’s behalf, the Attorney General then filed a petition for a writ of prohibition with this Court. On December 22,1993, this Court heard oral argument and then issued the writ, which prohibited Judge Castellano from countermanding the orders of the Chief Judge. The Special Masters concluded that these acts were committed intentionally, maliciously, willfully, with reckless and deliberate indifference, and in violation of Frank’s Fourth Amendment rights to be secure from unlawful seizure, and her rights to due process under the Fourteenth Amendment to the federal Constitution and Article II, Section 18 of the State Constitution. The Special Masters also found that on other occasions Judge Castellano subsequently refused to obey legitimate directions of Chief Judge Maes. In November 1993 Chief Judge Maes sent a memorandum to each of the judges in the First Judicial District asking them to provide copies of their daily docket sheets to the deputy sheriff assigned as a security guard for the court. In January 1994 Judge Castellano began to refuse to comply. On January 11 after the deputy sheriff had repeatedly asked Judge Castellano’s secretary for a copy of his daily docket sheet, Judge Castellano came to the top of the stairs in the commons area of the courtroom and began yelling at the deputy as he descended the stairs. Using profanity and raising his voice, Judge Castellano asserted that he was not going to provide the sheets because what went on in his courtroom was nobody’s business. He repeated his defiance the next day in his own chambers to the deputy. On February 11 Chief Judge Maes again ordered Judge Castellano to comply and to give her his calendar book for December 1 through February 14. Judge Castellano complied only by providing a copy of his docket sheet for February 14. On February 16 Chief Judge Maes again ordered Judge Castellano to comply with her orders regarding the daily docket sheets and calendar book. He continued to refuse to comply until April 1994. The Special Masters found that Judge Castellano’s verbal abuse of the deputy sheriff and use of profanity was discourteous, undignified, and disrespectful and that his defiance of Chief Judge Maes’ orders was in contempt of this Court. Further, in December 1993 Judge Castellano had agreed to hear some domestic violence cases in order to relieve the load the hearing officer was then experiencing. This agreement was reached in consultation with Judge Serna, the Family Court presiding judge, who had obtained approval from Chief Judge Maes. In late January, however, after the hearing officer and Judge Serna had attempted unsuccessfully to organize a schedule for the planned assistance, Judge Castellano refused to hear any domestic violence cases except under special circumstances. Eventually the Chief Judge intervened and ordered Judge Castellano to comply with the schedule Judge Serna and the hearing officer had proposed. He refused, she reiterated her order, and he complied by sitting on two different occasions but failed to hear all issues, referring most back to the hearing officer to determine the child support issues. When Chief Judge Maes ordered Judge Castellano to hear all the issues, he summoned the hearing officer, ordered her to hear the child support issues, and advised Chief Judge Maes he would not hear or determine those issues himself. On March 14 Chief Judge Maes again ordered Judge Castellano to hear the domestic violence cases as agreed and to desist from issuing contrary orders to court staff. Chief Judge Maes filed a complaint with the Commission as well as a letter to this Court, and Judge Castellano then began to comply with the orders regarding the domestic violence cases. The Special Masters concluded that in Judge Castellano’s conversation with the hearing officer he had treated her discourteously and disrespectfully and acted without dignity. • They found his conduct was violative of SCRA 1986, 21-100 (Repl.Pamp.1994) (“A judge shall observe high standards of conduct so that the integrity and independence of the judiciary may be preserved.”), and of SCRA 1986, 21-200(A) (Repl. Pamp.1994) (“A judge shall respect and comply with the law and shall conduct himself at all times in a manner that promotes public confidence in the integrity and impartiality of the judiciary.”). In addition, the Special Masters found that Judge Castellano worked very little over the seven-month period from September 1998 through March 31, 1994. The Special Masters concluded that Judge Castellano deliberately failed to devote to the court the number of hours required of a district judge. Finally, they concluded that he had been in contempt of this Court in refusing to comply with and in attempting to countermand the Chief Judge’s lawful administrative orders. The Special Masters also found that in March 1994 Judge Castellano made inquiries about an adoption proceeding filed in the First Judicial District that involved a relative of Chief Judge Maes, and in so doing he disclosed information from a file that by law is confidential. See NMSA 1978, § 32A-5-8, -40(A)(1) (Repl.Pamp.1993). Specifically, Judge Castellano questioned district court clerks about the adoption file and contacted a staff attorney for the Children, Youth and Families Department regarding the proceeding. The Special Masters determined that the adoption was handled properly and that Judge Castellano had made reckless allegations to the contrary, comparable to the unsubstantiated charges made against Frank in 1990. The Special Masters refused to find, however, that Judge Castellano was responsible for providing the Albuquerque Journal with a copy of the adoption file. After remand from this Court, the Special Masters heard some additional testimony, but made no specific changes in their findings and conclusions regarding these cases. After the remand from this Court in June 1994, the Special Masters considered two other cases, No. 93-52 and No. 94-67. The former concerned Judge Castellano’s dealings with First CASA; the latter concerned his conduct in City of Espanola v. Schneider. We address each separately. NO. 93-52 The Special Masters found that First CASA of Santa Fe was a not-for-profit organization whose purpose was to recruit, train, and oversee volunteers who served as Court-Appointed Special Advocates for abused and neglected children in juvenile dependency proceedings; it was regularly engaged in proceedings that came before the Children’s Court judge of the First Judicial District. Judge Castellano was the Children’s Court judge for the First Judicial District from April 1989 until December 1993. The Special Masters found that Judge Castellano had de facto control over First CASA, that he personally selected a majority of the board of directors, and that he personally caused the hiring and firing of directors. His wife served as Executive Director, for a salary, on two separate occasions and acted as First CASA’s primary fundraiser. She solicited contributions from lawyers who regularly appeared before the judge. She used his chambers and telephone to solicit funds. Judge Castellano allowed the use of his name, title, and photograph in a brochure used to solicit funds, and the use of stationery with his official telephone number, all after resolution of Inquiry No. 92-37 before the Commission, involving a solicitation letter sent out by Mrs. Castellano in 1992. The Special Masters specifically found that the 1993 fundraising package for First CASA “was the functional equivalent” of the 1992 fundraising letter the Commission had previously found to be in violation of SCRA 1986, 21-500(0(2) (Cum.Supp.1991). In 1993 one law firm made a contribution in the amount of $1,000 to First CASA the same day that Judge Castellano ruled in favor of a client of that firm. The same year another law firm made a contribution in the same amount at the same time that Judge Castellano was presiding over a criminal trial involving a relative of a member of that firm. The Special Masters also found that Judge Castellano used First CASA funds to attend a national convention, but did not attend most of the convention, and left the convention before its conclusion to visit a relative of his wife. Finally, members of First CASA’s Board of Directors under Judge Castellano’s control impeded the Commission’s investigation of Cause No. 93-52. The Special Masters determined that the Commission failed to carry its burden of proof regarding charges of ex. parte communications with CASA volunteers in pending cases, personal solicitation of funds by Judge Castellano,, a $1,000 contribution from a party to litigation within one month after a bench trial involving that party, and a contribution solicited by Mrs. Castellano, that was not deposited into CASA’s bank account. When Judge Castellano was removed as Children’s Court judge in December 1993, First CASA ceased to exist, a fact, from which the Special Masters inferred that Judge Castellano used CASA as a vehicle to advance his political career. The Special Masters ultimately concluded that Judge Castellano had used the prestige of his office to solicit funds, contrary to SCRA 21-500(C)(1), and that he had failed to observe the high standards of conduct required by SCRA 21-100 and -200. They concluded he had “created the appearance of impropriety in that he conveyed the appearance or impression or allowed others to create the appearance or impression that persons would be in a special position to influence the decisions of the Judge by making contributions to First Casa.” The Special Masters also found that closed file No. 92-37, the previous disciplinary proceeding, established Judge Castellano was aware of the limitations placed upon him and that the violations identified in No. 93-52 were intentional. They also found that Judge Castellano “used First Casa as an organization and the funds it raised to place himself and his work in abuse and neglect cases at the center of attention to further his own interests.” NO. 9J/.-67 In City of Espanola v. Schneider, the Special Masters found that Judge Castellano acted with apparent bias and prejudice toward the plaintiff. For example, after trial on the merits, Judge Castellano ruled in favor of the defendant, but he thereafter refused to enter a judgment from which plaintiff could appeal. In fact, Judge Castellano appeared to have intentionally delayed ruling in order to force plaintiff to settle the case because plaintiff’s interests were dependent upon an approaching extra-judicial deadline. Further, after this Court issued a writ of superintending control ordering entry of a judgment for the defendant so that plaintiff could appeal, Judge Castellano entered an order that expanded the issues litigated, and after this Court reversed that order on the merits, on remand, Judge Castellano refused to award plaintiff any costs, precipitating another appeal. Finally, during the pendency of the proceeding, Judge Castellano asked plaintiffs counsel to prepare a document for the judge’s signature opposing a proposed disposition in a related matter before the Court of Appeals. The Special Masters concluded that Judge Castellano had engaged in conduct that created an appearance of bias and denied a litigant its right to be heard. The Special Masters concluded this conduct violated SCRA 21-100,21-200, 21-300 (“A judge shall perform the duties of office impartially and diligently.”), and SCRA 1986, 1-088.1(D) (Repl.1992) (“No district judge shall sit in any action in which his impartiality may reasonably be questioned.”). CONCLUSION Regarding Nos. 94-03 and 94-25, Judge Castellano’s challenges in June 1994 were directed at Chief Judge Maes’ authority to issue the orders he defied. He contended then that by statute he held equal rank with the other judges in the First Judicial District, see NMSA 1978, § 34-6-28 (Repl. Pamp.1990), and that the relevant local rule of the First Judicial District, LR1-203(A), is consistent with that principle, because the local rule provides that the Chief Judge shall consult with the other judges in assigning and reassigning cases. We resolved the issue of Chief Judge Maes’ authority to reassign cases against Judge Castellano when we granted the writ of superintending control for which Frank petitioned. We need not revisit that issue. However, the constitutional amendment on which Judge Castellano has relied, N.M. Const, art. VI, § 34, was part of a judicial reform package that included an amendment regarding the powers of the chief judge of a judicial district. See N.M. Const, art. VI, § 38. Article VI, Section 38 provides as follows: “Each judicial district and metropolitan court district shall have a chief judge who shall have the administrative responsibility for that judicial district or metropolitan court district.” We are not persuaded that either the local rule or the statute on which Judge Castellano relies is inconsistent with this constitutional provision. To the extent that either the rule or the statute is inconsistent, of course the constitutional provision prevails. Further, the Commission found, and Judge Castellano does not dispute, that he continued to resist Chief Judge Maes’ administrative orders after we issued the writ. Judge Castellano has argued that there was insufficient evidence to support the charges against him by clear and convincing evidence. However, regarding Nos. 94-03 and 94-25, his appellate argument has not in general challenged specific findings as lacking evidentiary support. In challenging specific findings regarding No. 93-52, Judge Castellano contends that there was a total absence of evidence demonstrating that [his] relationship with CASA reflected adversely upon his impartiality or interfered with the performance of his judicial duties. [He] did not have de facto control over First CASA; he did not personally select the members of the board of directors; and he did not personally hire and fire its executive directors. [He] did not act in a judicial capacity in his dealings with First CASA and he did not act in bad faith. Judge Castellano «acknowledges that there was conflicting evidence regarding his relationship with the board of First CASA. He contends in effect that the primary witness was impeached and the remaining evidence cannot be characterized as clear and convincing. He concedes that Mrs. Castellano was extensively engaged in fundraising activities on behalf of First CASA, but he contends that there was at the time no prohibition in the Code of Judicial Conduct that prohibited these activities. Thus, he contends there was no clear and convincing evidence that he personally lent the prestige of his office to the fundraising efforts or conveyed the impression that others were in a special position to influence him. He contends that the timing of the two $1,000 contributions was coincidental. Finally, he argues that there was no evidence that he acted with malice or in his judicial capacity. There need not be clear and convincing evidence to support each and every one of the Commission’s evidentiary findings. Rather, we must be satisfied by clear and convincing evidence that there is willful judicial misconduct which merits discipline. On the ultimate question of Judge Castellano’s relationship with First CASA, there had been a prior admonition against fundraising, and that same conduct was repeated. We believe that the issue of the appearance of impropriety had been resolved adversely to Judge Castellano in that prior proceeding and that repetition of the very conduct that had been characterized by the Commission as improper cannot, be said to be anything other than willful judicial misconduct. We recognize that Judge Castellano’s wife is an independent person with the right to pursue personal interests. Nevertheless, having been admonished by the Commission, Judge Castellano had an obligation to take steps to ensure the appearance as well as the reality of her independence and of his impartiality. He did not. Regarding Cause No. 94-67, Judge Castellano argues that there were legitimate case-related reasons underlying his actions as the trial judge. He also argues that in an analogous case, the same defense counsel obtained similar results before a different district court judge. He contends that the evidence did not show judicial misconduct but rather at most erroneous rulings corrected on appeal. See West Virginia Judicial Inquiry Comm’n v. Dostert, 165 W.Va. 233, 271 S.E.2d 427, 433-34 (1980). We agree that the Commission might have believed his characterization of the undisputed facts. However, while we are charged with independently evaluating the record for the presence or absence of clear and convincing evidence, we may give weight to the evidentiary findings of those who were able to judge credibility. See McCullough v. Commission on Judicial Performance, 49 Cal.3d 186, 260 Cal.Rptr. 557, 559, 776 P.2d 259, 261 (1989). If the Special Masters did not find Judge Castellano credible, and they did not, then they properly inferred that the judge’s conduct in the case, taken as a whole, appeared biased and impartial. That inference is supported by clear and convincing evidence. Cf. id. at 563-65, 776 P.2d at 265-66 (failure to submit judgment for six years is persistent failure to perform duties of office); see also In re Lorona, 178 Ariz. 562, 875 P.2d 795, 797 (1994) (clear and convincing evidence burden of proof in judicial discipline proceeding can be met even when testimony is conflicting). Whether the discipline that is appropriate is removal or a lesser sanction is separate from the question of whether the evidence supports a determination that the judge’s actions constituted willful judicial misconduct. Compare Furey v. Commission on Judicial Performance, 43 Cal.3d 1297, 240 Cal.Rptr. 859, 863, 743 P.2d 919, 923 (1987) (“the number and quality of the charges found to be true assumes importance as one of the guidelines we apply in making the difficult decision of discipline”) with Quinn v. State Comm’n on Judicial Conduct, 54 N.Y.2d 386, 446 N.Y.S.2d 3, 7, 430 N.E.2d 879, 883 (1981) (fact that prior admonition for similar conduct proved ineffective is fact that may be taken into account). When addressing the issue of what discipline is appropriate, we consider the fact that the Commission proved a pattern of behavior that indicates a lack of respect for the constitutional and statutory limitations on a judge’s authority. A lesser discipline is not likely to change such a fundamental problem. Kloepfer v. Commission on Judicial Performance, 49 Cal.3d 826, 264 Cal.Rptr. 100, 102, 782 P.2d 239, 241 (1989). We note that the abuse of a judge’s contempt power and repeated discourtesy toward others has been the focus of other court’s decisions to order removal. See Furey, 240 Cal.Rptr. at 863-64, 743 P.2d at 923; Kloepfer, 264 Cal.Rptr. at 107-08, 117-19, 782 P.2d at 246-47, 256-58. We also consider the fact that two prior closed files reveal analogous conduct. See Quinn, 446 N.Y.S.2d at 7-8, 430 N.E.2d at 883. Finally, we consider the strength of the pattern of behavior and its impact on the community, and thus on Judge Castellano’s reputation for judicial temperament. The Commission’s findings and conclusions support a determination that Judge Castellano will not be able to change this pattern of behavior in the near future. We are persuaded that the pattern has adversely affected his reputation for impartiality, independence, and integrity. We conclude that removal is the only appropriate remedy. Therefore, we grant the Commission’s supplemental petition and order Judge Castellano’s removal. The order will be final forthwith. The Commission shall recover its costs.
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OPINION RANSOM, Justice. An administrative decision of the New Mexico Employment Security Department denying unemployment compensation to Billie J. Rodman was reviewed on certiorari by the district court. Rodman now appeals to this Court from the order of the district court affirming the administrative decision. Rodman had been employed by Presbyterian Hospital as a unit secretary for nearly eight years when, on February 17, 1987, she was terminated under hospital personnel policies following a “third corrective action” notice. Prior restrictions had been placed on Rodman’s conduct due to personal problems adversely impacting upon her place of work. At issue is whether the misconduct which warranted termination from employment rose to the level of misconduct which would warrant denial of unemployment compensation under NMSA 1978, Section 51-1-7 of the Unemployment Compensation Law, NMSA 1978, Sections 51-1-1 to 51-1-54 (Repl.Pamp.1987). Rodman challenges the administrative decision and the district court’s review as being unsupported by substantial evidence and contrary to the law. The standard of review is whether the administrative decision was supported by substantial evidence in the whole record. No part of the evidence may be exclusively relied upon if it would be unreasonable to do so. National Council on Compensation Ins. v. New Mexico State Corp. Comm’n, 107 N.M. 278, 282, 756 P.2d 558, 562 (1988); Trujillo v. Employment Sec. Dep’t, 105 N.M. 467, 734 P.2d 245 (Ct.App.1987). Additionally, as appellant points out in her brief-in-chief, a reviewing court may correct a misapplication of the law. Conwell v. City of Albuquerque, 97 N.M. 136, 138, 637 P.2d 567, 569 (1981). The Department reasonably summarizes the substantial evidence as follows: Rod-man was reprimanded in June of 1986 for receiving an inordinate number of personal telephone calls and visitors at her work station, which was disruptive to her own work and to her co-workers. The formal reprimand set forth conditions to prevent further corrective action. Rodman was to have no personal telephone calls during work hours outside of a designated break or dinner time, in which event they were to occur in an area not visible to patients, physicians, or other department staff. When leaving the department for dinner, Rodman was to report to her immediate supervisor and was not to leave the hospital. Rodman was to make every effort to resolve the matters in her personal life that were causing problems at work. Nevertheless, according to the testimony of her supervisor, extremely disruptive telephone calls continued. The doctors were beginning to comment on it. The staff was getting more distressed. According to her supervisor, “[A]gain we talked about the visits, the behavior at the desk. When it got pretty bad with the phone calls, Billie would slam charts, push chairs and be a little abrupt with the people she worked with.” Another written reprimand in November of 1986 warned Rodman that her job was in jeopardy if the disruptive behavior continued. The supervisor established restrictions prohibiting the claimant from having visitors at the department and instructed her to notify security if there was a potential problem. On February 15, 1987, Rodman began work at 1:00 o’clock in the afternoon. She had spoken to her boyfriend’s mother earlier in the day to tell her that she did not want him to use her car as she had broken off their relationship. The boyfriend’s mother called her at work and told her the boyfriend had her car keys. Rodman told the mother to have the boyfriend call her at work. When he did, she informed him that she could not talk to him at her duty station, and he hung up on her. He called her back and left a number where he could be reached. She left the work area and went to the break room to call him. After returning to her duty station, Rod-man got another telephone call from her boyfriend who told her to go downstairs to the lobby to meet him and pick up the keys. When she refused, he told her that if she did not come down he would come up to her department. Claimant left the department to confront her boyfriend, and, because her supervisor was at lunch in the hospital cafeteria, Rod-man notified a co-worker, a registered nurse, that she was leaving. Rodman testified, “I didn’t want any kind of confrontation at the desk, so I went downstairs.” Before she left her desk, Rodman called the employer’s security guard and asked him to meet her in the lobby because she anticipated that a problem could develop. When Rodman got to the lobby, her boyfriend started yelling and forced her outside. In doing so, he tore her shirt. At this point the security guard arrived and observed them arguing. Rodman was in the passenger seat of her car. The security guard instructed the boyfriend to return the keys, but the boyfriend jumped into the driver’s seat, locked the doors and drove off. About thirty-five minutes later, Rodman returned to her work station, after having changed her torn shirt. She resumed working, but, as the shift progressed, more telephone calls were received for her in the department. The supervisor became frustrated with the volume of calls and the behavior of Rodman. It was determined that Rodman should be sent home. Thereafter she was terminated. The Appeals Tribunal of the Department of Employment Security found on the basis of the evidence that the appellant had proven unwilling to restrict her personal contacts while at work, as requested by her employer. The hearing officer dismissed as with out merit Rodman’s contention that she could not stop her acquaintances from calling or visiting her at work. The hearing officer concluded that Ms. Rodman’s behavior was unreasonable, had caused many problems for her work section, and constituted misconduct connected with work under Section 51-1-7(B). The Meaning of “Misconduct” in New Mexico’s Unemployment Compensation Law. Given the remedial purpose of the Unemployment Compensation Law, New Mexico courts, like most jurisdictions, interpret the provisions of the law liberally, to provide sustenance to those who are unemployed through no fault of their own, and who are willing to work if given the opportunity. Wilson v. Employment Sec. Comm’n, 74 N.M. 3, 14, 389 P.2d 855, 862-63 (1963); Parsons v. Employment Security Comm’n, 71 N.M. 405, 409, 379 P.2d 57, 60 (1963). Like most states, New Mexico also provides that an employee who is determined to have been discharged for “misconduct” is ineligible for unemployment compensation benefits. § 51-1-7(B); see generally Annotation, Employee’s Insubordination as Barring Employment Compensation, 26 A.L.R.3d 1333 (1969). Two purposes are served by this statutory bar: first, it prevents the dissipation of funds for other workers; second, it denies benefits to those who bring about their own unemployment by conducting themselves with such callousness, and deliberate or wanton misbehavior that they have given up any reasonable expectation of receiving unemployment benefits. Given the remedial purpose of the statute, and the rule of statutory construction that its provisions are to be interpreted liberally, the statutory term “misconduct” should not be given too broad a definition. Accordingly, in adopting the majority definition of the term, this Court wrote in Mitchell v. Lovington Good Samaritan Center, Inc., 89 N.M. 575, 577, 555 P.2d 696, 698 (1976): “[Mjisconduct” * * * is limited to conduct evincing such wilful or wanton disregard of an employer’s interests as is found in deliberate violations or disregard of standards of behavior which the employer has the right to expect of his employee, or in carelessness or negligence of such degree or recurrence as to manifest equal culpability * * *. [M]ere inefficiency, unsatisfactory conduct, failure in good performance as the result of inability or incapacity, inadvertencies or ordinary negligence in isolated instances, or good faith errors in judgment or discretion are not to be deemed “misconduct” within the meaning of the statute. Where an employee has not acted with the requisite degree of “fault” under Mitchell, he or she has not sacrificed a reasonable expectation in continued financial security such as may be afforded by accrued unemployment compensation benefits. It is therefore possible for an employee to have been properly discharged without having acted with such willful or wanton disregard for an employer’s interests as would justify denial of benefits. See e.g., City of Dallas v. Texas Employment Comm’n, 626 S.W.2d 549, 551 (Tex.Ct.App. 1981). This Court recognized in Alonzo v. New Mexico Employment Security Department, 101 N.M. 770, 689 P.2d 286 (1984), that even an act of willful disobedience which leads to termination will not always rise to the level of “misconduct” when the act is an isolated incident in an otherwise favorable employment history and the incident does not cause a significant disruption of the employer’s legitimate interests. Cf., Trujillo v. Employment Sec. Dep’t, 105 N.M. 467, 472, 734 P.2d 245, 250 (Ct.App.1987) (where employment contract gave employer the right to draft employees to work overtime in emergency situations significantly affecting the employer’s interests, it was “misconduct” for appellees to have refused to report for overtime work). Alonzo and Trujillo demonstrate that there are two components to the concept of misconduct sufficient to justify denial of benefits. One is the notion that the employee has acted with willful or wanton disregard for the employer’s interests; the other is that this act significantly infringed on legitimate employer expectations. Totality of circumstances and the “last straw” doctrine. Often, the courts have been confronted with a series of minor infractions by the employee, where each incident showed a willful disregard of the employer’s interests, but no single incident was serious enough to justify denial of benefits. In such cases, courts have applied a “totality of circumstances” or “last straw” test to determine whether, taken together, this series of incidents constitutes misconduct sufficient to disqualify the claimant from receiving benefits. Mitchell v. Lovington Good Samaritan Center, Inc., 89 N.M. 575, 555 P.2d 696 (1976). See also Donovan v. New Mexico Employment Sec. Dep’t, 97 N.M. 293, 639 P.2d 580 (1982); C.F. Industries v. Long, 364 So.2d 864 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1978); Rolon v. Commonwealth Unemployment Comp. Bd. of Review, 59 Pa.Commw. 378, 429 A.2d 1256 (1981). Rodman recognizes the “last straw” doctrine, but contends that the district court erred in applying the rule in this case because her infractions of February 15 were the result of acts of third parties over whom she had no physical or legal control. Appellant contends that she may not be denied unemployment benefits where the “last straw” which led to her termination was not willful or intentional, especially where, under the employer’s personnel policy, she could not have been discharged at all before this final incident. The Department contends that it is immaterial whether the precipitating act was a willful or intentional violation of the employer’s rules, where the record indicates that the claimant had a history of previous acts which demonstrate a willful or wanton disregard for the employer’s interests, and the employer discharged the employee for the accumulation of events, including the precipitating event. Fort Myers Pump & Supply v. Florida Dep’t of Labor, 373 So.2d 429 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1979). Although Fort Myers does offer support for the appellee’s position, we believe termination for a series of incidents which, taken together, may constitute “misconduct” is distinguishable from termination for a single incident following one or more corrective action notices. In the latter event, as here, we hold that the “last straw” must demonstrate a willful or wanton disregard for the employer's interests for unemployment benefits to be denied. It should be noted, however, that the “totality of circumstances” is relevant in contexts other than discharge after the accumulation of a series of minor incidents. The “totality of circumstances,” such as provided by the employee’s past conduct and previous reprimands, may also be used to evaluate whether the employee acted with willful or wanton disregard of the employer’s interests on the occasion that precipitated his or her termination. In American Process Lettering, Inc. v. Commonwealth Unemployment Compensation Board of Review, 50 Pa.Commw. 272, 275, 412 A.2d 1123, 1126 (1980), the court stated, “Though not a necessary element [to show misconduct], a [previous] warning is relevant in that it reflects the employee’s attitude toward his employment * * * and thus adds to the willfulness of the misconduct.” (citations omitted). Other relevant circumstances include the worker’s knowledge of the employer’s expectations, the reasonableness of those expectations, and the presence of any mitigating factors Goodridge v. Director of Employment Sec., 375 Mass. 434, 377 N.E.2d 927 (1978). Mitigating factors in this case include the acts of Rodman’s boyfriend, a third party, and Rodman’s attempts to conform to her employer’s expectations following previous reprimands. If substantial evidence existed that Rod-man’s conduct on February 15, considered in light of the totality of circumstances including her previous history of personal phone calls and unauthorized visitors, showed a willful or wanton disregard for her employer’s interests, then Rodman’s benefits were properly denied. The district court’s adoption of independent findings and conclusions. Before deciding whether there was substantial evidence to support denial of Rodman’s benefits for misconduct connected with her employment, it is necessary to discuss whether the district court erred in adopting its own findings and conclusions rather than accepting those of the Department in their entirety. SCRA 1986, 1-081(C)(4) provides: The district court shall try and determine such cause upon the evidence legally introduced at the hearing before said board of review of the employment security department presented by the parties to said court. After hearing said cause the court shall make findings of fact and conclusions of law and enter judgment therein upon the merits. This Court has had occasion in the past to interpret this provision. In an early case, M.R. Prestridge Lumber Co. v. Employment Security Commission, 50 N.M. 309, 320-21, 176 P.2d 190, 198 (1946), this Court held that while the district court may properly give some weight to agency findings, “[i]n the last analysis * * * the responsibility of making correct findings rests with the district court and it is not to be hampered or embarrassed in the performance of this duty by the findings of the Commission.” Wilson v. Employment Security Commission, 74 N.M. 3, 8, 389 P.2d 855, 858 (1963), however, modified the rule from Prestridge, and held, “The trial court shall adopt as its own such of the Commission’s findings of facts as it determines to be supported by substantial evidence and shall make such conclusions of law and decision as lawfully follow therefrom.” (emphasis added). See also Ribera v. Employment Sec. Comm’n, 92 N.M. 694, 594 P.2d 742 (1979); Abernathy v. Employment Sec. Comm’n, 93 N.M. 71, 596 P.2d 514 (1979). Although under the Wilson case and its progeny, the court’s affirmation of the Appeals Tribunal decision may appear inconsistent with the court’s adoption of independent findings, we hold that the trial court’s actions in this case were proper. Under Wilson, the trial court cannot both decide that the findings of the Department are supported by substantial evidence and adopt independent findings. Where, however, the court decides that the result reached by the Department was correct, but that the Department’s specific findings are inadequate or ambiguous due to a misapprehension of the law, the court consistently with SCRA 1986, 1-081(C)(4), may adopt independent findings and conclusions. In this case, the hearing officer misapprehended the standard of “misconduct” as set forth in Mitchell and in this opinion. Specifically, the hearing officer defined “misconduct” as denoting “a material breach of the contract of employment or conduct reflecting a willful disregard of the employer’s best interests.” (Emphasis added). The use of the disjunctive “or” was error, as it implies that a breach of the employee’s duties sufficient to warrant termination is automatically grounds for denial of benefits. Moreover, the Appeals Tribunal appears to have based its finding of “misconduct” on Rodman’s behavior following her first reprimand and leading up to her termination, without specifically addressing whether her conduct of February 15 constituted willful or wanton disregard of her employer’s interests. Under these circumstances, it was proper -for the district court to make independent findings and conclusions. Accordingly, we examine the record to determine whether there was substantial evidence to support the district court’s findings and denial of benefits. The district court ruled that Rod-man’s behavior prior to February 15 constituted misconduct; that her acts of February 15, considered in light of her previous history, constituted misconduct; and that she was terminated for misconduct. Based on these considerations the court reasoned that the Appeals Tribunal’s denial of Rod-man’s benefits should be affirmed. Under the analysis of the previous section, the first of these findings cannot alone stand as a sound basis for the court’s decision, because it implies that absent consideration of the events of February 15 a basis existed to deny Rodman’s claim. However, the finding that Rodman’s conduct of February 15, when considered in light of her previous behavior, constituted misconduct sufficient to deny her benefits stands on a different footing. If supported by substantial evidence, this finding would justify denial of her benefits. Although the evidence in this case is amenable to more than one reasonable interpretation, we conclude that there was a substantial basis for the district court to decide that Rodman’s actions on February 15, when considered in light of the restrictions which had been placed upon her and her previous failure to comply with those restrictions, demonstrated a willful disregard for her employer’s interests. Therefore, the decision of the district court is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. WALTERS, J., concurs. STOWERS, J., specially concurs.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. The defendant was sentenced to life imprisonment plus ten years upon his conviction of first degree murder and armed robbery. He contends there was insufficient evidence to support conviction and that due process was violated because, as a result of prosecutorial misconduct, he was denied his right to a fair trial. Two secondary points are presented in accordance with State v. Franklin, 78 N.M. 127, 129, 428 P.2d 982, 984 (1967), requiring appointed counsel to set forth contentions urged by the defendant regardless of whether counsel believes they are meritorious and whether such contentions in fact are argued by counsel. Those issues, which concern the trial court’s refusal to give an instruction not permitted under the Use Note following SCRA 1986, 14-5150, and a bare contention that defendant’s photograph used in a photo array was taken without his permission, are devoid of merit; consequently, we do not address them. The only test recognized by this court to review the sufficiency of the evidence from a jury trial is one inquiring whether substantial evidence, either direct or circumstantial in nature, exists to support a verdict of guilty beyond a reasonable doubt with respect to each essential element of a crime charged. State v. Sutphin, 107 N.M. 126, 753 P.2d 1314, 1319 (1988); State v. Montoya, 101 N.M. 424, 425-26, 684 P.2d 510, 511 (1984); State v. Brown, 100 N.M. 726, 728, 676 P.2d 253, 255 (1984). The evidence is viewed in a light most favorable to the jury’s verdict; all reasonable, permissible inferences are indulged to support it, and all conflicts are resolved in favor of the verdict. Sutphin, 107 N.M. at 131, 753 P.2d at 1319; Brown, 100 N.M. at 729, 676 P.2d at 256. An appellate court does not evaluate the evidence to determine whether some hypothesis exists that is consistent with a finding of innocence; it does not weigh the evidence or substitute its judgment for that of the jury. Sutphin, 107 N.M. at 130-31, 753 P.2d at 1318-19. The only issue here is identity. The prosecution presented several witnesses to connect defendant with the crime, including one eyewitness and three expert forensic witnesses. That evidence as a whole would support the conclusion that defendant could not be excluded from the class of persons who could have committed the crimes, and it placed the defendant in the victim’s neighborhood at the time of the homicide. Defendant did not object to the testimony at trial, and he had an opportunity to cross-examine and attempt to impeach each witness. He also was able to argue his portrayal of the testimony to the jury, and it was within the jury’s function and discretion to believe or disbelieve him. Just because the evidence supporting the conviction was circumstantial does not mean it was not substantial evidence. State v. Tovar, 98 N.M. 655, 658, 651 P.2d 1299, 1302 (1982). Defendant’s principal claim is that he was denied his right to a fair trial because the prosecution shifted the burden of proof in trying to prove his guilt by showing that he had no alibi. During its case-in-chief, the prosecution called defendant’s aunt Rose Montoya, his only proposed alibi witness, and elicted testimony concerning defendant’s shoe size, where he was on the evening of the homicide, and what she had done with the denim jacket he allegedly wore on the night of the homicide. The prosecution then asked Montoya about a prior statemeht given by her to the police ini which' she had been asked: “Did he [defendantj'ask you to tell the police that you drove him to the Mills?” and she had replied: “He said that I was his only alibi.” The question asked at trial was “[D]id the defendant tell you to tell the story about him driving to the Mills’ house?” Not only was the question asked at trial a leading question, it also was misleading regarding Montoya’s earlier answer. Defendant insists that the prosecution did not call Montoya to offer any relevant, substantive evidence, but called her solely for the purpose of impeaching her and introducing an otherwise inadmissible hearsay statement. Case law from other jurisdictions supports the proposition that it is entirely inappropriate for the prosecution to call a witness who is favorable to the defendant only to elicit statements made to the witness by a defendant, because such a scheme operates as a subterfuge to avoid the hearsay rule. See United States v. Johnson, 802 F.2d 1459, 1466 (D.C.Cir. 1986); State v. Graham, 200 Conn. 9, 18, 509 A.2d 493, 498 (1986). A review of the trial transcript confirms that the prosecution’s primary purpose for calling Rose Montoya as its witness was to impeach her credibility. The trial court interrupted the prosecutor shortly after examination of Ms. Montoya began and, outside the presence of the jury, the following colloquy ensued: THE COURT: Why don’t you just ask her the facts. I mean, she doesn’t have to know and understand what an alibi is. Just ask her whether or not — if that is what you want to do, but I think it’s improper questioning, at this point, about whether she is — has—at this point in this case, there hasn’t been any evidence of her as an alibi witness. He hasn’t testified. MR. BIEHLER: Well, I think she is going to testify as to an alibi witness. * * * At some point in time, I am sure she’ll — it will become — she is a hostile witness. THE COURT: Well, up to this point, I think the approach of the District Attorney is inappropriate. I don’t think you can show that this witness is biased before she has testified to anything substantive. In other words, if she is — if she says something in a substantive manner that — concerning the facts of this case that would be adverse to the State or whatever, then maybe you could show bias. . But you could — you can’t start off with your examination of this witness showing that she is biased, and that’s what it seems as if you're trying to do, trying to show her relationship to this Defendant, and so on. That she would— that she is a biased witness. Unless she would testify to something which would seem to be inappropriate, then maybe you could impeach her, depending on what she says. MR. BIEHLER: We will go from the other direction first. THE COURT: Well, I would think so. I would think you would have to. MR. BIEHLER: It is my understanding that once she has testified, then it is adverse to the State in this case, that she would, then, be considered to be an adverse witness. THE COURT: Well, I don’t know that I am going to consider her an adverse witness. I don’t believe the law requires that she be adjudged adverse or hostile in order for you to impeach her, but I am not going to make any ruling in advance. We’ll see how she is. MR. LEYBA: I would like to make an objection to the improper cross-examination by the State. She — they haven’t established that there is anything to im peach her with, and he is trying to impeach her before she testifies. THE COURT: That’s the essence of the reason I sent the jury out. I think that’s correct. Until she testifies to some factual matter in the case, which might be inconsistent with what she may have given a statement on or whatever, that there is no way you can show her bias. That is a rather strange method of utilizing this witness, from the Court’s point of view, calling a defense alibi witness as your own witness to show that she is lying before she even testifies in the court that there is an alibi. There’s been no evidence of alibi, yet, at least from her. MR. LEYBA: Your Honor, I would object to that unless this witness has some testimony that she would give that would be relevant to the facts in issue in the case. I think what the State is attempting to do is discredit his alibi witness before the Defendant even has an opportunity to call her. I may not even call her to the stand. I think it’s their method by the prosecution to usurp the Defendant’s right to testify or not to testify in this case. MR. BIEHLER: Your Honor, what we have got in this situation is a witness who the Defendant’s attorney claimed, in opening statement, and told to the jury, that this witness would be an alibi witness. The State intends to present her testimony for some substantive things. There are some substantive things that she can tell us for a witness, whether she be for the Defense or for the Prosecution. I will get to those. * * * Later in the direct examination of the witness, another discussion was held at the bench and out of the presence of the jury: THE COURT: Do you have anything further? MR. BIEHLER: Only, Judge, that this witness has tried to provide, on the one hand, is trying to provide an alibi for the Defendant, where he was that night, which is essential to our case, and has made a whole bunch of different statements, and I think the State has an opportunity — or discover an opportunity to impeach her credibility by her relationship with the defendant. THE COURT: You have been impeaching her credit. I believe, of course, she is trying to, I would suppose, you might say, giving him an alibi, but only because you called her as a witness. The defense hasn’t called her yet. MR. LEYBA: Your Honor, if I may, I would object to the State calling an alibi witness to impeach the alibi unless she has some relevant evidence. THE COURT: I don’t even know if he has determined an alibi. She said she didn’t know where he was after 11:15. I will sustain the objection. I think we are getting way, way off base here, and it’s rather unorthodox, the whole situation, and six months down the road from now, you might regret a lot of this. MR. LEYBA: I am going to renew my Motion for Mistrial based on a procedure improperly employed by the State to call the Defense’s witness for the only purpose of impeachment. * * * What they are doing is bringing an alibi witness, attempting to badger her before the jury, and I haven’t even called her as an alibi witness. I would object to that procedure and ask for a mistrial. If the prosecution elicits relevant, substantive testimony from the witness, it may impeach its witness with prior inconsistent statements about the same matter being testified to at trial. See SCRA 1986, 11-607 (party may impeach its own witness); SCRA 1986, ll-801(D)(l)(a) (prior inconsistent statements are nonhearsay if declarant testifies at trial and is subject to cross-examination); see also State v. Vialpando, 93 N.M. 289, 297, 599 P.2d 1086, 1094 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 93 N.M. 172, 598 P.2d 215 (1979) (if prior written statement is inconsistent with witness’s trial testimony, the prior statement is a non-hearsay written assertion under Rule 801(D)(1)(a)). Furthermore, such nonhearsay evidence can be admitted as substantive evidence to be considered by the jury; the jury is not restricted to consider the evidence only for impeachment purposes. See State v. Maestas, 92 N.M. 135, 144, 584 P.2d 182, 191 (Ct.App.1978). But the above rules do not operate in the abstract. Montoya’s prior statement was hearsay under the definition of SCRA 1986,11-801(C), because it was “other than one made by the declarant while testifying at the trial.” Included in her prior statement, however, was the alleged declaration by Montoya that defendant had told Montoya something she had not included in her trial testimony. Thus, there was hearsay within her hearsay statement. When Montoya testified at trial, any prior inconsistent statement made by her was removed from the hearsay rule and could be used substantively to permit the jury to determine whether or not she had driven defendant “to the Mills” on the night in question, but because defendant had not testified, either at that point or ever, the statement allegedly attributed to him by Montoya in her prior statement could not be used as substantive evidence against him. He also was a “declarant” as defined by Rule 801(B) and as illustrated in Maestas, but his hearsay statement to Rose Montoya never became admissible, because the condition which would have taken his alleged statement out of the hearsay rule never occurred: he did not testify at trial. Maestas is not to the contrary. There, the victim’s out-of-court hearsay statement to the witnesses — her prior inconsistent statement to them — was admissible to impeach her trial testimony denying defendant’s identity, and to become substantive evidence against the defendant under the exception of Rule 801(D)(1), because the impeached witness testified at trial. But her prior statement did not contain, additionally, a hearsay statement by defendant. The impeached witness here was Rose Montoya; the validity of her prior statement could be used to impeach her credibility at trial, but its hearsay content of what defendant purportedly had said to her should have been excised or ruled inadmissible — particularly in view of the extended objections by defense counsel and the pervasive cautioning by the trial court regarding the prosecutor’s unorthodox procedure. Moreover, we have scrupulously read and reread a signed statement given by the witness before trial and admitted for the record, and it appears to us to indicate that on one occasion she had told investigators that she had not driven defendant to the Mills house, and on a later occasion she said she had. Nowhere in the statement, however, do we find an answer agreeing that she had been told by defendant to tell the police that she had driven him to the Mills house. We have quoted above her specific answer to that question as it appears in the statement. Thus, even the question asked by the prosecutor had no foundation in Montoya’s prior statement, and was a mischaracterization of what she earlier had said. It was constitutionally improper, therefore, for the trial court to admit and for the State to elicit Duran’s hearsay statement made to Montoya. The State construed Duran’s alleged hearsay statement as an admission by defendant of criminal liability, but we conclude that it could be so construed only by a most egregious twist of reasoning; that, instead the purported statement of defendant as posed by the prosecutor was hearsay, and that it was not admissible as an exception under either SCRA 1986, 11-801(D)(1) or — (D)(2). The defendant did not testify, and because his statement was not an admission against penal interest, its admission into evidence approaches a violation of his fifth amendment right not to testify, which also is guaranteed by Article II, Section 15 of the New Mexico Constitution, see State v. Kendall, 90 N.M. 236, 239, 561 P.2d 935, 938 (Ct.App.), rev’d in part, 90 N.M. 191, 561 P.2d 464 (1977), notwithstanding the fact that the statement might not be incriminating. The prosecution’s conduct in calling the defense’s alibi witness for the purpose of impeachment during its case-in-chief was entirely improper. But to establish a due process violation, and thus reversible error, the defendant must demonstrate prejudice. See State v. Henry, 78 N.M. 573, 574, 434 P.2d 692, 693 (1967); Johnson v. Cox, 72 N.M. 55, 57, 380 P.2d 199, 201 (1963); see also SCRA 1986, 11-103(A). We are constrained to hold, therefore, that the trial court’s error in permitting the procedure against its own reservations, and even in the absence of specific objection, was harmless; as we have already said, there was sufficient other evidence to convict the defendant. See Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18, 22-24, 87 S.Ct. 824, 827-28, 17 L.Ed.2d 705 (1967) (establishing constitutional harmless error). Nevertheless, we sternly admonish the prosecution for its conduct in this instance. The prosecution admitted that its primary purpose for calling the defendant’s listed alibi witness was to impeach her credibility. We are strongly convinced, as was the trial court, that the principal objective of the prosecution was to admit Montoya’s prior statement containing what the prosecution mistakenly considered to be an admission by the defendant. Although the prosecution elicited some substantive evidence from Montoya, that evidence was cumulative and not inconsistent with her earlier statement. It had no reason to impeach Montoya’s alibi testimony until the defendant had presented the alibi and only if he had chosen to do so. If alibi evidence were not presented in the defense’s case, there would have been no necessity to “destroy,” by impeachment, the alibi witness. We consider the prosecution’s conduct improper, but because we cannot say that it prejudiced the defendant, it cannot be deemed reversible error. Defendant points out, finally, that in closing argument the prosecution misconstrued the testimony of one of the expert witnesses by characterizing her analysis of hair samples as “consistent” to mean that the samples were “indistinguishable.” The argument was not objected to, but its inaccuracy was not a complete fabrication or misrepresentation, and it consequently did not constitute fundamental or reversible error. See State v. Chavez, 100 N.M. 730, 734, 676 P.2d 257, 261 (Ct.App.1983), cert. quashed, 100 N.M. 689, 675 P.2d 421 (1984). Another witness had testified that the expert had described the samples as “indistinguishable.” Although that testimony was hearsay, it was admitted into evidence without objection from the defense. Had the prosecutor paraphased the expert by describing the hair comparison as “identical,” however, he would have committed a “calculated, rank misrepresentation,” see People v. Linscott, 159 Ill.App.3d 71, 81, 111 Ill.Dec. 8, 14, 511 N.E.2d 1303, 1309 (1987), cert. granted, 117 Ill.2d 549, 115 Ill.Dec. 405, 517 N.E.2d 1091 (1987), which, according to Linscott, would have required a new trial. Despite the errors of overenthusiasm committed by the State in its presentation and summation of the case, the defendant has not shown that he was prejudiced. Absent demonstrable prejudice from prosecutorial misconduct, a due process violation fails and thus there is no reversible error. State v. Hoxsie, 101 N.M. 7, 10, 677 P.2d 620, 623 (1984). For the foregoing reasons, the verdict and judgment in the district court are AFFIRMED. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, concurs. STOWERS, J., concurs in result.
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. Plaintiff Minnie Reeves appeals from a judgment and order of the district court granting defendant James L. Wimberly’s motion to dismiss and motion for summary judgment. On appeal, Reeves raises the following issues: (1) whether sufficient privity exists between a lessor and a lessee to permit application of collateral estoppel to bar relitigation of the issue of a lease extension; and (2) whether Reeves’ complaint properly alleged a cause of action against Wimberly for conspiracy to defraud. We affirm. Reeves leased a trailer court and residential property located in Lincoln County from Ira J. Miller. By exercising certain lease options and entering into a series of supplemental letter agreements, Reeves extended the lease until September 30, 1985. Thereafter, a dispute arose between Reeves and Miller as to whether the parties agreed to extend the terms of the lease. Reeves claimed that Miller agreed to a two-year extension of the lease, so that the lease would finally expire in 1987. Reeves further alleged that, after the extension had been agreed upon, Wimberly approached her and agreed to purchase her leasehold interest in the land for $35,000. Reeves contends that despite this agreement, Wimberly and Miller met and agreed that Wimberly would lease the premises from Miller commencing October 1, 1985. Reeves asserts that the latter agreement was reached despite Miller’s prior agreement to extend Reeves’ lease until 1987, and in contravention of Wimberly’s agreement that he would purchase her leasehold interest. When Reeves’ lease expired in 1985, she refused to surrender the premises and Miller filed an action in forcible entry and unlawful detainer. Miller prevailed in that action; the district court found that negotiations between Miller and Reeves never culminated in an agreement to extend the lease to 1987. The • district court also awarded Miller damages and possession of the property. In April of 1986, Reeves filed suit in the present action against both Miller and Wimberly, alleging that they conspired to defraud her and that because she had relied upon their oral representations, she had not obtained a written extension of her lease. In response, both Miller and Wimberly filed motions to dismiss and for summary judgment. The district court granted Miller’s motion for summary judgment based on the defense of res judicata and collateral estoppel. Wimberly was granted summary judgment for the following reasons: Reeves’ asserted cause of action depended upon a factual determination that Miller agreed to a valid extension of the lease; the district court in the prior action determined that there had been no lease extension, and because Wimberly was in privity with Miller, collateral estoppel prevented relitigation of that issue. Alternatively, the district court determined that the complaint failed to state a claim upon which relief could be granted. APPLICATION OF COLLATERAL ESTOPPEL Reeves contends that the trial court erred in applying the doctrine of collateral estoppel. Collateral estoppel works to bar the relitigation of ultimate facts or issues actually and necessarily decided in the prior suit by a valid and final judgment. Torres v. Village of Capitan, 92 N.M. 64, 582 P.2d 1277 (1978); City of Santa Fe v. Velarde, 90 N.M. 444, 564 P.2d 1326 (1977). The purpose of collateral estoppel is to prevent endless relitigation of the same issues under the guise of different causes of action. Adams v. United Steelworkers of Am., 97 N.M. 369, 640 P.2d 475 (1982); Torres v. Village of Capitan. Traditionally, in order for collateral estoppel to exist, there must be two different causes of action in which an ultimate issue or fact actually and necessarily decided in the previous litigation is found to constitute a conclusive bar to the parties and their privies in the subsequent cause of action. Torres v. Village of Capitan; City of Santa Fe v. Velarde. The reason for requiring the same parties is the doctrine of mutuality. The doctrine of mutuality prevents a litigant from invoking the conclusive effect of a judgment unless he would have been bound in the event that the judgment had been decided adversely. Edwards v. First Federal Savings & Loan Ass’n, 102 N.M. 396, 696 P.2d 484 (Ct.App.1985). The doctrine of collateral estoppel or issue preclusion differs from res judicata. Torres v. Village of Capitan. Collateral estoppel applies to identical issues in two suits where the same parties or parties in privity are involved in both actions even though the subject matter in the second action differs from the first. Id. The doctrine of collateral estoppel, similar to res judicata, is a measure grounded upon enforcement of judicial economy and designed to bar relitigation of ultimate facts or issues actually and necessarily decided in a prior suit in which the decision is final. Silva v. State, 106 N.M. 472, 745 P.2d 380 (1987); International Paper Co. v. Farrar, 102 N.M. 739, 700 P.2d 642 (1985). In order to invoke collateral estoppel a party must establish the existence of four elements: (1) the parties are the same or in privity with the parties in the original action; (2) the subject matter or cause of action in the two suits are different; (3) the ultimate facts or issues were actually litigated; and (4) the issue was necessarily determined. International Paper Co. v. Farrar; Torres v. Village of Capitan. Reeves argues that Wimberly is not in privity with Miller and therefore should be precluded from asserting the bar of the prior judgment defensively against Reeves. Reeves relies on Montana v. United States, 440 U.S. 147, 99 S.Ct. 970, 59 L.Ed. 2d 210 (1979), which held that the United States was collaterally estopped from challenging a prior judgment against a contractor, in which the United States directed and financed the litigation, which had been brought by the contractor. Reeves’ reliance upon Montana is misplaced. The latter case is distinguishable both factually and legally from the instant case; nothing in Montana relates to the principal issue asserted herein, i.e., whether collateral estoppel may properly be asserted by a lessee of real estate against a plaintiff who originally engaged in litigation with the lessor involving the leasehold property or related issues. The issue of whether a lessee of realty has sufficient privity in order to assert the defense of collateral estoppel against a party who has previously litigated matters involving the right to possession of realty is a first impression issue in this jurisdiction. In Myers v. Olson, 100 N.M. 745, 676 P.2d 882 (1984), our supreme court held that a grantee in privity with a grantor of realty may assert the defense of res judicata involving a judgment in the grantor’s favor, provided the judgment had been rendered prior to the conveyance of the property. Similarly, we adopt the rule that a lessee is in privity with his lessor so as to entitle the lessee to raise the defense of collateral estoppel against the plaintiff if the lessee took possession of the leasehold property after the commencement of the first suit, and with actual or constructive notice of the pendency of the initial action. See Fisher v. Space of Pensacola, Inc., 461 So.2d 790 (Ala.1984); Weston v. King, 206 Ala. 574, 90 So. 802 (1921); Missouri Pac. R.R. v. McGuire, 205 Ark. 658, 169 S.W.2d 872 (1943); see also Krasner v. Reed, 33 Ala.App. 85, 30 So.2d 731 (1947). Our supreme court has adopted the modern view of mutuality, dispensing with the “same parties” requirement of collateral estoppel. In the case of Silva, the court held that: [T]he doctrine of defensive collateral estoppel may be applied when a defendant seeks to preclude a plaintiff from relitigating an issue the plaintiff has previously litigated and lost regardless of whether defendant was privy to the prior suit; and that the doctrine of offensive collateral estoppel may be applied when a plaintiff seeks to foreclose the defendant from litigating an issue the defendant has previously litigated unsuccessfully regardless of whether plaintiff was privy to the prior action. Id. 106 N.M. at 476, 745 P.2d at 384. Thus, the court eliminated the traditional rule that the parties must be the same or in privity if the doctrine of collateral estoppel is to apply. “In place of the traditional rule, New Mexico now applies the modern rule typified by Parklane Hosiery v. Shore [439 U.S. 322, 99 S.Ct. 645, 58 L.Ed.2d 552 (1979) ].” M.E. Occhialino, Walden’s Civil Procedure in New Mexico, Res Judicata and Collateral Estoppel at 12-40 (2d ed. 1988); Silva v. State. Collateral estoppel may now be used to preclude relitigation of an issue if the party against whom it is to be applied was a party or in privity with a party in the earlier suit and had a full and fair opportunity to litigate this issue in that earlier action. See Id. The party seeking application of the doctrine does not have to have been a party, or in privity with a party, to the previous action. A limitation on the use of offensive or defensive collateral estoppel exists, however, where the record is insufficient to determine what issues were actually and necessarily determined by the prior litigation. See Howell v. Anaya, 102 N.M. 583, 698 P.2d 453 (Ct.App.1985). Moreover, a further limitation exists where the party against whom collateral estoppel has been asserted has not been found to have had a full and fair opportunity to litigate the issue in the first action. Determination of whether a party has had a full and fair opportunity to litigate the issue is ordinarily left with the trial court which has the best opportunity to make such a decision. Silva v. State. Collateral estoppel should be applied only where the trial judge determines that its application would not be fundamentally unfair. The party against whom it is in voked must have had a full and fair opportunity to litigate the issue or issues. Silva v. State. The movant invoking collateral estoppel has the burden to introduce sufficient evidence for the court to rule whether the doctrine is applicable. Silva v. State; International Paper Co. v. Farrar. Once the movant has made a prima facie showing, the trial court must consider the countervailing equities that include, but are not limited to, prior incentive for vigorous defense, inconsistencies, procedural opportunities, and inconvenience of forum. Silva v. State. Based on Silva, the argument for the propriety of the assertion of the bar of collateral estoppel turns not on the determination of whether Wimberly was in privity with Miller, since Silva dispenses with the mutuality requirement, but instead on whether Reeves had a full and fair opportunity to litigate the issues of the lease extension. Further, the issues must have been determined by the prior litigation, and the prior decision must be final. See Edwards v. First Federal Savings & Loan Ass’n. In the prior action involving Reeves and Miller, the court found that the lease between Reeves and Miller was never extended beyond September 30, 1985. After the period of the claimed extension of the lease, Reeves asserted that she and Wimberly entered into an agreement wherein he would purchase her leasehold interest. Reeves contends that it was the lease extension, the agreement between herself and Wimberly, and the agreement between Wimberly and Reeves which demonstrated her contention that a conspiracy to defraud existed. Wimberly claimed that he was in privity with Miller regarding the lease and therefore, under the doctrine of collateral estoppel, Reeves was not entitled to relitigate the validity of the extension. The trial court, in dismissing Reeves’ action herein, considered the arguments, pleadings and the record in both the conspiracy to defraud cause and the earlier forcible entry and unlawful retainer cause. Under the record herein, Wimberly met his burden of introducing evidence to show that collateral estoppel was applicable. The elements required to state a cause of action for civil conspiracy are (1) a conspiracy existed; (2) wrongful act(s) were done pursuant to that conspiracy; and (3) damages resulted from the act(s). Las Luminarias of the New Mexico Council of the Blind v. Isengard, 92 N.M. 297, 587 P.2d 444 (Ct.App.1978). Civil conspiracy is not of itself actionable; the gist of the action is the damage arising from the act(s) done pursuant to the conspiracy. Id.; Barber’s Super Markets, Inc. v. Stryker, 84 N.M. 181, 500 P.2d 1304 (Ct.App.1972). Reeves’ complaint for civil conspiracy to defraud prays for damages of $35,000 for the loss she alleges she suffered because she could not sell the extended lease and for $150,000 in punitive damages for intentional, malicious, and wanton disregard of her property rights in that extension. Reeves’ claimed damages are based upon the validity of the lease extension. Thus, the issue of whether the lease was extended is common to both proceedings. We look next to the issue of whether Reeves had a full and fair opportunity to litigate the issue of the claimed lease extension to 1987. The trial court stated that the common subject matter of Reeves’ claim against Wimberly and Miller and her defense in the earlier forcible entry and unlawful detainer was the alleged extension of the lease to 1987. Reeves was a party to the earlier action wherein the court found that the lease was never extended beyond such time. In the present case, involving allegations of conspiracy to defraud, the court, in its order and judgment as to Wimberly, stated that it considered “the arguments, pleadings and the record in this cause and in cause number CV 85-366” (the earlier forcible entry and unlawful detainer cause). Because the only issue in the prior case was whether the lease had been extended, we hold that ample opportunity and incentive were afforded Reeves to fully litigate the issue. Although the record in the pri- or proceeding was presented to the trial court, it was not made part of the record in the appeal before this court. It is the burden of the appellant to bring up a record sufficient for review of the issues she raises on appeal. State v. Padilla, 95 N.M. 86, 619 P.2d 190 (Ct.App.1980). Since the transcript of proceedings from the earlier action in forcible entry and unlawful retainer is not before this court, we will resolve all inferences concerning the sufficiency of the evidence in favor of the trial court’s ruling in the instant case. See In re Skarda’s Will, 88 N.M. 130, 537 P.2d 1392 (1975). Upon a doubtful or deficient record, every presumption is indulged in favor of the correctness and regularity of the trial court’s decision, and the appellate court will indulge in reasonable presumptions in support of the order entered. Hort v. General Elec. Co., 92 N.M. 359, 588 P.2d 560 (Ct.App.1978). We also examine whether the issue of the lease extension was actually and necessarily determined by the prior action. The court in the earlier proceeding found that the lease was terminated on September 30, 1985, and was not extended beyond that date. This determination came after a trial on the merits. In the prior proceeding, the trial court expressly determined that Reeves did not have a valid leasehold interest in the property. Thus, the issue of lease extension was actually and necessarily determined in the prior litigation. After Wimberly presented a prima facie case indicating his right to rely upon the bar of collateral estoppel, the record supports the inference that the trial court considered the countervailing equities of the parties herein, including, but not limited to, prior incentive for vigorous defense, inconsistencies, procedural opportunities, and inconvenience of forum. Silva v. State. We find no error in the trial court’s determination of these issues. In both the prior action and the instant case, there was no issue as to inconvenience of the forum, since both suits were heard in the Lincoln County district court. In the first suit, for unlawful detainer and forcible entry, Reeves clearly had an incentive for vigorous defense, which was the prevention of the termination of her leasehold interest. Finally, the second action did not afford Reeves any procedural opportunities unavailable to her in the first action that could readily have caused a different result regarding the common issue of the lease extension. The mere addition of Wimberly as a party in the second suit did not provide Reeves with any procedural opportunities involving the issue concerning the alleged lease extension. The trial court was correct in its application of collateral estoppel as to the issue of whether the lease was extended. Because the claim brought by Reeves against Wimberly depends for its viability upon the validity of the extension, once the lease is determined not to have been extended, the claim for civil conspiracy to defraud must fail because there are no damages. The decision of the trial court is affirmed. Wimberly is awarded his costs on appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. ALARID and MINZNER, JJ., concur.
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OPINION GARCIA, Judge. Defendants, Public Service Company of New Mexico (PNM) and City of Las Vegas (City) took an interlocutory appeal from an order denying their motions for summary judgment and joint motion for reconsideration. We affirm. FACTS Plaintiff homeowner’s original complaint alleged that Mountain Bell of New Mexico and PNM were franchised by City to provide service to residents of City, and that with City’s knowledge and consent, Mountain Bell and PNM negligently maintained a utility pole at the outlet of a drainage ditch near plaintiff’s property. Plaintiff alleged that the utility pole blocked the drainage ditch preventing the run-off of rainwater and snowmelt, thereby causing the water to stand and seep into the ground, ultimately causing damage to plaintiff’s home. The complaint sought injunctive relief together with both compensation and punitive damages. Mountain Bell moved for and was granted summary judgment. It is not a party to this appeal. The trial court further dismissed the claims against City determining that plaintiff could only sue in accordance with provisions under the Tort Claims Act, NMSA 1978, Section 41-4-1 to -27 (Repl.Pamp. 1986). Subsequently, plaintiff was allowed to amend his complaint reiterating his claim against PNM but asserting only an inverse condemnation claim against City. Both PNM and City filed motions for summary judgment claiming that plaintiff’s cause of action was barred by the applicable statute of limitations. In support of their motions, PNM and City relied upon affidavits, portions of plaintiff’s deposition, and other information. The unchallenged facts are as follows. Plaintiff purchased his home in April 1970. A concrete drainage ditch, with eight inch high sides, is presently located along the south property line, and was there when plaintiff bought the property. A utility pole, installed in 1942, is located about one foot from the opening of the drainage ditch on plaintiff’s property. The utility pole has been maintained on an easement pursuant to a franchise agreement between PNM and City which allows PNM to use public streets and ways. Since as early as 1972 or 1973, plaintiff was aware that the land on the south side of his home was constantly damp. Subsequently, in 1979 or 1980, plaintiff noticed cracks in the south wall, through which he could see daylight. In 1980, plaintiff unsuccessfully attempted to caulk the cracks. That same year, plaintiff filed an insurance claim under his homeowner’s policy. At that time, plaintiff was informed that the damage to his home was not covered under the policy because the damage was due to water seepage. Thereafter, plaintiff hired professionals to repair the cracks. Plaintiff filed affidavits in opposition to the summary judgment motions and filed a portion of his deposition. These documents indicated that during the years 1982-1985, the cracks in the south wall of the house returned, increased in size and length, and extended around the corners of the south wall; that at least one cinder block had fallen out of the south wall; and that the south side of the house was sinking. The documents also indicated that the flow of water through the drainage ditch increased after certain street construction activities by the City and Mountain Bell, and that the damage to plaintiff’s property increased after heavy rainfalls and snows in 1982-1984. Plaintiff also claimed that the drainage ditch was clogged up. Accordingly, it is undisputed that plaintiff observed repeated dampness on the south side of his property as early as 1971 or 1972. It is further undisputed that plaintiff knew his house had suffered damage as a result of water seepage as early as 1979 or 1980. ISSUE ON APPEAL On interlocutory appeal, defendant argues that although plaintiff’s property may be suffering from recurring injuries, his cause of action is time-barred. Accordingly, we must determine whether the applicable statutes of limitations, specifically NMSA 1978, Section 37-1-4 and NMSA 1978, Section 42A-1-31(B) (Repl.Pamp. 1981), allow a cause of action to accrue with every new injury or whether plaintiff's complaint is barred. The limitations issue is one of first impression. We note that while City’s brief-in-chief addresses only this issue, PNM’s brief-in-chief and plaintiff’s answer brief raise other grounds for resolving this appeal. Most of PNM’s additional grounds were included in its memorandum brief in support of its motion for summary judgment. None of these additional grounds, however, were presented to the trial court; nor were they included in PNM’s motion for summary judgment or in its application for interlocutory appeal. Thus, we will not consider them. SUMMARY JUDGMENT Summary judgment is proper only when there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Westgate Families v. County Clerk of Los Alamos, 100 N.M. 146, 667 P.2d 453 (1983); see SCRA 1986, 1-056; Goodman v. Brock, 83 N.M. 789, 498 P.2d 676 (1972). Summary judgment, however, is a drastic remedy which should only be used with great caution. Cunningham v. Gross, 102 N.M. 723, 699 P.2d 1075 (1985). Accordingly, a reviewing court looks to the whole record and views matters in the light most favorable to support a trial on the merits. North v. Public Serv. Co. of N.M., 97 N.M. 406, 640 P.2d 512 (Ct.App.1982). When the facts are undisputed, however, as here, the question of whether a statute of limitations bars a complaint is one of law. See Garza v. W.A. Jourdan, Inc., 91 N.M. 268, 572 P.2d 1276 (Ct.App.1977). In support of its argument that the present suit is barred by the statute of limitations, PNM relies on Mayer v. Lane, 33 N.M. 18, 262 P. 178 (1927) and Sanchez v. Atchison, T. & S.F. Ry., 33 N.M. 240, 264 P. 960 (1928). Both Mayer and Sanchez, however, are distinguishable. In Mayer, plaintiff’s mine caved in and, after the applicable four-year statute of limitations ran, plaintiff sued his co-tenants alleging that the cave-in and resulting damage were due to their negligence. In answer, the co-tenants moved to dismiss arguing the suit was barred since the cause of action accrued when plaintiff first discovered the cave-in. Plaintiff maintained, however, that he did not realize the full extent of the property damage until months after the cave-in and, thus, his complaint was timely filed from that later point. The trial court dismissed and the supreme court affirmed, holding that plaintiff could have ascertained the full extent of the injury shortly after the cave-in and the statute of limitations accrued at that time. Mayer, much like the case at bar, concerns the accrual of the statute of limitations for injury to land. Mayer, however, involved but a single injury while plaintiff here alleges that his property is suffering from recurring injuries. Thus, Mayer is inapplicable. Similarly, PNM’s reliance on Sanchez is misplaced. In Sanchez, defendant built an embankment on his property in 1907 which obstructed the natural water flow from plaintiffs adjoining land causing plaintiffs property to become submerged in 1921. Plaintiff brought suit in 1923. Defendant argued that plaintiffs cause of action accrued at the time the embankment was constructed and, thus, plaintiffs suit was barred by the statute of limitations. The supreme court disagreed holding that: “when the injury * * * is not complete so that the damages can be measured at the time of the creation of the nuisance in one action but depends upon its continuance and the uncertain operation of the seasons, or of the forces set in motion by it, the statute will not begin to run until actual damage has resulted therefrom.” Id. at 243, 264 P. at 961 (quoting Howard County v. Chicago & A.R. Co., 130 Mo. 652, 32 S.W. 651 (1895)). Sanchez supports plaintiffs position that the statute of limitations, here, accrues not when the nuisance is constructed but, rather, when the nuisance has caused actual harm to plaintiffs property. Sanchez does not address the present issue of recurring injury, however, and thus is of no help to PNM. In further support, PNM asserts that actions for medical malpractice, personal injury, and negligence in drafting and supervising the execution of a will accrue from the time of the injury or the discovery thereof and, thus, the same rule should apply here. See Crumpton v. Humana, Inc., 99 N.M. 562, 661 P.2d 54 (1983); Jaramillo v. Hood, 93 N.M. 433, 601 P.2d 66 (1979); New Mexico Elec. Serv. Co. v. Montanez, 89 N.M. 278, 551 P.2d 634 (1976); Peralta v. Martinez, 90 N.M. 391, 564 P.2d 194 (Ct.App.1977). As in Sanchez, however, none of these cases concern recurring injuries and, thus, are inapplicable. Some courts have held that where the injury from a recurring overflow of water becomes permanent, the statute of limitations accrues, for further injuries, at the point the injury becomes permanent. See Annot., When Statute of Limitation Commences to Run Against Damage From Overflow of Land Caused by Artificial Construction or Obstruction, 5 A.L.R.2d 302, 372 (1949). The general rule, however, is that where a structure or nuisance is such that its construction and continuance are not necessarily injurious, damages may be awarded for successive injuries, and a new statute of limitations begins to run from the date of each injury. See 54 C.J.S. Limitation of Actions § 178 (1987); see also Annot. 5 A.L.R.2d, supra at 378 (cases holding that the limitation period in overflow cases run from each overflow). Courts have also distinguished between a permanent or temporary structure or nuisance. See 54 C.J.S., supra. A permanent structure or nuisance is one that may not be readily remedied, removed or abated at a reasonable expense, or one of a durable character evidently intended to last indefinitely, costing as much to alter as to build. See Id. In Sanchez, the court recognized St. Louis, I.M. & S. Ry. v. Biggs, 52 Ark. 540, 12 S.W. 331 (1889), as one of the seminal cases on recurring injuries. In Biggs, plaintiff sued defendant railroad for damages resulting from the overflow of water onto plaintiff’s land due to the defective construction of the railroad. Defendant claimed that the cause of action should have accrued from the date of the railroad’s construction. The court disagreed: Whenever the nuisance is of permanent character, and its construction and continuance are necessarily an injury, the damage is original, and may be at once fully compensated. In such case the statute of limitations begins to run upon the construction of the nuisance. But when such structure is permanent in its character, and its construction and continuance are not necessarily injurious, but may or may not be so, the injury to be compensated in a suit is only the damage which has happened, and there may be as many successive recoveries as there are successive injuries. In such case the statute of limitations begins to run from the happening of the injury complained of. Id. at 540, 12 S.W. at 331 (citations omitted). We view the rule in Biggs to be applicable here. See Consolidated Chem. Indus., Inc. v. White, 227 Ark. 177, 297 S.W.2d 101 (1957); City of Tucson v. Apache Motors, et al., 74 Ariz. 98, 245 P.2d 255 (1952); Phillips v. City of Pasadena, 27 Cal.2d 104, 162 P.2d 625 (1945). Plaintiff alleges that the utility pole here is a permanent structure which is not per se injurious, but becomes so with excessive rain or snow. As such, the nuisance is temporary. See 54 C.J.S., supra. We believe the utility pole here could probably be easily removed at a reasonable expense, and is, therefore, a temporary structure. In either case, successive actions may be brought because each new injury allows a new cause of action to accrue. See id: In line with these cases, the appropriate rule is that successive recoveries should be allowed following each injury, where the improvement is negligently constructed and the damage to plaintiff’s property could not be reasonably calculated at the time of the completion of the construction thereof. PNM has cited several cases in support of a different result. See, e.g., Greene v. Green Acres Constr. Co., 36 Colo.App. 439, 543 P.2d 108 (1975); Denora v. Fischer Eng’g & Maintenance Co., 55 Or.App. 448, 638 P.2d 490 (1982); Leggieri v. Township of Haverford, 98 Pa.Commw. 646, 511 A.2d 955 (1986). These cases, however, are distinguishable since the nuisance, here, is abatable; the injuries are recurring; the extent of the damages were not necessarily ascertainable when plaintiff purchased the property; and the nuisance is not necessarily injurious. See Sanchez v. Atchison, T & S.F. Ry.; Consolidated Chem. Indus., Inc. v. White; City of Tucson v. Apache Motors; Phillips v. City of Pasadena. Based on these authorities and the facts alleged, we hold that Section 37-1-4 allows a separate cause of action to accrue with each new injury to plaintiff’s property. Accordingly, the trial court correctly denied PNM’s summary judgment motion. ACCRUAL OF SECTION 42A-1-31(B) In inverse condemnation cases, courts have used traditional common-law rules with regard to when the cause of action accrues. See Bellman v. County of Contra Costa, 54 Cal.2d 363, 5 Cal.Rptr. 692, 353 P.2d 300 (1960); Amador Valley Investors v. City of Livermore, 43 Cal.App.3d 483, 117 Cal.Rptr. 749 (1974); Beer v. Minnesota Power & Light Co., 400 N.W.2d 732 (Minn.1987). In Bellman, plaintiff’s hillside tract of land bordered upon a county road which the county widened by excavating into the hillside near plaintiff’s property, thereby removing the lateral and subjacent support for plaintiff's land. Thereafter, substantial quantities of earth from plaintiff’s property slid onto the widened road, and further slippage continued through the time of trial. In determining when the statute of limitations accrued, the court adopted the traditional rule that, for the accrual of plaintiff’s inverse condemnation action, a new and separate cause of action arises with each new subsidence. In arguing against plaintiff’s theory of accrual, City, like PNM, relies on Mayer v. Lane and Sanchez v. Atchison, T. & S.F. Ry. We have determined, however, that just as neither case applied to PNM’s argument, they are likewise inapplicable here. We further find City’s reliance on cases from other jurisdictions to be unpersuasive; they are distinguishable on their facts from the instant case. See, e.g., Whitehouse v. Town of Sherborn, 11 Mass.App. 668, 419 N.E.2d 293 (1981); Hart v. City of Detroit, 416 Mich. 488, 331 N.W.2d 438 (1982); Prendergast v. Northern Va. Regional Park Auth., 227 Va. 190, 313 S.E.2d 399 (1984). Moreover, City’s reliance upon several non-inverse condemnation cases are also distinguishable from the instant case and, thus, likewise, unpersuasive. Accordingly, the trial court properly denied City’s summary judgment motion. CONCLUSION We affirm the trial court’s denial of both motions for summary judgment. IT IS SO ORDERED. ALARID and FRUMAN, JJ., concur.
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OPINION BLACK, Judge. On April 14, 1993, Tina Fernandez (“Plaintiff”) sued The Caravan East Nite Club, Inc. (“Caravan”), advancing one count of negligence and one count of strict liability in tort. Plaintiff alleged that she had been served a drink that contained pieces of glass at the Caravan East Nightclub (“the nightclub”) on April 20, 1990. Caravan had, however, sold its interest in the nightclub in 1972. Char-Li-Jon, Inc. (“CLJ”) was the owner of the nightclub at the time of the alleged injury. CLJ received a copy of the complaint on June 14, 1993. On August 9, 1993, Plaintiff filed an amended complaint naming CLJ and adding two counts of breach of warranty. CLJ moved to dismiss on the ground that the appropriate statute of limitations had run before it received notice or was named a defendant. The district court granted the motion. We affirm the dismissal of the negligence and strict liability counts but reverse on the warranty counts. I. STANDARD OF REVIEW A complaint is subject to dismissal if it does not allege facts which could entitle the plaintiff to relief. SCRA 1986, 1-012(B)(6) (Repl.1992) (“Rule 12”); Rummel v. Edgemont Realty Partners, Ltd., 116 N.M. 23, 25, 859 P.2d 491, 493 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 115 N.M. 709, 858 P.2d 85 (1993). Rule 12 dismissal is a remedy not often justified. See Rummel, 116 N.M. at 25, 859 P.2d at 493. In reviewing a dismissal under Rule 12, we will accept as true all facts properly pleaded. Id. II. BACKGROUND The original summons was issued in the name of Caravan. Vonlo, Inc. was the registered owner of the nightclub at the time the original suit was filed and was served in May 1993. On May 26, 1993, Plaintiff applied to the court for an alias summons pursuant to SCRA 1986, 1-004(K) (Repl.1992). CLJ received the alias summons by mail on June 14, 1993. On August 9, 1993, more than three, but less than four years after the incident, Plaintiff filed an amended complaint first naming CLJ as an additional defendant. The new complaint also added claims for breach of the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. III. TORT CLAIMS A. Statute of Limitations Plaintiff alleged her injury occurred on April 20, 1990. She filed her lawsuit on April 14, 1993, but did not serve CLJ until June 14, 1993. She did not serve CLJ with a complaint that named CLJ as a defendant until September 27, 1993. In addition to the warranty claims, both Plaintiffs original complaint and her amended complaint contained one count sounding in negligence and another based upon strict liability. An action seeking recovery for personal injury as a result of a defendant’s alleged negligence is governed by the three-year period of limitation contained in NMSA 1978, Section 37-1-8 (Repl.Pamp.1990). See New Mexico Elec. Serv. Co. v. Montanez, 89 N.M. 278, 281, 551 P.2d 634, 637 (1976) (citing the predecessor to Section 37-1-8). An action seeking recovery for personal injury under strict liability is governed by the same three-year statute of limitations. See Bassham v. Owens-Corning Fiber Glass Corp., 327 F.Supp. 1007, 1008 (D.N.M.1971) (citing the predecessor to Section 37-1-8). Plaintiff did not name or serve CLJ as a defendant in this action until more than three years had passed. The counts seeking to recover for Plaintiffs personal injuries based on strict liability and CLJ’s alleged negligence are therefore barred by Section 37-1-8. B. Relation Back Plaintiff argues that the amended complaint against CLJ “related back” to the date of filing the original complaint and thus complied with Section 37-1-8. Plaintiff’s “relation back” argument is premised on SCRA 1986, 1-015(C) (Repl.1992) (“Rule 15”), which provides: Whenever the claim or defense asserted in the amended pleading arose out of the conduct, transaction or occurrence set forth or attempted to be set forth in the original pleading, the amendment relates back to the date of the original pleading. An amendment changing the party against whom a claim is asserted relates back if the foregoing provision is satisfied and, within the period provided by law for commencing the action against him, the party to be brought in by amendment: (1) has received such notice of the institution of the action that he will not be prejudiced in maintaining his defense on the merits; and (2) knew or should have known that, but for a mistake concerning the identity of the proper party, the action would have been brought against him. The notice requirements of Rule 15 protect a defendant’s right to invoke the statute of limitations. Romero v. Ole Tires, Inc., 101 N.M. 759, 762, 688 P.2d 1263, 1266 (Ct.App.1984). Absent such notice a defendant is entitled to assume that, if it is not joined ‘ prior to the limitations period, the statutory limit will serve as a bar to a plaintiffs claim. Id. at 763, 688 P.2d at 1267. Plaintiff does not contend she provided CLJ notice of her suit within the three years mandated by Section 37-1-8, or that there is any corporate affiliation between CLJ and either Caravan , or Vonlo. Rather, she argues that because each of these latter corporate entities had notice of the suit within the three-year statute of limitations, these “successive corporations owning the same business have an ‘identity of interest’ ” under Rule 15. Galion v. Conmaco Int’l., Inc., 99 N.M. 403, 658 P.2d 1130 (1983) (parent and its subsidiary have .“identity of interest”). Since the federal version of Rule 15 in effect from 1966 to 1991 was virtually identical to the language of our rule, see 3 James W. Moore & Richard D. Freer, Moore’s Federal Practice ¶ 15.01[8] (2d ed. 1994), we will consider pre-1991 federal precedent in evaluating Plaintiffs argument, see Albuquerque Nat’l Bank v. Clifford Indus., Inc., 91 N.M. 178, 180-81, 571 P.2d 1181, 1183-84 (1977) (federal law and commentaries on the law are most helpful in considering meaning of New Mexico rule patterned on federal rule). The identity of interest test has been interpreted to require the parties to be “so closely related in their business operations or other activities that the institution of an action against one serves to provide notice of the litigation to the other.” 6A Charles A. Wright et al., Federal Practice and Procedure § 1499, at 146 (2d ed. 1990). For example, in Slack v. Treadway Inn, 388 F.Supp. 15, 18-19 (M.D.Pa.1974), the court found that a successor in interest in the operation of a lodge was “entirely different” from and independent of its predecessor, and therefore relation back under the federal counterpart to Rule 15 was improper. CLJ is not affiliated with or related to either Caravan or Vonlo. Therefore, CLJ did not have an “identity of interest” with either Caravan or Vonlo, and Plaintiff is not entitled to relation back under Rule 15. IV. WARRANTY CLAIMS Plaintiff argues that, even if her tort claims are barred, her warranty claims are governed by the four-year statute of limitations found in NMSA 1978, Section 55-2-725 (Repl.Pamp.1993), and her warranty claims are not barred. CLJ, on the other hand, argues that Plaintiffs cause of action is basically one for personal injury, and the three-year limit of Section 37-1-8 should control. Courts have struggled with whether the personal injury statute of limitations or the Uniform Commercial Code statute of limitations applies in an action for personal injury which could be predicated on either strict liability or breach of an implied warranty. See Andrea G. Nadel, Annotation, What Statute of Limitations Applies to Actions for Personal Injuries Based on Breach of Implied Warranty Under UCC Provisions Governing Sales (UCC § 2-725(1)), 20 A.L.R.4th 915 (1983); cf. Chavez v. Kitsch, 70 N.M. 439, 444, 374 P.2d 497, 500 (1962) (in action filed prior to adoption of the UCC, the Supreme Court applied three-year personal injury limitations period, even though plaintiff had pled warranty claims, because action was in essence one for personal injury). Various courts have advanced different rationales to support the adoption of either the tort or the UCC limitation period in different factual settings. See 5 Ronald A. Anderson, Anderson on the Uniform Commercial Code §§ 2-725:91 and 2-725:92, at 260-63 (3d ed. 1994 rev.); see also Taylor v. Ford Motor Co., 185 W.Va. 518, 408 S.E.2d 270, 272 (1991) (at least three lines of authority on this question). Several jurisdictions even appear to retain two or more, arguably conflicting, lines of precedent on this issue. See Nadel, supra, at 934-40. Fortunately, we do not need to enunciate a universal rule. We need only determine which limitation period applies to the present case. CLJ argues that an on-the-premises sale of an alcoholic beverage is not a sale of goods governed by the UCC. CLJ extends this argument by denying that it had a buyer/seller relationship with Plaintiff as required by the UCC. This argument, however, is directly refuted by the language of NMSA 1978, Section 55-2-314(1) (Repl. Pamp.1993), which provides: Unless excluded or modified (Section 2-316 [55-2-316 NMSA 1978]), a warranty that the goods shall be merchantable is implied in a contract for their sale if the seller is a merchant with respect to goods of that kind. Under this section the serving for value of food or drink to be consumed either on the premises or elsewhere is a sale. (Emphasis added.) Section 55-2-314 clearly applies to the fact situation alleged by Plaintiff. See, e.g., Levondosky v. Marina Assocs., 731 F.Supp. 1210, 1212 (D.N.J.1990); cf. Shaffer v. Victoria Station, Inc., 91 Wash.2d 295, 588 P.2d 233, 234 (1978) (en banc). Chapter 37 of the New Mexico Statutes Annotated, where the tort statute of limitations, § 37-1-8, is codified, begins with the admonition that the statutes of limitations in that chapter apply “except when otherwise specially provided.” NMSA 1978, § 37-1-1 (Repl.Pamp.1993). Section 55-2-725 is just such a “special provision”. Since the provisions of Section 55-2-314 specifically apply to the sale of drink to be consumed on the premises, the “special provision” of the companion statute of limitations, Section 55-2-725, governs claims arising from such sales. It follows that the UCC statute of limitations designed specifically for sales transactions should apply rather than the more general statute for personal injuries. See, e.g., Saraniero v. Safeway, Inc., 540 F.Supp. 749, 752 (D.Kan.1982) (mem.) (UCC 2-725 limitation period applies when customer injured by drink container); cf. State v. Hollenbeck, 112 N.M. 275, 277, 814 P.2d 143, 145 (Ct.App.1991) (“[W]here there are general laws and special laws, the special laws control.”). The limitation period for sales is four years, and Plaintiffs warranty claims were filed against CLJ within that period. V. CONCLUSION The three-year limitation period for personal injuries bars Plaintiffs tort claims against CLJ. Since CLJ did not receive notice of the claim within the three years and CLJ had no “identity of interest” with the other corporations which operated the nightclub, Plaintiffs subsequent claim against CLJ did not relate back to the filing of the original complaint. The district court’s dismissal of the negligence and strict liability claims is affirmed. The district court, however, erred in dismissing Plaintiffs warranty claims. The Plaintiffs warranty claims clearly derived from a sale of “drink to be consumed either on the premises or elsewhere,” so the UCC limitation period for sales, four years under Section 55-2-725, applies. The district court is directed to reinstate the warranty counts of Plaintiffs complaint. IT IS SO ORDERED. MINZNER, C.J., and HARTZ, J., concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. The opinion filed on February 28, 1985 is hereby withdrawn and the following substituted therefor. Defendant appeals from an adverse judgment awarding plaintiff total permanent disability in a worker’s compensation case. It raises two issues: (1) the trial court erred in finding plaintiff totally disabled when defendant had available jobs which plaintiff could perform; and (2) the trial court erred in finding plaintiff’s disability attributable to his employment. Both issues turn on whether substantial evidence exists to support the trial court’s findings. Holding that it does, we affirm. Plaintiff cross-appeals claiming the trial court abused its discretion in awarding plaintiff grossly inadequate attorney fees. Because the trial court failed to make specific findings, we remand on this issue. The substantive issues presented by defendant’s appeal do not raise new issues or add to existing law; however, we take this opportunity to discuss the need for detailed findings in fixing attorney fees in worker’s compensation cases, to voice concerns as to the efficacy of the present rules concerning attorney fee determinations, and to consider procedural defects in this appeal which substantially affected this court’s ability to dispose of this case with dispatch. Background. (a) We first summarize the relevant findings made by the trial court. Plaintiff suffered an accidental injury to his lower back on December 4, 1980, while working for defendant as a toplander (one who works above the ground and assists miners). The trial court found the injuries consisted of a lumbosacral strain which aggravated a preexisting arthritic condition. Since the accidental injury plaintiff has not been gainfully employed. As a result of the accidental injury resulting in severe trauma to the lumbosacral spine and aggravation of the preexisting arthritic condition, plaintiff is wholly unable to perform the usual tasks of the work he was performing at the time of his injury, and wholly unable to perform any other work for which he is fitted by age, education, training, general physical and mental capacity, and previous work experience. The trial court awarded plaintiff $8,700 attorney fees. (b) The accidental injury giving rise to this action occurred on December 4, 1980. The trial was held on May 27, 1982, but judgment was not entered until December 16, 1983, almost nineteen months following trial and more than three years from the date of injury. A decision containing the trial court’s findings and conclusion was filed on February 25, 1983 and amended on March 8, 1983. The remainder of the nineteen months was devoted to resolving the attorney fee issue. Standard of review. In reviewing the findings of fact of a trial court in a worker’s compensation proceeding, this court is subject to the rule that such findings shall not be disturbed if supported by substantial evidence. Lyon v. Catron County Commissioners, 81 N.M. 120, 464 P.2d 410 (Ct.App.1969), cert. denied, 81 N.M. 140, 464 P.2d 559 (1970); Cardenas v. United Nuclear Homestake Partners, 97 N.M. 46, 636 P.2d 317 (Ct. App.1981). Substantial evidence is relevant evidence that a reasonable mind might accept as adequate to support a conclusion. Tapia v. Panhandle Steel Erectors Co., 78 N.M. 86, 428 P.2d 625 (1967). This court is bound to view the evidence in the light most favorable to support the trial court’s findings, Mirabal v. Robert E. McKee, General Contractor, Inc., 77 N.M. 213, 421 P.2d 127 (1966), and to disregard all evidence unfavorable to that finding, Duran v. New Jersey Zinc Co., 83 N.M. 38, 487 P.2d 1343 (1971). It is for the trier of fact to weigh the testimony, determine the credibility of the witnesses, reconcile inconsistent statements of the witnesses, and determine where the truth lies. Montano v. Saavedra, 70 N.M. 332, 373 P.2d 824 (1962). The appellate court may not reweigh the evidence, id., nor substitute its judgment for that of the trier of fact. Ideal Basic Industries, Inc. v. Evans, 91 N.M. 460, 575 P.2d 1345 (1978). It is then through this small aperture called appellate review that we examine the evidence. DEFENDANT’S APPEAL 1. Whether the trial court erred in finding the plaintiff totally and permanently disabled. * The statutory definition of “total disability” provides for a two-pronged test, both of which must be proved by the plaintiff at trial: (1) complete inability to perform the usual tasks in the work he was performing at the time of the injury; and (2) absolute inability to perform any work for which he is fitted by age, education, training, general physical and mental capacity, and previous work experience. NMSA 1978, § 52-1-24. Quintana v. Trotz Construction Co., 79 N.M. 109, 440 P.2d 301 (1968). The burden of proving disability is on the plaintiff, but after plaintiff has introduced evidence as to his age, education, training, general physical and mental capacity, and previous work experience, the burden of coming forward and proving the employability of the plaintiff for a particular job rests with the defendant. Brown v. Safeway Stores, Inc., 82 N.M. 424, 483 P.2d 305 (Ct.App.1970). In the instant case, plaintiff testified that he was unable to perform the usual tasks of a toplander and janitor at defendant’s mine due to the constant pain he was experiencing as a result of the accidental injury he sustained on December 4, 1980. Dr. Kosicki, plaintiff’s medical expert, testified that, as a result of the accidental injury, plaintiff was totally disabled from doing the type of work he was required to do at the time of the injury. Defendant’s safety manager admitted that the usual tasks of a toplander included strenuous duties. Dr. Valdivia, a physician and surgeon called by defendant, while testifying that plaintiff could have performed “medium duty” labor subsequent to December 4, admitted that plaintiff could not perform the usual tasks of a toplander if such a position “implies a lot of heavy bending and lifting.” Based on the. foregoing testimony, plaintiff met his burden of proving the first prong of the “total disability” test. Section 52-1-24; Quintana; Brown. The plaintiff also testified that he had a seventh grade education, a limited understanding of the written English language, although he had never been employed in a position that required reading or writing. He had limited training as a “cabinet maker” some forty years ago, but had never worked in that position. Plaintiff testified that his entire work history and experience involved heavy manual labor, that he never performed exclusively light duty labor at the defendant’s mine, that he was not familiar with any such positions at defendant’s mine for which he was qualified, and further that he was never offered light duty at defendant’s mine after his accidental injury. On cross-examination, plaintiff admitted that he had performed the duties of a lampman for defendant, acknowledged that it was one of the “easier” jobs available, but nevertheless contended that it was not so easy for a person (such as himself) who “cannot bend over.” Plaintiff also admitted that he “guessed” that he could read gauges and turn valves, although he denied that he could perform other light duty jobs for defendant due to his physical limitations and pain, or that he had performed any type of household tasks since December 4, 1981. Finally, plaintiff testified that he had not done “any work at all” since that date. Dr. Kosicki testified that plaintiff was totally and permanently disabled from doing the type of heavy physical labor for which he was fitted by previous experience and work history, and that plaintiff’s condition rendered him unable to perform any tasks that required “repetitive stooping, squatting, lifting anything over ten or fifteen pounds”. On cross-examination, Dr. Kosicki stated that plaintiff could not turn valves as it required twisting of the back, although he did admit that plaintiff could push or pull a knob, if hydraulically activated. Dr. Valdivia, on the other hand, testified that plaintiff could return to work for defendant and adequately perform several light duty tasks. However, Dr. Valdivia admitted that plaintiff could experience pain even doing the least strenuous of tasks, and that he was unaware of any actual light duty positions available for plaintiff at the mine. Mr. Souther, safety manager for defendant, testified that there were four light duty positions available at the mine for which plaintiff was qualified by education, training, and experience; however, Mr. Souther admitted that each position would require some additional training, and that nothing in plaintiff’s work history indicated plaintiff had any experience in the alternative positions. Finally, Mr. Souther admitted that every such position actually required an assortment of various duties, including many that were physically strenuous, although he contended that the defendant would tailor any position to the physical limitations of an injured or handicapped employee. Mr. Souther also admitted that, to his knowledge, no employee of the mine actually contacted plaintiff with an offer of a light-duty position tailored to his physical limitations and previous experience. Based on the foregoing testimony, plaintiff met his burden of proving the second part of the test, Section 52-1-24 with substantial evidence. Defendant, while presenting some evidence to the contrary, did not convince the trial court that plaintiff was fitted for any other work, or that such work was actually made available to plaintiff. The burden was on defendant to do so. Brown. Mr. Souther testified as to defendant’s policy of accommodating injured workers by providing jobs they could handle. We commended this policy in Ulibarri v. Homestake Mining Co., 97 N.M. 734, 643 P.2d 298 (Ct.App.1982) as complying with the spirit of the Workmen’s Compensation Act. We do so here. Had defendant actually attempted to provide rehabilitation through therapy and job retraining, the result reached by the trial court might have been different. A review of the file discloses no attempt by either side to pursue rehabilitation. NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-50 (Cum.Supp.1984) is mandatory in that an employee shall be entitled to such vocational rehabilitation services as may be necessary to restore him to suitable employment. Ruiz v. City of Albuquerque, 91 N.M. 526, 577 P.2d 424 (Ct.App.1978). The trial court may order a worker to submit to vocational evaluation at the cost and expense of the employer, but the ultimate decision to undertake vocational rehabilitation as may be ordered rests with the worker. Aranda v. D.A. & S. Oil Well Servicing, Inc., 98 N.M. 217, 647 P.2d 419 (Ct.App.1982). The trial court did not order vocational evaluation or vocational rehabilitation. We do not know if plaintiff was even a candidate for such. Therefore, we are left with conflicting evidence and doubt as to whether or not plaintiff could perform any of the jobs that Mr. Souther said were available. It was for the trial court to resolve the conflicts in the testimony and determine where the truth lies. Montano; Perez. This court may not reweigh the testimony or substitute its judgment for that of the trial court, so long as it is supported by substantial evidence. Defendant relies on Medina v. Zia Co., 88 N.M. 615, 544 P.2d 1180 (Ct.App.1975) to support the argument that plaintiff was capable of performing light manual labor. Defendant overlooks the fact that the finding in Medina was upheld based on substantial evidence. Although the trial court reached a contrary result here, we must uphold it because substantial evidence supports that result. Therefore, this court affirms the trial court’s finding that plaintiff is totally disabled within the meaning of the Act. 2. Whether trial court erred in finding that the plaintiffs present physical disability arose out of and in the course of his employment with the defendant. Defendant contends that because plaintiff was suffering from a degenerative lower back condition at the time of the accidental injury, and without which he would not have the present disability, that disability did not arise out of his employment. A worker is entitled to compensation where an injury was incurred by the worker and disability resulted therefrom, although the worker was suffering from a preexisting disease, absent which there would have been no disability. Reynolds v. Ruidoso Racing Association, 69 N.M. 248, 365 P.2d 671 (1961); Webb v. New Mexico Publishing Co., 47 N.M. 279, 141 P.2d 333 (1943); accord. Herndon v. Albuquerque Public Schools, 92 N.M. 635, 593 P.2d 470 (Ct.App.1978). Where there is a direct relationship or causal connection between the accidental injury and the resulting disability, the worker is entitled to compensation to the full extent of the disability even though attributable in part to a preexisting condition. Reynolds; Moorhead v. Gray Ranch Co., 90 N.M. 220, 561 P.2d 493 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 254, 561 P.2d 1347 (1977). In the instant case, plaintiff adequately met his burden of proving that his disability resulted from an accidental injury arising out of, and in the course of his employment with defendant. Plaintiff testified that he felt a sharp pain in his back when he attempted to lift a heavy metal door in order to load supplies in a “cage,” a task that was within the scope of his duties as toplander, and one which he had performed on numerous occasions without incident prior to December 4,1980. Defendant did not challenge any of these contentions. Dr. Kosicki testified that, to a reasonable medical probability, plaintiff strained his back as a result of the injury sustained by him on December 4, 1980, thereby increasing his physical disability. It is inconsequential that plaintiff suffered from a preexisting osteoarthritic spinal condition that contributed to plaintiff’s total disability, Reynolds; Moorhead, so long as plaintiff had been satisfactorily performing his duties as a toplander before the accidental injury. Reynolds; Ortega v. New Mexico State Highway Department, 77 N.M. 185, 420 P.2d 771 (1966). Defendant relies on Tafoya v. Kermac Nuclear Fuels, Corp., 71 N.M. 157, 376 P.2d 576 (1962). While an opposite result was reached by the trial court in that case, it was upheld because substantial evidence supported the result. The same holds true here. Accordingly, the trial court’s findings of fact are supported by substantial evidence and will not be disturbed on appeal. “Rarely should an appeal be taken by a workman or employer based upon a lack of substantial evidence to support the findings.” Perez v. International Minerals & Chemical Corp., 95 N.M. 628, 633, 624 P.2d 1025 (Ct.App.1981). PLAINTIFF’S CROSS-APPEAL Plaintiff challenges the attorney fee award, claiming the trial court abused its discretion by misapplying the “Fryar factors” and awarding inadequate fees to plaintiff. Fryar v. Johnsen, 93 N.M. 485, 601 P.2d 718 (1979) sets forth the factors the trial court should consider in fixing reasonable attorney fees in a worker’s compensation case. Plaintiff claims the trial court “bla tantly misapplied” the Fryar test, referring us to the findings and conclusions entered and the order awarding plaintiff $8,700 as a fair fee. While the trial court did not set out each Fryar factor, its conclusion number 2 reflects consideration of those factors, and its reference to plaintiffs affidavits, which included all of the factors, indicates they were considered. Aguilar v. Penasco Independent School District No. 6, 100 N.M. 625, 674 P.2d 515 (1984) provides that the trial court not only set out the factors, but indicate how each was considered. Compare Jennings v. Gabaldon, 97 N.M. 416, 640 P.2d 522 (Ct.App.1982), which suggests the trial court must make a finding as to each Fryar factor with Morgan v. Public Service Co. of New Mexico, 98 N.M. 775, 652 P.2d 1226 (Ct.App.1982) which holds that the trial court not be required to make a finding on a factor for which there is no evidentiary support. The holdings are in conflict and can only lead to confusion. Fryar v. Johnsen can certainly be read to require specific findings as to each factor, or even the factors as to which there is evidentiary support. In no other instance of which we are aware does the trial court have to make a specific finding as to an evidentiary factor and explain how it was considered and correlate that fact with others. Trial courts are required only to make only such ultimate findings of fact as necessary to support its decision. State ex rel. State Highway Commission v. Pelletier, 76 N.M. 555, 417 P.2d 46 (1966). Ultimate findings of fact on attorney fees should be sufficient once it is shown that evidence exists to establish the essential Fryar factors and that the trial court did in fact consider them. Why should a district court judge, learned in the law and experienced in trial matters, have to explain each factor in his or her mental decision-making process as to a simple matter like attorney fees, when we do not require the same of lay jurors who wrestle with complex issues that affect life and property? If we can trust jurors with a general verdict, surely we ought to trust trial judges to be able to reach an informed decision as to attorney fees without requiring them to write an “essay.” We do not make that requirement in other cases involving attorney fees, such as domestic relations cases. The record here reflects that the trial court did consider the “Fryar factors” as carefully set out in the affidavits in arriving at its award. Jennings; Fitch v. Sam, Tanksley Trucking Co., 95 N.M. 477, 623 P.2d 991 (Ct.App.1980). Even so, language in Woodson v. Phillips Petroleum Co., 102 N.M. 333, 695 P.2d 483 (1985) can be read to require “findings” as to the factors for which there is evidentiary support. After discussing the conflict between Jennings and Morgan, the high court in Woodson said: “The trial court need make findings only on those factors on which the parties have presented evidence.” Woodson overruled Jennings to the extent it holds otherwise. We read Woodson to require the trial court to make specific findings of fact, and until the supreme court holds otherwise, such must be done. Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973). Accordingly, the award of attorney fees must be remanded in order that the trial court make specific findings as to each Fryar and statutory factor as to which there is evidentiary support. Without suggesting that the award as made represents an abuse of discretion, on remand the trial court should consider the Woodson opinion in making its award. The flood of appeals involving attorney fees in worker’s compensation cases and questions raised prompted Judge Wood to comment in Morgan that “the question of the fee award has become the dominant aspect of the compensation proceedings.” 98 N.M. at 779. Chief Judge Donnelly noted in Jennings that disputes over fees has resulted in a spate of appellate decisions delineating guidelines that must be considered in fixing the fees. Judge Lopez said in Maschio v. Kaiser Steel Corp., 100 N.M. 455, 672 P.2d 284 (Ct.App.1983) “The matter of attorney’s fees has been before this court many times. In this court’s experience, attorneys, ironically, sometimes spend as much time, if not more, in proving their fee claims as they spend in proving disability for their clients.” 100 N.M. at 459. While there is no indication in the present case that counsel for plaintiff placed his interest ahead of the client, and the record clearly reflects the contrary, nevertheless, the present state of the law could place the plaintiff’s lawyers in that awkward position. We also observe that the guidelines for attorney fees are all directed to and encourage litigation. There are no factors which give consideration to efforts made to seek rehabilitation for the worker or to overcome resistance to those efforts when made. Nor is consideration given to efforts made to expedite the process; the reward seemingly going to those who can prolong it the most. While there is no indication of intentional delay here, what incentive is there for defense counsel to shorten the process, when it would be in his financial interest to prolong it? The legislature requires that worker’s compensation cases be handled as promptly as possible and that the trial be conducted in a summary manner as far as possible. NMSA 1978, § 52-l-35(A) (Cum.Supp.1984). The cases spawned by Fryar v. Johnsen, most of which are interpretations by this court, suggest the need for reconsideration. Not only has the attorney fee issue become dominant, resulting in unnecessary delays, (see subparagraph (b) under Background), it often evolves into a mini-trial. See Morgan. While Alexander v. Delgado requires this court to follow the supreme court, we do not view that case as precluding constructive suggestions, particularly when a rule is not working well. And, as pointed out, most of the confusion has emanated from interpretations of Fryar v. Johnsen by this court. Therefore, in light of the opinions since Fryar v. Johnsen, the legislative intent to provide for a prompt resolution of workmen’s compensation cases- as well as efforts to pursue rehabilitation of the employee by both parties where possible, we urge a reconsideration by the supreme court of the Fryar factors and their present efficacy. Procedural matters. (a) NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dorn. Rel. & W/C App. Rule 205(a)(3) (Repl. Pamp.1983) requires the appellant to set forth in the docketing statement a concise, accurate statement of the case containing all facts material to a consideration of the issues presented. Defendant failed to comply with Rule 205(a)(3). Had this court been apprised of all material facts, this case most likely would have been assigned to a summary calendar with summary affirmance proposed, thus expediting the appeal process. See State v. Fulton, 99 N.M. 348, 657 P.2d 1197 (Ct.App.1983). (b) Similarly, defendant in its brief-in-chief failed to provide a resume of all facts relevant to the issues presented for review. NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App. Rule 501(a)(3) (Repl.Pamp.1983). Cf. NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 9(d) (Repl. Pamp.1984). (c) Crim. Rule 205(a)(5) requires appellant to include a list of authorities believed to support the contentions and “any contrary authorities known by appellant.” Crim. Rule 501(a)(4) requires citation of New Mexico authority, if any. Defendant’s second issue is controlled by Reynolds v. Ruidoso Racing Association, Inc. and its progeny, yet defendant failed to cite those line of cases in either its docketing statement or brief. While there is no indication defense counsel knew of these cases, although a minimum of research would have revealed their existence, counsel should be aware of his professional responsibility to disclose controlling legal authority even if contrary to his position. See NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp.R. 7-106(B)(1) (Repl.Pamp.1982). (d) Plaintiff failed to file a docketing statement on his cross-appeal as required by W/C App. Rule 205 made applicable to cross-appeals by NMSA 1978, Crim., Child. Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App. Rule 103 (Repl. Pamp.1983). This failure to comply with the rules was called to plaintiffs attention in the defendant’s answer brief to the cross-appeal, yet plaintiff did not respond by taking action to correct the defect. (e) The calendaring process is based on the docketing statement and the record proper. NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App. Rule 207 (Repl. Pamp.1983). Without a docketing statement, which plaintiff here failed to provide, or an accurate or complete statement of the material facts, which defendant failed to provide, this court’s ability to assign cases to the proper calendar is hampered. This results in delay. This case has taken too long to .resolve. We set forth the time frame at the beginning of this opinion. We do not commend this delay. While a separate hearing on attorney fees is permissible, it is not required. Morgan. A period of almost eight months lapsed between entry of the decision and the award of attorney fees. More than a month lapsed after attorney fees were fixed before entry of the final judgment. The case has been pending in this court since December 30,1983, more than a year. While counsel cannot be faulted for the delay in district court, failure to comply with the expedited appeal process has contributed to the delay in this court. We find this delay unacceptable and contrary to the express provisions of the Workmen’s Compensation Act. See § 52-1-35(A). CONCLUSION We affirm that part of the judgment awarding plaintiff total permanent disability. We set aside the award of attorney fees and remand for further proceedings on that issue consistent with this opinion. Defendant shall pay the cost of appeal and $2,500 plus applicable tax for plaintiff’s attorney fees on appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and NEAL, J., concur.
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OPINION RANSOM, Justice. Janice Landskroner and Stanley Reiss, formerly a married couple, brought suit against their cotenant, Rex McClure, for breach of contract and fiduciary duties, for fraud and slander of title, and to quiet title to real property. The trial court found in favor of McClure on all claims and plaintiffs appeal. We affirm in part and reverse in part. The court’s findings of fact may be summarized as follows: In 1963, at public auction, two couples purchased adjacent lots. Plaintiffs purchased lot 15 and McClures purchased lot 17. Thereafter, the four individuals agreed to combine the lots into a common tenancy with each person owning an undivided one-fourth interest. A tenancy-in-common agreement was executed in 1964. At the time of execution, the parties assumed the agreement would be recorded by the attorney who prepared it. While reviewing county tax records in March of 1985, however, McClure discovered the agreement had not been recorded, and he recorded it at that time. Subsequent to the execution of the agreement, each couple was divorced. In their property settlement, McClure received his wife’s undivided one-fourth interest. The Reiss divorce did not disturb the property interests of plaintiffs and each continued to own an undivided one-fourth interest in lots 15 and 17 as tenants in common with McClure. Until the fall of 1980, the parties had no contact with each other. However, during 1980 and 1981 McClure and Landskroner communicated considerably regarding the possible sale of lot 17. McClure offered Landskroner $4,000 for plaintiffs’ interests in lot 17, provided she could produce a quitclaim deed from Reiss. Landskroner was unable to obtain the deed from Reiss, nor could she agree on a selling price with McClure. In October of 1981, McClure undertook to sell his interest in lot 17 to James Winchell for $4,000. Although the warranty deed prepared by the title company did not specifically limit the grant to McClure’s undivided one-half interest, he signed the deed without realizing the conveyance was not specifically so limited. The title company insured the title to lot 17. In 1981, plaintiffs were informed by Winchell that he had purchased lot 17 from McClure. In November of 1985, assuming that the tenancy-in-common agreement with McClure was ineffective after his conveyance of lot 17, Landskroner attempted to sell a one-half interest in lot 15 for $18,000. During this time she discovered the tenancy-in-common agreement had been recorded in March by McClure, indicating to her that McClure continued to claim an interest in lot 15. This suit ensued. The following issues are presented for review (1) whether the unilateral convey anee of a portion of an estate by one cotenant, without the consent, authority or knowledge of the other cotenants, served to partition the entire estate and terminate any cotenancy agreement; (2) whether such conveyance constituted a breach of any cotenancy agreement; (3) whether the district court abused its discretion by ordering an accounting of the proceeds of the conveyance; (4) whether the district court abused its discretion by failing to award attorney fees to plaintiffs; and (5) whether substantial evidence supported certain findings of fact. Partition. Plaintiffs complain about the court’s failure to quiet title in them to lot 15 and to exclude McClure from any ownership interest. Plaintiffs theorize that McClure’s conveyance of lot 17, coupled with their acquiescence to and ratification of the sale, effected a partition of the common estate, leaving plaintiffs in sole ownership of the remaining lot. We disagree. We note first that plaintiffs requested a finding that they had ratified the conveyance of lot 17 to Winchell. However, the trial court refused to incorporate this request in its findings. Failure of the court to find as requested is treated as a finding against the party asserting the affirmative. Gallegos v. Wilkerson, 79 N.M. 549, 445 P.2d 970 (1968). In this case, failure of the court to find as requested was appropriate. “Ratification” is the adoption or confirmation of an unauthorized act; its effect is the acceptance of the benefits and burdens of that act. Ulibarri Landscaping Material, Inc. v. Colony Materials, Inc., 97 N.M. 266, 639 P.2d 75 (Ct.App. 1981), cert. denied, 98 N.M. 50, 644 P.2d 1039 (1982). There can be, of course, no ratification of an act which did not occur, nor acceptance of benefits and burdens which did not accrue. Reiss testified that, after being informed by Winchell of the sale of lot 17, he assumed McClure had reneged on their agreement. Consequently, Reiss was willing to assume ownership of lot 15 as a quid pro quo. Landskroner also testified that she assumed the cotenancy agreement was no longer in effect when in 1985 she attempted to convey an individual one-half interest in lot 17. However, there was also evidence that McClure never intended to transfer full title to lot 17, and that Winchell had notice of the cotenancy agreement. McClure’s intent and Winchell’s knowledge of the cotenancy agreement are material to a determination of the extent of the interest conveyed by McClure in lot 17. Even if Reiss and Landskroner ratified the conveyance, just what they ratified depends on the extent of the interest conveyed. Under these circumstances, the trial court did not abuse its discretion in refusing to rule that lots 15 and 17 had been partitioned by virtue of assumptions made by Reiss’ and Landskroner. The conveyance of an interest in lot 17 did not automatically effect a partition of the cotenancy, irrespective of the extent of the interest conveyed. Generally, a tenant in common may convey his or her own interest in the common estate to a stranger without the knowledge or approval of other cotenants. A. Powell and P. Rohan, 4A Powell on Real Property 1f 602[9] (1982). However, a cotenant may not convey, alienate, or encumber the interest of another cotenant unless he is clearly and properly authorized to do so. Texas Am. Bank/Levelland v. Morgan, 105 N.M. 416, 733 P.2d 864 (1987); Lewis v. Lewis, 106 N.M. 105, 739 P.2d 974 (Ct.App.1987); Jolly v. Kent Realty, Inc., 151 Ariz. 506, 729 P.2d 310 (Ct.App.1986); Beckstrom v. Beckstrom, 578 P.2d 520 (Utah 1978). As an aspect of this general principle, it is usually said that a cotenant cannot convey an individual interest in a specific parcel of the tract held in common, nor an undivided interest in a specified parcel. The reason, the treatises teach, “is obvious * * *. [SJince a grantor himself has no right, on partition, to select any particular portion of the land and to insist that his moitey or interest, or any part of it, be set off in that specific portion, so he cannot convey such a right to his grantee.” 20 Am.Jur.2d Cotenancy and Joint Ownership § 98, at 198 (1965); 7 R.C.L. Cotenancy § 75, at 880 (1915); see also 2 Am.Law of Property § 6.10 at 46-48 (1952); G. Thompson, 4 Thompson on Real Property § 1817 (1979 Repl.). Under some circumstances, however, a conveyance of an interest in a specific portion of the common estate will be given effect. For example, some cases hold that where the common property consists of several entirely distinct and separate parcels, a cotenant may convey his undivided interest in such a parcel to a stranger, so long as this does not substantially prejudice the partition rights of his cotenants. 2 Am.Law of Property § 6.10, at 48 (1952). Similarly, a court of equity will give effect to the conveyance of an interest in a distinct and specific portion of the common property in a subsequent suit to partition if this can be done without prejudicing the rights of the nonconsenting cotenants. Peabody Coal Co. v. Rutter, 283 S.W.2d 842 (Ky.Ct.App.1955); Lake v. Reid, 252 S.W.2d 978 (Tex.Ct.App.1952); Robinson v. O’Connor, 181 S.W.2d 935 (Tex.Ct.App.1944). Nevertheless, such a conveyance does not affect the title or rights of nonconsenting cotenants in the portion set aside, and is voidable if it prejudices their rights. Elmore v. Elmore, 99 So.2d 265 (Fla.1957); Thompson v. Gaudette, 148 Me. 288, 92 A.2d 342 (1952); 20 Am.Jur.2d Cotenancy and Joint Ownership § 98, at 198-99 (1965). In keeping with these principles, New Mexico law recognizes that under certain circumstances a conveyance which purports to grant complete ownership of a specific tract within the common estate may operate to transfer only the vendor’s undivided interest in that portion of the estate. Madrid v. Borrego, 54 N.M. 276, 221 P.2d 1058 (1950); see also Plante v. Conklin Limestone Co., 89 R.I. 64, 151 A.2d 116 (1959) (conveyance of a specific portion of commonly owned property was subject to the undivided one-third interests of other cotenants). In Madrid, two brothers, Canuto and Fortunato Madrid, owned a piece of land together as cotenants. Canuto deeded the whole eastern half of the estate to one man, and, several years later, deeded the remainder of the estate to another man. Fortunato did not join in these conveyances. The heirs of Fortunato brought suit to quiet title to the whole estate. This Court held that, absent ratification of the first conveyance by Fortunato, it transferred only Canute’s one-half undivided interest in the eastern half of the estate to the grantee, while the second conveyance transferred a one-half undivided interest in the western half. The heirs of Fortunate would then own a one-half undivided interest in the whole estate. By analogy, it is clear that McClure’s conveyance to Winchell did not necessarily transfer title to more than his one-half undivided interest in lot 17, despite the language in the warranty deed. The application of the holding of Madrid to the case at bar is complicated, however, by plaintiffs’ decision not to name Winchell as a party to this action. We cannot decide Winchell’s interest in lot 17 without his presence as an indispensable party under SCRA 1986,1-019. Nevertheless, we interpret Madrid as an application of the principle that a conveyance of an interest in a specific portion of property held in common will be given effect under equitable principles only insofar as this does not prejudice the interests of the nonconsenting cotenants. Applying this principle to the case at bar, we affirm the result reached by the trial court. Specifically, the conveyance of an interest in lot 17 to Winchell by McClure did not disturb the existing cotenancy relationship between McClure, Landskroner and Reiss in lot 15. Consequently, it was not error for the trial court to refuse to quiet title in lot 15 in the plaintiffs. The remaining interest of McClure in lot 15 depends on the nature of the interest in lot 17 that he conveyed to Winchell in 1981. If the interests of Landskroner and Reiss have been damaged by McClure’s actions, he may be required to make an accounting, e.g., in determining his net interest in lot 15. Breach of cotenancy agreement. The plaintiffs’ contention that McClure breached the cotenancy agreement and that they are entitled to rescission of the contract is without merit. It was noted at trial that the agreement does not contain any restrictions on alienation of a cotenant’s interest in the property. Absent such a restriction, a cotenant is free to deal with a stranger with regard to his or her proportionate share in the estate, although the conveyance may not interfere with the titular or possessory interests of the remaining cotenants. G. Thompson, 4 Thompson on Real Property § 1817, at 258 (1979 Repl.). Plaintiffs themselves point out that rescission is an appropriate remedy only where a party’s breach, if any, is so substantial and fundamental as to defeat the object of the parties. Bank of New Mexico v. Northwest Power Prods., 95 N.M. 743, 749, 626 P.2d 280, 286 (Ct.App. 1980). Since the cotenancy agreement did not expressly exclude dealings with strangers, McClure’s breach of the agreement, if any, does not entitle Landskroner and Reiss to the remedy of rescission. Accounting. The trial court ruled that although McClure had conveyed only his own one-half interest in lot 17 to Winchell, he was obliged to account to his cotenants for half of the $4,000 he received in that transaction. First, we note that if McClure owed such an accounting, Landskroner and Reiss would be entitled to prejudgment interest, as this was an ascertainable amount. Bill McCarty Const. Co. v. Seegee Eng’g Co., 106 N.M. 781, 750 P.2d 1107 (1988). However, we follow the lead of those cases cited above which indicate that McClure’s conveyance did not affect the interests of Landskroner and Reiss. If McClure were to account for half of the proceeds from the conveyance to Winchell, it would imply that McClure still owned half of whatever interest the original cotenants retained in lot 17. Landskroner and Reiss would then each own a one-fourth interest in the portion of lot 17 not conveyed by McClure, instead of a one-fourth interest in the entire lot. While it is clear that McClure conveyed his interest in lot 17 to Winchell, it has not been established that this conveyance disturbed the interests of Landskroner and Reiss in lot 17. Accordingly, we conclude that the accounting was error. If it should be subsequently determined that Winchell was a bona fide purchaser of lot 17, and McClure has consequently affected the Landskroner and Reiss interests in the property, an accounting may be appropriate. Substantial evidence issue. Given our resolution of the preceding issues, we do not need to consider plaintiffs’ allegations of error in the court’s findings that McClure intended to convey only his own undivided interest in lot 17 to Winchell; that Winchell had notice of the interests of Landskroner and Reiss; and that McClure acted reasonably in relying on Winchell and the title company to document the conveyance properly. The alleged error in these findings goes to their purported application in the construction of the deed from McClure to Winchell. It is also unnecessary to review the court’s conclusion of law that McClure only conveyed his interest in lot 17 to Winchell. Because Winchell’s interest in lot 17 is not at issue, and because the conveyance to Winchell, while perhaps creating a specific equitable interest in lot 17 under the doctrine considered in Madrid, did not disturb the cotenancy relationship between McClure, Landskroner and Reiss in lot 15, these findings are not essential to support the court’s judgment. Attorney fees. Finally, plaintiffs’ request for this Court to award attorney fees under NMSA 1978, Section 42-5-8(C) or Section 42-6-11 is denied. Section 42-5-8(C) permits the discretionary award of attorney fees of a party to an action for partition of a cotenancy. Again, absent such an abuse of discretion, the court’s ruling will not be disturbed. Keeth Gas Co. v. Jackson Creek Cattle Co., 91 N.M. 87, 570 P.2d 918 (1977). Plaintiffs’ failure to alert this Court to alleged abuse precludes us from ruling on this issue. Moreover, the award of attorney fees under Section 42-6-11 is mandatory only when the suit is favorably determined for the party trying to establish title to the subject property. Therefore, for all of the above reasons the judgment of the district court is affirmed, except that the accounting by McClure was inconsistent with the court’s findings, and its decision in this regard is reversed. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and STOWERS, J., concur. . As to other claims of error, plaintiffs failed to comply with SCRA 1986, 12-213(A)(3), which requires the brief-in-chief to contain an argument with citations to supporting authorities. We therefore do not address these issues. See In re Adoption of Doe, 100 N.M. 764, 676 P.2d 1329 (1984) (issues raised in brief but unsupported by cited authority will not be reviewed on appeal); Hopkins v. Guin, 105 N.M. 459, 734 P.2d 237 (Ct.App.1986), cert. quashed, 105 N.M. 395, 733 P.2d 364 (1987).
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OPINION SOSA, Senior Justice.. Animas Valley Auto and Truck Repair, and Bituminous Casualty Corporation (Respondents), appealed the trial court’s judgment in favor of Marion L. Harrison in this workers’ compensation case. The court of appeals summarily reversed the judgment, 105 N.M. 425, 733 P.2d 873, and Harrison filed his petition for writ of certiorari on May 11, 1988. After reviewing the record below, the legal arguments advanced by both the court of appeals and counsel for the parties, we reverse the court of appeals and reinstate the judgment of the trial court. PACTS On September 23, 1983, Harrison was working on an automobile in his job as an auto repair mechanic when the vehicle slipped from one of the jackstands and crushed Harrison’s right hand. In attempting to remove himself from the scene of the accident, Harrison stumbled over misplaced office furniture and fell through a glass partition, suffering, in the trial court’s words, “severe and disabling injuries to his right arm, right wrist, and right hand.” The court further found that, “[A]s a result of the accidental injury, [Harrison] does not have the flexibility in his dominant wrist, lacks the physical strength in his arm and hand, suffers from numbness and lack of feeling and has incapacitating pain in his arm, wrist and hand * * * [and that] as a result of the accidental injury, [Harrison] is physically impaired in his right arm, right wrist, and right hand, and, by reason of his age, experience, education, training and mental and physical condition, is totally unable to perform his job as a mechanic.” From these facts the trial court deduced that Harrison was eighty percent permanent partially disabled and was therefore entitled to benefits for 600 weeks, as set forth in NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-42 (Orig. Pamp.). Respondents contended that the benefits for Harrison’s injuries should have been computed, not according to Section 52-1-42, but according to NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-43 (Orig.Pamp.), which provides for benefits according to various schedules based on “disability resulting from an accidental injury to specific body members including the loss or loss of use thereof * * NMSA 1978, § 52-1-43 (Orig. Pamp.) LEGAL ISSUES INVOLVED In reversing the trial court, the court of appeals followed the general rule in New Mexico, namely, that where a worker suffers a partial disability, even though permanent, to specific body members, and there is no finding that this disability extends to additional impairment of non -scheduled parts of the body, compensation must be limited to that provided by NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-43, rather than to that provided by NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-42. Casados v. Montgomery Ward & Co., 78 N.M. 392, 432 P.2d 103 (1967). We start our analysis by acknowledging the summary of the state of the law on this issue, written by (then) Chief Judge (now Justice) Walters, in Aragon v. Mountain States Construction Co., 98 N.M. 225, 647 P.2d 427 (Ct.App.) rev’d on other grounds, 98 N.M. 194, 647 P.2d 396 (1982): “The cases on limitation or extension of scheduled injury disabilities can be described as inconsistent, at best, and as hopelessly irreconcilable, at worst.” Id. at 227, 647 P.2d at 429. After reviewing the cases on this question, including Anaya v. New Mexico Steel Erectors, Inc., 94 N.M. 370, 610 P.2d 1199 (1980), the court in Aragon v. Mountain States Construction Co. arrived at the following two-pronged test “for deciding whether a claimant is entitled to either partial or total disability, instead of the scheduled injury benefit.” Aragon, 98 N.M. at 230, 647 P.2d at 432. The first prong of the test devised by the court in Aragon involves determining “whether loss or loss of use of a specific body member has caused a separate and distinct ‘disability’ or ‘impairment’ to a part or parts of the body other then [sic] the specific member injured.” Id. (citations omitted). Under the standard for determining impairment as set forth in Anaya v. New Mexico Steel Erectors, Inc., and enunciated as the second prong in Aragon, “[A] workman is disabled if he cannot perform some or all of the work for which he is fitted by reason of the various factors listed in the statute * * *. If Anaya is unable to perform some of the work for which he is fitted, then he is disabled.” Anaya, 94 N.M. at 372-73, 610 P.2d at 1201-02 (emphasis in original). In the case before us the trial court found that Harrison was unable to perform eighty percent of the work for which he is fitted. The crucial question is whether Harrison’s injuries extended to a part or parts of his body other than the specific members injured. While the trial court did not state in so many words the linkage between Harrison’s injuries to specific body members (hand, wrist and elbow), and impairment to other parts of his body, we find that it is implicit in the record that the trial court understood Harrison’s injuries to be extended beyond the specific confines of his hand, wrist and elbow. In particular, in its judgment, the trial court ordered respondents to provide payment for ongoing “medical, hospital, physical therapy, psychological therapy and prosthetic services that are reasonable and necessary for [Harrison’s] treatment * * In short, the trial court found that Harrison’s injuries were to the whole man and not simply to his hand, wrist and elbow. It is obvious, for instance, that Harrison would not require psychological therapy for his hand, wrist and elbow, but for other injuries to his person sustained as a result of the accident. Consequently, the trial court did not err in basing its award on NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-42, rather than on the more narrowly focused Section 52-1-43. The trial court went forward, under the two-prong test enunciated in Aragon, to find the degree of disability which Harrison had suffered. The trial court set this degree of disability which Harrison had suffered. The trial court set this degree of disability at eighty percent, and we can find nothing in the record to contravene the court’s finding. We hold, therefore, that Harrison proved “separate and distinct impairment” to other parts of his body in addition to the scheduled member injuries, and that he is entitled to partial disability benefits and attorney’s fees as defined by the trial court in its judgment of November 30, 1987. IT IS SO ORDERED. SCARBOROUGH, C.J., and STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ., concur. RICHARD E. RANSOM, J., specially concurring.
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. Defendant Trinity Land Company (Trinity) appeals from the trial court’s award of $25,000.00 in damages in favor of plaintiff Kenneth Nosker (Nosker) based upon a determination that Nosker owned certain irrigation equipment which Trinity wrongfully converted to its own use. We discuss: (1) whether Nosker’s claim was barred by res judicata; (2) whether the items of irrigation equipment were fixtures; and (3) whether the trial court’s finding of conversion is supported by substantial evidence. This case has been submitted for decision by the court following its submission to an advisory panel pursuant to an experimental plan. See Patterson v. Environmental Improvement Div., 105 N.M. 320, 731 P.2d 1364 (Ct.App.1986); Stoll v. Dow, 105 N.M. 316, 731 P.2d 1360 (Ct.App.1986). A majority of the panel rendered a decision reversing the trial court. Nosker filed a response memorandum opposing the proposed disposition. This court has considered the transcript and briefs, together with the opinions of the advisory committee and the response memorandum. We adopt the recommendation of the majority as modified and reverse the decision of the trial court. Nosker was the owner of “Three Rivers Farm” in Otero County, New Mexico. In 1975, Trans Union Leasing Corporation (Trans Union) leased irrigation equipment to Nosker, James L. Wimberly, and James L. Wimberly Enterprises, Inc. Shortly thereafter, the irrigation equipment was installed on the property. In March 1977, Nosker sold the farm to Don and Jacquelyn Maddoux (Maddoux) by real estate contract. Nosker and Wimberly executed an assignment of their interest in the equipment lease. Maddoux then took possession of the irrigation equipment. Neither the lease nor any notice under the Uniform Commercial Code has ever been filed with the Otero County Clerk. In June 1977, Maddoux executed a promissory note, secured by a mortgage on the real property, in favor of Crocker National Bank of San Francisco (Crocker). Maddoux defaulted on the note and, in January 1979, Crocker instituted foreclosure proceedings. Trans Union, a named defendant in the foreclosure proceedings, failed to file an answer and a default judgment was entered against it. In February 1979, Maddoux entered into a contract to sell the farm and all associated equipment to Three Rivers Land Company, Inc. (Three Rivers) and Marvel Engineering (Marvel). When Maddoux refused to close the contract, Three Rivers and Marvel sued and obtained a preliminary injunction compelling conveyance of the property. Warranty deeds to the farm and a bill of sale purporting to convey the irrigation system and personal property on the farm, to the purchasers, were executed. Thereafter, the district court dissolved the preliminary injunction and revoked the deeds because specific performance was rendered impossible by the foreclosure proceedings initiated by Crocker. No appeal was taken from the judgment in the foreclosure action. In October 1979, Crocker purchased the farm at the foreclosure sale, and then sold it to Trinity. When Trans Union failed to receive payments under the equipment lease entered into with Nosker and Wimberly, Trans Union terminated the lease and sued Nosker for the unpaid balance of monies due under the equipment lease. In settlement of that lawsuit, on December 3, 1981, Trans Union executed a quitclaim bill of sale for the irrigation equipment to Nosker in exchange for certain monies. Nosker then brought this suit against Trinity, claiming Trinity wrongfully converted the irrigation equipment to its own use. Trinity defended, arguing that Nosker’s claim was barred by res judicata through Trans Union’s loss of title to the irrigation equipment in the foreclosure suit, and claiming that it had obtained title to the irrigation equipment pursuant to the foreclosure sale. The 'trial judge found that Nosker’s claim was not barred by res judicata and that Trinity had converted the irrigation equipment. The trial judge awarded Nosker $25,000.00 in damages but denied interest on the damage award and denied attorney fees. I. CLAIM OF RES JUDICATA Trinity argues on appeal that the trial court erred in concluding that Nosker’s claim was not barred by res judicata. Specifically, Trinity claims that the prior foreclosure proceeding precludes this action because the parties are in privity, the cause of action is the same, and because there was a final decision on the merits in the prior foreclosure action adjudicating the matters involved herein. Nosker responds that his claim was not barred by res judicata because the subject matter of the two suits differed. Nosker maintains that the present action concerns irrigation equipment which was outside the subject matter involved in the foreclosure action. We agree. Under the doctrine of res judicata, a prior judgment on the merits bars a subsequent suit involving the same parties or privies based on the same cause of action. Myers v. Olson, 100 N.M. 745, 676 P.2d 822 (1984). Ordinarily, res judicata will preclude a claim where there has been a full and fair opportunity to litigate issues arising out of that claim. Montana v. United States, 440 U.S. 147, 99 S.Ct. 970, 59 L.Ed.2d 210 (1979); Slide-A-Ride of Las Cruces, Inc. v. Citizens Bank of Las Cruces, 105 N.M. 433, 733 P.2d 1316 (1987). For res judicata to apply, the traditional rule is that the two actions must involve circumstances wherein: (1) the parties are the same or in privity; (2) the two causes of action are substantially the same; (3) there has been a final decision in the first suit; and (4) the first decision was adjudicated on the merits. Slide-A-Ride of Las Cruces, Inc. v. Citizens Bank of Las Cruces; First State Bank v. Muzio, 100 N.M. 98, 666 P.2d 777 (1983). Here, there is no dispute that the parties were in privity and that there was a final decision rendered on the merits in the foreclosure action. The main point of conten tion, therefore, is whether the cause of action in the two proceedings is substantially the same. In addressing the issue concerning whether or not there is an identity of the two causes of action, we look to the Restatement (Second) of Judgments (1982). Under the rule set forth in Section 24 thereof, a cause of action is examined in light of the underlying transaction which gave rise to the litigation, without regard to the various legal theories that may be available to the parties. Accordingly, a claim is essentially equated with the transaction from which it springs. Id.' Applying the factors specified in Section 24, we agree that the suit herein is not barred by principles of res judicata. The trial court found, in part: 45. [Trinity] did not purchase the Equipment at the Crocker foreclosure sale. The notice of foreclosure and the special master’s bill of sale obtained by [Trinity] pursuant to the Crocker foreclosure sale * * *, though lists similar equipment, does not include the Equipment to [Nosker]. 46. The Equipment did not become part of the real estate that was the subject matter of the Crocker foreclosure suit. In its appeal herein, Trinity failed to specifically challenge the above key findings of fact. These findings are supported by substantial evidence. Findings of fact adopted by the trial court and not directly attacked on appeal must be accepted as true by the reviewing court. City of Roswell v. Reynolds, 86 N.M. 249, 522 P.2d 796 (1974); State ex rel. State Highway Comm’n v. Sherman, 82 N.M. 316, 481 P.2d 104 (1971); Scott v. Jordan, 99 N.M. 567, 661 P.2d 59 (Ct.App.1983). A reviewing court is bound by findings not specifically attacked by an appellant. Drake v. Rueckhaus, 68 N.M. 209, 360 P.2d 395 (1961); see SCRA 1986, 12-213(A)(3). The doctrine of res judicata does not bar Nosker’s claim because the unchallenged findings are conclusive in determining that Trinity did not purchase the equipment at the foreclosure sale, either as a fixture to the real property or as personal property. Thus, the causes of action in this suit and the foreclosure suit are not the same because the subject matter is not the same. II. CLAIM OF CONVERSION We jointly discuss the second and third issues raised by Trinity on appeal. Trinity argues that the trial court’s determination that it converted the irrigation equipment is not supported by substantial evidence. Specifically, Trinity contends that an action for conversion will not lie because any exercise of dominion and control or use of the equipment by Trinity occurred at a time when Nosker no longer had a possessory interest in the property. Trinity also maintains that an action for conversion based upon Nosker’s interest in the equipment lease with Trans Union could not exist because Nosker had previously assigned his interest to Maddoux and because Trans Union had terminated the equipment lease in 1980. Trinity also asserts that there was no conversion based upon Nosker’s interest under the bill of sale executed by Trans Union because Nosker failed to make a timely demand upon Trinity thereafter for a return of the equipment. We agree. Conversion is defined as the unlawful exercise of dominion and control over personal property belonging to another in exclusion or defiance of the owner’s rights, or acts CQnstituting an unauthorized and injurious use of another’s property, or a wrongful detention after demand has been made. Bowman v. Butler, 98 N.M. 357, 648 P.2d 815 (Ct.App.1982); Taylor v. McBee, 78 N.M. 503, 433 P.2d.88 (Ct.App. 1967). The elements of the tort of conversion by demand and refusal are: (1) that the plaintiff had the right of possession of personal property; (2) that the plaintiff demanded that the defendant return the property to plaintiff; and (3) that the defendant refused to return the property to plaintiff. See Restatement (Second) of Torts § 237 (1965); 1 F. Harper, F. James & O. Gray, The Law of Torts § 2.27 (2d ed. 1986). At the outset we note that the failure to challenge the trial court’s finding of fact no. 46 establishes, for purposes on appeal, that the irrigation equipment did not become part of the real estate that was the subject matter of the foreclosure suit; the irrigation equipment remained personal property and was not a fixture, and hence, was not subject to foreclosure under the real estate mortgage. See First Nat’l Bank of Aberdeen v. Jacobs, 273 N.W.2d 743 (S.D.1978); G E C C Leasing Corp. v. Berkshire Life Ins. Co., 226 So.2d 231 (Fla. App.1969); see also R. 12-213(A)(3) (appellant must set forth a specific attack on any finding or such shall be deemed conclusive). An action for conversion will lie when the item allegedly converted is personal property. See Bowman v. Butler; Taylor v. McBee. On appeal, this court views the evidence in the light most favorable to the trial court’s decision and disregards all evidence and inferences to the contrary. See Clovis Nat’l Bank v. Harmon, 102 N.M. 166, 692 P.2d 1315 (1984); Trujillo v. Romero, 82 N.M. 301, 481 P.2d 89 (1971). The reviewing court may not reweigh the evidence or substitute its judgment for that of the trier of fact. Sanchez v. Homestake Mining Co., 102 N.M. 473, 697 P.2d 156 (Ct.App.1985). The issue is not whether there is evidence to support an alternative result but, rather, whether the trial court’s result is supported by substantial evidence. Bagwell v. Shady Grove Truck Stop, 104 N.M. 14, 715 P.2d 462 (Ct.App.1986). Substantial evidence means such relevant evidence as a reasonable mind might accept as adequate to support a conclusion. Schober v. Mountain Bell Tel., 96 N.M. 376, 630 P.2d 1231 (Ct.App.1980). In order to recover damages for conversion, a plaintiff must have a right to immediate possession of the property. Such a right is generally based on some form of ownership interest. See Stephen v. Phillips, 101 N.M. 790, 689 P.2d 939 (Ct.App.1984); Aragon v. General Elec. Credit Corp., 89 N.M. 723, 557 P.2d 572 (Ct.App.1976). Here, the evidence fails to establish that Nosker had a possessory or ownership interest in the equipment at the time of the alleged conversion. The evidence reveals, and the trial court found, that Nosker assigned his interest in the equipment lease to Maddoux. If Nosker obtained any right of possession subsequent to this assignment, it was not until he received a quitclaim bill of sale from Trans Union in December 1981. Since Nosker did not have a right to possess the irrigation equipment between March 1977 (time of assignment) and December 1981 (time of quitclaim bill of sale), any use or disposition of the irrigation equipment during this time by Trinity did not give rise to a valid cause of action in Nosker. See O’Dell v. Garrett, 82 N.M. 240, 478 P.2d 568 (Ct.App.1970), cert. denied, 404 U.S. 822, 92 S.Ct. 43, 30 L.Ed.2d 50 (1971) (since neither title nor right to possession of United States bonds were in plaintiff, his action in conversion was not maintainable); Kruger v. Horton, 106 Wash.2d 738, 725 P.2d 417 (1986) (en banc) (absent express reservation to retain interest in timber, vendors did not have right to possession and could not maintain an action for conversion). The record fails to indicate that there was any use or disposition of the irrigation equipment by Trinity after execution of the quitclaim bill of sale due to the trial court’s unchallenged finding of fact no. 39 that “the [farm] has remained vacant since 1980 and the irrigation system has lain idle on the farm * * *.” Moreover, Nosker failed to make a timely demand upon Trinity for the return of the equipment. In order to be sufficient, a demand for return of personal property must be made after plaintiffs right of possession has accrued, and while plaintiff has the right of immediate possession. See McCartney v. Foster, 150 Colo. 537, 374 P.2d 704 (1962). Nosker testified at trial that he did not make demand on Trinity after execution of the bill of sale. Where demand and refusal are relied on as the sole evidence of conversion, or where a defendant is rightfully in possession of property, the demand must be made before the action for conversion is brought. Cf. Champion Ventures, Inc. v. Dunn, 567 P.2d 724 (Wyo.1977), appeal after remand, 593 P.2d 832 (Wyo.1979); City Loan Co. v. State Credit Ass’n, 5 Wash.App. 560, 490 P.2d 118 (1971). The judgment of the trial court awarding Nosker damages is reversed and remanded for dismissal of the cause of action against Trinity. The cross-appeal is denied. In view of our disposition, we do not reach the other issues raised on appeal. Trinity is awarded its costs on appeal. We deem oral argument unnecessary. See Garcia v. Genuine Parts Co., 90 N.M. 124, 560 P.2d 545 (Ct.App.1977). The court acknowledges the aid of attorneys Thomas B. Stribling, III, Chris Key, and Geoffrey Rieder in the preparation of this opinion. These attorneys constituted an advisory committee selected by the chief judge of this court, and we express our gratitude to them for volunteering their services. IT IS SO ORDERED. BIVINS and GARCIA, JJ., concur. . Section 24 provides: (1) When a valid and final judgment rendered in an action extinguishes the plaintiff’s claim pursuant to the rules of merger or bar ..., the claim extinguished includes all rights of the plaintiff to remedies against the defendant with respect to all or any part of the transaction, or series of connected transactions, out of which the action arose. (2) What factual grouping constitutes a “transaction", and what groupings constitute a “series", are to be determined pragmatically, giving weight to such considerations as whether the facts are related in time, space, origin, or motivation, whether they form a convenient trial unit, and whether their treatment as a unit conforms to the parties’ expectations or business understanding or usage. . We do not discuss the interest Nosker received upon execution of the quitclaim bill of sale.
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OPINION BLACK, Judge. Appellant Penny J. is a parent who has been diagnosed as having borderline personality disorder and borderline intellectual function resulting from cognitive difficulties, neurological soft signs, and seizure activity. The New Mexico Children, Youth and Families Department (“the Department”) worked with Appellant over a five-year period as a result of repeated reports that Appellant was abusing and neglecting her children. In 1992, the Department moved to terminate Appellant’s parental rights. The district court, children’s court division, determined that the Department had expended reasonable efforts to assist Appellant in properly caring for her children, but that there was no reason to believe Appellant would be able to parent the children in a safe manner in the foreseeable future. Based on these findings, the district court ordered termination of Appellant’s parental rights. Appellant argues that the Department improperly evaluated her disabilities and afforded her inappropriate treatment in violation of federal and state law. We disagree, and affirm. I. STANDARD OF REVIEW On appeal from termination of parental rights, we are to view the evidence in the light most favorable to support the findings of the trial court. Reuben & Elizabeth O. v. Department of Human Servs., 104 N.M. 644, 647, 725 P.2d 844, 847 (Ct.App.), cert. denied (Apr. 24, 1986). The standard of review is whether the grounds relied upon by the district court in terminating parental rights have been proven by clear and convincing evidence. Id. at 647-48, 725 P.2d at 847-48. II. FACTS The Department first became involved with Appellant and father, Robert B., and their children, Danny B. and Jess B., in 1986, due to the chronic neglect of their children. At that time, the children were taken into custody by the Department. Before the children were returned home eighteen months later, the Department provided services to the parents to assist them in addressing the conditions leading to the abuse and neglect. These services included a support group, in-home homemaker services to assist them in learning parenting and basic housekeeping skills, individual counseling and a literacy program for Appellant, and a parent-child participation program. In 1987, the Department received reports that Jess B. was being physically abused. Custody of Appellant’s children was again returned to the Department. Appellant agreed to plead no contest to a substantiated charge of abuse and neglect with respect to her children. Her two children (Kenneth B. was in útero when this action occurred) were ordered to remain in the physical and legal custody of the Department. In February 1988, the Department assessed Appellant’s situation to determine which services she should receive before being permitted to have the children returned to her care. Charlene Mclver, a Ph.D. psychologist, diagnosed Appellant as having a borderline personality disorder and indicated that Appellant was not capable of “parenting these children at this time.” Accordingly, the Department developed a treatment plan that included day treatment services at the Recreation, Health, and Occupation Center’s literacy program and a preschool program for Appellant, and in-home nursing care for newborn Kenneth B. The purpose of these services was to allow the parent to utilize the two years of training previously provided to develop appropriate parenting skills. The treatment plan went into effect after the next mandatory judicial review in May 1988. On December 8, 1988, the judicial review established a new treatment plan extending Appellant’s participation in the literacy program, providing individual therapy for Appellant, requiring participation by both parents in the “Hands On” parenting program, and continuing day care and other in-home services for Kenneth B. Termination of visitation with Jess B. was incorporated into the July 1989 treatment plan based on Dr. Cardillo’s findings regarding “Penny’s poor stress coping abilities” and her denial of “personal responsibility or awareness of her participation in Jess’s removal from the home environment.” On November 5,1989, Kenneth B. was placed in the custody of the Department due to substantiated reports of physical abuse and medical neglect by Appellant. An adjudicatory hearing occurred with respect to Kenneth B. on February 9, 1990, and Appellant and Robert B. entered another no contest plea concerning the allegations of neglect. Meanwhile, the Department’s plan of action indicated that it intended to terminate Appellant’s parental rights with respect to Daniel B., Jess B., and Susan B. The January 1990 judicial review incorporated a report that Appellant had not been participating in individual therapy since September 1989, and that the Department was exploring alternative therapy. However, the treatment plan proposed and approved at that time required her to participate in individual therapy. At the judicial reviews occurring between June 1990 and February 1991, it was reported that Appellant: (1) had voluntarily left New Mexico in February 1990, and had resided at the Rescue Mission in El Paso, Texas for approximately four months; (2) did not visit with Kenneth B. on fourteen of twenty-five scheduled visitations; and (3) continued to be “unwilling” to participate with the treatment plan’s objectives and was not able to secure either employment or stable housing. The May 1991 judicial review indicated that Appellant was evaluated by Dr. Geoffrey Sutton. Dr. Sutton diagnosed her as having a “borderline intellectual function” and a “borderline range of intelligence.” By October 1991, the Department had engaged the services of Toni Fine, a master’s level therapist, who focused on increasing Appellant’s independent living and life management skills. Additionally, a social worker, George Oiler, provided weekly one-on-one parenting training. However, the therapeutic preschool program was discontinued because Appellant had made “minimal progress” and did not show the therapist an “ability to parent at that time[.]” The Department finally filed a termination action on May 29, 1992. Toni Fine testified that Appellant was not “on par” with others in the parent community because of “her judgment abilities, her possible processing abilities, [and] the way there is no anticipation of possible consequences [of actions.]” Because parenting involves judgment, Fine reasoned that Appellant would not be able to take the “[parenting] reins alone” and would not have the ability to parent “today.” Appellant’s expert, George Oiler, echoed Fine’s testimony on that issue. Oiler acknowledged that he saw “growth” in Appellant’s parenting skills, but could not make “some broad sweeping statement that ... within six months she would be able to parent [full-time].” III. FEDERAL LAW A. The Americans with Disabilities Act Appellant argues that Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act (“ADA”), 42 U.S.C. § 12132 (Supp. II 1990), requires the Department to provide services “from which she could gain the same benefits as other respondents without identified disabilities.” We disagree. Although enacted in 1990, the ADA was phased in gradually, meaning that different provisions became effective at different dates. Counsel for Appellant and amicus rely upon the nondiscrimination provision in 42 U.S.C. § 12132, which provides, “no qualified individual with a disability shall, by reason of such disability, be excluded from participation in or be denied the benefits of the services, programs, or activities of a public entity, or be subjected to discrimination by any such entity.” Id. This provision did not, however, take effect until January 1992. See Bonnie P. Tucker, The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990: An Overview, 22 N.M.L.Rev. 13, 99 (1992). Furthermore, Appellant concedes that the Department, through Toni Fine and Gregory Oiler, provided her with appropriate individual training and counseling in 1991. Thus, Appellant’s premise that she was discriminated against in violation of this provision of the ADA must fail. B. The Rehabilitation Act Appellant also argues that Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (“the Act”), 29 U.S.C. § 794 (1988 & Supp. IV 1992), preempts state law and required the Department to provide services to Appellant “that were as effective in affording equal opportunity to obtain the same result, to gain the same benefit, or to reach the same level of achievement as that provided to others.” As the title of the Act indicates, however, it was not designed primarily to apply to parental termination issues. In re Robert S.T., 86 A.D.2d 748, 447 N.Y.S.2d 776, 777 (1982) (provisions inapplicable to termination of parental rights). One division of the New York family court, in a case relied upon by Appellant, originally found that the Act applied and preempted the termination of handicapped persons’ parental rights. In re Roth, 109 Misc.2d 699, 440 N.Y.S.2d 806, 808 (1980). That position was almost immediately rejected by other divisions of the same court. As one judge said in In re Richard M., 110 Misc.2d 1031, 443 N.Y.S.2d 291, 294 (1981): A review of the legislative intent and, indeed, of the statutory language itself, makes it clear that the scope of federal concern was access by handicapped persons to educational, social, and vocational services that would assure them of “vocational rehabilitation and independent living.” 29 U.S.C. § 701. The emphasis of the law and regulations is on non-discrimination in employment and education. To restrict the analysis of federal statutes to the Rehabilitation Act is to ignore more relevant Congressional enactments such as the Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act of 1980, P.L. 96-272. That law, with its creation of a new subdivision E (Federal Payments for Foster Care & Adoption Assistance) of Title IV of the Social Security Act, is more closely analogous to SSL 384-b, in its concerns for balancing the rights of children in foster care and then-natural parents’ rights. This court does not consider either the state’s Social Services Law or the federal Adoption Assistance Act in conflict with the Rehabilitation Act. The concerns, programs, and standards are distinct, the chief difference being the latter’s emphasis on the handicapped individual’s self-sufficiency in contrast to the needs of children in foster care for permanent homes, whether with their biological or adoptive parents. Respondent’s constitutional [Supremacy Clause] challenge is therefore rejected in its entirety. The New York appellate courts have also held that the Act is inapplicable and does not preempt state termination of parental rights when the parent is presently and for the foreseeable future unable, by reason of mental limitations, to create proper and adequate care for the child. In re Christopher T., 101 A.D.2d 997, 476 N.Y.S.2d 691, 692 (1984), aff'd sub nom. In re Joyce T., 65 N.Y.2d 39, 489 N.Y.S.2d 705, 478 N.E.2d 1306 (1985); see also South Carolina Dep’t of Social Servs. v. Humphreys, 297 S.C. 118, 374 S.E.2d 922, 925 (Ct.App.1988). Nor does the federal precedent interpreting this provision require the state to create special or individualized programs specifically for mentally handicapped individuals. Johnson v. Thompson, 971 F.2d 1487, 1494 (10th Cir.1992), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 113 S.Ct. 1255, 122 L.Ed.2d 654 (1993). C. Equal Protection Appellant next argues that since “the State failed to provide services to Penny which afforded her equal opportunity to achieve the same result as other respondents, it clearly violated the equal protection and due process clauses of the United States and New Mexico Constitutions.” Appellant fails to direct us to where these arguments were advanced below. See In re Estate of Heeter, 113 N.M. 691, 694, 831 P.2d 990, 993 (Ct.App.) (this Court will not “search the record”), cert. denied, 113 N.M. 690, 831 P.2d 989 (1992). Where the record fails to indicate that an argument was presented below, unless it is jurisdictional in nature, the argument will not be considered on appeal. Woolwine v. Furr’s, Inc., 106 N.M. 492, 496, 745 P.2d 717, 721 (Ct.App.1987). Moreover, such arguments have been rejected previously in New Mexico, In re Jason Y., 106 N.M. 406, 408-09, 744 P.2d 181, 183-84 (Ct.App.1987), and elsewhere. See In re Jennilee T., 3 Cal.App.4th 212, 4 Cal.Rptr.2d 101, 106-07 (Ct.App.) (due process), review denied, No. S025539, 1992 Cal. LEXIS 2466 (Cal. May 14, 1992); In re I.D., 205 Ill.App.3d 543, 151 Ill.Dec. 94, 99, 563 N.E.2d 1200, 1205 (1990) (due process and equal protection); In re Joyce T., 65 N.Y.2d 39, 489 N.Y.S.2d 705, 712-13, 478 N.E.2d 1306, 1313-14 (1985) (due process and equal protection); In re Montgomery, 311 N.C. 101, 316 S.E.2d 246, 255 (1984) (due process and equal protection); State Dep’t of Human Servs. v. Smith, 785 S.W.2d 336, 339 (Tenn.1990) (due process). Since we find no controlling federal law which mandates reversal, we next examine whether the district court decision was in compliance with New Mexico law. IV. NEW MEXICO LAW The grounds for termination of parental rights in New Mexico are now codified in NMSA 1978, Section 32A-4-28 (Repl.Pamp.1993). Section A of that statute sets forth the polestar in any such proceeding; the directive that “the court shall give primary consideration to the physical, mental and emotional welfare and needs of the child.” Section 32A-4-28(A). “ ‘Primary consideration’ means consideration that stands first in rank, importance or value, fundamental in nature.” In re Adoption of Doe, 99 N.M. 278, 281, 657 P.2d 134, 137 (Ct.App.1982), cert. denied, 99 N.M. 358, 658 P.2d 433 (1983). Section B of the statute sets forth the specific grounds for termination. The present termination proceeding was initiated under Section 32A-4-28(B)(2), which provides: The court shall terminate parental rights with respect to a child when: (2) the child has been a neglected or abused child as defined in the Abuse and Neglect Act [this article] and the court finds that the conditions and causes of the neglect and abuse are unlikely to change in the foreseeable future despite reasonable efforts by the department or other appropriate agency to assist the parent in adjusting the conditions which render the parent unable to properly care for the child; provided, the court may find in some cases that efforts by the department or another agency would be unnecessary, when there is a clear showing that the efforts would be futile[.] The district court found that the children were repeatedly abused and neglected. Under NMSA 1978, Section 32A-4-2(C)(4) (Repl.Pamp.1993), a child is neglected “whose parent, guardian or custodian is unable to discharge his responsibilities to and for the child because of incarceration, hospitalization or other physical or mental disorder or incapacity[.]” This statute “gives notice that a child is neglected if the parents lack the mental capacity to provide the care or control necessary for the child’s well-being.” State ex rel. Health & Social Servs. Dep’t v. Natural Father, 93 N.M. 222, 225, 598 P.2d 1182, 1185 (Ct.App.1979). Appellant’s inability to learn to provide the care or control necessary for her children’s well-being is clear and convincing evidence of neglect. See NMSA 1978, § 32A-4-29(J) (Repl.Pamp.1993) (establishing clear and convincing evidence standard). The district court also found that “the Department and other agencies have made reasonable efforts over an extended period of time to assist the respondents [Penny J. and Robert B.] in changing the causes and conditions which led to the abuse and neglect of the children.” It is clear that there must be some evidence of an effort by the Department to assist the parent in caring for the child or at least a showing that such effort would have been futile. Section 32A-4-28(B)(2); see In re J.J.B., 117 N.M. 31, 37, 868 P.2d 1256, 1262 (Ct.App.1993), cert. granted, 117 N.M. 121, 869 P.2d 820 (1994). In In re Wayne R.N., 107 N.M. 341, 757 P.2d 1333 (Ct.App.1988), this Court found “reasonable efforts” based on the following facts: The efforts made by the department to remedy the causes of the neglect showed the department’s efforts included the assistance of two social workers and a trained homemaker. Respondents’ caseworker provided considerable assistance in the form of financial assistance and assistance with transportation. She also counseled them to some extent. The trained homemaker made over thirty-five visits to the home, in an effort to teach respondents minimum standards of homemaking and sanitation. These efforts were made over a three-year period and were augmented by the efforts of other agencies, which provided counseling concerning substance abuse. The trial court’s finding that the department made reasonable efforts to assist respondents is also supported by substantial evidence. See In re Termination of Parental Rights of Reuben & Elizabeth O., 104 N.M. 644, 725 P.2d 844 (Ct.App.1986); In re Adoption of Doe; § 32-1-54(B)(3). In re Wayne R.N., 107 N.M. at 345, 757 P.2d at 1337. We recognize that there are differences between the circumstances of the respondents in In re Wayne R.N. and those of Appellant. We also recognize that “[e]fforts generally need to be made by courts to eliminate judgments based on stereotyped values in all cases terminating parental rights____ Courts particularly need to be sensitive to this issue because a court’s decision is based on evidence gathered by another.” Rosemary Shaw Sackett, Terminating Parental Rights of the Handicapped, 25 Fam.L.Q. 253, 272 (1991). A parent may challenge evidence of neglect on the basis that it arises from stereotypes. A parent may also impeach the reasonableness of efforts to enable him or her to correct the underlying causes and conditions on the basis that those efforts were directed at the wrong causes and conditions or were insufficient because of unique factors. The fact-finder should evaluate the evidence in light of express challenges, as well as implicit weaknesses in the case' presented by the State. Once the fact-finder has evaluated the evidence presented by the State, however, an “appellate court’s primary task is to determine if the decision reached at trial is justifiable on the facts and the law.” In re R.W., 108 N.M. 332, 336, 772 P.2d 366, 370 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 108 N.M. 273, 771 P.2d 981 (1989). In this regard it is highly relevant that in this case Appellant herself requested a finding that the Department’s efforts were reasonable. While the Department’s effort in the present case did not achieve the desired result, it offered numerous and various treatment modalities recommended by trained professionals. Four independent professionals evaluated Appellant, not only to monitor her progress, but also to recommend different therapies. There were fifteen judicial reviews of Appellant’s therapy over a five-year period. At each court proceeding, Appellant’s counsel indicated assent to the proposed treatment plan. The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania recognized the limits of an agency duty in such a situation. As aptly stated by Judge Catania, “[Tjhe parent cannot sit back, especially in factual situations like the one presently before the Court involving the mental incapacity of the parent, and expect the agency to effect a ‘cure’ for the individual and then when such ‘a cure’ is not forthcoming, blame the agency for the failure.” (Slip opinion at p. 15). In re Adoption of J.J., 511 Pa. 590, 515 A.2d 883, 890 (1986), on remand, 366 Pa.Super. 94, 530 A.2d 908 (1987). We hold that there was sufficient evidence of reasonable efforts to support a finding by clear and convincing evidence. In re Wayne R.N., 107 N.M. at 345, 757 P.2d at 1337. Precedent from other jurisdictions on analogous facts supports the holding as well. See, e.g., K.N. v. State, 856 P.2d 468 (Alaska 1993); In re R.H., 250 Mont. 164, 819 P.2d 152 (1991); In re H.S., 161 Vt. 83, 632 A.2d 1106 (1993); see generally Saekett, supra, at 265 (discussing cases in which parental rights have been terminated). There is also evidence to support the district court’s finding that the conditions and causes of the neglect and abuse were unlikely to change in the foreseeable future. For example, no one testified that Appellant would be able to parent effectively at any foreseeable date. Furthermore, there was substantial testimony that Appellant was unlikely ever to develop the ability to parent these three children effectively. More importantly, as the guardian ad litem states, two of these children have been subjected to what is now more than seven years of uncertainty, and the evidence is clear that their best interests would be served by adoption. “There is little that can be as detrimental to a child’s sound development as uncertainty over whether he is to remain in his current ‘home,’ under the care of his parents or foster parents, especially when such uncertainty is prolonged.” Lehman v. Lycoming County Children’s Servs. Agency, 458 U.S. 502, 513-14, 102 S.Ct. 3231, 3238, 73 L.Ed.2d 928 (1982). The court is justified, then, in terminating parental rights where it is clear after several years of effort that the child will not thrive, and the causes of neglect and abuse are unlikely to change in the foreseeable future. In re R.W., 108 N.M. at 337, 772 P.2d at 371; see Egly v. Blackford County Dep’t of Public Welfare, 592 N.E.2d 1232, 1235 (Ind.1992); In re D.A.B., 240 Neb. 653, 483 N.W.2d 550, 553 (1992). V. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the district court’s findings are supported by clear and convincing evidence when viewed through the lens of the best interests of the child. Nothing in the applicable federal or state law requires either more or earlier individual treatment than that provided to Appellant. The decision of the district court, children’s court division, is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. MINZNER, C.J., and BOSSON, J., concur. . This Court previously affirmed the decision of the children’s court terminating the parental rights of Robert B. . Prior to arriving in New Mexico, the exhibits indicate that Robert B. and Appellant had been investigated for child neglect and abuse in California, Nevada, and Arizona. . We do not decide, then, the meaning of this federal concept of discrimination and its applicability to programs afforded Appellant by the Department. This statute presents novel and thorny challenges to the Department which hopefully will be seen as a fertile opportunity for new and creative approaches, so that physically and mentally challenged persons may participate effectively and have a chance truly to benefit from state services like parenting assistance. It may well be, as Appellant argues, that the Department must do a great deal more in adjusting its programs to make them more meaningfully accessible to the handicapped. . Although many of the actions that form the basis of this dispute occurred before the effective date of the new Children's Code, July 1, 1993, the parties refer to the new Children’s Code in their briefs. Due to the fact that the parties are content to rely on the new Children's Code, and the fact that the relevant provisions have not changed significantly, we also cite to the new Children's Code. . The statute does not compel even "reasonable efforts” when it becomes clear that preserving the family is not compatible with protecting the child and that further efforts to assist the parent would be futile. In re Kenny F., 109 N.M. 472, 476-77, 786 P.2d 699, 703-04 (Ct.App.1990).
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OPINION GARCIA, Judge. This appeal comes before the court for decision following its submission to an advisory committee pursuant to an experimental plan. See Patterson v. Environmental Improvement Div., 105 N.M. 320, 731 P.2d 1364 (Ct.App.1986); Stoll v. Dow, 105 N.M. 316, 731 P.2d 1360 (Ct.App.1986); Boucher v. Foxworth-Galbraith Lumber Co., 105 N.M. 442, 733 P.2d 1325. (Ct.App. 1986). The committee rendered a unanimous decision and the parties were so notified. We acknowledge the aid of attorneys Daniel R. Cron, William R. Federici and Joel V. Burstein, who devoted both time and effort. We express our gratitude for their voluntary service. This court has considered the transcript and briefs in this case, together with the opinion of the advisory committee. We adopt the opinion of the advisory committee in modified form. We affirm in part and reverse in part. ISSUES Initially, Frappier raised three issues on appeal. Frappier, however, failed to cite authority in support of her first issue and, thus, we will not address it. See In re Adoption of Doe, 100 N.M. 764, 676 P.2d 1329 (1984). Accordingly, the following issues are properly before us: (1) whether there exist genuine issues of material fact concerning whether defendants had actual notice provided by the New Mexico Tort Claims Act; and (2) whether summary judgment should be reversed as it relates to individual defendants named by plaintiff. FACTS Plaintiff Emiline Frappier (Frappier) filed a complaint for personal injury and monetary damages against John Mergler (Mergler); the Village of Corrales (Village); Thomas Gentry, individually and in his capacity as Mayor of the Village of Corrales (Mayor); Benjie Torres, individually and in his capacity as Chief of Police for the Village of Corrales Police Department (Chief); and the Village of Corrales Police Department (Department). The lawsuit arose out of an intersection accident occurring on December 29, 1982. Frappier was traveling north on Corrales Road within the Village while Mergler, an on-duty police officer, was responding to an emergency call. At the time of impact, Mergler was proceeding with his emergency equipment, including flashing lights, siren and headlights fully engaged. He was passing in northbound traffic by driving in the southbound lane. Frappier was at the intersection, and while making a left-hand turn from her northbound lane, the vehicles collided. The Bernalillo County Sheriffs Department responded to the accident, conducted an investigation and issued a police report. The narrative section of the report recited: Vehicle # 1 [police car] was responding to call, emergency lights, siren operating, overtook vehicle # 2 [Frappier vehicle] on left side, vehicle # 2 driver did not hear siren, or see lights behind her, turned left into path of vehicle # 1[.] Vehicles collided. Vehicle # 1 also struck telephone pole and fence posts. The police report indicated that neither Frappier nor Mergler complained of any injuries at the scene. The report did indicate, however, that each of the vehicles had sustained damage in excess of $100. Within minutes of the accident, the Chief arrived at the scene and observed that each vehicle had sustained heavy damage. The Mayor, who is a member of the fire department’s rescue unit, also appeared at the accident scene. Within ten days of the accident, the Village filed a claim with its own insurer to recover for damages sustained by the police vehicle. The Mayor personally handled the details of the claim and made personal contact with the claims adjustor from the Village’s insurance company. The Village’s insurer received two claims as a result of the accident. One was from its own insured, the Village, and a second was submitted by a utility company for damage to a utility pole. That claim was not paid. Rather, the adjustor testified that “we had referred them [utility] to the responsible party, Mr. Frappier, Mr. or Mrs. Frappier.” The insurance company covered the damages sustained by the Village and ultimately closed its file on this matter. Approximately two years after the accident, Frappier filed a lawsuit seeking monetary damages for personal injuries she sustained as a result of the accident. Prior to the filing of the suit, Frappier gave no written notice to the Village indicating that the governmental entity was at fault or that it would be subject to a claim or lawsuit. Moreover, Frappier had not verbally communicated with any official or employee of the Village indicating that she might pursue a claim against the Village as a consequence of the accident in question, or that she considered the accident to be the fault of any person or governmental entity that she joined as a defendant in the action. Defendants filed a motion for summary judgment on the grounds that plaintiff had failed to demonstrate compliance with mandatory notice provisions pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 41-4-16 (Repl.1986). The trial court granted the motion for summary judgment with respect to all defendants and Frappier appealed. Issue I This issue presents the question of whether the Village, through its appropriate officials, was given timely and sufficient “actual notice” of plaintiff’s claim for damages under the Tort Claims Act (TCA), NMSA 1978, Sections 41-4-1 through -27 (Repl.1986). In its motion for summary judgment, the Village contended that plaintiff failed to comply with the notice requirements of the TCA under Section 41-4-16. In summary proceedings under the TCA, the moving party has the burden of showing that notice requirements have not been met. Ferguson v. New Mexico State Highway Comm’n, 98 N.M. 718, 652 P.2d 740 (Ct.App.1981), rev’d on other grounds, New Mexico State Highway Comm’n v. Ferguson, 98 N.M. 680, 652 P.2d 230 (1982). Once the party moving for summary judgment has made a prima facie showing of its entitlement to judgment, however, it is incumbent on the party opposing the motion to demonstrate the existence of a triable issue. See Tapia v. McKenzie, 83 N.M. 116, 489 P.2d 181 (Ct.App.1971). Here, defendants’ motion for summary judgment was supported by an affidavit from the Mayor indicating that prior to receipt of the complaint, neither he nor the Village had received any notice, in writing or otherwise, of a claim by Frappier against the Village as a result of the automobile accident. Section 41-4-16(A) places a requirement upon a claimant under the TCA to cause “written notice stating the time, place and circumstances of the loss or injury” to be presented to the appropriate administrative head of the public entity from which compensation for a claim is sought within ninety days after an occurrence. It is undisputed that Frappier did not provide written notice as required by Section 41-4-16(A). Section 41-4-16(B), however, recognizes an exception to the written notice requirement when the governmental entity alleged to be at fault has “actual notice.” The actual notice required, however, is not simply actual notice of the occurrence of an accident or injury but rather, actual notice that there exists a “likelihood” that litigation may ensue. Smith v. State ex rel. Dep’t of Parks & Recreation, 106 N.M. 368, 743 P.2d 124 (Ct.App.1987); see also Ferguson v. New Mexico State Highway Comm’n, 99 N.M. 194, 656 P.2d 244 (Ct. App.1983). In City of Las Cruces v. Garcia, 102 N.M. 25, 690 P.2d 1019 (1984), plaintiff was involved in a car accident. A police report was filed, a copy of which was routinely sent to the city traffic department. Subsequently, plaintiff filed suit against the driver of the other vehicle, and the State of New Mexico: (State) and the City of Las Cruces (City) for negligent maintenance of the intersection where the accident occurred. Both the State and the City moved for summary judgment, arguing that they received no notice, written or “actual,” as required under the TCA. Both motions were granted. This court affirmed the granting of summary judgment to the State, but reversed as to the City. In reversing, we noted that the city traffic department routinely receives copies of all City accident reports and since the City was one of the alleged responsible parties in the accident, an issue of material.fact existed as to whether the city traffic department’s receipt of a copy of the accident report constituted “actual notice” under the TCA. On certiorari, the supreme court noted that the purpose behind Sections 41-4-16(A) and (B) of the TCA is “ ‘to ensure that the agency allegedly at fault is notified that it may be subject to a lawsuit’ ” City of Las Cruces v. Garcia, 102 N.M. at 27, 690 P.2d at 1021 (quoting New Mexico State Highway Comm’n v. Ferguson, 98 N.M. at 681, 652 P.2d at 231) (emphasis added); see also Otero v. State, 105 N.M. 731, 737 P.2d 90 (Ct.App.1987) (the requirement notice of Section 41-4-16 further aids governmental entities in managing the risks involved under the TCA). The supreme court further noted that in order that a police, or other, report serve as actual notice under Section 41-4-16(B), the report must contain information which puts the governmental entity allegedly at fault on notice “that there is a claim against it” City of Las Cruces v. Garcia, 102 N.M. at 27, 690 P.2d at 1021 (emphasis in original). The court concluded that the police report failed to inform or notify the city traffic department that it may be subject to a lawsuit and, accordingly, the trial court properly granted both summary judgment motions. Subsequently, in Smith, this court determined that Section 41-4-16(B) does not require that the notice, whether a police report or other method, indicate a lawsuit “will be” filed, but rather, that the notice must inform the proper governmental entity that there exists a “likelihood” that litigation may ensue. Under this standard, the present case fails. Here, the police report did not indicate that Mergler was at fault, nor did the report indicate that Frappier had complained of any physical injuries as a consequence of the collision. To the contrary, both the police report and other information the governmental entities had indicated that Frappier was the responsible party. In fact, the police report specifically stated that Frappier “did not hear siren, or see lights behind her, [and] turned left into path of [police car] * * *.” The only indication on the report of any loss suffered by Frappier was the notation that her automobile had sustained damage in excess of $100. While there is no dispute that the Village had actual notice of the accident, that is insufficient to vest the Village with the knowledge that it or any of its employees may be subject to a lawsuit or of the likelihood of litigation as a result of that accident. The facts contained in the police report, alone, are not even sufficient to put the Village or the Department on notice that Frappier considered the accident to be the fault of any of the defendants. The question of whether the knowledge of Mergler, the Chief and the Mayor constituted actual knowledge requies the same conclusion. There exists no indication from the record that Mergler, the Chief, the Mayor or anyone else present at the scene of the accident was apprised at that time, or at any time within the statutory period, that Frappier considered the accident to be the fault of any of the defendants or that the filing of a lawsuit by Frappier was likely. Similarly, no such information was provided by Frappier to the Village, the Department, or any of the agents or employees of the Village or Department during the ninety-day period that ensued after the accident. As a result, we hold, consistent with City of Las Cruces v. Garcia, that actual notice was not provided to the Village or the Department as required under Section 41-4-16(B) of the TCA. Accordingly, we affirm-the granting of summary judgment as to both the Village and the Department. Issue II Frappier sued the Chief and the Mayor both individually and in their respective capacities as employees of the Village. Frappier contends that notice under Section 41-4-16 is unnecessary because these defendants are not state or local public bodies. We agree. Section 41-4-16(A) requires the claimant provide written notice to specified governmental officials of a claim against “the state or any local public body.” The written notice requirement of Section 41-4-16(A), however, does not apply to public employees. Martinez v. City of Clovis, 95 N.M. 654, 625 P.2d 583 (Ct.App.1980). Accordingly, summary judgment, as it relates to all defendants other than the Village and the Department, is reversed. CONCLUSION The trial court’s granting of summary judgment in favor of the Village and Department is affirmed; the trial court’s granting of summary judgment against all other defendants is reversed. We remand this matter to the trial court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and MINZNER, J., concur.
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OPINION PER CURIAM. This matter came before the Court upon disciplinary counsel’s verified motion for order to show cause requesting that Don Klein, Jr., be ordered to show cause why his probation should not be revoked and further discipline imposed. On April 1, 1994, this Court granted the motion and directed Klein to appear before the disciplinary board to address allegations that, during his probation period, he committed additional violations of the Rules of Professional Conduct and failed to respond to requests for supplemental information from disciplinary counsel. Klein subsequently entered into a second agreement not to contest and consent to discipline on the issues set forth in the order to show cause and the motion for order to show cause. We hereby adopt the disciplinary board’s recommendations and approve the second agreement not to contest and consent to discipline. Klein originally was placed on probation as a result of violations of the Rules of Professional Conduct that occurred during his representation of Jon Anthony Dienlin. On or about January 11, 1991, Klein was retained to represent Mr. Dienlin in a divorce proceeding. Thereafter, on May 20, 1991, Klein scheduled an appointment with his client to discuss pending matters. While Mr. Dienlin appeared at the meeting location, Klein failed to appear for the appointment. Subsequently, Mr. Dienlin attempted to communicate with Klein by telephone and correspondence, but received no response. Although Mr. Dienlin was required to be out of the country periodically, at all times during the course of the representation he maintained the same mailing address and telephone number. On July 9, 1991, a pretrial hearing was scheduled in the Dienlin’s divorce proceeding. Klein failed to provide notice of the pretrial hearing to his client and failed to attend the hearing. On August 12, 1991, a hearing on the issues of child custody and support was scheduled by the court and Klein again failed to provide notice to Mr. Dienlin, but appeared despite his failure to contact or consult with his client. At that hearing, Klein unsuccessfully moved for a continuance. The court subsequently entered an order regarding interim child custody and interim support. The order reflected an annual income that was imputed to Mr. Dienlin, and an interim amount of child support was ordered to be paid. Klein failed to notify Mr. Dienlin regarding the entry of the interim support order despite the fact that the order would become final unless either party filed a motion for reconsideration within thirty (30) days. Mr. Dienlin did not receive notice of the entry of the order and subsequently became aware of the order in November 1991. Klein agreed not to contest allegations that in the course of representing Mr. Dienlin, he violated SCRA 1986, 16-101, 16-102, 16-103, 16-104, and 16-804(H) of the Rules of Professional Conduct. Pursuant to the first agreement not to contest and consent to discipline, Klein understood and agreed that he would be formally reprimanded by the disciplinary board and that the imposition of the formal reprimand would be deferred for a period of twelve (12) months during which time he would be placed on probation under certain conditions. Klein also understood and agreed that if he successfully completed his twelve-month probation and was discharged pursuant to the terms of SCRA 1986, 17-214(H), he would receive an informal admonition rather than a formal reprimand. One of the conditions of Klein’s probation was that he not commit any violations of the Rules of Professional Conduct, SCRA 1986, 16-101 to -805 (Repl.Pamp.1991 & Cum. Supp.1994), and the Rules Governing Discipline, SCRA 1986, 17-101 to -316 (Repl. Pamp.1991 & Cum.Supp.1994). Furthermore, Klein understood that any failure to comply with the terms and conditions of his probation would be brought to the attention of this Court through a motion for order to show cause, and that he would be subject to the contempt powers of this Court as provided by Rule 17-206(G). Nevertheless, Klein was the subject of two additional disciplinary matters filed during his probationary period. In September 1993, Klein was named in a disciplinary complaint submitted by Michael C. Temple alleging ineffective assistance of counsel. Klein previously represented Mr. Temple in Socorro County criminal matter numbered CR 91-032 and captioned State v. Temple. On January 5, 1994, and again on January 25, 1994, Klein was advised of Mr. Temple’s disciplinary complaint and asked to respond to the allegations contained therein. Klein was uncooperative with disciplinary counsel by failing to timely respond to Mr. Temple’s complaint. Klein subsequently filed a response only after disciplinary counsel filed a motion for order to show cause in this Court. On or about October 17, 1993, a disciplinary complaint was submitted to the disciplinary board by Bernalillo County District Court Judge James Blackmer arising out of Klein’s representation of his brother in cause numbered DR 79-01930 and captioned Klein v. Williams, a long-standing domestic relations case involving unresolved issues of child custody and visitation. In the course of the proceedings, it became necessary for the court to appoint a guardian ad litem for the minor child. On February 26, 1993, following hearings held in the Klein domestic relations case, the court entered an order establishing interim guardianship and custody of the parties’ minor child. On March 30, 1993, the court entered a supplemental order containing certain provisions omitted from the February order. On September 21, 1993, despite the existence of orders establishing interim guardianship and custody of the child, Klein petitioned for appointment of guardian in the Seventh Judicial District in Socorro County. The guardianship petition was presented without informing the court of the domestic relations case pending in the Second Judicial District or to the previous orders issued by Judge Blackmer. Klein also failed to file or include the mandatory affidavit required under NMSA 1978, Section 40-10-10(A), or give notice of the guardianship petition to the guardian ad litem. As a result, the Seventh Judicial District Court issued an order appointing Klein as the temporary guardian of the minor child. Klein misled the Seventh Judicial District Court by failing to disclose the pending case and the existence of standing orders entered by Judge Blackmer in the Second Judicial District. Judge Blackmer’s complaint alleged that Klein violated Rules 16-303 and 16-304 of the Rules of Professional Conduct as a result of his actions in filing the guardianship proceeding in the Seventh Judicial District. When notified regarding Judge Blackmer’s disciplinary complaint, Klein provided an initial response, but subsequently failed to cooperate during the investigation by not responding to requests for supplemental infor mation requested by disciplinary counsel on January 5, 1994, and again on January 21, 1994. Klein responded to disciplinary counsel’s request for supplemental information only after the filing of a motion for order to show cause in this Court. As a result of the two disciplinary matters filed during Klein’s probation and his failure to cooperate with disciplinary counsel in the investigation of these complaints, disciplinary counsel moved this Court for an order to show cause requesting that Klein be ordered to show why he should not be held in contempt for his failure to comply with the terms of the probation established in the Dienlin disciplinary matter. Klein subsequently entered into a second agreement not to contest and consent to discipline. The disciplinary board’s hearing officer considered the agreement and recommended that it be accepted and approved by the board. Pursuant to the second agreement not to contest and consent to discipline, Klein agreed to be formally reprimanded pursuant to Rule 1986, 17-206(A)(5) for violations of Rules 16-101, 16-102, 16-103, 16-104, and 16-804(H) in the Dienlin matter. With regard to the allegations of ineffective assistance of counsel raised in Mr. Temple’s complaint, the hearing officer noted that Klein’s representation in that criminal matter did not appear to involve dishonesty or an intentional disregard of his client’s interests, but probably was the result of poor caseload management, lack of organization, and poor judgment. As to the alleged violations of the Rules of Professional Conduct contained in the disciplinary complaint filed by Judge Blackmer, Klein agreed not to contest alleged violations of Rules 16-303, 16-304, and 16-803(D). IT IS THEREFORE ORDERED that the recommendation of the disciplinary board hereby is approved and Klein shall be disciplined as follows: 1. Klein shall be formally reprimanded pursuant to Rule 17-206(A)(5) for violations of Rules 16-101, 16-102, 16-103, 16-104, and 16-804(H); 2. With regard to the violations of Rules 16-303, 16-304, and 16-803(D), Klein shall be suspended from the practice of law for a period of six months pursuant to Rule 17-206(A)(2), which suspension shall be deferred; 3.Klein shall be placed on probation for a period of twelve (12) months pursuant to Rule 17-206(B)(1) on the following terms and conditions: A. During the period of probation Klein shall be supervised by a licensed New Mexico attorney approved by the disciplinary board; B. Klein shall meet with his probationary supervisor at times and places directed by the probationary supervisor and accept instructions from him or her regarding appropriate record keeping and law office management procedures; C. Klein shall meet with his probationary supervisor at times and places directed by the probationary supervisor and perform an inventory of his caseload and its status, and, if directed by the probationary supervisor, reduce his caseload to a manageable level and thereafter restrict his caseload to a manageable level as determined by the probationary supervisor; D. Klein shall accept instruction from his supervisor regarding the development of a system for prompt communication with clients and opposing counsel and demonstrate his understanding of these matters to the satisfaction of his supervisor; E. Klein shall confer with his supervisor at least one time each month about the volume of his caseload and will abide by the supervisor’s determination of whether he may accept new cases and, if so, the number of new cases he may accept, which determination shall be based solely upon a showing that he has sufficient time to handle that number of new cases with reasonable diligence, including but not limited to having sufficient time to promptly communicate with clients and opposing counsel concerning the matter; F. Klein shall follow all reasonable directions of his probationary supervisor in a prompt and satisfactory manner; G. Klein shall observe all Rules of Professional Conduct and Rules Governing Discipline; H. During the probationary period and at his own expense, Klein shall take the CLE programs listed in the agreement not to contest and consent to discipline, all of which are available from CLE, Inc. of the State Bar of New Mexico; I. Klein shall furnish a written report to the probationary supervisor stating the amount of time spent studying each of the required CLE programs and including a short precis of the contents of the program for review by the probationary supervisor; J. Klein shall otherwise give his full and prompt cooperation to disciplinary authorities pursuant to Rule 16-803(D); K. Klein shall promptly and timely respond to any and all complaints filed with the disciplinary board after the date hereof along with any requests from disciplinary counsel for additional information relating to such complaints. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that Klein’s failure to comply with any terms and conditions of the agreement or orders of this Court shall be brought to the Court’s attention and he shall be subject to the contempt powers of this Court pursuant to Rule 17-206(G). IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that, following the completion of the probationary period, Klein shall provide adequate documentation that he successfully completed the terms of probation and fully complied with the provisions of Rule 17-214(H) in order to be terminated from probationary status. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that Klein shall pay all costs of these disciplinary proceedings and any costs incurred by the probationary supervisor. IT IS SO ORDERED.
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OPINION ALARID, Judge. Defendant Paul E. Baca appeals from convictions of assault (NMSA 1978, § 30-3-1) (Repl.Pamp.1984) and battery (NMSA 1978, § 30-3-4) (Repl.Pamp.1984). The Bernalillo County district court heard the case on a de novo appeal from the metropolitan court. One of the issues the defendant raises on appeal is whether the district court had jurisdiction to try the defendant. We reverse and remand with directions to vacate the judgment and sentence based upon the jurisdictional issue. Because this issue is dispositive, we do not reach the other issues. FACTS This case arose out of an altercation between a teacher (Salaz) and the defendant (Baca), a former student, at a filling station. Salaz filed a complaint in metropolitan court (metro) alleging assault and battery against Baca on June 21, 1983. Baca filed a cross-complaint against Salaz on June 30, 1983, alleging assault and battery. The district attorney’s office suggested mediation. When it became apparent that the case would proceed to trial, the district attorney’s office withdrew from the case. In argument before the district court on a de novo appeal, Baca’s public defender stated that the district attorney’s office informed her prior to the metro trial that the filing of the cross-complaint created a conflict of interest for the district attorney’s office, and that the office would with draw from the case. Further, the district attorney’s office informed her that the filing of the cross-complaint changed the case to a civil matter, and that the public defender would also have to withdraw. According to the district attorney’s office, the case was to be reset on a civil calendar. The case, however, was never assigned to a civil docket. Instead, it was assigned to a criminal docket. Salaz was represented by private counsel who prosecuted the case. Baca appeared pro se, but immediately before trial the public defender was allowed to sit at Baca’s table in order to assist him. At the metro trial, the judge dismissed defendant’s cross-complaint and found Baca guilty of assault and battery. No assistant district attorney appeared at trial. Baca argued to the district court before trial that because of this procedural history, the metro court case was civil in nature, and moved the district court to remand the case with instructions to rehear it on a civil docket. The district court judge refused to remand, noting that the case had the attributes of a criminal case. After trial de novo, the district court found Baca guilty of assault and battery. This appeal followed. JURISDICTION This appeal challenges Baca’s convictions by the district court on the appeal from the metro court’s verdict. Both Baca and the state agree that the district court’s jurisdiction to hear a de novo appeal is limited by the jurisdiction of the metro court. See State v. Lynch, 82 N.M. 532, 484 P.2d 374 (Ct.App.1971). Baca contends, however, that the metro court lacked jurisdiction to hear the case as a criminal matter, and that this deprived the district court of jurisdiction to render a verdict. Baca maintains, first, that the representations made by the district attorney’s office, as related by defense counsel before the district court, and the failure of any district attorney to appear at the metro court trial indicates that the case was civil in nature. Second, he argues that there is no evidence in the record that the private counsel for Salaz was appointed to act as associate counsel for the district attorney pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 36-1-19 (Repl. Pamp.1984). Metro court’s assumption of criminal jurisdiction over the case was, therefore, error. A court obtains no jurisdiction over an action brought without authority. State v. Reese, 78 N.M. 241, 430 P.2d 399 (1967). The metro court lacked criminal jurisdiction over the case if an individual with no authority did, in fact, prosecute the case against the defendant. The state is the plaintiff in any criminal proceeding in the metropolitan court. NMSA 1978, Metro.R. 40(a) (Repl. Pamp.1981). Although NMSA 1978, Section 36-1-18 A (Rep.Pamp.1984) does not require the district attorney to appear in a non-record court such as metro court, Section 36-1-19 prohibits anyone other than the attorney general’s office and district attorney’s office from representing the state in a criminal proceeding, except on order of the court and with the consent of those offices. State v. Lucero, 20 N.M. 55, 146 P. 407 (1915). The question of the lawful authority of Salaz’s attorney to prosecute, and thus the jurisdiction of metro court, involves the granting of permission by the district attorney’s office and an order of the metro court. The state makes various arguments by which it attempts to show that the district attorney’s office consented to the private prosecution of the matter. These arguments do not fully address the issue. Section 36-1-19, which authorizes an associate counsel to prosecute for the district attorney with the consent of the district attorney and “on ruling of the court”, requires an explicit order of the court. The state infers the existence of an order of the court. A party may not infer the existence of an order because the case proceeded to trial before the court. What the state seeks is judicial surgery on Section 36-1-19 when what would be appropriate is legislative therapy. City of Albuquerque v. Sanchez, 81 N.M. 272, 466 P.2d 118 (Ct.App.1970). We note that in State v. Lucero the record demonstrated that an order of the court was sought and obtained, and that there was no question of proper court approval in that situation. We hold that where the record does not demonstrate such explicit approval, the proper authority is not vested in the private counsel to prosecute. Without this authority, the metro court lacked criminal jurisdiction to proceed.^ State v. Reese. Therefore, the district court lacked criminal jurisdiction to hear the case, and render a judgment and sentence. See State v. Lynch. For this reason, we vacate the judgment and sentence of the district court and remand with instructions to charges. dismiss the IT IS SO ORDERED. HENDLEY and BIVINS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. Ironically, what started out as an application for a one-year variance continues to wind its way through the legal and administrative process and four years later comes before this Court for the second time. Following review of the denial of a variance by the New Mexico Environmental Improvement Board (Board) on the first appeal, we remanded “with instructions to the Board to conduct further proceedings to determine whether the wood smoke, in the volume being emitted from appellant's wigwam burner is ‘injurious to health or safety’.” Duke City Lumber Co. v. N.M. Env. Imp. Bd., 95 N.M. 401, 407, 622 P.2d 709 (Ct.App.1980), cert. denied, 95 N.M. 426, 622 P.2d 1046 (1981) (hereinafter “Duke City I”). Pursuant to that mandate, the Board held a second hearing and again denied the application for a variance filed by Duke City Lumber Co. (Duke City). Duke City appeals. It raises the following points: 1. Duke City made a prima facie showing that wood smoke, in the volume emitted, is not injurious to health or safety; 2. The Board’s ruling that the Environmental Improvement Division (Division) rebutted Duke City’s showing is not supported by substantial evidence; 3. The Board acted arbitrarily and capriciously in considering undue economic burden and unsworn “citizen testimony”. I. Standard of Review. NMSA 1978, § 74-2-9(A) (Repl.Pamp. 1981) provides: “Any person to whom the board denies a variance, after a hearing, may appeal to the court of appeals. All appeals shall be upon the record made at the hearing * * *.” (Emphasis added.) Subsection C of § 74-2-9 provides: Upon appeal, the court of appeals shall set aside the board’s denial of the variance request only if found to be: (1) arbitrary, capricious or an abuse of discretion; (2) not supported by substantial evidence in the record; or (3) otherwise not in accordance with law. (Emphasis added.) The Board in its brief reminds us that on review, “In deciding whether a finding has substantial support, we must view the evidence in the most favorable light to support the finding * * *. Further, only favorable evidence and the inferences to be drawn therefrom, will be considered, and any evidence unfavorable to the findings will not be considered.” United Veterans Org. v. New Mexico Prop. App. Dept., 84 N.M. 114, 500 P.2d 199 (Ct.App.1972). This approach can be contrasted to a review based on the record as a whole. See, e.g., NMSA 1978, § 27-3-4 (Repl.Pamp.1982) (“record as a whole”); New Mexico Human Services Dept. v. Garcia, 94 N.M. 175, 608 P.2d 151 (1980) (review of the whole record); see also NMSA 1978, § 12-8-22(A) (This portion of the Administrative Procedures Act requires consideration of “the entire record”, but only the Human Rights Commission has elected to come under it). The Air Quality Control Act, NMSA 1978, §§ 74-2-1 to 74-2-17 (Repl.Pamp.1981), under which this appeal was taken, provides for review only of whether substantial evidence “in the record” supports the Board’s finding. Section 74-2-9(C). Hence, under the language of that section, we must limit our review to only favorable evidence in support of the Board’s ruling, disregarding any unfavorable evidence. Duke City does not contest this approach but claims this Court may not “completely disregard the deficiencies in the factual evidence upon which the Board relies.” While we limit our review in this ease to the record, not the record as a whole, we take this opportunity to note some of the shortcomings of this limited review as applied to administrative appeals. First, it would appear that New Mexico’s position is not only outdated, but contrary to the rule followed by other jurisdictions and the federal courts. See Utton, The Use Of The Substantial Evidence Rule to Review Administrative Findings Of Fact In New Mexico, 10 N.M.L.Rev. 103 (1979-80). The. United States Supreme Court in Universal Camera Corp. v. National Labor Rel. Bd., 340 U.S. 474, 71 S.Ct. 456, 95 L.Ed. 456 (1951), discussed the question in depth and held that the Administrative Procedure Act (federal) and the Taft-Hartley Act direct the courts to assume more responsibility for the reasonableness and fairness of N.L. R.B. decisions than some have shown in the past. The Court said, “Congress has merely made it clear that a reviewing court is not barred from setting aside a Board decision when it cannot conscientiously find that the evidence supporting that decision is substantial, when viewed in the light that the record in its entirety furnishes, including the body of evidence opposed to the Board’s view.” 340 U.S. at 488, 71 S.Ct. at 465 (emphasis added). Of course, Universal Camera dealt with a statute requiring review based on the whole record, whereas the Air Quality Control Act provides review as to “substantial evidence in the record.” Section 74-2-9(C). The language, “substantial evidence in the record,” would suggest a legislative intent to prescribe the more narrow review. This assumption is borne out by the broader standard of review required under the Public Assistance Appeals Act, NMSA 1978, §§ 27-3-1 to 27-3-4 (Repl.Pamp.1982), and the New Mexico Administrative Procedures Act, NMSA 1978, §§ 12-8-1 to 12-8-25. It is not clear, however, why the legislature requires different standards of review for different administrative agencies. A uniform approach to judicial review of administrative determinations could be accomplished by the legislature or perhaps by court interpretation. 10 N.M.L.Rev. at 120. Such an approach has the advantage of facilitating judicial economy as well as promoting even-handed treatment by all state administrative agencies. Aside from uniformity, a review of the entire record is clearly indicated in those cases where the administrative agency serves not only as the fact finder, but also as the complainant and prosecutor. See 73 C.J.S. Public Administrative Bodies and Procedure § 198 (3d ed. 1971). In the present case the role of the Board has been characterized as that of “judge” and the Division as “prosecutor.” While the Division had the responsibility for presenting the State’s case, the Board nonetheless filed a separate brief and vigorously argued the case. In fairness to the Board we point out that a review of the whole record demonstrates that the chairman and Board members did not lose sight of their statutory duty, and we do not direct these observations at this or any other administrative body in particular. II. The Parameters for Review. Duke City filed a petition for variance from Air Quality Control Regulation 402(A). Section 74-2-8 permits the Board to grant a variance when it finds (1) that compliance will result in an arbitrary and unreasonable taking of property, or will impose an undue economic burden upon any lawful business; and (2) that the granting of the variance will not result in a condition “injurious to health or safety.” Duke City did not rely on arbitrary and unreasonable taking of property but instead on undue economic burden. We held in Duke City I that Duke City made a prima facie showing as to this element, and we remanded solely for a determination on the issue of injury to health or safety. Id. 95 N.M. at 404, 622 P.2d 709. Duke City argues that the three Board members who voted to deny the variance considered economic burden. It says that under the doctrine of law of the case the Board cannot reconsider matters resolved on the first appeal. See Ute Park Summer Homes Ass’n v. Maxwell Land G. Co., 83 N.M. 558, 494 P.2d 971 (1972). We need not address the question of whether or to what extent the law-of-the-case doctrine applies to administrative hearings; the Board resolved the question on the issue of injury to health or safety. That determination alone justifies a denial of the variance, if it withstands the test of appellate review. Section 74-2-9(C). “Undue economic burden” is not an issue in this appeal. In approaching the health or safety issue we must first determine the degree to which we must answer this question. Both sides acknowledge that it cannot be answered with absolute certainty. Duke City contends, however, that the Division, in rebuttal, must establish injury to health or safety as a medical probability. The Division fakes the position that, in keeping with the statutory responsibility vested in the Board to protect the public health, it need only make a showing that the concentrations of particulate matter will tend to inflict injury. The reason for the Division’s view is apparent from a review of the record. No expert testimony demonstrates any causal connection between the emissions from Duke City’s wigwam burner and actual injury to health. Moreover, other than the New Guinea study, see Duke City I, 95 N.M. at 406, 622 P.2d 709, which one physician describes as neither definitive nor conclusive, the parties have introduced no scientific papers which determine the correlation between wood smoke and health. Dr. Jonathan Samet, board-certified in internal medicine and pulmonary disease, testified that scientists have gathered little data for the purpose of analyzing health effects from wood smoke, since the problem “only recently surfaced because of increased residential woodburning.” In addition, Duke City’s burner has not been in existence long enough to determine actual adverse health effects, if any. In order to determine the degree to which the parties must show that emissions will be injurious to health or safety, we look to the Environmental Improvement Act and the Air Quality Control Act. The purpose of the Environmental Improvement Act is “ * * * to ensure an environment that in the greatest possible measure: will confer optimum health, safety, comfort and economic and social well-being on its inhabitants; [and] will protect this generation as well as those yet unborn from health threats posed by the environment * * Section 74-1-2. In addressing a similar problem with respect to the promulgation of a primary air quality standard for lead, the D.C.. Circuit in Lead Industries Ass’n v. Environmental Protection Agency, 647 F.2d 1130 (D.C.Cir.1980), said that one purpose of the Clean Air Act is “ ‘[t]o emphasize the preventive or precautionary nature of the act, i.e., to assure that regulatory action can effectively prevent harm before it occurs * * *.' ” Id. at 1152. In speaking of the task the administrator has of making decisions about exactly what harms exist, the Court in Lead Industries said, “[M]aking these decisions is complicated by the absence of any clear thresholds above which therfc are adverse effects and below which there are none.” Id. at 1152. That statement applies to the case before us. The Board in this case had to make a decision in an area where scientific knowledge has not to date provided an exact answer. To hold that a party must establish actual injury to health or safety would, under the circumstances of this case, not only thwart the purposes of the act in question, but would relegate the agencies charged with its enforcement to reacting to catastrophies after the fact. We do not believe the legislature intended this result. Therefore, we hold that while the Board may not rely on guesswork in making a finding as to injury to health or safety, neither must it base its finding on proof of actual harm. If we applied the stricter standard suggested by Duke City, then it would not have met its burden of making a prima facie showing; Duke City has not itself shown to a degree of medical probability that emissions from its wood burner will not be injurious to health or safety. The resolution of this case will not depend upon the proof or lack of proof of actual injury to health or safety. III. Duke City’s Prima Facie Showing. In Duke City I we held that Duke City had the initial burden of proving that granting the variance will not result in a condition injurious to health or safety. Because of the difficulty of that task, we did not require Duke City to offer plenary proof. We said: “ ‘It is enough that [Duke City] introduces such evidence as, in the absence of counter testimony, will afford reasonable ground for presuming the allegation is true * * V ” 95 N.M. at 405, 622 P.2d 709. Duke City asserts that this Court must reverse as a matter of law, because after it made a prima facie showing, the Division failed to produce any “competent evidence of probable health or safety effects.” Duke City contends that it met its burden and that substantial evidence does not support the Board’s ruling. Duke City makes the following argument: The emissions from its burner do not violate the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), and even if they did, that would not in and of itself establish the existence of a condition injurious to health or safety. No medical evidence demonstrates injury to health or safety; the only published medical study indicates no detrimental effects. The Board and Division counter by claiming that Duke City’s air-quality expert was not qualified, that his testimony was “riddled with uncertainties and inconsistencies,” and that the results of his tests were unreliable. As to the medical evidence introduced by Duke City, the Board and Division argue it was not sufficient to prove the negative. Finally, the Board and Division say Duke City failed to make a prima facie showing as to “safety,” arguing that it differs from “health.” Both sides seem to agree that the NAAQS as set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provide relevant standards for determining adverse effects on public health. We note that AQCR 402A, promulgated by the State of New Mexico, differs from the NAAQS. AQCR 402A concerns measurement at the source, i.e., the plume of a particular wood waste burner, and operates in terms of opacity, while NAAQS concerns measurement of particulate matter from many sources in the ambient air and operates in terms of weight of the particulate in a cubic meter of air. Admittedly, Duke City cannot comply with AQCR 402A, hence, its application for a variance. Section 74-2-8 provides relief by permitting variances as long as emissions are not injurious to health or safety. Since NAAQS concerns public health, the parties and the Board have used these standards to determine if Duke City’s violation of AQCR 402A can be tolerated under § 74-2-8. The NAAQS for particulates is: 75 microgrms per cubic meter—annual geometric mean. 260 micrograms per cubic meter—maximum 24-hour concentration not to be exceeded more than once per year. 40 C.F.R. § 50.6 (1982). On the basis of his modeling study, Duke City’s expert, Loren Crow, testified to the improbability that the maximum concentration of particulate in the vicinity of the burner would ever exceed the national standard for particulates (NAAQS). Mr. Crow also measured actual ambient air concentrations in the vicinity of Duke City’s burner. According to Mr. Crow, at no time did a sample show a concentration exceeding the 260 micrograms—24-hour concentration. Even in the absence of medical proof, we are satisfied from a review of the record that Duke City made a prima facie showing of no injury to health or safety, at least to the extent required by Duke City I. While not strong, the proof offered by Duke City suffices to shift the burden of going forward to the Division. We now turn to the question of whether the Division carried its burden of rebutting that presumption. IV. The Division’s Rebuttal. As we stated at the outset, in accordance with § 74-2-9(C), we must consider only evidence supporting the Board’s finding in the light most favorable to support the finding. We disregard all other evidence. United Veterans Org. v. New Mexico Prop. App. Dept., 84 N.M. at 118, 500 P.2d 199. The question before us is: Did the Division overcome the presumption raised by-Duke City that granting a variance to Duke City would not be injurious to health or safety? A. Medical proof. We have previously said that no medical proof from either side proves or disproves actual harm to health. We hold that substantial evidence does not support the Board’s finding that medical proof established actual injury to health or safety. Substantial evidence means such relevant evidence as a reasonable mind might accept as adequate to support a conclusion. Toltec Intern., Inc. v. Village of Ruidoso, 95 N.M. 82, 619 P.2d 186 (1980). While medical testimony indicated that particulate matter from wood-burning can exacerbate health problems such as asthma, emphysema and chronic bronchitis, the Division offered no direct medical evidence that this will occur as a result of emissions from Duke City’s burner. The medical evidence standing alone does not support the Board’s conclusion that granting the variance will create a condition injurious to health or safety. B. Citizen testimony. In its statement of reasons, the Board found: 13. Unrebutted citizen testimony, and testimony and affidavits from local physicians, corroborates the expert testimony on the potential injurious health effects from continued Duke City emissions, and independently consitute [sic] reliable evidence of injury to health. 14. Citizen testimony also provided material evidence of adverse safety effects, including hazardous driving conditions resulting from Duke City’s woodsmoke. This evidence included the statement of one physician, Dr. Hassemer, from the Española Valley who said that he and his children had suffered asthma attacks while driving through wood smoke emitted by Duke City and that one child had experienced coughing spells and eye irritation. Another resident said, “[S]chool children are forever with red eyes, irritated eyes, nose and even throat * * *.” A nurse at the Española Hospital stated that while attending patients in the obstetrical ward, she had experienced adverse effects from the woodsmoke. Duke City challenges the Board’s reliance on this evidence on the grounds that: (1) not a single citizen was sworn; (2) no cross-examination was permitted; (3) information with respect to the injurious-to-health-or-safety issue is peculiarly within the knowledge of medical experts; and (4) as to Dr. Hassemer, there was no basis given for his opinions. In order to accommodate the citizens who wished to express their views, the Board held a special evening session. By one witness’s count, 350 citizens attended the session. From a review of the transcript it is clear that only a small percentage of those who appeared chose to testify. From reading the statements of those who did speak, it is equally clear that many approached the hearing with diffidence. Undoubtedly in an effort to encourage their input and allow as many as possible the opportunity to speak, the chairman announced at the beginning of the session that he would not swear any of the people unless their testimony became highly technical. No one voiced any objections regarding this procedure. Under NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 603, every witness, before testifying, must declare by oath or affirmation that he will do so truthfully. The parties have not cited us to any authority in New Mexico exempting witnesses at an administrative hearing from that rule, and we have found none. Nevertheless, Duke City waived any error by failing to object at the time. Dettore v. Brighton Township, 91 Mich.App. 526, 284 N.W.2d 148 (1979). At the end of the afternoon session and before adjourning for the evening session when citizens would be heard, the chairman told counsel: Those people have been waiting for this hearing for a long time, they’ve expressed a sincere interest in it, and I want you to take into consideration that these people are not represented by counsel, and any badgering of those witnesses .or any undue pressure on those witnesses by counsel from either side, is— the Chairman is going to kind of try to jump in on their side, should that happen. (Emphasis added.) Duke City claims that by this remark the chairman discouraged cross-examination. We disagree. What he discouraged was “badgering” or “undue pressure” of witnesses by “either side.” Given the circumstances we do not think that this comment amounted to anything more than an admonition to avoid objectionable questioning— something that would clearly come within the chair’s authority to control if it occurred. Moreover, the chairman advised the audience more than once that the attorneys might cross-examine them. At the beginning of the session for citizen input, he told the audience, “I possibly, or one of the other attorneys, after you have spoken, may ask you questions on your opinions or your feelings, but we wanted each one of you to feel free to express those opinions to us * * He also informed the people that in addition to the attorneys, he would permit two non-lawyers to ask questions. At the conclusion of Dr. Hassemer’s testimony the chairman asked, “Any questions from anybody?” We are satisfied that no due process rights were violated and that Duke City’s decision not to cross-examine stemmed from tactical judgment, not inhibition. Next, Duke City argues that the citizens’ statements constituted nothing more than “lay opinions” and could have no probative value regarding the issue of injury to health or safety. While it is true that lay witnesses cannot express opinions as to matters which require expertise, a lay witness may give opinions that are rationally based on the perception of the witness. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 701. Further, the Board permitted lay witnesses to describe symptoms they had experienced even though the cause might have been beyond the scope of their knowledge. No one would question the ability of an injured person to describe the pain he or she experienced after an accident. Similarly, witnesses in this proceeding could describe their symptoms at times when Duke City burned wood waste. This type of evidence differs from the conclusory opinions rejected in Duke City I, 95 N.M. at 405, 622 P.2d 709. Finally, Duke City claims that neither the petition signed by the local physicians, nor the statement of Dr. Hassemer was substantial evidence. We agree as to the petition. Duke City, however, made no objection. In order to preserve error, a party must object at the hearing; it cannot raise the issue for the first time on appeal. See NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 103. As to Dr. Hassemer, Duke City says no basis for his opinions existed. Much of what Dr. Hassemer said came from source material and was general rather than specific. He quoted from texts and resolutions passed by the State and local medical societies regarding air pollution. Duke City did not object and did not cross-examine the witness, although the chairman invited it. We hold that Duke City waived any error by not objecting. The admissibility of evidence is generally a matter of discretion with the trial court, and we will not reverse absent a showing of abuse of discretion. State v. Bell, 90 N.M. 134, 560 P.2d 925 (1977). This rule applies to administrative hearings as well. Having reviewed the record, we are persuaded that the Board did not abuse its discretion in admitting the citizen’s statements and these statements supported the Board’s findings. C. NAAQS. This brings us then to the question of whether exceedance of the NAAQS warrants denial of the variance. The Board found that violation of this standard per se creates a condition injurious to health. It also found that “ambient air particulate concentrations resulting from Duke City’s wood smoke emissions can from time to time reasonably be expected to equal or exceed the range of 500 micrograms per cubic meter on a 24 hour average.” This would exceed the 260 factor in the NAAQS by 240. The parties differ sharply as to the effect of the NAAQS. Duke City argues that any exceedance of the standard, without more, fails to establish injury to health or safety. It contends that since the NAAQS includes a margin of safety, the standards are set at levels lower than those at which detectable health effects will occur. Thus, says Duke City, there can be excursions above the standard without causing injury. The Board and Division respond by saying that the margin of safety protects against effects not yet uncovered by research, and therefore, any exceedance cannot be tolerated. We do not need to decide if a violation of the NAAQS constitutes per se a condition injurious to health or safety. Both parties have used this standard as a guideline—they differ only as to interpretation and application. When we speak of a “condition injurious to health or safety,” we do not necessarily refer to actual harm, only a condition that tends to cause harm to health or safety. The Air Quality Control Act and the Federal Clean Air Act are designed to prevent harm before it occurs. With reference to the Division’s modeling results, Dr. Samet, testifying for the Division, stated that exceedance of the NAAQS reduces the margin of safety and that one can expect some adverse health effects as a result, such as exacerbation of chronic lung disease, including chronic bronchitis, emphysema and asthma. Although Dr. Samet did not quantify at what levels such exacerbation might occur, his testimony permits an inference to be drawn that subtle adverse effects can arise from excursions. Although the evidence offered by the Division is by no means conclusive, we believe, given the lack of scientific information and considering the stated purpose of the Act, that substantial evidence exists to uphold the finding, if the underlying testimony as to exceedance withstands judicial review. Duke City launches an attack on the data used by the Division and the Sierra Club in their models to predict hypothetical concentrations of pollutants. Modeling is an acceptable method to predict concentrations. See, e.g., PPG Industries, Inc. v. Costle, 630 F.2d 462 (6th Cir. 1980). Duke City contends that the Division erred in compiling its factual data and in making its assumptions, so that the Board acted arbitrarily and capriciously in relying on their model. As noted in Ethyl Corp. v. Environmental Protection Agcy., 541 F.2d 1 (D.C.Cir.1976), “We must look at the decision not as the chemist, biologist or statistician that we are qualified neither by training nor experience to be, but as a reviewing court exercising our narrowly defined duty of holding agencies to certain minimal standards of rationality.” In order to consider model results, courts must determine whether a rational basis exists for their reliability. There must be rational connections between the factual inputs, the modeling assumptions, the modeling results and the conclusions drawn therefrom. Sierra Club v. Costle, 657 F.2d 298 (D.C.Cir.1981). Duke City’s argument that the data input of the model was faulty asks us to weigh the evidence, in short, decide whose expert is right. When Duke City asked EID’s expert where he got his fuel feed rate information, he replied that it came from observations made by his personnel. Other than asking whether the information had been verified, Duke City asked no further questions pertaining to the matter. Based on our review, we hold the Division met its burden of showing that a rational basis existed for the reliability of the model results. V. CONCLUSION In summary, we hold that while there was insufficient medical evidence standing alone to establish actual injury to health or safety from concentrations of wood smoke, a rational basis did exist to support the Board’s finding; this basis appears both in the citizen statements and in the evidence of exceedance above the NAAQS. Because of the lack of scientific information as to levels beyond which injury to health will occur, the NAAQS provides the best standard available. Exceedance of that standard, as shown here, justifies denial of a variance. We have not held, and the evidence will not justify holding, that the emissions from Duke City’s wigwam burner have caused or even within a degree of reasonable medical probability will cause injury to health. We hold only that the evidence and the inferences to be drawn therefrom warrant a denial, because subtle effects resulting from these concentrations may tend to cause exacerbations of respiratory conditions. We recognize that this standard may not be adequate to establish a causal relationship in a personal injury or workmen’s compensation action but are of the opinion that it comports with the purpose of the Environmental Improvement Act and the Air Quality Control Act, as well as the Federal Clean Air Act. Based on a review of the record, we affirm the Board’s denial of the variance. IT IS SO ORDERED. HENDLEY and LOPEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. Following review, the Supreme Court reversed this Court’s opinion filed June 28, 1983, and remanded for further review. Duke City Lumber Company applied to the New Mexico Improvement Board (Board) for a one year variance from Air Quality Control Regulation 402(A). Following review of the denial of the application, this Court in Duke City Lumber Co. v. New Mexico Environmental Improvement Board, 95 N.M. 401, 622 P.2d 709 (Ct.App.1980), cert. denied, 95 N.M. 426, 622 P.2d 1046 (1981) {Duke City I), remanded “with instructions to the Board to conduct further proceedings to determine whether the wood smoke in the volume being emitted from appellant’s wigwam burner is ‘injurious to health or safety.’ ” Id. at 407, 622 P.2d 709. The Board held a second hearing and again denied the appli cation for a variance. Duke City appealed, and we affirmed the denial in Duke City Lumber Co. v. New Mexico Environmental Improvement Division, 101 N.M. 301, 681 P.2d 727 (1983) (Duke City II). The Supreme Court granted certiorari, and reversed and remanded to this Court with instructions to determine if the Board’s decision is supported by substantial evidence in the record as a whole. Duke City Lumber Co. v. New Mexico Environmental Improvement Board and New Mexico Environmental Improvement Division, 101 N.M. 291, 681 P.2d 717 (1984) (Duke City III). The Air Quality Control Act defines air pollution as “the emission ... into the atmosphere of one or more air contaminants in such quantities and duration as may with reasonable probability injure human health * * NMSA 1978, § 74-2-2(B) (Repl.Pamp.1983) (emphasis added). With this definition in mind and reviewing the record as a whole, we must determine whether substantial evidence exists to support a denial of the variance. In doing so, we must view the evidence in the light most favorable to the Board’s decision. Duke City III; New Mexico Human Services Department v. Garcia, 94 N.M. 175, 608 P.2d 151 (1980). As we discussed in Duke City II the evidence before the Board falls within three categories: 1) medical proof; 2) citizen testimony; and 3) violation of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for particulates. In Duke City II we said that no medical testimony demonstrated any causal connection between the emissions from Duke City’s wigwam burner and actual injury to health. We came to that conclusion because scientists had gathered little data for the purpose of analyzing health effects from wood smoke. Our review of the whole record convinces us that the medical proof before the Board neither proves nor disproves to a reasonable probability that the wood smoke from Duke City’s wigwam burner in the volume being emitted was injurious to health or safety. As to the citizen testimony, the Supreme Court made clear in Duke City III that under the “legal residuum rule” there must be “a residuum of competent evidence to support the findings of an administrative agency where a substantial right is at stake.” Id. at 295, 681 P.2d 717. While the citizen testimony is supportive of the Board’s action in denying a variance, there is some question as to whether it would be admissible in a jury trial since, inter alia, the citizens were not sworn and not cross examined. Thus, we must look to the final category of evidence to determine if the Board’s ruling can be upheld. Both sides appear to agree that the effect wood smoke may have on health depends upon the concentration of particulate matter in the smoke. The NAAQS for particulates is: 75 micrograms per cubic meter — annual geometric mean. 260 micrograms per cubic meter — maximum 24-hour concentration not to be exceeded more than once per year. 40 C.F.R. § 50.6 (1982). Based on its modeling study, Duke City’s expert testified that it was unlikely that the maximum concentration of particulate in the vicinity of the burner would ever exceed the NAAQS. And after monitoring of the ambient air quality, this expert concluded that at no time did a sample show a concentration exceeding the 260 micrograms — 24-hour concentration standard. In contrast, the results of the New Mexico Environmental Improvement Division’s (EID) air dispersion model demonstrated that particulate concentrations substantially in excess of the 260 micrograms per cubic meter for particulates can reasonably be expected to occur at Duke City’s burner. The tabulation showed, for example, that on fourteen out of fifteen modeled days the concentrations exceeded the NAAQS. One twenty-four hour average particulate concentration measured 949 per cubic meter, and eight additional days fell in the 390-650 per cubic meter range. The results of the EID model were reviewed by an air quality specialist who confirmed that the results unequivocally established violations of the NAAQS for particulates. Based on claimed deficiencies in the EID modeling study, Duke City argues that the Board acted arbitrarily and capriciously in relying on that evidence. The deficiencies in the EID model, according to Duke City, include lack of verification in assumptions, failure to adjust for the burner’s variable damper, use of inaccurate input data, and inaccuracies in the model itself. The record, however, does not support a finding that these deficiencies existed. The Board and EID counter claiming that Duke City’s air quality expert was not qualified, that his testimony was “riddled with uncertainties and inconsistencies”, and that the results were unreliable. In fact, according to EID’s expert, “The results are meaningless,” because of Duke City’s choice of models and the use of incorrect input. Another expert criticized Duke City’s monitoring based on its use of a single local monitor as opposed to a strategically-located multiple monitor system which would be necessary to obtain a true and accurate reading of particulate concentrations. As we pointed out in Duke City II, the function of a reviewing court is to determine whether a rational basis exists for the reliability of modeling studies. We said, “There must be rational connections between the factual inputs, the modeling assumptions, the modeling results and the conclusions drawn therefrom.” We find that this test has been met, and the Board could rely on the EID modeling results in arriving at its decision. As stated in Ethyl Corp. v. Environmental Protection Agcy., 541 F.2d 1 (D.C.Cir.1976): [Ajfter our careful study of the record, we must take a step back from the agency decision. We must look at the decision not as the chemist, biologist or statistician that we are qualified neither by training nor experience to be, but as a reviewing court exercising our narrowly defined duty of holding agencies to certain minimal standards of rationality. “Although [our] inquiry into the facts is to be searching and careful, the ultimate standard of review is a narrow one.” * * We must affirm unless the agency decision is arbitrary or capricious. (Citation and footnote omitted). 541 F.2d at 36-37. We have reviewed the whole record and conclude that the Board’s decision should be affirmed, if violation of the NAAQS for particulates constitutes a condition injurious to health or safety. In Duke City II we raised, but did not answer, the question of whether violation of the NAAQS constitutes per se a condition injurious to health or safety. The Supreme Court did not in Duke City III make “a determination as to whether violation of that standard alone, or in conjunction with medical evidence * * * justifies denial of a variance.” Because of the lack of definitive medical proof in this proceeding, the Board’s denial of the variance must stand, if at all, on the basis of violation of the NAAQS. . We note at the outset that Duke City did not in either its petition for certiorari to the Supreme Court or its earlier appeal to this Court seek review of the NAAQS as an acceptable standard or as a standard the violation of which justified denial of the request for a variance. In fact, all of the parties to this appeal have relied on the NAAQS. There is good reason for the parties to adopt the NAAQS for particulates as the primary criteria for either the grant or denial of Duke City’s application for a variance. Congress has directed the Administrator of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to adopt national primary and secondary ambient air quality standards for each air pollutant. 42 U.S. § 7409. The standards prescribed “shall be ambient air quality standards the attainment and maintenance of which in the judgment of the Administrator, based on such criteria and allowing an adequate margin of safety, are requisite to protect the public health.” Id. All of the states have been required by Congress to meet and enforce these standards. See generally 42 U.S.C. § 7410. As pointed out in Lead Industries Ass’n v. EPA, 647 F.2d 1130 (D.C.Cir.1980), “[T]he task of [identifying harmful effects] * * * is complicated by the absence of any clear thresholds above which there are adverse effects and below which there are none.” Id. at 1162. Recognizing this difficulty, the Administrator has taken the position that Congress has directed him to err on the side of caution in adopting the standards. The D.C. Circuit in Lead Industries has described the situation as follows: First, Congress made it abundantly clear that considerations of economic or technological feasibility are to be subordinated to the goal of protecting the public health by prohibiting any consideration of such factors. Second, it specified that the air quality standards must also protect individuals who are particularly sensitive to the effects of pollution. Third, it required that the standards be set at a level at which there is “an absence of adverse effect” on these sensitive individuals. Finally, it specifically directed the Administrator to allow an adequate margin of safety in setting primary air quality standards in order to provide some protection against effects that research has not yet uncovered * * *. ****** * * * [Requiring EPA to wait until it can conclusively demonstrate that a particular effect is adverse to health before it acts is inconsistent with both the Act’s precautionary and preventive orientation and the nature of the Administrator's statutory responsibilities. Id. at 1153, 1155. For a history of the development of federal clean air legislation and the role of the states, see Train v. Natural Resources Def. Council, 421 U.S. 60, 95 S.Ct. 1470, 43 L.Ed.2d 731 (1975). Duke City argues that Congress, by allowing an adequate margin of safety, not only contemplated but countenanced occasional excursions beyond the limits of the NAAQS. We disagree. Lead Industries makes clear that the margin of safety protects “against effects which have not yet been uncovered by research and effects whose medical significance is a matter of disagreement.” 647 F.2d at 1154 (footnote omitted). See also Republic Steel Corp. v. Costle, 621 F.2d 797 (6th Cir.1980). Therefore, we hold that violation of the NAAQS for particulate matter, as established by substantial evidence in this case, not only justified but mandated denial of Duke City’s application for a variance. In so holding we determine that violation of the NAAQS for particulates establishes per se injury to health. We hold that the Board’s denial of the variance was neither arbitrary and capricious, nor an abuse of discretion. Its action accords with the law, and the result finds support in substantial evidence. Our determination is based on review of the record as a whole. While we affirm the denial of Duke City’s variance, we observe that the judicial process has unavoidably afforded Duke City the very relief which the Board denied. This is unfortunate. We affirm the Board’s action in denying the variance. Appellate costs shall be borne by Duke City. IT IS SO ORDERED. HENDLEY and NEAL, JJ., concur.
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OPINION MINZNER, Judge. The Bernalillo County Assessor (“Assessor”) denied Appellants Alvin D. and Mary N. Hooper’s (“collectively referred to as Hooper”) claim for a veteran’s exemption under NMSA 1978, Section 7-37-5(C)(3)(d) (Repl.Pamp.1983). The statute exempts $2,000.00 of the taxable value of property for any honorably discharged Vietnam vet eran who served on active duty for at least ninety days and who was a New Mexico resident prior to May 8, 1976. Following a hearing, the Bernalillo County Valuation Protests Board (“Board”) upheld the Assessor’s denial. Hooper appeals pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 7-38-28(A) (Repl. Pamp.1983). The facts are undisputed. Hooper owns real property subject to taxation in Bernalillo County. Alvin D. Hooper served in the armed forces on active duty in Vietnam for a sufficient length of time under Section 7-37-5(C)(2). He received an honorable discharge. The claim for an exemption was denied solely because he did not establish residency in New Mexico until August 17, 1981. Hooper raises three issues on appeal: (1) Whether the statutorily enacted residency requirement for qualification for the veterans exemption violates the equal protection clauses of both the United States and New Mexico Constitutions; (2) Whether the statutorily enacted residency requirement for qualification for the veterans exemption violates the due process clauses of both the United States and New Mexico Constitutions; and (3) Whether, if invalid, the residency requirement can be severed from the exemption statute. We affirm the Assessor’s and Board’s denial of the exemption and hold that the residency requirement is valid. Thus, we do not reach the third issue. EQUAL PROTECTION Section 7-37-5(C)(3)(d) separates all Vietnam veteran New Mexico residents into two classes: a class of veterans who became residents prior to May 8, 1976, and are entitled to the exemption; and a class of veterans who became residents subsequent to May 7, 1976, and are not entitled to the exemption. Alvin D. Hooper is a member of the latter class, to which the statute denies a benefit. When a statute is challenged on equal protection grounds, we must determine the appropriate standard of review. Our courts have interpreted the equal protection clause of the New Mexico Constitution consistently with federal court interpretations of the equal protection clause in the United States Constitution. Anaconda Co. v. Property Tax Department, 94 N.M. 202, 608 P.2d 514 (Ct.App.1979), cert. denied, 94 N.M. 628, 614 P.2d 545 (1980). A classification scheme which impinges on a fundamental right or discriminates against a suspect class is constitutionally defensible only if it furthers a compelling state interest. McGeehan v. Bunch, 88 N.M. 308, 540 P.2d 238 (1975). Hooper urges this court to find the statute unconstitutional on the ground that it penalizes Vietnam era veterans who have exercised their fundamental right to travel and is not supported by a compelling state interest. Because in our judgment the statute does not unconstitutionally burden the right to travel, we decline to apply such a standard. All residency requirements to some degree burden those who exercise the right to travel. Decisions recognizing the importance of that right, such as Shapiro v. Thompson, 394 U.S. 618, 89 S.Ct. 1322, 22 L.Ed.2d 600 (1969), were never intended to cast doubt on the validity of all residency requirements. Dunn v. Blumstein, 405 U.S. 330, 342, n. 13, 92 S.Ct. 995, 1003, n. 13, 31 L.Ed.2d 274 (1972). Furthermore, not every statute which has an adverse impact on a person who has exercised the right to travel is subject to strict scrutiny: The amount of impact required to give rise to the compelling-state-interest test was not made clear [in Shapiro ]. The Court spoke of the requisite impact in two ways. First, we considered whether the waiting period would deter migration * * *. Second, the Court considered the extent to which the residence requirement served to penalize the exercise of the right to travel. Memorial Hospital v. Maricopa County, 415 U.S. 250, 256-57, 94 S.Ct. 1076, 1081, 39 L.Ed.2d 306 (1974) (emphasis in original). Section 7-37-5(C)(3)(d) does not unconstitutionally penalize an exercise of the right to travel. Courts that have applied the stricter standard of review to statutes because they abridged the right to travel have done so with respect to such fundamental interests as voting, welfare benefits, or public medical assistance. Cf. Hawaii Boating Association v. Water Transportation Facilities, 651 F.2d 661 (9th Cir. 1981) (court found durational residency requirements for preferential recreational rates did not impose a significant penalty on fundamental right to travel). Such rights are aspects of state citizenship now recognized in every state in some form. Denying such rights to new citizens even temporarily would penalize new residents and deter migration because those persons who contemplate moving interstate have reasonable expectations that such necessary, essential rights will be available. A veteran’s property tax exemption is not such a right. Hooper has argued that the value of the right is irrelevant. Hooper cites Zobel v. Williams, 457 U.S. 55, 102 S.Ct. 2309, 72 L.Ed.2d 672 (1982), which found that the Alaska dividend program denied new residents equal protection, for the proposition that denial of a benefit that has relatively small pecuniary value may be a sufficient penalty on the right to travel. Zobel did not decide whether the program merited strict scrutiny and thus did not alter the test established by Memorial Hospital. Courts have held unconstitutional a substantial waiting period imposed on new residents as a qualification for benefits. Cf. Lambert v. Wentworth, 423 A.2d 527 (Me. 1980) (court struck a ten-year residency requirement as an unconstitutional penalty on those veterans who have recently exercised their right to travel). That is not the case before us. Section 7-37-5(C)(3)(d) grants a tax exemption for veterans on the basis of residency established prior to a certain date. Such a legislative decision does not deny equal protection unless it lacks a rational basis. Id. A legislative classification must be reasonable, not arbitrary, and must rest upon some ground of difference that has a fair and substantial relation to the object of the legislation. McGeehan v. Bunch. The legislature enjoys a wide field of choice in creating classifications. Shope v. Don Coe Construction Co., 92 N.M. 508, 590 P.2d 656 (Ct.App.1979). In taxation, even more than in other fields, the legislature possesses the greatest freedom in classification. Michael J. Maloof & Co. v. Bureau of Revenue, 80 N.M. 485, 458 P.2d 89 (1969). “That a statute may discriminate in favor of a certain class does not render it arbitrary if the discrimination is founded upon a reasonable distinction, or difference in state policy.” Allied Stores of Ohio v. Bowers, 358 U.S. 522, 528, 79 S.Ct. 437, 441, 3 L.Ed.2d 480 (1959). When evaluated in light of this standard, we find that the New Mexico veterans exemption reflects legitimate state purposes and that Section 7-37-5(C)(3)(d) bears a reasonable relationship to those purposes. The people of the state first adopted the veterans exemption as Article 8, Section 5 of the New Mexico Constitution, in September 1921. The constitutional provision is not self-executing. It requires implementing legislation by the legislature in order to become effective. Cf. State ex rel. Delgado v. Romero, 17 N.M. 81, 124 P. 649 (1912). The legislature first enacted a veterans exemption statute in 1923. That enactment contained both a residency and a thirty-day service requirement, neither of which is contained in the constitutional provision. Chapter 130, Laws of 1923, codified in NMSA 1941, § 76-111. The legislature amended the statute in 1933 to provide that the claimant’s residency must be acquired prior to January 1, 1934. Flaska v. State, 51 N.M. 13, 177 P.2d 174 (1946). In Flaska, the court addressed the intent of the exemption. The court found that the people had adopted a plan to reward New Mexico veterans which could be made to apply to soldiers of any war, past or future, and had given the legislature con tinuing and permanent discretion to modify qualification criteria. Although the court recognized that the legislature might grant a tax exemption to every honorably discharged veteran of any war, the court implicitly recognized the propriety' of a less expansive exemption under the state constitution. The court deferred to the legislature for a solution to the problem that the requirement of residency prior to 1934 might exclude some World War II veterans: Perhaps some soldiers who live in and entered military service from New Mexico and served during the present war will be denied benefit of the exemption because of the requirement that residence in the state must have been acquired before 1934 to be eligible for the bounty * * *. If it sees fit to do so, the legislature has authority to act again * * to meet and provide for conditions which may have grown up since the exemption statute in question was passed. 51 N.M. at 26, 177 P.2d at 182. In Flaska, the court assumed that the 1934 residency requirement was valid; the appellant satisfied the requirement. The legislature has since amended the statute to provide specific residency date requirements for veterans of each major conflict in which the United States has been engaged since the exemption was originally adopted. In each instance, cutoff dates allow a veteran to qualify for the exemption if he establishes residency in New Mexico within a grace period following the official end of the conflict. Section 7-37-5 (Cum.Supp.1983). The question before us is whether the legislature acted arbitrarily or capriciously .in either establishing a cutoff date or in adopting this specific cutoff date for veterans of the Vietnam war. Our courts have recognized that legislative classification based wholly upon the time element is invalid where the time selected has no reasonable relation to the object of the legislation. State v. Sunset Ditch Co., 48 N.M. 17, 145 P.2d 219 (1944). That is not the ease here. The legislature has acted reasonably in exercising its discretion under the state constitution. A state’s interest in expressing gratitude and rewarding its own citizens for honorable military service is a rational basis for veterans’ preferences. Langston v. Levitt, 425 F.Supp. 642 (S.D. N.Y.1977); August v. Bronstein, 369 F.Supp. 190 (S.D.N.Y.1974), aff'd, 417 U.S. 901, 94 S.Ct. 2596, 41 L.Ed.2d 208 (1974). The residency requirement at issue extends the benefit to any Vietnam veteran who was a resident prior to induction, who became a resident after induction but before his active tour of duty, or who became a resident within one year of the final U.S. troop withdrawal. The scheme affords any Vietnam veteran a reasonable opportunity to establish New Mexico residency and qualify, and the one-year period, of which Hooper is critical, is actually a grace period that the legislature gratuitously provided. Cf. Lambert v. Wentworth (sustaining a requirement of residency at the time of induction). That the legislature chooses to reward a specific class of veterans does not require it to extend the benefit to all veterans where the distinguishing residency criteria is rational. See Horst v. Guy, 211 N.W.2d 723 (N.D.1973); Miller v. Board of County Commissioners of Natrona County, 79 Wyo. 502, 337 P.2d 262 (1959). The legislature is entitled to reward and encourage veterans to settle in New Mexico, but it is also entitled to limit the period of time within which they may choose to establish residency. See Miller. The fact that the legislature might have furthered its purpose more completely or more equitably does not invalidate the classification. East Texas Guidance & Achievement Center, Inc. v. Brochette, 431 F.Supp. 231 (E.D.Tex.1977). Hooper argues that the specific date chosen, May 8, 1976, is completely arbitrary, pointing to the fact that the 1983 legislature changed the cutoff date from May 8, 1975 to May 8, 1976. Although any date chosen would be, to some extent, arbitrary, the legislature has enacted a statute which allows Vietnam veterans additional time to establish or re-establish New Mexico residency. The legislature has provided a comparable period for veterans of World War II and of the Korean conflict. Classification based upon the particular cutoff date is reasonably related to the object of the legislation. Zobel v. Williams, upon which Hooper relies, is distinguishable. There, the court struck down a classification scheme which extended a governmental benefit to all bona fide residents but conditioned the amount of the benefit on duration of residence. Finding that the classification scheme “creates fixed, permanent distinctions between an ever-increasing number of perpetual classes of concededly bona fide residents, based on how long they have been in the State” (457 U.S. at 59, 102 S.Ct. at 2312), the court rejected Alaska’s interests in support of such a scheme as insufficient. The statute at issue here extends a tax benefit not to all bona fide residents, but to a small class of New Mexico veteran residents. Unlike Zobel, the statute at issue here involves tax legislation and requires us to recognize an even broader legislative freedom in classification. Regan v. Taxation With Representation of Washington, 461 U.S. 540, 103 S.Ct. 1997, 76 L.Ed.2d 129 (1983). This classification scheme does not favor long-term residents as a class over those who have recently exercised their right to travel. It is not a true durational residency requirement which courts have disfavored. Zobel v. Williams; Lambert v. Wentworth. The legislature here extended a benefit to a specific class of New Mexico veteran residents in a manner that is rationally related to legitimate state interests. DUE PROCESS Hooper next contends that the statute denies a constitutional right to due process because it is so vague or uncertain that persons of common intelligence must necessarily guess at its meaning. Hooper points out that the statute is unclear as to whether the requirement at issue is a continuous residency requirement and that a veteran with only one day of New Mexico residency, immediately followed by an extended period of nonresidency prior to May 8, 1976, might qualify for the exemption where Alvin D. Hooper does not. Such arguments are not, standing alone, sufficient to allow this court to consider the issues raised. The exemption was not denied on either ground raised in support of this position. Hooper does not have standing to challenge the statute on the due process grounds of vagueness raised, and we decline to issue an advisory opinion on the matter. Advance Loan Co. v. Kovach, 79 N.M. 509, 445 P.2d 386 (1968); Asplund v. Alarid, 29 N.M. 129, 219 P. 786 (1923). Hooper also argues that the statute fails to satisfy due process requirements because there is no rational basis to deny the tax exemption here because other veterans with fewer or less significant contacts with New Mexico could qualify. The fact that the legislature chooses to address an issue in such a manner that absolute equality is not realized does not require this court to strike the classification on due process grounds. Albuquerque Metropolitan Arroyo Flood Control Authority v. Swinburne, 74 N.M. 487, 394 P.2d 998 (1964). Because we find that the statutory classification is constitutional, we need not consider the issue of severance raised by Hooper. The decisions of the Assessor and the Board are affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and NEAL, J„ concur.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. Defendants petitioned the district court for a writ of prohibition against various metropolitan court judges to curtail bench trials and require a jury trial in multiple offense cases for which, upon conviction, the aggregate sentences could equal or exceed 180 days. The district court denied the petition. Defendants appeal; we reverse. Defendants are charged in metropolitan court with multiple traffic violations, including violations of NMSA 1978, Section 66-8-102 (Cum.Supp.1980 and Cum.Supp. 1981) (driving under the influence of intoxicating liquor or drugs) commonly referred to as the offense of “DWI.” The initial charges against each of the defendants was for a second violation under Section 66-8-102, which authorizes “imprisonment for not less than ninety days nor more than one year.” The State later filed motions to reduce the charges to first offense violations, which motions were granted. A first offense violation under Section 66-8-102 authorizes “imprisonment for not less than thirty days nor more than ninety days.” Defendants were also charged, however, with one or more additional petty misdemeanors carrying penalties of up to ninety days. In each case, the metropolitan court granted the State’s request for a bench trial, while denying defendant’s request for jury trial. Defendants then applied for a writ of prohibition in district court to prohibit non-jury trials in their respective metropolitan court cases. The district court issued an alternative writ, and briefs and stipulated facts were filed. After the district court heard oral arguments, it denied the petition and quashed the alternative writ. Defendants claim on appeal that they are entitled to jury trials under the Sixth Amendment of the United States Constitution and under NMSA 1978, Subsection 34-8A-5(B) (Repl.Pamp.1981). It is their position that any interpretation of Subsection 34-8A-5(B) which denies them a jury trial also unconstitutionally denies them the right of equal protection, in that persons charged with the same violations can obtain jury trials in magistrate courts outside Bernalillo County under NMSA 1978, Section 35-8-1. The New Mexico Constitution guarantees the “right to a trial by jury as it has heretofore existed.” N.M.Const. art. 2, § 12. In Hamilton v. Walker, 65 N.M. 470, 340 P.2d 407 (1959), this Court held that a defendant had no constitutional right to a jury trial in a DWI prosecution (a petty offense with a maximum penalty at that time of 90 days and a fine). The court noted, however, that “the right [to jury trial] should be jealously guarded and preserved where the legislature sees fit to grant it in other and different cases [beyond the traditional, constitutionally-guaranteed cases].” Id. at 473, 340 P.2d 409. In Subsection 34-8A-5(B), our legislature outlined the right to a jury trial as follows: With respect to criminal actions: (1) if the penalty does not exceed ninety days’ imprisonment or if the penalty is a fine or forfeiture of a license, the action shall be tried by the judge without a jury; (2) if the penalty exceeds ninety days’ but does not exceed six months’ imprisonment, either party to the action may demand a trial by jury. The demand shall be made orally or in writing to the court at or before the time of entering a plea or in writing to the court within ten days after the time of entering a plea. If demand is not made pursuant to this subsection, trial by jury is deemed waived; or (3) if the penalty exceeds six months’ imprisonment, the case shall be tried by jury unless the defendant waives a jury trial with the approval of the court and the consent of the state. In the present appeal, each defendant faces a maximum possible aggregate penalty of 180 days or more. The State attempts to portray defendants’ argument on appeal with respect to Subsection 34-8A-5(B) as a claim not made below and now improperly raised. Although defendants’ argument is somewhat obscured by an inapplicable equal protection theme, we discern its thrust as a simple assertion that under the aggregation theory, Subsection 34-8A-5(B) affords the right to a jury trial to each defendant. We agree with defendants and hold that they are entitled to a jury trial under Subsection 34-8A-5(B), setting out our reasoning below. We do note, however, that contrary to the State’s contention that this issue was never raised in the trial court, defendants specifically designated and briefed the issue in their petition for the alternative writ. We are urged by the State that strict construction of the statute requires us to interpret “the penalty” in only the singular sense, rather than as reasonably including “aggregate penalty” within its meaning. As the State points out, this Court has said that under the rules of statutory construction, we “will not add words except where necessary to make the statute conform to the obvious intent of the legislature, or to prevent its being absurd.” State v. Nance, 77 N.M. 39, 46, 419 P.2d 242, 247 (1966), cert. denied, 386 U.S. 1039, 87 S.Ct. 1495, 18 L.Ed.2d 605 (1967). The State omits to mention that in Nance, we went on to observe: But where the language of the legislative act is doubtful or an adherence to the literal use of words would lead to injustice, absurdity or contradiction, the statute will be construed according to its obvious spirit or reason, even though this requires the rejection of words or the substitution of others. Id. We do not find it necessary to reject the words of Subsection 34-8A-5(B), but we do conclude that the intent behind the statute clearly requires that we interpret “the penalty” to refer to the potential aggregate penalty. We concur in the statement of the Court of Appeals in State v. Haar, 94 N.M. 539, 540, 612 P.2d 1350, 1351 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 94 N.M. 674, 615 P.2d 991 (1980), cert. denied, 449 U.S. 1063, 101 S.Ct. 787, 66 L.Ed.2d 606 (1980), that “whenever a defendant is exposed to a term of confinement of over six months, he is entitled to a jury” (citing Baldwin v. New York, 399 U.S. 66, 90 S.Ct. 1886, 26 L.Ed.2d 437 (1970)). In the present case, defendants manifestly are exposed to imprisonment of six months or more. Accordingly, we must interpret Subsection 34-8A-5(B) as providing the right to a jury trial under such circumstances. The State refers to Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145, 88 S.Ct. 1444, 20 L.Ed.2d 491 (1968), wherein the Supreme Court held that the Sixth Amendment right to a jury trial applies to the states with respect to serious crimes but not to petty offenses. The analyses of Duncan, as well as Baldwin, which focus on classifying an offense as serious or petty, is not directly applicable to the present case in that neither Duncan nor Baldwin involved a multiple-offense situation. Both cases are highly supportive of our decision, however, in that they state the most relevant criteria of the seriousness of an offense to be “the severity of the maximum authorized penalty.” Baldwin, 339 U.S. at 68, 90 S.Ct. at 1888. The United States Supreme Court has not yet applied the aggregate penalty theory beyond the criminal contempt area. See Codispoti v. Pennsylvania, 418 U.S. 506, 94 S.Ct. 2687, 41 L.Ed.2d 912 (1974). In light of our own concern regarding the actual total term of confinement to which a defendant is exposed, together with the provisions of our State constitution, we do not consider Duncan and Baldwin to be in conflict with the principle that the authorized aggregate penalty determines the existence of the right to a jury trial in a multiple-offense situation. Accord Haar v. Hanrahan, 708 F.2d 1547 (10th Cir.1983); United States v. Potvin, 481 F.2d 380 (10th Cir.1973). Because apparently there was no pre-trial determination of aggregate sentences of less than six months for any of the defendants, the objective-versus-subjective approach discussed by the 10th Circuit in Haar simply reinforces our resolution of this matter. We hold, therefore, that because defendants face aggregate penalties of 90 days or more, they are either entitled to jury trial under Subsection 34-8A-5(B)(2) because demanded, or to be scheduled for jury trial under Subsection 34-8A-5(B)(3) because mandated by statute. The district court is reversed and the case is remanded with directions to issue a permanent writ of prohibition in accordance with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., SOSA, Senior Justice, and RIORDAN, J., concur. STOWERS, J„ dissents. . Should the trial judge place in the record prior to trial a declaration that no imprisonment, or imprisonment of less than 90 days, will be imposed upon a finding of guilt, then the provisions of Section 34-8A-5(B)(l) would control, and the jury trial required under either -5(B)(2) or -5(B)(3) would not apply. Under such a declaration by the judge, defendant would no longer be “exposed to a term on confinement of over six months," under Baldwin, supra, or a "penalty (that) exceeds ninety days’ but does not exceed six months’ imprisonment * * under Subsection 5(B)(2).
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OPINION STOWERS, Justice. This Court granted a writ of certiorari to review whether the Bank of New Mexico (the bank) breached the terms of a collection provision in a security agreement. The trial court granted summary judgment in favor of the bank. The Court of Appeals reversed the trial court without deciding the remaining issue of whether the trial court erred in granting summary judgment rather than partial summary judgment. We reverse the Court of Appeals and remand to the Court of Appeals for decision of the remaining issue on appeal. The issue is whether the bank breached the terms of the security agreement by notifying account debtors to make payments directly to the bank before notifying the borrower of the bank’s request for direct payment. Nau Enterprises, Inc. (Nau), executed a $10,000 promissory note, dated September 13, 1974, with the bank which was due on December 12, 1974. The note was secured by a security agreement in Nau’s accounts receivable. The security agreement states, in pertinent part: 6. COLLECTIONS. Bank shall have the right to notify the account debtors obligated on any or all of Borrower’s accounts receivable (if covered hereby) to make payment thereof direct to Bank, and to take control of all proceeds of any such accounts receivable, which right Bank may exercise at any time whether or not the Borrower is then in default hereunder or was theretofore making collections thereon. Until such time as Bank elects to exercise such right by mailing to Borrower written notice thereof, Borrower is authorized, as agent of the Bank, to collect and enforce said accounts receivable. On November 18, 1974, the bank notified Nau’s account debtors by mail to make payments directly to the bank. The bank sent written notice of its action to Nau on November 22, 1974. Nau was adjudicated as a bankrupt on April 29, 1975. Two years later this action was filed by Bill J. Sholer (Sholer), the trustee in bankruptcy. Sholer contends that the conditional phrase in the collection paragraph of the security agreement should be interpreted as a strict limitation on the bank’s right to collect and enforce the accounts receivable. We disagree. The paragraph indicates that the conditional phrase, “[ujntil such time as Bank elects to exercise such right by mailing to Borrower written notice thereof,” is a limitation on the borrower’s authority as agent of the bank to collect and enforce accounts receivable. See Restatement (Second) of Agency, § 107 (1958). The security agreement states that the bank’s contractual right to collect and enforce accounts receivable by notifying account debtors is exercisable “at any time whether or not the Borrower * * * was theretofore making collections thereon.” “A contractual provision which is clear and unambiguous is conclusive.” Rushing v. Lovelace-Bataan Health Program, 93 N.M. 168, 169, 598 P.2d 211, 212 (1979). This rule applies here. Sholer’s interpretation of the agreement would render the bank’s right to collect and enforce accounts receivable subject to prior notice to the borrower. Sholer’s interpretation, if accepted, would conflict with the contractual right to notify account debtors “at any time.” This Court will not adopt an interpretation which would create conflict and ambiguity in the terms of the agreement where none previously existed. See Green River Valley Foundation, Inc. v. Foster, 78 Wash.2d 245, 473 P.2d 844 (1970). A contract must be construed as a harmonious whole, and every word or phrase must be given meaning and significance according to its importance in the context of the whole contract. Brown v. American Bank of Commerce, 79 N.M. 222, 441 P.2d 751 (1968). A review of the agreement as a whole shows that the conditional phrase was meant to limit the borrower’s authority as an agent of the bank. For instance, an additional provision in the collection paragraph states that “[u]pon Bank’s demand, Borrower will forthwith upon receipt of all checks, drafts, cash and other remittances * * * in payments or on account of Borrower’s accounts receivable (if covered), deposit the same in a special bank account for all loans made hereunder * * *.” This provision, read together with the previously quoted collection paragraph, indicates that any notice or demand from the bank is given to the borrower to limit the borrower’s authority as an agent under the security agreement, and not to trigger a contractual right of the bank. The conclusion of the court in Kersten v. Continental Bank, 129 Ariz. 44, 628 P.2d 592 (App.1981), a case cited by both Sholer and the bank as support for their respective arguments, is consistent with this Court’s conclusion that, in the context of the whole agreement, the bank’s contractual right to notify the account debtors was not conditioned upon prior notice to the borrower. In Kersten the court dealt with a collections paragraph which was similar to the paragraph in this case, except that the paragraph stated, “ ‘[ujntil account debtors are otherwise notified, Debtor, as agent of Bank, shall make collections on the Collateral.’ ” Id. at 49, 628 P.2d at 597 (emphasis by court). As part of the court’s conclusion that the collections paragraph did not require the bank to give notice to the borrower before giving notice to the account debtors, the court also concluded that notice to the borrower was not required in the context of the agreement as a whole and that the bank could exercise its contractual right to request direct payment from the account debtors at any time. In this case, the security agreement does not require that the bank give notice to the borrower before notifying the account debtors to pay the bank directly. The bank has the right to notify the account debtors at any time. Thus, the bank did not breach the security agreement. The Court of Appeals is reversed. The case is remanded to the Court of Appeals to decide the remaining issue on appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. RIORDAN, J., and LEON KARELITZ, District Judge, Eighth Judicial District, concur. SOSA, Senior Justice, dissenting without comment
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OPINION FRUMAN, Judge. Plaintiffs appeal the dismissal, with prejudice, of their claims for personal injury against defendant. The judgment dismissing the claims also awarded defendant its reasonable costs. This court issued a calendar notice proposing to dismiss the appeal because the record proper indicated that plaintiffs had objected to defendant’s cost bill and further action in the trial court was still contemplated on this issue, rendering the judgment nonfinal. There is no contention that this case is appealable under NMSA 1978, Section 39-3-4. See Thornton v. Gamble, 101 N.M. 764, 688 P.2d 1268 (Ct.App.1984). After receiving plaintiffs’ memorandum in opposition and defendant’s response to the proposed dis missal, this court entered an order directing the parties to brief the following issue: Whether the pendency of the amount of costs renders an otherwise final judgment nonfinal and, thus, nonappealable. On the basis of the following, we hold that the pendency of a proceeding solely to determine the amount of costs does not render an otherwise final judgment nonfinal. A judgment becomes final for purposes of appeal when all issues of law and fact necessary to be determined are determined and the case is completely disposed of so far as the trial court has power to do so. Johnson v. C & H Const. Co., 78 N.M. 423, 432 P.2d 267 (Ct.App.1967). Although New Mexico courts have not determined the precise issue presented in this case, our supreme court has stated that a proceeding to fix the amount of costs is a proceeding to carry out the judgment allowing costs and, therefore, a trial court has jurisdiction to determine the amount of costs after the notice of appeal has been filed. Prudential Ins. Co. of America v. Anaya, 78 N.M. 101, 428 P.2d 640 (1967). A corollary to this statement is that the pendency of a proceeding to determine the amount of costs is not sufficient to render a final judgment nonfinal. See Foster v. Addington, 48 N.M. 212, 148 P.2d 373 (1944) (judgment is final when it completely disposes of a controversy so that any further proceeding is only to carry judgment into effect). This court has previously determined that a judgment deferring the issue of attorney fees in a worker’s compensation case is neither final nor appealable. Johnson v. C & H Const. Co. However, as plaintiffs have noted, Johnson is factually distinguishable from the present case. The court in Johnson deferred a ruling on plaintiff’s request for attorney fees and clearly contemplated further proceedings before it on that issue. In the present case, the trial court awarded defendant costs and the judgment does not indicate the need for further proceedings. In fact, the possibility of further proceedings was not raised until approximately one month after the entry of judgment when plaintiffs filed their objections to defendant’s cost bill. Furthermore, the award of attorney fees in worker’s compensation cases differs significantly from the award of costs in other cases. The supreme court has held that the award of attorney fees in compensation proceedings is part of the judgment, rather than part of the costs. Genuine Parts Co. v. Garcia, 92 N.M. 57, 582 P.2d 1270 (1978). See also Jaffe v. Sundowner Properties, Inc., 808 F.2d 1425 (11th Cir.1987) (order failing to fix amount of attorney fees not final for appeal because sanction of attorney fees was not collateral to, but part of, sanction of dismissal under discovery rules). Under the law in effect when Johnson was decided, the court was required to determine the amount of attorney fees, if any, and those fees were included as a claim for relief in the complaint. See NMSA 1978, § 52-1-54; Johnson v. C & H Const. Co. (pleadings raised issue of attorney fees). The award of attorney fees was integral to the compensation claims presented in the Johnson complaint. Costs, however, do not necessarily represent a claim for relief in an action. In cases such as this one, where costs are awarded in a judgment of dismissal, costs are usually not included among defendant’s claims for relief. Instead, costs were awarded based on this defendant having prevailed against the claim for relief. See SCRA 1986, 1-054(E) and NMSA 1978, § 39-3-30. Therefore, the failure to fix the amount of costs is not a failure to adjudicate a claim for relief under Rule 1-054(C). We note that costs may be taxed by the district court clerk without further proceedings, while the amount of attorney fees in worker’s compensation actions is determined by the district court. Compare Rule 1-054(E) with NMSA 1978, § 52-1-54. Our holding is consistent with the federal ease law cited by the parties. For example, in Baughman v. Cooper-Jarrett, Inc., 530 F.2d 529 (3d Cir.1976), the trial court awarded attorney fees as part of the costs in an antitrust action without fixing the amount of the fees awarded. The appellate court determined, without discussion, that the failure to determine the amount of fees did not render the judgment nonfinal for purposes of appeal. In Mekdeci v. Merrill Nat’l Laboratories, 711 F.2d 1510 (11th Cir.1983), the trial court dismissed plaintiffs appeal from an order awarding defendant costs but failed to fix the amount of those costs. However, the merits of plaintiffs appeal from the jury verdict were considered on appeal, despite the lack of an order fixing the amount of costs awarded. Similarly, if plaintiffs in the present case had appealed the award of costs, the appeal as to costs would have been dismissed for lack of a final order. Should plaintiffs seek an appeal of costs in this case, they would have to file a separate appeal from an order fixing the award after the order is entered. Having determined the judgment appealed from was final, this court will proceed to consider the merits of the issues raised on appeal and will issue a calendar notice pursuant to SCRA 1986, 12-210. See State v. Boyer, 103 N.M. 655, 712 P.2d 1 (Ct.App.1985). IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and ALARID, J., concur.
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OPINION RANSOM, Justice. The real parties in interest, Steve and Tammy Greeson, brought separate medical malpractice actions against petitioner Southwest Community Health Services (Southwest) and Dr. Robert Gathings. The cases were consolidated for trial. In motions to compel answers to interrogatories and to compel production of documents, the Greesons sought the credentialing file which Southwest maintained on Dr. Gathings. In response to the motions, Southwest argued that the information requested was confidential under NMSA 1978, Section 41-9-5 (Repl.Pamp.1986). The court conducted an in camera inspection of all documents allegedly immune from discovery under Section 41-9-5, which provides: All data and information acquired by a review organization in the exercise of its duties and functions shall be held in confidence and shall not be disclosed to anyone except to the extent necessary to carry out one or more of the purposes of the review organization or in a judicial appeal from the action of a review organization. No person described in Section 4[41 — 9—4 NMSA 1978] of the Review Organization Immunity Act shall disclose what transpired at a meeting of a review organization except to the extent necessary to carry out one or more of the purposes of a review organization or in a judicial appeal from the action of a review organization. Information, documents or records otherwise available from original sources shall not be immune from discovery or use in any civil action merely because they were presented during proceedings of a review organization, nor shall any person who testified before a review organization or who is a member of a review organization be prevented from testifying as to matters within his knowledge, but a witness cannot be asked about opinions formed by him as a result of the review organization’s hearings. Following in camera inspection, the court ordered production of the requested documents either because the statute was not applicable to the credentialing file or because the rules of discovery or evidence overrode the statute. Southwest petitioned this Court for an alternative writ of prohibition or superintending control. Following a hearing, this Court issued a preliminary writ and instructed the parties to address the constitutionality of Section 41-9-5. Consolidated with this case for consideration was Raney v. Onuska, S.Ct. No. 16,-540, in which the trial court, following in camera inspection, had denied discovery of hospital records constituting minutes of meetings pertaining to the surgery which was the subject of the suit and relevant letters, correspondence, and other documents evincing staff privilege reductions pertaining to the defendant doctor. In Raney, the court had found that the statute applied to the documents and had ordered that they not be disclosed. Pending resolution of these cases, the Raney case was settled and the writ issued in that case has been quashed. Now, in Southwest, we first could address whether the court was correct in finding that the statute is not applicable to the credentials file. However, the record in that regard is not satis factory for review and we believe it is important for us to resolve the constitutional issue. In Ammerman v. Hubbard Broadcasting, Inc., 89 N.M. 307, 551 P.2d 1354 (1976), appeal on other grounds after remand, 91 N.M. 250, 572 P.2d 1258 (Ct. App.), cert. denied, 91 N.M. 249, 572 P.2d 1257 (1977), cert. denied, 436 U.S. 906, 98 S.Ct. 2237, 56 L.Ed.2d 404 (1978), this Court held legislation creating a testimonial privilege in a judicial proceeding unconstitutional. The statute constituted an evidentiary rule, traditionally considered to be “adjective law” or “procedural law,” the promulgation of which is a power vested in this Court by virtue of its superintending control over all inferior courts under Article VI, Section 3, of the New Mexico Constitution. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution further provides that: The powers of the government of this state are divided into three distinct departments, the legislative, executive and judicial, and no person or collection of persons charged with the exercise of powers properly belonging to one of these departments, shall exercise any powers properly belonging to either of the others, except as in this constitution otherwise expressly directed or permitted. Pleading, practice and procedure are of the essence of judicial power. Functions of the judiciary which are essential to its constitutional powers cannot be exercised by another branch of the government in conflict with the judicial branch. While, historically, the judiciary has shared procedural rule-making with the legislature, any conflict between court rules and statutes that relate to procedure are today resolved by this Court in favor of the rules. Maestas v. Allen, 97 N.M. 230, 231, 638 P.2d 1075, 1076 (1982); Solazare v. St. Vincent Hosp., 96 N.M. 409, 412, 631 P.2d 315, 318 (Ct.App.), aff'd in part, rev’d in part, 95 N.M. 147, 619 P.2d 823 (1980). Therefore, at issue in this case is the effect of any conflict in Section 41-9-5 with existing evidentiary rules. Unlike the statute in Ammerman, Section 41-9-5 cannot be said to be “nothing more or less than [an] attempt to create a rule of evidence, comparable to the other privileges * * *.” Ammerman, 89 N.M. at 309, 551 P.2d at 1356. Section 41-9-5 is an exercise of the legislature’s constitutional authority to enact laws to preserve public health and safety. See State v. Collins, 61 N.M. 184, 297 P.2d 325 (1956). It is part of the Review Organization Immunity Act (ROIA), NMSA 1978, Sections 41-9-1 through -7 (Repl.Pamp.1986). The ROIA establishes a medical peer review process to promote the improvement of health care in New Mexico. Further, it recognizes that candor and objectivity in the critical evaluation of medical professionals by medical professionals is necessary for the efficacy of the review process. Although promotion of the public welfare is its primary objective and confidentiality of peer review has application far beyond the limited arena of civil litigation, Section 41-9-5 does encroach upon this Court’s prerogative “to regulate all pleading, practice and procedure affecting the judicial branch of government.” State ex rel. Anaya v. McBride, 88 N.M. 244, 246, 539 P.2d 1006, 1008 (1975). There can be no question that the confidentiality provision of ROIA impedes the “judicial machinery administered by the courts for determining the facts upon which the substantive rights of the litigant rest and are resolved.” Ammerman, 89 N.M. at 310, 551 P.2d at 1357. The measure withholds from discovery otherwise relevant and admissible evidence. Cf. SCRA 1986,17-304 (no express immunity from discovery under confidentiality of disciplinary proceedings in the practice of law). We do not believe, however, that the statute creates an evidentiary privilege, although statutes similar to Section 41-9-5 have been labelled as such. See, e.g., Humana Hosp. Desert Valley v. Superior Court of Ariz. in and for Maricopa County, 154 Ariz. 396, 742 P.2d 1382 (Ct.App. 1987); Posey v. District Court In And For the Second Judicial District, 196 Colo. 396, 586 P.2d 36 (1978); Straube v. Larson, 287 Or. 357, 600 P.2d 371 (1979). Our analysis of the statute reveals that, in the sense that records from the peer review process are excluded from evidence, the confidentiality provision establishes an immunity from discovery. See Matchett v. Superior Court for County of Yuba, 40 Cal.App.3d 623, 629, n. 3, 115 Cal.Rptr. 317, 320 n. 3 (1974); Shelton v. Morehead Memorial Hosp., 318 N.C. 76, 347 S.E.2d 824 (1986); Coburn v. Seda, 101 Wash.2d 270, 677 P.2d 173 (1984). A privilege inures to the benefit of a specific interpersonal relationship such as attorney-client (SCRA 1986, 11-503), psychotherapist-patient (SCRA 1986, 11-504), husband-wife (SCRA 1986, 11-505), and priest-penitent (SCRA 1986, 11-506). Moreover, an evidentiary privilege creates in the person holding the privilege a right to disclose or not to disclose otherwise admissible testimony. In contrast, Section 41-9-5 precludes any party from using for purposes of civil litigation the confidential records of peer review proceedings. Unlike a privilege, the statute provides no waiver through voluntary disclosure. See SCRA 1986, 11-511. On the contrary, criminal penalties attach for violation of Section 41-9-5. See § 41-9-6. Furthermore, we again stress, the confidentiality created by this statute is intended to prevent disclosure in situations extending far beyond the production of evidence in civil litigation. Because Section 41-9-5 does not purport to create an evidentiary privilege in civil litigation, the statute does not come into direct conflict with SCRA 1986, 11-501 which provides that: Except as otherwise required by constitution and except as provided in these rules or in other rules adopted by the supreme court, no person has a privilege to: A. refuse to be a witness; or B. refuse to disclose any matter; or C. refuse to produce any object or writing; or D. prevent another from being a witness or disclosing any matter or producing any object or writing. Under Ammerman and its progeny, if the statute had created an evidentiary privilege it would be invalid. When there comes before this Court a conflict between the functions of two branches of government, the Court must resolve that conflict in a manner reasonably assuring that powers exercised by one branch do not conflict with the essence of power exercised by the other branch of government. See United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683, 707, 94 S.Ct. 3090, 3107, 41 L.Ed.2d 1039 (1974). We are mindful that the essential functions of both the legislative and judicial branches must remain inviolate. It is certain that this Court should not invalidate substantive policy choices made by the legislature under the constitutional exercise of its police powers; and, as discussed above, our decisions leave no doubt that it is the function of this Court to promulgate procedural rules and that the legislature has no authority to enact evidentiary rules which conflict with the rules of this Court. In United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683, 94 S.Ct. 3090, 41 L.Ed.2d 1039 (1974), the United States Supreme Court grappled with an analogous problem. At issue was the President’s invocation of executive privilege to shield certain high-level communications from judicial process in a criminal trial. The Supreme Court recognized that the privilege was “fundamental to the operation of Government and inextricably rooted in the separation of powers under the Constitution.” 418 U.S. at 708, 94 S.Ct. at 3107. But this presumptive privilege must be considered in light of our historic commitment to the rule of law. * * * The need to develop all relevant facts in the adversary system is both fundamental and comprehensive. * * \* [Exceptions to the demand for every man’s evidence are not lightly created non expansively construed, for they are in derogation of the search for the truth. 418 U.S. at 708-10, 94 S.Ct., at 3107-3109. In balancing the President’s assertion of a constitutional privilege'of confidentiality against the constitutional need for relevant evidence in a criminal trial, the Supreme Court held that, without more, the former would have to yield to the latter. Subsequently, in the case in which former President Nixon challenged the constitutionality of the Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act on the grounds, inter alia, that it violated executive privilege, the Supreme Court discussed its 1974 Nixon decision. It noted that a balance was struck there against the claim of constitutional privilege because the Supreme Court determined that intrusion into the confidentiality of Presidential communications was outweighed by the impediment that an absolute, unqualified privilege would place in the way of the primary constitutional duty of the judicial branch. Nixon v. Administrator of General Services, 433 U.S. 425, 447, 97 S.Ct. 2777, 2792, 53 L.Ed.2d 867 (1977) (noting the protection that a district court would be obliged to provide such communications in in camera inspection). While the legislative decision to prohibit notoriety of medical peer review proceedings is a constitutional exercise of the essential legislative function to promote the health and welfare of New Mexico’s citizens, the Court cannot ignore an overbroad implementation of the confidentiality provision which would impinge upon the right of litigants to have their disputes decided on relevant and material evidence. It is not a matter of the statute being unconstitutional but rather a recognition, when litigation is at issue, that conflicting constitutional powers by two separate and independent branches of government are being exercised. Which branch must yield to the other depends upoii the circumstances of each individual case. An exercise of judicial discretion is called upon in the balancing of those interests. It is well settled that it is the unique responsibility of the courts, not the executive or legislature, to resolve a conflict between two competing constitutional interests. Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137, 177, 2 L.Ed. 60 (1803) (“It is emphatically the province and the duty of the judicial department to say what the law is.”); Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 211, 82 S.Ct. 691, 706, 7 L.Ed.2d 663 (1962) (“Deciding whether a matter has in any measure been committed by the Constitution to another branch of government, or whether the action of that branch exceeds whatever authority has been committed * * * is a responsibility of this Court as ultimate interpreter of the Constitution.”); United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. at 703-05, 94 S.Ct. at 3105-3106. The responsibility of the courts to balance conflicting constitutional interests was recognized by this Court in State ex rel. Attorney General v. First Judicial District of New Mexico, 96 N.M. 254, 629 P.2d 330 (1981), in which it was held that when an executive privilege of constitutional origin comes into confrontation with the constitutional duty of the judiciary to do justice in matters brought before it, a balancing of the protected interests must be undertaken by the courts. Id. at 258, 629 P.2d at 334. Consequently, we hold that all data and information acquired by a review organization in the exercise of its duties and functions, and opinions formed as a result of the review organization’s hearings, shall be governed by Section 41-9-5. When a party invokes Section 41-9-5 to immunize evidence from discovery, the burden rests upon that party to prove that the data or information was generated exclusively for peer review and for no other purpose, and that opinions were formed exclusively as a result of peer review deliberations. If the evidence was neither generated nor formed exclusively for or as a result of peer review, it shall not be immune from discovery unless it is shown to be otherwise available by the exercise of reasonable diligence. Of course, under SCRA 1986, 1-026(B)(1) and 1-037(A), the party seeking to compel discovery would have had the initial burden of proving relevance to the subject matter. The procedure will entail the trial court’s in camera examination of the information and, perhaps, an evidentiary hearing to determine whether it properly falls within the parameters of Section 41-9-5 as announced by the Court today. We further hold that, if the information is ruled to be confidential, the party seeking access must then satisfy the trial court that the information constitutes evidence which is critical to the cause of action or defense. If the trial court determines that the success or failure of a litigant’s cause of action or defense would likely turn on the evidence adjudged to fall within the scope of Section 41-9-5, then the trial court shall compel production of such evidence. It is the trial judge who will be entrusted with balancing the need to ensure the confidentiality of peer review against the need of litigants- to discover evidence essential to the merits of their case. Cf. Deitchman v. E.R. Squibb & Sons, Inc., 740 F.2d 556 (7th Cir.1984). Some courts have seen the resolution of the conflict inherent in peer review confidentiality as being a political or public policy question to be resolved by the legislature. See, e.g., Humana Hosp. Desert Valley v. Superior Court of Ariz. in and for the County of Maricopa, 154 Ariz. 396, 742 P.2d 1382 (Ct.App.1987); Holly v. Auld, 450 So.2d 217 (Fla.1984); Shelton v. Morehead Memorial Hosp., 318 N.C. 76, 347 S.E.2d 824 (1986). For this Court to take that tack, however, would require us to deny the clear holding of Ammerman that the promulgation of objective or procedural law ultimately is the constitutional prerogative of the judiciary. We hold that the legislature has no power to decide that it is in the public’s interest to diminish that power under any circumstances. Finally, we find that the application of this statute as construed today by this Court to the case at bar does no violence to Marquez v. Wiley, 78 N.M. 544, 434 P.2d 69 (1967), which held that rules adopted by this Court are not effective to change the procedure in any pending case. Id. at 546, 434 P.2d at 71. This is not a case where the rules of the game were changed without notification to the parties. Section 41-9-5 was in effect prior to the initiation of this litigation. Our opinion today merely construes a pre-existing statute; it does not adopt a change in procedural rules as in Marquez. We quash the alternative writ previously issued and remand with instructions that the court determines whether Section 41-9-5 is applicable to the credentialing file and, if it is, to proceed in a manner consistent with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and WALTERS, J., concur. SCARBOROUGH, C.J., and STOWERS, J., dissent.
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OPINION FRUMAN, Judge. This case involves the termination of respondent’s parental rights. The judgment of termination was filed on March 11, 1987. Respondent filed a motion for a new trial on March 23, 1987. The trial court conducted a hearing on the motion and rendered an oral decision denying the motion on April 13, 1987. On June 4, 1987, the trial court entered its order denying the motion for new trial. Respondent filed her notice of appeal on June 29, 1987. Our calendar notice proposed dismissal based on the untimely filing of the notice of appeal. Respondent has filed a memorandum in opposition to the calendar notice. For the reasons that follow, we dismiss the appeal. A notice of appeal is required to be filed within thirty days after the filing of the judgment or order being appealed. SCRA 1986, 12-201(A). The judgment terminating respondent’s parental rights was filed on March 11, 1987. Therefore, since an extension of time for filing the notice of appeal was neither sought nor granted, the last day for filing the notice was April 10, 1987. In her memorandum in opposition, respondent claims that her prior counsel’s motion to withdraw gave reference to her intention to appeal, and, by granting the motion, the trial court impliedly granted an extension of time to appeal. We find no reference in the motion to withdraw, or in the order granting the motion, of an intention to appeal. An extension of time to file an appeal does not arise by implication, and respondent’s reference to White v. Singleton, 88 N.M. 262, 539 P.2d 1024 (Ct.App.1975), does not provide authority to support this contention. The extension must be asked for and granted. R. 12-201(E). There is nothing in the record to show that a request for an extension of time in which to file the appeal had been made to the trial court. Respondent claims that the order being appealed is the order denying her motion for a new trial and, therefore, the appeal is timely. The denial of a motion for a new trial is generally not appealable. Public Serv. Co. v. First Judicial Dist. Court, 65 N.M. 185, 334 P.2d 713 (1959); Harrison v. ICX, Illinois-California Express, Inc., 98 N.M. 247, 647 P.2d 880 (Ct.App.1982). Where an appeal may properly be taken from a judgment, but has not been taken, a subsequent order refusing to amend or modify the judgment is not appealable, since the denial order merely confirms the finality of the judgment. Public Serv. Co. v. First Judicial Dist. Court. Respondent cites to Franco v. Federal Bldg. Serv., Inc., 98 N.M. 333, 648 P.2d 791 (1982), and Phelps Dodge Corp. v. Guerra, 92 N.M. 47, 582 P.2d 819 (1978), to support her argument that an order denying a motion for a new trial is appealable, regardless of how the motion is framed. We do not read these two cases as stating these propositions or as supporting this argument. Respondent also claims that this court should accept jurisdiction because issues of general public interest and fundamental personal due process rights are at stake. In support of this claim, respondent cites to SCRA 1986, 12-216(B). We do not read this rule as permitting an extension of time in which to appeal; rather, the rule relates to raising certain issues on appeal when they were not raised below. See St. Vincent Hosp. v. Salazar, 95 N.M. 147, 619 P.2d 823 (1980). Our courts have stated that the timely filing of a notice of appeal is jurisdictional. See Public Serv. Co. v. Wolf, 78 N.M. 221, 430 P.2d 379 (1967). Regardless of the potential merits of the arguments respondent has set forth in her docketing statement, this court does not have the prerogative of enlarging its jurisdictional limitations to consider those merits. See State v. Brinkley, 78 N.M. 39, 428 P.2d 13 (1967); Brazfield v. Mountain States Mut. Casualty Co., 93 N.M. 417, 600 P.2d 1207 (Ct.App.1979). Based upon the foregoing, we dismiss this appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. BIVINS and APODACA, JJ., concur.
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OPINION MINZNER, Judge. James H. Gunn (Gunn), as personal representative of the estates of Gertrude Bergman (Gertrude) and Lenore Bergman (Lenore), appeals from the decision of the district court allowing the claims of Adele Catanach and Josephine Jacques (Catanach and Jacques or claimants) against the estates, the probates of which had been consolidated. Both claims arise out of an alleged agreement with Lenore that she would pay claimants, who worked for Lenore and her sister Gertrude as private nurses, two weeks’ vacation pay each year. However, the written notations that each claimant testified she and Lenore signed could not be located after her death. On appeal, Gunn contends that the trial court erred in failing to exclude claimants’ testimony concerning their discussion with Lenore. Alternatively, Gunn contends that, if their testimony was admissible, the evidence was not sufficient to support the court’s findings and conclusions. We affirm the district court’s decision as to liability, but reverse and remand for the entry of amended findings and conclusions as to damages. BACKGROUND. This appeal was originally filed with the clerk of the supreme court. On motion by claimants, it was transferred to this court. Although the supreme court has reserved jurisdiction over appeals from the district courts in which one or more counts of the complaint allege a breach of contract or otherwise sound in contract, see SCRA 1986, 12-102(A)(1), in this case the proceedings were initiated not by a complaint, but rather by Gunn’s petition for an informal probate of Gertrude’s will and informal appointment as the personal representative of her estate. Under these circumstances, there is no contract “count” within the meaning of the appellate rule. After Gunn published notice of his appointment, Catanach and Jacques filed their claims against Gertrude’s estate in district court. Subsequently, Gunn petitioned for formal probate of Lenore’s will and formal appointment as personal representative of her estate. The record does not indicate whether he published notice of this appointment, but Catanach and Jacques filed petitions to hear and pay claims within two months of the court’s order appointing Gunn to administer Lenore’s estate. Under these circumstances, we are satisfied that the trial court had jurisdiction to allow the claims. Cf. Corlett v. Smith, 106 N.M. 207, 740 P.2d 1191 (Ct.App.1987) (plaintiff in a wrongful death claim has the burden of establishing the timeliness of a claim against decedent’s estate, because the nonclaim statute establishes a jurisdictional bar against untimely claims). At the hearing scheduled on the merits of the claims, each claimant testified that she and Lenore had entered into a written agreement in early. 1978 and that Lenore said she would put the writing in the file she maintained for each of them. Each also testified that the agreement consisted of her commitment to work for an hourly rate, plus two weeks vacation each year. Finally, each claimant testified that, subsequent to the agreement, Lenore stated that she would pay for vacation time after she sold her ranch in Minnesota. It is undisputed that neither claimant ever submitted a bill for vacation pay and that none was paid. It is also undisputed that no written evidence of an agreement could be found by Gunn, who searched all of the records remaining at Lenore’s death, or by claimants, who searched the files Lenore maintained for them. Finally, it is undisputed that Lenore sold the ranch in 1981, although the record supports an inference that she did not receive the entire purchase price at that time. The trial court ruled that Josephine Jacques was entitled to $4,670.40 for unpaid vacation pay which was accrued during her employment from February 1967 to February 1983. The trial court also ruled that Adele Catanach was entitled to $3,736.32 for unpaid vacation pay which was accrued during her employment from January 1967 to February 1983. These are the exact amounts each claimant had originally requested. There appear to be five appellate issues: (1) whether the agreement falls within the statute of frauds; (2) whether evidence of Lenore’s statements was inadmissible hearsay; (3) whether the trial court abused its discretion in admitting evidence other than the original notations; (4) whether there was substantial evidence to support the trial court’s findings as to liability; and (5) whether there was substantial evidence to support the trial court’s findings as to damages. We discuss these issues under three headings: the statute of frauds, the admissibility of claimants’ evidence, and the sufficiency of the evidence. THE STATUTE OF FRAUDS. Gunn contends that claimants were not entitled to recover in the absence of a written agreement. See generally Westerman v. City of Carlsbad, 55 N.M. 550, 237 P.2d 356 (1951) (an action may not be brought upon an oral contract for personal services which could not be performed within one year). We disagree. Under the majority view, full performance of an oral contract not to be performed within one year renders the contract enforceable by the party who has performed. See J. Calamari & J. Perillo, The Law of Contracts § 19-23 at 812 (3d ed. 1987); see generally Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 130 (1981) (when one party to a contract has completed his performance, the one-year provision of the [statute of frauds] does not prevent enforcement of the promises of other parties). On the facts found by the trial court, the statute is not applicable. See Edwards v. Wyckoff Elec. Supply Co., 42 N.J.Super. 236, 126 A.2d 29 (1956). THE ADMISSIBILITY OF CLAIMANTS’ EVIDENCE. Until 1973, in New Mexico, a claimant could not obtain a judgment on his or her own evidence in a suit against an estate with respect to any matter occurring before the death of the deceased person, unless that evidence was corroborated. See 1959 N.M.Laws, ch. 261, § 1 (codified as NMSA 1953, § 20-2-5; repealed by 1973 N.M.Laws, ch. 223, § 2, effective July 1, 1973). This statute was similar to so-called “Dead Man’s Statutes” enacted in many other states. It is not clear that claimants would have been entitled to recover against Gunn on the evidence they offered at trial had the statute been in effect. See generally Annotation, Corroboration Required Under Statute Prohibiting Judgment Against Representative of Deceased Person on Uncorroborated Testimony of His Adversary, 21 A.L.R.2d 1013 (1952). We assume that they would not. Id. Nevertheless, the adoption of the New Mexico Rules of Evidence, see SCRA 1986, 11-101, has changed the nature of the issue presented to the trial court by the evidence claimants offered. Cf. Johnson v. Porter, 14 Ohio St.3d 58, 471 N.E.2d 484 (1984) (holding that dead man’s statute was superseded by more recently adopted rules of evidence; relevant inquiry in Ohio is whether an exception exists under which hearsay statements by a deceased person are admissible). Under the rules of evidence, relevant evidence is generally admissible, SCRA 1986, 11-402, but hearsay generally is not. SCRA 1986, 11-802; see generally Annotation, Dead Man’s Statutes as Affected by Rule 601 of the Uniform Rules of Evidence and Similar State Rules, 50 A.L.R.4th 1238 (1986). Gunn contends that Lenore’s statements regarding the agreement to pay for vacation time were not admissible under the only possible hearsay exception, the residual exception for statements not specifically covered by other exceptions to the hearsay rule.’ See SCRA 1986, 11-803(X); 11-804(B)(6). Gunn argues that, under the circumstances of this case, this evidence does not have the requisite “circumstantial guarantees of trustworthiness.” Id. We disagree with Gunn’s characterization of claimants’ evidence. Under the New Mexico Rules of Evidence, hearsay is defined as “a statement, other than one made by the declarant while testifying at the trial or hearing, offered in evidence to prove the truth of the matter asserted.” SCRA 1986, 11-801(C). This definition recognizes that the prohibition of the hearsay rule does not apply to all out-of-court utterances or writings; they are subject to the exclusionary impact of the hearsay rule only when they are offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted therein. See McCord v. Ashbaugh, 67 N.M. 61, 352 P.2d 641 (1960). Where the utterance of specific words is itself a part of the details of the issue under the substantive law and the pleadings, their utterances may be proved without violation of the hearsay rule, because they are not offered to evidence the truth of the matter that may be asserted therein. VI Wigmore on Evidence § 1770 (Chad. rev.1976) (emphasis in original). When offered for other purposes, such evidence is admissible, but only for those purposes. Proof of oral utterances by parties in a contract suit constituting offer and acceptance are not evidence of assertions offered testimonially, but rather of verbal conduct to which the law attaches duties and liabilities. E. Cleary, McCormick on Evidence § 249 (3d ed. 1984). Here, claimants’ testimony of Lenore’s actions and statements at the time they were hired is not hearsay, because it was admitted to prove that Lenore had accepted an offer made by claimants. See National Labor Relations Bd. v. H. Koch & Sons, 578 F.2d 1287 (9th Cir.1978) (testimony offered to show that declarant uttered words of assent, regardless of their truth); Gyro Brass Mfg. Corp. v. United Auto. Aircraft & Agric. Implement Workers of Am., 147 Conn. 76, 157 A.2d 241 (1959) (testimony of the contents of an utterance, offered only to prove that it was made). When an extrajudicial statement aids in proving knowledge, belief, good faith, reasonableness, or motive, it is admitted as circumstantial evidence thereof. Id.; see also VI Wigmore on Evidence § 1789. Claimants’ testimony of Lenore’s actions and statements at the time they were hired was also admitted to prove that statements were made on which claimants reasonably relied. See Eavenson v. Lewis Means, Inc., 105 N.M. 161, 730 P.2d 464 (1986) (proof of the elements of promissory estoppel is sufficient to avoid the statute of frauds). Without deciding whether claimants proved the elements of promissory estoppel, we conclude that their testimony was admissible for purposes of proving that a promise on which they reasonably relied was made. Gunn further contends that the trial court erred in permitting claimants to establish the contents of the missing notations by oral testimony. This contention is without merit since the record indicates that the original notations were either lost or destroyed after Lenore’s death. See SCRA 1986, 11-1004; 11-1008. Even the requirement of a writing does not preclude proof of a lost document. See Johnson v. Johnson, 74 N.M. 567, 396 P.2d 181 (1964). THE SUFFICIENCY OF THE EVIDENCE. Gunn argues that, in the absence of corroboration, the words attributed to Lenore by claimants at the time they were hired are not sufficient evidence to support •the findings as to liability. See Walter v. Warner, 298 F.2d 481 (10th Cir.1962); In re Connors’ Estate, 53 Cal.App.2d 484, 128 P.2d 200 (1942). This argument appears to be premised on the view that those words were hearsay. Id. We have concluded they were not. In addition, claimants here offered evidence of their own statements, actions, and beliefs, as well as the words attributed to Lenore. Gunn generally challenges the sufficiency of their proof, but we view this argument as no more than an attempt to resurrect the repealed statute limiting the right to recover against an estate. See NMSA 1953, § 20-2-5. Since that statute has been repealed, this argument must be rejected. We do not decide whether a higher standard of proof should be applied to cases like this as a matter of policy or, if such a standard is applicable, whether the evidence would have been sufficient to satisfy such a standard. Cf. Walter v. Warner (evidence to prove oral contract to convey real property must clearly establish facts sufficient to raise convincing implication that contract was made and fully performed; evidence must tend to prove primary facts constituting contract). This argument was not raised at trial. Under these circumstances, error, if any, has not been preserved. Cf. Hamel v. Winkworth, 102 N.M. 133, 692 P.2d 58 (Ct.App.1984) (a party must object when court omits an accepted instruction). Gunn also argues there is insufficient evidence to support the trial court’s findings as to damages. We agree. The party suing for specific damages has the burden of proving those damages with reasonable certainty so that a determination of the amount to be awarded will not be based on speculation or conjecture. Gulf Ref. Co. v. Etcheverry, 85 N.M. 266, 511 P.2d 752 (Ct.App.1973). Damage awards are found to be excessive only in extreme cases. Martinez v. Teague, 96 N.M. 446, 631 P.2d 1314 (Ct.App.1981). The question of excessiveness is determined by whether the evidence, viewed in the light most favorable to plaintiff, substantially supports the award. Gonzales v. General Motors Corp., 89 N.M. 474, 553 P.2d 1281 (Ct.App.1976). One of the tests of excessiveness is whether there is an indication of a mistaken measure on the part of the factfinder. Id. Here there was no evidence presented to explain the method of measuring the damages. The amount awarded does not follow from the only factors we have in the record — i.e., length of employment and rate of pay. Each claimant testified that she began work for the sisters in 1978, yet the court found they began work in 1967. Each claimant’s file was introduced; the weekly bills in each case began in 1978. There was no other evidence of any different beginning date. Two weeks (eighty hours) pay at $6.50/hour would equal $520; at $8.00/hour, it would be $640. During the period from 1978 until the ranch was sold in 1981, claimants were paid $6.50/hour. If they were entitled to three years vacation pay for this period, the sum due would be $1,560 each. Later, until 1983, claimants were paid $8.00/hour. If they were entitled to two years vacation pay for this period, the sum due would be $1,280 each. Based on these calculations, the total amount due each of them would be $2,840 plus appropriate additional amounts for New Mexico gross receipts taxes. However, it is not clear from the record whether claimants intended to claim vacation pay for 1983 nor on what rate of pay the sum due for 1981 should be based. Further, Catanach testified she did not intend to claim vacation pay for 1981, when she worked as a relief nurse, but she subsequently indicated that she had only worked as a relief nurse for a few months. Under these circumstances, the case must be remanded for further proceedings, including findings of fact as to the amount of vacation pay accrued. CONCLUSION. The findings and conclusions support the judgment as to liability. However, the damage award is excessive, and that portion of the judgment is reversed. The case is remanded for entry of amended findings and conclusions and an amended judgment. No costs are awarded. Although Gunn has requested oral argument, it is the judgment of the panel that oral argument is not necessary. Garcia v. Genuine Parts Co., 90 N.M. 124, 560 P.2d 545 (Ct.App.1977). IT IS SO ORDERED. ALARID and FRUMAN, JJ., concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. Employer appeals the hearing officer’s decision awarding disability benefits to claimant in a worker’s compensation case. Claimant cross-appeals from the decision as well. Our first calendar notice proposed summary dismissal of employer’s appeal on the ground that its notice of appeal had not been timely filed in this court. We also proposed summary affirmance of the hearing officer’s decision regarding the issues raised in claimant’s cross-appeal. Employer subsequently moved for an extension of time within which to file its notice of appeal in this court. We granted the motion pursuant to SCRA 1986, 12-201(E)(4) and 12-601(B). Claimant did not file a memorandum in opposition to our first calendar notice. Therefore, she abandoned the issues raised by her cross-appeal. State v. Martinez, 97 N.M. 585, 642 P.2d 188 (CtApp. 1982). Our second calendar notice proposed summary affirmance of the hearing officer’s decision regarding the issue raised by employer in its docketing statement. Claimant filed a memorandum in support of our proposed disposition. Employer filed a memorandum in opposition to our proposed disposition. Not persuaded by employer’s memorandum, we affirm the hearing officer’s decision. The issue raised by employer concerns the meaning of the phrase “number of days * * * employed” contained in NMSA 1978, Section 52-l-20(B)(5) (Repl.Pamp.1987) for purposes of computing claimant’s average daily and weekly wages pursuant to that section and Section 52-l-20(B)(3). Our second calendar notice proposed to find that this phrase means number of days actually worked. Section 52-l-20(B)(3) provides that average weekly wages for the purpose of computing benefits are to be determined in the following manner: [W]here the employee is rendering service on a per diem basis, the weekly wage shall be determined by multiplying the daily wage by the number of days and fractions of days in the week during which the employee under a contract of hire was working at the time of the accident, or would have worked if the accident had not intervened; provided, however, that in no case shall the daily wage be multiplied by less than three for the purpose of determining the weekly wage[.] [Emphasis added.] Section 52-l-20(B)(5) provides: [W]here the employee is paid on a piecework, tonnage, commission or any other basis except upon a monthly, weekly, daily or hourly wage, and where the employment is but casual and in the usual course of the trade, business, profession or occupation of his employer, the total amount earned by the injured or killed employee in the twelve months preceding the accident shall be computed, which sum shall be divided by the number of days the injured person was employed during the twelve months immediately preceding the accident, and the result thus ascertained shall be considered the average daily wage of said employee; then the weekly wage shall be determined from said daily wage in the manner set forth in Paragraph (3) [of Section 52-l-20(B)(3) ] hereoff.] [Emphasis added.] The hearing officer found claimant’s average weekly wage to be $230.41. Employer argues that claimant’s average weekly wage should be $162.15. Claimant was hired on December 4, 1986, and her accident occurred'on December 31, 1986. Therefore, a total of 27 days elapsed between claimant’s hiring date and the date immediately preceding the accident. Claimant was paid on a per-mile basis. It is undisputed that claimant’s gross earnings for this period were $875.58. It is also undisputed that claimant actually worked for employer on 19 of the 27 days. Finally, the parties agree that claimant worked the equivalent of a five-day workweek for purposes of computing her weekly wages under Section 52-l-20(B)(3). Employer contends that the “was working” language of Section 52-l-20(B)(3) is not synonymous with the “number of days * * * employed” language of Section 52-1-20(B)(5). We disagree. In interpreting a statute, we ascertain the legislative intent from the language used and words will be given their ordinary meaning unless a different intent is clearly indicated. Schmick v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 103 N.M. 216, 704 P.2d 1092 (1985). In determining the legislative intent, we look not only to the language of the statute, but also to the object sought to be accomplished and the wrong to be remedied. Id. Finally, statutes “must be construed so that no word and no part of the statute is rendered surplusage or superfluous.” Vaughn v. State Taxation & Revenue Dep’t, 98 N.M. 362, 366, 648 P.2d 820, 824 (Ct.App.1982). Applying the above rules, we find that the phrase “number of days * * * employed” means the actual number of days claimant worked for employer before the accident. The purpose of average weekly wage statutes “is to arrive at a realistic estimate of the worker’s true weekly earning potential so that the benefits calculable thereon may fairly relate to the worker’s loss attributable to the accident or death * * 82 Am.Jur.2d Workmen’s Compensation § 368 at 161 (2d ed.1976). Calculating claimant’s average daily wage by dividing gross earnings by the number of days elapsing between the date of hiring and the day prior to the accident would not demonstrate her true earning potential. Further, we find that the plain meaning of the phrase “number of days * * * employed” refers to the number of days actually worked, not the state of being employed as employer suggests. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary 743 (1966) defines “employ” as “to provide with a job that pays wages or a salary or with a means of earning a living.” As used in the context of Section 52-l-20(B)(5), we believe that the number of days employed is limited to the days the worker engages in work for the employer and for which he is paid. We believe this interpretation is consistent with the purpose of average weekly wage statutes, especially where wages are based upon the worker’s output. See Johnson v. D.B. Rosenblatt, Inc., 265 Minn. 427, 122 N.W.2d 31 (1963). See generally 99 C.J.S. Workmen’s Compensation § 292 (1958). Employer’s argument also works an injustice upon workers employed on other than a monthly, weekly, daily or hourly basis. This is best demonstrated by the following example. Worker A and Worker B are each employed from April 1 through May 1, when each suffers a compensable injury. Worker A works 5 days per week for a total of 20 days at a flat daily wage of $45 for gross earnings of $900. Worker B also works 5 days per week for a total of 20 days with gross earnings of $900; the only difference being that Worker B is paid on a piecework basis (i.e., a basis other than monthly, weekly, daily or hourly). Worker A’s average weekly wage is easily computed under Section 52-l-20(B)(3) by multiplying his daily wage of $45 by 5 for a result of $225. Under employer’s argument, Worker B ’s' average weekly wage is computed as follows: first, the daily wage is calculated pursuant to Section 52-1-20(B)(5) by dividing gross earnings ($900) by the number of days elapsing between the hiring date and the day before the accident (30). The resulting average daily wage of $30 is then multiplied by 5 for an average weekly wage of $150. Thus, even though each worker, worked 5 days per week for a total of 20 days and earned $900, Worker B is penalized because he was not paid a flat rate of $45 per day. Equating the “number of days * * * employed” language with the number of days actually worked, Worker B’s average weekly wage is calculated as follows: (1) the average daily wage is obtained by dividing gross earnings ($900) by the number of days worked (20) for a result of $45; and (2) the average daily wage of $45 is multiplied by 5 for a resulting average weekly wage of $225, the same figure as for Worker A. Thus, applying the statute to the facts of the instant case, the hearing officer reached the correct average weekly wage figure. Claimant’s gross earnings of $875.58 are divided by 19, the number of days she actually worked. This results in an average daily wage of $46.08 pursuant to Section 52-l-20(B)(5). To . divide gross earnings by 27, as employer suggests, would unfairly penalize claimant simply because she was paid on a per-mile basis. The average daily wage is then multiplied by 5 to arrive at the average weekly wage of $230.41. Even were we to accept employer’s argument that the plain meaning of the statute would mandate that the “number of days * * * employed” equals the number of days elapsing between the hiring date and the day before the accident, we could not so apply the statute because such a reading would lead to an unjust, absurd or contradictory result. See Otero v. State, 105 N.M. 731, 737 P.2d 90 (Ct.App.1987). We will not ascribe to the legislature an intent to compensate injured workers unequally based solely upon the manner in which the employer chooses to pay for the worker’s services. To the contrary, Section 52-1-20(C) evidences the legislative intent that the methods of computation fairly compute the average weekly wage in all cases. A survey of those few cases from other jurisdictions similar to this case supports our reading of the statute. In interpreting a similar statute, the New Jersey Supreme Court construed the phrase “ ‘the number of days the workman was actually employed’ ” to mean “ ‘the number of days on which the workman was actually employed.’ ” Davidson v. Nathanson Furniture Stores, 126 N.J.L. 430, 431, 20 A.2d 61, 62 (1941); see also Zeitner v. Floair, Inc., 211 Kan. 19, 505 P.2d 661 (1973). Employer argues that equating the “number of days * * * employed” language with the number of days actually worked renders the “was working” language of Section 52-l-20(B)(3) surplusage or superfluous. We disagree. The “was working” language refers to the claimant’s workweek while the “number of days * * * employed” language refers to the claimant’s term of employment. We see no reason why the two phrases should not coexist and be given their ordinary meanings. See Schmick v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co. Employer argues that the hearing officer used an improper method to calculate the average daily wage because there was no finding as to this issue. We answer this contention by saying that we will uphold a decision by the trier of fact if it is correct for any reason and will not reverse when the correct result is reached. See Otero v. State. For the foregoing reasons, the decision of the hearing officer is affirmed. Although claimant was unsuccessful in her cross-appeal, we award her the sum of $150 as attorney fees for defending against employer’s appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. FRUMAN and APODACA, JJ., concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. The state appeals from the order of the trial court granting defendant’s motion to suppress the evidence against him. The trial court found and concluded that defendant’s consent to search was not voluntary, and that the officers did not have probable cause to search or arrest defendant. The docketing statement challenged all three of these rulings. Our calendar notice proposed summary affirmance, and the state filed a memorandum in opposition to the proposed disposition. Not persuaded by the state’s memorandum, we affirm the order of the trial court. FACTS On May 8, 1987, defendant was driving east on 1-40 in Bernalillo County. Officer Garley, by use of a radar device, clocked defendant’s car at 67 miles per hour in a 65-mile-per-hour zone. Garley stopped defendant to issue him a speeding ticket. After defendant pulled over, the officer asked him for his driver’s license and vehicle registration. While defendant was looking for these items, Garley engaged him in conversation concerning his point of departure and point of destination. Defendant stated that he was on his way from Phoenix, Arizona, to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The information in defendant’s driver’s license and vehicle registration indicated that both were in proper order. The documents showed defendant was the sole owner of the car he was driving. The car was registered in Iowa, the license plates were from Iowa and defendant’s driver’s license had an Iowa address. Defendant was dressed in clothes with Harley-Davidson motorcycle logos. He was alone in the car, had no luggage visible in the passenger compartment except a carry-on bag, and had slept at a rest area at some point during his travels. There was a box of Kentucky Fried Chicken on the car seat. Defendant had some difficulty finding his driver’s license and appeared to be nervous. At the hearing, Garley testified that the presence of the Kentucky Fried Chicken and the carry-on bag, the travel in an easterly direction, defendant’s admission of having slept at a rest area, and defendant’s nervousness made him feel that he had “a reasonable suspicion based on articulable facts” to believe that defendant was carrying drugs. According to the officer, this was based on the “drug courier profile” taught to him in a law enforcement class. When defendant gave Garley his driver’s license and vehicle registration, the officer had all the information he needed to issue a speeding ticket. After defendant presented his driver’s license, the officer asked him if he was carrying any narcotics. Defendant answered in the negative. The officer asked if he could look in the trunk of the car, and defendant said “yes” and opened the trunk. Garley did not ask defendant whether he could do a thorough search, nor did he ask whether he could search or look inside bags or sacks in the trunk. He had consent to search forms but decided not to use them. Garley did not inform defendant he had the right to refuse him permission to look inside the trunk. When he looked in the trunk, Garley saw some motor oil, a sleeping bag and an opaque white cloth bag. When asked what was inside the white bag, defendant said “laundry.” Upon handling the bag, Garley felt something soft, like a plastic container. He then opened the bag and pulled out clear plastic bags containing a white substance inside and two plastic bottles marked “Inositol” wrapped in a white towel. The officer asked defendant about the white substance in the clear plastic bags, and defendant told him it was a food supplement used for diabetics. Garley smelled the powder in the bags and bottles and found it to be odorless. Garley then placed defendant under arrest for possession of a controlled substance, read him his rights, took him to the patrol car, and then radioed a second officer to bring field test kits for narcotics to the scene. Garley and the second officer both thought the white powdered substance was cocaine. They ran two field tests on the white powder in the plastic bags to test for cocaine. Both tests were negative. Nevertheless, the officers took defendant to the state police office in Albuquerque and had a wrecker tow the car into Albuquerque. At the state police office, the white powder in the bags tested positive for methamphetamine. The white powder in the plastic bottles was in fact Inositol, a supplement for diabetics. Issue 1 The Validity of Defendant’s Consent to Search The voluntariness of a consent to search is a factual question. State v. Valencia Olaya, 105 N.M. 690, 736 P.2d 495 (Ct.App.1987). The government has the burden of proving that a consent to search was given freely and voluntarily. Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218, 93 S.Ct. 2041, 36 L.Ed.2d 854 (1973). The determination of voluntariness involves a three-tiered analysis: (1) there must be clear and positive testimony that the consent was specific and unequivocal; (2) the consent must be given without duress or coercion; and (3) the first two factors are to be viewed in light of the presumption that disfavors the waiver of constitutional rights. United States v. Recalde, 761 F.2d 1448, 1453 (10th Cir.1985); State v. Cohen, 103 N.M. 558, 711 P.2d 3 (1984), cert. denied, 476 U.S. 1158, 106 S.Ct. 2276, 90 L.Ed.2d 719 (1985); State v. Valencia Olaya. The question is whether, given the totality of the circumstances, the consent was voluntary. Schneckloth v. Bustamonte. It is for the trial court to weigh the evidence, determine the credibility of witnesses and decide if the evidence is sufficient to clearly and convincingly establish that the consent was voluntary. State v. Valencia Olaya. The appellate court reviews the evidence in the light most favorable to the trial court’s decision and will uphold the decision if it is supported by substantial evidence. Id. The question is whether the trial court’s result is supported by substantial evidence, not whether the trial court could have reached a different conclusion. Bagwell v. Shady Grove Truck Stop, 104 N.M. 14, 715 P.2d 462 (Ct.App.1986). The finding of facts frequently involves selecting which inferences to draw. See, e.g., State v. Tovar, 98 N.M. 655, 651 P.2d 1299 (1982). The possibility that on similar facts another trial court may have drawn different inferences and found the consent in this case voluntary does not mean that we must reverse here. The state argues that the trial court’s decision is not supported by substantial evidence. In regard to the first factor, the state argues that the testimony at the evidentiary hearing was that Garley asked defendant if he could look in the trunk of the car and defendant said that he could and opened the trunk. The trial court found that this was consent only to look into the trunk, not to search the items of luggage in the trunk. The state does not point to any evidence that would support a finding that defendant also consented to the search of the items in the trunk. See State v. Sisneros, 98 N.M. 201, 647 P.2d 403 (1982). Accordingly, the trial court’s decision concerning this factor is supported by substantial evidence. Cf. State v. Valencia Olaya (evidence at suppression hearing supported a finding that police officer had the driver's unlimited consent to search the vehicle). With regard to the second factor, the trial court found that defendant’s consent to the search of the trunk was affected by the inherently coercive nature of the situation. The state concedes that Garley’s testimony was identical to the officer’s testimony in State v. Ruud, 90 N.M. 647, 567 P.2d 496 (Ct.App.1977), but argues that the case is distinguishable because the initial stop in Ruud was found to be illegal, and because the defendant in Ruud was female. Neither of these points is persuasive. As to the first, it is true that the stop in Ruud was illegal while the initial stop in this case was legal. However, we view the trial court’s decision as incorporating a finding that the detention of defendant beyond what was necessary to issue a speeding ticket was unreasonable. Under these circumstances, the trial court’s finding that the atmosphere was coercive must be sustained. Cf. State v. Cohen (detention of defendants held reasonable, because based on reasonable suspicion); State v. Valencia Olaya (where trial court found brief detention was reasonable, defendant’s unlimited consent to search of vehicle was ‘not tainted). Both Ruud and the present case involve detentions beyond what was permissible. As to the second point, we do not find the difference in stature and gender between the defendant in Ruud and defendant here to be a sufficient basis for distinguishing the holding in Ruud. The state also argues that every traffic stop involves a detention and questioning and, thus, if the consent here can be considered in some way coerced, no consent would ever be voluntary. We doubt, however, that all traffic stops include detaining the suspect after the original purpose for the stop has been satisfied, as was the case here. It is for the trial court to determine whether or not the consent was the product of free choice on the part of defendant. Where defendant was detained on the highway beyond the time necessary to fulfill the purpose of the original stop, questioned about his reasons for traveling and where he slept the night before, and gave only a verbal consent to a relatively limited search, the scope of which consent was then exceeded by the officer, we hold there is substantial evidence to support the trial court’s decision that the consent to the search of the trunk was not voluntary. Issue 2 Probable Cause to Search Whether probable cause exists presents a question of law. State v. Marquez, 103 N.M. 265, 705 P.2d 170 (Ct.App.1985). Factual determinations, however, must often be made before the legal question can be answered, and, when the evidence is conflicting, it is for the trial court to determine the facts. Id. “Probable cause exists when the facts and circumstances within the officers [sic] knowledge and of which they had reasonably trustworthy information are sufficient in themselves to warrant a man of reasonable caution to believe that an offense has been or is being committed.” State v. Blea, 88 N.M. 538, 540, 543 P.2d 831, 833 (Ct. App.1975). Relying on State v. Cohen, the state argues defendant had certain characteristics noted in the drug courier profile and this alone, or in combination with other facts, is sufficient to provide probable cause to search. The facts alleged to be part of the drug courier profile are that: defendant was traveling east; he had slept at a rest stop; he had no luggage visible in the car except a carry-on bag; he had a box of Kentucky Fried Chicken in the car with him; and he was nervous. The trial court held, and we agree, that these facts are not sufficient in themselves to warrant a man of reasonable caution in believing that an offense, specifically drug smuggling, has been or is being committed. See State v. Cohen; State v. Hilliard, 81 N.M. 407, 467 P.2d 733 (Ct.App.1970). The facts relied on here are generally descriptive of hundreds of innocent persons traveling through New Mexico on the interstate every day. In State v. Cohen, the facts alleged to fit the drug courier profile were quite different. The opinion recites those facts as follows: “(1) two persons appearing to be foreigners, (2) driving a rental car with Florida license plates, (3) across the country[,] (4) with a small amount of luggage, (5) and with a one-way ear rental being paid for in cash.” 103 N.M. at 559-560, 711 P.2d at 4-5. The trial court in the case before us concluded: Assuming that the drug courier profile expounded in Defendant’s exhibit E would, in and of itself, provide reasonable suspicion to briefly detain an individual, all or a substantial number of the factors must be present in order to discern the “profile.” The list of factors which make up the profile cannot be treated as a magical sort of potpourri from which officers may draw isolated, unrelated ingredients and create instant legal grounds to detain citizens traveling our highways. Defendant in this case does not fit the “profile” any more than any proverbial average man crossipg New Mexico to and from out of state destinations by the thousands. The five profile factors slapped together by the officer in this case do nothing more than highlight the ordinary, rather than the sinister. We agree with the trial court. Finally, the state argues there was probable cause for the arrest of defendant. The first calendar notice proposed summary affirmance on this issue on the ground that the only additional facts bearing on this issue were all fruit of the poisonous tree. The memorandum in opposition does not point out any new facts or errors of law that would show the disposition proposed in the calendar notice was erroneous. State v. Sisneros. Thus, we affirm the trial court’s ruling that there was no probable cause to arrest defendant. Motion to Amend the Docketing Statement The state has moved to amend the docketing statement to raise a new issue: the officer had a reasonable suspicion that the law was being violated. The state’s argument, as we understand it, is that the same facts already discussed gave rise to a reasonable suspicion that drug smuggling was afoot, and this reasonable suspicion justified first the search of the trunk and then, when that turned up nothing suspicious, a search of the bags in the trunk. The state argues that even if the officer did not have probable cause to arrest or search the luggage in the trunk of the car, the facts did give the officer reasonable suspicion to inquire further. The motion to amend is denied because the issue sought to be raised is not well grounded in either the facts or the law. State v. Rael, 100 N.M. 193, 668 P.2d 309 (Ct.App.1983). Assuming, without deciding, that the facts in this case would give rise to a reasonable suspicion that the law was being violated, the law does not support the state’s position. The cases relied on by the state establish only that a police officer may briefly detain a person for further inquiry even though the facts do not establish probable cause. See State v. Cohen; State v. Hilliard. They do not justify a search that was not consented to by defendant based on a showing of less than probable cause. The state contends United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873, 95 S.Ct. 2574, 45 L.Ed.2d 607 (1975), allows an officer to investigate based on less than probable cause. In Brignoni-Ponce, the issue was whether border patrol officers could stop a vehicle and question the occupants concerning their citizenship and immigration status where the only ground for suspicion was the fact that the occupants of the car appeared to be of Mexican ancestry. Brignoni-Ponce held that when an officer’s observations lead him to reasonably suspect that a particular vehicle may contain illegal aliens, he may stop and briefly investigate the circumstances that provoke suspicion. The stop and inquiry must be reasonably related in scope to the justification for their initiation. The opinion specifically notes that this meant, in the context of a border patrol investigation for illegal aliens, that the officers could ask questions concerning the citizenship and immigration status of the occupants of the car, and could ask for an explanation of suspicious circumstances, but that any further detention or search must be based on either consent or probable cause. The state may have intended to argue under this issue that the detention was legal, because it was based on a reasonable suspicion. As indicated earlier, however, we view the trial court’s ruling as holding that the detention was unreasonable. We also conclude that the finding is supported by substantial evidence. The trial court’s order suppressing the evidence is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. MINZNER and APODACA, JJ., concur.
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. Defendant appeals from his convictions on four counts of distribution of an imitation controlled substance contrary to NMSA 1978, Section 30-31A-4 (Cum.Supp. 1985). Defendant raises three issues on appeal: (1) whether the trial court committed fundamental error by asking defendant to answer written questions submitted by individual jurors; (2) whether defendant was denied effective assistance of counsel; and (3) whether the trial court erred in refusing to instruct the jury on the defense of entrapment prior to defendant moving to reopen. We affirm. The New Mexico State Police and the Eddy County Sheriff’s Department were jointly involved in an undercover narcotics investigation in Eddy County, New Mexico, during the fall of 1986. Jack Childress, an Eddy County undersheriff, testified that defendant agreed to assist him and undercover agent John Sena in obtaining evidence against suspected drug dealers. Childress and Sena testified that defendant’s role in the undercover operation consisted of acting as a confidential informant, providing names of individuals suspected to be involved in drug dealing, introducing Sena to persons from whom Sena might purchase drugs, and arranging and assisting in drug purchases so that Sena could obtain evidence of drug dealing. Sena testified that defendant was told he was to handle neither the drugs nor money used in the undercover operation. Sena further testified he instructed defendant that when a drug purchase occurred, defendant should leave the area, if possible, and that he should not participate in any criminal activity. Childress and Sena testified that they relied on defendant to arrange purchases from suspected drug dealers and did not direct defendant on the details of the transactions. They also testified that defendant never informed either of them that he was involved in selling imitation controlled substances. In August 1986, defendant met undercover agent John Saint. Neither the defendant nor Saint knew that the other was acting as a police informant. Thereafter, defendant and Denise Morales went to a hotel room where Saint was living. Saint testified that he asked defendant if he knew where Saint could find some drugs. Some days later, according to Saint, the defendant, Denise Morales, and another man visited the hotel where Saint lived. Defendant and the other man waited in a truck while Morales went to Saint’s room. Saint testified that Morales asked him if he wanted to buy some marijuana or “tystick”. Saint agreed. The two went downstairs and Saint purchased the substance from defendant for $75.00. When analyzed, the substance was found to be an imitation controlled substance. Saint further testified that at this time he also made a down-payment of $25.00 on a purchase of heroin. Defendant met Saint later in the day and delivered a package purporting to be heroin and collected another $100.00. When analyzed, the substance was determined not to be heroin, but an imitation. Saint testified that on two other occasions, defendant sold him substances purported to be heroin. The substances, when analyzed, were found to be imitation narcotic drugs. Defendant elected not to testify at his trial and at the close of the evidence requested that the jury be instructed on the defense of entrapment. Defendant argued that the instruction was proper because the evidence created an inference that it was necessary for him to sell imitation drugs in order to establish his credibility with persons suspected of drug dealing. The trial court refused to give the requested entrapment instruction, finding that: (1) because defendant did not testify and admit to the acts, he was not entitled to an entrapment instruction; and (2) the testimony of other witnesses at trial did not support the giving of the instruction. Following the court’s ruling, defense counsel moved to reopen defendant’s case in order to present testimony from defendant concerning entrapment. The trial court granted the motion. At this point, defendant took the stand and admitted that he sold imitation controlled substances to Saint. Defendant also testified that he was told by Saint that there were people in town who were waiting for a big delivery of heroin and that these people needed something to tide them over until the shipment arrived. Defendant further testified that he would not have sold the imitation narcotics but for the fact that he was assisting the undercover agents, that he felt compelled to sell imitation drugs in order to arrange drug purchases, and that he had sold imitation drugs to Saint hoping that he could obtain information concerning the alleged heroin shipment. Defendant conceded that he did not tell either Childress nor Sena that he had sold imitation controlled substances to Saint. On cross-examination, defendant admitted that he had been a heroin addict. Defendant also stated that he believed he would go to prison if he did not cooperate with the police and that he did not know that selling imitation controlled substances was illegal. At the conclusion of defendant’s cross-examination, the trial judge asked defendant several questions which had been submitted by individual jurors. The following exchange took place: Judge: The jurors have a couple of questions. Most of them have been answered, but one juror wants to know: “You said you’re not under the influence of heroin right now?” Defendant: No, sir, I’ve been clean since the day I got arrested. Judge: “And how did you get off the drug?” Defendant: Once I would de-tox when I was in jail before I bonded out. Then, I got involved in my church and got involved in [Narcotics Anonymous] and been going to them two, three times — well, three times a week. Just been doing some real positive things in my life to stay off. I go to re-integration center here in Carlsbad. Help out the kids there. Just things that will help me keep my mind off of that — off the addictions — doing different things that — so I won’t have to be out on the streets anymore. Judge: Alright, and another juror wants to know: “How would a person be physically affected by injecting an imitation controlled substance?” Defendant: I don’t know. Judge: Thank you. That’s all the questions I have. Do you gentlemen have anything to ask in view of what the Court has asked? Counsel: No, your honor. Defense counsel did not object to either the procedure used by the trial court or the specific questions asked, nor did counsel move to strike or request any limiting instruction. After defendant left the stand, the court instructed the jury and gave defendant’s requested instruction concerning the defense of entrapment. I. JUROR QUESTIONS Defendant claims the trial court committed fundamental error by requiring him to answer questions submitted by individual jurors. Whether fundamental error has occurred involves a determination of whether the acts complained of deprived defendant of a fair trial. See State v. Diaz, 100 N.M. 210, 668 P.2d 326 (Ct.App.1983); State v. Vallejos, 86 N.M. 39, 519 P.2d 135 (Ct.App. 1974). Under SCRA 1986, 14-101, a juror who desires to ask questions of a witness during trial may submit the proposed question or questions in writing to the court. The name of the juror submitting the inquiry must appear below the question. The trial judge must first pass upon the propriety of the question before it can be asked in open court. The court may then ask the question posed by the juror if it deems the question to be proper. Whether or not the question should be asked is a matter entrusted to the discretion of the trial court. See SCRA 1986, 11-611; see also SCRA 1986, 11-103(A) (error may not be predicated upon a ruling which admits or excludes evidence unless a substantial right of the party is affected). As a general rule a judge may ask questions of a witness as long as an attitude of impartiality is preserved. See State v. Crump, 97 N.M. 177, 637 P.2d 1232 (1981); City of Portales v. Bell, 72 N.M. 80, 380 P.2d 826 (1963); see also Vigil v. Johnson, 60 N.M. 273, 291 P.2d 312 (1955). Similarly, submission of jurors questions to a witness is a matter entrusted to the sound discretion of the trial court. See DeBenedetto v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., 754 F.2d 512 (4th Cir.1985); United States v. Callahan, 588 F.2d 1078 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 444 U.S. 826, 100 S.Ct. 49, 62 L.Ed.2d 33 (1979). Absent compelling circumstances, some courts discourage questions by jurors. See State v. Taylor, 25 Ariz.App. 497, 544 P.2d 714 (1976); Cheeks v. State, 266 Ind. 190, 361 N.E.2d 906 (1977). See generally Annotation, Propriety of Jurors Asking Questions in Open Court During Course of Trial, 31 A.L.R.3d 872 (1970). Defendant also argues that in New Mexico it is improper for the trial court to have any communications with the jury except in open court and in the presence of the accused and his counsel. Defendant relies on Hovey v. State, 104 N.M. 667, 726 P.2d 344 (1986) and State v. Orona, 92 N.M. 450, 589 P.2d 1041 (1979) as support for his contention that the trial court erred when it asked the jurors questions without first informing counsel of the nature of the jurors’ communication with the court and without allowing opportunity for objections outside the presence of the jury. See Hovey v. State; State v. Orona. Hovey and Orona concerned juror communications after deliberations had begun and defendant was no longer present in the courtroom. The presumption of prejudice to defendant from communications outside his presence, which existed in Hovey and Orona, does not arise in this case because defendant was present in the courtroom at the time the communications took place. Defendant also relies on Hovey in support of his contention that no objection from defense counsel was necessary to preserve error. He argues that because the right to be advised of juror communications is fundamental and personal to defendant, the claimed error cannot be waived. Defendant further argues that the questioning placed defense counsel in the untenable position of choosing between remaining silent or objecting to the jurors’ questions and, thereby, offending the jurors. We disagree. Defense counsel had an opportunity to object and could have requested a bench conference or to be heard outside the presence of the jury. Defendant additionally contends that the nature of the questions submitted by the jurors constituted fundamental error because the inquiries probed the issue of his character, the degree of his alleged criminality, and were aimed at detecting whether he had a “bad heart.” See SCRA 1986, 11-402, 11-403, and 11-404. We find no prejudice resulting from the court’s questioning. Defendant’s earlier testimony indicated that he had used heroin and had been a drug addict. Under these facts, the follow-up questions submitted by the jurors were not improper and reasonably referred to matters related by the defendant during his testimony on direct examination. While the trial court must carefully consider the possible prejudice which may result from questions submitted by jurors to a criminal defendant, under the facts of the present case, there has been no showing that defendant was prejudiced or that the questions resulted in denial of a fair trial. See State v. Crump; De Benedetto v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.; State v. Taylor. We find no error in the questions posed by the trial court and as submitted by jurors. II. CLAIM OF INEFFECTIVE ASSISTANCE Defendant argues that he was denied effective assistance of counsel due to his attorney’s failure to object to the questions of the jurors. A defendant seeking to establish a claim of ineffective assistance of counsel must show that his attorney failed to exercise the skill, judgment and diligence of a reasonably competent defense attorney. United States v. Baca, 687 F.2d 1356 (10th Cir.1982); State v. Orona, 97 N.M. 232, 638 P.2d 1077 (1982). Defendant has failed to make the requisite showing. A failure to object does not establish ineffective assistance of counsel. State v. Chacon, 80 N.M. 799, 461 P.2d 932 (Ct.App. 1969); State v. Gutierrez, 79 N.M. 732, 449 P.2d 334 (Ct.App.1968). The decision of whether or not to object falls within the ambit of trial tactics. Ineffectiveness of counsel is not necessarily established even when there is a showing of improvident strategy or unsuccessful tactics. State v. Trejo, 83 N.M. 511, 494 P.2d 173 (Ct.App. 1972); State v. Chacon. Moreover, the questions provided defendant with an opportunity to inform the jury how he had overcome his drug habit and how he had become involved in church activities and in helping other individuals to overcome their drug problems. Defendant’s claim under the facts herein does not constitute a basis for reversal. See State v. Helker, 88 N.M. 650, 545 P.2d 1028 (Ct.App.1975), cert. denied, 429 U.S. 836, 97 S.Ct. 103, 50 L.Ed.2d 102 (1976). III. ENTRAPMENT At the close of testimony the trial court indicated that it would deny defendant’s requested instruction on the defense of entrapment because there was insufficient evidence to support the submission of such instruction. Defendant then successfully moved to reopen the case. Defendant argues that the evidence presented prior to his motion to reopen the case, without his own testimony, was sufficient to support his requested entrapment instruction and that the trial court erred in initially refusing the tendered instruction. Defendant argues that he was also prejudiced by having to reopen the case and take the witness stand in his own defense. Defendant is entitled to an instruction on entrapment only if there is evidence to support it. See State v. Garcia, 79 N.M. 367, 443 P.2d 860 (1968). Entrapment requires a showing that a law enforcement officer initiated a criminal act or used undue persuasion or enticement in order to induce the defendant to commit a crime and that, without such conduct, the defendant would not have committed the crime. See SCRA 1986, 14-5160; State v. Fiechter, 89 N.M. 74, 547 P.2d 557 (1976). Defendant relies on the testimony of Childress and Sena that defendant was instructed to arrange and assist drug purchases and that he was not told specifically how he was to arrange the purchases. Defendant argues that an inference can be drawn from this evidence that he was required to sell imitation drugs as part of his work as a confidential informant; thus, he was entitled to an entrapment instruction. Where the evidence presented indicates that defendant merely was given an opportunity to commit a crime and that no undue persuasion or enticement was utilized, there is no factual basis for a claim of entrapment. State v. Padilla, 91 N.M. 451, 575 P.2d 960 (Ct.App.1978); see State v. Mordecai, 83 N.M. 208, 490 P.2d 466 (Ct.App.1971). In the present case, prior to defendant’s testimony, there was no evidence from which a reasonable inference of undue persuasion or enticement to commit the offenses charged could be drawn. To the contrary, the evidence shows that, without the knowledge of the law enforcement personnel he was working with, defendant was active in distributing imitation controlled substances. The trial court properly denied defendant’s request for an entrapment instruction prior to allowing defendant to reopen the case. Although we agree that testimony from an accused is not a prerequisite to the giving of an entrapment instruction if other evidence supports the giving of such instruction, the defense is not available to a defendant who denies committing the offense, because its invocation necessarily assumes the commission of at least some elements of the offense. United States v. Mabry, 809 F.2d 671 (10th Cir.), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 108 S.Ct. 33, 98 L.Ed.2d 164 (1987); State v. Garcia. Defendant additionally asserts that Baca v. State, 106 N.M. 338, 742 P.2d 1043 (1987) is controlling under the facts herein. We disagree. In Baca, the court expanded the defense of entrapment, holding that “a criminal defendant may successfully assert the defense of entrapment, either by showing lack of predisposition to commit the crime for which he is charged, or, that the police exceeded the standards of proper investigation * * * * ” Id. at 341, 742 P.2d at 1046 (emphasis in original). Baca is factually distinguishable from the instant case. Moreover, Baca was given modified prospective application, so that its ruling only applies to those cases tried after the effective date of the decision. Here, defendant’s trial took place in May 1987 and the Baca decision was filed in September 1987. Baca does not apply in this case. See Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973). Finally, defendant argues that he was forced to abandon his constitutional right to remain silent and that he was required to testify in order to have the jury instructed on his theory of defense. In light of our determination that there was insufficient evidence to support defendant’s initial request for an entrapment instruction, defendant was merely faced with a choice of either trying to present some evidence of entrapment through his own testimony, or foregoing his entrapment defense. This does not constitute a violation of defendant’s fifth amendment right to remain silent. See State v. Smith, 88 N.M. 541, 543 P.2d 834 (Ct.App.1975). Defendant’s convictions and sentences are affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. GARCIA and APODACA, JJ., concur.
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OPINION FRANCHINI, Justice. Plaintiffs Dena Lucero and Marcos Lucero appeal from a summary judgment granted in favor of Defendant New Mexico Public School Insurance Authority (“the NMPSIA”). The Luceros claim that a genuine issue of material fact existed to preclude summary judgment. See SCRA 1986, 1-056(0 (Repl. Pamp.1992). We disagree and affirm the trial court. Facts and proceedings. Dena suffered personal injuries in an accident while driving a vehicle owned and insured by the Hatch Valley Municipal School District. It is uncontroverted that Dena was a part-time employee of the Federal Programs office at the School District and that the accident occurred during her working hours after she had checked in with the office. It is also uneontroverted that Dena had been permitted to drive the same vehicle to run an office errand on the day before her accident. Dena testified that on the day of the accident she was given permission to drive the School District vehicle to run a personal errand and was also instructed to run an office errand at the same time. The employee who supposedly gave her permission denies this allegation. According to Dena’s testimony, before returning the vehicle to the School District, she took a “cruise” on the interstate highway. During this side trip, she lost control of her vehicle allegedly because of the negligence of a driver who left the accident scene. The Luceros filed a complaint to recover damages under the uninsured motorist provision of the School District policy covering the vehicle. The NMPSIA moved for summary judgment on the ground that Dena did not have permission to use the vehicle, but that even if she did, she was not covered by uninsured motorist coverage. The policy excludes uninsured motorist coverage for employees injured in the course of employment. The uninsured motorist endorsement under which the Luceros assert coverage is expressly subject “to all terms, clauses and conditions as heretofore.” Insuring Agreement E, which sets out the automobile liability portion of the policy, expressly excludes from the scope of its coverage liability for injuries suffered by “employees of the [covered school districts] injured in the course of their employment.” The Deputy Director of the NMPSIA signed an affidavit stating that “employees are specifically excluded from the policy’s uninsured motorist coverage.” When both the insurance company and the named insured agree as to the identity of the third-party beneficiaries of an insurance contract purchased by the named insured, the court will enforce that interpretation of the contract. See Jaramillo v. Providence Wash. Ins. Co., 117 N.M. 337, 341 — 42, 871 P.2d 1343, 1347-48 (1994). Employers statutorily may reject uninsured motorist coverage for employees. We note that under Section 66-5-221(D) (Repl. Pamp.1994), a “liability policy need not insure any liability ... on account of bodily injury to ... an employee of the insured while engaged in the employment ... of the insured or while engaged in the operation ... of any such motor vehicle.” We further note that under Section 66-5-301(0), “the named insured shall have the right to reject uninsured motorist coverage.” The NMPSIA and the School District have rejected uninsured motorist coverage for School District employees. Jensen does not apply. The Luceros argue that Dena had coverage under the uninsured motorist provision of the policy despite the employee exclusion because of the “initial permission” rule expressed in Allstate Insurance Co. v. Jensen, 109 N.M. 584, 788 P.2d 340 (1990). In Jensen, this Court held that an insurer may not vitiate liability coverage to third parties injured by the negligent acts of a permissive driver of a vehicle even if that driver exceeds the scope of the permission granted by the insured. Id. at 587, 788 P.2d at 343. We arrived at that conclusion by examining the language of NMSA 1978, Section 66-5-221(A)(2) (Repl.Pamp.1989), which requires an insurer to provide liability coverage in situations in which either the named insured or any permissive driver is operating the vehicle. Id. at 585-86, 788 P.2d at 341 — 42. Jensen does not apply in this case because the question of coverage for potential liability to third parties is not at issue. As a matter of law, if the facts are as Dena claims, for purposes of the insurance contract Dena was an employee “in the course of [her] employment.” The Luceros alternatively claim that, if the employee exclusion is valid, there exists a controversy of whether Dena was acting within “the course of [her] employment” when she was injured. They assert that Dena was not acting “in the course of [her] employment” because she was finished with her business duties and was just taking a “cruise” on her own when the accident occurred. Therefore, they argue, the employee exclusion does not apply to Dena.- The Luceros argue that implicitly it was not part of Dena’s duties to drive a School District vehicle because “[s]tudents were not permitted to drive school vehicles;” Dena “was told that driving a school vehicle was not a part of her duties;” and “[i]t was school policy that students not drive school vehicles.” They also assert in another part of their brief, however, that “[t]he school had no policy on students using school vehicles.” If, as Dena asserts, adults with apparent authority permitted her to drive the school vehicle on school errands, it is irrelevant what the policy of the School District was with respect to student drivers. It is inconsistent to argue, on the one hand, that the permission Dena obtained as an employee was sufficient to qualify her as a covered driver under the policy but, on the other hand, insufficient to characterize her as an employee “injured in the course of [her] employment.” We conclude as a matter of law that the alleged fact that Dena temporarily deviated from her duties before returning the vehicle to the School District would not change her status under the policy either as a permissive driver (if the fact-finder indeed found that she had express or implied permission to drive the vehicle on the day of the accident) or as an employee “injured in the course of [her] employment.” We affirm the trial court. IT IS SO ORDERED. FROST and MINZNER, JJ., concur.
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OPINION FROST, Justice. We are required here to interpret a provision of the Uniform Owner-Resident Relations Act, NMSA 1978, §§ 47-8-1 to -51 (Repl.Pamp.1982 & Cum.Supp.1994). The provision relates to the obligations of an owner of a dwelling unit to return a damage, deposit to a renter and/or account for it. We reverse the trial court. Defendant-Appellant, Benjamin Thong (Thong), rented an apartment from PlaintiffAppellee, Judy Garcia (Garcia). As part of the rental agreement, Thong was required to, and did, pay a damage deposit of $200.00 to Garcia. After Thong terminated his tenancy, Garcia did not refund his damage deposit or provide him with a written statement accounting for the damage deposit. Subsequent to Thong’s moving out of the apartment, Garcia filed suit in magistrate court seeking the sum of $1,763.05 for damages to the apartment. Thong denied responsibility for the damages and counter-claimed for the return of his damage deposit. The magistrate court entered judgment for Garcia in the amount of $908.00, and Thong appealed to the district court. The district court entered judgment for Garcia in the amount of $1,315.00. In both magistrate and district court Thong relied upon the provisions of NMSA 1978, § 47-8-18 (Cum.Supp.1994). That statutory provision authorizes an owner to require that a resident pay a reasonable damage deposit. The pertinent parts of this section provide: C. Upon termination of the residency, property or money held by the owner as deposits may be applied by the owner to the payment of rent and the amount of damages which the owner has suffered by reason of the resident’s noncompliance with the rental agreement or Section 47-8-22 NMSA 1978. No deposit shall be retained to cover normal wear and tear. In the event actual cause exists for retaining any portion of the deposit, the owner shall provide the resident with an itemized written list of the deductions from the deposit and the balance of the deposit, if any, within thirty days of the date of termi nation of the rental agreement or resident departure, whichever is later. The owner is deemed to have complied with this section by mailing the statement and any payment required to the last known address of the resident. Nothing in this section shall preclude the owner from retaining portions of the deposit for nonpayment of rent or utilities, repair work or other legitimate damages. D. If the owner fails to provide the resident with a written statement of deductions from the deposit and the balance shown by the statement to be due, within thirty days of the termination of the tenancy, the owner: (1) shall forfeit the right to withhold any portion of the deposit; (2) shall forfeit the right to assert any counterclaim in any action brought to recover that deposit; (3) shall be liable to the resident for court costs and reasonable attorneys’ fees; and (4) shall forfeit the right to assert an independent action against the resident for damages to the rental property. Id. Thong argued that since Garcia at no time provided him with an itemized listing of damages which allegedly occurred to the apartment, she had not complied with Section 47-8—18(C), and that under Section 47-8-18(D), she had therefore forfeited any right to withhold any portion of the deposit or to file suit for damages to the property. Garcia argued to the district court that Section 47-8-18(0) was only applicable if the damages claimed to the rental unit were less than the total amount of the deposit. She contended that since her claimed damages were in excess of the amount deposited by Thong, she was not required to provide Thong with a written itemization of all damage deductions. The trial court agreed with this interpretation. It held that Subsections 47-8-18(0 & (D) did not apply and that Garcia was therefore not required to supply the written itemization. The Act provides that its policy is to “simplify, clarify, modernize and revise the law governing the rental of dwelling units and the rights and obligations of owner and resident, and to encourage the owners and the residents to maintain and improve the quality of housing in New Mexico.” NMSA 1978, § 47-8-2 (Repl.Pamp.1982). We have previously held that, the Act modified common law and is remedial in nature. Its application must therefore be liberally construed. T.W.I.W., Inc. v. Rhudy, 96 N.M. 354, 357, 630 P.2d 753, 756 (1981). In interpreting Section 47-8-18(C) we must initially determine if there is any ambiguity in the wording of the statute. If the statute is unambiguous, we must give it effect according to its clear language. Storey v. University of N.M. Hosp./BCMC, 105 N.M. 205, 207, 730 P.2d 1187, 1189 (1986). If the language is clear, we need not engage in further interpretation. We give the wording used in the statute its ordinary meaning and the language of the statute is conclusive. In re Anthony (Reardon v. Alsup), 114 N.M. 95, 99, 835 P.2d 811, 815 (1992). We are at a loss to see any basis for Garcia’s interpretation in the wording of Section 47-8-18(C). That subsection requires an itemized list of the deductions from the deposit and the balance of the deposit, if any, returned within 30 days of the termination of the resident’s departure or termination of the rental agreement, whichever is later. Id. This provision clearly provides that the owner is to provide the resident with an itemized list of damage deductions and, if any remains, the balance of the damage deposit. Whether or not there is a balance to be refunded to the tenant, the owner is required to provide the itemized list of deductions within the 30-day period of time. This interpretation of the statute is consistent with our duty to look at the objectives the legislature sought to accomplish and thereby interpret the statute to achieve these purposes. The specific concern which Subsections 47-8-18(C) & (D) were enacted to address was the unexplained retention of damage deposits by landlords. The trial court’s application of the statute is inconsistent with the goal of the statute, which is to require the landlord to give timely explana tion of any retention of the deposit, whether in whole or in part. Certainly, the retention of the entire deposit without explanation is no less of a wrong than the retention of only a part of the deposit without explanation. It strikes us that it would be absurd to interpret this section to require a landlord who retains a portion of the deposit to provide a written accounting but allow a landlord who wishes to retain the entire deposit to do so without any explanation. Such a result would be entirely unreasonable. See Aztec Well Servicing Co. v. Property & Casualty Ins. Guar. Ass’n, 115 N.M. 475, 479, 853 P.2d 726, 730 (1993) (statutory interpretation must be consistent with legislative intent and must not render the statute application absurd, unreasonable, or unjust). We hold therefore that since Garcia failed to comply with Section 47-8-18(C), she forfeited her right to withhold any portion of the deposit or to file suit for the alleged damages as provided by Section 47-8-18(D). Thong is entitled to a return of his damage deposit. Thong asked that this Court award him attorney fees incurred with regard to this appeal and attorney fees incurred at the magistrate and district court levels. Section 47-8-18(D)(3) provides that a noncomplying owner “shall be liable to the resident for court costs and reasonable attorneys’ fees.” The appellate rules promulgated by this Court provide for the recovery of reasonable attorney fees on appeal, if allowed by law. SCRA 1986, 12-403(B)(3) (Cum.Supp.1994). We conclude that under the circumstances presented here, Thong should be awarded attorney fees on appeal. This appeal involved one rather straightforward issue which only necessitated a filing of an appellant’s brief in chief since Garcia made no appearance in this Court. The sum of $600.00 is a reasonable attorney fee. We are further of the view that Thong is entitled to reasonable attorney fees for any representation at the magistrate and trial court levels. We therefore reverse the trial court’s judgment and award Thong $600.00 for attorney fees on appeal. This matter is remanded to the trial court for entry of judgment ordering the return of the damage deposit to Thong and for the trial court to enter an award of reasonable attorney fees to Thong for any legal representation in the magistrate and district courts. IT IS SO ORDERED. RANSOM and MINZNER, JJ., concur.
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OPINION APODACA, Judge. Plaintiff Robert Johnsen (Employee) appeals from the trial court’s grant of summary judgment in favor of Defendant Alsup’s Convenience Stores, Inc. (Employer). Employee’s complaint sought unpaid overtime wages pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (the Act), 29 U.S.C. Sections 201 to 219 (1988). Summary judgment was granted on the basis that Employer was exempt from paying overtime under the Act and the Motor Carrier Act (MCA), 49 U.S.C. Sections 3102 through 3104 (1988). Employee advances three separate issues on appeal that together raise the essential question we address: Did Employee, in transporting certain parts necessary to repair equipment owned by Employer at its various retail stores located in New Mexico, engage in the transportation of goods in interstate commerce, thus ■bringing into play the exemption provisions of the MCA and the Act, which together exempt such employees from the overtime requirements of the Act? We conclude that, as a matter of law, Employee engaged in the transportation of intrastate commerce when transporting parts obtained from Employer’s warehouse in Clovis. Similarly, we conclude that, as a matter of law, Employee engaged in the transportation of intrastate commerce when transporting parts specially purchased from local wholesalers, when such parts were already in stock at the wholesalers’ places of business in New Mexico. We hold, however, that Employee engaged in the transportation of interstate commerce when transporting parts specially ordered from local wholesalers, when such parts were shipped to those local wholesalers from out-of-state suppliers to fill Employee’s special orders. We also hold that a genuine issue of material fact existed concerning to what extent Employee’s job entailed transporting parts specially ordered from local wholesalers. Because a genuine issue of material fact existed on such orders, we hold that the trial court erred in granting summary judgment in favor of Employer on that particular question. We therefore reverse and remand for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. I. FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND Employer is a retail business that operates convenience stores in several states. Employee was employed by Employer from July 1989 through October 1991, as the district maintenance person for Employer’s Albuquerque district, a district located solely within New Mexico. In such capacity, Employee performed a variety of duties, including the repair, maintenance, and installation of store equipment and fixtures. His duties required him to initiate orders for parts, equipment, and fixtures as necessary to maintain the stores in his district. To service each store within his district, Employee was assigned a truck owned by Employer, in which he maintained an inventory of parts and supplies. When he needed parts not carried in the truck, Employer’s purchasing department would send him the required parts from Employer’s supply warehouse in Clovis, New Mexico. If Employer’s warehouse did not have the parts in stock, Employee would purchase the parts from local wholesalers using a purchase order number acquired from Employer’s purchasing department. If the wholesaler did not have the parts in stock, it would place a special order for the parts, occasionally from out-of-state suppliers. Before ordering any parts from wholesalers, Employee was required to designate, on the purchase order form, the specific store for which the parts were ordered. When the parts arrived, Employee would pick them up from the wholesaler and install them in the specific store for which he had ordered them. While employed by Employer, Employee regularly worked more than forty hours per week. Employer did not, however, compensate Employee at one and one-half his hourly rate for hours-worked in excess of a forty-hour work week as required by the Act. See 29 U.S.C. § 206. Both parties filed motions for summary judgment, arguing that the facts supporting their motions were undisputed. In support of its motion, Employer argued that Employee was exempt from the overtime compensation provisions of the Act, under 29 U.S.C. Section 213(b)(1), because Employee fell within the provisions of the MCA. Employer contended that, because Employee was a truck driver engaged in interstate commerce, he was subject to the jurisdiction of the Secretary of Transportation under the MCA, thus triggering the exemption under the Act. In granting Employer’s motion and denying Employee’s motion, the trial court held that Employee was not entitled to receive overtime compensation because he transported goods in interstate commerce. Although the trial court’s ruling was within the context of a summary judgment proceeding, the trial court inappropriately entered findings of fact. Specifically, the trial court found: 15. As ... more than [an] incidental part of his duties, [Employee] did receive parts shipped from outside the State of New Mexico and transported those parts by motor vehicle to their final destination within the State of New Mexico. 17. The parts that had their shipment originate outside the State of New Mexico and that [Employee] transported by motor vehicle to their final destination within the State of New Mexico had their place of final destination in New Mexico designated prior to the origination of their shipping. 18. The parts that had their, shipment originate outside the State of New Mexico and that were shipped to a pre-designated final destination within the State of New Mexico constituted goods in interstate commerce. 19. As ... more than [an] incidental part of his ... duties, [Employee] was expected to transport by motor vehicle goods in interstate commerce. 20. As ... more than [an] incidental part of his ... duties, [Employee] transported by motor vehicle goods in interstate commerce; said goods were transported by [Employee] prior to the end of the interstate nature of their transportation. Based on these findings, the trial court concluded that Employer was exempt from paying overtime compensation to Employee under the Act. The trial court later denied Employee’s motion for reconsideration. This appeal followed. II. DISCUSSION A. General Employer is an enterprise engaged in commerce as defined by 29 U.S.C. Sections 203(r) and 203(s) (Supp. IV 1993) of the Act. Thus, Employer’s employees are covered by the Act’s minimum wage and overtime provisions, unless otherwise exempted. See 29 U.S.C. §§ 206, 207, 213. Section 207(a)(1) contains the foundation for the overtime provisions of the Act. It states: [N]o employer shall employ any of his employees who in any workweek is engaged in commerce or in the production of goods for commerce ... for a workweek longer than forty hours unless such employee receives compensation for his employment in excess of the hours above specified at a rate not less than one and one-half times the regular rate at which he is employed. These overtime requirements do not apply, however, to employees for “whom the Secretary of Transportation has power to establish qualifications and maximum hours of service” under Section 3102 of the MCA, 49 U.S.C. Section 3102. 29 U.S.C. § 213(b)(1). “Because of the importance of the overtime provisions in fostering the smooth flow of interstate commerce, [an] employer seeking the exemption bears the burden of proving [its] entitlement to it.” Sinclair v. Beacon Gasoline Co., 447 F.Supp. 5, 9 (W.D.La.1976) (citing Arnold v. Ben Kanowsky, Inc., 361 U.S. 388, 392, 80 S.Ct. 453, 456, 4 L.Ed.2d 393 (1960); Brennan v. Bill Kirk’s Volkswagen, 497 F.2d 892, 894 (4th Cir.1974); Brennan v. Greene’s Propane Gas Serv., Inc., 479 F.2d 1027, 1032 (5th Cir.1973)), aff'd, 571 F.2d 978 (5th Cir.1978). The purpose of the MCA is to allow the Secretary of Transportation to regulate the safety of motor vehicle travel on the nation’s highways. Sinclair, 447 F.Supp. at 9. The Secretary of Transportation’s power to regulate under the MCA, however, is limited to those employees whose activities affect the safety of operation of motor vehicles transporting property in interstate commerce. Levinson v. Spector Motor Serv., 330 U.S. 649, 669-70, 67 S.Ct. 931, 941-42, 91 L.Ed. 1158 (1947); United States v. American Trucking Ass’ns, 310 U.S. 534, 553, 60 S.Ct. 1059, 1068, 84 L.Ed. 1345 (1940); see 49 U.S.C. §§ 3102, 10521 (1988). Therefore, for Employee to fall within the “motor carrier exemption” provisions of the Act, his duties, or a substantial part of those duties, must have affected the safety of operation of motor vehicles and involved the transportation of property in interstate commerce. See Pyramid Motor Freight Corp. v. Ispass, 330 U.S. 695, 706-09, 67 S.Ct. 954, 959-61, 91 L.Ed. 1184 (1947). Only then would the Secretary of Transportation have the power to regulate Employee under the MCA, thus making him exempt for overtime compensation under the Act. Here, it is clear that Employee, as part of his duties for Employer, drove a truck on the highways of New Mexico and that he transported parts, equipment, and fixtures in that truck. The question of the Secretary of Transportation’s power to pre scribe qualifications and maximum hours of service for Employee turns upon the question of whether Employee, whose duties were performed solely within New Mexico, was engaged in transporting property in interstate commerce. Such transportation can be accomplished in one of two ways: (1) by a motor vehicle being driven across state lines; or (2) where a motor vehicle is operated wholly upon the highways of a single state, but the transportation performed is part of a continuous movement originating in or destined to a point in another state. Because Employee did not cross state lines in the performance of his duties for Employer, any interstate transportation of parts by Employee, if it occurred, must therefore be premised on the second method, a continuous movement originating in or destined to a point in another state. Transportation of parts within a single state may remain “interstate” in character when it forms part of a “practical continuity of movement” across state lines from the point of origin to the point of final destination. Walling v. Jacksonville Paper Co., 317 U.S. 564, 568, 63 S.Ct. 332, 335, 87 L.Ed. 460 (1943); Foxworthy, 997 F.2d at 672. “The characterization of such transportation as interstate or intrastate depends upon the ‘essential character’ of the shipment.” Foxworthy, 997 F.2d at 672 (citing Texas & N.O.R.R. v. Sabine Tram Co., 227 U.S. 111, 122, 33 S.Ct. 229, 233, 57 L.Ed. 442 (1913)). “ ‘ “Crucial to a determination of the essential character of a shipment is the shipper’s fixed and persisting intent at the time of the shipment.” ’ ” Id. (quoting International Bhd. of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen & Helpers v. Interstate Commerce Comm’n, 921 F.2d 904, 908 (9th Cir.1990) (citation omitted)). There is no fixed and persisting intent to ship goods in interstate commerce where: (i) [a]t the time of shipment there is no specific order being filled for a specific quantity of a given product to be moved through to a specific destination beyond the terminal storage, and (ii) the terminal storage is a distribution point or local marketing facility from which specific amounts of the product are sold or allocated, and (iii) transportation in the furtherance of this distribution within the single State is specifically arranged only after sale or allocation from storage. 29 C.F.R. § 782.7(b)(2) (1993). B. The Different Shipments Under the facts in this appeal, two different types of parts or shipments were involved. First, the parts that were shipped from out-of-state suppliers directly to Employer’s warehouse in Clovis where they were stored until needed. Second, the parts that were specially ordered from local wholesalers by Employee. We discuss each separately. 1. Parts Shipped to Employer’s Warehouse Applying the test set out in 29 C.F.R. Section 782.7(b)(2), we conclude, as a matter of law, that the parts shipped to Employer’s warehouse and stored for future use, as needed, were no longer “interstate in nature” when transported by Employee because the supplier’s intent at the time of shipment was to deliver the parts directly to Employer’s supply warehouse. It is clear that, when the parts were shipped, Employer’s warehouse in Clovis, and not any specific store, was the intended destination of the parts. See 29 C.F.R. § 782.7(b)(2)(i); Walling v. Mutual Wholesale Food & Supply Co., 46 F.Supp. 939, 949 (D.Minn.1942). Employer’s warehouse was a distribution point from which the parts were allocated to maintenance personnel as needed. See 29 C.F.R. § 782.7(b)(2)(ii). Additionally, distribution of the parts to Employer’s retail stores was “specifically arranged only after ... allocation from storage.” See 29 C.F.R. § 782.7(b)(2)(iii). But cf. Foxworthy, 997 F.2d 670 (route sales representative taking delivery of goods intended for ultimate delivery to a particular store); Griffin v. Consolidated Foods Corp., 771 F.2d 826 (4th Cir.1985) (same). In Beggs v. Kroger Co., 167 F.2d 700, 703 (8th Cir.1948), the Eighth Circuit concluded that purely intrastate segments of transportation are not part of interstate commerce if the product comes to rest within the state. Questions of “‘movement,’ cessation of movement, interruption of movement are each factual matters.” Kline v. Wirtz, 373 F.2d 281, 282 (5th Cir.1967). Here, the record indicates that the parts involved clearly came to rest in Employer’s warehouse in Clovis. Thus, it necessarily follows that, when Employee transported the parts by truck to Employer’s retail stores, he engaged in intrastate, not interstate commerce. 2. Parts Shipped to Wholesalers When the necessary parts could not be obtained from Employer’s Clovis warehouse, Employee would purchase the parts from local wholesalers. If the wholesaler did not have the parts in stock, it would specially order the parts for Employee, occasionally from out-of-state suppliers. Thus, the parts purchased by Employee from local wholesalers can be divided into two categories: (1) those parts that the wholesaler already had in stock at its place of business in New Mexico; and (2) those parts that the wholesaler did not have in stock and had to specially order from out-of-state suppliers. We discuss each separately. a. Parts in Stock at Wholesaler’s Warehouse Based on our analysis of “Parts Shipped to Employer’s Warehouse,” above, we conclude that, as a matter of law, the parts purchased by Employee from local wholesalers, which the wholesaler already had in stock at its place of business in New Mexico, were no longer “interstate in nature” when transported by Employee. Thus, to the extent that Employee transported these parts, Employee engaged in intrastate commerce. b. Parts Shipped to Wholesaler from Out-of-State Suppliers Employee also transported parts that he purchased from local wholesalers, which the wholesalers did not have in stock and had to specially order for Employee from out-of-state suppliers. Employee ordered these parts from the local wholesalers with the intent at the time of purchase that the parts would be installed in a specific store. Employer argues that, because Employee ordered these parts with the definite intention that such parts would be installed in a specific store, they were interstate in character. Employer contends that the parts had a continuity of movement across state lines from their point of origin out of state to their final point of destination in an Employer’s retail store. We agree. We conclude that the parts ordered by Employee from local wholesalers, which were shipped to the wholesalers from out-of-state suppliers specifically for Employee, constituted goods in interstate commerce. Our conclusion is supported by the United States Supreme Court’s decision in Jacksonville, 317 U.S. at 568-70, 63 S.Ct. at 335-36. There, the Court sorted deliveries of goods into three categories: (1) those purchased by a wholesaler upon the order of a customer with the definite intention that such goods shall be carried at once to the customer; (2) those obtained by a wholesaler from the manufacturer or supplier to meet the needs of specified customers pursuant to some understanding with the customer, though not for immediate delivery; and (3) those based on anticipation of the needs of specific customers, rather than upon prior orders or contracts. The Court found that goods in the first and second categories remained “in commerce” and their interstate journey ended only when delivered to retail customers. Id. at 568-69, 63 S.Ct. at 335-36. Because the parts purchased by Employee from local wholesalers fall into category one, they remained “in commerce” until delivered to their final destination. It was only through Employee’s transportation of these parts that they ultimately reached their final, intended destination. Consequently, Employee’s movement of the specially-ordered parts constituted interstate transportation. Employee argues, however, that he did not transport parts in interstate commerce because the parts he purchased from local wholesalers had “come to rest” with the wholesalers before he transported them to their designated store. Employee thus contends that he engaged only in intrastate transportation. We are not persuaded. “The entry of the goods into the warehouse interrupts but does not necessarily terminate their interstate journey. A temporary pause in their transit does not mean they are no longer ‘in commerce’ within the meaning of the Act.” Jacksonville, 317 U.S. at 568, 63 S.Ct. at 335. Besides, if the halt in the movement of goods is a convenient intermediate step in the process of getting them to their final destination, they remain in commerce until they reach it. Id. We conclude that the parts Employee ordered from local wholesalers, which the wholesalers did not have in stock and had to specially order from out-of-state suppliers, only temporarily paused in transit when delivered to the wholesaler. The “halt in the movement” of the parts at the wholesaler’s warehouse was only a convenient intermediate step in the movement of the parts to their final destination, the specific store Employee had ordered the parts for. This is because the specific retail store designated at the time of ordering, and not the wholesaler’s warehouse, was the final destination of the parts. C. Genuine Issue of Material Fact We have determined thus far that Employee transported both intrastate and interstate goods in commerce. The trial court granted summary judgment in favor of Employer on the basis that Employee transported goods in interstate commerce “[a]s more than [an] incidental part of his duties.” Employee argues, however, that his transportation of parts interstate in nature was an insubstantial part of his duties, and therefore falls within the de minimis exception of Pyramid, 330 U.S. 695, 67 S.Ct. 954. If the duties Employee performed relating to safety or interstate commerce were de minimis in relation to his other duties, then the Secretary of Transportation had no power to regulate Employee and the “motor carrier exemption” to the Act is not applicable. We conclude that a genuine issue of material fact existed concerning what percentage of Employee’s duties directly related to interstate commerce and whether such percentage was de minimis in relation to his other duties. See Morris v. McComb, 332 U.S. 422, 423, 68 S.Ct. 131, 131, 92 L.Ed. 44 (1947) (Interstate Commerce Commission had power to establish qualifications and maximum hours of service for drivers when interstate business was from three to four percent of total business and was carried on indiscriminately with intrastate business); Coleman v. Jiffy June Farms, Inc., 324 F.Supp. 664, 669-71 (S.D.Ala.1970) (interstate activities of drivers were de minimis because each driver averaged only 0.00343 percent of his time in interstate activity), aff'd, 458 F.2d 1139 (5th Cir.1971), and cert. denied, 409 U.S. 948, 93 S.Ct. 292, 34 L.Ed.2d 219 (1972). Thus, even though Employee transported goods in interstate commerce, and such transportation may have been a regular part of his duties, he may have performed such transportation only on rare occasions. If Employee transported goods in interstate commerce only on rare occasions, then such interstate transportation may have been only a de minimis part of his duties. It is not clear from the record that the facts on this question were undisputed. In fact, it is not clear that the trial court even addressed this issue. Its resolution should therefore be left to the province of the fact finder. We therefore reverse the grant of summary judgment in favor of Employer. See Monett v. Dona Ana County Sheriff’s Posse, 114 N.M. 452, 454, 840 P.2d 599, 601 (Ct.App.1992) (summary judgment appropriate only when there are no genuine issues of material fact and the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law). III. CONCLUSION We hold that the trial court erred, as a matter of law, in holding that Employee engaged in interstate commerce when delivering parts obtained from Employer’s supply warehouse. We also conclude that the trial court erred, as a matter of law, in holding that Employee engaged in interstate commerce when delivering parts obtained from local wholesalers, when the wholesaler already had the parts in stock. Additionally, we conclude that, with respect to the parts specially ordered from local wholesalers, when such parts had to be specially ordered from out-of-state suppliers because the wholesaler did not have the parts in stock, a genuine issue of material fact existed on the question of the extent Employee’s job entailed transporting those parts. We thus reverse the grant of summary judgment in favor of Employer and remand for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. We award costs to Employee on appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY and FLORES, JJ., concur. . "This authority, previously vested in the Interstate Commerce Commission, was transferred to the Department of Transportation in 1983.” Foxworthy v. Hiland Dairy Co., 997 F.2d 670, 672 n. 2 (10th Cir.1993). Many of the cases we refer to originated before the 1983 change and thus construe the former delegation of authority to the Interstate Commerce Commission. Because this case arose after the 1983 transfer of authority, however, we discuss the applicability of the Motor Carrier Act in the context of the Secretary of Transportation, not the Interstate Commerce Commission.
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OPINION BOSSON, Judge. Defendant appeals his conviction of criminal solicitation resulting from a failed drug deal. Defendant questions whether an intended purchaser of drugs who is not charged with illegal possession, but who does encourage the crime of trafficking by negotiating for a sale, may be prosecuted instead for criminal solicitation. We hold that be may not, and reverse. FACTS Defendant was riding in a car with several others, apparently looking to buy drugs. The driver of another car (Cauffman) flagged them down on a residential street. Cauffman, a drug dealer, had several papers of heroin for sale. He approached the car in which Defendant was riding and offered a paper to Defendant, who, as is the custom, handed Cauffman twenty dollars for the opportunity to examine the paper. After examining the paper, Defendant returned it, in exchange for his money back, having decided not to complete the transaction. Cauffman apparently was able to sell one of his papers to another person in the ear. At that time, they were approached by a police officer who had observed the exchanges from a nearby residence. Everyone was arrested. When Defendant was arrested, he did not have any controlled substances in his possession. The State charged him with criminal solicitation on the basis that he solicited Cauffman to traffic heroin. Defendant appeals his conviction, arguing that his conduct does not fall within 'the solicitation statute as a matter of law. DISCUSSION “[A] person is guilty of criminal solicitation if, with the intent that another person engage in conduct constituting a felony, he solicits, commands, requests, induces, employs or otherwise attempts to promote or facilitate another person to engage in conduct constituting a felony within or without the state.” NMSA 1978, § 30-28-3(A) (Repl.Pamp.1994). Under the facts of this case, the jury would be required to find that Defendant intended Cauffman to commit trafficking in heroin and that he did something that encouraged Cauffman to commit the crime. Under a literal reading of the statute, if one asks another to sell him or her drugs, which is trafficking, that person has thereupon engaged in solicitation, whether or not the deal goes through. See Metcalf v. State, 614 So.2d 548 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1993), rev’d on other grounds, 635 So.2d 11 (1994); cf. People v. Washington, 865 P.2d 145 (Colo.1994) (en banc); see generally State v. Tellez, 165 Ariz. 381, 799 P.2d 1 (Ct.App.1989). Even if the potential purchaser does not actually ask another to sell drugs but otherwise engages in negotiation for the purchase, there may be solicitation because the seller is being encouraged to commit a crime. We conclude that Defendant’s actions fall within a literal reading of the criminal solicitation statute. Defendant argues that the legislature did not intend criminal solicitation to apply to his kind of conduct. It is true that, historically, criminal solicitation statutes were directed more against subversive activities or “criminal syndicalism.” Model Penal Code § 5.02 cmt. 2, n. 11 (1985). However, current statutes are broadly written and generally are intended to cover any inducement or facilitating with the requisite intent that the person solicited commit a crime. Model Penal Code § 5.02 cmt. 3. Therefore, Defendant’s argument does not persuade us. Although Defendant’s actions fall within the definition of criminal solicitation, this does not end the discussion. After defining the acts constituting solicitation, the statute sets forth certain defenses and 'exceptions. One exception is that: “A person is not liable for criminal solicitation when his solicitation constitutes conduct of a kind that is necessarily incidental to the commission of the offense solicited.” Section 30-28-3(D). In State v. McCall, 101 N.M. 616, 629, 686 P.2d 958, 971 (Ct.App.1983), rev’d on other grounds, 101 N.M. 32, 677 P.2d 1068 (1984), this Court, in an opinion later withdrawn from publication, see State v. Shade, 104 N.M. 710, 724 n. 2, 726 P.2d 864, 878 n. 2 (Ct.App.), cert. quashed, 104 N.M. 702, 726 P.2d 856 (1986), described this subsection as addressing the theory of merger, whereby a lesser but included offense merges into the principal crime for purposes of prosecution. However, we believe that the exception is broader than traditional merger theory. Historically, in consensual crimes necessarily involving two or more persons to complete, like prostitution or illegal buy-sell transactions, the legislature selects the parties to be punished and by implication leaves unpunished the parties omitted from the statute. The legislature is presumed to know that an unenumerated party is not included. See 2 Wayne R. LaFave & Austin W. Scott, Jr., Substantive Criminal Law § 6.8, at 165-66 (1986). The same legislative inference precludes punishment as an accomplice or accessory where there is an undesignated party to a two-party crime. Id. For example, a woman upon whom an illegal abortion is performed cannot be charged as an accessory to the abortion, and the purchaser of bootleg liquor cannot be liable as an accomplice to the illegal sale. See Model Penal Code § 2.06 cmt. 9(b); United States v. Farrar, 281 U.S. 624, 634, 50 S.Ct. 425, 427, 74 L.Ed. 1078 (1930). In New Mexico, trafficking in a controlled substance may be done in a number of different ways, including manufacturing, distributing, selling, bartering, or giving away the substance. NMSA 1978, § 30-31-20(A) (Cum.Supp.1994). Purchasing or receiving is not included in trafficking. Therefore, the trafficking statute penalizes only the seller, not the buyer, and pursuant to this same, well-recognized inference the purchaser, as an unenumerated party to a two-person crime, may not be prosecuted as an accessory. See Robinson v. State, 815 S.W.2d 361, 363 (Tex.Ct.App.1991). Although the purchaser does not fall within the scope of trafficking, he may still be guilty of possession. NMSA 1978, § 30-31-28 (Cum.Supp.1994) (possession of controlled substances prohibited). Therefore, when an illegal drug sale is completed, there are two separate crimes committed, trafficking by the seller and possession by the purchaser. Each conduct is necessarily incidental to the other crime. There cannot be an illegal sale unless someone buys. In the absence of clear legislative directive, the buyer’s conduct is therefore “ ‘of a kind that is necessarily incidental’” to the principal crime — trafficking or sale — and the buyer has been excluded from prosecution for solicitation by legislative choice. Tyler v. State, 587 So.2d 1238, 1241 (Ala.Crim.App.1991) (quoting Ala.Code 13A-4-l(c) (1975)); see Model Penal Code § 2.06 emt. 9(b). Solicitation to traffic may occur when A encourages B to sell to C, because A’s actions are not necessarily incidental to the sale. However, when the solicitor is also the purchaser, his actions ordinarily are necessarily incidental to the illegal sale, and do not give rise to a separate conviction. Defendant’s conduct in this case, as a potential purchaser of controlled substances, was necessarily incidental to the crime of trafficking through the sale of a controlled substance. Therefore, he may not be guilty of solicitation to traffic. Defendant’s conviction is reversed. IT IS SO ORDERED. HARTZ and WECHSLER, JJ., concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. This is an appeal from the District Court of Bernalillo County. Dan P. Blea (defendant), appeals his convictions of first degree murder, aggravated battery with a firearm enhancement and aggravated assault with a firearm enhancement. We affirm. Evidence was presented at trial which established that defendant was at the LU-LAC Club in Albuquerque most of the day of the shooting, January 26, 1980. He drank 10 to 20 shots of tequila and 15 to 20 beers. The bartender at the club on the date of the shooting, Patty Campos, testified that late in the evening defendant began to argue with the victim, George Almaraz. At some point in the argument defendant stood up, shot Almaraz, then turned and shot Campos. According to Campos, defendant then chased Almaraz from the club and shot him again in the alley. Defendant returned to the bar and shot Campos again. Defendant claims that he left the bar before any shooting took place and that Campos misidentified him as the assailant. Defendant appeals his convictions on several grounds. Point I. Defendant’s first contention is that the evidence presented at trial is insufficient to sustain a conviction of first degree murder. He argues that the prosecution did not meet its burden of proving the requisite intent of first degree murder because the State’s primary witness testified that defendant had been drinking heavily, was involved in an argument with the victim and acted mechanically in the shooting, and that these are facts which could reduce a charge of first degree murder to one of second degree murder. In reviewing a question of sufficiency of evidence to support a criminal conviction, this Court does not weigh the evidence. That is within the province of the jury. State v. Lankford, 92 N.M. 1, 582 P.2d 378 (1978). An appellate court must affirm the conviction if there is substantial evidence to support the jury in finding the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. State v. Carter, 93 N.M. 500, 601 P.2d 733 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 93 N.M. 683, 604 P.2d 821 (1979). In this case, the jury was properly instructed and informed on the effects of alcohol on the first degree murder charge. NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 41.10 (Repl.Pamp.1982). Concerning defendant's formation of the requisite intent for first degree murder, this Court has held that an accused may establish the requisite intent for first degree murder in a short period of time. State v. Lucero, 88 N.M. 441, 541 P.2d 430 (1975). We hold that the jury could reasonably infer deliberation and premeditation from the evidence presented to it at trial. See State v. Manus, 93 N.M. 95, 597 P.2d 280 (1979). Point II. Defendant next contends that he was deprived of his right to confrontation, U.S. Const, amend. VI, because the trial judge would not allow cross-examination of Campos on her prior addiction to heroin nor would the judge allow testimony of an expert witness on this issue. The trial court excluded testimony of the expert witness on the grounds that the witness could not testify as to Campos’ psychological condition with any degree of reasonable psychological or medical probability. Our rules specifically allow scientific evidence in the form of expert testimony when it “will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue * * * * ” NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 702 (Repl.Pamp.1983). Scientific evidence may be a means of obtaining specific data or a means of evaluating the significance of data. C. McCormick, McCormick’s Handbook of the Law of Evidence 488 (2d ed. 1972). When scientific evidence is employed as a means of obtaining data, the court must determine whether the scientific technique used is based on a well-recognized scientific principle or discovery and whether it is capable of supporting opinions based on a reasonable probability rather than conjecture. See State v. Dorsey, 88 N.M. 184, 539 P.2d 204 (1975); State v. Beachum, 97 N.M. 682, 643 P.2d 246 (Ct.App.1981), cert. quashed, 98 N.M. 51, 644 P.2d 1040 (1982); accord Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C.Cir.1923). Once a scientific technique is accepted as reliable, the results reached through its application to any particular case must still be relevant in order to be admissible. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 401, 402 (Repl.Pamp.1983); State v. Guzman, 23 SBB 126 (1984); State v. Bell, 90 N.M. 134, 560 P.2d 925 (1977). Even if relevant, the scientific evidence may be excluded if the prejudicial effect of the evidence outweighs its probative value. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 403 (Repl.Pamp.1983); Simon Neustadt Family Center, Inc. v. Bludworth, 97 N.M. 500, 641 P.2d 531 (Ct.App.1982). No error occurs when the judge excludes expert testimony where the probative value of that testimony is slight. State v. Tafoya, 94 N.M. 762, 617 P.2d 151 (1980). In the present case, the trial court found that the expert had not applied any particular psychological test with regard to Campos, that the testimony was speculative, that the evidence would be highly prejudicial while having little probative value due to the lack of a clear connection between Campos’ prior addiction and her present ability to recall, and that the evidence would not be helpful to the jury. Based on these findings, the court excluded the testimony of defendant’s expert witness. It is within the sound discretion of the trial judge to determine whether expert testimony is relevant, and whether its probative value outweighs its prejudicial im pact. Id. Upon review of the record, we hold that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in excluding the testimony of defendant’s expert witness. Defendant admits that the evidence of Campos’ prior addiction to heroin was relevant only insofar as it laid the foundation for the testimony of his expert. No such foundation was necessary once the testimony of the expert witness was properly excluded. Therefore, the trial court did not err in refusing to allow cross-examination of Campos on her prior addiction to heroin. Finally, defendant contends that the trial court abused its discretion and violated defendant’s right to confrontation, U.S.Const. amend. VI, when it refused to force Campos to testify as to her involvement in a previous bar-stabbing incident. Campos refused to testify on fifth amendment grounds, U.S.Const. amend. V. Defendant argues that this testimony was critical to the impeachment of the State’s most important witness. The facts in this case do not support defendant’s contention that he was denied his right to confrontation. Defendant does not claim that the tendered cross-examination would establish that Campos had a motive to testify falsely. See Davis v. Alaska, 415 U.S. 308, 94 S.Ct. 1105, 39 L.Ed.2d 347 (1974); State v. Baldizan, 99 N.M. 106, 654 P.2d 559 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 99 N.M. 148, 655 P.2d 160 (1982). Nor was the limitation placed on cross-examination so pervasive as to render Campos’ testimony immune from the test of credibility. Cf. State v. Curtis, 87 N.M. 128, 529 P.2d 1249 (Ct.App.1974). Rather, the proposed cross-examination went only to one instance of prior conduct which had little, if any, probative value as to Campos’ propensity to be truthful or untruthful. Defendant maintains that his cross-examination was proper under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 608(b) (Repl.Pamp.1983), which reads, in pertinent part: Specific instances of the conduct of a witness, for the purpose of attacking or supporting his credibility * * * [may], in the discretion of the court, if probative of truthfulness or untruthfulness, be inquired into on cross-examination of the witness * * * * The giving of testimony, whether by an accused or by any other witness, does not operate as a waiver of his privilege against self-incrimination when examined with respect to matters which relate only to credibility. (Emphasis added). Under this rule, it is within the discretion of the trial court to allow cross-examination into prior instances of conduct of a witness for the purpose of attacking the witness’ credibility. Since this is a discretionary ruling, the appellate issue is whether the trial court abused its discretion. State v. Cervantes, 92 N.M. 643, 593 P.2d 478 (Ct. App.), cert. denied, 92 N.M. 621, 593 P.2d 62 (1979); State v. Davis, 92 N.M. 563, 591 P.2d 1160 (Ct.App.1979). We hold that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in refusing to allow the tendered cross-examination. Point III. Defendant’s third claim of error is that the trial court should have permitted him to introduce evidence to establish that on one prior occasion Almaraz had pulled a gun on a bartender at another bar. Defendant maintains that the trial court effectively prevented him from presenting his defense to the jury. His defense was that he left the bar before the shooting and that Campos misidentified him. Defendant claims that the tendered evidence would suggest an alternative scenario as to how the shooting occurred by establishing Almaraz’ reputation for pulling guns, by establishing that Almaraz was armed on the night of his death, and by raising the inference that Campos misidentified defendant as the assailant. Defendant asserts that the evidence was admissible under either NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 404 or 405 (Repl.Pamp. 1983). Defendant tendered evidence of a specific instance of conduct. As such, it was not admissible under Rule 404 to prove the character of the victim. State v. Montoya, 95 N.M. 433, 622 P.2d 1053 (Ct.App.), cert. quashed, 95 N.M. 426, 622 P.2d 1046 (1981). Defendant’s contention, that for purposes of establishing identity the evidence fits the “other purposes” exception in Rule 404(b), is tenuous at best. No question arose as to the victim’s identity. Almaraz’ prior act was also not probative of the identity of his assailant. It was therefore a collateral issue, exclusion of which was within the trial court’s discretion. See State v. Ewing, 97 N.M. 235, 638 P.2d 1080 (1982); State v. McCarter, 93 N.M. 708, 604 P.2d 1242 (1980). The evidence was not admissible under Rule 405 for similar reasons. Rule 405 allows admission of prior specific instances of conduct only where “character or a trait of character of a person is an essential element of a charge, claim or defense ****’’ NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 405(b) (Repl.Pamp.1983) (emphasis added). We agree with the defendant that this rule is not limited solely to situations in which self defense is claimed. Cf. State v. Bazan, 90 N.M. 209, 561 P.2d 482 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 254, 561 P.2d 1347 (1977) (court held that absent a claim of self defense under the facts presented in that case, asserted character traits were not essential elements of the defense). In this case, however, the fact that the victim, Almaraz, had previously pulled a gun in another bar had no bearing on defendant’s claim that he was not in the bar at the time of the shooting, nor did it relate to Campos’ identification of defendant as Almaraz’ assailant. It was therefore within the trial court’s discretion to exclude the tendered evidence under Rule 405. See State v. Alderette, 86 N.M. 600, 526 P.2d 194 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 86 N.M. 593, 526 P.2d 187 (1974). To the extent the trial court believed the tendered evidence was admissible under Rule 405, the court did not abuse its discretion by excluding the evidence under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rules 402 and 403 (Repl.Pamp.1983). State v. Herrera, 92 N.M. 7, 582 P.2d 384 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 91 N.M. 751, 580 P.2d 972 (1978). Point IV. Defendant claims that the court erred in advising a defense witness that he could be subject to prosecution for testimony he made which was outside the limits of a grant of use immunity given to the witness by the court. We find no merit in this argument. The witness did testify in defendant’s behalf and his testimony before the jury was substantially the same as that offered by the witness on voir dire prior to the court’s statements to him. The statements of the trial judge were not improper. Defendant’s case was not prejudiced as no intimidation of the witness was intended, nor did any occur. State v. Martinez, 99 N.M. 48, 653 P.2d 879 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 99 N.M. 47, 653 P.2d 878 (1982). Point V. Defendant contends that the trial court erred in failing to give the appropriate instruction for second degree murder. The defendant made no objection at trial to the instruction for second degree murder given by the court. The issue was therefore not properly preserved for appeal. NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom. Rel. and W/C App.R. 308 (Repl.Pamp. 1983); State v. Noble, 90 N.M. 360, 563 P.2d 1153 (1977). No fundamental right of the accused was violated by the instructions given. Cf. Jackson v. State, 100 N.M. 487, 672 P.2d 660 (1983) (fundamental error found where trial court gave instructions which did not contain necessary elements of the crime and differed substantially from current uniform jury instructions). Point VI. Defendant contends that at the time of trial he was suffering greatly from a leg injury and that the pain kept him from providing effective assistance to his counsel at trial. The record shows that defendant was given medical treatment at the time of trial, and when questioned by the court as to whether his treatment was satisfactory defendant answered that it was. Defendant made no further reference to continuing problems until after the trial was over. He cannot now take advantage of his own nondisclosure to the trial court. Cf. State v. Lord, 91 N.M. 353, 573 P.2d 1208 (Ct.App.1977), cert. denied, 91 N.M. 491, 576 P.2d 297 (1978) (no basis for additional sentencing hearing where defendant attempted to take advantage of his own nondisclosure of plea bargain). Point VII. Defendant finally contends that all errors considered cumulatively constitute an infringement on his right to a fair trial. State v. Vallejos, 86 N.M. 39, 519 P.2d 135 (Ct.App.1974). We have reviewed the record and the defendant’s argument of errors and points relied upon in this appeal and conclude that there was no error and therefore no accumulation of irregularities or errors which denied defendant his constitutional right to a fair trial. The judgment and sentence of the trial court are affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and RIORDAN, STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ„ concur.
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