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OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
Defendant was convicted and sentenced for possession of heroin in violation of § 54-11-23, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2, 1973 Supp.). Defendant appeals. We affirm.
A. The results of polygraph examinations were not admissible in evidence.
Defendant moved the court that the results of polygraph (lie detector) exami nation be admitted in evidence. The State objected because the results were hearsay and the polygraphist was not qualified to testify as an expert.
Defendant tendered the testimony of a polygraphist and the results of his examination. The trial court denied the tender.
We agree with the State’s objection that the polygraphist was not qualified to testify. The polygraphist did not produce his polygraph records in court. Only the results were presented. Neither did the testimony establish that the polygraphic test was accepted as a scientific principle in the expert’s profession.
(1) Qualifications of a polygraphist
The establishment of the qualifications of a polygraphist is very burdensome. “The Polygraphy Act does not apply to research in the fields of medicine or psychology.” Section 67-31A-10, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 1, 1973 Supp.). For qualifications of a psychologist, see “Professional Psychologist Act,” Sections 67-30-1 to 67-30-17, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 1, 1973 Supp.).
The Polygraphy Act does not contain qualifications sufficient to meet the test under consideration. The recommended standards have been set by Reid and Inbau, Truth and Deception (1966), 235. These standards have been accepted in the courts. United States v. DeBetham, 348 F.Supp. 1377, 1386 (D.C.Cal.1972), aff’d 470 F.2d 1367 (9th Cir. 1972), cert. denied 412 U.S. 907, 93 S.Ct. 2299, 36 L.Ed.2d 972 (1973).
The trial court said:
In the Court’s opinion, a qualified examiner can be adequately identified without consuming more court time than is presently necessary to qualify any physician or psychiatrist; and an incompetent examiner can be discovered through the ordinary diligence expected of counsel in preparation for cross-examination. Definite standards of examiner qualifications have been recommended for this purpose. For example, Reid and Inbau propose that:
Before permitting the results to be admitted as evidence in any case, however, the courts should require the following: (1) That the examiner pos-
sess a college degree. (2) That he has received at least six months of internship training under an experienced, competent examiner or examiners with a sufficient volume of case work to afford frequent supervised testing in actual case situations.
(3) That the witness have at least five years’ experience as a specialist in the field of polygraph examinations.
(4) That the examiner’s testimony be based upon polygraph records that he produces in court and which are available for cross-examination purposes.
Effective cross-examinations could be based upon such standards, as well as upon the particular examiner’s testing technique and reputation for competence and integrity. Nor should the importance of the last mentioned subject be underestimated in this regard, since the natural desire to protect his most essential reputation, which would be on trial in every case, would necessarily render every examiner most cautious in his diagnoses.
Psychology and physiology are important aspects in qualifying an examiner. The polygraphist did not qualify within the boundaries of the above standards. The results of the examination were not admissible in evidence.
(2) The polygraphic test is now accepted as a scientific principle. Admission is within discretion of trial court.
To date, New Mexico follows the exclusion rule. Evidence of a polygraph examination is not admissible over objection. State v. Chavez, 80 N.M. 786, 787, 461 P. 2d 919 (Ct.App.1969); 82 N.M. 238, 478 P.2d 566 (Ct.App.1970); Chavez v. State, 456 F.2d 1072 (10th Cir. 1972); State v. Varos, 69 N.M. 19, 363 P.2d 629 (1961); State v. Trimble, 68 N.M. 406, 362 P.2d 788 (1961); Annot., 53 A.L.R.3d 1005, 1010 (1973). It may be admitted by stipulation. State v. Turner, 81 N.M. 450, 455, 468 P.2d 421 (Ct.App.1970); State v. Turner, 81 N.M. 571, 576, 469 P.2d 720 (Ct.App.1970).
Trimble, supra, stated, 68 N.M. at page 407, 362 P.2d at page 788, “Presently, the question [on admission of a polygraph test] requires a negative answer.” [Emphasis added]. This means that courts of review must wait until polygraphy is accorded general scientific recognition by psychologists and physiologists. See State v. Lindemuth, 56 N.M. 257, 273, 274, 243 P.2d 325 (1952). “Certain scientific principles are now used in evidence that were not formerly admissible. But such principles were not used until their validity was demonstrated and accepted. Ballistic tests are now admissible . . . . ” State v. Sneed, 76 N.M. 349, 354, 414 P.2d 858, 861 (1966). The results of blood tests are admissible. State v. Sweat, 78 N.M. 512, 514, 433 P.2d 229 (Ct.App.1967). Tests on LSD pills are admissible. State v. Mosier, 83 N.M. 213, 216, 490 P.2d 471 (Ct.App.1971).
We can no longer say “[t]hat poly-graphic evidence is never admissible.” United States v. DeBetham, 470 F.2d 1367 (9th Cir. 1972), supra; United States v. Urquidez, 356 F.Supp. 1363 (D.C.Cal.1973). The State and the defendant can waive their rights to the exclusion of polygraphic evidence. State v. Chavez, 82 N.M. 238, 478 P.2d 566, supra.
We have held that it was in the discretion of the trial court to admit testimony of an experiment, although it was not scientifically accurate. State v. Rose, 79 N.M. 277, 442 P.2d 589 (1968), cert. denied 393 U.S. 1028, 89 S.Ct. 626, 21 L.Ed.2d 571 (1968).
Scientific recognition of polygraphic tests has now arrived. A proper foundation for the testimony must first be established. The polygraphist must be qualified as an examiner. The proposed test must be accepted in his profession. The proposed test must show that it has a reasonable measure of precision in its indications. When this foundation is laid, the admission in evidence of a polygraphic test is within the discretion of the trial court. United States v. Alvarez, 472 F.2d 111, 113 (9th Cir. 1973); United States v. DeBetham, supra; United States v. Lanza, 356 F.Supp. 27, 30 (D.C.Fla.1973); United States v. Urquidez, supra; United States v. Chastain, 435 F.2d 686, 687 (7th Cir. 1970); United States v. Wainwright, 413 F.2d 796 (10th Cir. 1969), cert. denied 396 U.S. 1009, 90 S.Ct. 566, 24 L.Ed.2d 501 (1969); Dabrowski, The Polygraph Revisited : An Argument For Admissibility, 4 Suffolk U.L.Rev. 111 (1969); Kaplan, The Lie Detector: An Analysis Of Its Place In The Law Of Evidence, 10 Wayne L.Rev. 381 (1964).
This rule is fair to the State and the defendant. Each should have the right to rely on the examination. If the poly-graphic test is reliable as to the guilt of the accused, it is equally reliable as to the innocence of the accused. We should no longer deny the State the right to exercise this privilege when a defendant voluntarily submits to the examination. The lie detector test must be voluntary because to compel a person to submit to testing to determine his guilt or innocence, whether willed or not, evokes the spirit and history of the Fifth Amendment. Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757, 86 S.Ct. 1826, 16 L.Ed.2d 908, 916 (1966).
Affirmed.
It is so ordered.
WOOD, C. J., specially concurring.
LOPEZ, J., specially concurring. | [
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Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals, 86 N.M. 382, 524 P.2d 998, be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals. | [
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OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
Plaintiff recovered judgment against defendant in the sum of $4,600 actual damages and $15,000 punitive damages in a claim filed for conversion of property and invasion of privacy. This claim arose out of defendant’s repossession of plaintiff’s automobile. Defendant appeals. We affirm.
Six points are raised for reversal: (1) absence of an indispensable party; (2) withdrawal of defendant’s attorney; (3) error in giving instructions; (4) directed verdict and judgment n. o. v.; (5) trial court’s order of remittitur; and (6) cumulative error.
(1) The Bank was not an “indispensable party".
On February 9, 1971, plaintiff sued defendant and Crocker-Citizens National Bank (Bank). Defendant filed a cross-claim against the Bank. The Bank’s principal place of business was San Francisco, California.
Prior thereto, plaintiff purchased a motor vehicle under written contract from Stigall Motors, Inc. The contract was assigned to the Bank and it provided for payments by plaintiff to the Bank.
The Bank moved for dismissal under The National Banking Act. 12 U.S.C., § 94. The motion was sustained. The defendant then moved to dismiss the complaint for lack of an indispensable party, the Bank, and the motion was denied. •
On January 29, 1971, the Bank authorized defendant to contact plaintiff “to collect current and charges or store.” Pursuant thereto, defendant repossessed the plaintiff’s automobile in the absence of judicial process.
Defendant contends that alleged prejudice to him, including the denial of defendant’s right to a cross-claim resulting in the absence of the Bank, as well as the invitation to a multiplicity of suits, supports dismissal of plaintiff’s claim for absence of the Bank as an “indispensable party.” We disagree.
The defendant and the Bank were sued as joint tortfeasors. Section 24-1-11, N. M.S.A.1953 (Vol.5) reads:
For the purposes of this act the term “joint tortfeasors” means two [2] or more persons jointly or severally liable in tort for the same injury to person or property, whether or not judgment has been recovered against all or some of them.
Section 24 — 1-12(1), supra, reads:
The right of contribution exists among joint tortfeasors.
Section 24 — 1-16, supra, reads:
This act does not impair any right of indemnity under existing law.
Plaintiff could have sued defendant alone. This occurred when the Bank was dismissed out of the case. The defendant’s right to sue the Bank for contribution and indemnity, in lieu of his cross-claim, is preserved.
“An indispensable party is one whose interests will necessarily be affected by a judgment in the particular case.” Home Fire Insurance Company v. Schultz, 80 N.M. 517, 518, 458 P.2d 592, 593 (1969). The defendant’s interests will not be affected by the judgment in this case because relief is retained by law. The Bank, not the defendant, could claim to be an indispensable party, but it declined to do so.
The Bank is not indispensable to a complete determination of the rights of plaintiff and defendant, and the Bank is not an indispensable party.
(2) Defendant proceeded to trial voluntarily after withdrawal of his attorney.
Defendant contends the trial court abused its discretion in allowing defendant’s attorney to withdraw on the morning of trial requiring defendant to proceed with new and unprepared counsel. We disagree.
The record shows that defendant’s attorney entered his appearance on February 16, 1971. The case was set for trial October 19, 1972, twenty months later. Just prior to commencement of trial, defendant appeared in court with his attorney and with an attending attorney. In open court, defendant’s attorney stated:
I am filing, in open court, a motion to withdraw.
Prior to this withdrawal, discussions were held in the court’s chambers but no record was made.
On April 18, 1973, six months after trial, the court prepared and filed a document entitled “Judge’s Summary of Untranscribed Proceedings” (summary) which appears in the transcript. The following day, April 19, 1973, the Transcript of Record was filed in this court. The Notice of Appeal was filed November 18, 1972, five months before the summary was filed.
The summary is not before us for consideration because it was not made a part of the record by the Bill of Exceptions.
Defendant voluntarily proceeded to trial with counsel present. The record shows no ruling by the court which required the defendant to proceed with new and unprepared counsel. No issue of abuse of discretion arose.
(3) Defendant did not object to any instructions given.
Defendant claims the trial court erred in giving instructions on damages, punitive damages and waiver and estoppel.
No objection was made by defendant to these instructions. The claimed error is not preserved for review. Zamora v. Smalley, 68 N.M. 45, 358 P.2d 362 (1961).
(4) Defendant was not entitled to a directed verdict or judgment n. o. v.
At the close of all the evidence, defendant moved for a directed verdict. The motion was denied. Thereafter, defendant moved for judgment n. o. v. This motion was denied.
Defendant’s only argument on appeal arises out of the following instructions given the jury which defendant claims did not correctly state the law on the subject:
INSTRUCTION NO. 2. This is a proceeding for conversion and for damages. The plaintiff, Barbara Sanford claims that she sustained damages and that the proximate cause thereof was one or more of the following acts:
2. The defendant breached the peace when he entered upon plaintiff’s property without consent to repossess the automobile.
INSTRUCTION NO. 4. You do not need to find an element of violence in the repossession of the automobile in order for the repossession to constitute a breach of the peace within the contemplation of the Uniform Commercial Code.
Defendant did not tender any instructions nor object to the instructions given. The above instructions became “the law of the case” on appeal and not vulnerable to attack. Montgomery Ward v. Larragoite, 81 N.M, 383, 467 P.2d 399 (1970).
Defendant did not claim that the instructions were not factually supported.
Defendant was not entitled to a directed verdict or judgment n. o', v.
(5) The trial court’s Order of Remittitur is not subject to review.
Judgment was entered September 10, 1972. On November 15, 1972, a motion for remittitur was filed by defendant without service thereof on the plaintiff. On No vember 28, 1972, Notice of Appeal was filed. No setting for hearing on the motion was obtained by defendant from the trial court until March 26, 1973. This was the first date on which plaintiff had notice of the motion for remittitur. On April 18, 1973, four months after the motion was filed, the trial court entered an Order of Remittitur. It ordered a remittitur of $10,000, and, upon failure to remit, defendant was entitled to a new trial. There was a failure to remit.
The defendant contends the trial court had jurisdiction to consider the motion of remittitur by defendant and enter the Order of Remittitur. The defendant relies on State v. Clemons, 83 N.M. 674, 496 P.2d 167 (Ct.App.1972) and State v. White, 71 N.M. 342, 378 P.2d 379 (1962). These cases hold that a trial court has jurisdiction “ . . . for the purpose of passing upon motions pending when the appeal is taken.” This jurisdiction exists where the motion is sustained and the court modifies the judgment. State v. White, supra. “ . . . [T]he judgment is final until modified so as to affect a substantial right.” Public Service Co. of N. M. v. First Judicial Dist. Court, 65 N.M. 185, 194, 334 P.2d 713, 719 (1959).
The Order of Remittitur, if subject to review, would have modified the judgment. However, there is a 30-day limitation upon the time in which the trial court can pass upon the motion. If it does not pass upon the motion within 30 days after the motion is filed, the motion is denied as a matter of law, whether it is a jury or non-jury case and this denial by operation of law is not subject to review. Montgomery Ward v. Larragoite, supra ; Scott v. McWood Corporation, 82 N-M 776, 779, 487 P.2d 478 (1971).
The Order of Remittitur was entered four months after the motion had been filed. The motion for remittitur filed November 15, 1972, was denied by operation of law and could not, therefore, modify the judgment. The Order of Remittitur, not subject to review, denies the trial court jurisdiction to enter the order.
(6) Claimed cumulative error did not deny defendant a fair trial.
Defendant refers to the record in this case as a “comedy of errors” which requires reversal. In this case, “comedy” is “a dramatic representation of the lighter faults, passions, actions, and follies of” defendant. Defendant’s attorneys on appeal were not defendant’s trial attorneys.
Affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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LaFEL E. OMAN, Judge, Court of Appeals.
The appellant was charged by information with the crime of rape. He pleaded not guilty and not guilty by reason of insanity. He was tried and the jury found him guilty. The trial court thereupon entered judgment and sentence, and appellant was committed to the New Mexico State Penitentiary.
He has appealed from the judgment and sentence, and he asserts two points upon which he relies for reversal.
His first point is that the trial court abused its discretion in personally questioning a clinical psychologist called as a witness by appellant. The appellant had been examined and tested by this psychologist on three different occasions. The witness was questioned on direct and cross-examination as to his findings and conclusions. It was not made clear from the questions and answers whether the witness was or was not of the opinion that appellant knew and appreciated the difference between right and wrong.
The witness had testified on direct examination that in his opinion the appellant was not suffering from a condition or mental illness which would result in irresistible impulses.
During the re-direct examination, the court asked six questions of the witness, and these are the questions to which appellant here objects. The first of these questions was asked to clarify the opinion of the witness as to whether appellant did or did not know and appreciate the difference between right and wrong as of the time of the commission of the alleged offense. The witness gave it as his opinion that appellant did know the difference. The next four questions related to the two subsequent examinations of appellant by the witness. The answers of the witness to these questions were to the effect that he found appellant’s condition unchanged on each of these occasions, insofar as his capacity to differentiate between right and wrong was concerned. The last question was designed to elicit from the witness an affirmation of his prior testimony that appellant did have the capacity to control his actions, and the witness responded in the affirmative.
Appellant relies upon the cases of United States v. Brandt, 196 F.2d 653 (2d Cir.1952), and Krogmann v. United States, 225 F.2d 220 (6th Cir.1955). He particularly relies upon the statements by the courts in these cases as to the care which the trial judge must exercise to assure the parties a fair and impartial trial.
A trial judge must at all times be judicious. He must not, by undue participation in the examination of witnesses, or by other conduct, convey to the jury that he favors one side or the other, and must not convey to the jury what he thinks the verdict should be. Because of his power and influence, and because of the tendency of the jury to place great emphasis upon what he says and does, the trial judge must be most careful not to say or do anything which would add to a party’s burdens of proof, or detract from the presumptions to which a person charged with crime is entitled.
The case of Brandt, supra, was reversed and remanded for a retrial because of the conduct of the trial judge during the trial and because of the nature of his charge to the' jury. In that case, the trial judge asked over 900 questions of the witnesses, cross-examined several witnesses, including one of the defendants, to a quite unusual extent, and injected “a number of remarks which were not of the form to elicit information or to direct the trial procedure into proper channels, but rather to cut into the presumption of innocence to which defendants” were entitled.
The conviction of the defendants in the case of Krogmann v. United States, supra, was also reversed, but such was not becaitse of the active participation of the trial judge in the examination of certain witnesses.
A trial judge is more than a mere umpire or moderator, and he may properly propound questions to the witnesses, so long as he keeps the same within the bounds demanded of him by his position as trial judge, and so long as he displays no bias against or favor for either of the litigants. Territory v. Meredith, 14 N.M. 288, 91 P. 731; Vigil v. Johnson, 60 N.M. 273, 291 P. 312; Quercia v. United States, 289 U.S. 466, 53 S.Ct. 698, 77 L.Ed. 1321; Stanley v. State, 94 Okl.Cr. 122, 230 P.2d 738; Miller v. Republic Grocery, 110 Cal.App.2d 187, 242 P.2d 396.
The function of the trial judge in eliciting facts, and the position which he must at all times maintain are set forth in United States v. Brandt, supra, in the following language:
“ * * * He enjoys the prerogative, rising often to the standard of a duty, of eliciting those facts he deems necessary to the clear presentation of the issues. Pariser v. City of New York, 2 Cir., 146 F.2d 431. To this end he may call witnesses on his own motion, adduce evidence, and himself examine those who testify. See United States v. Marzano, 2 Cir., 149 F.2d 923; Guthrie v. Curlett, 2 Cir., 36 F.2d 694; Young v. United States, 5 Cir., 107 F.2d 490, 493; 3 Wigmore on Evidence § 784, 3d Ed. 1940. But he nonetheless must remain the judge, impartial, judicious, and, above all; responsible for a courtroom atmosphere in which guilt or innocence may be soberly and fairly tested. Because of his proper power and influence it is obvious that the display of a fixed opinion as to the guilt of an accused limits the possibility of an uninhibited decision from a jury of laymen much less initiated in trial procedure than he. He must, therefore, be on continual guard that the authority of the bench be not exploited toward a conviction he may privately think deserved or even required by the evidence. United States v. Minuse, 2 Cir., 114 F.2d 36; Martucci v. Brooklyn Children’s Aid Soc., 2 Cir., 140 F.2d 732; United States v. Marzano, 2 Cir., 149 F.2d 923.”
From the brief questioning of the psychologist on the matters as set forth above, we fail to perceive how it can be said that the trial judge exceeded the bounds of propriety and prejudiced the rights of appellant.
Appellant’s second point is that “the trial court abused its discretion in admitting state’s exhibit No. 4, which photograph served no useful purpose, except to influence the passions and prejudices of the jury.”
The photograph was taken of the victim at the hospital during the late morning hours of the date of the attack upon her, and after she had been examined and treated by medical doctors. She was in bed and was fully covered by a gown and the bed clothes, except for her head and her arms and hands. There is no evidence of injury or damage to her- arms and hands. She was lying on her back and had her eyes closed. The photograph definitely shows bruises and discoloration about her eyes and on her cheeks. Her upper lip appears to be swollen and is covered by a strip of white tape.
Appellant concedes that the photograph was relevant to the issues of the case, but argues that such was cumulative and, by reason of its' inflammatory naturej -was not "reasonably relevant.” He relies primarily on the cases of Thomas v. State, (Fla.), 59 So.2d 517, and State v. Upton, 60 N.M. 205, 290 P.2d 440.
In the Florida case, it was held that the admission of the photographs there involved was not reversible error, but the court did observe that photographs should be received with great caution, and those which prove, or show, nothing more than a gory scene should not be admitted.
In State v. Upton, supra, the contentions of the appellant, as to the admission of certain photographs, were similar to the contentions of the appellant here. In that case, the appellant’s contentions were denied, and we stated the principle controlling the admission of photographs, as follows:
“Photographs which are calculated to arouse the prejudices and passions of the jury and which are not reasonably relevant to the issues of the case ought to be excluded.”
The appellant in the present case pleaded not guilty and not guilty by reason of insanity to a charge of forcible rape. The burden was thus'on the state to prove beyond a reasonable doubt every element of the charge. One of these elements was that appellant had forcibly overcome the resistance of his victim.
The photograph unmistakably evidences that'she had been siibjécteüto forceful blows upon her face. Because this may have been cumulative of other evidence that she had been subjected to such blows did not render the photograph inadmissible. Photographs are properly -admitted - if they serve to corroborate other evidence even though they may be cumulative. State v. Johnson, 57 N.M. 716, 263 P.2d 282; State v. Upton, supra.
The question of admission of photographs into evidence rests largely within the discretion of the trial court, and ordinarily his decision on the question will not be disturbed. State v. Johnson, supra; State v. Upton, supra. We find no reason here to question the decision of the trial court.
Contrary to appellant’s contention, we are unable to see in this photograph anything which could reasonably be said to have aroused and inflamed the passions and prejudices of the jury. The judgment will be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and CHAVEZ, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
LOPEZ, Judge.
The defendant was convicted and sentenced for burglary pursuant to § 40A-16-3, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). Defendant appeals, claiming the trial court erred in denying defendant’s challenge to the jury panel which contained persons under the age of 21 years. We affirm.
The question is whether the defendant had a fair and impartial trial by the petit jury. In order for the defendant to have merit in his motion to quash the jury array, he must do two things: (1) prove there were members on the petit jury who were under the age of 21, and (2) show that he was prejudiced. State v. Ortega, 77 N.M. 312, 422 P.2d 353 (1966).
The defendant does not claim that he was denied a fair and impartial trial by the jury. The three jurors whom the defendant claims were under the age of 21 did not serve on the petit jury by which he was convicted. The members of the .petit jury were selected and qualified according to statute. Section 19-1-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4) and § 3-1-4, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 1). Defendant does not claim that he suffered any damage at the hands of the trial jury. State v. Gonzales, 82 N. M. 388, 482 P.2d 252 (Ct.App.1971), declares :
“. . . Since defendant does not claim that the members of the trial jury were unfair or partial, . . . defendant has neither been deprived of due process nor of equal protection of the law.”
We do not decide whether the trial court may have erred in including 19 year olds in the jury panel array. Since defendant does not show that he was in any way prejudiced, we must conclude that he has been afforded a fair and impartial trial.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed. It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and SUTIN, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
This appeal arises out of a judgment entered on an appeal by appellee to the District Court of Bernalillo County from two decisions and an order of the Board of Medical Examiners, (the Board), revoking the license of the appellee to practice medicine in New Mexico. The lower court, after considering the record of the proceedings before the Board, entered its judgment reversing the decisions and order of the Board. The Board appeals.
In July of 1970, pursuant to a Notice of Contemplated Action filed by the Board against the appellee under the provisions of the Uniform Licensing Act (§§ 67-26-1 to 67-26-31, N.M.S.A.19S3), the appellee appeared before the Board and admitted that he had illegally and falsely prescribed, for the alleged use of another, the dangerous and habit-forming drug Demerol, when in truth and in fact the prescriptions were intended for his own use. He also admitted that he had habitually and excessively used Demerol; whereupon the Board found the appellee guilty of unprofessional conduct, entered its decision revoking his license to practice medicine, reinstated said license, and placed him on probation upon certain terms and conditions included among which were:
“a. Respondent [appellee] shall at all times comply with all of the laws of the United States, the State of New Mexico and its political subdivisions, and the rules and regulations and orders of the Board of Medical Examiners.
“c. During the period of this indefinite probation, respondent shall continue under psychiatric observation and treatment of Warren T. Brown., M.D., or some other psychiatrist acceptable to the Board, and except as authorized by said psychiatrist, he shall not take or have in his possession any dangerous drugs. * * * »
Thereafter, pursuant to an Order to Show Cause filed by the Board as to why appellee’s license to practice medicine should not be revoked because of his having violated the terms of his probation, a hearing was held. In August 1972, the Board made findings of fact and conclusions of law and entered its decision, finding appellee to have violated the terms and conditions of his probation, and entered an order revoking appellee’s license to practice medicine.
Appellee appealed to the District Court of Bernalillo County. The district court ultimately entered a judgment reversing the decisions and order of the Board, concluding as a matter of law that substantial rights of the appellee had been prejudiced because the Board’s findings, inferences, conclusions, and decisions were unsupported by substantial evidence on the entire record and were arbitrary.
The court based its reversal of the Board’s decision on the lack of sufficient evidence upon which to establish its findings:
(1) that the use of Ritalin was dangerous in the manner form prescribed, or taken, by Dr. McDaniel,
(2) that classification by statute, or otherwise, of Ritalin as a dangerous drug was known or should have been known to Dr. McDaniel,
(3) that Dr. McDaniel violated any supervisory instructions of Dr. Brown.
This appeal followed.
The court below in its review of the Board’s actions was governed by § 67-26-20, N.M.S.A.1953. The first paragraph of that statute provides in part:
“Scope of Review. — Upon the review of any board "decision under the Uniform Licensing Act * * *. The court may affirm the decision of the board or remand the case for further proceedings; or it may reverse the decision if the substantial rights of the petitioner have been prejudiced because the administrative findings, inferences, conclusions, or decisions are: in violation of constitutional provisions; or in excess of the statutory authority or jurisdiction of the board; or made upon unlawful procedure; or affected by other error or law; or unsupported by substantial evidence on the entire record as submitted; or arbitrary or capricious.”
The court may not substitute its judgment for that of the board. In Llano, Inc. v. Southern Union Gas Company, 75 N.M. 7, 399 P.2d 646 (1964) it is stated:
“This court has consistently held that on appeals from administrative bodies the questions to be answered by the court are questions of law and are restricted to whether the administrative body acted fraudulently, arbitrarily or capriciously, whether the order was supported by substantial evidence and, generally, whether the action of the administrative body was within the scope of its authority. The district court may not substitute its judgment for that of the administrative body.”
In Moyston v. New Mexico Public Service Commission, 76 N.M. 146, 412 P.2d 840 (1966), this court observed:
“The power of the trial court to review and overturn an administrative body’s decision is stated in FergusonSteere Motor Co. v. State Corporation Commission, 63 N.M. 137, 314 P.2d 894:
‘ * * * It is well settled in this state that it is not the province of the trial court to re-try a case brought before it on appeal from an administrative body or agency or to substitute its judgment for that of the agency, but the trial court is limited to a determination of whether the administrative agency’s action was legal or reasonable. If the trial court did substitute its judgment and discretion for that of the Commission, the trial court erred and its judgment must be reversed. On the other hand, the courts are vested with the power and authority to set aside an order of such agency if it is unreasonable, unlawful, arbitrary, capricious, or not supported by evidence. * * * ’ ”
To the same effect also see Seidenberg v. New Mexico Board of Medical Examiners, 80 N.M. 135, 452 P.2d 469 (1969); Hardin v. State Tax Commission, 78 N.M. 477, 432 P.2d 833 (1967); S. I. C. Finance-Loans of Menaul, Inc. v. Upton, 75 N.M. 780, 411 P.2d 755 (1966); Ingram v. Malone Farms, Inc., 72 N.M. 256, 382 P.2d 981 (1963); Continental Oil Co. v. Oil Conservation Com’n, 70 N.M. 310, 373 P.2d 809 (1962); Johnson v. Sanchez, 67 N.M. 41, 351 P.2d 449 (1960).
As to what constitutes “arbitrary and capricious action” by an administrative board, the case of Smith v. Hollenbeck, 48 Wash.2d 461, 294 P.2d 921 (1956) states:
“Arbitrary and capricious action on the part of an administrative, agency has been defined as willful and unreasonable action, without consideration and in disregard of facts or circumstances. Where there is room for two opinions, action is not arbitrary or capricious when exercised honestly and upon due consideration, even though it may be believed that an erroneous conclusion has been reached.”
Also to be taken into account is § 67-26-11, N.M.S.A.1953 which provides in part:
“ * * * Boards may utilize their experience, technical competence and specialized knowledge in the evaluation of evidence presented to them. * * * ”
The Board naturally contends that the district court erred in holding its decision to be unsupported by substantial evidence. There is really no dispute about the appellee's actions. These matters were largely admitted. In this respect the Board found:
“That the respondent, Joseph C. McDaniel, M.D., * * * for a period of time, from February 7, 1972, up through July 20, 1972, * * * illegally and falsely prescribed for the alleged use of Mrs. Elizabeth Burns, or Mrs. E. Burns, 1821 Sue Drive, Birmingham, Alabama, approximately 1410 Ritalin 20-mg. tablets, when in truth and in fact the prescrip' tioii for said * * * Schedule II drug Ritalin was not prescribed for the sole use of Mrs. Burns, in that the respondent, according to his own admission, kept for his own use approximately 500 of the said Ritalin tablets without the knowledge or consent of his psychiatrist, Warren T. Brown, M.D., and without said psychiatrist’s having authorized or prescribed said * * * drug Ritalin for the personal use of the respondent.
In essence, the argument centers on whether there was substantial evidence that Ritalin is a “dangerous drug.” Indeed, under the quoted terms of appellee’s probation and the undisputed evidence bearing upon appellee’s actions, this is the question upon which the issues of this appeal turn.
The original hearing dealt to some degree with the nature and characteristics of Ritalin, which seems to be a proprietary name for menthylphenidate. After entry of the Board’s first decision, the case was remanded to the Board at the behest of appellee for the purpose, inter alia, of permitting “evidence as to any narcotic or dangerous qualities of the drug Ritalin.” Following that hearing, the Board affirmed its prior decision and, as to Ritalin, found:
“That the drug Ritalin is a dangerous drug, in that its use may result in psychological or physical dependence. While the taking of . said drug does elevate moods, withdrawal from the drug, once dependence is established, can be difficult and can be accompanied by severe depression. The drug Ritalin is available only on a prescription by a doctor duly registered and authorized to write such a prescription under the law and regulations of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs.
“The Board further finds that said respondent was not authorized to write prescriptions for the dangerous drug Ritalin, it being designated as a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act of both Federal and state governments.”
We will not repeat our oft-stated criteria for determining whether a finding is supported by substantial evidence. For a statement of the rule in an opinion upon an appeal from the actions of an administrative body, see Rinker v. State Corporation Commission, 84 N.M. 626, 506 P.2d 783 (1973). Upon reading the entire record, we are of the opinion that the Board’s finding that Ritalin is a dangerous drug was supported by substantial evidence. The resolution of that issue presents a close question, but confidence in the correctness of our view is bolstered by the portion of § 67-26-11 that we have quoted. The board is made up of “ * * * five [5] reputable physicians of known ability, who are graduates of medical colleges in good standing, * * *, and have been registered practitioners in, * * *, New Mexico for a period of five [5] years * * *§ 67-5-1, N.M. S.A.1953 (1973 Supp.).
As to administrative proceedings generally, there seems to be a broadly held view that no decision of such boards ought to be final until a court has placed its stamp of approval thereon. However faulty this premise may be, it results in a considerable volume of appeals from administrative decisions. In an increasingly technological society courts are frequently called upon to resolve issues relating to subjects which are scientific or technical, or involve occupations, professions or businesses in which competence requires education, training or experience. Courts are usually ill-equipped to deal with such problems and may properly give special weight and credence to findings concerning technical or scientific matters by administrative bodies whose members, by education, training or experience, are especially qualified and are functioning within the perimeters of their expertise. Legislative approval of such treatment of the findings of boards such as we have described is implicit in § 67-26-11. See Universal Camera Corp. v. National Labor Relations Board, 340 U.S. 474, 71 S.Ct. 456, 95 L.Ed. 456 (1951); Cooley’s Foundation v. Legalized Games Com., 78 N.J.Super. 128, 187 A.2d 731 (1963). Cf. National Labor Relations Board v. Coca Cola Bottling Co., 350 U.S. 264, 76 S.Ct. 383, 100 L.Ed. 285 (1956). The members of the Board are better qualified than this court to decide whether Ritalin is a dangerous drug.
In a cross-appeal, appellee points out that the Board’s original action of July, 1970, in concluding that appellee was guilty of “conduct unbecoming in a person licensed to practice medicine” and “detrimental to the best interests of the public”, was obviously predicated upon § 67-5-9, subd. B. (17), N.M.S.A.1953 (1973 Supp.) which is couched in identical language. He asserts that the statute is void as being violative of the Due Process Clauses of the United States and New Mexico Constitutions because of its vagueness.
It is probably sufficient to point out that we are not, in this appeal, concerned with the validity of the original decision revoking appellee’s license. The time for an appeal from that decision is long past. § 67-26-17, N.M.S.A.1953. Rather, the issue here centers on the validity of the Board’s revocation of appellee’s probation. However, we consider it appropriate to deal with the argument on its merits.
A number of opinions have considered the general standards laid down in § 67 — 5— 9, subd. B. (17) in comparable general statutory provisions applying to other occupations or professions. See Young v. Board of Pharmacy, 81 N.M. 5, 462 P.2d 139 (1969); Willoughby v. Board of Veterinary Examiners, 82 N.M. 443, 483 P.2d 498 (1971). No attack appears to have been made on the language of these comparable statutes setting up professional standards in general terms.
Appellee places great reliance on Levy v. Parker, 478 F.2d 772 (3rd Cir. 1972). Dr. Levy, an army physician, had been convicted, inter alia, of violations of Art. 133 ("-“conduct unbecoming an officer and gentlemen”) and Art. 134 (which proscribes, inter alia, “all disorders and neglects to the prejudice of good order and discipline in the armed forces”) of the Uniform Code of Military Justice. He had publicly urged negro enlisted men to refuse to obey orders to go to Vietnam and referred to Special Forces personnel as “liars and thieves”, “killers of peasants” and “murderers of women and children.” After being denied relief from his conviction in the district court, the Court of Appeals held Sections 133 and 134 void for vagueness under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment and overbroad in violation of the First Amendment.
But appellee has suffered a stroke of ill-fortune. Following submission of this appeal, the United States Supreme Court reversed the Court of Appeals. Parker v. Levy, 417 U.S. 733, 94 S.Ct. 2547, 41 L.Ed.2d 439 (1974). The Supreme Court stated that:
“This Court has on more than one occasion invalidated statutes under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth or Fourteenth Amendments because they contained no standard whatever by which criminality could be ascertained, and the doctrine of these cases has subsequently acquired the shorthand description of ‘void for vagueness’. Lanzetta v. New Jersey, 306 U.S. 451, 59 S.Ct. 618, 83 L.Ed. 888 (1939); Winters v. New York, 333 U.S. 507, 68 S.Ct. 665, 92 L.Ed. 840 (1948). In these cases, the criminal provision is vague ‘not in the sense that it requires a person to conform his conduct to an imprecise but comprehensible normative standard, but rather in the sense that no standard of conduct is specified at all.’ Coates v. City of Cincinnati, 402 U.S. 611, 614, 91 S.Ct. 1686, 29 L.Ed.2d 214 (1971).”
Justice Rehnquist, speaking for the majority, noted the distinction between military and civilian society and said the provisions of the military code under question must be judged according to the special traditions, duties and experiences of mili tary life. While we do not equate the military with the medical profession, it is nevertheless true that the latter, in contrast with ordinary laymen, is a separate society in the sense of its specialized professional knowledge, its traditions and standards of ethics, and its development of self-regulatory rules and procedures. The same is true of other professions and occupations such as law and the judiciary. The rationale is similar:
On this basis the Supreme Court held in Levy, supra:
“For the reasons which differentiate military society from civilian society,' we think Congress is permitted to legislate both with greater breadth and with greater flexibility when prescribing the rules by which the former shall be governed than it is when prescribing rules for the latter. But each of these differentiations relate to how strict a test of vagueness shall be applied in judging a particular criminal statute. None of them suggests that one who has received fair warning of the criminality of his own conduct from the statute in question is nonetheless entitled to attack it because the language would not give similar fair warning with respect to other conduct which might be within its broad and literal ambit. One to challenge it for vagueness.”
See also Willoughby v. Board of Veterinary Examiners, supra, and In re Mintz, 233 Or. 441, 378 P.2d 945 (1963). We hold that § 67-5-9, subd. B. (17) is not void for vagueness.
Appellee makes the same contention with respect to the conditions of probation, claiming that the phrase “any dangerous drugs” is so vague that the probation conditions are void under the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Constitution.
Here again, as in Levy, the inquiry is not whether the language as applied to other conduct or facts is uncertain, but whether appellee had fair notice from the language that his conduct was proscribed.
Gauged by these criteria, appellee’s protestations that § 67-5-9, subd. B. (17) and the terms of the probation gave him “no guidance whatsoever” ring utterly hollow in this factual setting. His conduct in prescribing the drug Ritalin, in the manner in which he did prescribe it, could lead to the conclusion that he knew that under the terms and conditions of his probation he should not have prescribed the drug Ritalin for the alleged use of another and then divert some of it for his own use. This act in and of itself indicates knowledge on the part of appellee that he was doing something wrong. He surreptitiously procured the drug without the knowledge, acquiescence or consent of his psychiatrist, in direct violation of the terms of his probation. The Board was richly justified in concluding that there had been a conscious violation of the terms of the probation. This is particularly true since appellee had used an identical technique in regard to Demerol, viz.: prescribing for another and diverting to his own use, which was the source of his original difficulties. Under the facts here, the terms of probation were not unconstitutionally vague.
Appellee’s excellent brief on cross-appeal advances nine other grounds for relief centering mainly upon procedural questions arising under the Uniform Licensing Act. Able counsel for both parties have exhaustively and persuasively briefed those points. We have carefully considered each of them and conclude that none require granting the relief sought by appellee. To discuss each of them would unduly lengthen this opinion to no useful purpose.
The judgment of the trial court is reversed. The decisions and order of the Board are reinstated and are to be given effect. The case is remanded to the District Court of Bernalillo County for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
It is so ordered.
OMAN and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Defendant appeals his conviction of larceny in excess of $100 but less than $2500. Section 40A-16-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6). The issues concern: (1) evidence of “stealing;” (2) instruction on intent; and (3) a statement made by defendant.
Evidence of “stealing.”
Charlotte, an employee of the Triangle Lounge, as part of her duties, took money from the cash registers and put it into two money bags. Defendant drove up to the drive-in window of the Lounge. “He asked me [Charlotte] for the money and told me to put it in a sack. ... I put it in the sack, as he told me, and I gave it to him.” Neither threats nor force were used. Charlotte testified she handed the money over out of “fear” of defendant. After defendant left, Charlotte contacted the police and told them a false story about an armed robbery. Later, at the police station, she told the “truth.”
Larceny consists of stealing anything of value which belongs to another. Section 40A-16-1, supra. “Stealing” implies a taking without consent. State v. McKinley, 30 N.M. 54, 227 P. 757 (1924). Larceny requires an unlawful taking from the possession of the owner. State v. Curry, 32 N.M. 219, 252 P. 994 (1927).
Defendant contends there was no larceny because Charlotte had custody of the money and she consented to the taking of the money. We disagree.
Charlotte had actual physical custody of the money, but the money belonged to the Triangle Lounge. The evidence is undisputed that Charlotte had no authority to take the money from the Lounge or to give the money to anyone. Actual physical custody in the owners of the Triangle Lounge was not necessary for the owners to be in possession of the money. The following is from an instruction held to be a correct statement of law in State v. Curry, supra: “ ‘ . . . when one leaves property
at any place without any intent to abandon and relinquish his ownership therein, one taking such property from such place takes the same from the possession of the owner although the actual custody thereof may not be in the owner at that particular time of larceny.’ ”
Defendant’s contentions are directed toward the nature of Charlotte’s actions rather than his own actions. We are not concerned, in this case, with the propriety of Charlotte’s actions, but with what defendant did. Even if Charlotte were in collusion with defendant and turned the money over to defendant willingly, she had no authority to hand over the Lounge’s money. Absent such authority, there was no consent by the owners of the Lounge and defendant took money from the possession of the Lounge unlawfully. This was larceny on his part. State v. Aossey, 201 N.W.2d 731 (Iowa 1972), cert. denied, 412 U.S. 906, 93 S.Ct. 2292, 36 L.Ed.2d 971 (1973).
Instruction on intent.
“The criminal intent necessary for larceny is the intent to permanently deprive the owner of his property.” State v. Puga, 85 N.M. 204, 510 P.2d 1075 (Ct.App. 1973). Defendant asserts the trial court failed to instruct the jury that the intent must be to permanently deprive the owner. In support of this contention, he relies on a portion of the “material allegation” instruction which refers to an intent to deprive the owner of immediate possession. On this basis, he asserts the trial court failed to instruct as to the requisite intent.
There was no such failure. A subsequent instruction stated that the intent necessary for larceny was an intent, at the time of taking the property, to permanently deprive the owner thereof.
Even though the “material allegation” instruction failed to refer to the intent to permanently deprive, that omission was corrected by the subsequent instruction. State v. Turner, 81 N.M. 450, 468 P.2d 421 (Ct.App.1970). See State v. Gunzelman, 85 N.M. 295, 512 P.2d 55 (1973). Instructions are sufficient if, considered as a whole, they fairly present the issues and the applicable law. State v. Paul, 83 N.M. 619, 495 P.2d 797 (Ct.App. 1972). The instructions on intent, considered as a whole, were sufficient.
Statement made by defendant.
Defendant was arrested at approximately 5:00 A.M. A coat and one of the money bags were found in the motel room where the arrest occurred. Defendant was given the “Miranda” warnings when arrested.
Defendant was taken to the police station and again advised of his constitutional rights. At the police station, the second money bag was found in the coat. Defendant was asked if he wanted to talk. According to Detective Mallory, defendant advised that he did not want to talk.
About 11:00 A.M. of the same day, defendant was in the magistrates’s office for his first appearance before the magistrate. See § 41-23-19, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6, Supp.1973). There was conversation between defendant, his sister, and Officer Dunning. Dunning testified that defendant was discussing the merits of the case. When the money came up in the conversation, Dunning stated: “ ‘well, the money was taking [sic] out of your coat, was it not ?’ ” According to Dunning, defendant said: “‘Yes, but that doesn’t prove anything.’ ”
The sister agreed there was conversation between the three. She testified that she asked Dunning to tell her what he could because she did not know what was going on. She did not remember defendant telling Dunning that the coat was his.
Defendant also agreed there was conversation between the three. Both defendant and his sister wanted to know what was going on. According to defendant, Dunning stated: “they had my [defendant’s] coat . . . and I told him it wasn’t my coat.”
Defendant moved that Dunning’s testimony be stricken because Dunning failed to “reiterate the Miranda Warnings” before talking to defendant at the magistrate’s office. The trial court properly denied this motion. Defendant had been advised of his rights twice, the earliest advice being given not more than six hours prior to the conversation at the magistrate’s office. In these circumstances, repeated warnings were not required. State v. Carlton, 83 N.M. 644, 495 P.2d 1091 (Ct.App.1972).
In this appeal, defendant does not claim that he should have been again advised of his rights. The claim is that Officer Dunning engaged in custodial interrogation following a clear indication from defendant that he did not wish to make a statement. He relies on the statement in Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694, 10 A.L.R.3d 974 (1966) that “if the individual is alone and indicates in any manner that he does not wish to be interrogated, the police may not question him.” See State v. Word, 80 N. M. 377, 456 P.2d 210 (Ct.App.1969). This claim was never presented to the trial court; it is not properly before us for review. State v. Sexton, 82 N.M. 648, 485 P.2d 982 (Ct.App.1971); State v. Smith, 80 N.M. 126, 452 P.2d 195 (Ct.App.1969); see specially concurring opinion in State v. Brubaker, 85 N.M. 773, 517 P.2d 908 (Ct. App.1973).
The prohibition against further questioning, quoted above from Miranda, supra, is a prohibition of custodial interrogation. State v. Lindsey, 81 N.M. 173, 464 P.2d 903 (Ct.App.1969), cert. denied, 398 U.S. 904, 90 S.Ct. 1692, 26 L.Ed.2d 62 (1970), defines custodial interrogation as questioning initiated by law enforcement officers. The testimony of defendant and his sister is that they were trying to find out what was going on. Whatever the remark was about the coat, defendant and Dunning agree that reference to the coat was made in that context. Accordingly, on the merits, Dunning’s testimony as to defendant’s admission concerning the coat cannot be considered the product of custodial interrogation. See State v. Smith, supra.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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CHAVEZ, Justice.
Appellant was convicted by the district court of Lea County, sitting without a jury, of battery upon his wife in violation of § 40A-3-4, N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp. Appellant asserts that the trial court erred in denying his motion for dismissal at the close of the State’s case, because there was insufficient evidence to warrant a conviction for the crime of battery.
Appellant’s wife testified that she and appellant were separated at the time of the incident. On the night of the offense, appellant went to a night club where his wife worked and talked with her at various times throughout the evening. When appellant’s wife was walking out of the door of the night club, after she finished work, appellant grabbed her, pulled her over to the side of a parked car, held her and would not let her go. She finally broke away from appellant, and got into the car of Melba Scott, a woman with whom she worked at the club. Appellant’s wife testified that appellant then came over to where she was sitting in Mrs. Scott’s car and prevented her from leaving.
Mrs. Scott testified that appellant grabbed and pushed his wife against a parked car • and held her there, and then followed her to Mrs. Scott’s car, where he attempted to talk to her. Mrs. Scott testified that, although appellant’s wife “kept screaming for him to let her go,” he did not do so for about an hour and a half.
Section 40A-3-4, supra, provides in part:
“Battery is the unlawful, intentional touching or application of force to the person of another, when done in a rude, insolent or angry manner.”
The language of our statute has a strong foundation in the law. In Commonwealth v. Gregory, 132 Pa.Super. 507, 1 A.2d 501, the court said:
“ * * * ‘The least touching of another’s person wilfully, or in anger, is a battery’. 3 Blackstone’s Com. 120. However, it is not every touching or laying on of hands that constitutes an assault and battery; ‘the touching of, or injury to another must be done in an angry, revengeful, rude or insolent manner so as to render the act unlawful’. 6 C.J.S., Assault and Battery, § 9. * * * »
Appellant stresses the fact that he did not strike his wife, and that she received no injuries as a result of the incident. In Blue v. State, 224 Ind. 394, 67 N.E.2d 377, the court stated:
“ * * * The seriousness of an assault and battery is not always measured by the physical harm done. The purpose of an assault and battery is not always, to inflict personal injury. The purpose and effect may be to deprive the victim of freedom of action and conduct, as was the case here, and in such cases the physical damage done does not measure the gravity of the offense.”
The reasoning behind the view which the law takes toward the crime of battery is stated in Lynch v. Commonwealth, 131 Va. 762, 109 S.E. 427:
“ * * * The law upon the subject is intended primarily to protect the sacredness of the person, and secondarily to prevent breaches of the peace.
Appellant contends that the evidence does not show that he touched his wife in a rude, insolent or angry manner. Both appellant’s wife and Mrs. Scott testified that appellant grabbed his wife, pushed or “slammed” her against a parked car, held her there, then after she broke away, followed her to Mrs. Scott’s car where he proceeded to talk to her for at least an hour, while she cried and screamed for him to let her go. We believe that there is ample evidence for the trial court to conclude that appellant was acting in a rude, insolent or angry manner when he applied force to the person of his wife.
Appellant further argues that, even if his actions amounted to a technical battery, “the courts should not scrutinize too nicely every family disturbance.” Such a contention is without merit. There 'is no language in our statute, and we find no court decision, indicating that different standards should be employed when the victim of a battery is the spouse of the defendant.
The judgment of the trial court is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
MOISE, J., and JOE W. WOOD, J., Ct. App., concur. | [
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NOBLE, Justice.
Joe Selgado has appealed from a sentence following a jury conviction for the offense-of aggravated battery.
Briefly, the evidence discloses that the-defendant and a companion, Joe Barela, went to the Clovis Police Station at 1:30 a. m. on March 6, 1965 to visit the girl friend of Barela, confined in the jail.. Their request to visit was denied at that time and they were advised to come back during visiting hours, but Barela nevertheless went into the corridor leading to the-cell block. Two police officers came into-the building and told Selgado and Barela, to leave. The defendant insists that an altercation commenced because the police officers sought to arrest him without a warrant and without probable cause therefor. The evidence is conflicting as to the-commencement of the altercation, but taking that most favorable to defendant, he asked one of the officers why he was. going to arrest him and received a reply,, “well you wanted to visit the jail.” Defendant then started toward the door leading to the jail and called to Barela to come out, when an officer pushed him, and another police officer “come at me with a slapper.” A fight then commenced in which the defendant struck officer Watkins, took his black jack away from him and struck him with it. In the meantime, Barela had taken a gun from the other officer. After the desk officer shot at Barela, both Barela and Selgado ran from the building. Barela was shot in flight and thereafter Selgado was arrested outside of the building.
The defendant submitted four instructions concerning the right to resist an unlawful arrest which he insists would have charged the jury on his theory of the case but which the trial court refused to give. This appeal turns on whether the denial of those instructions constituted error requiring reversal.
It is true that a defendant is entitled to have his theory of the case submitted to the jury under proper instructions, if there is evidence reasonably tending to support it. State v. Jones, 52 N.M. 235, 195 P.2d 1020; State v. Maestas, 63 N.M. 67, 313 P.2d 337. But it is also settled that the failure to instruct upon a specific defense cannot be complained of unless the defendant has tendered a proper instruction on the issue. State v. Compton, 57 N.M. 227, 257 P.2d 915; State v. Johnson, 64 N.M. 83, 324 P.2d 781; State v. White, 58 N.M. 324, 270 P.2d 727. The tendered instructions refused by the court concern the defense of self-defense against what is asserted was an attempted arrest for a misdemeanor by a peace officer acting without a warrant.
Requested instruction No. 1 correctly defined the probable cause that will justify such an arrest, as quoted from Garske v. United States, 1 F.2d 620 (8th Cir. 1924) in Cave v. Cooley, 48 N.M. 478, 152 P.2d 886, but the instruction added to the probable cause definition “the officer must have actual knowledge of every element of the offense.” The tendered instruction then would have charged the jury that the officer must actually know an offense was being committed.
It is true that some jurisdictions require an officer arresting without warrant to have actual knowledge that an offense is being committed in his presence. But the majority view, followed by this court, is that it is not essential and that a bona fide belief on the part of the officer is sufficient. 1939 Wisc.L.Rev. 385. A police officer is not required to justify his action in making an arrest by a subsequent showing that as a matter of fact the offense was committed. He may arrest without a warrant when the circumstances are such as to warrant a reasonable person in believing that an offense has been committed by the person whom he then arrests. Ryan v. Conover, 59 Ohio App. 361, 18 N.E.2d 277 and see Cave v. Cooley, supra. There is then a material distinction between that which would be required to sustain a conviction for an offense and that which is sufficient to justify a peace officer in arresting for a supposed commission of such offense.
This court in Cave v. Cooley, supra, said regarding the Uniform Arrest Act (not enacted in New Mexico) which authorizes .arrest by' an. officer having .reasonable ground to believe the person to be arrested has committed a misdemeanor in his presence :
“That this is desirable we do not doubt and we think it is but a restatement of the law as it has been interpreted by the majority of the courts dealing with the exact question.”
See, also, 28 Va.L.Rev. 315.
What we have said concerning the distinction between the requirement to sustain a conviction for an offense and that which is sufficient to justify a peace officer in arresting applies with equal force to tendered instruction No. 2 which would have charged the jury that the defendant was justified in resisting the officer unless the jury found beyond reasonable doubt that .a lawful arrest was being made. We know of no requirement, either constitutional or statutory, which demands that the jury be satisfied beyond a reasonable doubt of any fact or conclusion except all of the elements of the offense which when proven establish guilt.
The purpose of an instruction is to enlighten a jury. It should call to the jury’s attention specific issues which must be determined and should contain only statements of law to be applied in the determination of such issues. Gerrard v. Harvey & Newman Drilling Company, 59 N.M. 262, 282 P.2d 1105. The third tendered in■struction purports to set forth the right of .'a person'to resist an unlawful arrest but is an abstract statement of many rules in such form as to be confusing rather than enlightening.
Finally, we find no merit to defendant’s complaint of the refusal to give one of his tendered instructions on self-defense. The trial court gave a correct instruction on the right of self-defense and it is axiomatic that reversible error cannot be predicated upon the refusal to adopt a tendered instruction if a correct instruction on the issue has been given. In any case, however, the tendered instruction does not correctly apply the law of self-defense as we have interpreted it. The requested instruction tests the reasonableness of defendant’s belief that he must act in self defense from the standpoint of defendant himself considering his physical make-up and his mental condition, rather than the test gauged by the reaction of the hypothetical reasonable or average man adopted by this court in State v. Chesher, 22 N.M. 319, 161 P. 1108, and State v. Dickens, 23 N.M. 26, 165 P. 850, and more recently in State v. Beal, 55 N.M. 382, 234 P.2d 331, and State v. Horton, 57 N.M. 257, 258 P.2d 371.
Finding no error, the judgment and sentence appealed from should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and MOISE/J., concur. | [
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] |
COMPTON, Justice.
This is an action for reformation of an insurance policy and to recover for the loss by fire of household goods and other items while in transit from Texas to New Mexico. Pending disposition of the appeal, Billy Buck died. Upon the death of Billy Buck, Mrs. Billy Buck was substituted as plaintiff-appellee, and, for the purposes of this opinion, Billy Buck will be referred to as ap-pellee.
On January 16, 1963, pursuant to several telephone conversations, Mr. Buck and the solicitor agent for Mountain States Investment Corporation, acting as agent of the appellant, Western Fire and Casualty Company, met at the agent’s office in Al buquerque and entered into an oral contract whereby the agent agreed to have issued to the appellee an insurance policy in the amount of $8,000.00, to be effective from August 16, 1963 to August 31, 1963, insuring against loss by fire the appellee’s household goods and effects and fifty trash receptacle units while in transit from Bryan, Texas to Albuquerque, New Mexico. The premium of $48.00 for the policy was paid by the appellee and a binder was issued to him by the solicitor agent who represented the binder to be in conformity with their oral agreement. The appellee thereupon put the binder into his pocket without reading it and proceeded immediately to Bryan, Texas with his employer, a Mr. Huff, in the latter’s automobile. The household goods were loaded onto a rented trailer hitched to Mr. Huff’s car. On August 19, 1963, while en route to Albuquerque, all of the items, which the court found to be valued at $4,000.00, were totally destroyed by fire. Appellant’s agent was immediately notified of the loss, but liability was denied on the ground that the policy issued by the appellant provided insurance coverage for shipment by truck only.
On conflicting testimony the court found that the oral agreement was for coverage of the household goods and trash receptacle units by any method of transportation selected by appellee; that the binder issued was represented to appellee by the agent to conform to the oral agreement; that the agent misrepresented the coverage of the insurance binder;' and that the appellee relied upon these representations to his loss, (
The court further found that the insurance policy issued by the appellant pursuant to the order of its agent neither conformed to the oral agreement nor to the binder issued by its agent; that the appellee was never advised by either the appellant or its agent that the policy as issued differed in its terms from the oral agreement although the appellant knew that the terms of the policy were materially different from the agreement between the agent and the appellee. The court then concluded that the policy should be reformed to provide coverage of the household goods and effects against loss by fire while in transit from Bryan, Texas to Albuquerque, by whatsoever means of transportation chosen by the appellee. Judgment was entered accordingly and the insurance company appeals. No appeal is taken from a judgment dismissing the action with prejudice against the agent.
The appellee testified that at the time of the negotiations prior to the preparation of the written contract, it was understood and agreed by him and the agent that the insurance to be issued would cover transportation of the goods by automobile, trailer, truck or other means of conveyance; that he relied upon the agent’s representations that the binder expressed their oral agreement and that the insurance policy "would conform thereto. Appellee’s testimony was corroborated by Mr. Huff who was with appellee when he applied for the coverage.
But the binder issued to the appellee by the agent provided for coverage of household goods and fifty receptacle trash units being shipped “by truck.” The policy of insurance thereafter issued by the appellant provided coverage on the household goods and effects while in transit in a rental truck under the control of certain types of shippers, such as a railway company, railway' express company, or common carrier. No coverage whatever was included for the trash receptacle units. The policy was not received by the agent until after the loss had been reported to it, and was never delivered to the appellee nor seen by him until the time of trial.
The substance of a single point relied upon by the appellant for reversal of the judgment is that there are only two grounds upon which reformation of a contract may be granted, i. e., (a) a mutual mistake of the parties, or (b) a mistake by one of the parties accompanied by fraud on the part of the other party, and since the trial court did not make findings on either of these issues, its judgment is unsupported by the findings.
It is well established in this jurisdiction, and generally, that a court of equity may" grant reformation of a contract where either by mutual mistake of the parties, or through mistake on the part, of one party and fraud or inequitable conduct on the part of the other party, the written instrument drafted to evidence a contract fails to express the real agreement and intentions of the parties. Dearborn v. Niagara Fire Insurance Company, 17 N.M. 223, 125 P. 606; First National Bank of Elida v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co., 17 N.M. 334, 127 P. 1115; Cleveland v. Bateman, 21 N.M. 675, 158 P. 648; Points v. Wills, 44 N.M. 31, 97 P.2d 374; Collier v. Sage, 51 N.M. 147, 180 P.2d 242; 13 Appleman, Insurance Law and Practice, § 7609, p. 33; 76 C.J.S., Reformation of Instruments, §§ 29, 30; 29 Am.Jur., Insurance, §§ 340, 341.
As we view the findings in this case, while they do not expressly find either mutual mistake or fraud, implicit is a finding of inequitable conduct both on the part of the appellant and its agent. An agent’s conduct need not be characterized as fraud in order to warrant reformation of an insurance policy. In Portella v. Sonnenberg, 74 N.J.Super. 354, 181 A.2d 385, reformation was granted where an agent, with knowledge of the insured’s request for complete liability coverage on a department store, remained silent about the exclusion of elevators and failed to write the policy so plainly that its examination by the insured would bring home the exclusion. The court declined to call the agent’s conduct fraudulent but rather a lack of good faith and fair dealing. In Mahon v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins. Co., 36 Ill.App.2d 368, 184 N.E.2d 718, reformation was granted where the agent’s conduct in making an alteration in the date: on the policy without the insured’s consent was called inequitable but not fraudulent. And in Mortenson v. Hawkeye Casualty Co., 234 Iowa 430, 12 N.W.2d 823, it was held that reformation is warranted when a policy does not express the intention of the parties because of some fault or negligence on the part of the agent.
The appellant cites Taff v. Atlas Assur. Co., 58 Cal.App.2d 696, 137 P.2d 483, as authority for its position that the mere failure to issue the policy requested does not necessarily constitute fraud or actionable mistake, contending that the appellee was not prevented from reading the binder and by the exercise of reasonable care on his part he would have discovered his coverage was limited to transportation by truck. The Taff case involved the receipt and acceptance by insured, without objection, of five successive yearly policies of insurance covering loss of jewelry. The court found no excuse for the insured’s failure to read them. This court also held in Porter v. Butte Farmers Mutual Insurance Company, 68 N.M. 175, 360 P.2d 372, that where an insured has an opportunity of seeing and examining a policy he r is-bound by the statements therein contained .in the absence'of-fraud. These-cases,-however, are not applicable here where the ap-pellee never saw the policy nor had it in his possession but relied on the ¡representations of the agent that the binder and the policy to be issued would conform to their oral agreement. Nor do we find any testimony to indicate that a reading of the ‘binder, without further -explanation by the agent, would have alerted the appellee to the fact' that the use of the word “truck” applied solely to a motor truck and -would not include a trailer. ‘In any event,'- it is undisputed that the policy as issued did 'not conform even to the coverage called, for in the binder, nor was the appellee ever so advised. We evaluate the evidence with regard to inequitable conduct, on: the'part of the appellant and its agent as clear, convincing and satisfactory. • •" ■ ;
Lastly, the appellant contends-that .the reformation of the contract of- -insurance here results in an illegal contract: apd, therefore, the relief sought shouldhaye been denied. In support of its contention that the 'court may not reform a contract ■made in violation of statutory requirements, the appellant cites several cases from other jurisdictions. They lend it no support. This court in Douglass v. Mutual Ben. Health & Accident Ass’n, 42 N.M. 190, 76 P.2d 453, held that while the violation of a statute prohibiting the issuancé of in surance policies until schedules of rates and forms have been filed with the superintendent of insurance may be punishable by 'penalty or revocation of the certificate of authority to do business in the state, contracts so made are not void by their terms. We said:
“If contracts made in violation of this statute release the insurer, then its object and purpose is circumvented, and the door to injustice and oppression is wide open. The insured ordinarily would not know of any such violation, or that there were in fact published rates or approved forms.”
A court of equity will not withhold relief where it is necessary in the interest of justice and of sound public policy to enforce a contract which is inhibited by statute, but is not declared void, provided the parties are not in pari delicto. Baldwin v. Equitable Life Assurance Society of United States, 252 Iowa, 639, 108 N.W.2d 66, and cases cited therein. We do not find, nor has there been pointed out to us, any provision in our applicable insurance statutes which declares as void policies issued in violation thereof.
The judgment should be affirmed. It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and NOBLE, J., concur. | [
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MOISE, Justice.
We are here called upon to pass on the constitutionality of Ch. 89, N.M.S.L.1961, insofar as it attempted to place rural elec- trie cooperatives under the Public Utility-Act for certain purposes by including them within the definition of “public utility.” The act amended § 68-3-2 (F) (1) by adding the italicized words :
“ 'Public utility’ or 'utility’ means every person not engaged solely in interstate business and except as hereinafter stated, that now does or hereafter may own, operate, lease or control:
(1) Any plant, property, or facility for the generation, transmission, or distribution, sale or furnishing to or for the public of electricity for light, heat, or power or other uses, including corporations organised under sections 45-4-1 through 45-4-32 Nezv Mexico Statutes Annotated, 1953 Compilation; known as the Rural Electric Co-operative Act; * * * ”
At the same time nothing was done to change § 45-4 — 3(d), N.M.S.A.1953, which reads:
“A cooperative shall have power:
(d) To generate, manufacture, purchase, acquire, accumulate and transmit electric energy, and to distribute, sell, supply, and dispose of electric energy in rural areas to its members, to governmental agencies and political subdivisions, and to other persons not in excess of ten per centum (10%) of the number of its members; * *
Petitioner, hereinafter referred to as-“Community” is a public utility within the definition of that term in § 68-3-2(F),. N.M.S.A.1953, prior to its amendment in 1961. Respondent, Otero County Electric Cooperative, Inc., hereinafter referred to as “Otero,” is a corporation organized under the Rural Electric Cooperative Act (§§ 45— 4-1 to 45-4-32, N.M.S.A.1953) and holds a certificate of convenience and necessity issued pursuant to § 68-7-1.1, N.M.S.A. 1953. Respondent, The New Mexico Public Service Commission, hereinafter referred to as “Commission,” was established by § 68-4-1, N.M.S.A.1953.
Community here appeals from a district court judgment affirming an order of the Commission in a proceeding under §§ 68— 9-1 to 68-9-5, N.M.S.A.1953, wherein the Commission granted a certificate of public convenience and necessity to Otero to-serve the Sun Valley Subdivision near Alto, New Mexico. Community timely raised the constitutional issues, and here appeals from the decision of the trial court upholding the statute. It argues that the 1961 amendment is void because it constitutes an arbitrary and unreasonable classification. It asserts that this is so because cooperatives are included under the Act though not required to render service to the general public and no provision is made for complete regulation of rates charged by them (§ 68— 5-4.1, N.M.S.A.1953) or securities issued by them (§ 68-5-8, N.M.S.A.1953), whereas. Community must render service to the public generally and its rates and financing are completely supervised and controlled. On the other hand, Otero is here asserting that it is a public utility and accordingly entitled to the protection of the act; and, further, that the special privileges accorded in §§ 68-5-4.1 and 68-5-8, supra, are based upon a reasonable classification.
In Socorro Electric Coop., Inc. v. Public Service Co., 66 N.M. 343, 348 P.2d 88, we held that an electric cooperative was not open for the use and service of all the members of the public who might require it, and that therefore, a cooperative could not be a public utility. See Llano, Inc. v. Southern Union Gas Co., 75 N.M. 7, 399 P.2d 646. In the light of this decision, it seems fairly evident that by Ch. 89, N.M.S.L.1961, and particularly by the amendment to § 68-3-2 (F) (1), supra, it was the purpose of the legislature to overrule this court and make rural electric cooperatives into public utilities. That the legislature could accomplish this purpose, Community does not question. However, it does assert that it could not be done in the manner attempted, and that the act is unconstitutional for the reasons set out above.
One recent decision of this court should be noticed. In Edington v. New Mexico Public Service Commission, 74 N.M. 647, 397 P.2d 300, we reviewed the history of the Public Utility Act down to and including the 1961 amendment. Concerning the claim of denial of equal protection of the law raised by Edington, we determined that no complaint would be heard since before the 1961 amendment the Commission had no jurisdiction of the cooperative or of its rates where there was an overlap between its service and that of Edington whereas, subsequent thereto, the Commission did have power to fix rates of both when there was an overlapping or conflicting certificate of convenience and necessity and, consequently, Edington could not possibly have been adversely affected by the amendment.
In the instant case, a direct conflict between the rights and privileges of Community and Otero under § 68-7-1, supra, presents itself. This would not occur if Otero were not a public utility. Further, the Commission specifically found that, “Otero’s rates are fixed by its Board of Trustees and are not subject to regulation by the Public Service Commission.” These characteristics distinguish this case from Edington, and out of these differences the right to question the constitutionality of the amendment results.
While we recognize that absolutely equal treatment of parties performing similar service is not demanded in order for a legislative act to withstand an attack on its constitutionality, Dominion Hotel v. State of Arizona, 249 U.S. 265, 39 S.Ct. 273, 63 L.Ed. 597; Gruschus v. Bureau of Revenue, 74 N.M. 775, 399 P.2d 105, it is-nevertheless imperative that where classifi cation is attempted, the same must he reasonable and based on real differences bearing a proper relationship to the classification, and there must be uniformity of treatment within each class. State v. Pate, 47 N.M. 182, 138 P.2d 1006; Burch v. Foy, 62 N.M. 219, 308 P.2d 199.
The amendment to the definitions in § 68-3-2, supra, would make Otero a public utility, along with Community. Because of this change in the law, there arose a duty not previously present under § 68-7-1, supra, for Community to obtain a permit before undertaking the construction here in question. However, this is not all. Whereas Community thereby had new restrictions placed upon it, Otero was still not made subject to the same regulation and control which Community was under, as provided in § 68-5-4.1, supra, nor does it have'the duty to serve the public generally. As a matter of fact, by the terms of its charter, issued under § 45-4-3(d), supra, its power to serve persons other than its members, governmental agencies and political subdivisions is limited to a number not in excess of 10% of the number of its members. Section 68-5-4.1, supra, denies the Commission jurisdiction over rates of cooperatives such as Otero “except in any territory in which an overlapping or conflicting certificate of convenience and necessity has been issued to and exercised by any other public utility for the same class of service * * At the same time, the Commission has “general and exclusive power and jurisdiction to regulate and supervise * * * rates and service regulations * * * ” of Community. § 68-5-4, N.M.S.A.1953,
Can we say that the different treatment accorded a utility such'as Community under the law from that accorded Otero is reasonable and based upon real differences in the two companies? In answering the question, we repeat that both are “public utilities” under the definition of § 68-3-2 (F), supra. When we consider the additional facts that under its charter Otero does not and cannot serve the public generally and does not have its rates controlled except in overlapping situations, we cannot escape the conclusion that by comparison with Community it is at a decided advantage. This is what is prohibited by the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, and by Art. II, § 18, of the Constitution of New Mexico.
Under the facts of this case, insofar as Community seeks to serve the public and Otero seeks to serve customers who are not members, they are both attempting to secure business out of which they can make a profit. We are convinced that there is no real basis for applying one set of rules to one and a different set to the other. This is not permitted under the Constitution of the United States. Frost v. Corporation Commission, 278 U.S. 515, 49 S.Ct. 235, 73 L. Ed. 483. The equal protection clause pro tects against “invidious discrimination.” To our minds, the invidious discrimination present in the legislation under consideration is too apparent to require elaboration. See Morey v. Doud, 354 U.S. 457, 77 S.Ct. 1344, 1 L.Ed.2d 1485.
In the statute considered here, we can perceive of no supportable or rational basis for permitting an electric cooperative such as Otero to serve selected individuals who are not members of the cooperative (it does not have to serve the public generally and may not serve in excess of 10% of the number of its members) with entire freedom from control of its rates (except in overlapping situations not here present) while at the same time Community, when serving the same individuals, is required to charge for such service only such rates as the Commission approves.
The following, quoted from Frost v. Corporation Commission, supra, is pertinent:
“ * * * A corporation organized under the act of 1919, however, has capital stock, which, up to a certain amount, may be subscribed for by any person, firm or corporation; is allowed to do business for others ; to make profits and declare dividends, not exceeding 8 per cent, per annum; and to apportion the remainder of its earnings among its members ratably upon the amount of products sold by them to the corporation. Such a corporation is in no sense a mutual association. Like its individual competitor, it does business with the general public for the sole purpose of making money. Its members need not even be cotton growers. They may be — all or any of them — bankers or merchants or capitalists having no interest in the business differing in any respect from that of the members of an ordinary corporation. The differences relied upon to justify the classification are, for that purpose, without substance. The provision for paying a portion of the profits to members or, if so determined, to nonmembers, based upon the amounts of their sales to or purchases from the corporation, is a device which, without special statutory authority, may be and often is resorted to by ordinary corporations for the purpose of securing business. As a basis for the classification attempted, it lacks both relevancy and substance. Stripped of immaterial distinctions and reduced to its ultimate effect, the proviso, as here construed and applied, baldly creates one rule for a natural person and a different and contrary rule for an artificial person, notwithstanding the fact that both are doing the same business with the general public and to the same end, namely, that of reaping profits. That is to say, it produces a classification which subjects one to the burden of showing a public necessity for his business, from which it relieves the other, and is essentially arbitrary, because based upon no real or substantial differences having reasonable relation to the subject dealt with by the legislation. Power [Mfg.] Co. v. Saunders, 274 U.S. 490, 493, 47 S.Ct. 678, 71 L.Ed. 1165, 1167; Louisville Gas & Electric Co. v. Coleman, supra, 277 U.S. [32], 39, 48 S.Ct. 423, 72 L.Ed. 770, 774; Quaker City Cab Co. v. [Com. of] Penna., supra, 277 U.S. 389, 402, 48 S.Ct. 553, 72 L.Ed. [927] 930.” (278 U.S. 515, 524, 49 S.Ct. 235, 238).
See also, Chickasha Cotton Oil Company v. Cotton County Gin Company (C.A. 10, 1930) 40 F.2d 846, 74 A.L.R. 1070.
The language of this court in State v. Thompson, 57 N.M. 459, 463, 260 P.2d 370, fully recognizes this rule under both the Constitutions of the United States and of New Mexico.
“The equal protection of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States and Article 2, Section 18 of the State Constitution have for all practical purposes the same effect. They constitute a guaranty that all persons subject to state legislation shall be treated alike under similar circumstances and conditions in privileges conferred and liabilities imposed. * * * ”
See also, State v. Sunset Ditch Co., 48 N.M. 17, 145 P.2d 219.
We have concluded that the amendments to our public utility law discussed here are discriminatory and deny to Community the equal protection of the laws and are violative of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution, and of Art. II, § 18, of the New Mexico Constitution. This result has not been reached without full consideration of the oft-repeated rule that legislative acts are presumptively valid and that this court should not hold otherwise on constitutional grounds without being clearly satisfied that no other conclusion can reasonably be reached. State ex rel. Dickson v. Saiz, 62 N.M. 227, 308 P.2d 205; State ex rel. Hannah v. Armijo, 38 N.M. 73, 28 P.2d 511.
Having concluded that the questioned legislation must be held invalid as violative of the Constitutions in the manner herein-above discussed, it is not necessary for us to consider the additional grounds of unconstitutionality argued by Community in its brief.
The district court having arrived at an erroneous conclusion, its judgment is reversed and the cause remanded with instructions to proceed in a manner consistent herewith.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and CHAVEZ, NOBLE, and COMPTON, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
SPIESS, Judge, Court of Appeals.
The defendant (appellant), Johnny Henry Serrano, was charged by information with the crime of burglary and entered the plea of guilty. Prior to the imposition of sentence the court was asked to suspend, or defer sentence to the end that defendant would be placed upon probation. The request was denied and sentence to the state penitentiary was imposed. This appeal followed.
Two points are relied upon for reversal. First, appellant contends that he was denied an adequate hearing concerning his suitability for probation on the ground that the court declined to hear the testimony of certain witnesses offered in his behalf. The authority of the court to suspend or defer the sentence of one convicted of a crime is conferred by § 40A-29-15, N.M.S.A., 1953, which provides:
“Upon entry of a judgment of conviction of any crime not constituting a capital or first degree felony, any court having jurisdiction when it is satisfied that the ends of justice and the best interest of the public as well as the defendant will be served thereby, may either:
“A. enter an order deferring the imposition of sentence; or
“B. sentence the defendant and enter an order suspending in whole or in part the execution of the sentence.”
Upon deferring or suspending sentence the court is required, in accordance with Section 40A-29-17, N.M.S.A., 1953, to place the defendant upon probation. It is clear that suspension or deferment of sentence is not a matter of right but is an act of clemency and committed to the discretion of the trial court.
See: State of Arizona v. Douglas, 87 Ariz. 182, 349 P.2d 622; Ridley v. Commonwealth of Kentucky, 287 S.W.2d 156 (Ky. 1956); Ex parte Medley, 73 Idaho 474, 253 P.2d 794; People of State of Michigan v. Marks, 340 Mich. 495, 65 N.W.2d 698; State ex rel. Dake v. Alvis, 103 Ohio App. 38, 144 N.E.2d 223; State of Utah v. Sibert, 6 Utah 2d 198, 310 P.2d 388; Hughes v. State of Oklahoma, 346 P.2d 355 (Okl.Cr. App.1959).
While in our opinion the statute contemplates that reasonable investigation be made by the court in cases where probation is indicated, no procedure is prescribed for such investigation, nor does the statute specify the character or quantum of evidence necessary to warrant the suspension or deferral of sentence.
It appears from the record that before sentence was imposed, appellant’s counsel requested the court to place appellant upon probation. In undertaking to so persuade the court, counsel reviewed appellant’s fam ily and scholastic background, stated that a number of persons, including school authorities, were of the opinion that appellant was a proper subject for probation. Testimony of certain witnesses was then offered in support of appellant’s request. The ■court refused to hear testimony stating that a pre-sentence report had been furnished, .and thereupon imposed sentence.
Appellant’s claim of error is apparently based upon the assumption that he was entitled to a trial, or hearing upon his application for suspension, or deferral of sentence and consequently entitled as of right to introduce the testimony of witnesses in his behalf.
The refusal of the trial court to hear the offered testimony, in our opinion, does not justify reversal for the reason that the statute, § 40A-29-15, supra, makes no requirement that the contemplated investigation shall include a trial, or hearing, nor does the statute by implication, or otherwise, grant the defendant the right to introduce testimony in support of his request. See State v. Cohen, 11 Wash.2d 203, 118 P.2d 959.
The further reason preventing reversal is that the information which was intended to be presented to the court by the testimony which appellant offered would have been .only cumulative in that the same favorable information had been presented through counsel’s statement and the pre-sentence report. Compare Bezemek v. Balduini, 28 N.M. 124, 207 P. 330.
It is next claimed that the denial of probation in this case constituted an abuse of judicial discretion. It is stated by appellant that the court considered only the pre-sentence report and on the basis of such report denied probation. In so stating we assume appellant has considered only certain of the showing contained in the record.
The court is at liberty to make any inquiry it feels might assist it in reaching a proper conclusion. We cannot, therefore, assume that the only investigation made by the court is that reflected by the record.
The legislature has not required a specification of reasons for granting or denying probation and no reasons have been given by the court in this case.
In State v. Douglas, supra, the Supreme Court of Arizona, in considering a statute similar to ours, said:
“A careful reading of this provision discloses the Legislature has not required of the trial court that it spell out its reasons for either granting or denying probation. Probably this was because ther'e are so many intangible and imponderable factors entering into such a decision.”
An appropriate statement, is contained in State v. Sibert, supra:
“Probation is not a matter of right, and this is so no matter how unsullied a reputation one convicted of crime may be able to demonstrate to the trial judge. The granting or withholding of probation involves considering intangibles of character, personality and attitude, of which the cold record gives little inkling. These matters, which are to be considered in connection with the prior record of the accused, are of such nature that the problem of probation must of necessity rest within the discretion of the judge who hears the case. This is not to say that if it were clearly 'shown that the trial judge would have granted probation except' for some wholly irrelevant, improper or inconsequential consideration, such refusal might be so capricipus and arbitrary as to warrant the conclusion that he did not in fact exercise his discretion and jus-, 'tify a review'of his action.”
Abuse of discretion cannot be presumed but must be affirmatively established. See Hanberry v. Fitzgerald, 72 N.M. 383, 384 P.2d 256. It follows that if the record is silent as to the reasons for a ruling, regularity and correctness are presumed. In Coastal Plains Oil Company v. Douglas, 69 N.M. 68, 364 P.2d 131, we said:
“The ruling'of the trial court is presumed valid; and the burden was on appellant to show the manner in which the trial court abused its. discretion. We will not substitute our discretion for that of the trial court.
“Upon a doubtful or deficient record, every presumption is indulged in favor of the correctness and.regularity of the de-cisión of the court below. Hobbs v. Town of Hot Springs, 1940, 44. N.M. 592, 106 P.2d 856; Fisher v. Terrell, 1947, 51 N.M. 427, 187 P.2d 387; and In re Quantius’ Will, 1954, 58 N.M. 807, 277 P.2d 306.”
In State v. Ellis, 70 Idaho 417, 219 P.2d 953, considering the exercise of judicial discretion in the matter of granting probation, the court said:
“In the case at bar, the record shows- that the trial court considered appellant’s application for parqle but-does not disclose any ground or grounds upon which the application was denied. In People v. Jones, 87 Cal.App. 482, 262 P. 361, on page 368, it is said: ‘If the record is silent as to the grounds of the ruling, the presumption would be, under the general rule as to presumptions on appeal, that it was founded upon a consideration of the merits of defendant’s application, * * * i
“Appellant does not point out how the trial court in any manner acted upon or considered any ground not sanctioned by the law. Appellant merely takes the position that under the showing made and the evidence in the case, the trial court should have exercised its discretion in favor of appellant. It appearing from the record that the trial judge considered the application and nothing appearing to show that he did not exercise his discretion-according to .the established principles of law, we are not at liberty to substitute our own judgment for that of the trial judge and are powerless to interfere with the disposition of the matter as made by the trial court.”
We hold that no abuse of judicial discretion has been shown.
For the reasons stated, the judgment and sentence imposed by the court should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and CHAVEZ, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
HENDLEY, Judge.
Plaintiffs claim defendants applied a dangerously slick coating of Gilsonite road surface preservative to U.S. Highway 54, south of Alamogordo, causing the automobile accident for which they now seek damages. In an amended motion for summary judgment defendants claimed no Gilsonite was applied to the section of the road where the accident occurred. See § 21-1- 1(56), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol.1970). That motion was granted as to all claims and parties. Plaintiffs appeal. We reverse.
A finding that Gilsonite was applied to the highway at the point where the accident occurred is essential to finding any of the defendants liable. Defendants made a prima facie showing that no genuine issue existed as to this pivotal fact by introducing the affidavit of Robert D. Wootton, which stated:
“Based upon my own personal knowledge and examination of the scene of the accident I can state that no Gilsonite had been applied [at the scene of the accident] ... on U.S. 54 . . . .”
See Goodman v. Brock, 83 N.M. 789, 498 P.2d 676 (1972).
Plaintiffs attempt to show a genuine issue of fact on this question by presenting various portions of a deposition of the same Robert D. Wootton, taken for a prior case, but admissible in the instant case by stipulation of the parties. The relevant portions state:
“A. . . But I was the only one [shooting Gilsonite] in Alamogordo.
“A. I done that [U.S. 54] all the way to Newman.
“Q. That’s down to the New Mexico-Texas line, then?
“A. That’s down to the border, yes.
“Q. And that then covers the entire road?
“A. The whole road, yes.
“O. Both lanes?
“A. Both lanes.
“Q. And if in fact it developes from this testimony that all of U.S. 54, south of Alamogordo to the Texas line, was not shot with gilsonite, you would defer to them as far as the exact sections are concerned ?
“A. As far as I know, it was shot with gilsabind, yes.
“Q. The reference of your map will show it’s about sixty miles of highway from Alamogordo south to the Texas line.
“A. Uh-huh.
“Q. It is your recollection you shot all that highway, both sides ?
“A. Yes sir.”
These two statements, from the affidavit and deposition, conflict on the crucial question of whether Gilsonite was applied to the road where the accident occurred. Where the testimony of a single witness conflicts on a material fact summary judgment is improper; the question is for the jury. Kelly v. Montoya, 81 N.M. 591, 470 P.2d 563 (Ct.App.1970); see Creley v. Western Constructors, Inc., 79 N.M. 727, 449 P.2d 329 (1969).
Defendants counter this conclusion in two ways. First, they contend the plaintiffs took the deposition statement on which they relied, out of context. They say those statements were only generalizations and cite the same depositions where Wootton seems to admit that only portions of the road where “shot.” The most relevant excerpt states:
“Q. Now, there were sections where you didn’t shoot all of a particular stretch of highway isn’t that true? Right, sir?
“A. Yes, sir.”
It is not clear that Wootton was talking about U.S. 54 at this time. Even assuming he was, this statement raises only a contrary inference to be drawn from the testimony. In ruling on a motion for summary judgment the court must construe all reasonable inferences in favor of the party opposing the motion. Montoya v. City of Albuquerque, 82 N.M. 90, 476 P.2d 60 (1970). When Wootton said he shot “the whole road” it is reasonable to infer that he meant what he said.
Second, defendants contend that it is useless to go to trial since Wootton is going to testify according to his affidavit and distinguish his deposition testimony. See Dyer v. MacDougall, 201 F.2d 265 (2d Cir. 1952). Even assuming he will so testify he is an employee of one of the defendants and can be considered an interested witness. See 6 Moore’s Federal Practice, para. 56.15[4] at 2372 (2d ed. 1974). The jury may choose to believe that his prior statement, made before this case arose, was accurate and his subsequent affidavit colored by employee loyalty. See Gallegos v. Wallace, 74 N.M. 760/398 P.2d 982 (1964).
The judgment is reversed and the case remanded for trial.
It is so ordered.
WOOD, C. J., and SUTIN, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
Plaintiff-Appellee (Seasons), alleged owner and holder of a certain note and mortgage executed by Lincoln Hills, brought this action for foreclosure and other relief against Lincoln Hills and a number of other defendants including William W. and Elizabeth S. Atwell (the Atwells). Of the defendants, only the Atwells appeared below, and they are the only appellants here.
The Atwells had been co-owners of a sizeable tract of land near Ruidoso which was considered suitable for development, subdivision and sale. They conveyed their interest to their co-owners for cash, a note and the three lots with which we are here concerned. The land was then conveyed to Lincoln Hills. On April 24, 1968, Lincoln Hills executed the promissory note in question to Ruidoso State Bank. It was secured by a mortgage which encumbered “[a]ll unsold parcels in the Lincoln Hills Country Club Subdivision”, which was said to be the entire subdivision except for fifteen described lots and two tracts “which have heretofore been sold.” The Atwell lots were not excepted from the description.
On July 17, 1968, Lincoln Hills conveyed to the Atwells by warranty deed the three lots for which they had contracted, but by then the mortgage had firmly attached. Whether the conveyance of encumbered lots was in accordance with the Atwells’ agreement of sale, and the significance of the encumbrance vis-a-vis the warranty covenants in the deed to the Atwells are issues which are not before us.
By a series of transfers and assignments, the note and mortgage passed to Seasons. It had meanwhile fallen into default and this action was filed.
The complaint sought foreclosure on the same land described in the mortgage excepting additional lots said to have “been sold and released of record” and these included additional tracts of one-half acre by surveyed description and twenty-two lots.
The Atwells contend there is no substantial evidence in the record to support the trial court’s finding that these “additional exceptions” were released from the mortgage.
Their answer to the paragraph of the complaint containing the property description was a plea of want of knowledge which is tantamount to a denial. Section 21-1-1(8) (b), N.M.S.A.1953. No proof was adduced at trial touching the additional exceptions, except for a general statement that some unidentified lots had been released. The court’s finding of fact No. 3 adopted the description in the complaint, stating that the mortgage covered the real estate so described, thus excluding the additional exceptions.
The Atwells argue that the mortgage may still have been in effect as to the additional exceptions, or some of them, and if so, the foreclosure should have included these tracts. Otherwise, to permit Seasons to foreclose on only part of the land subject to the mortgage would have the effect of casting an additional, unconscionable burden of debt upon the Atwells’ lots.
It is perhaps significant that appellants cite to us no cases which bear upon this rather exotic proposition. Seasons stoutly claims that no rule of law or equity requires them to attempt to foreclose on property in which it claims no security interest. This has a reasonable ring to it.
In the absence of proof regarding the additional exemptions, the issue presented may be resolved by deciding whether the predicate for the Atwells’ argument was well pleaded, and if so, which party bore the burden of proof.
The office of the pleadings is to give the parties fair notice of both claims and defenses and the grounds upon which they rest. See Conley v. Gibson, 355 U.S. 41, 78 S.Ct. 99, 2 L.Ed.2d- 80 (1957). Could the Atwells’ denial of allegations concerning the additional exceptions be reasonably regarded as giving Seasons any notice of the present contention? The amended answer includes eight affirmative defenses, but there is no mention of the legal point now argued. The question put tends to answer itself. While the particular defense now asserted is not specifically denominated as an affirmative defense by Rule of Civil Procedure 8(c) [§ 21-1-1 (8)(c) N.M.S.A.1953], that rule provides that the pleader must affirmatively assert “any other matter constituting an avoidance or affirmative defense.” 2A Moore’s Federal Practice, § 8.27 [3] (2d ed. 1974) states that an affirmative defense raises matters outside the scope of the plaintiff’s prima facie case, and that any matter that does not tend to controvert the opposing parties’ prima facie case as determined by applicable substantive law should be affirmatively pleaded and is not put in issue by a denial. Assuming the mortgage may still have been in effect as to the additional exceptions, proving the point would have constituted an avoidance or minimizing of the burden of foreclosure upon the Atwells’ lots and, therefore, was in the nature of an affirmative defense which should have been pled. We hold that the Atwells should have affirmatively pleaded and, thereafter, proved a factual predicate for minimizing the burden of foreclosure upon their lots. Failing this, they cannot now be allowed to attack the trial court’s finding as to the property covered by the mortgage based on lack of substantial evidence.
The Atwells secondly contend the trial court erred in granting judgment to Seasons against Lincoln Hills, Inc. because one of the various assignments of the note and mortgage which ultimately ended up with Seasons was improper and thus invalid.
The record shows that' in the chain of transfers of the note and mortgage, an Odessa, Texas bank assigned to a Mr. Nunley, an Odessa attorney and member of Nunley & Wilson, a law partnership. Mr. Nunley was acting as agent for an undisclosed principal, Mrs. Rumbaugh, then sole stockholder of Lincoln Hills. During the attorney-client relationship, the Lincoln Hills directors resolved to convey a one-fourth interest in the encumbered land to Nunley & Wilson as security for fees, and the officers of the company were authorized and directed to prepare a deed. Whether this was actually done does not appear.
The note and mortgage were later assigned to Mrs. Rumbaugh and it is this assignment which the Atwells attack. The salient features of the document are: (1) a recitation that the assignor is the “owner and holder” of the note; (2) that it purports to “sell, transfer and convey” to the assignee the note and mortgage “and all liens and titles held by him in and to said lands”; (3) an execution in the form:
NUNLEY & WILSON
By: S/ Richard K. Nunley
Richard K. Nunley
(4) an acknowledgment reciting that Mr. Nunley executed the document “individually and in the capacity therein stated.”
Mr. Nunley identified the document as being an assignment of his interest in the note and mortgage to Mrs. Rumbaugh. He offered in open court to execute another assignment to Mrs. Rumbaugh to set at rest any doubt as to the efficacy of the first one.
The court found, as one link in the chain of assignments ending in Seasons, that Mr. Nunley, individually, and as a partner in Nunley & Wilson, validly assigned the note and mortgage to Mrs. Rumbaugh, and concluded that Seasons was entitled to judgment.
The Atwells argue that the assignment to Mrs. Rumbaugh disclosed upon its face that it was from Nunley & Wilson and not from Richard K. Nunley, individually; that Nunley & Wilson did not own the note and mortgage; and that, as a matter of law, based solely upon the document, title did not pass to Mrs. Rumbaugh. They assert the acknowledgment is separate and independent from the assignment and cannot cure its infirmities, citing 1 Am.Jur.2d Acknowledgments, § 80 (1962).
The facts before us raise no question as to the due execution of the document, that is to say, its execution by a person competent to execute it. Neither is a question presented as to its genuineness. Its execution by Mr. Nunley is not questioned, his signature is not claimed to be spurious, nor is anything said to have been added to or deleted from it following execution. The sole question relates to the construction of the document — did it pass title or did it not? An assignment and the language of an assignment may be informal as long as it shows an intention on the part of the owner of a right or interest in property to transfer it. S & W Trucks, Inc. v. Nelson Auction Service, Inc., 80 N. M. 423, 457 P.2d 220 (1969). We are thus concerned with the intent of the assignor and this is to be gleaned, if possible, from the document itself. So construed, there appears to be little, if any, question that Mr. Nunley intended to pass legal title to the note and mortgage to his client. The document seems appropriate in form to accomplish the dual function of releasing the inchoate security interest in the encumbered property which was held by the law firm and of transferring the note and mortgage, legal title to which was held by Mr. Nunley. This would be bolstered by his testimony, were it necessary to look further. The trial court correctly decided the issue.
The Atwells next assert error by the trial court in its decision that “foreclosure proceed as a unit and right of redemption must be of the entire realty sold * * *They argue that the court should have allowed them to redeem their lots pro tanto by paying their pro rata share of the debt. They appear to be claiming, in effect, that the court should have ordered a separate sale of each parcel.
In Springer Corporation v. Kirkeby-Natus, 80 N.M. 206, 453 P.2d 376 (1969), which held that redemption by paying only a pro rata portion of the sale price would not be allowed, the court said:
“It is a general rule that a mortgage is an entire thing, and must be redeemed in its entirety, and that a mortgagee cannot be required to divide either his debt or his security.”
Springer is contrary to the Atwells’ assertion. That was a suit between a senior encumbrancer (Kirkeby) and a junior lien- or (Springer). Springer Corporation, which had been inadvertently omitted as a party in a prior foreclosure action brought by Kirkeby, held a mortgage on only a portion of the land encumbered to Kirkeby. It claimed, as the Atwells do here, that it should be allowed to redeem pro tanto as to the portion of the land in which it had a security interest. The claim was denied. Although Springer, as a lienholder of a portion of the encumbered property, occupied a different legal position than the Atwells, who are owners of the legal title to a portion of the encumbered property, the relief sought is identical and the result we reach is the same.
We find nothing in our redemption statute which dictates a different result. See, § 24-2-19, N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp.1973).
Finally, the Atwells contest the trial court’s refusal to apply marshalling or the Doctrine of Inverse Order of Alienation to the foreclosure sale.
The factual background upon which this issue must be decided is rather sparse. The claims of defendants, other than the Atwells, have been set at rest by settlement with Seasons.
The court found that:
“At the time this suit was instituted, Lincoln Hills, Inc., still owned an unknown number of lots in Lincoln Hills Country Club Subdivision and after the notice of Lis Pendens was filed deeded them to Hope Oil, Inc.”
The court concluded that the doctrines asserted by the Atwells “are not applicable to this case.”
Marshalling is an equitable principle under which assets of a debtor are arranged to protect the rights of two or more competing creditors. It is also referred to as the two-funds doctrine and is often applied in situations where one creditor has a claim to two or more funds, and another has a claim upon one of the funds only, the one having a claim upon two funds being required to look first to the fund to which he has the exclusive right. Its purpose is to protect junior lienholders. See American National Ins. Co. v. Vine-Wood Realty Co., 414 Pa. 263, 199 A.2d 449 (1964); Bank of Bentonville v. Swift & Company, 233 Ark. 808, 348 S.W.2d 881 (1961). As was stated in the Springer Corporation case, supra, Springer’s real relief :
“ * * * [lay] in invoking the rule of marshalling by which the junior encumbrancer may require a senior mortgagee to exhaust his remedy against property other than that covered by the partial mortgage of the junior encumbrancer.” 80 N.M. at 209, 453 P.2d at 379.
In this case, we don’t have “two funds” to which marshalling might apply. Nor do we have any competing creditors. There is only Seasons. The court did not err in declining to apply the Doctrine of Marshalling.
Finally, we must consider whether to apply the Doctrine of Inverse Order of Alienation. That rule has been stated as follows:
“Whenever the mortgagor has conveyed separate parcels of the mortgaged premises by warranty deeds to successive grantees, and there are no special provisions in any of their deeds, and no other dealings between themselves or with the mortgagor which disturb the equities otherwise existing, a priority results, depending upon the order • of conveyance. As between the mortgagor and all the grantees, the parcel in his hands, if any, is primarily liable for the whole mortgage debt, and should be exhausted before having recourse to any of theirs; as between the grantees, their parcels are liable in the inverse order of their alienation, and any parcel chargeable first in order must be exhausted before recourse is had to the second.”
4 Pomeroy’s Equity Jurisprudence § 1224, at 668, 669 (5th-ed. 1941). See also S3 Am.Jur.2d Marshaling Assets § 44 (1970); Annot. 131 A.L.R. 4 (1941).
The doctrine is not recognized in all jurisdictions and, where it is utilized, it is not always applied in its entirety. Modifications in its application are fashioned according to its general purposes and precepts to fit particular fact situations. See Annot. 131 A.L.R. 4 (1941). New Mexico has had no occasion to consider the doctrine.
We have mentioned the paucity of facts which bear upon the application of the doctrine here. We do not know the circumstances of any owner of title to a lot sold by Lincoln Hills subject to the mortgage. The evidence of times of conveyances, prices, worth, improvements and so on was not presented to the trial court. No issues were tendered by the pleadings among the various defendants by which the equities of their respective situations could be gauged. In fact, all of the defendant owners of encumbered lots, other than the Atwells, have apparently settled.
We are not moved to adopt the Rule of Inverse Order of Alienation in a case where we have no means of weighing the equities for or against those whose rights would be affected by our action. Nevertheless, we think one fact found by the trial court to be compelling. At the time this foreclosure action was filed, Lincoln Hills, the mortgagor, still held legal title to some of the encumbered land.
It appears from the precedents and authorities dealing with the Rule of Inverse Order of Alienation that whether jurisdictions have adopted the rule in its entirety or with some modifications, they are virtually unanimous in holding that where a mortgagor conveys a portion and retains a portion of the encumbered property, the property so retained should first be subjected to the payment of the debt before resorting to the portion conveyed. This is on the salutory principle that one man’s property should not be subjected to the payment of another man’s debt. As stated in Annot. 131 A.L.R. 4 at 11:
“According to the unanimous concensus of opinion of the courts, based upon the basic idea of equity that one man’s debt cannot be required to be paid with the property of another, where the owner of the property which is covered by the prior paramount lien, whether created by himself or by a prior owner, conveys or encumbers a part of such property, retaining the other part or some interest therein, the part or interest so retained will first be subjected to the payment of the paramount encumbrance before the part conveyed or aliened can be reached in the hands of the purchaser or encumbrancer, the assumption being that, in the absence of anything in the con veyance showing that the parties intended that the parcel aliened or encumbered should bear its burden of the paramount lien, such owner intended that his debt or the debt secured by his property should be paid out of his own property and not out of the property he aliened— this assumption being strengthened by the presence in the instrument of conveyance or encumbrance of covenants of warranty or convenants against encumbrances * * *
The conveyance by Lincoln Hills to the Atwells was, incidentally, by warranty deed.
It seems clear to us this procedure should have been followed here. In Speckner v. Riebold, 86 N.M. 275, 523 P.2d 10 (1974) we recognized the existence of discretionary powers in the trial courts:
“ * * * to order such a sale on any terms or in any manner, subject only to statutory prohibitions and review for abuse of discretion.”
By nothing which we say here do we mean to retreat from this statement. However, based on the foregoing legal principles, we must conclude the trial court abused its discretion, but only in fixing and arranging the manner and terms of sale. Our ruling does not pertain to the portion of the judgment foreclosing the mortgage and declaring the rights of the parties.
The judgment of the district court insofar as it specifies the manner, terms and conditions of sale is reversed. The trial court is directed to set that portion of the judgment aside, and to determine the extent and amount of the encumbered property to which Lincoln Hills held title at the time this foreclosure action was filed, making appropriate findings of fact in this respect. Such properties so owned by Lincoln Hills shall be first sold and the proceeds applied upon the indebtedness owing to Seasons. Only if the proceeds of the first sale are insufficient to pay the debt, interest, costs and attorneys’ fees owing may the property of the Atwells be subjected to the payment of the balance of the indebtedness.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MONTOYA. J.. concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
In this workmen’s compensation case, the trial court concluded that neither actual notice nor written notice had been given in compliance with § 59-10-13.4, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 9, pt. 1). Plaintiff appeals from the dismissal of his claim.
Section 59-10-13.4, supra, reads:
“A. Any workman claiming to be entitled to compensation from any employer shall give notice in writing to his employer of the accident and of the injury within thirty [30] days after their occurrence; unless, by reason of his injury or some other cause beyond his control the workman is prevented from giving notice within that time, in which case he shall give notice as soon as may reasonably be done, and at all events not later than sixty [60] days after the occurrence of the accident.
“B. No written notice is required to be given where the employer or any superintendent or foreman or other agent in charge of the work in connection with which the accident occurred had actual knowledge of its occurrence.”
Actual notice.
To avoid the requirement of written notice only actual knowledge of the accident is required. Beckwith v. Cactus Drilling Corporation, 84 N.M. 565, 505 P. 2d 1241 (Ct.App.1972). Such actual knowledge must be acquired within the time provided for giving written notice. Rohrer v. Eidal International, 79 N.M. 711, 449 P.2d 81 (Ct.App.1968). If there was actual knowledge of the accident in this case, it was timely. The issue is whether the evidence supports the findings of the trial court to the effect that there was no actual knowledge.
The evidence is that on the day of the alleged accident, plaintiff was working with his immediate supervisor in effecting repairs to equipment. The two worked together on the repairs on Friday, Saturday (until noon) and on the following Monday. The dates are January 7, 8 and 10, 1972. On Friday morning, the two lifted a hopper from a generator. According to plaintiff, the accident occurred during this lifting. Also, according to plaintiff, he told the supervisor he had hurt his back at the time it happened on Friday, and also informed him about the accident while they were working together on Saturday and Monday.
The supervisor’s testimony differs. The supervisor repeatedly testified that he had no recollection of plaintiff stating that he had hurt his back and no recollection of any complaints of back pain by plaintiff on any of the three days the two worked together.
Plaintiff asserts the supervisor’s “no recollection” testimony does not conflict with plaintiff’s positive testimony. See Ratley v. Industrial Commission, 74 Ariz. 347, 248 P.2d 997 (1952). He asserts that apart from the “no recollection” testimony, there is no evidence which conflicts with plaintiff’s testimony concerning actual knowledge. On this basis, he contends the uncontradicted evidence rule applies and requires us to hold that the supervisor had actual knowledge of the accident. See Medler v. Henry, 44 N.M. 275, 101 P.2d 398 (1940).
We need not decide the effect of “no recollection” testimony in this case. There is other evidence which conflicts with plaintiff’s testimony. Because of this conflicting evidence, the uncontradicted evidence rule is not applicable.
The conflicting evidence was testimony of the supervisor and of the employer’s plant manager.
The supervisor testified he was “positive” that plaintiff made no statement to him about his back; that he was “sure” that plaintiff never stated he had hurt his back; that he was “certain” that plaintiff did not report an injury to him. Asked if a report of injury on Friday, Saturday and Monday could have occurred and he could have failed to remember these reports, the supervisor stated: “Not three days in a row, no, sir.” Assuming this testimony of the supervisor conflicts with his “no recollection” testimony, the conflict was to be resolved by the trial court. Rohrer v. Eidal International, supra.
The manager testified that he learned of plaintiff’s claim on March 6, 1972, and on that date questioned the supervisor about the claim. According to the manager, the supervisor stated he had no knowledge of plaintiff getting hurt; that plaintiff “didn’t make any report to him at all.”
The foregoing evidence conflicts with plaintiff’s testimony and is substantial evidence, if believed, that the supervisor had no actual knowledge of the accident. It was for the trial court to resolve the conflict. Rohrer v. Eidal International, supra. The trial court resolved the conflict in finding an absence of actual knowledge. It did not err in doing so.
Written notice.
Section 59-10-13.4(A), supra, requires written notice “to his [the workman’s] employer of the accident and of the injury within thirty [30] days after their occurrence.” An insurance adjuster for the employer’s workmen’s compensation insurer received written notice of an accident and injury on February 22, 1972. The trial court found that plaintiff knew or should have known of the accident and injury on January 7, 8 and 10, 1972. We view this finding as a finding that plaintiff knew or should have known of a compensable injury on these dates. The trial court also found that no written notice of the accident and injury was given to the employer or any agent within the time periods provided in § 59-10-13.4(A), supra. The conclusion of no written notice is necessarily based on these findings. Plaintiff asserts the evidence does not support the findings. We agree.
There are two parts to the written notice issue. They are: (1) the time for giving written notice and (2) the person to whom written notice was given.
(1) Time for giving written notice.
The sixty day provision of § 59-10-13.-4(A), supra, is not involved. Our concern is with the requirement that written notice of the accident and injury be given within thirty days after their occurrence. This requirement means: “The period limited for this notice begins to run from the time the workman knows, or should know by the exercise of reasonable diligence, that he has sustained injury by accident in the course of his employment.” Montell v. Orndorff, 67 N.M. 156, 353 P.2d 680 (1960). The knowledge of a workman, with which this rule is concerned, is knowledge of a compensable injury. Langley v. Navajo Freight Lines, Inc., 70 N. M. 34, 369 P.2d 774 (1962). “The period for written notice does not begin to run until plaintiff is charged with such knowledge.” Rohrer v. Eidal International, supra.
There is no evidence that plaintiff knew or should have known of a compensable injury through January 10, 1972. During that period of time plaintiff worked at his regular job. For a reason unrelated to the workmen’s compensation claim, plaintiff was discharged at the end of his work on January 10th. At that time, according to testimony elicited on cross-examination, plaintiff intended to return to work the following day, had no intention of discontinuing his work and had planned to continue his work.
Compensation is paid only when there is a disability. Section 59-10-13.3, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1). Disability is defined in terms of inability to perform the usual tasks of his employment or work for which the workman is fitted. Sections 59-10-12.18 and 59-10-12.19, N. M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, Supp.1973). There is no evidence that plaintiff suffered a disability within the meaning of §§ 59-10-12.18 and 59-10-12.19, supra, on January 7, 8 or 10, 1972. Accordingly, there is no evidence of a compensable injury on those dates. Absent evidence of a compensable injury, there is no basis for finding that plaintiff knew or should have known of a compensable injury on those dates.
Plaintiff requested the trial court to find that the first time plaintiff knew he had a compensable injury was on January 25, 1972. He contends the refusal of the requested finding was error. We agree.
The trial court found that plaintiff called his doctor for an appointment on January 10 and obtained the January 25, 1972 appointment. Between the time of plaintiff’s alleged injury on January 7, and the doctor’s appointment on January 25, 1972, plaintiff continued with his second job, that of watchman on weekends, at the county dump. He had continued with the weekend watchman’s job to time of trial.
After being discharged on January 10, plaintiff sought employment of the same type that he had been performing for the employer in this case. He sought this employment at three different firms. Under one line of evidence, he sought this employment prior to the doctor’s appointment. Under another line of evidence, his job hunting was after the doctor’s appointment.
Testimony elicited on direct examination was that plaintiff had previously had back trouble but had continued working while undergoing medical treatment. After the alleged injury on January 7, 1972, plaintiff testified that he had back pain and had difficulty in bending and lifting, but felt he would be able to get along with the pain until he saw the doctor. The doctor’s appointment was for January 25, 1972.
According to plaintiff, at the appointment on January 25, the doctor stated that plaintiff could not do heavy work and could not go back to the work he had been doing for the employer in this case.
Under the evidence, the earliest that plaintiff could be charged with knowledge of a compensable injury is January 25, 1972. The trial court erred in refusing the requested finding.
The written notice, having been received on February 22, 1972, was within thirty days of the time plaintiff knew or should have known of a compensable injury. The trial court erred in finding that written notice was not given within the time provided by § 59-10-13.4(A), supra.
(2) Person to whom notice was given.
Section 59-10-13.4(A), supra, states that the written notice is to be given the employer. The undisputed evidence is that the written notice was received by an insurance adjuster. Defendants assert this fails to meet the statutory requirement. We disagree.
The adjuster testified that prior contact with plaintiff had been in connection with an ankle injury that plaintiff had received in 1969 while working for the employer in this case. According to the adjuster, plaintiff was aware the adjuster did adjusting work on matters that occurred at the employer’s plant. According to the adjuster, when he received the written notice from plaintiff’s attorney, he was acting for the employer.
“[T]he fact of agency when it rests in parol, may be .established on the trial by the testimony of the agent himself.” State v. Kelly, 27 N.M. 412, 202 P. 524, 21 A.L.R. 156 (1921). The adjuster’s trial testimony, that he had acted for the employer in connection with a prior injury of plaintiff and was acting for the employer in receiving the written notice in this case, is substantial evidence of his agency. There is no contradictory evidence concerning the agency. The trial court erred in finding that no written notice was given to an agent of the employer.
We affirm the trial court’s decision concerning actual knowledge. We reverse the trial court’s decision concerning written notice. The judgment is reversed and the cause remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
It is so ordered.
SUTIN and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
The two issues concern damages. They are: (1) the proper measure of damages recoverable under New Mexico’s “Uniform Commercial Code” [§ 50A — 1-101 et seq., N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 1)] when there has been a revocation of acceptance and (2) whether there may be an offset to such damages.
Unchallenged findings of the small claims court follow. Plaintiff purchased an automobile from defendant for $600.00. Defendant warranted the title to the vehicle was clear and promised to deliver a clear title certificate “in a week.” Plaintiff made several demands for the title; defendant was unable to furnish it. “If plaintiff accepted the vehicle, she revoked her acceptance.” The fair market value of the vehicle “if it had clear title was $1,360.00.”
The small claims court concluded that plaintiff was entitled to judgment for the value the vehicle would have had with clear title, and entered judgment accordingly. The judgment was affirmed by the district court. See § 16-5-12, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4). Defendant appeals the judgment of the district court.
Damages recoverable upon revocation of acceptance.
Section 50A-2-608, supra, provides for a revocation of acceptance. The unattacked finding is that a revocation of acceptance occurred in this case.
Plaintiff relies on § 50A-2-714, supra, in support of the award of damages based on market value of the vehicle with a clear title. She does so on the basis that damages were awarded for breach of warranty and, therefore, the measure of damages is that stated in § 50A-2-714(2), supra. The argument is fallacious. Section 50A-2-714(2), supra, sets forth a measure of damages for breach of warranty based on an acceptance. Here, the unchallenged finding is that the acceptance had been revoked. The comment to 1 ULA, Uniform Commercial Code, § 2-714 (1968) states:
“1. This section deals with the remedies available to the buyer after the goods have been accepted and the time for revocation of acceptance has gone by. . . . ”
Section 50A-2-714, supra, is not applicable.
Defendant contends the applicable provision of the Uniform Commercial Code is § 50A-2-711, supra. We agree. Defendant also contends that under § 50A-2-711, supra, plaintiff is entitled to no more than a return of the purchase price of the vehicle. We disagree.
The applicable provisions of § .50A-2-711, supra, read:
“(1) Where the . . . buyer justifiably revokes acceptance ., the buyer . . . may in addition to recovering so much of the price as has been paid
“(b) recover damages for nondelivery as provided in this article. . . . ”
Buyer’s damages for nondelivery are set forth in § 50A-2-713, supra. Such damages are measured by “the difference between the market price at the time when the buyer learned of the breach and the contract price.” Under the evidence, “nondelivery” damages would be the difference between the purchase price and the market value of the vehicle with clear title. This “nondelivery” damage, combined with the purchase price, totals the amount of the damages awarded in this case.
Defendant’s contention is that “nondelivery” damages cannot be awarded because the vehicle was delivered to and used by plaintiff. This contention is answered by the statutory language. Section 50A-2-608, supra, does not condition the right to revoke an acceptance on whether the buyer has or has not physically received the goods. Rather, § 50A-2-608(3), supra, states a buyer who “revokes has the same rights and duties with regard to the goods involved as if he had rejected them.” Compare §§ 50A-2-603 and 50A-2-604, supra.
The damages authorized by § 50A-2-711, supra, apply to a buyer who rightfully rejects and a buyer who justifiably revokes acceptance. Physical delivery of the goods to the buyer does not eliminate the recovery of “nondelivery” damages. Recovery of “nondelivery” damages is not conditioned on the absence of physical delivery of the goods. “The remedies listed here [§ 50A-2-711, supra] are those available to a buy er who has not accepted the goods or who has justifiably revoked his acceptance.” 1 ULA, Uniform Commercial Code, supra, Official Comment to § 2-711.
The claim that plaintiff could not recover “nondelivery” damages because she had physical possession of the vehicle prior to her revocation of acceptance is without merit. The amount of the damage award, under the evidence in this case, was correct under the applicable statute, § 50A-2-711, supra.
Offset to damages.
The evidence is that plaintiff used the vehicle for an undetermined period of time before returning the vehicle to defendant. There is also evidence that during plaintiff’s use, the vehicle had been damaged. Defendant claims an allowance for this use and damage should be set off against the damages to be recovered by plaintiff. Such an offset, in our opinion, is legally permissible. See § 50A-1-103, supra; American Container Corp. v. Hanley Trucking Corp., 111 N.J.Super. 322, 268 A.2d 313 (1970); Lanners v. Whitney, 247 Or. 223, 428 P.2d 398 (1967); Moore v. Howard Pontiac-American, Inc., 492 S.W. 2d 227 (Tenn.App.1972).
There is no factual basis for applying such an offset. There is evidence of use by plaintiff; however, there is neither evidence nor inference as to the reasonable value of such use. Bank of New Mexico v. Rice, 78 N.M. 170, 429 P.2d 368 (1967). There is evidence of a dent on the right-hand side of the vehicle but neither evidence nor inference as to the monetary amount of any decrease in value resulting from the dent and neither evidence nor inference of the cost of repairing the dent. N.M.U.J.I. 14.11. Absent a basis for arriving at a monetary amount to be offset, it was not error to fail to apply an offset.
Plaintiff asserts that defendant’s appeal was taken merely for delay, and asks us to increase the damages awarded under authority of § 21-2-1(17) (3), N.M. S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4). The basis for such an award is stated in Anderson v. Jenkins Construction Co., 83 N.M. 47, 487 P.2d 1352 (Ct.App.1971). That basis is not established by the record in this case. The request for an increase in the damage award is denied.
The judgment is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
HENDLEY, Judge.
The claims in this case arise out of two separate lease transactions between plaintiff Rust, a Caterpillar tractor sales and leasing company, and defendant Consolidated, a construction firm.
The first transaction was the lease of a scraper for a period of three months. Approximately one month and nine days into the contract the scraper was accidentally submerged in a sewage lagoon. The next day Rust’s employees removed the scraper and took it to the Rust yard. Rust repaired the scraper extensively, going beyond the damage done in the lagoon to prepare it for pending sale. Rust failed to notify Consolidated of the nature or extent of the repairs, or the fact that repairs were completed before the three-month termination date on the lease. Consolidated never again used the scraper.
Rust sent Consolidated an invoice showing full rental due for the second lease month. Consolidated tendered a check to Rust for $924.03 to cover only the nine days of actual use in the second month, with a letter stating that it would only pay that amount. Rust accepted the check and adjusted the Consolidated account to omit any additional charge for the month. Rust demanded no more rental until the initiation of this suit.
The second transaction occurred immediately after the incapacitation of the scraper. Consolidated leased a loader from Rust for two days at $100 per day. Incident to the contract Rust procured an “all risk” insurance policy to cover the use of the loader by Consolidated. At the end of the lease period, Consolidated was to “road” the loader back to the Rust yard. In route the engine broke down due to the negligent failure of Consolidated to maintain the proper oil level. The loader required extensive repair with prolonged down time. Rust made no insurance claim for the loss, nor did they notify Consolidated soon enough to make a claim within the claim period.
Three of the claims stated in Rust’s complaint are relevant to this appeal: (1) rental on the scraper for the full three-month lease, (2) rental for loader down time, (3) damages for loader repair. Consolidated, in a counterclaim, alleged that the loader damage in Rust’s claim three above, was covered by insurance, and Rust’s failure to make a claim damaged Consolidated to the extent of the damage to the loader minus the deductible amount.
After' trial without a jury, the court found for Consolidated on claims one and two and on the counterclaim. It found for Rust on claim three and allowed a setoff of Consolidated’s counterclaim. Rust appeals. We affirm.
Scraper Rental
Rust first contends the trial court erroneously failed to award the remaining rental for the three-month lease period on the scraper. It argues that the trial court interpreted the lease agreement by reference to custom and usage while expressly refusing to find the agreement ambiguous. See Tipton v. Clower, 67 N.M. 388, 356 P. 2d 46 (1960). Rust ignores, however, the alternative basis for the trial court’s conclusion. By unchallenged findings of fact and conclusions of law, the trial court found that the parties terminated the lease as of the ninth day of the second month by Rust accepting the check and adjusting its accounts. Since Rust did not object, “[t]he court’s findings and conclusions are . . . deemed true and controlling.” Miller v. Connecticut General Life Insurance Co., 84 N.M. 321, 502 P.2d 1011 (Ct.App.1972). Rust’s first contention is without merit, as is its claim for service charge and attorney’s fees.
Loader
Rust’s two other contentions concern the loader lease. In the first of these, it argues that the trial court mistook the third claim in its complaint to be for loader rental, when in fact it was for loss of use incident to negligent damage. The trial court’s “mistake” is understandable. The complaint states:
“2. Defendant is justly indebted to Plaintiff on account of the rental of one (1) Caterpillar 988 Loader leased from Plaintiff by Defendant and delivered to Defendant and for Defendant on open account at Plaintiff’s principal place of business . . ., in the amount of $4,800.00. . . .”
Rust’s requested Conclusion of Law number eight states: “. . . Plaintiff is entitled to rental in the amount of $100.00 per day for the time it was deprived of the use of the 988 Caterpillar Loader occasioned by Defendant’s negligence.” Rust cannot change its argument on appeal, much less its claim for relief. See § 21-2-1(20) (1), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol.1970).
Loader Insurance
Rust’s final contention concerns insurance coverage on the loader damage. The court’s finding of fact number fourteen states: “The loss and damage to the loader occasioned by its having run out of oil is not excluded by the terms of insurance policy under which Rust obtained insurance coverage on the loader.” Rust challenges that finding.
The insurance policy “. . . insure[d] against all risks of direct physical loss or damage to the insured property from any external cause except as hereinafter excluded.” The policy excluded . . [ljoss or damage due and confined to delay, wear and tear, rust, inherent vice, latent defect, extreme of temperature, mechanical breakdown or failure, and directly resulting therefrom unless fire or explosion ensues and then for the loss or damage by fire or explosion only.
Rust contends the loss was due and confined to mechanical breakdown or failure . . .,” and therefore not externally caused within the meaning of the policy.
Mechanical breakdown or failure can be the cause of loss or the effect of the loss itself. This insurance policy excludes losses “ . . . due to . mechanical breakdown or failure. . . .” Thus mechanical breakdown is relevant only when it is a causative factor. The unchallenged facts in this case establish that negligent failure to maintain the oil level was the cause of the loss. Mechanical breakdown was merely the effect of the loss itself.
Even assuming mechanical breakdown was a cause of the loss, the exclusion still does not apply. Where a risk insured against operates to subject the insured property to a risk not insured against, the loss is covered. Annotation, 160 A.L.R. 947 (1946); 7 Am.Jur.2d “Automobile Insurance”, § 64 (1963) ; Terrien v. Pawtucket Mut. Fire Ins. Co., 96 N.H. 182, 71 A.2d 742 (1950) ; Sackett v. Farmers Insurance Exchange, 237 Cal.App.2d Supp. 899, 47 Cal.Rptr. 350 (1965). Compare Farmers Mutual Hail Ins. Co. of Iowa v. Stansbury, 291 S.W.2d 347 (Tex.Civ.App. 1956). In this case the negligent failure to maintain oil level is an “external cause” and is insured against. That negligent failure operated to subject the loader to mechanical breakdown which was excluded. The loss was covered.
The judgment is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
SUTIN and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
By Chapter 44, Laws of New Mexico (1974) [§§ 72-18-37.24 & 72-18-37.25, N. M.S.A.1953 (1974 Interim Supp.)], which became effective February 20, 1974, the New Mexico Legislature authorized the financing, construction, development and leasing of a state park to be known as Red Rock State Park. These sections of our statutes provide:
“72-18-37.24. Severance tax bonds— State park and recreation commission project. — A. Upon the certification of need by the state park and recreation commission, the state board of finance may issue and sell severance tax bonds in compliance with sections 72-18-29 through 72-18-51 NMSA 1953, in an amount not exceeding the aggregate sum of one million five hundred thousand dollars ($1,500,000) for the purpose of constructing and developing a state park in McKinley county to be known as Red Rock state park.
“B. The issuance and sale of the severance tax bonds by the state board of finance and any expenditures by the state park and recreation commission shall be conditioned upon the city of Gallup and the joint powers commission of which it is a member providing approximately six hundred forty (640) acres of land for the park and matching funds in the minimum amount of one million five hundred thousand dollars ($1,500,000) to the state park and recreation commission for the purpose of constructing and developing a Red Rock state park.
“72-18-37.25. Lease by state parks and recreation commission. — Upon the completion of the Red Rock state park, the state parks and recreation commission shall lease, for a period not to exceed twenty-five [25] years, for a consideration of one dollar ($1.00) per year, the Red Rock state park to the city of Gallup, which city shall bear the total expense of maintaining the park for the period of the lease. The property shall be returned to the state in the same condition, reasonable use excepted.”
The Joint Powers Commission referred to in § 72-18-37.24(B), supra, was created by an agreement entered into by the City of Gallup and the Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial Association pursuant to the Joint Powers Agreements Act, which appears as §§ 4-22-1 to 4-22-7, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 2, pt. 1, 1974). The City of Gallup is a municipality. The Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial Association is an official agency of the State of New Mexico. Section 73-31-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 11, pt. 1, 1968). No question is raised as to the authority of the City and the Association to enter into the agreement under the Joint Powers Agreements Act.
The City notified the State Parks and Recreation Commission (Parks Commission) that it was ready to proceed with the issuance of sales tax revenue bonds in the amount of $1,000,000 pursuant to §§ 14— 30-1 to 14-30-9, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 3, 1968, Supp.1973), and to deliver the proceeds from the sale thereof to the Parks Commission. The Joint Powers Commission notified the Parks Commission that it was ready to convey 640 acres of land for the park and deliver $500,000 to the Parks Commission.
The Parks Commission refused to certify to the State Board of Finance a need for the issuance and sale of severance tax bonds in the amount of $1,500,000 as provided in § 72-18-37.24(A), supra, and gave as its reason for such refusal its belief that the conditions imposed by § 72-18-37.-24(B), supra, and the lease required by § 72-18-37.25, supra, contravened the provisions of art. IX, § 14 of the Constitution of New Mexico, which read in pertinent part:
“Neither the state, nor any county, school district, or municipality, except as otherwise provided in this Constitution, shall directly or indirectly lend or pledge its credit, or make any donation to or in aid of any person, association or public or private corporation, or in aid of any private enterprise for the construction of any railroad; Provided, nothing herein shall be construed to prohibit the state or any county or municipality from making provision for the care and maintenance of sick and indigent persons.”
Thereupon the plaintiffs brought suit for declaratory judgment. The parties stipulated that there were no issues of fact to be decided, and the resolution of the issues of law was submitted to the district court for the entry of summary judgment. These issues were resolved in favor of plaintiffs, and defendants have appealed. We affirm.
Under their first point relied upon for reversal, defendants contend the requirement of § 72-18-37.25, supra, that the park be leased to the City for $1.00 per year, violates art. IX, § 14, supra. They first assert that municipalities are public corporations. Goodwin v. Town of East Hartford, 70 Conn. 18, 38 A. 876 (1897); Wilmington Housing Authority v. Williamson, 228 A.2d 782 (Del. 1967); Curry v. District Township of Sioux City, 62 Iowa 102, 17 N.W. 191 (1883); Neuenschwander v. Washington Suburban San. Com., 187 Md. 67, 48 A.2d 593 (1946); Bliss v. Path finder Irr. Dist., 122 Neb. 203, 240 N.W. 291 (1932); Union Free School Dist. No. 3 v. Town of Rye, 280 N.Y. 469, 21 N.E.2d 681 (1939); Cook v. Port of Portland, 20 Or. 580, 27 P. 263 (1891); Martin v. Town of Esopus, 57 Misc.2d 487, 293 N.Y.S.2d 571 (Sup.Ct.1968). They then observe that art. IX, § 14, supra, prohibits the State (defendants in the present suit) from making a donation to or in aid of a public corporation (the City). From these facts and the value of the park, they conclude that the lease of the park to the City for $1.00 per year is inadequate consideration, and, consequently, constitutes a donation to or in aid of the City.
In White v. Board of Education of Silver City, 42 N.M. 94, 105, 75 P.2d 712, 719 (1938), we held a school district bond issue for the proposed purpose of joining with a state normal school in erecting a high school building did not violate the provisions of art. IX, § 14 of our constitution, and expressly stated “ * * * that under the plan outlined in the statute it [the school district] will get value received for every dollar put into the enterprise.”
Defendants argue that from this holding in the White case, and particularly from the quoted language as to value received, it necessarily follows that, since the Parks Commission will be getting a rental of only $1.00 per year for the park, the State will not be getting value received, and, in fact, will be making a donation to or in aid of a public corporation (the City) in contravention of the express constitutional enjoinder.
It is apparent that the proposed lease is but one of the legislatively provided conditions for the creation and operation of the park, and the $1.00 per year rental is but an infinitesimal portion of the value to be received by the State under the statutory plan. The State will receive from the City and the Joint Powers Commission, of which the City is one of the creators and members, title to the 640 acres of land to be embraced within the park, $1,500,000 for construction and improvement of the park and its facilities, the maintenance and operation of the park for the public use during the life of the lease contract, and the $1.00 per year nominal rental. We hold that under the plan outlined in §§ 72 — 18— 37.24 and 72-18-37.25, supra, the State will get value received for the $1,500,000 which it is to put into the development of the park and for the limited leasehold interest in the park to be conveyed to the City.
However, regardless of the value to be received by the State, we hold that compliance with the statutory plan for the operation of the park by the City under the lease does not violate the constitutional enjoinder. In Wiggs v. City of Albuquerque, 56 N.M. 214, 242 P.2d 865 (1952), we had the following to say concerning the inapplicability of the provisions of art. IX, § 14, supra, to a legislatively sanctioned plan involving subordinate governmental agencies of the State:
“It is said the City of Albuquerque is lending its credit to the University of New Mexico in mortgaging its property for the latter’s benefit. But we have held this provision has no application where the lending of credit is under legislative sanction by one subordinate governmental agency to another. Harrington v. Atteberry, 21 N.M. 50, 153 P. 1041; White v. Board of Education of Silver City, 42 N.M. 94, 75 P.2d 712; Hutcheson v. Atherton, 44 N.M. 144, 99 P.2d 462. Accordingly, if this be a lending of credit by the City of Albuquerque to the University as claimed, it constitutes no violation of this constitutional provision.” 56 N.M. at 226, 242 P.2d at 872.
It is true that in the Wiggs case our concern was with the enjoinder against the lending or pledging of credit rather than the making of a donation. However, there can be no logic or reason in holding that the enjoinder is inapplicable to a lending or pledging of credit, but applicable to the making of a donation by the State or one of its governmental agencies to another such agency. This single constitutional en joinder clearly embraces both kinds of actions, and it is inapplicable to either, when the parties involved are the State and its subordinate governmental agencies.
In their second point, defendants contend the conditions imposed by § 72-18-37.-24(B), supra, that the City and the Joint Powers Commission must provide approximately 640 acres of land and matching funds in the minimum amount of $1,500,000 to the Parks Commission, also contravene the enjoinder of art. IX, § 14, supra, in that they are required to convey the land and the money to the Parks Commission without consideration.
The donation of the land and $1,500,000 to the Parks Commission, if in fact this amounted to a donation under the legislative plan for the creation and development of the park, comes within our holding that the constitutional enjoinder is not applicable to a legislatively sanctioned donation by the State or one of its governmental agencies to another such agency.
The judgment of the district court should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
STEPHENSON and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
LOPEZ, Judge.
The three defendants were arrested after Officer Hatty of the Albuquerque Police Department found them in possession of material suspected to be marijuana. In a joint trial, all three were convicted of possession of more than eight ounces of marijuana contrary to § 54-11-23, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2, Supp.1973).
Defendants Volkman and Woolfork claim that the trial court erred in failing to grant their motion to sever their trials from that of defendant Kaasch. All defendants claim that their right against self-incrimination was violated. Both contentions are meritorious.
Severance
Defendant Kaasch, outside of the presence of the other defendants, confessed to Officer Jones that he knew that the material seized was marijuana. Defendants Volkman and Woolfork claim that this was a hearsay statement which would be inadmissible in a separate trial of each. The state conceded this point below and does not dispute it on appeal. Rule 34, N.M.R. Cr. P., § 41-23-34, N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6, Supp.1973), states:
“ . . . Motion for severance of offenses or defendants.
“(a) If it appears that a defendant or the prosecution may be prejudiced by a joinder of offenses or of defendants in any complaint,- indictment or information, or by joinder for trial; the court may order separate trials of offenses, grant a severance of defendants, or provide whatever other relief justice requires.
“(b) Upon motion, any defendant shall be granted a separate trial as of right: (1) if the court finds that the defendants were not properly joined under Rule 11 [41-23-11]; or (2) if the court finds that the prosecution probably will present evidence against a joint defendant, other than reputation or character evidence, which would not be admissible in a separate trial of the moving defendant.”
The state seeks to avoid the effect of Rule 34(b)(2), supra, by arguing that since Kaasch’s statement did not implicate the other defendants, they were not prejudiced. Under our prior practice, prejudice was required to be shown. State v. Gunthorpe, 81 N.M. 515, 469 P.2d 160 (Ct.App.1970), cert. denied, 401 U.S. 941, 91 S.Ct. 943, 28 L.Ed.2d 221 (1971). We do not think that Rule 34(b)(2), supra, requires prejudice. See Commentary, New Mexico Rules of Criminal Procedure, Rule 34; ABA Standards Relating to Joinder and Severance, § 2.3 (Approved Draft 1968). If wé did require prejudice to be shown, part (b) of the rule would become surplusage because a case for severance would already be made out under part (a). That part explicitly requires prejudice and prejudice only.
We think the intent of the Supreme Court in adopting this rule was to avoid the problem of guilt by association in all cases regardless of whether direct prejudice can be demonstrated.
We note that defense counsel requested no formal findings. The rule explicitly requires findings by the trial court. The failure to request findings when they are required could be construed as a waiver. See Wallace v. Wanek, 81 N.M. 478, 468 P.2d 879 (Ct.App.1970). There was no waiver in the case at bar, however. The state stipulated that it would present the confession against Kaasch and admitted that the hearsay evidence would not be admissible in a separate trial of the moving defendants.
.S' elf-incrimination
At the hearing on all three defendants’ motion to suppress, defense counsel stated:
“MR. VILLELLA: Your Honor, I' would like to call the defendants to the stand, each individually. Before I do, I would request and offer their testimony only for the purposes of this particular motion, not waiving or forfeiting any rights to the protection of the Fifth Amendment at the time of trial and under stipulation that none of the testimony which comes out at this trial will be offered against them.”
The state refused to accede to this procedure. The court refused to sign, “ . . . any order prohibiting the admission of any of the testimony.” The defendants claim this refusal was error.
The Court in Simmons v. United States, 390 U.S. 377, 88 S.Ct. 967, 19 L. Ed.2d 1247 (1968), held that a defendant could not be required to elect between, “ . . . a valid Fourth Amendment claim or, in legal effect, ... [a waiver of] his Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination. . . . ” The state seeks to avoid Simmons by arguing that since substantial evidence of probable cause to arrest appears on the record, there was no prejudice. We rejected a similar contention in State v. Pacheco, 85 N.M. 778, 517 P.2d 1304 (Ct.App.1973). The prejudice results from the unconstitutional denial of a hearing.
The judgments as to defendants Volkman and Woolfork are reversed and the causes remanded for a new trial consistent herewith. As to defendant Kaasch, the judgment is vacated and remanded for a hearing upon his motion to suppress. If that motion is denied after the hearing, the trial court is instructed to reinstate the conviction. If it is granted, the defendant shall receive a new trial. See State v. Sanchez, 85 N.M. 368, 512 P.2d 696 (Ct.App.1973).
It is so ordered.
SUTIN, J., concurs.
HERNANDEZ, J., concurs in the result. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
This is the second time this case has been before us on appeal from a summary judgment. On the first occasion we reversed the summary judgment and remanded the case for further proceedings consistent with our opinion. Pribble v. Aetna Life Insurance Company, 84 N.M. 211, 501 P.2d 255 (1972).
Upon remand, the district court set the case for jury trial. On the morning of trial, but before commencement thereof, defendants orally moved the court for a summary judgment in their favor. The only factual matter submitted to the court in these summary proceedings was the following admission by the plaintiff: “The plaintiff admits that the policy, if it was changed, was not changed by an endorsement in writing or an attachment to the policy.”
This admission and the brief arguments by the attorneys for the respective parties were concerned with the policy provision quoted in Pribble v. Aetna Life Insurance Company, supra, at pages 213-214 of 84 N.M. and at pages 257-258 of 501 P.2d. Although no specific admission by plaintiff as quoted above was before us in the prior appeal, it was apparent to us and to all concerned that there was no endorsement in writing by which the policy had been changed or purportedly changed.
Defendants place great emphasis on the fact that § 58-ll-4(A) (1), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2, 1962) includes the following language: “No change in this policy shall be valid until approved by an executive officer of the insurance company and unless such approval and countersignature be endorsed hereon or attached hereto.”
This is concededly identical in meaning with language contained in the above referred to policy provision which was quoted in our prior opinion. The fact that the statute was not called to our attention or expressly referred to in our prior opinion is of no significance.
The first summary judgment was reversed and the cause remanded for further proceedings consistent with our opinion. Another summary judgment entered upon substantially the identical matters presented to and considered by the trial court in the first summary judgment proceedings was neither contemplated by nor embraced within the views expressed in our opinion.
Altough plaintiff apparently is not concerned with the total failure of these last summary proceedings to comply with Rule 56(c) of the Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1(56) (c), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4, 1970)], we are inclined to believe that if plaintiff had requested compliance with the provided procedures this cause would not now be before us on this appeal.
The summary judgment is reversed and the cause is remanded with directions to proceed in a manner consistent with our opinion in Pribble v. Aetna Life Insurance Company, supra, and with this opinion.
It is so ordered.
STEPHENSON and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
LaFEL E. OMAN, Judge, Court of Appeals.
Appellant seeks reversal of a judgment and sentence of the court entered pursuant to a jury verdict finding him guilty of the crime of aggravated battery contrary to the provisions of § 40A-3-5, N.M.S.A.1953.
He asserts five points relied on for reversal.
The facts of the case, insofar as they are material to the contentions of appellant, will be discussed under each point. The points will be disposed of in the order of their presentation in the brief in chief.
The first point is that, “[i]t is fundamental error and a denial of constitutional right for a trial court to instruct the jury that the State of New Mexico may comment on the defendant’s failure to take the stand.”
The instruction to the jury which it is claimed constituted a denial of constitutional rights was as follows:
“The court instructs you that the defendant may, if he sees fit, become a witness in his own behalf, but the law imposes no obligation upon him to testify in his own behalf, or as to any material fact in the case, and you shall indulge in no presumption against him because of the failure of the defendant to take the witness stand in this case, but such fact can be the subject of reasonable comment or argument.” (Emphasis supplied.)
Appellant relies on the decision in the case of Griffin v. State of California, 380 U.S. 609, 85 S.Ct. 1229, 14 L.Ed.2d 106.
However, the court did not make any comment and the prosecution made no comment or argument whatsoever on appellant’s silence. We have heretofore considered this question in the cases of State v. Buchanan, decided March 14, 1966, 76 N.M. 141, 412 P.2d 565, and State v. Paris, decided May 16, 1966, 76 N.M. 291, 414 P.2d 512. In those cases we held that the rule an nounced in Griffin v. State of California, supra, is not applicable in this situation.
Appellant’s second point is that it was “fundamental error and a denial of constitutional right for the court to permit the jury to convict in the absence of any appearance or testimony by the named victim.” The victim of the aggravated battery of which appellant was convicted was named in the information, and his name was endorsed thereon as a witness.
The offense of which appellant was convicted occurred on August 4, 1964. The case was tried on December 14, 1964. It is unquestioned that the victim, one Forrest Smith, was in Libya, Africa, at the time ■of trial. On four occasions appellant raised the question of his right to be confronted by his victim, and he urged that he was being deprived of his right of confrontation by the said Forrest Smith as guaranteed to him by article II, § 14 of the State Constitution, and amendment VI of the United States Constitution.
.■ At no time did appellant seek a continuance based on the absence of evidence as provided in §§ 21-8-10 and 21-8-11, N.M. S.A.1953. He made no statement as to what evidence he believed might be developed from the victim, if called as a witness, and at no time did he indicate that he desired to call the victim as a witness. The victim was not called as a witness, and not one word of testimony by him was even offered by the state by way of deposition, prior testimony, or otherwise.
Appellant would have us construe the words, “to be confronted with the witnesses against him,” which appear in both amendment VI of the Constitution of the United States, and article II, § 14 of the Constitution of New Mexico, as being synonymous with the words, “to be confronted with his victim.” A witness is one who testifies under oath, and the constitutional guarantee contemplates confrontation only by those who actually testify against the accused, or whose testimony or statements are in some way brought to the attention of the court and jury upon the trial.
There are certain recognized exceptions to the right of actual confrontation with a witness in the trial. See Pointer v. State of Texas, 380 U.S. 400, 85 S.Ct. 1065, 13 L.Ed. 2d 923; Wigmore on Evidence, 3d Ed., Vol. V, §§ 1401-1410; Underhill’s Criminal Evidence, 5th Ed., Vol. II, § 515. These exceptions are applicable when prior testimony or statements are offered as evidence against the accused.
The right of confrontation does not embrace a situation such as we have here, where no prior testimony, statement, or utterance of any kind by the victim was brought to the attention of the jury, and none was offered by the state.
The purposes of confrontation are to secure to the accused the right of cross-examination; the right of the accused, the court and the jury to observe the deportment and conduct of the witness while testifying; and the moral effect produced upon the witness by requiring him to testify at the trial. Wigmore on Evidence, 3d Ed., Vol. V, § 1395. See also Underhill’s Criminal Evidence, 5th Ed., Vol. II, § 515; Pointer v. State of Texas, supra; Douglas v. State of Alabama, 380 U.S. 415, 85 S.Ct. 1074, 13 L.Ed.2d 934.
Appellant has also cited as authority, in support of his position, the case of State v. Bailey, 62 N.M. Ill, 305 P.2d 725. That case is authority only for the proposition that the state must show due diligence in securing the attendance of the witness at the trial, before the court can properly admit his testimony taken at the preliminary hearing.
Appellant’s third point is that:
“Testimony pertaining to a claimed admission of guilt on the part of a criminal defendant is not admissible without a prior showing by evidence on the part of the state that the claimed admission relates to the crime with -which the defendant is charged, and that at the time of the claimed admission the defendant had been fully advised of his right to advice of legal counsel and his right not to be compelled to testify against himself.” ' '
Testimony to which appellant objects consists of one question asked by the Assistant District Attorney and the answer thereto-by the witness, Bob Hindman, which were as follows:
“Q. Now what, if anything, did he tell you at that time about this incident ?”
“A. Well, I can’t remember the exact words. It was something like, ‘Well, I wouldn’t have done it if I had known it was a felony. In Texas, it would have been a misdemeanor.’ ”
There is no question that the aggravated battery upon the person of Forrest Smith by appellant occurred in the Bel. Aire Lounge in Hobbs, New Mexico. The witness, Bob Hindman, was a deputy sheriff residing in Hobbs. Approximately two days after the incident in the Bel Aire Lounge appellant was arrested, and a few days after he had been arrested and released on bond he voluntarily made the statement to Deputy Hindman in a casual conversation in the hall of the police building in Hobbs. Appellant was not in custody, was not being questioned, no effort was being made to secure a statement from him, and no promises or threats were made by anyone.
Appellant’s • first contention under this point is that his statement was never connected to the offense with which he was charged. He is mistaken in this. Just before the question and answer quoted above, ' the witness was asked the following question and made the following answer:
“Q. Did you have a conversation with him [appellant] concerning the incident at the Bel Aire Lounge?”
“A. Yes, sir.”
The events leading up to and surrounding the attack by appellant on Forrest Smith were referred to on numerous occasions by the witnesses and counsel for the state and appellant as the “incident” or the “altercation” at the Bel Aire Lounge.
Appellant next contends the trial court erred in failing to determine that he had been advised or represented by counsel before admitting the testimony of the witness as to appellant’s statement. He relies on the cases of Massiah v. United States, 377 U.S. 201, 84A S.Ct. 1199, 12 L.Ed. 2d 246, and Escobedo v. State of Illinois, 378 U.S. 478, 84A S.Ct. 1758, 12 L.Ed.2d 977.
, In the Massiah case, petitioner had been indicted for violating the federal narcotics laws, had retained a lawyer, had pleaded not guilty and had been released on bail. Thereafter, government agents, without petitioner’s knowledge, secured permission to install a radio transmitter in the automobile of an alleged confederate. 'a government agent, equipped with an appropriate receiving device, listened to a lengthy conversation between petitioner and the alleged confederate. During this conversation, petitioner made several incriminating statements, which were brought before the jury at the trial by the agent’s testimony, despite the insistent objections of defense counsel. The holding of the court in that case was only that the incriminating statements obtained by the federal agents, under the circumstances there disclosed, could not constitutionally be used against the petitioner at his trial.
- The holding in the Escobedo case was set forth by the court as follows:
“We hold, therefore, that where, as here, the investigation is no longer a general inquiry into an unsolved crime but has begun to focus on a particular suspect, the suspect has been taken into police custody, the police carry out a process of interrogations that lends itself to eliciting incriminating statements, the suspect has requested and been denied an opportunity to consult with his lawyer, and the police have not effectively warned him of his absolute constitutional right to remain silent, the accused has been denied ‘the Assistance of Counsel’ in violation of the Sixth Amendment to the Constitution as ‘made obligatory upon the States by the Fourteenth Amendment,’ Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S., [335] at 342 [83 S.Ct. 792, at 795, 9 L.Ed.2d 799], and that no state-i m'ent elicited by the police during the interrogation may be used against him at a criminal trial.”
In the present case, we have a statement gained neither surreptitiously nor by promise or threat. It does not appear from the record whether appellant had engaged counsel at the time, nor does it appear whether he had been warned of his constitutional rights. He did not contend at the time of trial, nor does he here contend, that he did not have counsel at the time he made the statement, or that he was then unaware of his rights against self-incrimination. He states his position in his brief in chief as follows:
“In determining the voluntary character of the admission, the trial court made no determination as to the appellant having been advised or represented by an attorney.”
The only objection made at the trial to the admission of the statement was that it was “not connected up with anything on August 4th, 1964.” We have already disposed of this objection.
The holdings in Massiah v. United States, supra, and Escobedo v. Illinois, supra, do not purport to go so far as to preclude the use by the state of an admission voluntarily made in a casual conversation under the circumstances as they appear in this case.
: Appellant has stated' his fourth point as follows:
“Once a resident judge has been properly disqualified by affidavit, he may not participate in a proceeding under Section 41-12-13, et seq., N.M.S.A. 1953, to compel the attendance and testimony of a nonresident witness.”
Appellant disqualified two of the three resident district judges pursuant to the provisions of § 21-5-8, N.M.S.A. 1953. The third resident district judge, the Honorable Caswell S. Neal, presided over the trial. One of the disqualified judges, the Honorable Kermit E. Nash, on the same day that the Affidavit of Disqualification was filed, but apparently subsequent to the filing of the affidavit, entered a certificate, upon written motion of the Assistant District Attorney, certifying that Roy Lee Jones was a material witness in this cause, that the witness would be required for one day of testimony, and that the witness resides in Dallas, Dallas County, Texas. It was then ordered that certified copies of the certificate be transmitted to the Dallas County Court pursuant to the Uniform Act to secure the attendance of witnesses from without a state in criminal proceedings. The “Uniform Act to secure the attendance of witnesses from without a state in criminal proceedings,” appears as §§ 41-12-13 to 41-12-18, N.M.S.A. 1953.
Roy Lee Jones did appear and testify at the trial, but it does not appear from the record whether he appeared by reason of a subpoena issued pursuant to the certificate.
Between two and three weeks after the Affidavit of Disqualification was filed, Judge Nash, upon another like motion being filed by the Assistant District Attorney, entered a like certificate and order for the attendance of another witness. This certificate also contained the recommendation that the witness, C. E. Yonkers, be taken into immediate custody and be delivered to the sheriff of Lea County, New Mexico, to assure his attendance at the trial, and it was ordered that the sheriff of Lea County return the witness to Lovington, New Mexico, to testify in the trial, if the county court of Mata-gorda County, Texas, should so direct.
At the trial it was developed, from the cross-examination by appellant, that this witness lived in Bay City, Texas, and that he had been served with a subpoena by someone from the office of the sheriff of Lea County and returned to New Mexico pursuant to “a certificate issued out of this court.”
No objection was made to the testimony of either witness Jones or witness Yonkers at the trial, and appellant raised no question about the conduct of Judge Nash in signing the two certificates. It was his duty to point out to the trial court any claimed errors in the administration of justice as they occurred, so that the court might have corrected of avoided such errors. State v. Harris, 41 N.M. 426, 70 P.2d 757; State v. Williams, 50 N.M. 28, 168 P.2d 850; City of Portales v. Shiplett, 67 N.M. 308, 355 P.2d 126. The two exceptions to this rule are questions of jurisdiction and fundamental error. State v. Williams, supra; City of Portales v. Shiplett, supra.
It is true, as above stated, that on his. cross-examination of the second witness,. Mr. Yonkers, the appellant developed the information concerning his return to New Mexico by a representative of the office of the sheriff of Lea County pursuant to a certificate issued out of the New Mexico court, but he proceeded with his cross-examination of the witness without even-suggesting that the evidence was being improperly received, and he at no time made any mention of the fact that the certificate had been issued by Judge Nash. No question was ever raised as to the propriety of the issuance of either certificate. This is not a case of fundamental error. See State v. Garcia, 19 N.M. 414, 143 P.2d 1012; State v. Tipton, 73 N.M. 24, 385 P.2d 355.
We take the view that the mere signing of the certificate was a formal act, and does not invoke a question of jurisdiction. Judge Nash, by signing the cer tificates, in no way passed upon the law or the facts of the case. A judge may properly perform mere formal acts after his disqualification. State v. Compton, 57 N.M. 227, 257 P.2d 915.
Appellant states his final point as follows :
“In a prosecution for the crime of aggravated battery, the court must instruct the jury that it may find the defendant guilty of simple battery only and must instruct the jury upon the elements of the lesser included offense.”
Appellant did not submit a requested instruction in writing as required by § 41-11-11, N.M.S.A. 1953. As the instructions were being assembled, appellant did announce to the court that he would ask leave to write out or have typed such an instruction, as well as some instructions on other matters. The court directed both counsel to present any other instructions they wished. However, no instructions on lessor-included offenses were ever submitted. Appellant did submit some written requested instructions. If in fact the court erred, such is not properly here for review. See State v. White, 58 N.M. 324, 270 P.2d 727; State v. Johnson, 64 N.M. 83, 324 P.2d 781.
However, appellant must fail under this point for the further reason that lesser offenses may necessarily be included in the court’s charge to the jury, only in the event there is some evidence which would justify a conviction of a lesser included offense. State v. Sandoval, 59 N.M. 85, 279 P.2d 850. Appellant does not undertake to cite any evidence which would justify a conviction of any lesser offense, and our review of the record discloses that he should either have been convicted of the offense charged or been acquitted. No contention is made that the evidence fails to support the verdict of “guilty as charged in the information.” The judgment and sentence of the court should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
NOBLE and COMPTON, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
CARMODY, Chief Justice.
Plaintiff instituted a declaratory judgment action, seeking to have a health and accident policy continued in effect. This appeal is from the judgment of dismissal in favor of the defendant.
Due to the death of the plaintiff while the appeal was pending, there has been a substitution of the parties, but, for ease of understanding, we will refer to the parties as they appeared in the trial court.
Defendant, in 1926, issued and delivered to plaintiff in Oklahoma a health and accident policy providing by its terms for quarterly premiums to be paid beginning October 1, 1926. Plaintiff made timely quarterly payments from that date through September, 1962, with the exception of two premiums paid in 1938 which were late but nevertheless accepted by the defendant. During the period of the plaintiff’s residence in New Mexico, such residence commencing in December, 1926, plaintiff made several claims under the policy which were paid in New Mexico.
During the quarterly period covered by the premium paid on September 1, 1962, and prior to the due date of the next premium, defendant notified plaintiff that the policy would not be renewed at the end of the quarter beginning September 1st. Following receipt of such notice, plaintiff made a formal tender of payment of the quarterly premium due December 1st, which was refused by defendant. Plaintiff now' urges that the trial court erred in concluding that the defendant insurance company had the right under the terms of the policy to refuse to accept the premium tendered ,by plaintiff.
The contentions of the parties center around three provisions of this policy: Standard Provision 16, on the fifth page of the policy—
“The Association may cancel this policy at any time by written notice delivered to the Insured or mailed to his last address as shown by the records of the Association, together with cash or the Association’s check for the unearned portion of the premiums actually paid by the Insured, and such cancellation shall be without prejudice to any claim originating prior thereto.”
'Additional Provision (c), also on the fifth page—
“The copy of the application indorsed hereon is hereby made a part of this contract and this policy is issued in consideration of the statements made by the Insured in the application and the payment in advance of Ten ($10.00) Dollars as first payment; and the payment in advance of Seven ($7.50) Dollars and Fifty Cents quarterly thereafter, beginning with Oct. 1st, 1926, is required to keep this policy in continuous effect. If any such dues be unpaid at the office of the Association in Omaha, Nebraska, this policy shall terminate on the day such payment is due. The mailing of notice to the Insured at least fifteen days prior 'to the date they are due shall constitute legal notice of dues.
“The acceptance of any premium on this policy shall be optional with the Association, and should the premium provided for herein be insufficient to meet the requirements of this policy, the Association may call for the difference as required.”
and finally, on the back of the policy, a glued-on endorsement labeled in large type “NON-CANCELLABLE ENDORSEMENT” which reads:
“The Association cannot cancel this policy during any period for which the premium has been paid.
“It is further understood and agreed that this policy cannot be cancelled by the Association during any period of disability of the Insured.”
There is no claim that plaintiff was disabled at the time of defendant’s notification of non-renewal.
Although argument has been made by both parties with respect to what law should be applicable to the construction of the contract, we do not reach this issue because the policy was issued and delivered in Oklahoma, thereby making it an Oklahoma contract, Merriman v. Harter, 1955, 59 N.M. 154, 280 P.2d 1045; and Spiess v. United Services Life Ins. Co. (10th Cir. 1965), 348 F.2d 275, and the reinstatement Of the policy in 1938 merely had the effect of continuing the original Oklahoma contract, In re White’s Estate, 1939, 43 N.M. 202, 89 P.2d 36; Missouri State Life Ins. Co. v. Jensen, 1929, 139 Okl. 130, 281 P. 561.
Neither the Oklahoma Supreme Court "nor the New Mexico Supreme Court has previously ruled on the exact question here, ■and the only Oklahoma precedent cited 'to us is Smith v. Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n (W.D.Okl.1933), 10 F.Supp. 110. That case involved an interpretation of an additional provision (c) and a non-canceilable endorsement identical to those in the present case. However, the question there before the court was the construction of the second portion of the non-cancel-lable endorsement, concerning cancellation during the disability of the insured. The court said the refusal of the insurer to accept premiums on the due date did not interfere with the continuation of the policy, the disability of the insured having begun before that time. The court did say, as dicta, that the company would have the right under the policy to refuse to accept a premium; however, this was not the holding of the case, and, at best, is only the opinion of one judge as to what the Oklahoma courts would do if confronted with the problem. Since there is no conflict in any pronouncement of the law between this ■court and the Supreme Court of Oklahoma, there really is no question of conflict of laws here present.
These particular provisions are no strangers to the courts, similar policies having been construed in a number of cases with a resulting split of authority. See, e. g., Williams v. Mutual of Omaha (4th Cir. 1962), 297 F.2d 876; Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n v. Cohen (8th Cir.1952), 194 F.2d 232, cert. denied 343 U. S. 965, 72 S. Ct. 1059, 96 L.Ed. 1362; Rabb v. Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n, 1958, 98 Ga. App. 193, 105 S.E.2d 396; Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n v. Caver, 1934, 169 Miss. 554, 152 So. 897; and Ray v. Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n (Mo.App. 1949), 220 S.W.2d 622, holding for the insurance company, and De Land v. Fidelity Health & Acc. Mut. Ins. Co., 1949, 325 Mich. 9, 37 N.W.2d 693; Holmstrom v. Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n, 1961, 139 Mont. 426, 364 P.2d 1065; Harwell v. Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n, 1945, 207 S.C. 150, 35 S.E.2d 160, 161 A.L.R. 183; and Burk v. Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n of Omaha (Tenn.App. 1963), 388 S. W.2d 628, holding for the insured.
This court has uniformly held that a policy which may reasonably be construed in more than one way should be construed liberally in favor of the insured, Gray v. International Service Ins. Co., 1963, 73 N.M. 158, 386 P.2d 249; Erwin v. United Benefit Life Ins. Co., 1962, 70 N.M. 138, 371 P.2d 791; that is, if there are terms of doubtful meaning or ambiguity, the doubt must be resolved in favor of the insured, Morris v. Fireman’s Fund Ins. Co., 1963, 72 N.M. 395, 384 P.2d 465. However, it is also well established that where no ambiguity or uncertainty appears in the policy no place is found for operation of the rule, Gray v. International Service Ins. Co., supra.
Plaintiff contends that the non-cancel-lable endorsement affixed to the policy had the effect of removing from the defendant the right to terminate the policy as long as the appellant made timely tender of premium payments, that the language of the endorsement nullified contrary and conflicting language in the policy itself and that the policy provisions, when read in light of the endorsement, are ambiguous, and the ambiguity must be construed in favor of the plaintiff. The defendant on the other hand urges that the terms of the policy are clear and unambiguous, and therefore that no construction of the language is called for. Defendant further claims in effect that the non-cancellable endorsement merely precludes the company from cancelling the policy during any period for which the company has accepted the premium, thus “reading out” Standard Provision 16, but leaving intact the provision permitting the company to reject any future premium when tendered. Thus ■ the issue is presented: is the clause of the additional provision (c) reading “The acceptance of any premium on this policy shall be optional with the association * inconsistent with the words of the endorsement, “NON-CANCELLABLE ENDORSEMENT The Association cannot cancel this policy during any period for which the premium has been paid.” ? ,
This court has previously held that words in a contract of insurance are to be given their ordinary meaning, Fowler v. First National Life Ins. Co. of America, 1963, 71 N.M. 364, 378 P.2d 605, and that the court will decline to adopt a technical or legalistic interpretation of the terms of the policy when it was fully within the pow: er of the insurance company to affirmatively specify some meaning other than that understood by the average individual, Scott v. New Empire Ins. Co., 1965, 75 N.M. 81, 400 P.2d 953. The test is not what the insurer intended its words to mean but what a reasonable person in the position of the insured would have understood them to mean, Arenson v. National Auto. & Cas. Ins. Co., 1955, 45 Cal.2d 81, 286 P.2d 816; Morgan v. Greater New York Taxpayers Mut. Ins. Ass’n, 1953, 305 N.Y. 243, 112 N.E.2d 273; Thompson v. Ezzell, 1963, 61 Wash.2d 685, 379 P.2d 983; Wilson v. Hawkeye Cas. Co., 1950, 67 Wyo. 141, 215 P.2d 867.
Conceding that there is a distinction between “cancellation” and a failure to renew, the question is still whether, in-view of the character of this policy, both as to the manner of its printing and its provisions, the insured, as a reasonable person, could attach only the insurer’s meaning to the policy, that is, that the insurer could terminate the policy at the end of any quarterly period by refusing to accept further tendered premiums. We think not. We do not think it unreasonable for an average policyholder to consider the cancellation of a policy and the refusal to renew a policy to be the same thing. Compare Minnesota Mutual Life Ins. Co. v. Cost (10th Cir.1934), 72 F.2d 519, where the court said:
“ * * * precisely speaking, life policies are not cancelled or forfeited when they lapse for non-payment of premiums. The legislature used those words as they are frequently used, by laymen, courts, and text-writers, to include the result which follows nonpayment of premiums.”
See also National Life & Acc. Ins. Co. v. Chastain, 1933, 46 Ga.App. 842, 169 S.E. 380; De Land v. Fidelity Health & Acc. Mut. Ins. Co., supra; and Schultz v. Benefit Ass’n of Ry. Employees of Chicago, Ill., 1935, 175 S.C. 182, 178 S.E. 867.
The phrase from Additional Provision (c) of this policy, “ * * * payment in advance of Seven ($7.50) Dollars and Fifty Cents quarterly thereafter, beginning with Oct. 1st, 1926, is required to keep this policy in continuous effect,” also lends cré-dence to the reasonability of the insured’s interpretation of this policy, held by him for 36 years. Further, as stated in a concurring opinion in Burk v. Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n of Omaha, supra:
“Since lawyers and Courts disagree as to whether or not this language is of doubtful meaning, it seems obvious that the average layman might be easily misled by it whether intentionally so or not.”
Defendant suggests that we read the provisions in question in a different order than they appear in the policy, first Additional Provision (c), then Standard Provision 16, then the non-cancellable endorsement, claiming that this shuffled order results in a logical sequence free from ambiguity. It does not suggest, however, that this is the way an average policyholder would read them. If such rearranged order would clarify the policy, the company had it within its power to so write the policy. In Scott v. New Empire Ins. Co., supra, we quoted from Murphy v. Travelers Ins. Co., 1942, 141 Neb. 41, 2 N.W.2d 576, as follows:
“The writer of the contract has it within his power by simplicity and clarity of expression to remove all doubt. Courts cannot and ought not permit the insurer to escape liability by a resort to legal adroitness and ingenuity.”
Our rule that, when a policy may be reasonably construed in more than one way it should he construed in favor of the policyholder, necessitates reversal of the trial court’s ruling. The judgment will he reversed and the cause remanded to the district court with directions to proceed in a manner not inconsistent herewith. It is so ordered.
CHAVEZ and MOISE, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
CARMODY, Chief Justice.
This case is an outgrowth of the water adjudication suit brought by the state engineer to determine priorities and extent of ownership of water rights in the Roswell Artesian Basin. The district court confirmed the report of the special master and the defendant appeals. The jurisdictional omission which caused dismissal of the prior appeal (State ex rel. Reynolds v. McLean, 1964, 74 N.M. 178, 392 P.2d 12) has now been corrected.
The. facts upon which this appeal is grounded are briefly as • follows: In 1947, defendant’s' predecessor formulated a plan to place under cultivation and irrigation about 500 acres of land. At about that .tinie, several wells were commenced, one of which (well N.p. 6) was; drilled to .a deptfy of sixty or seventy feet, where drilling was stopped because of quicksand. In 1948, defendant purchased the property and claimed that in the Summer of 1949 he deepened well No. 6 and obtained water. In the interim, the state engineer had ordered the
“Northern Extension of the Roswell Basin” on January 12, 1948. On January 10, 1950, defendant filed with the state engineer a declaration of ownership of water for the acreage here involved, accompanied by a surveyor’s plat. This declaration specifically referred to another well, No. 5, but included the following statement:
“This well [5] is also irrigating land already being declared. It is also to have supplemental right from a new well [6] located in NW!4NWi4N'VVj4> Sec. 22, T. 9 S., R. 24 E.”
The above seems to be the only reference in the declaration to well No. 6. Under date of April 24, 1950, the state engineer, by letter to the defendant, recognized that certain of the defendant’s acreage had a valid water right, but that other acreage did not. The portions of the letter with which we arc concerned are as follows:
“The ■ State Engineer may recognize as technically valid only those lands. which had been irrigated prior to our field check of March 1949, made upon photos taken in February 1949. * * *
******
“Declaration describing your well No. 5, located in the SW^NW^SEi/j, Section 15, describes 160 acres in Section 15. I believe that no rights exist under that well for the irrigation of any of the lands described.”
According to the record, nothing further was done to place the land under irrigation until the defendant was brought into the adjudication case in 1959, followed by a hearing and the special master’s recommending that defendant be allowed the right to irrigate 316.8 acres but disallowing the right to irrigate the 160 acres here involved. The district court confirmed the conclusions and recommendations of the special master and refused to find, as claimed by the defendant, that the state engineer should be estopped from denying the defendant the right to complete his appropriation as to the 160 acres. As a part of the district court’s decision appears what are termed conclusions, as follows:
“I. That the defendant had a reasonable time after commencement of the initial act of appropriation, to place under irrigation the lands which defendant intended to irrigate.
“II. That a period of two years after January 12, 1948 was a reasonable time within which to place lands under irrigation in the Northern Extension of the Roswell Artesian Basin.”
Although stated in different terms, defendant’s sole contention is that the state engineer’s letter of. April 24, 195Ó, caused the defendant to stop from carrying out his plan to cultivate the acreage involved and complete his appropriation of water therefor.
Defendant does not make- any attack upon the above-quoted conclusions, and in view of this it is difficult, if-not impossible, to understand how any type of estoppel could arise, the letter relied on having been written some three months after the expiration of the two-year “reasonable time” determined by the court. Be this as’ it may, we do not deem it necessary to determine the case on this basis, because, in any event, there is no estoppel under any theory of the law. At the very most, the letter from the state engineer is, only the expression of an opinion, and the law is well settled that where the facts are equally well known to both parties, the expression of an opinion on a matter of law raises no estoppel. See Sturm v. Boker, 1893, 150 U.S. 312, 14 S.Ct. 99, 37 L.Ed. 1093; Local Union No. 783, Allied Indus. Wkrs., etc. v. General Electric Co. (W.D.Ky.1959), 213 F.Supp. 273; Hot Spring County v. Fowler, 1959, 229 Ark. 1050, 320 S.W.2d 269; Gilbert v. City of Martinez, 1957, 152 Cal. App.2d 374, 313 P.2d 139; and Seiber v. Ringgold, 1957, 231 La. 983, 93 So.2d 530. See also Bigelow on Estoppel, 6th ed., 634-36. The statement in the letter from the engineer, “I believe that no rights exist * * is no more and no less than an opinion by a prospective litigant that, under the facts, the addressee would not be successful if the case were taken to court. Cf. Local Union No. 783, Allied Indus. Wkrs. etc., v. General Electric Co., supra. Suffice it to say that the defendant had every right, following the receipt of the April, 1950, letter, to seek a legal determination of the problem, rather than sit idly by and, at this late date, claim an estoppel.
Although estoppel is not applicable here, even if we were to consider it, the defendant could not prevail under the well-recognized rules relating to the doctrine.
The essential elements of estoppel have been set forth by us in prior opinions, see Westerman v. City of Carlsbad, 1951, 55 N.M. 550, 237 P.2d 356, and In re Williams’ Will, 1962, 71 N.M. 39, 376 P.2d 3, and it is readily apparent that certain of the elements of equitable estoppel are here lacking: first, there is no conduct on the part of the state engineer amounting to a false representation or concealment of material facts calculated to convey the implication that the facts are otherwise than, and inconsistent with, those which the state engineer subsequently attempted to assert; and secondly, as applied to the defendant here, there was no lack of knowledge and of the means of knowledge of the truth as to the facts in question.
It should be understood that, in this case, we do not reach the question of whether or not the state can be estopped to assert its right in the administration of the public waters of the state. By nothing that we have said herein do we mean to imply whether, under different facts than here present, an estoppel can or cannot be asserted against the state. See State ex rel. Erickson v. McLean, 1957, 62 N.M. 264, 308 P.2d 983, and cf. State ex rel. Bliss v. Davis, 1957, 63 N.M. 322, 319 P.2d 207. Under these facts, equitable estoppel is not. available to the defendant, and the trial court’s decision, that the defendant did not use reasonable diligence to place the lands-under irrigation, is eminently proper. The-rule stated by us in State ex rel. Reynolds, v. Mendenhall, 1961, 68 N.M. 467, 362 P.2d 998, contemplates reasonable diligence in the completion of the work, and this is not present here.
The judgment will be affirmed. It is so. ordered.
NOBLE and COMPTON, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
CARMODY, Chief Justice.
The employer and its insurer (defendants below) appeal from an award to claimant of compensation for twenty per cent total permanent disability.
.The sole question is one of law, relating to.the application of the statutory formula of compensation benefits for partial disability under the Workmen’s Compensation Law as it existed at the time of claimant’s injury.
Because of the amendments to the Workmen’s Compensation Law by ch. 295, Laws of 1965, some confusion may arise as to citation. Therefore, for clarity, the statute which applies to this case appears in New Mexico Statutes Annotated, 1953, Replacement Vol. 9, Part 1, as § 59-10-18.3, which was more specifically § 21, ch. 67, Sess. Laws of 1959. This section is as follows:
‘‘For partial disability the workmen’s compensation benefits not .specifically provided for in section 59-10-18.4 New Mexico Statutes Annotated, 1953 Compilation, shall be that percentage of the benefit payable for total disability, as provided in section 59-10-18.2, New Mexico Statutes Annotated, 1953 Compilation, which is derived by dividing the workman’s average weekly wage before the disability into the difference between such average weekly wage before disability and the average weekly wage he earns or is able to earn after disability, in any employment, which benefits shall be payable for the duration of the workman’s partial disability but in no . event longer than five hundred (500) weeks.”
Defendants urge that, under the facts as found by the trial court, no compensation should have been awarded. The material facts, which are in no sense attacked by the defendants and which they actually concede, are as follows:
“2. That at the time of his injury, the Plaintiff was being paid a cash wage of $250.00 per month, plus a house, gas for heating and cooking, electricity and a calf once a year for beef.
“ * * *
“5. That the Plaintiff has suffered a disability of the body as a whole of twenty per cent and has suffered disability of twenty per cent for ranch work.
“6. That Plaintiff has, in addition to his physical injuries, suffered a traumatic neurosis as a result of the accident and is disabled from continuing' in ranch work.
“ * * it=
“8. That since leaving the employment of Lincoln County Livestock Company, Plaintiff has been continuously employed by the Window Rock, Arizona, School System as a maintenance man, initially at a salary of $4,500.00 per year and presently at a salary of $5,500.00 per year.
“9. That despite the fact that Plaintiff has had actual income since the injury greater than that at the time of his injury, the Court finds that as a result of the injuries he has suffered, continuous headaches and pain in his back and neck, weakness in his arm and the other conditions described by the medical witnesses, the Plaintiff has suffered a decrease in wage earning ability as the applicable statutes have been interpreted by our Supreme Court, insofar as engaging in the same kind of work that he was performing on or about June 26, 1962, when the Plaintiff was injured by an accident arising out of and in the course of his employment as a ranch hand by the Lincoln County Livestock Company.”
It should be apparent that the whole controversy relates to the meaning of the statute as to the words “ * * * the average weekly wage he earns or is able to earn after disability, in any employment. * * *»
This court has held that the Workmen’s Compensation Act, as it was amended by ch. 67, Sess.Laws of 1959, provides that compensation payments not be based upon the injury itself, but rather upon the decreased earning ability produced by the injury. Rayburn v. Boys Super Market, Inc., 1964, 74 N.M. 712, 397 P.2d 953; Blancett v. Homestake-Sapin Partners, 1963, 73 N.M. 47, 385 P.2d 568; Lozano v. Archer, 1962, 71 N.M. 175, 376 P.2d 963; Batte v. Stanley’s, 1962, 70 N.M. 364, 374 P.2d 124; and Winter v. Roberson Construction Company, 1962, 70 N.M. 187, 372 P.2d 381, 96 A.L.R.2d 933.
In connection with the findings, ou'r-at-tention is called to the fact that the first portion of finding No. 9 was a finding requested by the claimant. However, the trial court, of its own motion, added the portion of the finding after the words “Supreme Court,” and refused a requested finding to the effect that the claimant had suffered a loss in wage-earning ability.
Although claimant, in his brief, attempts to argue the evidence submitted, to the trial court as showing a loss of wage-earning ability, nevertheless, having failed to cross-appeal or raise any error under Supreme Court Rule 17(2) (§ 21-2-1 (.17) (2),- N.M.S.A.1953) as to any of the. findings made by the trial court, we accept the findings as the facts before us. ' No citation of authority is needed because-:of our many decisions with, respect to un-attacked findings of a trial court.
1 Fully realizing that in Lozano v. Archer, supra, we affirmed an award of total permanent disability because there the claimant was totally disabled even though able to assist his wife in running a small grocery store, nevertheless the case is helpful because of the definition therein contained of “disability.” We there said:
“ * * * the disablement of the workman to earn wages in the same kind of work, or work of a similar nature for which he is trained, or is accustomed to perform, or any other kind of zvork which a person of his mentality and attainments could do.” (Emphasis added.)
See also, White v. Industrial Comm’n of Arizona, 1960, 87 Ariz. 154, 348 P.2d 922; Lane v. General Telephone Co. of Northwest, 1962, 85 Idaho 111, 376 P.2d 198; Texas Employers’ Insurance Ass’n v. Hawkins (Tex.Civ.App.1965), 387 S.W.2d 469; 2 Larson’s Workmen’s Compensation Law, § 57.22.
Although payment of full wages following injury is not conclusive on the question of earning ability, Batte v. Stanley’s supra; Pies v. Bekins Van and Storage Co., 1962, 70 N.M. 361, 374 P.2d 122, it may be indicative, Breland v. Ceco Steel Products Corp., 1962, 173 Neb. 354, 113 N.W.2d 528; and 2 Larson’s Workmen’s Compensation Law, § 57.21. As we said in Batte v. Stanley’s, supra, the words of the statute, “he earns or is able to earn,” must be considered together; but to support a conclusion that earning ability is less than actual earnings, there must be a finding of fact to support that conclusion. Here, there is no finding that what claimant earns is any different from his earning ability. The mere fact that claimant is disabled to some extent “for ranch work” does not justify an award for partial disability when, from a factual standpoint, he is receiving a higher weekly wage than he was earning prior to the injury in another kind of work, which a person of his mentality and attainments can do. Unfortunate as it may be to this particular claimant, findings Nos. 5 and 6, as long as they of themselves do not show an impairment to earning ability other than for “ranch work,” are immaterial. We can only be concerned with findings Nos. 8 and 9. This determination is the only logical conclusion that can be reached in view of our prior holdings, particularly in Lozano v. Archer, supra, and considering that the legislature, by using the words, “in any employment,” must have contemplated such a situation as we have here present.
The judgment of the trial court will be reversed, as the claimant has not suffered any compensable disability under the Workmen’s Compensation Act. It is so ordered.
MOISE and COMPTON, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION-
OMAN, Judge, Court of Appeals.
On May 26, 1964 an information was filed charging defendant-appellant with the crime of forgery. He was found guilty by the jury, the trial court entered ■judgment and sentence accordingly, and •appellant has taken this appeal from the judgment, tie asserts three points relied upon for reversal, and these points will be disposed of in the'order of their presentation in the brief in chief.
On April 22, 1964 a 1956 Cadillac auto- . mobile, belonging to Mr. E. P. Lynn, was levied upon under a writ of execution issued out of the Justice of the Peace court of J. W. Maxfield. Appellant was employed as a clerk by this Justice of the Peace. The automobile was taken into custody by a deputy sheriff pursuant to the levy.
Shortly thereafter, Mr. Mel Chavez heard that appellant had a car for sale and he talked with appellant about purchasing the Cadillac. Appellant told him that he could not sell the car at that time.
About this same time Mr. Lynn talked to appellant about redeeming the car, and was advised by appellant that he had thirty days from April 22 within which to raise the amount owing under the judgment. Mr. Lynn told appellant that at the time he was unable to raise the full amount, but that he was going to try and raise it.
At the time a security agreement covering the car was held by the Bank of New Mexico, and Mr. Lynn was three months delinquent in his payments to the bank. Appellant learned of this and on April 30, 1964, purchased the note and security agreement from the bank. He took an assignment of all the bank’s right, title and interest in and to the security agreement. On this same date Mr. Lynn observed his car in a ’service station and noted that the tires were being removed and replaced by smooth tires.
On May 1, 1964 appellant then sold the car to Mr. Chavez. He admittedly signed the name “E. P. Lynn” as seller, on the assignment form appearing on the reverse side of the original certificate of title, completed the same showing Mel A. Chavez as the purchaser, signed his own name as the notary public before whom the same was subscribed and sworn to by “E. P. Lynn,” and then affixed his notary seal. He delivered the car and certificate of title to Mr. Chavez, but told Mr. Chavez not to file the certificate of title until he gave Mr. Chavez an ok.
Mr. Lynn knew nothing about this sale of his car, but on May 2 he asked appellant about the tires being taken from the car, and appellant admitted he had given permission to the deputy sheriff, who picked up the car under the writ of execution and who worked out of Judge Maxfield’s court, to take two of the -tires. All four were found on this deputy’s car.
Mr. Chavez, after taking possession of the car, noted the tires were not the same as had been on it when he first looked at it. He went back to appellant, called this to his attention, and the new tires belonging to Mr. Lynn were then put back on the car.
On May 9, 1964 Mr. Lynn observed his car parked at Station D of the United States Post Office. He telephoned the Albuquerque City Police and a Sergeant Chappell arriv.ed in response to the call. As Mr. Chavez, who is a mailman, drove away, the Sergeant stopped him, and Mr. Chavez thereupon produced the certificate of title. At that time Mr. Lynn observed that his name had been written in the form of assignment as the seller, and he advised Sergeant Chappell that this was not his signature.
On May 16 Mr. Lynn went to the office of an attorney, at the direction of appellant, paid off the balance owing on the vehicle, and recovered possession thereof.
There are some discrepancies in the evidence as to the price paid by Mr. Chavez for the car. Appellant said it was approximately $585. Mr. Chavez said it was about $525. Mr. Chavez was given a check for $528.95 by appellant after Mr. Chavez returned the car. There was evidence that the amounts owing on the note, the judgment, and costs totaled $497.95.
Appellant’s first point is that he “ * * was entitled to a directed verdict upon failure of the state to prove the essential element of intent to defrattd or injure as reqrtired in the crime of forgery.” .
Appellant was charged and convicted of a violation of the provisions of § 40A-16-9, N.M.S.A.1953 which are as follows:
“Forgery — Forgery consists of:
“A. falsely making or altering any signature to, or any part of, any writing purporting to have any legal efficacy with intent to injure or defraud; or
“B. knowingly issuing or transferring a forged writing with intent to injure or defraud.
“Whoever commits forgery is guilty of a third degree felony.”
It is admitted by appellant that he falsely signed the name “E. P. Lynn” to the assignment of title, and that he falsely showed that the same had been acknowledged before him as a notary public. Thus, as appellant asserts, the only question under this point is whether the evidence was sufficient to support a finding of “intent to injure or defraud.” We are of the opinion that the evidence amply supports such an intent.
The crime of forgery was completed when the false-making of the signature with intent to injure or defraud had been accomplished, and an injury or loss need not actually have resulted. State v. Garcia, 26 N.M. 70, 188 P. 1104; State v. Smith, 32 N.M. 191, 252 P. 1003; Hurst v. State, 1 Ala.App. 235, 56 So. 18; State v. Laborde, 120 La. 136, 45 So. 38; People v. Esrig, 240 App.Div. 300, 270 N.Y.S. 372, II Wharton, Criminal Law and Procedure, § 6223 at 397 (12th Ed.1957); Clark and Marshall, Crimes, § 12.33 at 844 (6th Ed. 1952).
However, there is evidence that Mr. Lynn actually sustained injury or loss in more than one respect.
His automobile and the false assignment were delivered into the possession of Mr. Chavez, who made use of the same for at least nine days. The evidence is that his vehicle was worth from $600 to $700. Appellant undertook to sell the vehicle for something between $525 and $585. The total amount owing by Mr. Lynn on the note and the judgment, including costs, was $497.95. Appellant neither paid nor offered to pay the difference to Mr. Lynn. Under the execution Mr. Lynn was entitled to have the car sold at public sale in the manner and after the notice prescribed by §§ 24-2-1, 24-2-4, and 36-6-5, N.M. S.A.1953, and it can hardly be contended that appellant’s conduct was not designed to deprive Mr. Lynn of these rights.
However, even if it could properly be said that appellant, as the secured party, legally took possession of the car pursuant to the provisions of § 50A-9-503, N.M.S.A. 1953, and was thus entitled to dispose of the same by private sale, pursuant to the provisions of § 50A-9-504(3), N.M.S.A. 1953, still he failed to give reasonable notification of the time after which the sale would be made. He also failed to account to Mr. Lynn for the surplus money received from the sale to Mr. Chavez, as required by § 50A-9-504(2), N.M.S.A. 1953.
The evidence was clearly sufficient to support a finding of intent to wrongfully or fraudulently deprive another of a law ful right, interest or property in accordance with the decisions in the cases of People v. Leach, 168 Cal.App.2d 463, 336 P.2d 573; State v. Clayton, 236 La. 1093, 110 So.2d 111, and State v. Harris, Mo., 313 S.W.2d 664 (1958), relied upon by appellant. See also People v. Esrig, supra, and Hurst v. State, supra.
An appellate court will not re-view the evidence on appeal, except to determine whether the verdict is supported by substantial evidence. State v. Fields, 74 N.M. 559, 395 P.2d 908; Wilcoxson v. United States, 231 F.2d 384 (10th Cir. 1956), cert. denied, 351 U.S. 943, 76 S.Ct. 834, 100 L.Ed. 1469. When, as in the present case, the verdict is supported by substantial evidence, it will not be disturbed. State v. Mesecher, 74 N.M. 510, 395 P.2d 233; State v. Crouch, 75 N.M. 533, 407 P.2d 671.
The second point relied on for reversal is that the court erred in refusing to give instructions on appellant’s theory of the case, in giving abstract statements of the law in instructions which somewhat relate to appellant’s theory, and in giving an instruction on a false and prejudicial issue.
He first complains of the court’s failure to give his requested Instruction No. 6, which was as follows:
"6 — You are instructed that, if you should find from all of the evidence and the law of the State of New Mexico as I have given it to you, that the defendant Weber had, through the assignment of the bank because of the default under the terms and conditions of the bank’s security instrument, and through the execution from the Justice of the the Peace Court, legal possession of the automobile in question, and therefore had both legal and equitable title in the automobile, insofar as the law is concerned, and could therefore do with the automobile as he wished without the necessity of securing any signed instrument or bill of sale from E. P. Lynn, and that defendant Weber, under the law of the State of New Mexico, could have obtained title from the State upon proper application, then you shall find that the State has failed to prove the intent of defendant to injure or defraud E. P. Lynn, and further, that they have failed to prove the legal efficacy of the writing herein charged, and you shall return a verdict of acquittal for defendant.”
Appellant must fail in this contention, because this requested instruction is not a correct statement of the law. He could not possibly have come into legal possession of the automobile “through the assignment of the bank * * * and through the execution from the Justice of the Peace Court * * * ” The possession of the vehicle was in custodia legis, and the appellant could not have come into legal possession through the execution, ei ther in- an individual capacity or as an employee of the Justice of the Peace. §§ 22-1-1, 24-2-1, 24-2-2, 24-2-3, and 24-2-4 N.M.S.A.1953; Short v. Landes, 42 Del. 510, 39 A.2d 17; Alliance Loan & Inv. Co. v. Morgan, 154 Neb. 745, 49 N.W.2d 593.
Nor does it follow that he “ * * * therefore had both legal and equitable title * * * and could therefore do with the automobile as he wished * * * ” As above stated, under our consideration of appellant’s Point I, Mr. Lynn did have some legal rights and interests in the vehicle. He was not, either by reason of the levy of the execution or by his defaults under the note and security agreement, completely divested of all rights and interests in the automobile, and the appellant was not, by reason of either such levy or defaults, vested with full power to do with the automobile as he wished.
It is not error for the trial court to refuse a tendered instruction on a defense, if the instruction does not correctly state the applicable law. State v. Selgado, 76 N.M. 187, 413 P.2d 469 (1966).
We are of the opinion that the court, by its Instructions 'Nos. 9, 10, 10A and 11 properly covered the defendant’s theory of the case. Defendant made no objections to these instructions, other than an objection that Instruction No. 10A was not as complete as appellant’s requested Instruction’ No. 10. He does-not raise this question on appeal. His argument on appeal is that Instruction No. 9, though a correct statement of the law as an abstract principle, had no meaning because it was not accompanied by a direction of the jury’s attention to the facts which constituted his defense. As already stated, he made no objection to this instruction and he said nothing about the failure of the instruction to direct the jury’s attention to any facts. Even if we were to agree with appellant, which we are not inclined to do, still he cannot be heard to complain, since he failed to object to the instruction and thus, to alert the mind of the court to the claimed error. See State v. Compton, 57 N.M. 227, 257 P.2d 915; State v. Clarkson, 58 N.M. 56, 265 P.2d 670; State v. Trujillo, 54 N.M. 307, 224 P.2d 151.
His final complaint about the instructions is that the court’s Instruction No. 8, although:
« * * * a true statement of the law as to goods taken in execution, * * * is inaccurate if applied to the actions required by, or the rights of, one who has repossessed under a defaulted security agreement. * * * ”
The court’s Instruction No. 8 is as follows :
'“INSTRUCTION NO. 8 — You are instructed that the New Mexico Statutes require any goods taken in execution to be offered to public sale for cash to the highest bidder.
“You are further- instructed that the New Mexico statutes require that when the value of the property-to be -sold on execution exceeds $300 the date of the sale and the description of the goods to be sold must be published in a newspaper once a week for four consecutive weeks.”
Appellant’s position is that he had repossessed the automobile “ * * * under a defaulted security agreement,” and, therefore, had “ * * * a right to dispose of the collateral [automobile] by private as well as public sale, § 50A-9-504(3), N.M. S.A., (1953).” A secured party may recover possession of a chattel by replevin from a judicial officer who has properly taken possession thereof under execution. Personal Fin. Co. of St. Louis v. Endicott, Mo.App., 238 S.W.2d 51 (1951); Yellow Mfg. Acceptance Corp. v. Rogers, 235 Mo. App. 96, 142 S.W.2d 888; Burke v. First Nat. Bank, 197 Okl. 52, 168 P.2d 285. Possession could undoubtedly be properly obtained by the secured party from the custody of the law by other means than replevin, such as by abandonment or release of the levy. However, in this case the automobile was never properly taken from the custody of the court, and there is nothing to indicate that it was ever released from the execution lien, until it was returned to Mr. Lynn on May 16.
We are of the opinion that the-instructions, when read and considered as a whole, -fairly and -correctly- -stated the -law applicable to -the-facts in this case,, and nothing more -was required. -State v. Fields, supra.
Appellant’s third point is that: “It was prejudicial error for the court to admit evidence of subsequent- acts which -were not relevant or material to the crime charged.”
Fie makes nó reference in his argument by way of summary, or otherwise, to the specific subsequent acts to which he is refen-ing. He merely states that: “Over objections by appellant, evidence was introduced of subsequent acts of the defendant.” He then refers to page 45 of the transcript. A reference to this page of the transcript fails to reveal anything concerning any “acts of the defendant,” and in fact consists of one question asked Mr. Lynn concerning what happened on May 25, and his answer, which was never completed, states:
“ * * * I went down to Frontier Motor Company to go on duty and I was — immediately there were two deputies from Judge Maxfield’s office came down * * * ”
The other matters appearing on page 45 of the transcript are an'objection by appellant, the announcement by the court to the jury of a recess; an inquiry by the court of the District Attorney concerning other testimony he intended to elicit from -Mr. Lynn ■relative to things that occurred after May 1, 1964, and a portion of a statement by the District Attorney concerning events which occurred on May 25, and which concerned Mr. Lynn’s arrest under a “ * * * warrant being issued out of Judge Maxfield’s Office.”
The only other reference in the brief in chief to the transcript is a reference to page 113. The matters appearing thereon, other than a portion of the state’s requested instructions, is an announcement by the court of his denial of appellant’s motion for a directed verdict, and a statement by the court that he:
“ * * * allowed the testimony of subsequent events on the basis of the cases produced by the District Attorney’s office, showing that they were admissible on the question of intimidation or duress, directed to witnesses for the State and also the prosecuting witnesses. * * * ”
In the answer brief the appellee undertook to summarize, with transcript references, what it apparently understood were the claimed subsequent acts to which appellant had reference. Appellant, in his reply brief, commences his argument under this point by stating: “Appellee’s recitation of the facts of Weber’s ‘harrassment’ is made from whole cloth.”
He again fails to state what evidence of his acts the court improperly admitted. His only reference to the transcript concerns testimony by himself to the effect that he had nothing to do with the issuance of the warrant or the arrest of Mr. Lynn. This testimony was offered by him and was in response to questions propounded to him by his own attorney.
In view of this, we are at a loss to know what evidence of his subsequent acts he claims was improperly admitted. We will not search the record in an effort to try to determine what appellant has in mind. The duty was on him to point out specifically the evidence which he claimed was erroneously admitted and the court’s rulings thereon. Mogollon Gold & Copper Co. v. Stout, 14 N.M. 245, 91 P. 724. See also J. B. Colt Co. v. Chavez, 34 N.M. 409, 282 P. 381. This court will not search the record to find error upon which the trial court may be reversed. State ex rel. Wilson v. Board of County Comm’rs., 62 N.M. 137, 306 P.2d 259; Petty v. Williams, 71 N.M. 338, 378 P.2d 376.
Every presumption favors the correctness of any ruling or decision of the trial court, and a party alleging error must be able to point clearly to it. Mitchell v. McCutcheon, 33 N.M. 78, 260 P. 1086. See also Rhodes v. First Nat. Bank, 35 N.M. 167, 290 P. 743; Irwin v. Lamar, 74 N.M. 811, 399 P.2d 400.
Finding no error, it follows that the judgment must be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and CHAVEZ, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
CHAVEZ, Justice.
Plaintiff-appellant appeals from the trial court’s order reducing appellant’s work men’s compensation benefits. Defendants-appellees sought diminution of appellant’s benefits in accordance with § 59-10-25, N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp., as it existed at the time qf appellant’s injury and award. After a hearing, the trial court ordered that appellant’s benefits be reduced to 20% of total disability.
Appellant was injured on June 16, 1958, while employed by Allied Supply Company, a co-partnership, as a repairman of heavy equipment in the oil fields. On November 23, 1960, he was awarded total disability compensation at the then prevailing rate of $30 per week.
Through self-education and on-the-job training, appellant was able to obtain a position as a salesman in an auto parts store. He worked steadily and was a satisfactory employee for about I1/2 years prior to the hearing from which he appeals. A doctor’s testimony indicated that appellant should be able to continue his work indefinitely. Expert testimony at the hearing, which was not challenged, stated that appellant suffered between 10% and 20% disability to the body as a whole.
The parties agree that the law in effect at the time of appellant’s injury should control this appeal.
Appellant’s first point states that there is no substantial evidence to support the diminution order, and appellees respond by asking that we dismiss the appeal because appellant failed to state “the substance of all evidence bearing upon the proposition with proper references to 'the transcript,” as provided in our Rule 15(6). Under this point appellant argues that the trial court misconstrued the Workmen’s Compensation Act, which presents primarily á question of statutory interpretation, rather than one of substantial evidence.
Appellant’s contention is that the Workmen’s Compensation Act permits a person to draw total disability payments, even if he acquires new skills and employment, so long as the disability from his injury prevents him from performing the vocation which he had at the time of his injury.
Appellant directs our attention to Evans v. Stearns-Roger Manufacturing Co., (10th Cir. 1958), 253 F.2d 383, in which the court refused to order diminution of a claimant’s compensation under our statute. In that case, the court held that the record did not show an improvement in claimant’s condition which would warrant a reduction in compensation from- 75% to 50% disability and that, if anything, the testimony showed that his condition would get worse. It is important to note that the Evans case involved a claimant who had temporary employment, not one in which the evidence suggests that the claimant obtained and retains employment of a permanent nature. In Evans the court also held that the claim- ' ant was within his rights in' refusing to submit to a major operation. '
Appellant cites three cases from other jurisdictions in which the courts refused to diminish compensation benefits when a person overcame a permanent physical disability and secured employment. In Epsten v. Hancock-Epsten Co., 101 Neb. 442, 163 N.W. 767, the court was concerned with a statute which determined compensation by comparing wages received at the time of the injury with “earning power” after injury. The court concluded that an amputated toe had impaired claimant’s earning capacity, even though claimant had attended school, qualified for a more remunerative job, and was earning more than at the time of the accident. •
In a later case, Ludwickson v. Central States Electric Co., 142 Neb. 308, 6 N.W.2d 65, the same court rejected an application for modification of a compensation award. The applicable statute allowed such modification “on the ground of increase or decrease of incapacity due solely to the injury.” The court held that claimant’s improved economic condition was due to his advanced studies and mental training, and had not resulted -from any improvement in the physical structure of his body.
Our statute is not like either of those considered by the Nebraska court in the above cases and they are not applicable in the instant case.
In Hoffmeister v. State Industrial Accident Commission, 176 Or. 216, 156 P.2d 834, the court was confronted with a statute which defined permanent total disability as “the loss of both * * * hands.” The court stated that, when the commission decided the injury to claimant’s fingers deprived him of the use of his hands, it remained only for the commission to award claimant the fixed schedule of compensation provided by statute, and that it had no discretion to exercise about awarding the compensation or attaching conditions thereto. Hoffmeister is of no assistance in the instant case, since the Oregon legislature’s definition of total disability was far different from New Mexico’s definition of the term, a definition established by case law until legislative action a year after appellant’s injury.
In Lucero v. Koontz, 69 N.M. 417, 367 P.2d 916, cited by appellant, we held that the employer had not shown, by substantial evidence, that there was a diminution in claimant’s disability. We pointed out that there was no evidence of claimant’s training or experience, no proof that he would be able to obtain and retain employment, and that the trial court had no basis upon which it could determine if claimant could obtain some other type of employment.
To the contrary, the testimony in the instant case indicates that appellant learned a new vocation, obtained employment and attended to it satisfactorily, and that he should be able to do so indefinitely.
This court construed the meaning of “total disability” in Seay v. Lea County Sand and Gravel Company, 60 N.M. 399, 292 P.2d 93. We there approved an instruction to the jury stating that total disability exists when a claimant “is unable by reason of his accidental injury to obtain and retain gainful employment,” taking into consideration “the activities of the plaintiff, his age, education, training and general physical and mental capacity and adaptability.”
In Lozano v. Archer, 71 N.M. 175, 376 P.2d 963, we cited several New Mexico cases for the following definition of total disability prior to 1959:
“ ‘Total disability, within the Workmen’s Compensation Act, may be said to exist when, considering the age, education, training, general physical and mental capacity and adaptability of the workman, he is unable by reason of his accidental injury to obtain and retain gainful employment.’ ”
There is uncontroverted evidence in the instant case showing that appellant has obtained, retained, and should continue indefinitely to retain gainful employment. Under the above definition, appellant is no longer totally disabled.
Uncontradicted, expert testimony assessed appellant’s disability to his body as a whole at between 10% and 20%. In accordance with this testimony and § 59-10-25, supra, it was not error for the trial court to reduce appellant’s compensation benefits to 20% of total.
In view of what we have said, there is no merit in appellant’s second point, that the trial court’s findings of fact do not support the court’s conclusions of law.
We do not believe the result in this case discourages initiative or places a premium on idleness. The record reveals that appellant was earning about 2j4 times as much per month by obtaining employment, than he would have received by way of compensation benefits. Nor does the result ignore the fact that appellant must overcome a handicap in performing the duties of his new vocation. Appellant will continue to receive compensation benefits in proportion to the amount of disability to his body as a whole.
The judgment of the trial court is affirmed. It is so ordered.
COMPTON J., and JOE W. WOOD J., Court of Appeals, concur. | [
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] |
CASWELL S. NEAL, District Judge.
An original complaint was filed before the Board of Bar Commissioners by Robert S. Skinner, Chairman of the Committee on Ethics, Grievances and Discipline, against Charles A. Meeker, a member of the Bar of this state. The bases for the complaints set forth therein are:
(1)By reason of the language employed in the briefs in the case of Meeker v. Walraven, 72 N.M. 107, 380 P.2d 845, and in Meeker v. Walraven, 375 U.S. 829, 84 S.Ct. 73, 11 L.Ed.2d 60; rehearing denied, 375 U.S. 917, 84 S.Ct. 191, 11 L.Ed.2d 157, the said Charles A. Meeker has violated the oath which he took on being admitted to the State Bar of New Mexico.
(2) That the language employed in briefs in the above mentioned cases constitutes a violation of Canons 15 and 22 of the Cannons of Ethics of the Bar.
(3) That the language' employed by the said Charles Meeker in the briefs in the above referenced cases was abusive and offensive against the District Court Judges and Courts of the State of New Mexico, and constitutes a violation of Canon 1 of the Canons of Ethics of the Bar.
After due notice to Mr. Meeker, a hearing was held before the Board of Bar Commissioners of the State of New Mexico on September 18, 1964. The transcript of record before the Commission, consisting of 339 pages, is a part of the record herein.
Under Rule 3 of the Supreme Court Rules, the Commissioners hear the grievance and report to the Supreme Court their findings, conclusions and recommendations.
After the hearing, the Commissioners, as referees of the Court, made the following findings of fact:
“1. That proper service of the Complaint has been made upon the Respondent, and the Respondent is properly before the Commission.
2. That Respondent is a duly admitted member of the State Bar of New Mexico and took the oath of admission required by the Rules of the Supreme Court of New Mexico.
3. That in briefs filed in the case of Meeker v. Walraven in the Supreme Court of New Mexico, 72 N.M. 107, 380 P.2d 845, and in the Supreme Court of the United States in Cause No. 298 of the October 1963 Term of said Court [375 U.S. 829, 11 L.Ed.2d 60, 84 S.Ct. 73; rehearing denied, 375 U.S. 917, 11 L.Ed.2d 157, 84 S.Ct. 191], the Respondent emploj^ed scandalous, misleading, reckless, abusive, disrespectful and offensive language directed to the Courts, parties and attorneys of New Mexico.
4. That in the District Court proceeding commenced in 1960 the Respondent embarked upon the course of conduct described in Finding No. 3 above; that in the opinion handed down by the Supreme Court of New Mexico in the case described in Finding No. 3 above, which was filed on April 8, 1963 the Respondent was clearly warned against such practices and to comport himself according to the standai'ds of the legal profession. That despite such warning the Respondent continued the same course of conduct in his Petition for Rehearing before the Supreme Court of New Mexico, and in his Petition for Writ of Cer-tiorari and Petition for Rehearing filed in the Supreme Court of the United States in the October 1963 Term.
5.Throughout the hearing held before these Referees on September 18, 1964, the Respondent showed no feeling of remorse or intention to change such course of conduct.”
The following conclusions of law were reached by the Commissioners:
“1. That the Referees have proper jurisdiction of the Respondent and of the charges contained in the Complaint.
2. That the language employed by the Respondent in said briefs violated Canons 1, 15 and 22 of the Canons of Ethics of the State Bar of New Mexico and violated the oath taken by Respondent upon his admission to the State Bar of New Mexico.
3. That the course of conduct followed by the Respondent as referred to in the foregoing Findings of Fact displays a reckless and intemperate disregard of the obligations of an attorney.
4. That the course of conduct of the Respondent shows an inherent lack of capacity for restraint which demonstrates his unfitness to be a member of the Bar.
5. That the facts found by the Referees have been established and are supported by clear and convincing evidence.”
The Commissioners recommended that Respondent be disbarred.
The oath of an attorney is a solemn and sacred obligation, not to be lightly dealt with or disregarded. It is as follows:
“I,., do solemnly swear:
I will support the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of New Mexico;
I will maintain the respect due to Courts of Justice and judicial officers;
I will not counsel or maintain any suit or proceeding which shall appear to me to be unjust, nor any defense except such as I believe to be honestly debatable under the law of the land;
I will employ for the purpose of maintaining the causes confided to me such means only as aré consistent with truth and honor, and will never seek to mislead the judge or jury by any artifice or false statement of fact or law;
I will maintain the confidence and preserve inviolate the secrets of my client, and will accept no compensation in connection with his business except from him or with his knowledge and approval;
I will abstain fro'm all offensive personality, and advance no fact prejudicial to the honor or reputation of a party or witness unless required by the justice of the cause with which I am charged;
I will never reject from any consideration personal to myself the cause of the defenseless or oppressed, or delay any man’s cause for lucre or malice.
SO HELP ME GOD.”
The canons of professional ethics must be enforced by the Courts and must be respected by members of the Bar if we are to maintain public confidence in the integrity and impartiality of the administration of justice. Canon No. 1 is as follows :
“1. The Duty of the Lawyer to the Courts.
It is the duty of the lawyer to maintain towards the Courts a respectful attitude, not for the sake of the temporary incumbent of the judicial office, but for the maintenance of its supreme importance. Judges, not being wholly free to defend themselves, are peculiarly entitled to receive the support of the Bar against unjust criticism and clamor. Whenever there is proper ground for serious complaint of a. judicial officer, it is the right and duty of the lawyer to submit his grievances to the proper authorities. In such cases, but not otherwise, such charges should be encouraged and the person making them should be protected.”
Canon No. IS is, in part, as follows:
“15. How Far a Lawyer May Go in Supporting a Client’s Cause.
Nothing operates more certainly to create or.to foster popular prejudice against lawyers as a class, and to deprive the profession of that full measure of public esteem and confidence which belongs to the proper discharge of its duties than does the false claim, often set up by the unscrupulous in defense of questionable transactions, that it is the duty of the lawyer to do whatever may enable him to succeed in winning his client’s cause.
' It is improper for a lawyer to assert in argument his personal belief in his .client’s innocence or in the justice of his cause.”
Canon No. 22 is as follows:
“22. Candor and Fairness.
The conduct of the lawyer before the Court and with other lawyers should be characterized by candor and fairness.
It is not candid or fair for the lawyer knowingly to misquote the contents of a paper, the testimony of a witness, the language or the argument of opposing counsel, or the language of a decision or a textbook; or with knowledge of its invalidity, to cite as authority a decision that has been overruled, or a statute that has been repealed; or in argument to assert as a fact that which has not been proved, or in those jurisdictions where a side has the opening and closing arguments to mislead his opponent by concealing or withholding positions in his opening argument upon which his side then intends to rely.
It is unprofessional and dishonorable to deal other than candidly with the facts in taking the statements of witnesses, in drawing affidavits and other documents, and in the presentation of causes.
A lawyer should not offer evidence which he knows the Court should reject, in order to get the same before the jury by argument for its admissibility, nor should he address to the Judge arguments upon any point not properly calling for determination by him. Neither should he introduce into an argument, addressed to the court, remarks or statements intended to influence the jury or bystanders.
These and all kindred practices are unprofessional and unworthy of an officer of the law charged, as is the láwyer, with the duty of aiding in the administration of justice.”
The intemperance of the language used by Mr. Meeker in his briefs filed in the state court, in the view of the author of the opinion in Meeker v. Walraven, 72 N.M. 107, 380 P.2d 845, has been pointed out and a warning was issued to Mr. Meeker against a repetition of this reprehensible conduct. After this warning, the Petitioner filed a writ of certiorari in the Supreme Court of the United States, No. 298, October 1963 Term. In this petition, Mr. Meeker stated as reasons for the granting of the writ, among other things, the following :
“It is common practice in lower appellate courts to ignore unquestionable facts to make opinions rendered fit the law quoted rather than the case tried and reviewed. This case is an example of such widespread customs. The final result is always a denial of justice, and the overcoming of all Constitutional guarantees by caprice and discretionary violations. * * * ”
He further stated that:
“Attorneys, because of unwarranted protection and shelter given by judges in their desire to maintain the factual farce that no attorney can do wrong, are as a result virtually free to commit most civil frauds as well as business and social digressions. * * * The case in point is a perfect example of the treatment one may reasonably expect in a situation like this as is also indicated in the Peoples-Hambaugh Case subsequently outlined. * * * ”
In his petition, he accused the participants in the opinion in Meeker v. Walraven, supra, of choosing to ignore undisputed facts and permitting the case to fall on technicalities alone and that the opinion was written to substantiate facts, not'the case tried or reviewed; that the court ignored the facts in the case to make the law quoted in the opinion fit the facts included and not the case actually tried; that the reason therefor was to punish Meeker because he had dared suggest that some attorneys and courts are somewhat lacking in both character as well as in responsibility; that the facts in the opinion were carefully husbanded to fit the law quoted in the opinion rather than the case tried and reviewed on appeal and that this was done under very strange and disturbing circumstances; that in Peoples v. Peoples, 72 N.M. 64, 380 P.2d 513; second appeal, Hambaugh v. Peoples, 75 N.M. 144, 401 P. 2d 777, “The ladies were then summarily thrown out of court by the trial judge in a very obvious unjust manner. They too, had dared to part the sanctified curtain which has been drawn around courts and lawyers!” Meeker concluded his petition for a writ of certiorari by stating:
“There was a time in this Country when fundamental principles of right and justice were esteemed of minor importance compared to the quibbles, refinements, and the technicalities of special pleading. The fundamentals of law and justice during that unfortunate period seemed of trifling consequence. Happy for mankind and the law itself, that epoch is past. But an attempt is here made by the Opinion Below to raise the long dead cadaver of such legal chicanery.
Many other quotations from the briefs and pleadings could be cited. It is sufficient to say here that a review of the record before the Commissioners and the questions involved, in our opinion, fully sustains the findings and conclusions of the Commissioners.
It developed during the hearing before the Commissioners that after the institution of this proceeding, the respondent Meeker filed Civil Action No. 5524 in the United States District Court for the District of New Mexico, against three justices of the Supreme Court of New Mexico, namely, the author of the opinion and the two justices who concurred. This action is in two counts. In the First Amended Complaint served upon the defendant justices on January 20, 1964, plaintiff Meeker sought to recover substantial actual and punitive damages, charging, among other things in this complaint, that the defendants had entered into a conspiracy to deny plaintiff a fair and impartial review in Meeker v. Walraven, supra, and that as a result of said conspiracy, the final trial and review was fraudulent, a farce and a sham and had no remote connection or relation with the cause tried by the trial court and reviewed by the defendants; that false facts were knowingly assumed so as to allow the cause to fail on a legal technicality; that the purpose of the defendants in entering into and carrying out said conspiracy was to punish plaintiff in a manner that was cruel and unjust and in strict violation of the oaths of office of said defendants and the State and Federal Constitutions; that the basic desire of defendants was to punish plaintiff because he had dared to severely criticize an Oklahoma judge and several Oklahoma and Texas lawyers; that in permitting the case to fall on a technicality, the acts of defendants were willful and malicious; that this is not the usual case where judges incorrectly assess facts and law as a result of ignorance, laziness or abuse of their discretion, but instead a willful and ma-licous improper ruling to gain and to satisfy grossly illegal motives; that the conspiracy pleaded had as its main purpose impeding the due course of justice with the malicious intent to deny plaintiff equal protection of the law and that in none of their official acts did the defendants act in an honest belief that they were doing right or were legally warranted in doing so or that said acts were within the scope of their official powers or in compliance with their respective oaths of office. Plaintiff further charged that defendants each took such action willfully, maliciously and wantonly so that the trial and review became a sham, a farce and fraudulently achieved a final result of illegally depriving the plaintiff of a large sum of money.
; Mr. Meeker introduced his First Amended Complaint as an exhibit during the hearing before the Commissioners although this was a matter not included in the original charge. However, in “Motions” dated November 10, 1964 and November 21, 1964 filed in the Supreme Court, and in his oral presentation before the Supreme Court, he asked that the allegations in the cause against the three justices be determined and considered by this court.
In these motions he has reiterated the charges and insists that he believes them to be true and unquestionable and has offered to prove them. This court concluded he should be given a chance to do so.
In the course of the proceedings in the Supreme Court, the respondent tendered his resignation as a member of the Bar under Rule 3.04, Supreme Court Rules. Under this rule, an offer to surrender a license to practice law in this state is effective only when such offer to surrender has been accepted by the Supreme Court. The court, heretofore held an oral argument on this matter and after due consideration, entered an order dated December 8, 1964, finding: “That Movant’s resignation should not be accepted and that Mov-ant be allowed twenty days within which to file exceptions to the Report of the Bar Commissioners.”
Although the original charges presented to the Board of Bar Commissioners were extremely serious, they in no way compared to the enormity of the charges made against the three justices of the Supreme Court. If the respondent could prove only part of the charges alleged, the members of the court who are guilty should be impeached and disbarred. On the other hand, if Mr. Meeker could not prove the charges, he is guilty of extremely serious and unprofessional conduct and should be disbarred for the good of the profession and in order to uphold the administration of justice in this state. If he cannot prove the charges, he is clearly in violation of his oath as an attorney and of the canons of ethics hereinabove cited.
A hearing was set before the court for the purpose of permitting Mr. Meeker to prove his charges, on January 25, 1966. It was determined not necessary to refer this matter to the Bar Commissioners in view of the direct charges made in the proceedings in this court after the report of the Bar Commissioners and Meeker’s request that the court hear the matter, and after Meeker had reiterated his charges orally before this court.
After the matter was set for hearing, Mr. Meeker filed in this court an affidavit in which he, in substance, offers himself as a candidate for disbarment for his efforts, among other things: "To try and bring this disgraceful conduct, practiced by •n major percentage of judges and lawyers, ‘-to the attention of the public. * * * ”
‘■At the hearing before the court, respondent offered no proof whatever to sustain any charge made against the justices of this court, and shortly before this hearing before the court, he had dismissed the action pending in the federal court against the three justices.
He claims, as sustaining the allegations of the complaint, that the facts were misstated and distorted by the justices, with unholy designs, in their opinion in Meeker v. Walraven, supra. He also stated in his oral argument before this court that he could see an expression upon the face of the justice who wrote the opinion for the court, similar to that of “the cat that ate the canary” and that he “could smell a fraud a mile away.”
He particularly based his charge against the justices on the following statement in the opinion:
“Nowhere in the record is there a specific objection by appellant to the instructions given by the trial court with respect to libel, except as hereinafter set out, and appellant did not tender any instructions setting out what he considered was a correct statement of the law upon any point relating to libel. The only obj ection made by appellant is contained in the following language:
T object to the injection of the libel phase into this case, and to all instructions of the defendant Walraven’s attorneys as related to the libel phase of the action.’
Thus, we are faced with the question of whether appellant preserved error in the trial court’s instructions so that it can be considered by us on appeal.”
The court then cited the cases of State v. Compton, 57 N.M. 227, 257 P.2d 915; Lucero v. Torres, 67 N.M. 10, 350 P.2d 1028, and quoted from Baros v. Kazmierczwk, 68 N.M. 421, 362 P.2d 798, as follows:
“It is our understanding of the holding in State v. Compton that to preserve error in instructions for review, (1) it is sufficient if a correct instruction has been tendered, if the court has not instructed on the subject matter; (2) if, however, the court has instructed erroneously on a subject, even where a correct instruction has been tendered, it must be clear in the record that the error has been called to the court’s attention. * * * ”
The court then stated:
“Appellant has not met the requirements of our rule, that the specific defect in the instructions given be clearly pointed out to the trial court. Accordingly, appellant cannot, on appeal, raise the issue since he failed, by proper objection, to preserve the error.”
It clearly appears from the arguments and from respondent’s admissions before the Bar Commissioners and before this court, that respondent was not familiar with this simple requirement of the law. A review of the Supreme Court record in Meeker v. Walraven, supra, sustains the language in the opinion complained of and does not sustain Mr. Meeker’s claims as set forth in his proceedings against the justices in the federal court.
He has wholly failed to prove his charges. He has been guilty of most reprehensible conduct. He has attacked the integrity, motives and character of three honorable men and able justices of this court. He -has falsely attempted to bring disrepute upon an honorable profession and has attempted to destroy the trust of the people of New Mexico, and elsewhere, in their' courts and in their judges.. He has not sustained his charges in the slightest degree. The charges are simply a figment of the fertile imagination of one who feels personally aggrieved because he lost his case. He has displayed the disposition of one who feels he can do no wrong and that the courts of justice can do no right.
Excerpts from some of the pleadings filed in the course of these proceedings fully sustain the conclusion of the Commissioners that, “ * ‘ * * ’ the course of conduct of the respondent shows an inherent lack'ot. Capacity for restraint which demonstrates his unfitness to be a member of the Bar.”
In his affidavit filed January 6, 1966, he charges:
“If one is sufficiently trained in the law that he can handle-his own case there is another method used on him. If he be an attorney he will be persecuted by1 the judges, and the bar associations, recommended for disbarment, insulted, and through fraudulent conduct disgraced, if at all possible. * * *
“ * * * 'Affiant takes a very dim view of the frauds currently of common practice as have been outlined in' the cases cited. * * * If this be cause for -disbarment, then the Affiant' gladly .offers himself as a sacrificial goat, in his at-; tempt to expose the disgrace to the public of this state. The price is cheap if the newspapers, radio, and the public .will thereby be awakened. ■ We should ; all vomit together. * • * * , ,
“Meeker admits that he did' exactly what the findings of fact made by the Bar Commissioners said that he did, -but-he claims that what he has said is the truth; * * ,
“ * * * Can J ustices, acting as a Court, with jurisdiction of parties, and subject matter, by design and with malice,, choose false facts existing no place in the record of the case tried or appealed, with the intended purpose to cause an appeal to fail o-n a technicality to permit the assessment of an illegal fine against Meeker, the Plaintiff, and not permitted in law, and still retain their judicial immunities? * * *
“ * * * Instead it is the real danger and actual disintegrating of our judicial processes, that has led up to actual fraudu-lant practices in not only our District Courts but actually within this Honorable Court itself that is the real danger. * * * ”
We think these quotations, which are only a minor part of what might be quoted here, indicate the maliciousness of respondent’s attack upon the court. As a further example of his total lack of understanding of what constitutes right and proper conduct upon the part of an attorney toward the justices of the Supreme Court, Mr. Meeker, in his pleadings and memoranda in the case, has suggested that if the three justices charged would submit themselves to an operator chosen and approved by the F.B.I. to .take a lie detector test, and if the tests do not show the intent as pleaded, Mr. Meeker would drop his cases in the federal court and apologize to each of the three justices. He further states: “In my own mind I do not think that they can pass such a test, and that the facts Meeker pleaded are basically all true and can be proven easily if ever given an opportunity.” It is sufficient to say that Mr. Meeker has been given an opportunity to prove the charges and has utterly and completely failed to do so.
Mr. Meeker contends that under the canons of ethics, Canon No. 29, his actions were justifiable. This canon reads:
“29. Upholding the Honor of the Profession.
Lawyers should expose without fear or favor before the proper tribunals corrupt or dishonest conduct in the profession, and should accept without hesitation employment against a member of the Bar who has wronged his client. The counsel upon the trial of a cause in which perjury has been committed owe it to the profession and to the public to bring the matter to the knowledge of the prosecuting authorities. The lawyer should aid in guarding the Bar against the admission to the profession of candidates unfit or unqualified because deficient in either moral character or education. He should strive at all times to uphold the honor and to maintain the dignity of the profession and to improve not only the law but the administration of justice.”
We should be the last to deny that Mr. Meeker has the right to uphold the honor of the profession and to expose without fear or favor corrupt or dishonest conduct in the profession, whether the conduct be that of a judge or not. In re Sawyer, 360 U.S. 622, 79 S.Ct. 1376, 3 L.Ed.2d 1473. However, this canon does not permit one to make charges which are false and untrue and unfounded in fact. When one’s fancy leads him to make false charges, attacking the character and integrity of others, he does so at his peril. He should not do so without adequate proof of his charges and he is certainly not authorized to make careless, untruthful and vile charges against his professional brethren. State ex rel. Florida Bar v. Calhoon (Fla.1958) 102 So.2d 604; In re Robinson, 48 Wash. 153, 92 P. 929, 15 L.R.A.,N.S., 525; Atty. General v. Nelson, 263 Mich. 686, 249 N.W. 439; Annotation, 53 A.L.R. 1244.
In In re Sawyer, above cited, Justice Brennan, speaking for the court, said:
“We start with the proposition that lawyers are free to criticize the state of the law. * * * But all are free to express their views on these matters, and no one would say that this sort of criticism constituted an improper attack on the judges who enforced such rules and who presided at the trials. This is so, even though the existence of questionable rules of law might be said in a sense to produce unfair trials. Such criticism simply cannot be equated with an attack on the motivation or the integrity or the competence of the judges.”
In Attorney General v. Nelson, supra, the court said:
“Courts generally recognize that the public, and this includes the attorneys, has the right to criticize their opinions, and such criticism, when fairly indulged in, does not subject an attorney to discipline by the court, but such criticism must not go so far as to attack the integrity of the judge who has rendered the decision. * * * ‘but this privilege does not carry with it the right to charge fellow attorneys and the presiding judge with conspiracy and corruption, when there is no adequate basis for such a charge. In re Mains, 121 Mich. 603, 609, 610, 80 N.W. 714, 717.’ ”
In State ex rel. Florida Bar v. Calhoon, supra, relating to the canons of ethics, the court said:
“Canons of professional ethics are promulgated to establish rules and standards of conduct for the guidance of lawyers and judges in their relationship with each other as well as in their dealings with the public.”
The attorney involved in this case had falsely accused a judge of gross misconduct. The court said:
“It would be contrary to every democratic theorem to hold that a judge or a court is beyond bona fide comments and criticisms which do not exceed the bounds of decency and truth or which are not aimed at the destruction of public confidence in the judicial system as such. However, when the likely impairment of the administration of justice is the direct product of false and scandalous accusations then the rule is otherwise. 5 Am. Jur., Attorneys at Law, Sec. 266, p. 420.”
The court further said:
“If our judgment appears to lack aspects of mercy our response in justification simply is that the effect of a single act of the nature here involved can never be completely eradicated nor will the administration of justice in the affected area ever completely eliminate the scars. It must not happen again.”
See also, In re Mains, 121 Mich. 603, 80 N.W. 714, 717; State ex rel. Dabney v. Breckenridge, 126 Okl. 86, 258 P. 744, 53 A.L.R. 1239; Whitsitt v. Bar Rules Committee, 223 Ark. 860, 269 S.W.2d 699; People v. Parker, 328 Ill.App. 46, 65 N.E.2d 457, aff. 396 Ill. 583, 72 N.E.2d 848, aff. 65 S.Ct. 708, 333 U.S. 571, 92 L.Ed. 886; In re Cox, 164 Kan. 160, 188 P.2d 652; State ex rel. Nebraska State Bar Ass’n v. Wiebusch, 153 Neb. 583, 45 N.W.2d 583; Kentucky State Bar Ass’n v. Lewis (Ky.1955) 282 S.W.2d 321; Thatcher v. United States (C.A. 6, 1914) 212 F. 801.
While People v. Parker, supra, is a contempt case, it clearly establishes the rule of conduct which should guide attorneys in their duties to the courts and their professional brethren.
It is always a distasteful matter to find it necessary to disbar an attorney. It is our duty, however, to promote decency and dignity in an honorable profession; to protect the public and those charged with the administration of justice from falsehoods and abuse. The purpose of such a proceeding is not to punish an attorney, but to remove one unfit to be entrusted with the duties and obligations of an attorney. We find the respondent to be in this category. To permit him to continue to hold himself out as a member of the Bar of this state would reflect adversely upon the honorable members of the profession.
It follows from the foregoing that respondent’s name should be stricken from the roll of attorneys of this court; that he should be precluded from practicing as an attorney in all courts of this state; that he should pay all the costs of this proceeding, save the cost of transcribing the record before the Board of Bar Commissioners.
It is so ordered.
MOISE and COMPTON, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
CARMODY, Chief Justice.^
Defendant appeals from judgment' and sentence following his conviction by a jury of the crime of larceny. • •
The first contention is that the court erred in admitting defendant’s confession because the corpus delicti of the crime of larceny had not been established independent of the confession. The state on the other hand contends that the extrajudicial confession may be considered in aid of the independent evidence to establish the corpus delicti, and even if not, the corpus delicti was proved here by circumstantial evidence.
The corpus delicti of larceny is constituted of two elements: that the property was lost by the owner, and that it was lost by a felonious taking. State v. Cason, 1917, 23 N.M. 77, 167 P. 283; State v. McKenzie, 1943, 47 N.M. 449, 144 P.2d 161; Brown v. Village of Deming, 1952, 56 N.M. 302, 243 P.2d 609. It is well settled that the corpus delicti of a crime may be proved by circumstantial evidence. State v. Sakariason, 1915, 21 N.M. 207, 153 P. 1034; State v. Chaves, 1921, 27 N.M. 504, 202 P. 694; State v. Ortega, 1932, 36 N.M. 57, 7 P.2d 943. On the question of whether evidence is substantial to establish the corpus delicti, each case must, of course, turn on its own facts. State v. Craig, 1922, 28 N.M. 110, 206 P. 513.
^ In this case there was evidence that on Saturday, March 16th, money belonging to Mrs. Norma Pritchard, owner of Norma’s Delicatessen in Roswell, was placed into a money bag for a bank deposit. Mrs. Pritch-ard testified that the deposit was to be placed into a steel file by an employee, Mrs. Luke, who was not available to testify at the trial. Defendant had begun work at the delicatessen Friday, March 15th. Mrs. Pritchard authorized no one to remove the money. Defendant, at one o’ clock Sunday afternoon, March 17th, picked up a key from Mrs. Pritchard to clean the delicatessen, and returned the key at four o’clock, telling Mrs. Pritchard that he would see her the next day. The next morning Mrs. Pritchard went to the delicatessen and discovered that the money was not in the money bags. Defendant did not return to work that day or thereafter.
An examination of the New Mexico cases in which circumstantial evidence was sufficient to establish the corpus delicti of larceny where loss by the owner was established shows that some element of subsequent possession in the defendant of the stolen property was present. See, e. g., State v. Ortega, supra; State v. Liston, 1921, 27 N.M. 500, 202 P. 696; State v. Cason, supra. In the present case, no possession was ever shown in defendant. There was only a loss by the owner and access and unexplained disappearance of defendant; the corpus delicti was not established here by circumstantial evidence. The state claims, however, that defendant’s extrajudicial confession may he considered in aid of the independent evidence to establish the corpus delicti, and that it was therefore properly admitted by the trial court.
It is clear that, unless the corpus delicti of the offense charged has been otherwise established, a conviction cannot be sustained solely on extrajudicial confessions or admissions of the accused. State v. LaRue, 1960, 67 N.M. 149, 353 P.2d 367; State v. Carter, 1954, 58 N.M. 713, 275 P.2d 847; State v. Dena, 1923, 28 N.M. 479, 214 P. 583. We see nothing in State v. Lindemuth, 1952, 56 N.M. 257, 243 P.2d 325, or in any of the cited cases to indicate that under certain circumstances a confession may not be utilized to assist in establishing corpus delicti. In Dena a judicial statement was held proper for this purpose. In LaRue and Carter where the statements were a part of the res gestae they were also held proper for consideration in establishing the corpus delicti.
The question, then calls for consideration of the proposition whether the confession of an accused, not a part of the res gestae, may be admitted or used in any respect to support a conviction unless each of the elements of the corpus delicti is proved by independent evidence. Though the question is one of first impression in this state, it has been considered by a great number of other jurisdictions, see annotation 45 A.L.R. 2d 1316, 1333, with the apparent general consensus that the confession ’may he considered without independent proof of each element of the corpus delicti, provided it is sufficiently corroborated. See, e. g., People v. McMonigle, 1947, 29 Cal.2d 730, 177 P.2d 745; Martinez v. People, 1954, 129 Colo. 94, 267 P.2d 654; State v. Doucette, 1959, 147 Conn. 95, 157 A.2d 487; Nelson v. State, 1954, 11 Terry 96, 50 Del. 96, 123 A.2d 859; State v. Yoshida, 1960, 44 Hawaii 352, 354 P.2d 986; State v. Bates, 1955, 76 S.D. 23, 71 N.W.2d 641.
It is with regard to the extent of corroborative evidence necessary, particularly concerning its relation to the corpus delicti, that there is wide diversity among jurisdictions. Some, for instance, have required that the independent . evidence establish prima facie proof of the corpus delicti, People v. McMonigle, supra; some that the independent evidence must “tend to establish that the crime charged has been committed and must be material and substantial, but need not be such as would establish the corpus delicti beyond a reasonable doubt,” State v. Doucette, supra; some that the confession be corroborated by “other evidence,” Martinez v. People, supra; still others require no specific measure at all, provided that all evidence taken together proves the corpus delicti beyond a reasonable doubt, Nelson v. State, supra. Still others refer to what corroborative evidence need not be, see annotation 45 A.L.R.2d 1316; From-the welter of cases- and the range of their holdings, it would be imprudent to say that one particular hair-splitting formula has the support of a majority, compare State v. Yo-shida, supra. This is particularly true when we consider that each case must turn on its own facts and circumstances.
We feel-that the proper rule, and the most workable, is that laid down for the federal courts in Opper v. United States, 1954, 348 U.S. 84, 75 S.Ct. 158, 99 L.Ed. 101, 45 A.L.R.2d 1308, where the court held that corroborative evidence need not be sufficient, independent of the statements, to establish the corpus delicti, but that the Government must introduce substantial independent evidence which would tend to establish the trustworthiness of the statement. The Supreme Court said:
“Thus, the independent evidence serves a dual function. It-tends to make the admission reliable, thus corroborating it while also establishing independently the other necessary - elements of the offense. * * * It is sufficient if the corroboration supports the essential facts admitted sufficiently to justify a jury inference of their truth.” (Emphasis added.)
Of course, the confession or admitted facts, taken together with all the other evidence, must be sufficient to find guilt, Opper v. United States, supra, and prove all elements of the corpus delicti, Smith v. United States, 1954, 348 U.S. 147, 75 S.Ct. 194, 99 L.Ed. 192, beyond a reasonable doubt.
Cases which have applied the Opper standard include Matula v. United States (10th Cir. 1964) 327 F.2d 337; Martinez v. United States (10th Cir.1961) 295 F.2d 426; Landsdown v. United States (5th Cir.1965) 348 F.2d 405; United States v. Waller (4th Cir.1963) 326 F.2d 314, cert. denied 377 U.S. 946, 84 S.Ct. 1355, 12 L.Ed.2d 309; State v. Yoshida, supra; People v. Cuevas, 1955, 131 Cal.App.2d 393, 280 P.2d 831; compare State v. Whittemore, 1961, 255 N.C. 583, 122 S.E.2d 396, and State v. Lucas, 1959, 30 N. J. 37, 152 A.2d 50, where the court said:
“Confessions, like other admissions against interest, stand high in the probative hierarchy of proof. It is for this reason that the law imposes various safeguards designed to assure that the confession is true. But safeguards for the accused should not be turned into obstacles whereby the guilty can escape just punishment. No greater burden should be required of the State than independent corroborative proof tending to establish that when the defendant confessed he was telling the truth, plus independent proof of the loss or injury.”
In this case, the defendant’s statement was corroborated by Mrs. Pritchard’s testimony concerning the length of his employment (the same three days admitted by defendant), Mrs. Pritchard’s testimony that she gave defendant a key on Sunday which he was to use to open the delicatessen for cleaning, and that defendant returned the key to her. Defendant admitted that he had found the money in the filing cabinet where Mrs. Pritchard testified it was to be placed the previous day, and that he, defendant, “took it out three times and put it back and just before leaving I took it out and kept it.”
We think the corroborative evidence, when considered together with the confession, justified the conclusion that the crime charged had been committed, and that the trial court did not commit error in admitting the statement.
Defendant next argues that the court erroneously instructed the jury as to the elements of the offense of larceny omitting the element of unlawful taking. The pertinent part of the court’s instruction No. 5 was as follows:
“The material allegations contained in the information which must be proved to your satisfaction and beyond a reasonable doubt by the evidence introduced in this case, are:
“(A) that Carrol Wayne Paris stole property belonging to Mrs. Norma Pritchard;
“ * *
Defendant was charged under § 40-45-2, N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp., which states: “Every person who shall commit the crime of larceny, by stealing of the property of an other any money, goods or chattels * shall he punished as provided in section 40-45_1 * * *» * *
In McDaniels v. State, 1943, 77 Okl. Crim. 84, 139 P.2d 191, the court considered the meaning of the word “steal” as used, undefined, in a larceny statute. There the court said:
“When the word ‘steal’ is used it means to take and carry away property of another with the felonious intent to deprive the owner thereof, and to appropriate the same to one’s own use. It must be noted that when the word ‘steal’ is used either in the information or in an instruction, that it carries with it the meaning that the property converted is by felonious intent.”
We hold, as did the court in McDaniels v. State, supra, that under the statute using the term “steal,” when that term is used in the instruction, it carries with it a meaning that the taking must have been with a felonious intent. See also State v. Downing, 1949, 185 Or. 689, 205 P.2d 141; Darnell v. State, 1962, Okl.Crim., 369 P.2d 470.
Here the court also instructed the jury that “ ‘Larceny’ is synonymous with stealing, it is the taking of the personal property of another with the intent to deprive the owner of the permanent possession thereof.” When the instructions are taken as a whole, as they must have been, State v. Fields, 1964, 74 N.M. 559, 395 P.2d 908, no essential element of larceny was omitted, and it was not error for the trial court to overrule the objection to instruction No. 5.
Defendant contends that his confession was involuntary because given for a promise of leniency and therefore should not have been admitted. The trial court found it to be voluntary and admitted the relevant parts into evidence.
Defendant’s contention is based primarily on the following testimony of Police Lt. L. G. Hall, to whom the original statement was made:
“Q Did you advise the defendant of the advantage of making a statement to you?
“A Yes, I told him if he would cooperate with us it would be brought to the court’s attention and Mr. Hanagan [the district attorney] would tell him the same.
“Q Going back to the conversation of the defendant of his making a statement, you previously testified, I believe that he was — that his cooperation would be told to the Court, is that correct?
“A It would be brought to Mr. Han- ■ agan’s attention.
“Q And that Mr. Hanagan would bring it to the attention of the Court?
“A I supposed that he would.
"“Q Was he told that?
“A Yes, sir, he was.
“ * * *
“Q Did you tell the defendant what effect his cooperation — what effect his cooperation with you would have on the Court?
'“A I didn’t tell him the effect.
/‘Q You didn’t make any statement i, '■ regarding the effect ?
“A I- did not. I told him that it would be brought to the attention.”
The defendant had been warned of his constitutional rights, and his statement was prefaced with the declaration that no promises, threats or force were used to induce his making it. On examination of the record we find no reasonable inference that a promise of leniency was extended to the defendant. We cannot say that the facts in this record bar the confession as a matter of law. See State v. Lindemuth, supra, ■in which the facts would more strongly support a claim of promise of leniency than here, yet there was no error in admission of the confession. Cases cited by defendant are distinguishable on their facts.
Finally, defendant maintains that the court erred in failing to allow his Plea in Bar, under which he claimed double jeopardy by reason of the prior conviction for the same offense. In this connection, the defendant urged that inasmuch as he had served more than a year before being released on habeas corpus, he could not be tried again. There is no merit to this contention. The habeas corpus case declared the original proceeding void; therefore, it is as though there were no prior case. The court, in the original case, did not have jurisdiction, so there is no basis for the claim of double jeopardy. See Bayless v. United States (8th Cir. 1945), 147 F.2d 169; United States v. Lowrey (3d Cir. 1949), 77 F.Supp. 301, aff’d, 172 F.2d 226; cf. Northcott v. Hand, 1960, 186 Kan. 662, 352 P.2d 450; compare State v. Goodson, 1950, 54 N.M. 184, 217 P.2d 262; and see also Morgan v. Cox, 1965, 75 N.M. 472, 406 P.2d 347; accord, United States v. Tateo, 1964, 377 U.S. 463, 84 S.Ct. 1587, 12 L.Ed.2d 448; and United States v. Ewell, No. 29, October 1965 Term, decided February 23, 1966, 86 S.Ct. 773.
The judgment is affirmed. It is so ordered.
MOISE and COMPTON, JJ., concur. | [
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CARMODY, Chief Justice.
Appellant has prosecuted this appeal from the judgment and sentence following conviction by a jury of a charge of a sale of a narcotic drug, to-wit, marijuana.
Two questions are presented, one relating to the sentence and the other to a claim of former jeopardy.
In 1962, appellant was charged by an information containing seven counts, all relating to possession or sale of marijuana. At that time, after first pleading not guilty to all seven counts, he later changed his plea to guilty to Counts 2 and 3 and the district attorney thereupon dismissed the other five counts of the information. Appellant was then sentenced to the penitentiary, where he served more than two and a half years before being released on a writ of habeas corpus, granted by the federal court on the basis that he was not represented by counsel at the time of the entry of his plea of guilty. Following this release, appellant was returned to Curry County and a new information was filed, again charging him with the same seven counts. After a succession of court-appointed counsel, he was brought to trial on the new information, and at the close of the case the jury found him guilty of Count No. 7, the other six counts having been dismissed by the district attorney. The appellant had not taken the stand at the trial, but, when he was brought before the court for sentencing, he was questioned by the trial judge as to whether he had ever before been convicted of a felony. He responded that he had been convicted in Kansas in 1953 on a charge of possession of marijuana seed. Following this exchange, the court sentenced him to the penitentiary “for a period of not less than five years nor more than twenty years as a second offender of the narcotic laws of this State.”
We will dispose of the 'contentions made by appellant in inverse order of their presentation in the brief.
It is urged that jeopardy attached in the 1962 proceedings, on a theory that, appellant having entered a plea of not guilty, the case was at issue and a dismissal thereafter constituted an acquittal. This argument is without merit, because double jeopárdy does not apply until the trial , has been commenced. As we said in Ex Parte Williams, 1954, 58 N.M. 37, 265 P.2d 359:
“ * * * j eopardy attaches when issue is joined upon an indictment or information, and the jury is impaneled and sworn to try the cause. * * * ”
Thus it requires more than a joining of the issue, but contemplates the impaneling of a jury, or, in non-jury cases, the presentation of at least some evidence on behalf of the state. See United States v. Aurandt, 1910, 15 N.M. 292, 107 P. 1064, 27 L.R.A.,N.S., 1181; Bassing v. Cady, 1908, 208 U.S. 386, 28 S.Ct. 392, 52 L.Ed. 540; Hunter v. Wade (10th Cir. 1948), 169 F.2d 973, 8 A.L.R.2d 277, aff'd, 336 U.S. 684, 69 S.Ct. 834, 93 L. Ed. 974; McCarthy v. Zerbst (10th Cir. 1936), 85 F.2d 640, cert. denied, 299 U.S. 610, 57 S.Ct. 313, 81 L.Ed. 450.
Appellant’s assertion that the sentence was invalid is of more consequence. The statute with which we are here concerned, insofar as pertinent, is as follows (§ 54-7-15, N.M.S.A.1953):
“Any person violating the foregoing sections [54 — 7-13, 54 — 7-14] shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished as follows : -
“A. For the first offense, upon conviction, he shall be fined not more than two thousand dollars ($2,000) and imprisoned not less than two [2] years nor more than ten [10] years.
“B. For the second offense, or if in case of a first offense of a violation of any provision of this act [54-7-13 to 54-7-15] the offender shall have previously been convicted of any violation of the laws of the United States or any state, territory or district of the United States relating to narcotic drugs or marijuana, the offender shall be fined not more than two' thousand .dollars ($2,000) and im prisoned not less than five [5] years nor more than twenty [20] years.”
In this case, there was never any charge filed against this appellant which would give him notice that, if convicted, he would be sentenced as a second offender. We have recently had occasion to discuss the differences between the Habitual Criminal Act and the Narcotic Drug Act, insofar as these two statutes relate to subsequent convictions. See State v. Lujan, 76 N.M. 111, 412 P.2d 405, filed March 21, 1966. The Habitual Criminal Act is fairly definite as to how the charges should be made, and this court, in recent decisions, has construed the statute in an effort to make more uniform the procedures for charging subsequent convictions and the manner in which sentences should be imposed therefor. Lott v. Cox, 1965, 75 N.M. 102, 401 P.2d 93; and Lott v. Cox, 76 N.M. 76, 412 P.2d 249, No. 8072, decided March 7, 1966. However, the above quoted statute is completely lacking in any legislative direction as to procedures in the event of second or subsequent convictions. Thus the comparison made by the attorney general between the Narcotic Drug Act and the Plabitual Criminal Act is of no assistance.
Even though we are fully cognizant of the fact that no objection was made by the defendant or his counsel to the questioning by the court as to the prior conviction, we cannot but conclude that this appellant was denied due process of law, in that there was no notice or true opportunity to be heard, in a constitutional sense. Compare, Oyler v. Boles, 1962, 368 U.S. 448, 82 S.Ct. 501, 7 L.Ed.2d 446.
A case very closely in point to that before us is State v. Booker, 1965, 88 N.J. Super. 510, 212 A.2d 849, where, as here, the point was not raised at the hearing before the sentencing judge. Nevertheless, the appellate division of the Superior Court of New Jersey considered the point as a “plain error” of which they must take cognizance. This was done in Booker, even though the actual sentence given to the convict was within the limits of the sentence which could have been given for a first offense. Nevertheless, the court held that a prisoner was entitled, before sentence, to be given notice and afforded an opportunity to be heard as to the commission of any prior offense.
So also in United States ex rel. Collins v. Claudy (3d Cir. 1953), 204 F.2d 624, in a case involving the Pennsylvania Habitual Criminal Act and where the prisoner had no formal notice prior to the time of sentence, the court said:
“On the whole case we are satisfied that fundamental fairness in judicial procedure required that the court impose an enhanced penalty only upon the basis of a supporting judicial determination of the essential facts made after the defendant had been informed of and heard upon the issue of recidivism. The omission of such procedure was a denial of due process of law and, therefore, has made the enhanced penalty a legal nullity. * * *»
See also People v. Hightower, 1953, 414 Ill. 537, 112 N.E.2d 126, cert. denied 346 U.S. 875, 74 S.Ct. 128, 98 L.Ed. 383, application denied 346 U.S. 882, 74 S.Ct. 135, 98 L.Ed. 388, wherein the Supreme Court of Illinois recognized that there must be a plea by the state of the fact of a prior conviction in order to justify the imposition of a sentence under the aggravated-penalty clause.
Although our Narcotic Drug Statute, as stated, fails to specify the precise manner in which a prior conviction must be brought to the attention of the defendant and the court, essential fairness requires that there be some pleading filed by the state, whether it be by motion or otherwise, by which a defendant is given notice and opportunity to be heard before an increased penalty can be imposed.
We therefore hold that the sentence (but not the conviction) of the appellant was erroneous. For this reason, the case must be remanded to the trial court for the imposition of a proper sentence. It is so ordered.
NOBLE and COMPTON, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
• LaFEL E. OMAN, Judge, Court of Appeals.
A jury in Curry County, New Mexico, found appellant guilty of murder in the first degree as charged in the information, with recommendation of life imprisonment. The trial court thereupon entered judgment and sentenced appellant to a term of life imprisonment in the state penitentiary. He has appealed from this judgment and sentence.
Three points are relied upon for reversal. The first point is that the court erred in refusing to grant a mistrial "when the State erroneously and without proof accused the defendant of having formerly been convicted of statutory rape.”
Appellant took the stand as a witness in his own behalf, and on cross-examination was asked the following questions and made the following answers:
“Q. Incidentally, Mr. Williams, have you ever been convicted of a felony or misdemeanor ?
“A. Yes, sir.
“Q. Where was that?
"A. San Juan County, Aztec, New Mexico.
"Q. What was the nature of the offense ?
“A. Contributing to the delinquency of a minor.
“Q. To refresh your memory, wasn’t it statutory rape?
“A. Contributing to the delinquency of a minor.”
Appellant objected to the last question and stated as his reason:
“ * * * that the State has no proof of the allegation he [Assistant District Attorney] is trying to bring before this Jury, and-it is highly prejudicial and we ask for a mis-trial.”
The court promptly excused the jury and made inquiry of counsel concerning the information available to them relative to the conviction in San Juan County. The District Attorney produced what is com-i monly referred to as an “F.B.I. rap sheet,” which shows appellant was charged with | statutory rape on January 31, 1961 and the 'disposition thereof as “3 to 5 yrs. susp. 'except 6 mos. Co. jail.”
Appellant’s counsel produced a copy of the judgment and sentence entered on March 21, 1961 in the District Court of San Juan County, and such shows the appellant pleaded guilty to the crime of “contributing to the delinquency of a minor under the age of eighteen (18) years.”
After some discussion between the court and counsel, the court ordered the jury brought back into the courtroom and then gave the following admonition and instruction to the jury:
“Members of the Jury, the District Attorney in interrogating the Defendant, inquired as to whether he had been convicted in San Juan County, of a felony/ of Statutory Rape. The District Attorney ( is not in a position to prove that the defendant was so convicted, and the information afforded us by the Defendant was that he was convicted there of con-'1 tributing to the delinquency of a minor. Any reference to the Statutory Rape charge is to be disregarded by the Jury, and the Jury will consider that the only offense for which the Defendant was convicted in San Juan County was that of contributing to the delinquency of a minor. You may proceed Gentlemen.”
Appellant made no objection to the court’s admonition and instruction, the trial continued, and nothing further was said concerning the matter, until the same was raised here on appeal.
Section 20-2-3, N.M.S.A. 1953 provides:
“A witness may be questioned as to whether he has been convicted of any felony or misdemeanor, and upon being so questioned, if he either denies the fact or refuses to answer, the opposite party may prove such conviction; and a certificate, the substance and effect only, omitting the formal part, of the indictment and conviction for such offense, purporting to be signed by the clerk of the court or other officer having the custody of the records of the court at which the offender was convicted, or by the deputy of such clerk or officer under the seal of said court, shall, upon proof of the identity of the witness, as such convict, be sufficient evidence of his conviction.”-
Pursuant to the provisions of this statute, we have repeatedly held that on cross-examination the state may establish by the accused the fact of a prior conviction ■ and the name of the particular felony or 'misdemeanor of which he had been convicted. State v. Griego, 61 N.M. 42, 294 P.2d 282; State v. Ocanas, 61 N.M. 484, 303 P.2d 390. In the State v. Ocanas case, the District Attorney was apparently questioning the defendant from information con.tained in a record furnished by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, just as was being done by the Assistant District Attorney in this case. The majority rule is in accord with the holdings of this court, that an accused may be cross-examined as to prior convictions. Wigmore on Evidence, 3d Ed., Vol. IV, § 1270 at 538-545; McCormick on Evidence, § 43 at 93 — 94; Underhill’s Criminal Evidence, 5th Ed., Vol. I, § 164 at 304-314.
The trial court is allowed a broad discretion in controlling the extent of cross-examination of an accused directed at testing his credibility. The primary responsibility is on the trial court to determine when the cross-examination should be limited, because the legitimate probative value on the credibility of the accused is outweighed, by its illegitimate tendency, effect or purpose to prejudice him as a defendant. The discretion of the trial court in making this determination will not be disturbed on appeal, unless the appellate court can say the trial judge’s action was obviously erroneous, arbitrary and unwarranted. State v. Holden, 45 N.M. 147, 113 P.2d 171.
We do not mean to suggest that cross-examination as to a prior conviction may go beyond eliciting from the accused the fact of his prior conviction, and the name of the particular offense. All reasonable care, and the utmost good faith, must be exercised by the prosecutor, when questioning an accused about prior convictions, to the end that an accused is not prejudiced by suggestions that he has been convicted of a misdemeanor or felony, when in fact he has not been so convicted. We do not believe that cross-examination of an accused based solely on information contained in an “F.B.I. rap- sheet” can ordinarily be said to be consistent with, the exercise of all reasonable care and the utmost good faith. Generally, the prosecutor has the burden of going further to verify the prior conviction, •before he can properly proceed to question the accused concerning the same.
In the present case it was made clear to the jury by the two answers of ap pellant, and by the instruction of the court, that appellant was not convicted of statutory rape, as suggested by the question to which objection was made. If any error was committed by asking such question, we are of the opinion that such error was not prejudicial to appellant under the facts. Error, to warrant reversal, must be prejudicial. State v. Ancheta, 20 N.M. 19, 145 P. 1086; Rice v. United States, 149 F.2d 601 (10th Cir. 1945).
See also State v. Dendy, 34 N.M. 533, 285 P. 486; State v. Garcia, 57 N.M. 665, 262 P.2d 233; State v. White, 61 N.M. 109, 295 P.2d 1019.
We have not overlooked the case of State v. Stago, 82 Ariz. 285, 312 P.2d 160, upon which appellant so heavily relies. It appears that case was reversed for reasons other than the fact that the prosecutor asked the defendant if he had ever been convicted of a felony, and then, after some discussion between the court and counsel, withdrew the question. It is true the Arizona court stated that the prosecutor “cannot engage in questioning which casts insinuations without being prepared and able to prove the insinuations,” and suggested that the prejudice to defendant may not have been expunged by the trial court’s instruction to disregard “any thought whatsoever of the meaning of the question propounded.” We do not believe that the Arizona court, by its language, meant that the prosecutor must always be able to prove a prior conviction by documentary evidence, before an accused can properly be asked about such conviction, regardless of the circumstances and regardless of the care and good faith exercised by the prosecutor, or that an instruction by the trial court can never cure the damage, if any, done by questions concerning a prior conviction which is not subsequently proved. Whether or not the prosecutor has acted improperly, and whether or not the defendant has been prejudiced thereby, must depend on the facts and circumstances of each case. See the annotation in 3 A.L.R.3d at 965-969, concerning the effect of the prosecutor asking defense witnesses, other than the accused, as to prior convictions, when he is not prepared to offer documentary proof in the event of a denial.
Appellant’s second point is that his:
“ * * * challenge of the jury panel should have been sustained on grounds that it was not apportioned ‘as nearly as may be * * * among various precincts according to voting population’ and that this amounted to systematic discrimination against appellant and other members of the Negro race.”
Appellant filed a written “Challenge of Jury Panel,” and, insofar as the same is pertinent to his point relied on for reversal, asserts:
“* * * that the jury list chosen by the jury commission appointed by the court after the 1964 general election did not select as many persons to serve as jurors from Precinct 9, in which the alleged offense occurred and in which defendant and most of the Negro population of Curry County resides, as is required by Section 19-1-11, NMSA, 1953 Comp.”
He then recites that 10,596 ballots were cast in Curry County in the 1964 general election; that the jury commission, pursuant to order of the court, selected the names of 1,060 of the persons who cast such votes to be placed in the jury wheel; that the voting population of Precinct 9 was 932, or 8.8% of the county’s voting population; that the number of names selected from Precinct 9 was 72, or 6.8% of the total number of names selected; that Precinct 9 was entitled to have 93 names selected, which was 29% more than the 72 actually selected; and that of the venire of 34 persons, from which the petit jury of 12 was selected to try appellant, not one was from Precinct 9, whereas, according to mathematical probabilities, three of the 34-persons should have been from this precinct.
Appellant’s assertions as to the number of votes cast in the 1964 general election, the number of votes cast in Precinct 9, the number of names selected by the jury commission and placed in the jury wheel, and particularly, the number selected from Precinct 9, were supported by exhibits and concurred in by the District Attorney.
There is nothing in the record to indicate how many or what percentage of the voters in the county, or in Precinct 9, were of the Negro race, or how many persons of such race were included in the 1,060 names selected and placed in the jury wheel, or the number thereof included in the 72 selected from Precinct 9.
The question resolves itself into one of whether the failure of the jury commission to select a percentage of the prospective jurors from Precinct 9, equal to that percentage which the number of voters from Precinct 9 bore to the total number of voters in the county, operates to make the jury panel of 34 drawn from the 1,060 names placed in the jury wheel, a void panel. As already stated, there were 72 names from Precinct 9 selected and placed in the jury wheel, but none of these happened to be among the 34 drawn as the panel from which the 12 petit jurors were selected.
It cannot follow that had there been 21 more names from Precinct 9 contained in the 1,060 names in the jury wheel, that the law of chance, or mathematical probability, in the selection of the 34 names from the 1,060 in the jury wheel would have resulted in three of the 34 coming from this precinct. Unless our entire system of selecting juries be changed, it cannot be determined, mathematically or otherwise, whether any particular jury panel, and particularly a petit jury of 12 selected therefrom, will contain one or more persons from any particular precinct.
Section 19-1-11, N.M.S.A.1953 requires that the jury commission, in selecting the names of jurors to be put into the jury box from the certified list furnished by the Clerk of the District Court, “shall, as nearly as may be, apportion the names selected by them among the various precincts of the county according to voting population.” Appellant’s position, as set forth in his brief in chief, is that the words “as nearly as may be” require a precision of selection to “within a fraction of a juror with respect to each precinct.” We do not agree.
Statutory provisions for the selection of jurors are generally held to be directory and not mandatory. State v. Leatherwood, 26 N.M. 506, 194 P. 600; 31 Am.Jur., Jury, § 78; 50 C.J.S. Juries § 163. However, the jury commission is charged with the duty of heeding this statutory enjoinder, and should endeavor to apportion the names accordingly.
No showing has been made that appellant was in any way prejudiced by the failure of the jury commission to select the names of 21 additional persons from Precinct 9. He had the right to be tried by a fair and impartial jury. In the absence of any showing that he was prejudiced in this right, he cannot be heard to complain. State v. Leatherwood, supra.
Appellant’s third point is that the court erred in refusing to give his requested in-' struction on the question of his intoxication.1 He urges that there was evidence from' which the jury might have found he was under the influence of intoxicants to the extent that his thinking processes were so affected that he was incapable of premeditation.
The evidence on which appellant relies to support his contention is his testimony that he drank a double shot of scotch. This was approximately an hour, and perhaps a little longer, before he shot and killed his former friend and business associate. Pie at no time was asked concerning the effect upon him of the whiskey which he stated he had consumed, and he at no time made any statement which would even indicate that he was affected by such.
The other bit of evidence upon which he relies is the testimony of a captain of the Clovis Police Department who saw and talked with appellant shortly after he says he drank the double shot of scotch and about an hour before the shooting. The officer testified he could smell a slight amount of alcohol on appellant’s breath and that appellant told him that he had been drinking. When asked if appellant appeared to be intoxicated, his answer was very definitely in the negative.
All other evidence which in any way related to the drinking of liquor by appellant, or to his condition relative to being under the influence thereof, which evidence was very limited, negatived any inference or suggestion that he was in any '■degree under the influence of intoxicants. There is no evidence which in any way 'suggests he was under the influence of intoxicants at the time of the shooting.
In a homicide case the defendant is entitled to have the jury determine the degree and effect of his intoxication upon his mental capacity and deliberative powers. State v. Brigance, 31 N.M. 436, 246 P. 897; State v. Butler, 38 N.M. 453, 34 P.2d 1100. However, the evidence as to intoxication must be substantial and must relate to defendant’s condition as of the time of the commission of the homicide, or be so closely related in time that it can reasonably be inferred that the condition continued to the time of the commission of the homicide. State v. Orfanakis, 22 N.M. 107, 159 P. 674; State v. Brigance, supra; State v. Butler, supra. Here we have neither substantial evidence of intoxication nor any evidence of his condition at or near the time of the shooting.
Appellant must fail under this point for the further reason that his requested instruction on intoxication did not 'correctly state the law. This requested instruction reads in part as follows:
“If the defendant was under the influence of intoxicants to the extent that his judgment and thinking processes were affected, he might be incapable of premeditation, and in that event he could not be found guilty of first or second degree murder.”
The error in the instruction lies in the fact that voluntary intoxication is no defense to murder in the second degree. State v. Cooley, 19 N.M. 91, 140 P. 1111, 52 L. R.A.,N.S., 230; State v. Aragon, 35 N.M. 198, 292 P. 225; State v. Padilla, 66 N.M. 289, 347 P.2d 312, 78 A.L.R.2d 908.
In order to preserve error for review because of the failure of the trial court to instruct upon a specific issue or defense, the defendant must tender a proper instruction on the issue. State v. Compton, 57 N.M. 227, 257 P.2d 915; State v. White, 58 N.M. 324, 270 P.2d 727; State v. Selgado, 76 N.M. 187, 413 P.2d 469.
Finding no error, the judgment and sentence of the trial court should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., NOBLE and MOISE, JJ., and JOE W. WOOD, J., Court of Appeals, concur. | [
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CHAVEZ, Justice.
.-This is an action for a declaratory judgment, filed by the State .Highway Commission . of New Mexico, which alleged that their actions concerning the defendants’ property were a proper exercise of the police power of the state and that no compen-sable taking 'of defendants’ access to State Road 422 resulted from those actions. The trial court rendered judgment for the defendants and the petitioner appeals.
The petitioner-appellant will be referred to as the “Commission,” and the defendants-appellees will be referred to as the “landowners.” The defendant-lessee, whose rights in this case are dependent on those of the lessors-owners, is included in the latter term.
The landowners possessed, as owners, two tracts of land separated by State Road 422. The road was a four-lane highway, running generally north and south. There were two southbound and two northbound lanes, with a depressed medial divider and a fence down the center of the median in the vicinity of landowners’ property. The larger tract of property was located on the east side of the highway and has always been, and is today, unimproved. This tract is referred to as tract 2. The smaller tract, referred to as tract 1, was raised, in part, to coincide with the grade of State Road 422, after the landowners had obtained a driveway permit to enter State Road 422. This permit has never been revoked. Landowners then filled in the state’s right-of-way between tract 1 and the highway. Upon, completion of a service station, landowners then operated said station from February 1, 1960, until March 1, 1961. These facts indicate that the landowners bad direct access to the southbound lanes of State Road 422, hut could not directly reach the northbound lanes due to the fence in the median.
The Commission started highway project I 025^4(23)238 on February 8, 1961. The project involved the construction of two frontage roads, one on either side of State Road 422, within the original right-of-way. These frontage roads extend north from the interchange of State Roads 422 and 44 (Placitas Interchange), abut landowners’ tracts 1760 feet from the interchange, and continue north to a dead-end 7500 feet north of the interchange.
Where the frontage roads abut the tracts, they are on the same grade as the original State Road 422. The Commission used the fill which landowners had placed in the right-of-way for their driveway when it constructed the frontage road in front of tract 1.
Guard fences were placed between the frontage roads and the original State Road 422 to prevent traffic from moving between them, except at the Placitas Interchange. Therefore, landowners must utilize the frontage roads to reach their tracts. In order to move a vehicle from the through lanes of State Road 422 to the tracts, one must transit the distances and grades of the interchange and travel about 1760 feet along the frontage roads.
The construction of the' projects,' and more particularly' the construction of the barrier fence between the frontage road and the southbound lanes, has caused a depreciation of the ’ market value of both tracts 1 and 2. The trial court concluded that the landowners had suffered compen-sable damage by reason of deprivation of access to tract 1, but no compensable damage as to tract 2. It is from the finding of compensable damage to tract 1 that the Commission appeals.
This is not the first case, resulting from the creation of limited access highways, to come before this court. The parties have presented excellent briefs which call attention to the variety of conflicting solutions and decisions made by the courts of this country. However, the general principles outlined in closely related New Mexico cases must be applied when applicable.
Both parties agree that it is clear that the state does not owe a duty to the landowner to send traffic past his property. The damage to defendant’s business, when a road is straightened, diverting traffic over a new part of the road, is not compensable damage. Board of County Com’rs of Santa Fe County v. Slaughter, 49 N.M. 141, 158 P.2d 859.
In State ex rel. State Highway Commission v. Silva, 71 N.M. 350, 378 P.2d 595, decided in 1962, this court announced principles which are applicable to the instant case. We there recognized that highway development altered the ingress and egress of a landowner. A new highway was constructed on the opposite side of the old highway on which the landowner abutted. The old highway became a frontage road and had a dead-end about 800 feet north of the property. The landowners were required to travel about 350 feet to the south to utilize a portion of a traffic interchange when leaving or entering their property. This court recognized that access to the highway which landowners abut is a property right of which they cannot be deprived without just compensation as provided in Art. II, § 20, New Mexico Constitution. However, in State ex rel. State Highway Commission v. Silva, we said:
“The growing use of automotive transportation naturally led to many problems connected with the health and general safety of the traveling public and to the necessity for restrictions and regulations concerning, the use of public highways. With the construction of modern, high-speed, through interstate highways came the necessity for controlled access to and from such highways in the interest of the safety of the public generally. It is well settled that limitation or regulation of highway traffic comes under the police power. * * * it cannot be doubted that the state, in the exercise of its police power, in the interest of the safety of the traveling public, has the right to limit or control access to certain highways. * * * ”
This court also considered the fact that the frontage road which the landowners were forced to use was a dead-end similar to the one in the instant case. In Silva we cited Mandell v. Board of Com’rs of Bernalillo County, 44 N.M. 109, 99 P.2d 108, and said:
“ * * * jf. js wen established in this jurisdiction that mere inconvenience resulting from the closing of a street does not give rise to a legal right in one so inconvenienced, when another reasonable, though perhaps not equally accessible, means of access to the main street system remains. * * * ”
And in conclusion stated :
“We think the better rule, and the weight of the more recent decisions, is that one whose property abuts upon a road or highway, a part of which is closed or vacated, has no special damage if his lands do not abut upon the closed portion thereof, if there remains a reasonable access to the main highway system. * * * ”
It is acknowledged that in the Silva case the limited access highway was completely new, and the landowners were left on the same pavement as they were before the construction. This difference will be treated later in the opinion.
This court considered another case involving the creation of a limited access highway in 1963. State ex rel. State Highway Commission v. Lavasek, 73 N.M. 33, 385 P.2d 361, in which the old road was completely removed. The state condemned additional property and built a four-lane through highway. It also constructed a frontage road which abutted the landowners’ property at one point. The frontage road required the landowners to travel about 700 feet west on it to join the westbound through lanes. They had to travel about 2100 feet and through an interchange to join eastbound traffic on the through lanes. Before construction, they had direct access to both directions of travel. This court held that the landowners could not receive compensation for the change in their access and stated:
“If the highway had been built on a new location without regard to its distance from the old highway on which the abutter’s property is located, that would have amounted only to diversion of traffic and would have been non-compensable even though it resulted in a complete loss of the business which the abutter had formerly enj oyed. * * If a new controlled-access highway is located on the right-of-way of the old conventional highway where the moving traffic would, except for traffic restrictions, have direct and easy ingress and egress from the highway to the abutter’s property, the state may, nevertheless, restrict the entrance and exit of the traveling public if such restriction appears reasonable as an exercise of its police power to regulate traffic, * * *; and the state, in the ’exercise of its power to construct highways and control traffic, is not liable for loss of trade to abutting landowners as a result of the exercise of its police power. * * * ”
In State ex rel. State Highway Commission v. Danfelser, 72 N.M. 361, 384 P.2d 241, this court considered a case much like the present one. In that case, the old highway was left intact as State Road 422 was left in this case. The state then constructed a frontage road between the landowners’ property and the through portion of the old highway. The only difference between that construction and the project in the present case is that the state condemned and agreed to pay for some of the landowners’ property on which they built the frontage road. The court defined the right of access, in this jurisdiction, as:
* * a right of ingress to and egress from land on an abutting street or highway and therefrom to the system of public roads, subject to reasonable traffic regulations and not affect •ed by diversion of traffic or reasonable circuity of travel.”
The court found that there was no unreasonable interference with appellee’s access and denied compensation to the owners. '
Landowners in the instant case attempt to distinguish this' case from the Silva and Lavasek cases by calling attention to the fact that, in those cases, the frontage road was made from the old highway, while in this case the frontage road was entirely new. They also attack the Danfelser case, where the frontage road was a new road, by indicating that several cases cited in that opinion involved new through roadways and old frontage roads.
This court cannot understand why a person’s rights as to compensation should differ if the state should decide to use the old road for a frontage road or use it for the through lanes of a limited access highway. Under the definition of access in this jurisdiction, such a difference should make no change in the right to compensation for deprivation of access.
Landowners point out that the state cannot require an owner to use a secondary road at right angle to the main road, nor can it force use of a second road. The landowners are not so required in this case. They are still on State Road 422, even though some circuity of travel is required to reach the through lanes of the road.
Landowners also refer to earlier New Mexico decisions in support of their contention. Those same cases were' brought to this court’s attention in the Danfelser case. At that time, the court indicated that the change of grade situation referred to in Board of County Com’rs of Lincoln County v. Harris, 69 N.M. 315, 366 P.2d 710, was not in point in that case; and it is not in point in this case where the only change in grade occurs once a vehicle reaches the interchange.
New Mexican Railroad Co. v. Hendricks, 6 N.M. 611, 30 P. 901, and Bennett v. Nations, 49 N.M. 389, 164 P.2d 1019, were also considered in the Danfelser case, and the court stated that these cases appeared to involve total deprivation of access without any indication of reasonable access to the highway system. That is not the situation here.
The definition of access noted above requires us to consider the circuity of travel required of the landowners and determine if it is reasonable, for if it is not, landowners have been deprived of access.
The Commission appears to seek a definite rule by which circuity can be measured and considered in each case. This is not only impossible, but it is unnecessary to do so in deciding the case before us. The attorneys for both parties have illustrated in their briefs that a wide range of solutions to this type of problem have been held reasonable or unreasonable, depending on the particular facts and the particular jurisdiction involved.
The circuity of travel set up when a limited access highway is constructed, by the very nature of such highways, may require that through traffic be routed around the through lanes and interchanges to frontage roads designed for local traffic. The reverse will be true when the local traffic on the frontage roads is directed to the through lanes.
In the present case, landowners seem to' object to transiting the grades of the interchange. While this court recognizes that some grades can be so precipitous as tó be unreasonable, we do not feel that the ordinary underpass or overpass involves unreasonable grades for the modern motor vehicle.
Both parties in this case stress the number of extra feet a vehicle must travel to reach the property involved. It is not solely the number of feet which must be considered, because the number and type of curves, as well as the attainable speed, all have a bearing on reasonableness. Here the state has required that through traffic, desiring to reach landowners’ property, exit on an interchange one-third of a mile from the. tracts and follow a frontage road for that distance. .
The facts are not clear as to the method which northbound traffic used to reach the tracts before the project was constructed, but it does not appear that the new route’ is any more difficult than the old route. The southbound traffic, which had direct access before the construction, must now travel one-third of a mile past the tract's, turn onto an interchange, and then follow the frontage roads back 'down the right-of-way. We do not feel that this involves unreasonable circuity of travel. Therefore, landowners have not been deprived of access.
Landowners feel that the issuance,of a driveway permit, which has never been, revoked, and upon which they improved tract 1, enhances their position.
We have held that the landowners stili have access to State Road 422. The driveway permit is still being honored in that the landowners are permitted to cross the state’s right-of-way from their property to the pavement of the frontage road. Legally, they still have a driveway on State Róad: 422.
Even if we were to assume that the permit was .revoked, or revoked in part,1 the law affords no relief in favor of the' landowners. It is clear that a permit is a" license, and the words are often used synonymously. Parsons v. People, 32 Colo. 221, 76 P. 666; Arlington Cemetery Corporation v. Bindig, 212 Ga. 698, 95 S.E.2d 378. Such license may be revoked in the exercise of police power of the state, Fochi v. Splain, Sup., 36 N.Y.S.2d 774; Latreille v. Michigan State Board of Chiropractic Exam., 357 Mich. 440, 98 N.W.2d 611, whether or not the power of revocation is reserved, Vincent Petroleum Corporation v. Culver City, 43 Cal.App.2d 511, 111 P.2d 433; State ex rel. Morris v. West Virginia Racing Commission, 133 W.Va. 179, 55 S.E. 2d 263, and even though the licensee has expended money in reliance on the permit. State ex rel. Orleans v. Louisiana State Boxing Commission, 163 La. 418, 112 So. 31; Bland v. Bregman, 123 Conn. 61, 192 A. 703; Hathaway v. Yakima Water, Light and Power Co., 14 Wash. 469, 44 P. 896.
The landowners call attention to the fact that property values often rise when a road is built through a given tract. This increase in value is used to off-set the amount which the state must pay in eminent domain proceedings to take a portion of a tract for a road. Landowners argue that when the state so mitigates damages, and later destroys the increase in land value without compensating the owner, the state has essentially taken the amount originally used in mitigation. But, as landowners admit, such a situation was not shown in this case, and we do not decide the point.
The cause is reversed and remanded to the district court with direction that the judgment heretofore entered be vacated and that judgment be entered -in favor of the Commission.
It is so ordered.
COMPTON, J., concurs. | [
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] |
OPINION
NOBLE, Justice.
George Koury, the defendant below, has appealed from a judgment against him and in favor of Dunson Contractors, Inc., plain tiff below, on account of repairs made by plaintiff to a building owned by defendant.
The defendant (appellant) assigned as error:
“1. The Court erred in denying and overruling the plaintiff’s [sic defendant’s] motion to dismiss on the grounds that plaintiffs are not licensed to do steel work in connection with fabrication of a supporting beam for a building, and therefore were not able, under the laws of the State of New Mexico, to claim a lien.
“2. The Court erred in denying dismissal of the action on the grounds and for the reason that the work was not properly done, and that there was an implied warranty by the plaintiff that the work would do the job that the plaintiff was charging for, and that this work having failed to support the beam, the plaintiff was not entitled to payment until he had done the work properly.”
The district court made findings of fact, none of which are attacked, either by point or argument, as not being substantially supported by the evidence. The facts so found by the trial court are accordingly binding upon us as the facts upon which the case rests in this court. Covington v. Rutledge Drilling Company, 71 N.M. 120, 376 P.2d 180; Town of Mesilla v. Mesilla Design Center & Book Store, 71 N.M. 124, 376 P.2d 183; Kerr v. Akard Brothers Trucking Company, 73 N.M. 50, 385 P.2d 570, and the judgment of the trial court must be affirmed if it is sustained by those facts. Kleeman v. Fogerson, 74 N.M. 688, 397 P.2d 716.
The defendant’s contention that plaintiff’s action is barred by §§ 67-16-16 and 67-16-17, N.M.S.A.1953, for failure of plaintiff to have a contractor’s license to perform the work he did is obviously without merit in view of the following unchallenged findings by the trial court:
“3. That Contractor’s License No. A 10240 held at all times by the plaintiff authorizes it to do excavating, trenching, welding, water supply, sewage, including disposal and gas lines.
“7. That the work done involved the cutting and threading of steel braces and welding said braces to steel plates and falls within that part of plaintiff’s contractor’s license which authorizes plaintiff to contract welding work.”
The court’s findings of fact likewise dispose of the argument that the work was improperly done and that there was an implied warranty that it would correct the defect. Contrary facts found by the court are:
“6. That plaintiff’s bid was for work which was to be done in a manner specified by defendant * * *
“8. That plaintiff performed the work agreed upon by plaintiff and defendant in the manner specified by defendant in a workmanlike manner * *
Those unchallenged findings support the judgment and require its affirmance. The judgment appealed from will be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
MOISE and COMPTON, JJ., concur.
OPINION ON MOTION FOR ATTORNEY FEES
NOBLE, Justice.
Motion has been filed for allowance of attorney fees under the provisions of § 61-2-13, N.M.S.A. 1953. Attorney fees, if allowable, are to be fixed by the trial court in its discretion for handling of plaintiff’s claim both in the district court and in the Supreme Court. Mitchell v. McCutcheon, 33 N.M. 78, 260 P. 1086; Skidmore v. Eby, 57 N.M. 669, 681, 262 P.2d 370; Home Plumbing and Contracting Co. v. Pruitt, 70 N.M. 182, 372 P.2d 378.
The cause will be remanded with direction to the district court, in its discretion, to allow and tax in favor of plaintiff (appel-lee) and against defendant (appellant), as additional costs, a reasonable fee for ap-pellee’s counsel in this court, if a fee is allowable herein under provisions of § 61-2-13, N.M.S.A. 1953.
'The opinion heretofore filed will stand except as modified herein, and the mandate-will issue in accordance with the original’ opinion as modified herein.
It is so ordered.
MOISE and COMPTON, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
LaFEL E. OMAN, Judge, Court of Appeals.
This is a suit for personal injuries sustained by plaintiff-appellant, Zoe Mo-zert, as a result of a fall into an unguarded stairwell situate in a storeroom on premises owned by defendant-appellee, Otto Noeding. Plaintiff seeks reversal of a judgment in favor of defendant entered upon a verdict directed by the trial court at the close of plaintiff’s case in chief.
There are some questions- as to what the facts were in certain particulars. However, in considering the motion for a directed verdict at the close of. her case, plaintiff was entitled to have the evidence, together with all reasonable inferences deducible therefrom, viewed in the light most favorable to her. Sandoval v. Brown, 66 N.M. 235, 346 P.2d 551; Romero v. Shelton, 70 N.M. 425, 374 P. 2d 301.
In so viewing the evidence, we find that defendant owned and operated, on the. same premises where the -storeroom was situate, an art gallery, gift shop, museum and some apartments. The storeroom was used primarily in connection with the apartments, was small, had a dirt floor, had no windows, and Had but one door. There was one overhead light fixture in the room which was equipped with a 25-watt bulb. Near one end of the ro.om and diagonally opposite the doorway was an unguarded stairwell leading to a small basement room in which there was á water heater. The stairs themselves were constructed of rough lumber.
On the day of her fall, plaintiff had gone to the gallery for the purpose of getting a “pegboard,” which was approximately 2Yz feet in width by 6 feet in length, and which defendant had theretofore indicated she could have. When she asked him for the pegboard on the day in question, he informed her that he believed it was in the storeroom. She had never been in the storeroom, which was situate about 200 feet from the gallery. As he started for the storeroom, he stated to her that he 'was not sure what piece, of pegboard. she had in mind and that, she had better come with him and look, for it.-
They proceeded together to the storeroom which he unlocked. He entered and she followed. ■ The door was left open to admit light, hut it was still dim inside-. The room contained a work table, items of furniture, tools and junk, which were stored primarily against the walls, leaving a somewhat limited area in which to-walk about. However, the floor in the open area was not cluttered.
Upon entering the room, plaintiff looked about in an area which was slightly visible by reason of the light entering through the doorway. As her eyes became more accustomed to the dim light, she looked and moved further into the room in her search for the pegboard. She came to what appeared to her to be. a partition. She took a small step and bent forward to peer around this partition. About that time the dirt floor at the edge of the stairwell broke under her feet and she fell down the stairs.
Plaintiff and ■ defendant had been in this small room searching for the pegboard for a period of from two to four minutes before her fall. He had not turned on the light and had not warned her of the presence of the stairwell, athough he was fully familiar with the storeroom and with the fact that the unguarded stairwell was difficult to see unless a person knew it was there.
In her brief, in chief, plaintiff has set forth three points relied on for reversal, but has broken them down into five points for argument. Her argument under the first three of these points is that there was sufficient evidence to submit to the jury the question of defendant’s negligence in maintaining a dangerous and hazardous condition in the storeroom, and in failing to warn or otherwise protect her against harm from such condition, regardless of whether her status 'was that of an invitee or a licensee.
Her position as to her status is that there was evidence from which the jury could have found her to be an invitee, but, even if she were a licensee, there was still evidence from which the jury could have found defendant breached his -duties owing to her under the cir'cumstances of the case.
Our review of the record convinces us that plaintiff is correct. Defendant is also in accord. He does not resist plaintiff’s arguments under these points, but asserts in his answer brief that for the sake of the argument he will assume that it can reasonably be deduced from the evidence that a dangerous condition existed and that he failed to warn plaintiff, knowing she was unaware of the hazard. He then argues that the trial court was still correct in directing the verdict for him, because plaintiff’s evidence established as a matter of law that she ■ was contributorily negligent. He asserts that ■“the sole basis of appellee’s [defendant’s] motion for' directed- verdict was appellant’s [plaintiff’s] own negligence, proximately contributing to her accident.” .
In oral argument before this court he conceded that there was evidence from 'which the jury might have found him to be negligent, but he again strongly urged that the evidence established plaintiff’s contributory negligence as a matter of law.
However, in the arguments made to the trial court on the motion for a directed verdict, a great deal was said by both parties as to the status of plaintiff at the time of her fall and the duties owed to her by defendant. In view of this, we feel it proper to comment briefly upon the' status of plaintiff on defendant’s premises and the duty owed to her by defendant. ■
It would serve no useful purpose •to detail the evidence as to the relationship between the parties during the six weeks of their acquaintance prior to the accident, and which led up to the] search for the pegboard. On a retrial of the case, and 'after the defendant has, adduced his evidence, there will undoubtedly be additional evidentiary matters to be considerered by the court, and very likely by the jury, on the question of whether the plaintiff was a licensee or a business invitee. If she was not a business invitee, she was certainly a licensee.'
A business invitee, or- business visitor, is defined in Restatement. of the Law of Torts 2d, § 332(3) as follows: . . .
“A business visitor is a person who is invited to enter or remain on land for a 'purpose directly Or indirectly connected with business dealings with the possessor of the land.”
See Sandoval v. Board of Regents of N. M. State Univ., 75 N.M. 261, 403 P.2d 699, wherein we quoted and adopted the definition from 2 Restatement of the Law of Torts, § 332, which is identical with the above quoted definition, except there has been eliminated from the definition in the second edition the words “or permitted.”
In Crenshaw v. Firestone Tire & Rubber Company, 72 N.M. 84, 380 P.2d 828, and again in Sandoval v. Board of Regents, supra, we quoted with approval the rule relative to the duties owed by a possessor of land to his business invitees as set forth in 2 Restatement of the Law of Torts, § 343. This rule'of liability is now set forth in Restatement of the Law of Torts 2d, § 343, in the following language:
“A possessor of land is subject to liability for physical harm caused to his .invitees by a condition on the land if, but only if, he
(a)knows or by the exercise of reasonable care would discover the condition, and should realize that it involves an unreasonable risk of harm to such invitees, and
(b) should expect that they will not discover or realize the danger, or will fail to protect themselves against it, and
(c) fails to exercise reasonable care to protect them against the danger.”
If on retrial of this case the court should determine as a matter of law, or the jury should determine, under proper instructions by. the court, that plaintiff was a licensee, then the applicable rule of liability is set forth in Restatement of the Law of Torts 2d, § 342, as follows:
“A possessor of land is subject to liability for physical harm caused to licensees by a condition on the land if, but only if,
(a) the possessor knows or has reason to know of the condition and should realize that it involves an unreasonable risk of harm to such licensees, and should expect that they will not discover or realize the danger, and
(b) he fails to exercise reasonable care to make the condition safe, or toi warn the licensees of the condition and risk involved, and
(c) the licensees do not know or have reason to know of the condition and risk involved.”
A licensee is defined in Restatement of the Law of Torts 2d, § 330, as “a person who is privileged to enter or remain on land only by virtue of the possessor’s; consent.”
Under the facts of this case as set forth above, it is quite apparent that it was a question for the jury to decide whether or not defendant had breached the duties owing by him to plaintiff, regardless of whether plaintiff was on defendant’s premises as a business invitee or as a licensee.
As heretofore stated, defendant seeks support for the directed verdict upon the ground that plaintiff’s conduct, in moving forward into the dimly lighted room until she fell into the stairwell, constituted a failure on her part to exercise ordinary care for her own safety, and thus precluded her from recovery as a matter of law. He relies heavily upon the case of Boyce v. Brewington, 49 N.M. 107, 158 P.2d 124, 163 A.L.R. 583. In the annotation appearing in 163 A.L.R. at pages 587-656, entitled, “Entering Dark Place on Unfamiliar Premises as Contributory Negligence” a great number of cases have been cited wherein plaintiff has been found to have been contributorily negligent as a matter of law under the particular facts, and a great number of cases have also been cited wherein the question of contributory negligence has been held to be a jury question under the particular facts of those cases.
Ordinarily, the question of contributory negligence is a fact question to be determined by the jury. Rivera v. Ancient City Oil Corporation, 61 N.M. 473, 302 P.2d 953. The question of contributory negligence is properly taken from the jury only when reasonable minds cannot differ on the question and readily reach the conclusion that plaintiff’s conduct falls below the standard to which he should have conformed for his own protection, and that this negligent conduct on his part proximately contributed with the negligence of the defendant in causing the injury. Button v. Metz, 66 N.M. 485, 349 P.2d 1047; Canter v. Lowrey, 69 N.M. 81, 364 P.2d 140.
In this case, there is evidence from which it can be found, or reasonably inferred, that the plaintiff, at the express or implied invitation of the defendant, was aiding him in a search for an object in a small and dimly lighted storeroom; she was moving cautiously and as her senses of sight and feeling directed her; she knew that defendant, who was familiar with the room, was also moving about and searching for the object; this search had continued from two to four minutes, and, by reason of the small size of the room, neither of them could have moved more than a few feet during this period of time; the defendant had neither warned plaintiff of the danger of the unguarded stairwell, nor had he reduced the danger by turning on the light, even though such was readily at hand; and finally, she was precipitated downward by the breaking of the earth ■under her féet at- the edge of the stairwell.
The facts of this case are quite unlike those of Boyce v. Brewington, supra. In that case, in relating the evidence which .we held sufficient to bar plaintiff’s recovery, we stated:
“The evidence is uncontradicted that the plaintiff when inspecting the property found the door to the cellar or basement closed. The door opened inward and we find the plaintiff standing at the' entrance of a cellar door; no lights, bar or barrier are about the flight of steps; the natural light is inadequate; she is inspecting the house with a view of buying it; the darkness confronting her when opening the door to the cellar or basement was sufficient notice to warn her of dangers she was unable to see. The failure of the plaintiff to exercise ordinary care for her own safety when opening a closed door and taking a step forward into an unlighted stairway, thereby contributing to her own- injury, as a matter of law will preclude a recovery on her part under the evidence in this case, and it was error for the trial court to refuse to direct a verdict in favor of defendant.”
Under the facts here, we cannot say that reasonable minds are compelled to reach the conclusion that plaintiff was negligent and that her negligence proxi'mately contributed to cause her injury. The question was one for the jury. In 'addition to the case of Boyce v. Brewington, supra, and the cases cited in the annotation in 163 A.L.R. supra, see Barakos v. Sponduris, 64 N.M. 125, 325 P.2d 712; Falen v. Monessen Amusement Co., 363 Pa. 168, 69 A.2d 65, 14 A.L.R.2d 775.
The remaining point of argument, which is in no way determinative of this 'appeal, is that the court erred in refusing to admit into evidence a written statement made by the defendant within a week or two after the accident. The language 'which plaintiff particularly wished admitted was that “There is no guard rail and you can’t see the hole unless you know it is there.”
The statement was offered as an admission of a party. It was excluded by the trial court on the ground that it was not admissible as “direct proof of any of the facts stated therein.” The trial court announced that it could be used for impeachment purposes only, and only if defendant should be called as a witness and made statements contradictory to those contained in the written statement. The ■court did, however, state as a part of his reasons for refusal of the' tender that “In view of the fact that the statement was made a week or two later, I question its use for any purpose except impeachment. I was under the impression when we were talking earlier that it was made the next day or two. Now from the statement, it appears to be a week or two later.”
Defendant was called as an adverse witness, and the particular matters of concern to plaintiff contained in the statement were largely' developed by the examination of defendant. However, since we anticipate this question may very well arise again on' retrial, we call attention to the fact that an admission of a party is admissible as substantive evidence, and not merely as impeachment. An admission may have impeachment value, but its admissibility is not dependent on this element, and its probative value is not confined to this purpose alone. The time of the .making of the admission is generally immaterial on the question of its admissibility, and a statement made within a week or two of an event such as the one in- this case would hardly seem so remote in time as to preclude its admission. Seé Wigmore on Evidence, 3rd Ed. [1940], Vol. IV, §§ 1048, 1051; Jones on Evidence, Civil and Crim., 5th Ed., Vol. 2, §§ 334, 336; The Chamberlayne Trial Evidence, Tompkins [1936], 2d Ed., §§ 513, 515, 520, 534, 540-541; McCormick on Evidence [1954], § 239.
It follows from what has been said 'that the judgment must be; reversed and the cause remanded for a new trial. •
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and CHAVEZ, J., concur. | [
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] |
J. NORMAN HODGES, District Judge.
Appellant, warden Cox, has appealed from the decision of the district court which made permanent a writ of habeas corpus, applied for by appellee, and which released and discharged appellee from the custody of the warden.
Paragraph (b) of the Petitioner’s Application for Writ of Habeas Corpus contains the only grounds set forth for the writ of habeas corpus, as follows:
“That Petitioner who is uneducated and inexperienced in legal matters, and had only attained the age of 18 years at the time of his conviction, was not represented by counsel at the time of his conviction, did not know he was entitled to be represented by counsel, and was not asked by the prosecuting attorney or the Court at any time whether he desired the assistance of counsel, all in violation of his constitutional rights.”
Without objection, the petitioner and only witness at the habeas corpus hearing, testified concerning a preliminary hearing or proceedings before the justice of the peace, as well as the proceedings before the district court of Lea County held in 1958.
The trial court, in the habeas corpus hearing, made fifteen findings of fact, several of which pertain to the proceedings in the justice of the peace court.
At the close of the habeas corpus hearing, the appellant made a motion to quash the writ of habeas corpus on the grounds:
1. That appellee was not entitled to counsel at a preliminary hearing, because it was not a critical stage of the proceedings, but, if so, he later waived his right at arraignment before the district court.
2. That the appellee intelligently waived his right to counsel at the district court arraignment.
3. That appellee did not sustain his burden of proof in obtaining a writ of habeas corpus.
Both parties submitted requested findings of fact and conclusions of law prior to entry of judgment in the habeas corpus matter.
The testimony is uncontradicted that petitioner was, at the time of arraignment before the district court in 1958, 18 years of age, had a fifth grade education and was inexperienced in criminal proceedings. He testified in the habeas corpus hearing (1964) that he did not understand his right to counsel in 1958; and, as indicated in the findings of fact, the trial court believed him.
Appellant’s first point argues that the proceedings in the justice of the peace court in 1958 were not a critical stage of the proceedings and therefore appellee was not entitled to court-appointed counsel at the preliminary hearing or other proceedings before the justice of the peace. The court’s finding of fact No. 7, reads as follows:
“7. That for this Petitioner the preliminary hearing was a critical stage of the proceedings leading to his conviction and a commitment to the custody of this Respondent, and lack of counsel at that time prejudiced this Petitioner and denied him due process of law.”
A review of the record does not disclose any substantial evidence showing that the preliminary hearing was a critical stage of the proceedings. There is very little substantial evidence of what occurred at the proceedings before the justice of the peace, except that the petitioner entered a plea of guilty. Actually, this issue was not within the pleadings, but to some extent was tried by implied consent. There was no evidence that the plea of guilty in the justice of the peace court was later used against him; no pressure or compulsion has been shown by reason of the prior plea of guilty, and no prejudice to the defendant is shown.
Failure to assign counsel prior to preliminary examination of an indigent defendant in a non-capital case is not a ground for vacating a conviction or sentence based on a plea of guilty, without a showing that prejudice resulted therefrom. Sanders v. Cox, 74 N.M. 524, 395 P.2d 353; Latham v. Crouse (C.A. 10, 1963) 320 F.2d 120; Lovato v. Cox (C.A. 10, 1965) 344 F.2d 916. § 21-1-1(92), N.M.S.A.1953, effective September 1, 1964, provides for appointed counsel for indigents at preliminary hearings, but prior to that time, there was no such requirement, in non-capital cases, absent a showing of prejudice.
The appellant’s second point argues that the court’s findings of fact numbered 5, 6 and 12 are not supported by the evidence. Appellee argues that appellant failed to attack finding No. 4 which is a logical basis for findings numbered 5 and 6. These findings read, as follows:
“4. That at all material times Petitioner was 18 years of age and had not gone beyond the fifth grade of elementary school, and did not understand the nature of his right to counsel, or of criminal proceedings.”
“5. That in consequence of his age and limited education and understanding, Petitioner did not intelligently and competently waive his right to counsel at the time of his arraignment before the Justice of the Peace Court and District Court.”
“6. That in consequence of his age and limited education and understanding, Petitioner did not intelligently and competently waive, by his action at the time of arraignment, his right to counsel at preliminary hearing.”
“12. That Petitioner was entitled to counsel at all critical stages of the proceedings leading to his conviction and commitment to the New Mexico State Penitentiary, and was not provided with counsel at arraignment before the Justice of the Peace Court, or in the District Court.”
Appellee contends that the issue of intelligent waiver of the right to counsel, was strictly a factual issue which was determined by the trial court at the habeas corpus hearing; that there was substantial evidence to support the court’s findings; and that this court cannot weigh conflicting testimony and substitute its judgment for that of the trial court. However, appellant moved to quash the writ of habeas corpus because appellee did not sustain his burden of proof. This motion fairly raised the question of whether appellee did prove by a preponderance of the evidence that his waiver of counsel was not understandingly and intelligently given.
Although the trial court at the habeas corpus hearing had the opportunity to observe the appellee, it should be remembered that the trial court at arraignment also had this opportunity, when the following colloquy occurred:
“MR. LOVE: Are you represented by a lawyer, Mr. Bouldin?
DEFENDANT: No, sir.
MR. LOVE: There’s been an Information filed here against you in District Court that charges you with a felony, a penitentiary offense, armed robbery. Do you understand that, if you plead guilty or are found guilty, you may be sent to the penitentiary?
DEFENDANT: Yes, sir.
THE COURT: Do you have any way of hiring a lawyer?
DEFENDANT: No, sir.
THE COURT: Do you want the Court to appoint a lawyer for you?
DEFENDANT: No, sir.
THE COURT: You do not?
DEFENDANT: No, sir.
MR. LOVE: Do you understand, if you don’t have a lawyer and don’t have the money to hire one, the Court will appoint a lawyer at the Court’s expense, and, knowing that, you do not want a lawyer ?
DEFENDANT: No, sir.
MR. LOVE: This is the Information. (The Information was read to the Defendant)
THE COURT: To that charge, how do you plead? Guilty or not guilty ?
DEFENDANT: Guilty.
MR. LOVE: Mr. Bouldin, have any promises been made to you by anyone to induce you to make a plea of guilty in this case?
DEFENDANT: No, sir.
MR. LOVE: Have any threats been made against you by anyone to induce you to make a plea of guilty?
DEFENDANT: No, sir.
MR. LOVE: Is your plea free and voluntary of your own accord?
DEFENDANT: Yes, sir.
MR. LOVE: Do you have anything to say before the Judge imposes sentence upon you?
DEFENDANT: Yes.
THE COURT: Mr. Love, Judge Armijo will be here the week of April 21. I think you might as well make arrangements to try that other boy at that time. And sentence will be deferred on this until the disposition of the other case.”
Later, before Judge Armijo, the following colloquy took place:
“THE COURT: Your name is Novel Ponta Bouldin?
DEFENDANT: Yes, sir.
THE COURT: You have heretofore entered a plea of guilty to the charge, have you not?
DEFENDANT: Yes, sir.
THE COURT: Have you anything to say why the judgment and sentence of the Court should not be pronounced upon you ?
DEFENDANT: No, sir.
THE COURT: Who was your attorney?
MR. LOVE: Your Flonor, this man had no attorney. He was advised of his rights by Judge Brand and waived the rights to an attorney.
THE COURT: I see. He has waived the right of an attorney.. Have you anything to say why the judgment and sentence of the Court should not be now pronounced upon you?
DEFENDANT: No, sir.”
The answers are responsive to the questions: Three times the defendant declined appointed counsel. Six years later he testifies he did not understand his right to counsel. Such contention should be viewed with caution.
The following statement from Sandoval v. Tinsley (10 Cir. 1964) 338 F.2d 48, involving a 19 year old boy, is particularly applicable:
“The judgment of the state trial court certainly can not be ‘lightly’ set aside on such collateral attack as this, and that judgment ‘carries with it a presumption of regularity’ even as stated for federal courts in Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458, 58 S.Ct. 1019, 82 L.Ed. 1461. Where there - is some showing of affirmative waiver, the burden of proof rests on the petitioner to establish that he did not competently and intelligently waive his constitutional right to the assistance of counsel, and that he must during the hearing on habeas corpus meet the burden and convince the court by a preponderance of the evidence that he did not properly waive his right-to counsel. Carnley v. Cochran, 369 U.S. 506, 82 S.Ct. 884, 8 L.Ed.2d 70; Johnson v. Zerbst, supra; Panagos v. United States, 324 F.2d 764 (10th Cir.); Moore v. [State of] Michigan, 355 U.S. 155, 78 S.Ct. 191, 2 L.Ed. 2d 167.”
A careful analysis of three recent decisions of the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals, Sandoval v. Tinsley, supra; Lovato v. Cox, supra, and Shawan v. Cox, 350 F.2d 909, all involving waiver of counsel, places the instant case in the category of Sandoval and Lovato, which upheld waivers of counsel, rather than Shawan, which did not.
In Carpentier v. Lainson, 248 Iowa 1275, 84 N.W.2d 32, 71 A.L.R.2d 1151, the trial court, in a habeas corpus hearing, held that a 17 year old boy could not waive the right to counsel, basing its decision on age alone. The supreme court reversed and pointed out that he did not claim illiteracy, mental incompetency, feeble-mindedness or any other abnormal traits. The supreme court concluded that age is not the controlling factor and that it was incumbent upon the petitioner not only to show his immature years, but also the other reasons he was not then capable of understanding, comprehending and exercising proper judgment. The court in that case further said:
“It seems, however, in most of the cases we have been able to find, the rule is applied without exception that the defendant must waive, intentionally, understandably, and competently, without coercion, to be effective; and to determine this fact, evidence as to his education, mental capacity, experience, and understanding, is most important. Whether or not one accused of crime has waived his right to assistance of counsel, regardless of age, must depend in each case up on particular facts and circumstances surrounding that case, including the background, experience and conduct of the accused. We should furthermore take into consideration whether petitioner was ignorant of legal procedure, confused and bewildered, as well as the haste in placing him on trial, the lack of evidence, and the complexity of the charge, and the pressure, or lack thereof, to get him to enter his plea. If defendant is competent, knows what he is doing, is aware of the offense charged and its penalty, as well as other courtroom procedure, so as not to be confused or frightened by arraignment, surely such a waiver, intentionally done, must be allowed to stand.”
There is an extensive annotation in 71 A.L.R.2d 1162, pertaining to waiver of right to counsel by accused minors. Footnote 2, on page 1162 of the annotation, reads in part:
“ * * * It may be said that almost invariably a court’s decision in the area under consideration depends upon its estimate of the total situation surrounding a purported waiver, including such relevant factors as the age, education, and prior criminal experience of the accused, his mental state, his financial condition, and the inducements offered him or pressure put on him to plead guilty without the advice of counsel.”
We hold that because appellee was years of age, had a fifth grade education, had no prior experience in criminal proceedings, together with his personal interpretation of the advice given on his rights to appointed counsel are not sufficient reasons to show why he was not then capable of understanding, comprehending and exercising proper judgment. To hold otherwise would create a rule based on a specific amount of formal education and ignore a person’s actual intelligence.
In the instant case, there was no allegation or proof of ignorance, illiteracy, mental incompetency, feeblemindedness or any other abnormal traits; nor has any inducement or pressure been shown. Appellee did not sustain the burden of proof in showing that his express waiver of counsel was not intelligently and competently made; and the respondent’s motion to quash the writ of habeas corpus should have been granted.
Courts should always act with caution where minors (and adults) are prosecuted for criminal offenses, but final judgments of courts should be respected and, even in habeas corpus proceedings, should be upheld unless it clearly appears that defendant has been denied a right guaranteed to him. Wade v. Skeen, 140 W.Va. 565, 85 S.E.2d 845.
Appellant further argues that the court’s finding of fact No. 11 is not the basis for any relief. However, a review of the court’s conclusions of law and the order dis charging appellee do not indicate any specific relief was granted on the basis of this finding.
The judgment of the trial court is reversed, with direction to discharge the writ and to remand the prisoner to custody of the appellant.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and CHAVEZ and COMPTON, JJ., concur. | [
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Ordered that said application for alternative writ of prohibition be and the same is hereby denied. | [
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COMPTON, Justice.
Claiming total disability by reason of an accidental injury arising out of and in the course of his employment, the plaintiff has appealed from a judgment dismissing his claim for workmen’s compensation.
The court found:
“2. That the plaintiff during the course of his employment, while employed by defendant Sayers Well Servicing Company, Inc., sustained an accidental injury on July 4, 1963, from which he was completely recovered on July 8, 1963, and thereafter was not disabled to any extent”
' Appellant relies for a reversal upon the ground that he now suffers from traumatic neurosis and compensation neurosis resulting from the accidental injury. He argues from this that the court’s finding, though well supported as to his physical recovery, lacks support in the evidence as to a psychological condition resulting in his present disability.
The facts are not in dispute and we quote from appellant’s statement of facts:
“STATEMENT OF THE FACTS
“Plaintiff suffered an accidental injury while in the employment of defendants on July 4, 1963, when slack was permitted to come into a wire line or cable, and it hit plaintiff in the side of the head, catapulting him 12 feet in the air in a complete flip. He was struck in the jaw and behind the ear. After being helped up and placed on the back end of a pickup truck, he was dizzy, couldn’t see, and was ‘shaking like a dog.’ His fellow employees took him to Dr. Lowery for treatment on July 4, 1963. He was permitted to return to work on July 8, 1963. Plaintiff continued to have dizzy spells and blackouts both off the job and on the job, until defendants’ physician, Dr. Lowery, referred plaintiff to Dr. Jack Dunn in Lubbock on July 22, 1964. There, he was given a series of tests and examined by Dr. Dunn, a neurosurgeon, Dr. Smith, a psychiatrist, and Dr. Sheffield, an internist. Plaintiff has continued to have dizzy and blackout spells and has been unable to work since July 22, 1963.
“Plaintiff is 36 years old, has a ninth-grade education and has been working in the oilfields, for approximately 20 years. Plaintiff’s mother testified that of her five children, he was the healthiest. He always enjoyed perfect health, and has been a hard worker all of his life since he began working in the fields when nine years old. Prior to this accident, plaintiff has sustained numerous injuries while working for various employers. Plaintiff had lost no time from work because of illness for some ten years prior to this injury. He has never had any prior injury to his head, nor dizzy spells, nor blackout spells until this accident on July 4, 1963. Since this injury, plaintiff’s mother has observed his having the blackout spells, and she testified that she could not ‘commence to count’ the number of spells he has had, and that at some times, he has had as many as two spells in one day.
“Plaintiff’s former employer’s tool pusher, when asked what kind of a worker plaintiff was, testified: ‘He was real good, dependable.’ Shortly prior to this injury, plaintiff had completed a two-year contract working for a drilling company overseas. Prior to going overseas, he and his wife were divorced, and his wife was awarded custody of their four children. While overseas; plaintiff 'was informed that his former wife’s husband had molested his two daughters, aged 13 and 14, and he returned to the United States, and the Oklahoma Court awarded custody of all four children to plaintiff. The Court costs, attorney’s fees, and transportation expenses in securing custody of his four children amounted to $4,-000.00 Upon his return to the United States, plaintiff moved his children from Duncan, Oklahoma, to Hobbs, New Mexico, to secure employment and to get away from his former wife and her husband. Plaintiff worked in Hobbs until his injur)r. Plaintiff testified that he has a great concern for the welfare of his children since he is unemployed and unable to support them and expresses fear that if his former wife learns of his disa-ability that she and her husband will take the children away from him.”
The appeal turns on the testimony of medical experts. Dr. Jerome H. Smith, called by the claimant, testified that the claimant’s disability was a combination of traumatic neurosis and a compensation neurosis resulting from the injury. We quote the pertinent part of his testimony:
“Q Doctor, in you[r] opinion, is the traumatic and compensation neurosis like you found Mr. Ross to have. The result the ■ injury- described tcra medical probability?
A" Yes sir.
^ , ^ H* ‡ % ‡
Q The injury that he sustained, I suppose that is synonymous with the word trauma, if I am not, then- correct me on it — he got hit on the head. Can you state that that injury or that trauma causes his disability that he may have had when you examined him as a reasonable medical certainty, Doctor, or as a medical possibility, as a psychiatric possibility ?
A I think it would be the reasonable medical certainty. In other words, you can’t have a traumatic neurosis or compensation neurosis without having something to develop and precipitate the traumatic neurosis or precipitate something to develop or give someone motivation compensation.
* * * * * *
Q And you say it is a combination of compensation neurosis and traumatic neurosis?
A Yes sir.
Q Now would you explain what you mean by traumatic neurosis, in a layman’s language ?
A Well, one who is subjected to repeated injury on the job as they get older they’re naturally going to get more fearful of being hurt and everytime they are hurt they are more reluctant to go back into the job.
Q Then actually just a minor injury of no physical impairment to his body as far as doing work and everything is concerned can trigger this off and the two combined can cause him to have blackouts that he has testified he has ?
A Yes, it certainly can.
Q Just a small injury?
A It can be a small injury or it can be a large — ”
Dr. Smith was unable to fix any definite time it would require the claimant to recover from his present disability.
Dr. Donald M. Lowery, called by the employer, testified as follows:
“Q Do you have an opinion, Doctor, whether or not he is now physically able to obtain employment and retain it?
A If Mr. Ross is still having blackout spells from this standpoint, I doubt that he would be employable from a physical standpoint as far as his ability to work, there is no reason which would prevent him from doing it. There is no heart trouble, no lung trouble or difficulties with arms or legs. Physically he seems in good health; emotionally and and mentally is something else.
Q That would include also, would it not, Doctor no organic neurological injury?
A No neurological organic injury, by that we mean hemorrhage.
Q Then outside of the psychiatric field it is your opinion he is completely recovered from concussion?
A As far as the organic is concerned, yes.
Q And able to work as good as he was before the accident; that would be a necessary conclusion?
A Yes.
Q Would you say that in your opinion that there is a medical probability that his injury relates to the blackouts spells, Doctor?
A There is a possibility and let me elaborate. If you take four or five individuals and put them under similar circumstances then all four or five of the individuals may react the same or they may react differently. As a rule the individuals who are well adjusted will be able to tolerate the trauma better than an individual who is already having difficulty as far as his adaption to society is concerned [;] an individual who is tense, who is anxious, who is already under considerable emotional strain would apt to develop psychiac [sic] difficulties more easily than someone who is well adjusted. Here again as an example during the war, individuals who developed shell shock quite often were those individuals who were already having difficulty with maladjustment; not alwa3'S but usually and in this instance I say it is a possibility because I don’t know what Mr. Ross’ psychiac [sic] status was prior to the injury, if he was a well adjusted individual with no compensation, then an injury such as this nature would leave a question in my mind as to whether or not the injury of this extent could have precipitated such an episode. If he was already having considerable difficulty emotionally, then possibly it could have precipitated the difficulty that he is having now.
Q You use the word possible, but is it a reasonable medical probability from your training and experience that he is now disabled from the trauma or the injury?
A I can’t say that it is a probability because I don’t know what Mr. Ross was like before.
Q You can’t say then that it is a reasonable medical probability that he is disabled then?
No. If the man has lost an arm or a leg, if he has seen something real terrifying happen to him, then the possibility of him developing a traumatic neurosis would be increased. The amount of pressure it takes for an individual to develop psychiac [sic] difficulty varies with the in--vi dividual adjustment. He is, as I mentioned before, if he is well adjusted individual, then it takes more, psychiac [sic] trauma.”
Obviously, the trial court in making finding No. 2 was of the opinion that there was a conflict in the testimony of the medical experts. We fail to see any conflict in their testimony. Dr. Lowery stated clearly that he was unable to express an opinion as to whether the claimant’s disability was due to psychiatric problems arising from his injury because he did not know the claimant’s background. This left Dr. Smith’s testimony itncontroverted. It is conclusively established that disability resulting from traumatic neurosis is compensable. Gonzales v. Gackle Drilling Company, 70 N.M. 131, 371 P.2d 605. That the disability results from what the doctor chose to describe as “compensation neurosis” or “traumatic neurosis” does not suggest any basic difference between them or in the treatment to be accord •ed. The fact remains that if a-neurosis of 'the' type described by Dr. Smith is present as a result of a work-connected injury, and ■claimant’s earning powers are thereby adversely affected, we perceive of no reason why the same is not compensable under our act. See Larson, Workmen’s Compensation, § 42.24; Lawyers’ Medical Cyclopedia, pp. 366.7 to 372; 11 Defense L.J. 189; Hood v. Texas Indemnity Ins. Co., 146 Tex. 522, 209 S.W.2d 345.
Although there is a statement in Montano v. Saavedra, 70 N.M. 332, 373 P.2d 824, as well as in Renfro v. San Juan Hospital, Inc., 75 N.M. 235, 403 P.2d 681, generally to the effect that expert opinion evidence is not conclusive on the trier of the fact and may be disregarded even though uncontradicted, the statement in both of those cases was purely dicta, and not applicable under the facts there present. A rule concerning expert testimony generally as stated by us has been recognized in this court ever since Jamison v. Shelton, 35 N.M. 34, 289 P. 593, where, in connection with opinion testimony of an attorney as to the reasonable value of legal services, this court said, “Such expert testimony on the part of plaintiff is purely opinion evidence and not testimony as to facts and is not conclusive, even when uncontradicted.” (Emphasis added.) This conforms to the general rule on .this type of proof. See 32 C.J.S. Evidence § 569(10), p. 643. Neither do we think the use of similar language in State v. Moore, 42 N.M. 135, 160, 76 P.2d 19, where insanity so as to excuse a homicide was the issue, nor in Elsea v. Broome Furniture Co., 47 N.M. 356, 143 P.2d 572, or in Teal v. Potash Company of America, 60 N.M. 409, 413, 292 P.2d 99, both being workmen’s compensation actions antedating 1959, when § 59-10-13.3(B), N.M.S.A.1953, was adopted, is controlling here.
Section 59-10-13.3(B), supra, applicable here, requires that where causal connection between accident and disability is an issue, “the workman must establish that causal connection as a medical probability by expert medical testimony.” By this language, the legislature has directed that medical evidence be presented to establish causal connection when that is an issue, thereby effectively overruling Teal v. Potash Company of America, supra, insofar as it held otherwise. This was recognized in Yates v. Matthews, 71 N.M. 451, 379 P.2d 441, where there was a conflict between the opinion expressed by the experts. In the instant case, where causal connection has been denied and must be established by medical testimony as a medical probability, and where medical opinion based on the facts has been expressed and is uncontradicted, the evidence is conclusive upon the court as trier of the facts.
Numerous cases from many jurisdictions so hold, even without a statute such as ours requiring medical testimony. For a few of these sec: Wright v. Maryland Boat Line, Inc., (C.A. 1, 1965) 351 F.2d 922, 925; Thompson v. Railway Express Agency (St. Louis, C.A.Mo., 1951) 236 S.W.2d 36; Jones v. Industrial Commission, 81 Ariz. 352, 306 P.2d 277; William Simpson Const. Co. v. Industrial Acc. Comm., 74 Cal. App. 239, 240 P. 58; Prendergast v. Retirement Board, etc., 325 Ill.App. 638, 60 N.E.2d 768; Medical Serv. of District of Columbia v. Llewellyn (D.C.App., 1965) 208 A.2d 734; In re Casey’s Case (1965) 348 Mass. 572, 204 N.E. 2d 710; Travelers Ins. Co. v. Blazier (Tex. Civ.App., 1950) 228 S.W.2d 217; Williams v. Bituminous Casualty Corporation (La. App., 1961) 131 So.2d 844; Hebert v. Your Food Processing and Warehouse Co. (La. App., 1965) 170 So.2d 765; Hill v. Culligan Soft Water Service Company (Okl., 1963) 386 P.2d 1018.
We are forced to the conclusion that finding No. 2 has no support in the evidence and must be set aside. We note, however, that the appellant tendered a finding that the traumatic neurosis and compensation neurosis had rendered him totally disabled and prevented his performing any work and that he required further medical and psychiatric treatment, which tender was refused.
It follows the judgment must be set aside. The cause is remanded to the lower court with directions to enter judgment for claimant, including an award to claimant of reasonable attorney fees for the services of his attorneys in the district court, and in this court on appeal.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and CHAVEZ and MOISE, JJ., concur.
NOBLE, J., dissents. | [
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OPINION
E. T. HENSLEY, Jr., Chief Judge, Court of Appeals.
This appeal follows a judgment dispensing with the consent of the natural father to the adoption of his child by a stepparent.
The only point urged for reversal of the judgment is the contention that the evidence was insufficient to sustain the finding that the natural father had wilfully failed to maintain and support his child when obligated and financially able to do so.
Briefly, the facts disclosed that the natural parents were divorced by a decree awarding custody of the child to the mother and requiring the father to pay the sum of $75.00 per month for child support. The father was given reasonable rights of visitation. Thereafter, the mother of the child married another. The father of the child made support payments for nineteen months, then for the next eighteen months made no payments. At no time did the father of the child apply to the court for a modification of the decree concerning child support payments. Following a hearing on the question of consent, the trial court found that the natural father had wilfully failed to maintain and support his child when obligated and financially able to do so. The court then concluded, as a matter' of law, that the consent of the natural father be dispensed with as provided by Section 22-2-6, subd. A(3), N.M.S.A. 1953. The statute referred to permits the court in an adoption proceeding to dispense with consent:
“ * * * where the parent or parents or guardian have wilfully failed to maintain and support the child, when obligated and financially able to do so * * *»
In Nevelos v. Railston, 65 N.M. 250, 335 P.2d 573, being an adoption case predicated on the same subsection of the statute involved here, we considered the meaning of the word “wilful.” The Ohio case cited in Nevelos v. Railston construed a statute very similar to ours. It was there stated that the closest synonym to “wilful” is “intentional” or “an intentional omission of duty.” Further, in Cook v. Kinzua Pine Mills Company, 207 Or. 34, 293 P.2d 717, 727, it was said that “wilful” is also synonymous to “knowingly.”
It would serve no useful purpose to dwell on the facts here presented by the opposing parties. We have examined the record with the attention that the issue deserves, and conclude that there was substantial evidence to support all of the elements contained in the findings made by the trial court. The applicable and often repeated rule lately expressed in Manufacturers and Wholesalers Indemnity Exchange v. Valdez, 75 N.M. 363, 404 P.2d 562, is controlling and the judgment of the trial co.urt will not be disturbed.
The judgment will be affirmed. It is so ordered.
NOBLE and MOISE, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
WALDO SPIESS, Judge, Court of Appeals.
This action was instituted for the purpose of foreclosing a real estate mortgage securing a loan made by appellee, Home Savings and Loan Association, to one, William M. Mills. The loan was in the amount of $35,000.00, the proceeds to be used by Mills in the construction of a dwelling upon the property covered by the mortgage.
The loan was payable over a period of thirty years in monthly installments of $213.90, each including interest at the rate of 6.6 per cent per annum.
In accordance with an agreement between Mills and appellee certain deductions were made from the principal of the loan for expenses incurred, a loan fee payable to appellee in the sum of $1,225.00 and, also, a sum in pre-payment of interest for the period September 27, 1962, to January 1, 1963. The remaining balance of the loan was then credited to an account maintained by appellee and denominated “Loans in Process” from which account disbursements were made and to be made from time to time to Mills as the •construction of the dwelling progressed.
It was, likewise, agreed between Mills .and appellee that in the event of default by Mills in the payment of the indebtedness to appellee that credit could be taken against such indebtedness by appellee of .any amount remaining undisbursed in the “Loans in Process” account.
Before the “Loans in Process” account had been fully disbursed Mills did default .and the foreclosure proceedings instituted. Mills and others, including appellant, W. •C. Bates, were joined as parties defend-ant.
Appellee’s complaint, which had been ■verified by one of its officers, alleged that Mills was indebted to appellee in the principal sum of $35,000.00, upon which interest was owing from September 26, 1962. No mention was made, nor credit taken for the undisbursed balance to Mills’ credit in the “Loans in Process” account, nor was credit taken for the interest pre-payment covering the period September 27, 1962, to January 21, 1963. The judgment entered by the trial court took into account the undisbursed balance in the “Loans in Process” account and prepaid interest in determining the indebtedness owing to appellee. It was, likewise, determined by the judgment that the lien of appellee’s mortgage was superior to the claim of lien interposed by appellant. Appeal was taken from this judgment, appellant contending that the trial court should have denied relief to appellee under the clean hands maxim.
.The questions involved here are identical with those presented and decided by us in Home Savings & Loan Association v. W. C. Bates, d/b/a American Builders Supply, 76 N.M. 660, 417 P.2d 798.
Upon authority of our decision there rendered the judgment of the lower court in this case is affirmed and
It is so ordered.
NOBLE and MOISE, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
JOE W. WOOD, Judge, Court of Appeals.
This appeal involves the “Use of Other Automobiles” insuring agreement of the defendant’s liability insurance policy. This provision states that if the named insured owns a private passenger automobile covered by the policy, the insurance afforded by the policy under the liability coverage:
“ * * * applies with respect to any other automobile, subject to the following provisions:
% sjs ‡ Hí # ‡
(d) This insuring agreement does not apply:
(1) to any automobile owned by or furnished for regular use to either the named insured or a member of the same household * * * ”
Plaintiff was a named insured whose automobile was covered by the policy. Plaintiff had an accident while driving an automobile owned by his father. As a result of the accident, plaintiff was sued. Defendant denied coverage under the policy, refused to defend the accident suit and refused to pay the judgment rendered against plaintiff in the accident suit. Plaintiff sued defendant to establish coverage, claiming that the exclusionary clause, set forth above as (d) (1), is ambiguous and should be construed in his favor.
The parties stipulated, 'and the trial court found: (1) that on the day of the accident the plaintiff lived in the same home with his father, and (2) that the use of his father’s car on the day of the accident was the only instance when plaintiff had borrowed the car from his father. The trial court concluded as a matter of law that the defendant had a duty to defend and a duty to pay the judgment in the accident suit, and entered judgment accordingly. Defendant appeals from this judgment.
Plaintiff claims that there are two ambiguities in the policy. Ambiguities are to be construed liberally in favor of the insured ; however, a strained construction will not be resorted to for the purpose of establishing an ambiguity. Gray v. International Service Insurance Company, 73 N.M. 158, 386 P.2d 249.
Plaintiff claims an ambiguity in- the words “a member of the same household.” He asks whether the words mean (a) a household of which the insured is a part, or (b) a household of which the insured is the head. Such questions did arise in Juzefski v. Western Casualty and Surety Co., 173 Cal.App.2d 118, 342 P.2d 928; Farm Bureau Mut. Automobile Ins. Co. v. Violano, 123 F.2d 692 (2d Cir. 1941); and Leteff v. Maryland Casualty Company, 91 So.2d 123 (La.App.).
The exclusionary clause makes no reference to one’s position in a household; the requirement is that the persons involved be of the “same household.”
Webster’s Third New International Dictionary defines household as “those who dwell under the same roof and compose a family; a social unit comprised of those living together in the same dwelling place,” and defines home as “the social unit formed by a family living together in one dwelling.”' Farm Bureau Mut. Automobile Ins. Co. v. Violano, supra, stated that in normal speech, one’s household was the residential group with whom one lived. Leteff v. Maryland Casualty Co., supra, stated that the word household was synonymous with home.
Here, the father and son lived in the same home and, therefore, were members of the same household.
Plaintiff asks whether the father’s car must have been furnished to plaintiff for his regular use before the exclusionary clause can apply, tie claims that the meaning of the clause is ambiguous.
Travelers Indemnity Co. v. Pray, 204 F. 2d 821 (6th Cir. 1953) held that the exclusionary clause was ambiguous. See Juzefski v. Western Casualty and Surety Co., supra.
Simon v. Milwaukee Automobile Mutual Insurance Co., 262 Minn. 378, 115 N.W.2d 40, states that the rationale of the Pray decision has been “almost uniformly rejected,” and that the great weight of authority holds that there is no ambiguity in such a clause. See 86 A.L.R.2d at 944.
We adopt the holding in the Simon case, as follows:
“We cannot agree with the trial court that the language used in this exclusionary clause is ambiguous. Giving the words used their ordinary meaning, the “Use of Other Automobiles” clause excludes coverage where an automobile not covered by the insurance is owned by the named insured or a member of the same household, or where an automobile is furnished for regular use to either the named insured or a member of the same household.”
The son was a member of the same household as the father. He was driving his father’s car at the time of the accident. The exclusionary clause applied, and there was no coverage. Defendant had neither an obligation to defend the accident suit nor to pay the judgment rendered against plaintiff in the accident suit.
The judgment is reversed and the cause-remanded to the district court, with direction that the judgment heretofore entered be set aside, and that a new judgment be-entered dismissing the complaint.
It is so ordered.
CHAVEZ and MOISE, JJ., concur. | [
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WOOD, Judge, Court of Appeals.
This appeal involves a dismissal under Rule 41(e) (§ 21-1-1(41) (e), N.M.S.A. 1953). The complaint was filed July 20, 1962. The answer was filed August 15, 1962. Plaintiff filed a motion for immediate trial setting on November 13, 1963. Defendant’s motion to dismiss was filed September 1, 1964. The order dismissing under Rule 41(e) was filed December 21, 1964.
Plaintiffs’ motion to set the case for trial, made prior to defendant’s motion to dismiss, prevents a dismissal under Rule 41(e). Martin v. Leonard Motor-El Paso, 75 N.M. 219, 402 P.2d 954; Foster v. Schwartzman, 75 N.M. 632, 409 P.2d 267; Kennedy v. Nelson, 76 N.M. 299, 414 P.2d 518, decided March 21, 1966.
The order of the trial court is reversed. The case is remanded with instructions to reinstate the complaint and to place the cartse on the trial docket.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and COMPTON, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
CARMODY, Chief Justice.
Defendant appeals from a'jury verdict' in a dispute between the parties over a' contract for the payment for electrical work. ■ ■
Plaintiff, an individual engaged in electrical contracting, contends that ' defendant contracted with him to do various' electrical work on the premises of defendant’s theater. However, it was admitted by plaintiff at oral argument that he possessed only an electrical contractor’s license, and not a contractor’s license as required by the Contractors’ License -Law, §§ 67-16-1 through 67-16-20, N.M.S.A! 1953.
This case is controlled by Martinez v. Research Park, Inc., 1965, 75 N.M. 672, 410 P.2d 200. Having an electrical contractor’s license does not exempt plaintiff from the requirements of the Contractors’ License Law. The action-is barred under. § 67-16-14, N.M.S.A. 1953, because of the lack of a contractor’s license.
The judgment is reversed with directions to the district court to set aside its judgment and dismiss the complaint.
It is so ordered.
CHAVEZ and MOISE, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
LaFEL E. OMAN, Judge, Court of Appeals.
The appellant, Julian Romero, was accused by criminal information filed August 6, 1958, with the crime of sodomy. Sometime during the month of September, 1958, the court appointed an attorney to represent appellant throughout the district court proceedings.
On September 19, 1958, an amended criminal information was filed accusing appellant with attempt to commit sodomy.
Appellant was arraigned on either the original charge or on the charge set forth in the amended information. It is not entirely clear from the record upon which charge he was arraigned. However, he testified that he was arraigned on the charge of attempt to commit sodomy and has so stated in his brief in chief. It is admitted, and there is no question about the facts, that he conferred with his court-appointed attorney and that the attorney was present with appellant when he was arraigned and entered a plea of not guilty.
On December 8, 1958, a second amended criminal information was filed in which he was accused, in three separate counts, with attempt to commit sodomy, sodomy, and assault with intent to commit a felony, to-wit, sodomy. He appeared before the court for arraignment on these charges on De cember 9, 1958. He pleaded guilty to 'the charge of assault with intent to commit a felony, to-wit, sodomy, and the remaining two counts of the information were dismissed.
On December^, 1958, the court entered a judgment and sentence upon the plea of guilty, and pursuant thereto appellant was confined in the New Mexico Penitentiary. He completely served his sentence and was released.
Then on September 8, 1965, long after he had served his sentence and been released, he filed what he denominated a “Petition for Writ of Error Coram Nobis,” contending that the judgment and sentence of the court are illegal and unconstitutional. The particular claim with which we are here concerned, and which is the only basis here urged for the claimed illegality of the judgment and sentence, is that the court-appointed attorney did not represent him throughortt the district court proceedings and, in particular, was not present at the proceedings on December 9, 1958, when appellant pleaded guilty to the one count of the second amended information. The material allegations of the petition, as hereinafter set out, were broader than the present contention of appellant.
One of the defenses asserted by appellee to the petition 'was that writs of co'ram nobis have been abolished in New Mexico. However, the trial court, by agreement of the 'parties, proceeded to hear the matter on its merits and'both sides adduced their evidence and rested.
The court expressed some doubts as to whether he should entertain the petition, but since he heard the matter on its merits and found, among other things, that appellant was represented by his court-appointed counsel throughout the district court proceedings, including his arraignment and sentencing on December 9, 1958, and since appellant, by his first two points relied on for reversal, which he argues together, attacks this finding, we will first dispose of the question of the propriety of this finding.
Appellant testified that his court-appointed attorney did not represent him throughout the district court proceedings, and was not present at the proceedings on December 9, 1958. The state offered evidence to the contrary. The trier of the facts, and not this court, is the judge of the credibility of the witnesses and the weight to be given the evidence. Kilpatrick v. State, 58 N.M. 88, 265 P.2d 978; Allsup v. Space, 69 N.M. 353, 367 P.2d 531; Dodson v. Eidal Manufacturing Company, 72 N.M. 6, 380 P.2d 16. Since there is substantial evidence to support the finding, the same is conclusive on appeal. Utter v. Marsh Sales Company, 71 N.M. 335, 378 P.2d 374; Hummer v. Betenbough, 75 N.M. 274, 404 P.2d 110. Thus appellant must fail on his appeal.
However, he argues under his third point that the court necessarily had to determine that a writ of coram nobis was a proper remedy, before proceeding to a determination on the merits of the validity of the judgment and sentence of December 9, 1958. We are of the opinion that appellant’s petition asserted an error of such fundamental character that the trial court properly exercised its jurisdiction and properly heard and determined the matter on the merits. In his petition appellant alleged that:
“Throughout the entire proceedings in said cause defendant was never fully advised of his rights to counsel and to a preliminary examination with counsel; that he was not otherwise aware of such rights; that he did not competently and intelligently waive any of such rights at any stage of the proceedings against him; that throughout said proceedings he was financially unable to employ counsel and none was furnished or offered him;”
These allegations were denied.
As already stated above, the trial court found appellant was represented by counsel throughout the district court proceedings. However, he pleaded not guilty to the original charge of sodomy and was afforded a preliminary hearing before a justice of the peace. The court found that, prior to his arraignment in district court, he did not have the services of legal counsel; that he was then financially unable to employ counsel; that he was not fully advised of his right to counsel; and that counsel was not furnished or offered to him. The trial court, however, concluded that he had waived any defects in the proceedings prior to arraignment, and he has made no attack here on this conclusion. The right to be represented by counsel at a preliminary hearing, as well as the preliminary hearing itself, can be waived. Sanders v. Cox, 74 N.M. 524, 525, 395 P.2d 353.
Appellant’s petition, although named a petition for writ of coram nobis, in fact amounts to a motion seeking an order declaring the judgment on his plea of guilty to be void. Had the truth of the averments of the petition, as set forth above, been established, then the judgment and sentence of the court would unquestionably have been void. Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458, 58 S.Ct. 1019, 82 L.Ed. 1461, 146 A.L.R. 357; Farnsworth v. United States, 98 U.S. App.D.C. 59, 232 F.2d 59 (D.C.Cir.1956).
Rule 60(b), Rules of Civil Procedure, § 21-1-1 (60) (b), N.M.S.A.1953, expressly abolishes certain common law writs, among which are writs of coram nobis. At common law such writs were issued out of chancery and were and still are generally considered to be civil in nature, even though used to question a judgment and sentence in a criminal case. People v. Kemnetz, 296 Ill.App. 119, 15 N.E.2d 883; State ex rel. Meyer v. Youngblood, 221 Ind. 408, 48 N.E.2d 55; Hawk v. State, 151 Neb. 717, 39 N.W.2d 561; State v. Ray, 111 Kan. 350, 207 P. 192; Elliott v. Commonwealth, 292 Ky. 614, 167 S.W.2d 703; Commonwealth v. Sirles, (Ky.), 267 S.W.2d 66; 18 Am.Jur.2d, Coram Nobis, Section 2, p. 451; 24 C.J.S. Criminhl Law § 1606(2), p. 669.
Our Rule 60(b), Rules of Civil Procedure, is identical with Rule 60(b), Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, insofar as the question here involved is concerned, and our rule is patterned after the federal rule.
In the adoption of Rule 60(b), Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, as well as in the adoption of our Rule 60(b), it was the intent to retain all the substantive rights protected by the old common law writs of coram nobis, coram vobis, audita querela, and bills of review and bills in the nature of a bill of review, but to eliminate the niceties of form of these writs. 6 Moore’s •Federal Practice, § 60.01(8); 7 Moore’s Federal Practice, §§ 60.36-60.37; 3 Barron and Holtzoff, Federal Practice and Procedure, § 1331; Oliver v. City of Shattuck, 157 F.2d 150, 152, 153 (10th Cir.1946); Wallace v. United States, 142 F.2d 240 (2d Cir.1944). The purpose of the rule was to substitute in place of these writs a simplified procedure whereby the same questions of right could now be raised by motion.
Óur Rule 60(b) (4), which is identical with Federal Rule 60(b) (4), provides that:
“On motion and upon such terms as are just, the court may relieve a party or his legal representative from a final judgment, order, or proceeding for the following reasons:
i( •%. sf: %
“(4) the judgment is void.”
As already stated, had the plaintiff’s claims been proven to be true, the judgment and sentence of the court would have been void. Therefore, it follows that the plaintiff could properly have proceeded by motion under Rule 60(b) (4) to attack the validity of the judgment and sentence. Although he chose to entitle his pleading a “Petition for Writ of Error Coram No-bis,” we regard it as a motion in accord-ancc with the provisions of our said rule.
Since our Rule 60(b), as well as the Federal Rule 60(b), imposes a limitation of time within which a motion thereunder .may .be made, we feel we should properly rule upon the question of the limitation under Rule 60(b) (4), which is the particular subsection here involved. The only time limitation set forth in Rule 60(b), which might possibly be said to apply to the making of a motion to have a judgment declared void, is that “[t]he motion shall be made within a reasonable time.”
Because we are concerned with the question of substantive rights which could have been raised by the old writ of coram’, nobis, and because we are further concerned with the-question of a void judgment, it would seem only proper that we should consider the time limitation applicable to these questions.
At common law it appears that there was no limitation of time within which a petition for a writ of coram nobis might be made, except perhaps laches, Federal Relief From Civil Judgments, Moore and Rogers, 5 Yale L. J., 623, 674; State v. Huffman, 207 Or., 372, 297 P.2d 831, 852.
In Scott v. Rees, 300 Mo. 123, 253 S.W. 998, it was held that a motion for writ of coram nobis “has no limitation as to time.”
In Haywood v. United States, 127 F.Supp. 485 (S.D.N.Y.1954), it was stated that “[t]o permit a defense of laches to the writ [coram nobis] would, in effect, denude it of one of its essential characteristics — the power to hurdle a time factor.” This language was approved in Farnsworth v. United States, supra.
In Commonwealth v. Brewer, 170 Pa. Super. 251, 85 A.2d 618, it was held that the remedy of coram nobis “ordinarily will not be- denied .because of the mere lapse of time,” and that “[i]n a proper criminal case ■the. writ may be invoked long after the term in which judgment of the sentence was entered, on the theory that if the sentence was invalid in the first instance, it remained a nullity despite the lapse of time.”
It is only logical that a void conviction' cannot be vitalized by the lapse of time. To this effect, in addition to the above cited cases, see United States v. Morgan, 222 F.2d 673, (2d Cir.1955); Haywood v. United States, supra; United States v. Di Martini, 118 F.Supp. 601.
It follows necessarily that there is no limitation of time within which a motion must be filed under the provisions of Rule 60(b) (4). See Austin v. Smith, 114 U.S.App.D.C. 97, 312 F.2d 337, 343 (1962); Crosby v. Bradstreet Company, 312 F.2d 483, 485 (2d Cir.1963). (In Crosby it is not expressly stated that a time limitation is not applicable, but the period involved was almost thirty years); Marquette Corporation v. Priester, D.C., 234 F.Supp. 799, 802; 3 Barron and Holtzoff, Federal Practice and Procedure, § 1327.
We hold that the trial court properly had and properly exercised jurisdiction over the matters presented by appellant’s petition, which was in effect a motion under Rule 60(b) (4). We have reached this con-^ elusion being fully aware of the holdings in the case of United States v. Morgan, 346 U.S. 502, 74 S.Ct. 247, 98 L.Ed. 248, and the many federal cases which have held that there still exists the writ of coram nobis, or a motion in the nature of a writ of coram nobis. In the Morgan case, the United States Supreme Court referred to the application for a writ of coram nobis as “a motion in the nature of a writ of error coram nobis enabling the trial court to properly exercise its jurisdiction.” To the extent that the United States Supreme Court, in that case, held that it did not think Rule 60(b), expressly abolishing the writ of coram nobis in civil cases, applied in cases such as this, we disagree.
Since this case was disposed of on the merits, and we find no error by the trial court, the order and judgment are affirmed.
It is so ordered.
CHAVEZ and NOBLE, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
HENDLEY, Judge.
Plaintiff Treider undertook to invest part of an inheritance in speculative, over-the-counter stocks. She selected Doherty and Company as a broker, who acted through the defendant Keyes. Keyes failed to mention to Ms. Treider certain facts about some of the stocks he sold to her. She sued under § 48-18-29(A), N. M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 1966) which states in pertinent part:
“ . . . It is a fraudulent practice and unlawful for any person, in connection with an offer, sale or purchase of any security, directly or indirectly, to:
“make any false statement of material fact or to omit to state a material fact necessary in order to make the statements made true in the light of circumstances under which they are made;
The jury found for Ms. Treider and awarded her the purchase price and attorney’s fees pursuant to § 48-18-31, N.M.S. A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 1966).
Defendants’ appeal raises five points for reversal: (1) standard of proof; (2) agency; (3) remedies; (4) exclusion of an exhibit; and, (5) failure to direct the verdict. We affirm.
THE STANDARD OF PROOF FOR VIOLATIONS OF § 48-18-29(A), SUPRA, SHOULD BE BY CLEAR AND CONVINCING EVIDENCE.
The legislature called the unlawful act under § 48-18-29(A), supra, “fraudulent.” Defendants argue that the standard of proof for actual fraud, proof by clear and convincing evidence, is therefore the proper standard in this case. See Hockett v. Winks, 82 N.M. 597, 485 P.2d 353 (1971). The trial court, they say, erroneously instructed that the proof need only be by a preponderance of the evidence.
Fraud must be proven by clear and convincing evidence because it is an easily made charge that stains the person accused with a mark of dishonesty. Frear v. Roberts, 51 N.M. 137, 179 P.2d 998 (1947) ; Davis v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 184 F.2d 86, 22 A.L.R.2d 967 (10th Cir. 1950). In common law fraud the plaintiff must prove that the defendant intentionally deceived him. See Prudential Insurance Company of America v. Anaya, 78 N.M. 101, 428 P.2d 640 (1967) quoting from Sauter v. St. Michael’s College, 70 N.M. 380, 374 P.2d 134 (1962). The present statute, however, does not necessarily place this onus of dishonesty on the defendant. The intent with which the defendant makes the statement is irrelevant under the terms of the statute. The statute requires only that the statement made be false and material, or that the omission be of a material fact necessary to make true the statement made. Since “ * * * the term ‘fraud,’ as used herein, is not the equivalent of ‘actual fraud or conscious deceit’ [the] * * * [q]uantum of proof requirements as to ‘actual fraud’ * * * are not controlling in this situation. * * * ” Yucca Mining & Petrol. Co. v. Howard C. Phillips Oil Co., 69 N.M. 281, 365 P.2d 925 (1961). The trial court correctly instructed the jury that the standard of proof was by a preponderance of the evidence.
SECTION 48-18-31, SUPRA, APPLIES TO THE BROKERS IN THE PRESENT CASE ONLY IF THEY WERE THE AGENTS OF THE SELLER.
Section 48-18-31, supra, imposes liability on, “[t]he person making such sale or contract for sale, and every director, officer, salesman or agent of or for such seller who shall have participated or aided in any way in making such sale, * * *.” Defendants argue that the confirmation slips indicate they acted as agent for the seller in only four of the nine relevant transactions. There is no other evidence, they contend, that they were agents of the seller in the other five transactions.
Whether the evidence established that defendants were “agents of the seller” is irrelevant. The evidence does establish that defendant, Doherty and Company, through its agent, Keyes, acted as plaintiff’s broker. The statute makes liable “ * * * [t]he person making such sale. * * * ” In common parlance a broker would describe himself as someone who makes sales. Defendants come within the liability provisions of § 48-18-31, supra. See Cady v. Murphy, 113 F.2d 988 (1st Cir. 1940), cert. denied, 311 U.S. 705, 61 S.Ct. 175, 85 L.Ed.458 (1940).
THE REMEDY UNDER § 48-18-31, SUPRA, IS NOT AVAILABLE FOR VIOLATIONS OF § 48-18-29(A), SUPRA.
Section 48-18-31, supra, states in part :
“ . . . Every sale or contract for sale made in violation of any of the provisions of this act, or of any order is sued by the commissioner under any provision of this act, shall be voidable at the election of the purchaser. . . . ” (emphasis added).
Defendants essentially contend: The words “this act” refer only to the original, unamended sections of the act; amendment or repeal and reenactment of those original sections takes the section out of the purview of the words “this act.” Since § 48-18-29(A), supra, was repealed and reenacted, violations of that statute are not afforded the remedy set out in § 48-18-31, supra. We disagree.
The introductory section to Article 18 of Chapter 48 of the New Mexico Statutes states: “This wet shall be known as ‘The Securities Act of New Mexico.’ ’-’ (emphasis added). Section 48 — 18—.16, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 1966). Through several substantial revisions of Article 18, supra, the legislature did not revise or limit the applicability of this section. See Laws 1957, ch. 242; Laws 1959, ch. 171; Laws 1965, ch. 312. Section 48-18-29(A), supra, is part of the above-cited 1965 act. The title to the 1965 act reads: “An act relating to the sale of investment securities; * * * enacting new Sections 48-18-17 * * *, 48-18-29 * * Section 48— 18-17, supra, is concerned with definitions “used in the Securities Act of New Mexico.”
The reference to investment securities in the title of the 1965 act and the reference to the Securities Act in § 48-18-17, supra, establishes that the 1965 act is a part of the New Mexico Securities Act. Since § 48-18-31, supra, is also a part of that act, the remedies of § 48-18-31, supra, apply to violations of § 48-18-29, supra. Footnote statements to the contrary by the compiler are not controlling. See Besser Company v. Bureau of Revenue, 74 N.M. 377, 394 P.2d 141 (1964).
DEFENDANTS’ EXHIBIT C WAS ERRONEOUSLY EXCLUDED.
Defendants sought to introduce, as their exhibit C, a table purporting to show the stock transactions by plaintiff through Doherty and Company between 5/2/69 and 11/29/72, and various facts relating to those transactions. The trial court excluded the exhibit.
Defendants’ exhibit U was admitted without objection. It was an exact copy of exhibit C except for three columns showing the price at which plaintiff sold her stock, the date the highest bid was received after plaintiff purchased the stock and the bid price.
The sale price was relevant, defendant argues, because the fact that plaintiff made money on some transactions with Doherty and Company diminishes her claim. We disagree. Plaintiff is entitled to void any sale entered into in violation of § 48-18-29(A), supra, regardless of the profits made on other sales. The sale price was irrelevant.
The high bid prices and dates were also irrelevant. Section 48-18-31, supra, affords plaintiff the remedy of voiding the transaction notwithstanding plaintiff’s later delay in disposing of the stock.
The trial court properly excluded exhibit C.
FAILING TO DIRECT A VERDICT USING THE CLEAR AND CONVINCING PROOF STANDARD WAS ERROR..
The essential thrust of defendants’ final argument is the same as their first. The restatement is no more persuasive.
The judgment is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
WOOD, C. J., and HERNANDEZ, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
McMANUS, Chief Justice.
Defendant was charged by indictment with murder in the District Court of Bernalillo County but was never arraigned. On four separate occasions she was found incompetent to stand trial, and on four other separate occasions she was found competent to stand trial. On November 16,-1972, after motion by plaintiff and defendant, a non-jury trial was held. Attorney for the defendant stipulated to the prosecution’s evidence of defendant’s involvement in the alleged murder and waived the issue of defendant’s competency to stand trial. On December 4, 1972, the trial court convicted defendant of first degree murder and sentenced her to a term of life imprisonment in the state penitentiary, which sentence was suspended on condition that the defendant enter and remain in the New Mexico State Hospital until further order of the court.
On July 27, 1973, plaintiff properly moved to revoke the order suspending the defendant’s sentence on the ground that the court was without discretion to suspend a sentence after conviction of a crime constituting a capital or first-degree felony. § 40A-29-15, N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6, 1972). At that hearing defendant moved for a new trial on the ground that her attorney’s stipulation to the prosecution’s facts and waiver of the issue of competency were the result of a plea bargain which was ultimately dishonored. This motion was denied. On August 9, 1973, the order suspending sentence was revoked and on August 10, 1973, defendant’s second motion for a new trial was denied. We hereby reverse the lower court’s decision and hold that defendant is entitled to a new trial.
On appeal to this court, defendant raises only two issues. First, the trial court erred in refusing to grant defendant a new trial on grounds that her attorney’s stipulation to the prosecution’s facts and waiver of the issue of competency were the result of a plea bargain, and, second, the trial court had no jurisdiction to revoke defendant’s suspended sentence. Since the appeal will be otherwise disposed of, we deem it unnecessary to consider these issues.
We have carefully considered the record in the case before us and decide that the issue of defendant’s competency was never clearly determined or considered. Further, the plea bargaining attempt prevented the defendant from a meaningful trial.
We firmly believe that:
“There exists in every court, * * * an inherent power to see that a man’s fundamental rights are protected in every case. Where a man’s fundamental rights have been violated, while he may be precluded by the terms of the statute or the rules of appellate procedure from insisting in this court upon relief from the same, this court has the power, in its discretion, to relieve him and to see that injustice is not done.” State v. Garcia, 19 N.M. 414, 421, 143 P. 1012, 1014 (1914).
In other words:
“Fundamental error is error which goes to the foundation of the case, or which takes from a defendant a right essential to his defense. Where it appears and justice requires this court will consider it whether or not exceptions are taken in the court below or whether or not it be assigned as error on appeal.” State v. Sena, 54 N.M. 213, 218, 219 P.2d 287, 289 (1950).
In addition, the Attorney General in his oral argument in this case, stated: “I just don’t see how the State could possibly suffer” from the granting of a new trial to the defendant.
We reverse. It is so ordered.
STEPHENSON and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
Insofar as pertinent to this appeal, plaintiff sought recovery from defendants of medical expenses and damages for personal injuries allegedly sustained by his minor daughter in a single automobile accident. The claim was based on alleged negligence of defendants, who pleaded contributory negligence as a defense. Plaintiff moved to strike this defense on the ground that contributory negligence is no longer a sufficient and valid defense to negligence on the part of a defendant, and urged that this defense be judicially replaced in New Mexico by the doctrine of comparative negligence.
The trial court denied the motions of plaintiff, but, pursuant to the provisions of § 21-10-3, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4, 1970, Supp.1973), recited in its order that it believed the order involved a controlling question of law as to which there is substantial ground for difference of opinion and that an immediate appeal from the order might materially advance the ultimate termination of this litigation.
Plaintiff thereupon sought an order from the Court of Appeals allowing an interlocutory appeal from the order of the trial court as provided in § 21-10-3, supra. The Court of Appeals certified the case to this Court pursuant to § 16 — 7—14(C) (2), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4, 1970). We granted an interlocutory appeal. We affirm the order of the trial court denying plaintiff’s motion to strike the defense of contributory negligence.
One of the questions presented is whether this Court or the Legislature should be the one to replace the doctrine of contributory negligence with some form of comparative negligence, if such replacement is to be accomplished in New Mexico. Plaintiff urges this Court to repudiate the doctrine of contributory negligence and replace it with the so-called pure form of comparative negligence. We do not decide whether this urged replacement should be accom plished by this Court or by the Legislature, since we decline to repudiate the doctrine of contributory negligence. We do, however, make the following observations concerning the history of the adoption and adherence to this doctrine and its replacement and attempted replacement in some jurisdictions by some form of the doctrine of comparative negligence.
Many commentators see the real birth of contributory negligence in Butterfield v. Forrester, 11 East 60, 103 Eng.Rep. 926 (1809), wherein it was stated by Lord Ellenborough: “A party is not to cast himself upon an obstruction which has been made by the fault of another, and avail himself of it, if he did not himself use common and ordinary caution to be in the right.”
There is, however, very respectable authority which traces the doctrine to a much earlier birth. 3 Holdsworth, History of English Law, 378-80 (1923); P. Winfield, A Textbook of the Law of Tort, 418 (5th ed. 1950); Hoffman v. Jones, 280 So.2d 431 (Fla.1973), dissent of Justice Roberts at 440-443 and authorities therein cited.
Regardless of the origin of the doctrine of contributory negligence, it was apparently first followed in the United States in the case of Smith v. Smith, 19 Mass. (2 Pick.) 621, 13 Am.Dec. 464 (1824). It rapidly became the dominant rule in all jurisdictions of the United States. E. Turk, Comparative Negligence on the March, 28 Chi.-Kent L.Rev. 189, 198 (June 1950).
There have been many attempts to have the courts in different jurisdictions denounce the doctrine of contributory negligence and adopt in its stead the doctrine of comparative negligence. Except for the majority decision of the Supreme Court of Florida in Hoffman v. Jones, supra, the courts in all other United States jurisdictions, which have considered this approach, have declined to follow these urgings, or have reversed themselves after having replaced contributory negligence with comparative negligence. Some of the court decisions from jurisdictions which have declined to judicially discard contributory negligence for comparative negligence are found in Maki v. Frelk, 40 Ill.2d 193, 239 N.E.2d 445, 32 A.L.R.3d 452 (1968); Sun Oil Company v. Seamon, 349 Mich. 387, 84 N.W.2d 840 (1957); Krise v. Gillund, 184 N.W.2d 405 (N.D.1971); Peterson v. Culp, 255 Or. 269, 465 P.2d 876 (1970); Bridges v. Union Pacific Railroad Company, 26 Utah 2d 281, 488 P.2d 738 (1971).
Illinois judicially adopted comparative negligence in the case of Illinois Cent. R. Co. v. Hammer, 72 Ill. 347 (1874), but subsequently abandoned it. City of Lanark v. Dougherty, 153 Ill. 163, 38 N.E. 892 (1894); Lake Shore & M. S. Ry. Co. v. Hession, 150 Ill. 546, 37 N.E. 905 (1894). The Kansas Supreme Court also adopted comparative negligence in Wichita and W. R. Co. v. Davis, 37 Kan. 743, 16 P. 78 (1887). It was later repudiated by this same court in Chicago, K. & N. Ry. Co. v. Brown, 44 Kan. 384, 24 P. 497 (1890).
Georgia has judicially adopted a modified comparative negligence doctrine by resorting to a strained construction of a Georgia statute. W. Prosser, Handbook of the Law of Torts, § 67 (4th ed. 1971); Annot., 32 A.L.R.3d 463, § 7 at 478 (1970). Tennessee also has judicially adopted a rule which approaches comparative negligence and which is referred to as the rule of “remote contributory negligence.” See Annot., 32 A.L.R.3d supra, § 7(b) at 479 and cases therein cited.
The arguments for replacing contributory negligence with comparative negligence have often been repeated. See for example, Hoffman v. Jones, supra; Maki v. Frelk, 85 Ill.App.2d 439, 229 N.E.2d 284 (1967), which was reversed by the Supreme Court of Illinois in Maki v. Frelk, supra; 2 F. Harper and F. James, The Law of Torts, § 22.1-22.3 (1956); W. Prosser, Handbook of the Law of Torts, supra; W. Prosser, Comparative Negligence, 51 Mich.L.Rev. 465 (1953).
In spite of the claimed greater capacity of comparative negligence to work justice in tort cases, our research shows that only four states, to wit, Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi and Rhode Island have adopted comparative negligence in its pure form. Fourteen states, including Georgia, which is referred to above, have adopted modified forms of comparative negligence. Nebraska, South Dakota and Tennessee have adopted rules which to a limited extent embrace the basic concept of comparative negligence. All other states adhere to the doctrine of contributory negligence.
Comparative negligence has been adopted in Canada and England, but we note that this has resulted in the almost total abandonment in tort cases of the jury system, and especially so in complex, multiparty tort litigation wherein apportionment of damages on the basis of degrees of culpable negligence becomes extremely complex and involved. W. Prosser, Comparative Negligence, supra, at 504.
New Mexico has consistently adhered to the contributory negligence doctrine. Alexander v. Mining Co., 3 N.M. 255, 3 P. 735 (1884); Candelaria v. A., T. & S. F. R’y. Co., 6 N.M. 266, 27 P. 497 (1891); Morehead v. A., T. & S. F. Ry. Co., 27 N. M. 349, 201 P. 1048 (1921); Silva v. Waldie, 42 N.M. 514, 82 P.2d 282 (1938); Gray v. Esslinger, 46 N.M. 421, 130 P.2d 24 (Reh. denied, 46 N.M. 492, 131 P.2d 981 (1942); Moss v. Acuff, 57 N.M. 572, 260 P.2d 1108 (1953); Bryan v. Phillips, 70 N.M. 1, 369 P.2d 37 (1962); Jones v. Pollock, 72 N.M. 315, 383 P.2d 271 (1963); Perez v. Miller, 80 N.M. 213, 453 P.2d 383 (Ct.App.1969); N.M. U.J.I. (Civil), 13.1-13.8 (1966).
We fully appreciate that long adherence to a rule, or a particular construction thereof, does not in itself justify its continuation if change therein or abandonment thereof are demanded in order to accomplish justice. This Court has recognized the need for abandonment of or change in existing rules in the recent cases of State v. Gunzelman, 85 N.M. 295, 512 P.2d 55 (1973); Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973); Stang v. Hertz Corporation, 83 N.M. 730, 497 P.2d 732 (1972); State ex rel. Reynolds v. Molybdenum Corp. of Amer., 83 N.M. 690, 496 P.2d 1086 (1972); Williamson v. Smith, 83 N.M. 336, 491 P.2d 1147 (1971). However, we are not inclined to change long established rules just for the sake of change, and we are particularly reluctant to abandon or change a long established rule with widespread ramifications in an area of substantive law, unless we can be reasonably sure that the change is very likely to improve the administration of justice. Ours is a dual responsibility of fashioning rules of law responsive to the accomplishment of justice in a changing society, while at the same time preserving established rules of law and the stability essential to the accomplishment of justice under law.
After careful consideration and weighing of. the possible benefits to the administration of justice which might reasonably be expected from the adoption of comparative negligence as against the probable harm which might reasonably result from the abandonment of contributory negligence, we feel the better course to pursue is to retain our existing doctrine of contributory negligence. We fully appreciate this doctrine is not perfect, and particularly so in its abstract application. However, we are of the opinion that in the light of present realities this principle is more workable and at least equally as fair to litigants as is the doctrine of comparative negligence.
We do not believe that contributory negligence, as this doctrine has evolved in New Mexico, is nearly as harsh as has been imagined and urged by its critics and the proponents of comparative negligence. Pure contributory negligence has been overlayed with a number of statutory and common law doctrines which have in many cases tempered its claimed harsh application. We refer for example on the statutory side to the Workmen’s Compensation Act, § 59-10-1, et seq., N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, 1960), and on the com mon law side to the doctrines of last clear chance and sudden emergency, as well as to degrees of culpability and contributory culpability recognized in Gray v. Esslinger, supra, and N.M. U.J.L (Civil) 13.8 (1966).
Further, we do not feel that the extreme examples often posed by critics of contributory negligence are consistent with reality. For instance, inconsistent with actualities in the application of the principles of negligence, contributory negligence and proximate causation to factual situations in litigated tort cases, are the often cited examples of a plaintiff being precluded from recovering any of his excessively great damages sustained in an accident to which his negligence contributed only 10% or less of the cause, while the defendant, whose negligence constituted 90% or more of the cause, escapes without damage. See in accord in this regard L. Powell, Contributory Negligence — A Necessary Check on the American Jury, 43 A.B.A.J. 1005 (November 1957).
Another reason for retaining contributory negligence is its ease of workability and application under our jury system. We observe that this same virtue is applicable to cases in which a judge or judges act as triers of the facts. Deciding whether negligent conduct constitutes a proximateiy contributing cause of an accident, or even deciding rough degrees of negligence, is one thing, but deciding precise percentages of negligence requires an expertise not found in most jurors or judges, if in fact it is possible for anyone to honestly and intelligently make such decisions. For example, how can anyone determine with any reasonable degree of precision the respective percentages of contributory negligence of two motorists involved in a collision of their vehicles, if the one runs a stop sign at high speed and the other drives on the wrong side of the highway while under the influence of intoxicants?
Even with an expert judge or jury, we entertain a grave suspicion that the application of comparative negligence to most, if not to all, tort situations, and a purported determination thereunder of the precise percentage of culpable negligence of each of the tortfeasors, amount to nothing more than a futile rationalization compelled by a basically irrational process of deciding percentages of negligence. If the attempt is not futile in most tort cases, it is at least inconsistent with any degree of reasonable certainty.
A further reason for our refusal to abandon our system of contributory negligence in New Mexico is suggested by the failure of the proponents of comparative negligence to show a clear superiority of their system over ours. Instead of positively outlining or defining the virtues or advantages of comparative negligence, they seem to content themselves largely with pointing out the shortcomings, or supposed shortcomings, of contributory negligence and demanding its replacement with some form — in the present case, the so-called pure form — of comparative negligence. An attempt, to fairly evaluate the relative merits and demerits of the two principles by one of the strong proponents of comparative negligence, demonstrates that great problems often arise in the application of comparative negligence to complicated negligence situations. See W. Prosser, Comparative Negligence, supra. Does comparative negligence help to balance or does it create even greater imbalance in our administration of the law of negligence? See L. Powell, Contributory Negligence — A Necessary Check on the American Jury, supra, at 1006.
Our Legislature in 1957, 1961, 1963 and 1969 considered proposed legislation to eliminate contributory negligence and to adopt in its stead comparative negligence. In each instance the Legislature was persuaded that the change should not be made.
The order of the trial court denying plaintiff’s motion to strike the defense of contributory negligence should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur.
McMANUS, C. J., and STEPHENSON, J., dissent. | [
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] |
OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
Defendant was sentenced for a term of not less than ten nor more than fifty years for unlawful distribution of heroin pursuant to § 54-ll-20(B), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2, 1973 Supp.). Defendant appeals. We remand.
Section 54-11-20(B) reads as follows:
B.Except as authorized by the Controlled Substances Act, it is unlawful for any person to intentionally traffic. Any person who violates this subsection is, for the first offense, guilty of a second degree felony and, for the second and subsequent offenses, guilty of a first degree felony.
The Controlled Substances Act does not contain a penalty provision for second degree or first degree felonies.
The Controlled Substances Act enacted in 1972 is not a part of the Criminal Code enacted in 1963. See, State v. Sawyers, 79 N.M. 557, 445 P.2d 978 (Ct.App.1968).
Section 40A-29-11, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6) of the Criminal Code reads- as follows:
Sentencing authority for crimes not contained in Criminal Code. — A. Whenever a defendant is convicted of a crime under the Constitution, or a statute not contained in the Criminal Code, which specifies the penalty to be imposed on conviction, the court shall have the power to pronounce sentence and imposition of fine in accordance with the provisions prescribed by such statute or constitutional provision for the particular crime of which such person was convicted.
B. A crime declared to be a felony by the state Constitution or a statute not contained in the Criminal Code, without specification of the sentence or fine to be imposed on conviction, shall constitute a fourth degree felony as prescribed under this code for the purpose of the sentence and shall be so sentenced.
C. Any other crime for which the sentence to be imposed upon conviction is not specified shall constitute, for the purpose of sentence, a petty misdemean- or. [Emphasis added],
This section is clear and unambiguous. There is no room for construction. It must be given effect. State v. Ortiz, 78 N.M. 507, 433 P.2d 92 (Ct.App.1967). Defendant must be sentenced for a fourth degree felony pursuant to § 40A-29-3(D), N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6) of the Criminal Code. It reads as follows:
D. Where the defendant has been convicted of a crime constituting a fourth degree felony, the judge shall sentence such person to be imprisoned in the penitentiary for the term of not less than one [1] year nor more than five [5] years, or to the payment of a fine of not more than five thousand dollars ($5,000), or to both such imprisonment and fine in the discretion of the judge.
The remaining issue is this: Should we disregard § 40A-29-11, supra, which is “Sentencing authority for crimes not contained in Criminal Code”, and read into the Controlled Substances Act, the penalty provided for a second degree felony in the Criminal Code, being § 40A-29-3(B), supra? The answer is “No”.
This court cannot usurp the power of the legislature and prescribe penalties in a special criminal statute. The fixing of penalties is exclusively a legislative function. State v. Turnbow, 81 N.M. 254, 466 P.2d 100 (1970); McCutcheon v. Cox, 71 N.M. 274, 377 P.2d 683 (1963). This court must presume that the legislature, in enacting the 1972 Controlled Substances Act knew about the existence of § 40 A-29-11, supra, of the Criminal Code. State v. Trujillo, 85 N.M. 208, 510 P.2d 1079 (Ct.App.1973).
The only way this court could read the penalty provisions of the Criminal Code into the Controlled Substances Act would be to add words onto § 54 — 11-20(B) to the effect that where the defendant has been convicted of a first or second degree felony, the judge shall sentence such person as provided in § 40A-29-3(A) and (B), supra. This we cannot do. De Graftenreid v. Strong, 28 N.M. 91, 206 P. 694 (1922); State v. Alexander, 46 N.M. 156, 123 P.2d 724 (1942). “We may not properly supply legislative omissions, no more so than the legislature can with propriety assume the performance of judicial functions.” Apodaca v. Viramontes, 53 N.M. 514, 524, 212 P.2d 425, 431 (1949). If a change is needed in a statute, the legislature and not the courts is the place to go. Hendricks v. Hendricks, 55 N.M. 51, 226 P.2d 464 (1950).
There is no merit to defendant’s remaining point.
The sentence is reversed. The trial court is directed to resentence defendant in accordance with § 40A-29-3(D), supra.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY, J„ concurs.
LOPEZ, J., dissents. | [
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CARMODY, Chief Justice.
Defendant was charged with larceny of a diamond ring belonging to Jane Byers taken from the possession of the Chaves County sheriff’s office. He appeals from judgment and sentence following his conviction by a jury.
It is first asserted that the trial court should have directed a verdict on the ground that the state’s testimony was unworthy of belief and was not the substantial evidence necessary to sustain the conviction. It is conceded that there is testimony in the record which would be substantial evidence if it were worthy of belief, but defendant claims that the testimony was thoroughly impeached and that the evidence therefore failed to establish the necessary elements of the crime charged.
At the trial, defendant attempted to impeach the testimony of Jane Byers, first, by her inconsistent statements at the preliminary hearing with regard to when and to whom she gave custody of the ring while she was confined in the Chaves County jail, and, secondly, on the basis of her mental incompetency. Similarly, defendant attempted to impeach the testimony of Andrew Needham by showing felony convictions and inconsistent statements. It was Needham who testified that the defendant had admitted to him the taking of the ring belonging to Mrs. Byers from the desk of the sheriff’s office.
However, this claim of error is without merit, because this court will not substitute its opinion for that of the jury. It was ea-rly determined in New Mexico that admissible testimony, however untruthful, if it is untruthful, is proper evidence to go to the jury under proper instructions of the court, Territory v. Baca, 1903, 11 N.M. 559, 71 P. 460, and that judgment of the credibility of the witnesses and the weight to be given their testimony was the function of the jury. State v. Nuttall, 1947, 51 N.M. 196, 181 P.2d 808; State v. Lucero, 1913, 17 N.M. 484, 131 P. 491; Territory v. Baca, supra; Territory v. O’Donnell, 1887, 4 N.M. (Gild.) 196, 12 P. 743. In the Baca case, supra, the court said:
“ * * * It will not do for the court to take unto itself the power to carve out and eliminate from the consideration of the jury the competent testimony of witnesses, however untruthful or unworthy it may seem to the court. The weight to be given to the testimony and the credibility of the witnesses is the province of the jury, and of the jury alone. The court determines the admissibility of testimony, and, when admitted, it is then subject-matter for the jury’s consideration, and the jury may attach such weight to the testimony as, in their judgment, it is right and proper. * * * ”
The defendant next argues that his confession was improperly admitted for the reason that the corpus delicti was not proved by independent evidence. The “confession” to which he refers is defendant’s statement to the witness Needham, who testifed that defendant said he (the defendant) had picked up the ring from a desk in the sheriff’s office after “they forgot to put it back in the property sack.” The state contends that this statement was an admission rather than a confession, and that defendant’s argument therefore is to no avail.
Without deciding whether the same rules apply to material admissions as to confessions, cf. Opper v. United States, 1954, 348 U.S. 84, 75 S.Ct. 158, 99 L.Ed. 101, 45 A.L.R.2d 1308; State v. Gleitsmann, 1960, 62 N.J.Super. 15, 161 A.2d 747, it is clear that a conviction cannot be sustained solely on the extrajudicial statement of the accused, Opper v. United States, supra. The corpus delicti must,.at least in part, be established by some independent evidence, State v. La Rue, 1960, 67 N.M. 149, 353 P. 2d 367; State v. Carter, 1954, 58 N.M. 713, 275 P.2d 847; State v. Dena, 1923, 28 N.M. 479, 214 P. 583; which, of course, may be circumstantial, State v. Sakariason, 1915, 21 N.M. 207, 153 P. 1034; State v. Chaves, 1921, 27 N.M. 504, 202 P. 694; State v. Ortega, 1932, 36 N.M. 57, 7 P.2d 943; How ever, a statement, when established as trustworthy, may properly be considered together with independent or corroborative evidence as proof that the crime charged was committed, see State v. Paris, 76 N.M. 291, 414 P.2d 512, March 7,1966.
In this case, there was evidence that the ring was -owned by Mrs. Byers and was relinquished by her to'the jailer when she was confined in the Chaves County jail; Defendant was then a trusty at the jail. There is evidence that defendant had the ring, identified as that belonging to Mrs. Byers, in his possession subsequent to that time, and that the defendant sold the ring to one Thorne in Chaves County.
The corpus delicti of larceny is constituted of two elements: that the property was lost by the owner, and that it was lost by a felonious taking. State v. Cason, 1917, 23 N.M. 77, 167 P. 283; State v. McKenzie, 1943, 47 N.M. 449, 144 P.2d 161. While something more than possession alone must be shown to establish the corpus delicti, State v. McKenzie, supra, we think the evidence here was sufficient to establish, by circumstantial evidence, the corpus delicti of larceny. See State v. Liston, 1921, 27 N.M. 500, 202 P. 696 and State v. Cason, supra, where the court said:
“ * * * in a trial for the larceny of neat cattle evidence that tended to establish the identity of the cattle, their ownership in the person from whom their taking is charged to be larcenous by the indictment, and the possession of the cattle by the defendant is enough to make out a prima facie case of guilt and establish the corpus delicti.”
Cf. State v. Paris, 76 N.M. 291, 414 P.2d 512, March 7, 1966, supra.
Therefore, it was not error to admit the statements made by the defendant to witness Needham.
Defendant next maintains that testimony of his medical witness concerning the mental condition of Mrs. Byers, ■tendered to impeach Mrs. Byers’ credibility, was improperly excluded. Defendant had previously been permitted to bring out, on cross-examination of Mrs. Byers, the fact that she was residing in the mental hospital at Las Vegas, and that she had been in other mental institutions in previous years. In addition, the tender, concerning examinations made of Mrs.'Byers nearly three years and two years before the event with which we are here concerned, was made in the presence of the jury. Testimony of the doctor could have been only cumulative, even if material in point of time. The admission or rejection of impeaching testimony going to the credibility of a witness is largely in the discretion of the trial court, State v. Gilbert, 1933, 37 N.M. 435, 24 P.2d 380; Winner v. Sharp (Fla.1949), 43 So.2d 634, and refusal to permit such testimony was not prejudicial to defendant in this case.
Defendant finally contends that his constitutional rights were violated by an instruction which would have permitted comment on the defendant’s refusal to take the witness stand. However, there is no indication anywhere in the record, nor is it claimed, that any argument or comment was made by any party on the fact that the defendant did not testify. The controverted instruction was actually for the benefit of the defendant as a caution to the jury that it should not indulge in any presumption against him because of his failure to testify. There having been no adverse comment by the prosecutor or the trial judge upon the failure to testify, the rule announced in Griffin v. State of California, 1965, 380 U.S. 609, 85 S.Ct. 1229, 14 L.Ed.2d 106, is not applicable.
The judgment will be affirmed. It is so ordered.
CHAVEZ and MOISE, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
NOBLE, Justice.
Institute for Essential Housing, Inc. has appealed from a summary judgment dismissing its cross-complaint against Lawrence E. McKnight. The facts are identical with those in Institute for Essential Housing, Inc. v. Keith, 76 N.M. 492, 416 P.2d 157, in which an opinion was filed this day. Upon authority of that decision, this case must be reversed, summary judgment vacated and the trial court directed to proceed further in a manner not inconsistent with the opinion in Institute for Essential Housing, Inc. v. Keith.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and CHAVEZ, J., concur.
PER CURIAM.
The motion for rehearing is denied. The following is in addition to the opinion heretofore filed. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
This direct appeal from the Decision and Order of the Commissioner of Revenue involves the liability of the taxpayer for gross receipts and municipal taxes, and interest on the gross receipts tax, for the period January 1, 1969, to November 30, 1971. The taxpayer claims it is not liable because of a statutory exemption. This exemption, Laws 1966, ch. 47, § 12 (y) and Laws 1969, ch. 144, § 32, is compiled as § 72-16A-12.27, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp. 1973). It reads:
“Exempted from the gross receipts tax are the receipts from dues and registration. fees of nonprofit social, fraternal, political, trade, business, labor or professional organizations.”
The taxpayers asserts the receipts involved are from dues and registration fees and that it is a nonprofit business organization. The Bureau contests each element of the claim. We consider only whether taxpayer is “nonprofit.”
Taxpayer is incorporated as a corporation without capital stock under Connecticut law. It is authorized to do business in New Mexico as a foreign corporation. The articles of incorporation state that no part of the corporation’s income is distributable to its members, directors or officers. The articles also state that the corporation shall not pay dividends. The applicable bylaws state that “ ‘no part of said [corporate] funds shall inure, or be distributed, to the Members of this corporation.’ ” It is stipulated that no part of the corporate income inures to the benefit of or is distributable to members, directors or officers of the corporation.
Taxpayer relies on the items in the preceding paragraph, asserting that these items establish that it is a nonprofit corporation.
The designation of taxpayer as “nonprofit” under Connecticut law is not conclusive on the meaning of “nonprofit.” State v. Sweeney, 153 Ohio St. 66, 91 N. E.2d 13 (1950). The fact that the taxpayer does not pay dividends and that no part of its income is distributed to members, directors or officers is also not conclusive on the meaning of “nonprofit” as used in § 72-16A-12.27, supra. State v. Sweeney, supra.
The determination of whether taxpayer is a nonprofit organization within the meaning of § 72-16A-12.27, supra, is to be made on the basis of what the taxpayer does and not on the basis of what it professes to be. Shaker Medical Center Hosp. v. Blue Cross of N. E. Ohio, 115 Ohio App. 497, 183 N.E.2d 628 (1962); compare United Veterans Org. v. New Mexico Prop. App. Dept., 84 N.M. 114, 500 P.2d 199 (Ct.App.1972).
The taxpayer works for the improvement of motoring and travel conditions at the national, state and local level. The work here is directed toward legislation, highways, taxation and safety.
In addition, taxpayer provides direct services to its members. These services include a “ ‘guaranteed arrest bond;’ ” bail bond of up to $5,000.00; “‘[l]egal reimbursement fees;’ ” emergency road service; “ ‘theft reward protection;’ ” “ ‘check cashing ;’ ” license and title service; “‘[a]utomobile finance for purchase of tires and batteries;’ ” and assistance in collecting small claims arising out of automobile accidents.
The direct services the taxpayer provides to its members shows that it confers benefits upon its members. State v. Sweeney, supra. The question is whether these benefits are a “profit,” thus prohibiting taxpayer from being a “nonprofit” organization.
The gross receipts tax law defines neither profit nor nonprofit. Booth v. Gross, Kelly & Co., 30 N.M. 465, 238 P. 829, 41 A.L.R. 868 (1925) states that profits and dividends are not necessarily synonymous terms. Booth, supra, cites authority to the effect that “profit” has a larger meaning than “dividends” and covers benefits of any kind.
State v. Lumbermen’s Clinic, 186 Wash. 384, 58 P.2d 812 (1936) states:
“Profit does not necessarily mean a direct return by way of dividends, interest, capital account, or salaries. A saving of expense which would otherwise necessarily be incurred is also a profit to the person benefited. If respondent renders to its members ... a service at a cost lower than that which would otherwise be paid for such service, then respondent’s operations result in a profit to its members. . . . ”
See State v. Sweeney, supra. Compare Farmers Oil Co. v. State Tax Commission, 41 N.M. 693, 73 P.2d 816 (1937).
The benefits that taxpayer provides to its members are a profit to those members. Accordingly, taxpayer is not a “nonprofit” organization entitled to the exemption provided by § 72-16A-12.27, supra.
The Decision and Order of the Commissioner is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION.
McMANUS, Chief Justice.
Plaintiff brought suit against defendants claiming valid and subsisting ownership of certain unpatented mining claims described as the Wall Street Claims Numbers I through VII, inclusive. Plaintiffs also sought damages for alleged slander of title. All damage claims were later withdrawn and the issue was submitted to the court and jury on the question of ownership only. All of said claims were in Sierra County, New Mexico. As the trial progressed all parties stipulated that the only claims in dispute were the Wall Street Claims 2, 3 and 5. The jury returned a verdict for the plaintiffs and the trial court entered judgment thereon.
The evidence disclosed that in 1951 plaintiffs filed notice of location on the claims in question. The defendants located their claims in January 1967, resulting in the conflict before us. Plaintiffs’ work on the claims for fiscal year 1966 (September 1, 1965 to August 31, 1966) consisted of mapping and survey and the taking of ore samples, including bulk and channel samples. Bulldozer work to obtain samples and expose older material was also accomplished and jackhammer, drilling and blasting samples were forwarded to a mill in Colorado for evaluation by a geologist. Evidence as to the value of the work showed it was in excess of $1,000. . Plaintiffs failed to file a proof of labor for that year.
The defendants first contend that:
“In taking of ore samples by a geologist for testing, mapping or survey work does not constitute valid assessment work when the requirements of 30 U.S. C.A Sec. 28-1 and 2 have not been met.”
Those sections of 30 U.S.C.A. provide:
§ 28-1. “The term ‘labor’, as used in the third sentence of section 28 of this title, shall include, without being limited to, geological, geochemical and geophysical surveys conducted by qualified experts and verified by a detailed report filed in the county office in which the claim is located which sets forth fully (a) the location of the work performed in relation to the point of discovery and boundaries of the claim, (b) the nature, extent, and cost thereof, (c) the basic findings therefrom, and (d) the name, address, and professional background of the person or persons conducting the work. Such surveys, however, may not be applied as labor for more than two consecutive years or for more than a total of five years on any one mining claim, and each such survey shall be nonrepetitive of any previous survey on the same claim.”
§ 28-2. “As used in section 28-1 of this title,
“(a) The term ‘geological surveys’ means surveys on the ground for mineral deposits by the proper application of the principles and techniques of the science of geology as they relate to the search for and discovery of mineral deposits;
« ifc if? *
“(c) The term ‘geophysical surveys’ means surveys on the ground for mineral deposits through the employment of generally recognized equipment and methods for measuring physical, differences between rock types or discontinuities in geological formations;
“(d) The term ‘qualified expert’ means an individual qualified by education or experience to conduct geological, geochemical or geophysical surveys, as the case may be.”
Was the work done on the claims in question for the year 1966 valid assessment work? The record discloses that discovery of minerals had been made prior to 1966, thus the work done during that year was not for exploratory purposes. The sampling made during this period was quite extensive, including extraction of bulk and channel samples, accomplished by bulldozing, blasting and drilling, with well over one thousand pounds of samples being extracted at a cost to appellees of over $1,000. Evidence of such sampling would clearly be visible on the ground. The testimony shows that the work was done for the purpose of determining the milling characteristics of the ore located on the subject claims to facilitate mineral development of the area.
Appellants rely on Pinkerton v. Moore, 66 N.M. 11, 340 P.2d 844 (1959), which held that reconnaissance and counter reconnaissance do not constitute valid assessment work, and Bishop v. Baisley, 28 Or. 119, 41 P. 936 (1895), which held that taking samples from the walls of the shaft or outcroppings in small quantities and making tests could not be credited as annual labor. These two cases are clearly distinguishable from the facts of the instant case.
In Pinkerton, supra, the surveys were not of a character that would enure to the benefit of the claim. Bishop, supra, is also distinguishable in that sampling from the walls of the shaft, et cetera, was done to determine if there was a “pay chute,” with that court differentiating between survey work done for the purpose- of discovering a “pay chute” and that done for the purpose of developing it, as in this case. Here it is evident that the work performed benefitted a claim and was not done to ascertain whether there was a “pay chute” in the mine, but rather to determine the milling characteristics of the ore already known to exist.
The general rule in regard to the character of ground work is that the work must be of such a character as directly tends to develop and protect the claim and to facilitate the extraction of minerals. Eveleigh v. Darneille, 276 Cal.App.2d 638, 81 Cal.Rptr. 301 (1969).
Guidelines for the determination we must make regarding the work done by plaintiffs are set out in Schlegel v. Hough, 182 Or. 441, 186 P.2d 516, reh. denied, 182 Or. 449, 188 P.2d 158 (1947), as follows:
“ * * * The question to be considered is whether or not the work was done in good faith ‘for the purpose of working, prospecting or developing the mining ground embraced in the location, or for the purpose of facilitating the extraction or removal of the ore therefrom.’ [Citations omitted.]”
2 American Law of Mining § 7.6, at 108 (The Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Foundation, ed. 1973), addresses itself to the “good faith” requirement mentioned by the court in Schlegel, supra. In addition to the good faith requirement, it is well settled that the work must tend to develop the claim and facilitate the extraction of ore therefrom. However, if the work is performed in good faith, the court will not substitute its own judgment for that of the miner. The w.ork need not be performed openly and notoriously.
Dale Carlson, a geologist, and a witness at the trial on the significance of the work done during the period in question, testified as follows:
“Q. Mr. Carlson, then in regard to this work that was done, can you tell us whether or not there was work done in all of the seven% Wall Street claims in the period from September 1st, 1965 through the end of the year ?
“A. From the samples there was work done. If you will give me this exhibit over here, I can tell you which. There was work done on Wall Street 1, Wall Street 2, Wall Street 3, Wall Street 4 and Wall Street 5.
“Q. Would that work have been beneficial to all of the claims?
“A. There are two major veins on the property.
“Q. Let’s back up, I- just want first an answer to the question, yes or no?
“A. Yes. I believe it was.
“Q. Will you explain that, please ?
“A. Well, there are two veins on the property that we work on, and all the claims are located on these two veins. And development of any part of the vein and knowledge gained on any part of the vein, of course, benefits development of the entire claims.”
This would indicate that the work was done after discovery of the mineral in place and for the purpose of development of the claim in question.
The work done by plaintiffs was not accomplished for the discovery of mineral deposits nor for the purpose of measuring physical differences between rock types or discontinuities in geological formation. It was done to determine the milling characteristics of the mineral deposit already known to exist. Because of these facts, these samples were outside the definitions contained in § 28-2, supra, and outside the labor requirements of § 28-1, supra. However, this was labor for the purpose of developing rather than discovering, and complied with assessment work requirements on mining claims regardless of §§ 28-1 and 28-2, supra. See and compare Bishop v. Baisley, supra; Schlegel v. Hough, supra; Eveleigh v. Darnielle, supra; Simmons v. Muir, 75 Wyo. 44, 291 P.2d 810 (1955); Sampson v. Page, 129 Cal.App.2d 356, 276 P.2d 871 (1954).
Appellants’ second point, claiming error on the part of the trial court for not instructing the jury that §§ 28-1 and 28-2, supra, had to be complied with, is found to be without merit for the above stated reasons.
Affirmed. It is so ordered.
OMAN and STEPHENSON, JJV concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
NOBLE, Justice.
Cruz Torres, Sr. (hereafter termed Torres), an employee of Kennecott Copper Corporation (hereafter termed Kennecott), has appealed from a judgment denying his claim for workmen’s compensation benefits.
Torres argues that he submitted medical testimony establishing a causal connection as a medical probability between his disabil ity and the accidental injury, and that consequently finding of fact no. 8, reading:
“8. That plaintiff has failed to prove by expert medical testimony as a medical probability that there is a causal connection between such present disability as he may have and the accident of April 19, 1963 [,]”
and conclusions of law 2 and 3, reading:
“2. Defendant having denied that plaintiff’s alleged injury is a natural and direct result of the accident, the burden of proving that causal connection as a medical probability by expert medical testimony was on the plaintiff.
“2. That plaintiff has failed to establish the existence of a compensable claim under the Act[,]”
are erroneous as a matter of law and require a reversal of the judgment. We cannot agree.
The argument springs from a misunderstanding of the requirement of § 59-10-13.3, N.M.S.A.1953, which imposes the burden upon the claimant to establish a causal connection between the disability and the accident as a medical probability by expert medical testimony, when, as in this case, the defendant has denied that the disability is a natural and direct result of the accident. See Yates v. Matthews, 71 N.M. 451, 379 P.2d 441. Torres is obviously mistaken in his belief that he has satis- . fied the burden imposed upon him by § 59-10-13.3(B), N.M.S.A.1953, by the mere production of one or more experts who so-testify, there being other expert testimony expressing a contrary opinion. If the expert testimony is conflicting, it must be such as to convince the trial court of such causal connection as a medical probability. It is-true that there was testimony of medical experts, that the disability they found resulted naturally and directly from the accident as a medical probability. The opinion of those experts was based partly, at least, upon the history given to them by the claimant. There was also testimony of a medical expert expressing a contrary opinion.. The trial court was evidently convinced by the latter testimony, and we think it was substantial in support of the finding made-by the lower court. It was said in Yates v. Matthews, supra:
“It must follow that, where a conflict arises in the proof, with one or more experts expressing an opinion one way, and others expressing a diametrically contrary opinion, the trier of the facts must resolve the disagreement and determine-what the true facts are. * * * ”
This court will not disturb a finding of fact on appeal which is supported by substantial evidence. Stuckey v. Furr Food Cafeteria, 72 N.M. 15, 380 P.2d 172; Yates v. Matthews, supra. The challenged finding, supported by the opinion of a medical', expert, is not erroneous as a matter of law because the opinion expressed by one or 'inore medical experts would have supported a contrary finding.
Where there has been a failure to establish the causal connection required by statute, there can be no recovery in workmen’s compensation. It accordingly becomes unnecessary to consider whether or not the language of finding no. 7 is conflicting, nor is it necessary to consider ■ other questions argued.
It' follows that the judgment appealed from should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
' MOISE, J., and LaFEL E. OMAN, J., Ct.App., concur. | [
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Ordered that the petition for alternative writ of prohibition be and the same is hereby denied. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Huerta appeals a decision- by HSS (Health and Social Services Department) that his household (Huerta and his wife) was not eligible for participation in the food stamp program. HSS determined that after all applicable allowances which reduced income under HSS regulations the “net food stamp income” exceeded the maximum income allowable in determining eligibility. The dispute is concerned with what may be considered as “income” in determining eligibility. The dispute involves disability insurance benefits.
In 1972, Huerta obtained two loans from a finance company. As a part of the loan transaction he purchased disability insurance. In August, 1973, when eligibility for food stamps was determined, disability insurance benefits were being paid. One policy paid $91.04 per month and was referred to as the “house payment.” The other policy paid $26.00 per month and was referred to as the “note payment.” Both policies provided that benefits were to be paid to the “creditor policyholder” (the finance company) and applied against the outstanding unpaid loan indebtedness. The record indicates the disability benefits were paid directly to the finance company.
HSS treated the disability benefits as income in determining food stamp eligibility. It did so on the basis of HSS Regulation 262.43(B)(10) which defines income to include:
“Payments in money, except for those for medical costs, made on behalf of the household by a person other than a member of the household. . . . ”
Huerta contends that the interpretation of the above quoted regulation to include the disability insurance benefits is unreasonable because other parts of the regulation (not quoted here) refer to income which has the effect of putting cash into the hands of the household. He claims that “he has no added purchasing power because the insurance payments never go directly to him.” He claims the regulation was never intended to apply to an “illusory benefit” and that Huerta should not be penalized for his foresight in purchasing the insurance.
By its wording, the quoted regulation does not require cash in Huerta’s hands. The regulation refers to money payments on behalf of the household. The record shows such payments on Huerta’s behalf. It does not follow that Huerta has no added purchasing power because Huerta does not directly receive the benefit payments. The payments are on outstanding loans owed by Huerta; the disability benefits are making loan payments, thus freeing Huerta from making the payments with other income. Thus, they do increase his purchasing power. The benefits are not illusory. Huerta is not being penalized for having purchased insurance ; the insurance payments are a benefit.
HSS correctly determined that the disability insurance benefits are income under the quoted regulation.
Huerta does not assert that the quoted regulation, as worded, is unconstitutional. He does claim that the interpretation of the regulation to include disability benefit pay ments .violates due process. This argument has four parts which are stated and answered below.
First, he asserts that the quoted regulation sets up an irrebuttable presumption that, because ,two of his debts are covered by disability insurance, the insurance payments increase his food purchasing power. See U.S. Dept. of Agriculture v. Murry, 413 U.S. 508, 93 S.Ct. 2832, 37 L.Ed.2d 767 (1973). We disagree. The purpose of the food stamp program is to raise levels of nutrition among low income households. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture v. Moreno, 413 U.S. 528, 93 S.Ct. 2821, 37 L.Ed.2d 782 (1973). The quoted regulation deals with a determination of income; it sets up no presumptions of any kind concerning purchasing power. Other regulations, not involved in this case, deal with allowances reducing income once income has been determined.
Second, he contends that he is entitled to an “ ‘individualized determination’ ” on the basis of “the real facts of his situation.” That is what he has received in this case.
Third, he claims the regulation has no rational relation to the stated purpose of the food stamp act. The regulation deals with income and is rationally related to determining the low income beneficiaries of the program.
Fourth, he asserts the regulation is “contrary to the fundamental concepts of fairness and contrary to the altruistic ends of” the food stamp act (which may be found at 7 U.S.C. § 2011). It is neither unfair nor contrary to the purpose of the act to consider payments made by another person on behalf of Huerta in calculating Huerta’s income for eligibility purposes.
The quoted regulation, as applied to Huerta, did not deprive him of due process of law. Compare Padilla v. Health and Social Services Department, 84 N.M. 140, 500 P.2d 425 (Ct.App.1972).
The decision denying eligibility for food stamp benefits is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ, J., concurs.
SUTIN, J., dissenting. | [
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OPINION
MARTINEZ, Justice.
Plaintiff (appellant) brought suit on February 23, 1973 in the District Court of Dona.Ana County to obtain judgment for breach of contract in the amount of $10,811.58 and for a foreclosure of a Mechanic’s and Materialman’s Lien. Appellant had contracted with Defendant (appellee) to construct certain improvements on real property owned by appellee. In return, appellee agreed to pay appellant $75,-723 plus extras in the amount of $1,468.27.
Allegedly, construction on the real property was substantially completed on August 2, 1972, while certain improvements were not made due to the unavailability of the necessary material. Payments were made by appellee in the amount of $56,789.75, but no further payments were tendered by appellee. Therefore, appellant filed of record a claim of Mechanic’s and Material-man’s Lien pursuant to § 61-2-6, N.M.S. A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 9, Pt. 1, 1960) on November 10, 1972. On November 24, 1972, appellee tendered to appellant a check for $8,966.75. Appellant cashed the check and by letter dated December 9, 1972, notified appellee of this fact and that the check was being applied on account.
In answer to appellant’s complaint, appellee raised the affirmative defense of accord and satisfaction and filed a counterclaim. On May 11, 1973, appellee filed a motion for summary judgment. After oral argument was heard, on July 3, 1973, the trial court entered summary judgment in favor of appellee and dismissed appellant’s complaint and appellee’s counterclaim.
Appellant has raised two points on appeal which can be stated as follows:
1. The conduct of the parties did not give rise to an accord and satisfaction;
2. The trial court erred in granting summary judgment.
We agree.
Justice Oman stated this Court’s interpretation of Rule 56(c), Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1(56) (c), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970)] in Goodman v. Brock, 83 N.M. 789, 498 P.2d 676 (1972). In that case, he approved and adopted the reasoning and language taken from 3 Barron & Holtzoff, Federal Practice and Procedure, with Forms, § 1234 at 124 — 126 (Rev’d. by Wright 1958) :
“ ‘Though it has been said that summary judgment should not be granted if there is the “slightest doubt” as to the facts, such statements are a rather misleading gloss on a rule which speaks in terms of “genuine issue as to any material fact,” and would, if taken literally, mean that there could hardly ever, be a summary judgment, for at least a slight doubt can be developed as to practically all things human. A better formulation would be that the party opposing the motion is to be given the benefit of all reasonable doubts in determining whether a genuine issue exists. If there are such reasonable doubts, summary judgment should be denied. A substantial dispute as to a material fact forecloses summary judgment.’ ” Goodman v. Brock, 83 N.M. at 792,498 P.2d at 679.
Appellee had the burden of establishing a prima facie showing that no genuine factual issue existed. Rule 56(c), supra; Goodman v. Brock, supra. Once this burden was satisfied, the appellant then had the obligation of showing that there was such a genuine factual issue requiring a trial and that appellee was not entitled as a matter of law to summary judgment. Goodman v. Brock, supra; Bertelle v. City of Gallup, 81 N.M. 755, 473 P.2d 369 (Ct.App.1970). Whether or not a genuine issue of fact exists depends upon the particular facts of each case. Goodman v. Brock, supra.
At the hearing on the motion for summary judgment, appellee submitted its letter written to appellant on November 24, 1972 which reads in part:
“I am enclosing check in the amount of $8,966.75 which represents the balance which we believe to be due under the terms of your contract. * * *
It is the position of my clients that the enclosed check pays the balance due on the contract after deducting the penalty and the costs which will be incurred in completing the work in accordance with the specifications.”
A letter written by appellant to appellee on December 9, 1972 contains the following important language:
“We take issue to the contention that work was not completed in accordance with the specifications and want it plainly understood that we are accepting your check as a credit to the outstanding balance due and not as an accord and satisfaction of your contractual obligations.”
These two letters quoted from above represent the most salient and pertinent evidence considered by the trial court in its determination of the motion for summary judgment. An accord and satisfaction has been defined as “ * * * a method of discharging a contract, or settling a cause of action arising either from a contract or a tort, by substituting for such contract or cause of action an agreement for the satisfaction thereof and the execution of such substituted agreement.” Frazier v. Ray, 29 N.M. 121, 123, 219 P. 492, 493 (1923). An accord and satisfaction must be “ * * * accompanied by such acts or declarations as amount to a condition that if the money be accepted it is to be in full satisfaction and to be of such character that the creditor is bound so to understand such offer.” Miller v. Prince Street Elevator Co., 41 N.M. 330, 337, 68 P.2d 663, 667 (1937). When considering the existence of an accord and satisfaction, we should examine the following elements:
1. Did the debtor make an offer in full satsifaction of the debt ;
2. Was there an unliquidated or disputed claim which formed the basis of this offer ;
3. Was this offer accompanied by acts and declarations which amounted to a condition;
4. Were those acts and declarations such that the offeree was bound to understand them; and
5. Was the offer accepted in full satisfaction of the debt. See Miller v. Prince Street Elevator Co., supra; Frazier v. Ray, supra.
We conclude that it is far from clear that an accord and satisfaction was executed by the conduct of the parties. The language contained in appellee’s letter is not such that appellant was bound to understand that the letter and check represented an offer to settle their dispute. In fact, appellant’s letter says as much. At the least, there is a reasonable doubt as to whether the conduct of the parties gave rise to the existence of an accord and satisfaction. Consequently, this reasonable doubt forecloses the possibility of summary judgment. Goodman v. Brock, supra.
In view of the foregoing, the order of the trial court awarding summary judgment to the appellee is reversed and the case is remanded to the trial court for a trial on the merits of both the complaint and counterclaim, and for further proceedings consistent with the views expressed in this opinion.
It is so ordered.
OMAN and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
This is an appeal from an order denying a motion to set aside a judgment pursuant to the provisions of Rule 60(b)(4) of our Rules of Civil Procedure for the District Courts [§ 21-1-1(60) (b)(4), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4, 1970)]. We reverse.
In 1967 plaintiffs petitioned the County Commission of Valencia County to vacate, pursuant to the provisions of § 55-4-4, N. M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2, 1962), two county roads which were established and maintained as highways. Thereafter, in October 1967, they appeared before the Commission in support of their petition. Upon the advice of the district attorney, the Commission told plaintiffs that the matter of vacating the roads was a matter to be determined by the district court.
On September 25, 1969, plaintiffs filed suit in the district court, whereby they sought to quiet title in themselves to certain lands, including the two roads. The County and the Cordovas, appellants here, were among a large number of defendants named in this quiet title suit. A “Decree and Judgment” was entered by the district court on July 10, 1972, by which title to the said lands, including the two roads, was quieted in plaintiffs. However, quieting of the title to the roads in plaintiffs was conditioned upon the establishment by them of a 40 ft. right-of-way easement in the public across another portion of plaintiffs’ lands and “straightening out the road along the southern boundary of real property” as described in the “Decree and Judgment.”
The following is one of the recited findings of fact pertinent to and upon which the district court apparently relied for quieting title to the roadways in plaintiffs and requiring that they establish a 40 ft. public right-of-way easement:
“That a portion of an individual tract herein subject of Quiet Title was at one time by predecessors of Plaintiffs in title dedicated to Defendant COUNTY OF VALENCIA, providing full use and need thereof as right-of-way; that same was utilized and rendered; that said need no longer exists, and by pertinent statutes herein applicable, said easement has been extinguished, and any right of said Defendant herein is without any foundation or right, either in law or equity.” [Nothing contained in the “Decree and Judgment,” or in plaintiffs’ complaint from which this finding was taken verbatim by adoption, indicates, or even suggests, what statute or statutes the court had in mind. However, in the subsequently filed decision to which reference is hereinafter made, reference was made in one of the court’s findings of fact and also in one of its conclusions of law to § 55-4-4, supra].
On October 18, 1972, an order was entered pursuant to a motion:
“ * * * [T]hat the Judgment [Decree and Judgment referred to above] heretofore entered herein is hereby vacated for a period of THIRTY (30) days for the specific purpose of allowing Defendants to file their requested Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law and that thereafter said Judgment shall be entered with its appropriate full force and effect, * *
On November 3, 1972, the County and the Cordovas filed their requested findings of fact and conclusions of law. It does not appear from the record before us whether these findings and conclusions were ever considered by the district court. It is apparent that the court failed to comply with Rule 52(B) (a) (5) of the Rules of Civil Procedure for the District Courts [§ 21 — 1—(52)(B)(a) (5), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970)].
On January 2, 1973, the district court’s decision, consisting of findings of fact and conclusions of law, was filed with the clerk of the court. This decision constituted a verbatim copy of a paper filed March 15, 1972 denominated “Plaintiffs’ Requested Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law.” However, this paper was not signed and does not purport to have been served on opposing counsel.
At the request of plaintiffs’ attorney, the district court’s decision was shown to have been filed on July 10, 1972. On January 18, 1973, the district court filed a purported “Order Nunc Pro Tunc” by which it was ordered “that the Court’s Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law herein be entered herein 10 July 1972 nunc pro tunc.” As to the office of a nunc pro tunc entry of record, see Mora v. Martinez, 80 N.M. 88, 451 P.2d 992 (1969).
The sole issue raised on this appeal is whether the judgment of the district court was void insofar as it purported to quiet ti- tie to the roads in plaintiffs. Section 55-4-4, supra, provides in pertinent part:
“Whenever, in the opinion of the board of county commissioners of any county, any road or part of road then established and maintained as a public highway, is not needed, * * * they may at a regular meeting appoint a board of commissioners of three [3] freeholders of the county as viewers, to view such road or part of road, and make report thereof to the board of county commissioners at their next regular meeting, setting forth fully their finding, and if they recommend a discontinuance of such road or part of road, then the board of county commissioners may order the same vacated. * * * ”
Sections 55-1-6 and 55-1-7, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2, 1962) provide:
“55-1-6. Abandonmentvacation and reverter of public roads, streets and highways. — Property or property rights acquired by purchase or condemnation by the state or any commission, department, bureau, agency or political subdivision of the 'state for public road, street or highway purposes shall not revert until such property or property rights are vacated or abandoned by formal written declaration of vacation or abandonment which has been fully declared by the state or any commission, department, institution, bureau, agency or political subdivision of the state in whom the property or property right has vested.”
“55-1-7. Petition for determination of abandonment or vacation. — Any owner of lands abutting any highway, street or road, his heirs or assigns, who believes a section of any public road, street or highway is no longer needed for public purposes, may petition the state or any commission, department, bureau, agency or political subdivision thereof for a formal determination of abandonment or vacation.” [We note and have deleted obvious repetition of some of the language of this section].
These statutes all relate to the same matter, to wit, the vacation or abandonment of public highways, streets or roads by formal declaration, determination or order of the state or the appropriate commission, department, institution, bureau or political subdivision thereof. Being in pari materia these statutes, should be construed, if reasonably possible, so as to give effect to every provision of each. State v. New Mexico Authority, 76 N.M. 1, 18, 411 P.2d 984, 996 (1966). A consideration of these statutes together clearly evinces an intent on the part of our Legislature to provide a formal procedure for the abandonment or vacation of public roads, streets and highways, and the district courts are not vested with this power. Plaintiffs’ argument to the contrary is clearly unsupported by the language of the statutes. The record shows that the County Commission, representing the County of Valencia, was the proper body to vacate or abandon the roads in question, and this Commission has not declared, determined or ordered a vacation or abandonment thereof.
Plaintiffs argue that the Cordovas lacked standing to challenge the district court’s action in quieting title to the roads in plaintiffs and against the interests of the County. The Cordovas were made parties defendant to the suit by plaintiffs, and were referred to as defendants in the same paragraph of the complaint in which the County was referred to as a defendant. It is true the nature of their alleged claim of interest in the lands to which plaintiffs sought to quiet title does not appear in the complaint. The motion to set aside the judgment under Rule 60(b)(4), supra, does not specifically state what the interest of Cordovas was in the lands to which the district court undertook to quiet the title in plaintiffs, but clearly they joined in the motion for the purpose of setting aside the judgment insofar as it purported to quiet title to the roads in plaintiffs. In their “Reply to Motion to Set Aside Judgment,” plaintiffs made no claim that the Cordovas lacked standing to join in the motion.
Even if we were to concede that the Cordovas did lack standing, clearly the County of Valencia had standing and was a party aggrieved by the “Decree and Judgment,” and by the order denying the motion to vacate that judgment. No claim is made that the County lacked standing. Thus, the question of standing by the Cordovas is of no particular consequence.
Plaintiffs contend the County waived its right to challenge the jurisdiction of the district court to quiet title to the roads in them. They rely upon the fact that the County entered an appearance in the quiet title suit and participated in the proceedings therein conducted by the district court. It would appear that these actions on the part of the County gave the district court personal jurisdiction over the County. However, this did not confer jurisdiction or power in the district court over the subject matter of the suit, insofar as the subject matter of the suit was concerned with the quieting of title in the roads. Subject matter jurisdiction cannot be conferred by consent of the parties. Zarges v. Zarges, 79 N.M. 494, 445 P.2d 97 (1968) ; Martinez v. Research Park, Inc., 75 N.M. 672, 410 P.2d 200 (1965). See also Wright and Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure: Civil, §§ 1393 and 2862 (1969).
An attack on subject matter jurisdiction may be made at any time in the proceedings. Board of County Com’rs of Dona Ana County v. Sykes, 74 N.M. 435, 394 P. 2d 278 (1964); Rule 12(h)(3), Rules of Civil Procedure for the District Courts [§ 21-1-1(12) (h)(3), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970)]. It may be made for the first time upon appeal. Barnett v. Cal M, Inc., 79 N.M. 553, 445 P.2d 974 (1968); Maes v. Old Lincoln County Memorial Commission, 64 N.M. 475, 330 P.2d 556 (1958) ; Rule 20(1), Rules of New Mexico Supreme Court [§ 21-2-1(20) (1), N.M.S. A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4, 1970)]. Or it may be made by a collateral attack in the same or other proceedings long after the judgment has been entered. Heckathorn v. Heckathorn, 77 N.M. 369, 423 P.2d 410 (1967); Reger v. Grimson, 76 N.M. 688, 417 P.2d 882 (1966); State v. Romero, 76 N.M. 449, 415 P.2d 837 (1966); Rule 60(b)(4), supra.
The granting of relief under other portions of Rule 60(b), supra, has been held to be discretionary. State Collection Bureau v. Roybal, 64 N.M. 275, 327 P.2d 337 (1958); Adams & McGahey v. Neill, 58 N.M. 782, 276 P.2d 913 (1954). It has also been held that this discretion may be invoked only upon the showing of “exceptional circumstances.” Battersby v. Bell Aircraft Corporation, 65 N.M. 114, 332 P. 2d 1028 (1958). However, there is no discretion on the part of the trial court under Rule 60(b)(4), supra. Austin v. Smith, 114 U.S.App.D.C. 97, 312 F.2d 337 (1962); Hicklin v. Edwards, 226 F.2d 410 (8th Cir. 1955). In Wright and Miller, supra, § 2862, it is stated:
“Rule 60(b)(4) authorizes relief from void judgments. Necessarily a motion under this part of the rule differs markedly from motions under the other clauses of Rule 60(b). There is no question of discretion on the part of the court when a motion is under Rule 60(b)(4). * * * Either a judgment is void or it is valid. * * * ”
Plaintiffs also urge that the County’s failure to decide the roadway vacation issue when presented to the County Commissioners by plaintiffs in 1967, as shown above, in some way operates as an estoppel of the County to raise the jurisdictional issue under Rule 60(b)(4), supra. We have held the doctrine of estoppel applicable to a sovereign in the exercise of governmental functions if right and justice so demands. Silver City Consol. Sch. Dist. No. 1 v. Board of Regents, 75 N.M. 106, 401 P.2d 95 (1965). However, we are unable to understand how the failure of the County Commission to make a decision in 1967, when the question of vacation of the roadway was presented to it, conferred upon the district court the power and authority to quiet title to the roads in plaintiffs, or in any way estopped the County from asserting lack of jurisdiction in the court.
Plaintiffs’ final argument is that the district court, upon disputed facts, found that the dedication of the roads to public use had not been proved. It is true the district court made the following purported finding of fact:
“That there were conflicting issues of fact as to the vacation of said roadways, as to the use thereof and as to the necessity for the continuance thereof and as to the valid dedication of said roadways, and the Court resolves the issues of fact therein in favor of Plaintiffs herein.”
However, we fail to understand how this most unusual and questionable finding of fact can be held to prevail over the express admission by plaintiffs in their complaint of the dedication to and the use by the public of these roads and the verbatim adoption of this admission by the court as a finding of fact as quoted above. In addition, there are other findings made by the district court as to the abandonment and vacation by the public of these roads, the acquisition of title thereto by plaintiffs by adverse possession, and the existence of the “right of way easements * * * established,” all of which clearly point to the fact that the district court considered the roads in question to have been dedicated roads. We concede our inability to fully understand or to fully reconcile all of the inconsistencies in the findings, but there is no question in our minds about the fact that plaintiffs alleged and thereby admitted, and the district court found, that the roads in question were dedicated to the public use.
The order of the trial court denying the motion to vacate the “Decree and Judgment” pursuant to Rule 60(b)(4), supra, is hereby overruled and the cause remanded to the district court for whatever further action, if any, is required to comply with the views herein expressed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MARTINEZ, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
JOE W. WOOD, Judge, Court of Appeals.
This is the second appeal in this workmen’s compensation case. For the first appeal see 74 N.M. 45, 390 P.2d 283. In this appeal defendants raised three issues: (1) there is no evidence °to support a finding under § 59-10-14, N.M.S.A.1953; (2) a compensation award to plaintiff for a 1962 injury should be deducted from the partial permanent disability award in this case; and (3) the allowance for attorney’s fees is excessive. By cross-appeal plaintiff asserts that the allowance for attorney fees is inadequate.
Plaintiff was injured at Aneth, Utah, on July 29, 1959. His claim was filed October 12, 1961. The trial court found that there was conduct on the part of the defendants that reasonably led plaintiff to believe that compensation would be paid. The trial court concluded that plaintiff was not deprived of his right to compensation although the suit was not filed within the time prescribed by the Workmen’s Compensation Act. The trial court awarded temporary total and partial permanent benefits and credited against this award the compensation payments previously made by defendants under Utah law.
The first issue is whether there is evidence to support the trial court’s application of § 59-10-14, N.M.S.A.1953. If such evidence is lacking, then the claim is barred by § 59-10-13.6, N.M.S.A.1953. Section 59-10-14 reads:
“The failure of any person entitled to compensation under the Workmen’s Compensation Act [59-10-1 to 59-10-37] to give any notice, file any claim, or bring suit within the time fixed by the Workmen’s Compensation Act shall not deprive such person of the right to compensation where the failure was caused in whole or in part by the conduct of the employer or insurer which reasonably led the person entitled to compensation to believe the compensation would be paid.”
Defendants paid compensation from date of injury to June 2, 1960. From June 2, 1960, to November 9, 1960, there was conduct on the part of defendants which would reasonably lead plaintiff to believe compensation would be paid. From November 9, 1960, to August 7, 1961, defendants again paid compensation. The payments were at the rate of $37.00 per week and were under the Utah law.
Defendants assert that their conduct must have reasonably led the plaintiff to believe that compensation would be paid under the New Mexico Workmen’s Compensation Act. They point out that plaintiff never did say that he thought the payments were being made under New Mexico law. They claim that § 59-10-14, N.M.S.A.1953, cannot apply if plaintiff did not believe it was New Mexico compensation that was being paid.
This first issue is controlled by the opinion on the first appeal since that opinion is the law of the case. Albuquerque Broadcasting Co. v. Bureau of Revenue, 54 N.M. 133, 215 P.2d 819.
In the first appeal we reversed the partial summary judgment which held that plaintiff’s claim was barred under § 59-10-13.6, N.M.S.A.1953. The opinion states:
“* * * [T]he question which we must determine is whether a material issue of iact was present concerning whether payments were made under Utah law, and if so did they effect a waiver or estoppel of claimant to any right to claim benefits under the New Mexico law? We are clear that an issue of fact was present, :and that the affidavits before the court prior to trial could reasonably raise an inference which would have supported a finding that payments were not made or knowingly received under the Utah law •so as to bar this action. * * * ”
.And further:
'“We are satisfied that if the facts are as ■claimed by plaintiff, payments made and .accepted could just as effectively lull -claimant into a reasonable feeling of security as to his being entitled to compensation under New Mexico law as would continued voluntary payment of wages, and would accordingly be conduct •excusing the filing of the claim within ■one year after the right to compensation arose. See Ritter v. Albuquerque Gas & Electric Co., 47 N.M. 329, 142 P.2d 919, 153 A.L.R. 273. This is in strict accord with § 59-10-14, N.M.S.A.1953. On remand for the error in deciding the issues on summary judgment, §§ 59-10-13.6 and .59-10-14, N.M.S.A.1953, should be applied as herein explained.”
Thus, on remand, the issue to be decided by the trial court was whether the facts were as claimed by the plaintiff. This application of the law of the case' is set forth in Mitchell v. Allison, 54 N.M. 56, 213 P.2d 231:
“It was held by this court on the first appeal that the allegations above recited stated a cause of action, * * *
“ * * * If facts proved establish the above allegations, then the plaintiff is entitled to recover, whether the law of the case, as we have stated it in the first opinion, is right or wrong * *
The facts proved at the trial went further than those claimed by plaintiff in the affidavit. The claim made by the affidavit is that compensation was voluntarily paid and voluntarily accepted, that there had not been a failure or refusal to pay compensation for a year or more prior to filing of the complaint, that part of the compensation payments were mailed to him from Salt Lake City and part were mailed to him by the adjuster in Farmington, New Mexico, and that he never presented a claim to or made an appearance before the Utah Industrial Commission. These facts are established by the evidence.
The trial court’s application of § 59 — 10— 14, N.M.S.A.1953, is supported by the following additional facts. Plaintiff didn’t know under which act the compensation was paid and didn’t know there was a difference between the New Mexico and Utah acts until some time in 1962 when he was so informed by his attorney. Plaintiff didn’t realize there was a problem, and while compensation was being paid he “rested easy.” Plaintiff testified there was no indication from anyone that he would not receive compensation under the New Mexico act.
At all times material plaintiff resided in New Mexico. He was hired in New Mexico for the job on which he was injured. He received medical treatment in Farmington, New Mexico, and his first back operation was performed by an Albuquerque surgeon.
The insurer provided compensation coverage for employer in both New Mexico and Utah. By a letter dated January 17, 1961, the defendant employer specifically pointed out to plaintiff that the defendants were paying compensation under the Utah act. Plaintiff acknowledged that he received and read this letter.
Prior to receipt of the letter in January 1961 the above facts support an inference that the payments were not knowingly received under the Utah law so as to bar the action. The conduct of defendants having lulled plaintiff into a feeling of security as to his being entitled to compensation under New Mexico law, their conduct excused plaintiff’s failure to file the claim within one year after the right to compensation arose. The law of the case is that such conduct by defendants meets the requirements of § 59-10-14, N.M.S.A.1953.
After receipt of the January 1961 letter, plaintiff could not have had “a feeling of security” as to New Mexico compensation. The letter clearly stated the position of defendants — that entitlement to compensation was under Utah law. The limitation period for filing his claim began to run from receipt of that letter. The complaint, filed October 12, 1961, was in time. See Elsea v. Broome Furniture Co., 47 N.M. 356, 143 P.2d 572.
In July of 1962 plaintiff suffered an injury to his low back in the same area that was injured while working for defendant employers on July 29, 1959. For the \962 injury plaintiff was paid temporary total compensation benefits of $2,052.00 and received a lump sum settlement of $3,800.00. Defendants’ second issue is that this $3,800.-00 should be deducted from the award of 50% partial permanent disability in this case. Defendants assert that the permanent partial disability that he now suffers is the same permanent partial disability resulting from the 1962 accident.
The trial court refused defendants’ requested finding that plaintiff’s partial permanent disability as of the time of trial was. the same disability which followed the 1962 accident; refused to find that the current disability was due in part to the 1962 injury and refused to conclude that the $3,800.00 settlement for partial permanent disability should be deducted from the amount of partial permanent disability in this case.
The trial court found that plaintiff’s disability was proximately caused by the 1959 injury, that this disability was 50% and that plaintiff’s impaired physical condition was medically a result of the 1959 accident even though the condition had been complicated by the 1962 injury.
There is evidence to support the trial court’s findings. Dr. Schultz was of the opinion that plaintiff had a 50% disability to the body as a whole, that this disability was a consequence cf the 1959 injury and the 1962 injury did not alter this disability. Dr. Smith treated plaintiff for the 1962 injury. Dr. Smith testified that he couldn’t tell for sure to what injury the disability was to be attributed. Dr. Smith admitted, that in one of his written reports, he indicated that there was no impairment resulting from the 1962 injury.
Since the* disability awarded was for the 1959 injury, there is no factual basis on which to apply a deduction. Defendants assert that plaintiff should not be paid twice for the same disability. The findings are to the effect that he is not being so paid. Defendants assert that plaintiff could have still another accidental injury to the same area previously injured and would be able to collect more than 100% due to his disability. We do not decide whether an injury to the “same area” would be an injury to the “same member or function.” If, as a fact, they are the same, § 59-10-18.8(D), N.M.S.A.1953, answers this contention.
Defendants’ third issue is that the allowance of $2,600.00 to plaintiff’s attorney is excessive and should not have been based in part on services performed in connection with the prior appeal. While plaintiff’s attorney referred to services performed in the prior appeal in setting forth the claim for attorney fees, nothing in the record indicates that the trial court considered the prior appeal in setting the fees.
The trial court found that $2,600.00 was a reasonable attorney fee “in this action.” Section 59-10-23, N.M.S.A.1953, allows the trial court to set fees which “the court may deem reasonable and proper.” The record in this case shows a hearing on defendants’ motion for summary judgment and two trials. The proceedings show the claim was contested on the issues of employment in New Mexico, filing of the claim within the proper time, the extent of disability and the recovery for certain medical bills.
There was no abuse of discretion by the trial court in setting the attorney fee. Garcia v. J. C. Penney Co., 52 N.M. 410, 200 P.2d 372.
Plaintiff cross-appeals, claiming the award of $2,600.00 is inadequate. We cannot state, as a matter of law, that the fees are inadequate. The amount of fees awarded is discretionary with the trial court, subject to the provisions of § 59-10-23, N.M.S. A. 1953.
The judgment is affirmed with an additional award'to plaintiff of $1,000.00 for the services of his attorney in representing him in this appeal. It is so ordered.
MOISE and COMPTON, JJ., concur.
CARMODY, C. J., and LaFEL E. OMAN, J., Court of Appeals, dissent. | [
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OPINION
CHAVEZ, Justice.
Defendant-appellee Jack DiPaolo was the prime contractor for the installation of a water-works system for the village of Ru-idoso Downs. He and plaintiff-appellant entered into a written contract whereby appellant was to perform services and supply materials as a subcontractor.
On June 12, 1963, plaintiff-appellant Roy V. Tyner stopped work on the-project and he later filed this action to recover payment for work performed and materials supplied. Named as defendants along with appellee DiPaolo and his “D” Construction Company were two persons who signed as sureties on the construction bond.
Appellees denied owing appellant any amount and cross-claimed for $1,000 which DiPaolo was required to spend “in excess of what he would have been required to spend had Tyner faithfully completed the contract. * * * ”
The trial court concluded that appellant wrongfully breached his contract with ap-pellee DiPaolo; that DiPaolo was entitled to offset his damages against appellant’s claim; that appellant was not entitled to reimbursement for legal fees; and that appellant had forfeited any claim for payment under the contract.
We first consider appellant’s last contention, that the trial court erred in finding that appellant’s failure to complete the contract was not due to any fault of appellee DiPaolo, as disposition of this point affects the entire appeal.
Appellant directs our attention to the trial court’s finding of fact which reads:
“3. The prime contractor was late and overdue in obtaining permits, supplies, materials, pipe, pipe glue, fire plugs and other items which were to be supplied by him, as needed, resulting in delays costly to the subcontractor in 20 or more individual instances, sometimes causing work stoppage, shifting of work crews and other delays, as a result of which the subcontractor became dissatisfied, and complained to the contractor.”
'Appellant does not claim to have terminated the contract in accordance with its terms, which permitted such termination if a fifteen-day stoppage occurred as a result of the contractor’s negligence, and if a five-day-written notice were given. Nor does appellant seek the liquidated damages provided for in the contract, if appellant ^ere delayed through the negligence of the contractor. He apparently argues that the finding quoted above required a conclusion that appellee DiPaolo was at fault for delays, and that appellant’s removal from the project was justified.
We find in the record testimony by an engineer that the delays on the project “were very 'ordinary.” Another witness testified that the failure to obtain a permit. to cross a highway was not DiPáolo’s fault.. I Appellant’s superintendent indicated that some pipe was delayed due to a mis-ship-'1 ment. A consulting engineer stated that the failures encountered' were not more than would be expected on a job, and that most of them were due to collars which were damaged in shipment.
It is a well-established rule that this court will not weigh the evidence on appeal, but will only determine if there is substantial evidence to support the findings and conclusions of the trial court and, if there is conflict in the testimony, the decision of the court below will be sustained. Hummer v. Betenbough, 75 N.M. 274, 404 P.2d 110. There is substantial evidence to support the trial court’s finding that appellant’s failure to complete the contract was not due to any fault of appellee DiPaolo.
Appellant also contends that the trial court erred when it found that the written contract between the parties was neither terminated nor amended by a subsequent oral agreement. Again, testimony on this issue is contradictory. Appellant testified that the parties agreed that appellant would stop work and be paid for the portion completed. Appellant offered evidence that DiPaolo rented equipment from him and utilized appellant’s workers as an indication of the agreement. Appellee DiPaolo, on the other hand, testified that he never agreed to release appellant from the written contract. Under the rule set out above, 'we hold that there is substantial evi-.deiice' to support the trial court’s finding arid we will not disturb it.
' Appellant next contends that the- trial -court erred when it failed to find that appellant had completed work valued at $4,-055.77 more than the progress payments which he had received. Appellees alleged in • their • cross-complaint that appellant would have been entitled to such an amount .‘.‘had * * * [appellant] completed the contract.” Appellee DiPaolo testified that • — “It cost me $5,961.61 more than if Mr. Tyner would have fulfilled his contract.” In response to the question — “Were you damaged financially by Mr. Tyner’s failure to fulfill his contract?” appellee DiPaolo answered- — -“I was. * •* * Around $1900.” This testimony supports the trial court’s finding, which appellant does not attack, that appellee DiPaolo “was damaged * * * in a sum greater than the amount to which plaintiff [appellant] was entitled under the terms of the contract at the time of the breach; * *
Appellant was not prejudiced by the trial court’s failure to make a finding on this fact, in view of its finding that appel-lee DiPa'olo, at the trial, “waived verbally .any claim that he might have' against the plaintiff [appellant] over and above the amount- which, defendant [appellee] Di■IRapld: Owed plaintiff at the time of the b'reach.”
Appellant also contends that the trial court erred in refusing to award him $1,000 for the construction and installation of a chlorine tank. This job, and the amount of compensation to be given for it, were expressly stated in the written contract between the parties. Appellant testified concerning the delivery of the tank and included the $1,000 in his testimony, which established the value of appellant’s services and materials up to the time that he stopped work. Such an amount would appear to be included in the trial court’s consideration of “the amount to which plaintiff [appellant] was entitled under the terms of the contract,” which amount is set out in one of the trial court’s findings. The finding has not been attacked and, since no counterclaim was awarded to appellee DiPaolo, appellant was not prejudiced by the trial court’s failure to make a finding on this portion of the amount to which appellant was entitled at the time he stopped Work on the project.
Appellant directs our attention to appel-lees’ cross-complaint and contends that the trial court’s finding, that appellee DiPaolo’s damages were greater than the amount due appellant at the time of the breach, was .outside the scope of the pleadings. Appel-lees’ cross-complaint reads in part:
“2. That thereafter, when plaintiff cross-defendant Roy V. Tyner refused to complete the contract, it was necessary for defendant cross-plaintiff DiPaolo to him self take over the work which Tyner had contracted for under Exhibit A', as a consequence of which defendant cross-plaintiff Jack DiPaolo expended the sum of approximately One Thousand Dollars in excess of what he would have been required to spend had Tyner faithfully completed the contract previously referred to.”
We agree with appellant, that there is an ambiguity in appellees’ cross-complaint. It can he read to claim that appellee DiPaolo was damaged in the amount of $1,000; or it may he read as stating that DiPaolo was damaged in an amount equal to $1,000, plus the amount he would have paid appellant upon completion of the contract.
Appellant does not refute appellee DiPaolo’s testimony, that — -“It cost me $5,-961.61 more than if Mr. Tyner would have fulfilled his contract.” In Allsup v. Space, 69 N.M. 353, 367 P.2d 531, this court allowed plaintiffs to recover more than their complaint sought. We said that the trial court could treat the complaint as amended to conform with the evidence admitted without objection and make findings accordingly. Such an interpretation of § 21-1-1(15) (h), N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp, should he applied in the instant case. The trial court acted properly in treating appellees’ cross-complaint as amended, and finding that appellee DiPaolo was damaged in an amount “greater than the amount to which plaintiff [appellant] was entitled under the terms of the contract at the time of the breach; * * ' . .
. Appellant further contends that ap-pellee DiPaolo was unjustly enriched because he was fully compensated hy the village of Ruidoso Downs and did not pay appellant for the work. and materials which appellant supplied. In view of our conclusion, concerning appellee DiPaolo’s damages as a result of appellant’s breach of the contract, we find no error in allowing ap-pellee DiPaolo to offset his damages against appellant’s claim for $4,055.77. 1
Appellant contends that the trial court erred when it failed to grapt him judgment against the two appellees who admitted that they signed appellee DiPaolo’s bond. Nowhere in the record are we able to find the provisions of the surety bond which appellant contends was executed. Without knowledge of those provisions, we are unable to ascertain what obligations, if any, were undertaken by the alleged sureties and decline to assess any liability against them.
Lastly, appellant argues that the trial court erred in not awarding him attorney’s fees for this action. He indicates that § 61-2-13, N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp., provides for such fees in actions relative to mechanic’s liens; however, in his reply brief appellant acknowledges that this is not such an action. Appellant argues 'that fairness dictates that subcontractors should be so compensated in order to assure that prime contractors will treat subcontractors in a fair and proper manner. Appellant cites no authority for his position. The reimbursement of legal fees to subcontractors in suits against prime contractors is a problem for the legislature and, in the absence of any legislative direction, such fees are not allowable. The trial court properly held that appellant was not entitled to attorney’s fees in this case.
The judgment of the district court is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and MOISE, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
This is the second time this cause has been before us on appeal. On the first occasion a summary judgment in favor of defendants was reversed. Romero v. Sanchez, 83 N.M. 358, 492 P.2d 140 (1971).
Plaintiffs are husband and wife, as are defendants. Plaintiff, Raymond (Ramon) L. Romero, and defendant, Della R. Sanchez, are brother and sister. This cause arises out of a parol contract for the sale of lands by plaintiffs to defendants. Pursuant to this contract, defendants took and still retain possession of the lands and have made valuable improvements thereon. Plaintiffs, by their complaint filed October 28, 1968, apparently sought in the alternative (1) recovery of the amount they claimed remained unpaid on the purchase price of the property, (2) rescission of the contract, or (3) possession of the property and claimed damages for the alleged wrongful withholding of possession by defendants.
The trial court entered judgment for plaintiffs in the amount of $5,250 which it found to be still due and owing by defendants to plaintiffs on the agreed purchase price. Plaintiffs have appealed and defendants have cross-appealed. We affirm in part and reverse in part.
[1] We shall first dispose of plaintiffs’ appeal in which they claim they are entitled to a larger sum than the trial court awarded them by way of the unpaid balance on the purchase price, or, in the alternative, to a rescission of the contract or the imposition of a constructive trust in their favor. This claim of right to a constructive trust was first raised in this Court on appeal. Consequently, we would not consider it, even if there were merit to it. City of Albuquerque v. Ackerman, 82 N.M. 360, 482 P.2d 63 (1971); State ex rel. Brown v. Hatley, 80 N.M. 24, 450 P.2d 624 (1969); Wynne v. Pino, 78 N.M. 520, 433 P.2d 499 (1967); 2 N.M. Digest, Appeal and Error, ^ 169 (1970), and the great number of cases cited thereunder.
Plaintiffs have made no direct attack on any of the findings of the trial court. In fact they have totally disregarded Supreme Court Rule 15(6), second paragraph, and 15(16) [§ 21-2-1(15)(6), second paragraph, and (15) (16), N.M.S. A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970)]. Thus, they must fail in their claim that the unpaid balance of the purchase price was greater than the amount found by the trial court. See Wood v. Citizens Standard Life Insurance Company, 82 N.M. 271, 480 P.2d 161 (1971); Clovis National Bank v. Thomas, 77 N.M. 554, 425 P.2d 726 (1967) ; Anderson v. Jenkins Construction Co., 83 N.M. 47, 487 P.2d 1352 (Ct.App. 1971).
Obviously plaintiffs cannot recover the unpaid balance of the purchase price on the contract and also have the contract rescinded. We do not understand plaintiffs to so contend. Conse quently, their claim, that the trial court abused its discretion in failing to grant rescission, is totally without merit.
We now turn our attention to defendants’ cross-appeal. They first claim that the trial court erred in finding they owed plaintiff the sum of $5,250 on the purchase price. Their claim is predicated upon their assertion that an agreement dated November 16, 1955 conclusively shows that the agreed purchase price then remaining unpaid by them was only an additional $900 which they had agreed to pay. The trial court did find that defendants had agreed to pay the additional $900 and that they had paid $650 thereon. However, the trial court also found that $5,000 remained unpaid on the originally agreed purchase price of $10,000, in addition to the $250 remaining unpaid on the $900.
At trial defendants contended that the purchase price originally agreed upon was $5,000, rather than $10,000 as found by the trial court. They at no time claimed to have paid $10,000. Now they seek to convert the language appearing at the end of the brief agreement dated November 16, 1955 into a conclusive admission by plaintiffs that the $10,000 had been paid. This language was: “$900.00 is the balance of said property.” Plaintiff, Raymond Romero, testified this language did not appear on the agreement when he signed it. His position finds support in the fact that this agreement was typewritten, and this quoted language therefrom is not consistent in spacing or alignment with the preceding language. Mrs. Romero never signed it.
In any event, this language is not conclusive in view of testimony which was received into evidence without objection and which clearly supports the finding of the trial court that $5,250 remained unpaid on the total agreed purchase price of $10,900.
Defendants next contend plaintiffs’ causes of action were barred by § 23-1-4, N.M.S.A. 1953 (a four-year limitation on causes arising out of unwritten contracts) and § 23-1-3, N.M.S.A. 1953 (a six-year limitation on causes arising out of written contracts). Defendants predicate their contention on the fact that the trial court found the initial agreement to have been that the $10,000 purchase price was “payable at $200.00 per month,” and the $900 was “payable within one and one-half years from” November 16, 1955.
The trial court also made the following findings of fact which in no way have been challenged:
“ * * *. That it was further agreed between the parties that at such time as the defendants had paid the total purchase price of $10,000.00, plaintiffs would execute and deliver to defendants a deed covering said real estate.
“That the Defendants did not pay said $10,000.00 except for the sum of $5,000.00; * * *
«* * *
“That in August of 1954 the plaintiffs [defendants] approached defendants [plaintiffs] in the State of California and represented to plaintiffs that in order to have said property assessed for tax purposes, it would be necessary for plaintiffs to execute and deliver a deed to defendants covering the aforesaid real estate. That plaintiffs [defendants] further represented to defendants [plaintiffs] that said deed would not be filed for record until defendants had paid plaintiffs the balance due on the agreement.
“That plaintiffs, in reliance on the aforesaid representations of defendants, executed and delivered to defendants a quitclaim deed to the aforesaid property. That said deed was executed by plaintiffs in the State of California. [The acknowledgment was purportedly executed on March 2, 1953 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where defendants resided.]
“That the defendants waited until November 24, 1961, a period of approximately seven years, and on said date did cause said deed to be recorded in the records of the County Clerk of Valencia County, New Mexico. That plaintiffs did not learn that the aforementioned deed had been recorded until February of 1968.”
As stated above, the plaintiffs filed their complaint in this case on October 28, 1968.
The relationship of the parties, the evidence as to the manner and amounts paid by defendants to and for the benefit of plaintiffs in the total amount of $5,000 on the originally agreed purchase price of $10,000, and the rejection by the trial court of the defense of the statute of limitations, all lend support to a clear implication that the initial agreement as to the times and amounts of payments by defendants on the purchase price was not adhered to and was changed by agreement of the parties. It is not clear from the unchallenged findings of the trial court just when payment of the $10,000 was to be made, but clearly defendants were to pay the full amount of the purchase price before recording the quitclaim deed, even assuming the deed was validly executed and subject to valid recordation.
In any event, the finding, that the initial agreement was that the purchase price of $10,000 would be paid in monthly payments of $200, does not in itself control, and a computation of time based thereon is not conclusive of the time or times plaintiffs’ cause or causes of action arose. On appeal every reasonable intendment and presumption will be resolved against appellants [defendants here] and in favor of the proceedings in the trial court. Morris v. Merchant, 77 N.M. 411, 423 P.2d 606 (1967).
The written agreement of November 16, 1955, pertaining to a three-acre tract omitted from the aforesaid quitclaim deed of August 1954 and to the additional $900 to be paid by defendants, recited that the agreement was to be performed “as best we can, or within a year-half from date.” Plaintiffs conveyed this three-acre tract to defendants by warranty deed dated November 16, 1955. Defendants paid plaintiffs $650, but have not paid the remaining $250. However, in view of the express and unattacked finding by the trial court that the $900 was “payable within one and one-half years from” November 16, 1955, it appears obvious that the cause of action for this $250 was barred by § 23-1-3, supra.
Defendants’ final claim, that “Plaintiffs’ action is barred by laches,” is clearly without merit. The elements of laches are set forth in Cave v. Cave, 81 N.M. 797, 802, 474 P.2d 480, 485 (1970). These elements are not applicable to plaintiffs’ claim for the unpaid $5,000 still owing to them by defendants on the original purchase price of $10,000.
The judgment should be reversed and the cause remanded to the district court with directions to vacate the same and to enter a judgment for plaintiffs against defendants in the amount of $5,000 and costs of suit.
The parties shall bear their respective costs incurred on this appeal.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MONTOYA, J., concur. | [
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NOBLE, Justice.
Following an order of the State Corporation Commission denying its application to change the status of its station at Tularosa to a non-agency station, Southern Pacific Company has removed the cause to the Supreme Court under the provisions of Section 7, Art. XI of the State Constitution, providing, among other things, that:
“ * * * Any company, corporation or common carrier which does not comply with the order of the commission within the time limited therefor, may file with the commission a petition to remove such cause to the Supreme Court, and * * * the Supreme Court may, upon application in its discretion, or of its own motion, require or authorize additional evidence to be taken in said cause; * * *
* * * the said court shall have the power and it shall be its duty to decide such cases on their merits, and carry into effect its judgments, orders and decrees made in such cases, by fine, forfeiture, mandamus, injunction and contempt or other appropriate proceedings.”
The railway company operates a railroad across New Mexico, a portion of which extends from El Paso, Texas to Tucumcari, New Mexico. Tularosa, located 12 miles north of Alamogordo, is on the main line of the railroad, had a 1960 population of 3200, and serves the trade area of seven small communities. Tula-rosa is connected to other cities and towns in New Mexico and adjoining states by paved U. S. highways. Tularosa is not now operated as a passenger station. All telegrams are handled by the Western Union office in town and no mail is handled by the railroad or its station agent. All express packages are received and delivered by the Railway Express Agency office in Tularosa. It is not contended that an agent at the station is required for public safety. The sole question, therefore, is that of convenience to the public as a frieght station and whether under the conditions shown to exist, the commission’s order is reasonable and just considering the interest and rights of the public and of the railroad, both of which are involved and are to be considered. Randall v. Atchison, T. & S. F. Ry., 34 N.M. 391, 281 P. 479; Denton Bros. v. Atchison, T. & S. F. Ry., 34 N.M. 53, 277 P. 34; In re Denver & R. G. W. R., 36 N.M. 106, 9 P.2d 139, 140.
The testimony before the State Corporation Commission makes it appear that both carload and less-than-carload business can be handled through the Alamogordo station without any great inconvenience to shippers or consignees of freight. The record discloses that incoming cars are placed on the house track where the freight is loaded or unloaded by the shipper or consignee; the way bill left with the agent who notifies the consignee; and, the charges are computed and collected by the agent. The physical handling, at a non-agency station of both incoming and outgoing carload freight will not be changed. The billing and notices will be handled by the agent at Alamogordo, on duty 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Most such business can be transacted by telephone, on which there is no toll charge. Almost all outgoing freight is sent collect, but most shippers and consignees can obtain approved credit. Actually, as will be pointed out, most of the less-than-carload shipments are by truck rather than by rail.
The record discloses a total revenue attributable to the Tularosa station of $9583.-26 for the twelve-month period ending May 31, 1965, and direct expense of maintaining the station of $7625.16, or 80% of the total revenue, as opposed to a system-wide station expense of only 4.71% of a station’s revenue. The less-than-carload revenues declined from $4161.61 in the 1962-63 period to only $240.90 during the 1964-65 period. It appears that for the 1964-65 period, there were 18 consignees of 57 carload shipments and 19 consignees of less than carloads. Thus, in the twelve-month period, there were shipped into Tularosa 4.75 carloads of freight per month and 2.25 less-than-carload lots. No shipments originating in Tularosa were made during that year except three carloads of experimental logs. It thus appears by these computations that the total receipts to be credited to the Tularosa station above direct costs attributable to that station is $1958.-10, to pay expenses such as transportation for the freight, maintenance of right of way and rolling stock and general operating expenses.
Since the Tularosa freight business is proposed to be handled by the agent at Alamogordo, twelve miles away, in much, the same manner as with a local agent, principally by telephone on which there is no toll charge, and that most consignees and shippers can obtain approved credit, it appears that 'relatively little inconvenience would result to consignees or shippers by the change. Only three consignees protested, claiming inconvenience, and a review of their testimony makes it doubtful whether they would actually be seriously inconvenienced by the change. Denton Bros. v. Atchison, T. & S. F. Ry., supra, said: “In so far as that inconvenience affects them personally, it is doubtful if it should be deemed public inconvenience.” Furthermore, as in Denton Brothers, we must proceed upon the assumption that the persons inconvenienced are few. That was said in that case to be “ ‘an important factor in determining what is to be done.’ ”
It appears that twelve carloads of cattle were shipped from Tularosa in 1962-63, and six in the 1963-64 period. It was shown that in most instances it is more convenient for cattle shippers to use trucks. In any event, the change to a non-agency station would not affect them. Cattle cars are ordered several days in advance and spotted at a particular location, but the local agent is not present during loading, in any event. It is true that the mayor and. seven residents, all non-users of the rail-' road, protested, expressing concern for the future growth of the municipality, but as Denton Brothers said, respecting such concern:
"It is perfectly natural that every community should aspire to the best railroad service to be had. We have full sympathy with such aspirations. Yet it is to be remembered that, under our system of public control of rates and service, the general public, speaking broadly, loses in cost what it gains in service; So the railroad, in resisting demands for any uneconomic service, really represents the true interest of the general public.”
It was pointed out in Village and Citizens of Grenville v. State Corp. Com’n, 53 N.M. 259, 206 P.2d 259, that the carload business was not considered in Denton Brothers, as -contributing to much inconvenience because of the requirement that freight charges be paid in advance. The testimony in this case is that -most freight is shipped collect, but that, in any event, most shippers could obtain approved credit and be billed later. Under the testimony here, there would be less inconvenience to carload business than in Denton Brothers. Grenville further noted that in Denton the less-than-carload income slightly exceeded $1300, while the expense of operation of the station with an agent was $2400, or a loss of $1100 annually. In the instant case, by comparison, the total less-than-carload revenue during the 1964-65 period was only $806.80,'. and the station expense with an agent $7,625.16, or a loss of $6,818.36, based upon the same computations.
We find nothing to distinguish the facts of this case from Randall v. Atchison, T. & S. F. Ry., supra; In re Denver & R. G. W. R., supra; In re Southern Pac. Co., 38 N.M. 325, 32 P.2d 814; Denton Bros. v. Atchison, T. & S. F. Ry., supra; and Petition of Town of Grenville, 46 N.M. 3, 119 P.2d 632, in which this court refused to enforce orders which would result in economic waste to the railroad and neither a corresponding benefit to the public nor a serious inconvenience to shippers. Gren-ville expressed the situation in this case when it was there said:
“ * * * To require the company under the facts of the case to maintain an agent at Grenville would be unjust and unreasonable, and purely economic waste. * * * ”
The order of the State Corporation Commission cannot be sustained and will be set aside. It is so ordered.
CHAVEZ and MOISE, JJ., concur. | [
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MOISE, Justice.
We are here called upon to decide if the trial court correctly directed a verdict for defendant at the close of plaintiff’s case. Involved is a claim for damages by a guest growing out of an automobile accident wherein plaintiff was a guest in the car owned and operated by defendant.
We must determine if the proof presented by plaintiff when viewed in its aspect most favorable to plaintiff, with all unfavorable testimony and adverse inferences disregarded, would have supported a jury verdict in plaintiff’s favor. If it would have, the court erred in directing a verdict. If not, the ruling was correct. Jones v. New Mexico School of Mines, 75 N.M. 326, 404 P.2d 289; Smith v. Ferguson Trucking Company, 58 N.M. 779, 276 P.2d 911; Ferris v. Thomas Drilling Company, 62 N.M. 283, 309 P.2d 225.
The plaintiff, together with two of his brothers, went to San Juan County from Florida to lay brick for a baffle wall in large boilers being constructed near Fruit-land. To assist them in their work, they hired defendant. Plaintiffs stayed at a hotel in Farmington and defendant lived in Farmington. On Friday afternoon, September 14, 1962, plaintiff was riding with defendant in his car, about 4:30 p. m., going from the work site to a place in town where they were to meet the other two brothers, and defendant was to receive his salary. The two brothers left the job first. Defendant followed, driving his 1955 Chevrolet, with plaintiff sitting to his right in. the front seat. The road was dirt, with, loose gravel on it, and with rocks, chuck holes and two ruts estimated to be possibly five inches deep. Just before reaching the curve, described as “sharp,” where the accident occurred, the road went up an incline. There was a sign indicating the' curve and also a sign stating the speed limit to be 45 miles per hour, although defendant testified he thought it said 15 miles per hour. Defendant passed the car with the two brothers which was traveling about 45 miles per hour and continued to the curve at a speed estimated by defendant at 65 to 70 miles per hour, or even more. He did not slow down upon reaching the curve, but possibly increased his speed a couple of miles per hour. The car “fish-tailed” and turned over four to eight times and plaintiff was injured. Defendant knew the road, having driven it every day for about a week and a half.
Plaintiff was a guest in defendant’s car, and can recover under our guest statute (§ 64-24 — 1, N.M.S.A.1953) only if the accident was intentional on the part of defendant, which is not contended, or if it was caused by defendant’s heedlessness or reckless disregard of plaintiff’s rights. Accordingly, our problem is one of determining if defendant’s conduct as set out in the statement of facts above, made out a prima facie showing of heedlessness or reckless conduct.
Over the years, since our adoption of the guest statute in 1935, this court has had occasion to consider its application in a number of cases involving a variety of factual situations. All of these cases were reviewed and analyzed in detail in the recent case of Garrett v. Howden, 73 N.M. 307, 387 P.2d 874. It would serve no useful purpose to reexamine them. In Garrett we stated that our cases did not disclose a "fixed pattern which has been followed with any definite consistency,” because "each case involves special fact situations and must therefore be governed by what is thought to be proper or improper to the minds of reasonable men.” As in Garrett, also, we must be mindful that the trial judge “had the advantage of seeing and hearing the witnesses” whereas we have only the typed record.
In Garrett we took note that in Smith v. Meadows, 56 N.M. 242, 242 P.2d 1006, we had held that proof of speed alone is not sufficient to make a prima facie showing of heedlessness and reckless disregard of rights. Keeping in mind that questions of recklessness and heedlessness, as is true of simple negligence or contributory negligence, ordinarily present a jury question, Lester v. Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway (C.A.10, 1960) 275 F.2d 42, 85 A.L.R.2d 262; Rest., Torts (2d), § 501, we must examine the proof here to see if reasonable minds could differ on the question of whether defendant’s conduct was of such character as could be classified by reasonable men as heedlessness or reckless disregard of plaintiff’s rights.
What do the terms “heedlessness” and “reckless disregard of the rights of others” mean as used in our guest statute? We quote the following, which we consider pertinent, from Carpenter v. Yates, 58 N.M. 513, 517, 273 P.2d 373, 375:
“ * * * [Ajbsent that (claim of intentional injury), it is our understanding of the principles already enunciated by this Court that there must be some substantial evidence of a particular state of mind upon the part of the defendant driver. That particular state of mind comprehends evidence of an utter irresponsibility on the part of defendant or of a conscious abandonment of any consideration for the safety of passengers; as indicated in State v. Clarkson, supra [58 N.M. 56, 265 P.2d 670], there is a close alignment between the state of mind required by this statute and a state of mind sufficient to convict for involuntary manslaughter for a death resulting from the operation of an automobile. In spite of the factors of negligence clearly present in this case, the particular items of negligence alone, when coupled with the apparent content and undisturbed peace of mind of the passengers, are not substantial evidence of the required state of mind or quality of negligence required by the ‘guest’ statute. In evaluating the evidence in this case bearing upon the failure of the passengers to protest, its relevancy in this decision does not concern a defense of contributory negligence; its relevancy here, as in Smith v. Meadows, supra, is its bearing upon the attitude or mental state of the host-defendant.”
Other definitions might be supplied, but we doubt that to do so would be helpful. See Rest., Torts (2d), § 500; Tighe v. Diamond, 149 Ohio St. 520, 80 N.E.2d 122; Baines v. Collins, 310 Mass. 523, 38 N.E.2d 626, 138 A.L.R. 1123; Fanstiel v. Wright, 122 Colo. 451, 222 P.2d 1001.
Without recapitulating the facts, when we consider them in the light of the language quoted from Carpenter v. Yates, supra, we are impressed that this is not a case where reasonable men could differ that the conduct of defendant was not of the character described as being heedless or in reckless disregard of the rights of plaintiff. We come to this conclusion on the basis of the evidence in the record before us.
We conclude that the record is free of reversible error, and that the judgment should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and COMPTON, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
CPIAVEZ, Justice
Plaintiff-appellant appeals from the trial court’s order withdrawing the case from the jury and dismissing the case with prejudice, on the grounds that appellant failed to establish a prima facie case of negligence on the part of appellee, and that appellant was guilty of contributory negligence as a mat ter of law. The trial court’s order was, in ■effect, a directed verdict.
In her complaint, appellant alleged that she was a fare-paying passenger on a bus operated by appellee; and that she was injured as a direct result of the negligent manipulation of the exit door of the bus by appellee’s agent-driver.
Appellant was the only witness who testified as to the occurrence. She stated that the bus was stopped when she arose from her seat and that, as she was alighting from appellee’s bus, the driver failed to fully open the door, causing appellant to strike the door with a box which she was carrying; and that the collision caused serious injury to her arm.
The parties agree that, when this court reviews a case, it will view the evidence in an aspect most favorable to the plaintiff appealing from a judgment on a directed verdict for the defendant. Gonzales v. Shoprite Foods, Inc., 69 N.M. 95, 364 P.2d 352, and cases cited therein. We are, however, mindful that when there is a general denial of negligence by the defendant, the burden of proving the same rests upon the plaintiff. Crocker v. Johnston, 43 N.M. 469, 95 P.2d 214.
There is no evidence of any acts or omissions on the part of appellee, other than the questioned operation of the bus door, and appellant makes no claim that the doctrine of res ipsa loquitur should be invoked. Therefore, appellant is limited to the fact that the proof and inferences must substantially support a finding that appellee’s agent-driver negligently operated the door of the bus.
It is clear from the testimony that there was no direct proof of negligent operation of the bus door. Nevertheless, appellant argues that the fact that appellant struck the door for the first time in eleven years of bus travel raises an inference of negligence on the part of appellee’s agent-driver. It is true that negligence may be shown by circumstantial evidence, subject to the important qualification that the circumstances must be such as to take the case out of the realm of conjecture and within the field of legitimate inference from established facts; then a prima facie case is made. Lopez v. Townsend, 42 N.M. 601, 82 P.2d 921.
In Caldwell v. Johnsen, 63 N.M. 179, 315 P.2d 524, plaintiff alleged that the defendant store owner was negligent and caused her to fall; but she was unable to explain what caused her to fall. This court said that there were no facts or circumstances which would justify a finding of actionable negligence, and held that a directed verdict in favor of the defendant was proper.
In Gonzales v. Shoprite Foods, Inc., supra, the plaintiff was injured when she attempted to remove a box from a shelf in defendant’s store. One box fell onto a bottle, causing it to fall from the shelf, strike appellant’s foot wlier'e it broke and caused the injuries complained of. We there said:
“* * * An inference is not a supposition or conjecture, but a logical deduction from facts proved, and guesswork is no substitute therefor. * * * ”
We held that reasonable minds could not infer negligence on the defendant’s part because plaintiff reached for a box and started in motion a force which ultimately injured her, and that a directed verdict in favor of defendant was correct.
We believe that our holdings in Caldwell v. Johnsen, supra, and Gonzales v. Shoprite Foods, Inc., supra, are controlling in the instant case, where appellant claims that ap-pellee’s agent-driver negligently operated the door of its bus. Appellant seeks to infer that the door was not fully open because she bumped into it. It is clear, however, that other factors could as easily have caused appellant’s injury, and for a jury to infer that the cause was the negligence of appellee’s agent-driver would be the result of conjecture and speculation.
In view of our holding it becomes unnecessary to consider the issue of possible contributory negligence on the part of appellant.
The order of dismissal of the district court is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
MOISE and .COMPTON, JJ., concur. . | [
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OPINION
HERNANDEZ, Judge.
Defendant was convicted of robbery while armed with a deadly weapon in violation of Section 40A-16-2, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl., Vol. 6). He asserts two points for reversal: (1) that the trial court erred in admitting into evidence copies of an advice of rights form and a confession without proper foundation and because they were not the best evidence; (2) that the trial court erred in refusing to strike an unresponsive answer which was based on hearsay.
We affirm.
The defendant gave a statement to the police. The officer who took the statement was asked if defendant had been advised of his constitutional rights. He stated that he had and that defendant had initialed the form which was read to him. The State offered a copy of the statement into evidence to which the defendant objected on the grounds it violated the best evidence rule. We disagree.
Section 71-4-7, N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 10, pt. 2) states:
“Any public officer of the state may cause any or all records, papers or documents kept by him to be photographed, microfilmed, microphotographed or reproduced on film. Such photographic film and the device used to reproduce such records on such film shall be one which accurately reproduces the original thereof in all details.”
Section 71^4 — 8, N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 10, pt. 2) states:
“Such photographs, microfilms, photographic film or microphotographs shall be deemed to be an original record for all purposes, including introduction in evidence in all courts, or administrative agencies. A transcript, exemplification or certified copy thereof shall, for all purposes recited herein, be deemed to be a transcript, exemplification, or certified copy of the original.”
Defendant’s second point arises out of the following questions and answers of one of the State’s witnesses who operated a business next door to the establishment where the robbery took place:
“Q. And did you have occasion on the 7th of November, 1972, around 9 :00 in the morning, to leave your store ?
“A. I went to the bank a little after 9:00.
“Q. And did you see an automobile with two negro males in it in the vicinity ?
“A. Yes, I did.
ifc j{í }{í
“Q. Okay. And did you then go to the bank?
“A. I went to the bank and when I came back the robbery was over.”
The defendant moved that the answer be stricken because it was unresponsive and it was hearsay and a conclusion of the witness. Assuming but not deciding that that answer was objectionable for the reasons stated we deem it to be harmless error. As was stated in State v. Edmondson, 26 N.M. 14, 188 P. 1099 (1920), “It is fundamental, of course, that a party cannot complain of errors committed by the trial court which under no view of the case could be prejudicial to such party.” In light of the defendant’s signed confession this answer could not, in our opinion, have resulted in prejudice to him.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
LaFEL E. OMAN, Judge, Court of Appeals.
The plaintiffs have appealed from a judgment in favor of the defendant entered pursuant to the decision of the trial court made at the close of the trial upon the question of liability.
The appellants are the builders and owners of an apartment house in Roswell, New Mexico, and the appellee was the plumbing subcontractor on the construction of this apartment house. The appellants were represented by their general contractor throughout the negotiations which culminated in a partially written and partially verbal contract for the installation by the appel-lee of certain plumbing and heating equipment in the apartment house.
The particular items installed by the ap-pellee under its contract, and with which we are here concerned, are some copper water pipes, in which pinhole leaks began to develop some four or five months after construction of the apartment house was completed, and five water heaters, four of which began causing some trouble several months after their installation and which were eventually replaced.
Although the written plans and specifications called for galvanized water pipe, it was expressly agreed between the parties that the appellee could substitute therefor a good grade of copper pipe, or other pipe equivalent to galvanized pipe. No particular type or weight of copper pipe was specified. The particular copper pipe or tubing installed by appellee was of two types, and such are referred to as Type “K” and Type “L.” The only difference between these two types of copper tubing is that the wall thickness of Type “K” is greater than that of Type “L.”
The appellants brought suit for damages predicated upon the theories of alleged breaches by the appellee of both express and implied warranties of fitness of the pipe and heaters for the uses intended, and negligence by the appellee in the installation of defective pipe.
The appellants rely on two points for reversal. Their position under point I is that certain findings of fact made by the trial court are not supported by substantial evidence, that the court erred in not making certain findings requested by appellants and which are inconsistent with those made by the court, and that the court erred in not concluding that appellants were entitled to recover. Their second point is that the undisputed facts required the court to infer that the leaks in the pipe were “caused by defective pipe.”
A review of the evidence, together with all reasonable inferences to be drawn therefrom, convinces us that the findings which have been attacked are supported by substantial evidence, and are, therefore, the facts to be considered by this court on appeal. American Hospital and Life Insurance Co. v. Kunkel, 71 N.M. 164, 376 P.2d 956; Hoskins v. Albuquerque Bus Co., 72 N.M. 217, 382 P.2d 700.
It follows logically that requested findings of fact, which are inconsistent with findings made by the trial court and which findings are supported by substantial evidence, are properly refused. Wedgwood v. Colclazier, 55 N.M. 32, 226 P.2d 99; Bogle v. Potter, 72 N.M. 99, 380 P.2d 839; Jackson v. Goad, 73 N.M. 19, 385 P.2d 279; Sterling v. B. & E. Constructors, Inc., 74 N.M. 708, 397 P.2d 729; Rutter v. Rutter, 74 N.M. 737, 398 P.2d 259.
Appellants argue at some length that the pipes and water heaters installed by appellee were impliedly warranted as being fit and proper for their intended uses, and that because troubles developed, and particularly because leaks developed in some of the water lines within about four or five months after construction was completed, the court should have taken judicial notice that water pipes in such a building are permanent, or semi-permanent fixtures, and thus these pipes failed to comply with the warranty.
Appellants offered no evidence as to why the pinholes did develop in some of the pipes. There is no evidence that either the Type “K” or Type “L” pipe used by the appellee was in any way inferior in grade or quality. There is evidence that both types have been used extensively in Roswell. And there is evidence that the pipe used is the equivalent of galvanized pipe. There is no evidence that the heaters were of a defective make or design, or were inadequate for the purposes intended. No evidence was offered as to the nature of or reasons for the troubles with the water heaters.
Courts may take judicial notice of facts which are self-evident, or which are commonly and generally known and which are capable of immediate and accurate verification by resort to readily accessible sources of unquestionable accuracy. Johnson v. Mercantile Ins. Co. of America, 47 N.M. 47, 133 P.2d 708; Rivera v. Ancient City Oil Corporation, 61 N.M. 473, 302 P.2d 953; Rozelle v. Barnard, 72 N.M. 182, 382 P.2d 180; Hunter v. New York, O. & W. Ry. Co. (1889), 116 N.Y. 615, 23 N.E. 9, 6 L.R.A. 246; Communist Party of United States of America v. Peek, 20 Cal.2d 536, 127 P.2d 889; Kent v. Miller, 167 Va. 422, 189 S.E. 332; Estate of McNamara, 181 Cal. 82, 183 P. 552, 7 A.L.R. 313.
Assume, for the sake of argument, that we agree with appellants’ contention that the court should have taken judicial notice that water pipes in houses or buildings are permanent, or semi-permanent fixtures, which should last for many years; still this fact and the fact that some pinhole leaks developed within four or five months do not compel a conclusion that the pipes were, therefore, unfit for the purpose intended, and consequently failed to comply with the implied warranty of fitness. There are other causes of leaks in water pipes besides a defect in the pipe itself, and a determination of the cause of leaks in a particular instance is a matter of proof.
There is evidence in the record that the failures may have been due to a peculiar water content which developed in at least some areas of the city of Roswell after the year 1956, hut no finding was made or requested relating to the cause or causes of the leaks, hut only that the leaks developed. In any event, the cause or causes of leaking pipes in the city of Roswell, and particularly in the pipes in question, are not matters of such common knowledge that the court could properly have taken judicial notice thereof. See Rozelle v. Barnard, supra. Absent proof or judicial notice of this cause, the essential step of causation between the product and its failure is missing.
It is undisputed that the use and installation of the particular copper tubing by appellee was in compliance with both the state plumbing code ánd the plumbing code of the city of Roswell. The installation was approved by the plumbing inspector and was accepted by appellants’ general contractor. The trial court expressly found that the appellants “failed to show a breach of warranty on the part of the defendant.” This particular finding is not one of those which appellants specify as being unsupported by the evidence. A finding not specifically attacked and set aside by this court is conclusive on appeal. Swallows v. Sierra, 68 N.M. 338, 362 P.2d 391; Hinkle v. Schmider, 70 N.M. 349, 373 P.2d 918; Hindi v. Smith, 73 N.M. 335, 388 P.2d 60.
Appellants’ point II is that “the undisputed facts of the record required the Court to infer that the leaking in the pipe supplied by the Defendant was caused by the defective pipe and the defective pipe was the proximate cause of the leaking.”
Appellants’ entire argument under this point is that the appellee used Type “L” pipe, and had it used Type “K,” the leaking would not have developed, or would have been less likely to develop.
The evidence is that both Type “K” and Type “L” pipes were used by appellee. The trial court so found, and further found that such had no defects therein, that the same conformed to the plumbing code of the state of New Mexico, and that such is the equivalent of galvanized pipe. Although the appellant did offer evidence from which it might reasonably have been inferred that “L” Type pipe was less satisfactory than Type “K,” there is also substantial evidence to support the findings of the trial court that both “K” and “L” Types are in use in the city of Roswell and that both have developed leaks with no appreciable-differences between them.
On appeal, the evidence must be viewed in the light most favorable to support the findings and judgment. Tidwell v. Reeder, 56 N.M. 617, 247 P.2d 860; Beyer v. Montoya, 75 N.M. 228, 402 P.2d 960.
The other matters argued by appellants have been considered and found to be without merit.
The judgment of the trial court should be affirmed. It is so ordered.
CHAVEZ and MOISE, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
MARTINEZ, Justice.
Plaintiff (appellant), Santa Fe Sand And Gravel Company, as subcontractor, entered into a Subcontract with defendant (appellee), Pecos Construction Company, Inc., on May 11, 1966 in which appellant was to perform earth moving work in connection with the construction of the New Mexico Public Employees Retirement Board (P.E. R.A.) building. Appellee was to pay appellant $43,000.00 for this work. During the period from May 11, 1966 through November 24, 1967, appellant performed the earth moving work and was paid $39,028.30 by appellee. Thereafter, appellee refused to pay appellant any more than an additional $8,197.20. Appellant claimed that the subcontract executed was a “unit price” contract and that it should receive compensation in the amount of 60 cents per cubic yard of mass excavation and $1.-00 per cubic yard of backfill. It further claimed that based upon this “unit price” arrangement, it should receive a total of $32,250.00 extra compensation. Appellee contended that a total of $39,028.30 had been paid and that $8,195.20 was still owing to appellant under the subcontract and for some extra work. Essentially, appellee contended that appellant’s claim was barred by the very terms of the subcontract which provided for a “lump sum” arrangement.
The case was tried before the trial judge commencing on August 31, 1970, after which all parties submitted their requested findings of fact and conclusions of law. On September 13, 1971, the trial court awarded appellant $8,366.80. From this judgment, appellant makes its appeal.
Appellant has raised eight points on appeal which can be condensed and summarized as follows:
1. The subcontract entered into by the parties was a “unit price” rather than a “lump sum” agreement;
2. If not a unit price contract, then appellee induced appellant to enter into a lump sum contract by representing that construction would require only 35,450 cubic yards of mass excavation and 4,500 cubic yards of back-fill ; and
3. Appellee required appellant to perform extra excavation work and appellant should receive the reasonable value of this extra work.
With reference to the first point on appeal, the trial court found that appellant had the opportunity to make and did make an independent estimate of the volume of mass excavation for the P.E.R.A. building. This contradicts appellant’s contention that it could not make such an estimate and that it had to be informed by appellee as to the volume of excavation and backfill as the work progressed at the job site. This means that a lump sum arrangement would be impossible for appellant to agree to and that a unit price arrangement, whereby appellant would receive 60 cents per cubic yard of excavation and $1.00 per cubic yard of backfill, was agreed to by the parties.
We have held on numerous occasions, that where findings of fact have substantial support in the evidence, they will not be disturbed on appeal. Martinez v. Trujillo, 81 N.M. 382, 467 P.2d 398 (1970). We have also held that conflicts in the evidence on appeal must be resolved in favor of the successful party and inferences to the contrary will be disregarded. Cave v. Cave, 81 N.M. 797, 474 P.2d 480 (1970). We have examined the transcript concerning this question and find that the trial court’s findings are supported by substantial evidence.
Appellant next claims that the subcontract is vague and ambiguous as to the amounts and dimensions of mass excavation and backfill to be performed by appellant. Thus, argues appellant, the intention of the parties in this regard must be determined from antecedent and extrinsic circumstances, all of which point towards a unit price rather than- a lump sum contract. The trial court found that, “25. The Subcontract, as finally executed between the parties, required Plaintiff to ‘furnish all plant, labor and equipment required to perform’ the ‘mass excavation * * * back-filling at building’ and other items of work in accordance with the architect’s plans and specifications for the Building for the sum of $43,000.00; * * It concluded that “I. The Subcontract entered into between Pecos and Plaintiff expressed the real intention of the parties and was not vague or ambiguous as to the work to be performed by Plaintiff.” The trial court then went on to conclude that “II. Plaintiff assumed all the risks which were inherent in the estimation of the volumes of mass excavation and backfill for the Building.” We have reviewed the transcript and there certainly is substantial evidence to support the trial court’s finding in this regard. Martinez v. Trujillo, supra.
With reference to the first point on appeal, appellant finally claims that based on the subcontract itself, the parties agreed to a “unit price” arrangement whereby appellant was to perform 35,450 cubic yards of mass excavation and 4,500 cubic yards of backfill for $43,000.00. This claim clearly challenges the terms of the subcontract itself which do not place any limitation upon the quantities of excavation and backfill. As was stated above by the trial court in its finding number 25, appellant agreed to furnish all plant, labor, and equipment to perform the mass excavation and backfill for the sum of $43,000.-00. There is no unit price arrangement mentioned in the subcontract and none is contemplated. The meaning of a contract is to be determined and construed with reference to the intention of the .parties at the time the contract was made. Fuller v. Crocker, 44 N.M. 499, 105 P.2d 472 (1940). Also, the controlling intention of the parties is the mutually expressed assent and not the secret intent of a party. Higgins v. Cauhape, 33 N.M. 11, 261 P. 813 (1927). We have reviewed the terms of the subcontract and the testimony of the various witnesses and affirm the finding of the trial court that appellee expressly refused to enter into a unit price contract and that the parties intended a lump sum arrangement.
Appellant’s second point on appeal is that even if the subcontract is a lump sum contract, prior to its execution, appellee induced appellant to enter into such a lump sum agreement by representing to appellant that construction would require only 35,450 cubic yards of mass excavation and 4,500 cubic yards of backfill. Also, the appellant claims to have reasonably relied upon these representations.
The trial court found that, “21. There was no bad faith or ulterior design on Peter York’s part in offering to Plaintiff his estimate of the volume of mass excavation.” It also found that, “22. Independently of the estimate made by Peter York, Plaintiff made its own ‘takeoff’ or estimate of the volume of mass excavation for the Building in advance of the execution of the Subcontract.” The trial court then concluded, “III. * * * there was no fraud or misrepresentation on Pecos’ part * * and that “IV. Plaintiff was not justified in relying and did not rely upon any representation by Pecos * * *.” In Bell v. Kyle, 27 N.M. 9, 192 P. 512 (1920), the circumstances which would deprive a party of the right to rely upon a representation were stated:
“‘(1) When, before entering into the contract or other transaction, he actually resorts to the proper means of ascertaining the truth and verifying the statements; (2) when having the opportunity of making such examination,, he is charged with the knowledge which he necessarily would have obtained if he had prosecuted it with diligence; (3) when the representation is concerning generalities equally within the knowledge, or the means of acquiring knowledge, possessed by both ' parties; * * *.’ ” Id., 27 N.M. at 15, 192 P. at 514.
Even assuming, but not deciding, that appellee did represent that only the aforementioned volume would be excavated by appellant, appellant was not justified in relying upon this estimate since the real volume of excavation was equally within its knowledge and it made an independent estimate on its own. Id. In any event, we have examined the trial record and find neither representation nor reliance thereon. Since the trial court’s findings find support in the record, they will not be disturbed on appeal. Martinez v. Trujillo, supra.
Appellant’s final point for consideration is that appellee required appellant to perform extra excavation work and appellant should receive the reasonable value of this extra work in the amount of $32,250.-00. , The trial court found that appellant initiated all extra work performed in the excavation of the basement of the P.E.R. A. building. Since the uncertainty of the volume of the excavation and backfill was the responsibility of appellant, this uncertainty was a risk which appellant assumed as part of the bargain. 17 Am,Jur.2d, Contracts, § 145 (1964); Williston On Contracts, § 1543 (3rd ed. 1970). Therefore, any extra work performed by appellant but not required by appellee, was performed at appellant’s expense as part of the risk of the bargain. The court also found that appellant failed to fulfill the requirements stated in Section 10 of the subcontract which related to extra work and compensation therefor. Section 10 stated that before any extra work was commenced, the subcontractor must obtain written authorization from the contractor which would reflect the amount by which the subcontract would be adjusted. This written authorization was never secured by appellant. In addition, the trial court concluded that “V. Plaintiff was under a duty to exercise that degree of care and diligence which would be exercised by excavation subcontractors of reasonable prudence under like circumstances and any mistake as to quantities of mass excavation which resulted from a failure on Plaintiff’s part to exercise such care and diligence does not justify the Court in relieving Plaintiff of its obligations under the Subcontract.” And finally, the trial court concluded that appellant was entitled to $3,971.70 as the balance due under the subcontract, $4,225.00 for 'extra work and equipment rental, and $170.10 for fifteen pieces of two-inch pipe. We have reviewed the trial record concerning the issue of extra compensation and affirm the findings as supported by substantial evidence. Martinez v. Trujillo, supra. Therefore, the judgment of the trial court is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and OMAN, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
COMPTON, Justice.
This is the second time the case has been considered by us. Wilson v. Employment Security Commission, 74 N.M. 3, 389 P.2d 855. The question presented for decision on this appeal is whether appellants are entitled to interest on unemployment compensation benefits from the date of the judgment in their favor. In the previous proceeding, the Commission and Kennecott had appealed from three judgments of the District Court of Grant County reversing decisions of the Commission which had denied unemployment compensation benefits to some S2S claimants who were or had been employees of Kennecott. The claims were consolidated for review before the district court and for review on appeal. The sole question then before the Commission was the eligibility of the claimants to receive unemployment compensation benefits. Benefits were denied by the Commission on the ground that the claimants were disqualified for benefits by virtue of § 59-9-5(d), N.M. S.A.1953. Upon review of the Commission’s decision, the court found that, the decision of the Commission was contrary to the facts and law and that the claimants were entitled to the benefits sought. The court entered its judgment December 29, 1960, reversing the decision of the Commission in the following language:
“It is therefore ORDERED AND ADJUDGED that the decision of the Employment Security Commission of New Mexico entered January 11, 1960 in regard to the claimants described as Petitioners in the above consolidated actions, be and the same hereby are reversed and set aside and the causes remanded to said Commission with the directions to the Employment .Security Commission of. New Mexico to pay-unemployment compensation to each claimant the amount to which each is entitled, lipón the further-instructions to. the Employment Security Commission of New .Mexico that no unemployment compensation shall be denied any-of .these employees by virtue of any of- the provisions ■ of Section 59-9-4-C and Section S9-9-S-D1 & 2, New Mexico-Statutes,-1953, Annotated,- * * *
No judgment was entered against Kenne-cott; nevertheless, on December 29, 1960, Kennepott,- the employer, voluntarily appealed and superseded the judgment rendered against the. Commission. Its bond was conditioned as follows:
“ * * * if the decision of the court below be affirmed of the appeal dismissed, it "will comply with such judgment and pay all costs and damages finally adjudged'against it, including legal damages, if any, caused by the taking of the appeal, then this obligation to be null and void and of no effect, otherwise to remain in full force and effect.”
On 'January 18, 1961, the Commission .itself appealed, thus payment of the claims was delayed for some four years. 'We affirmed .the judgment without . directions and thereupon all claims for benefits were paid by the Commission forthwith.
• Upon remand, however, the mandaté, 'after reciting affirmance of the judgment, directed .the court to. “enter your judgment, in favor of. appellees and against appellants and the sureties on the supersedeas bond on file herein.” Thereupon, the district court, following the direction of the mandate, reinstated the case upon his docket and entered a.second judgment August 18, 1964*. practically duplicating the 'first one but noted, that all claims for benefits had been paid in full, by the Commission and that interest on compensation benefits should be denied; nevertheless, the court directed judgment against the appellants and the surety on Kennecott’s supersedeas bond in the amount? to which each claimant is entitled. Since appellants had not asked for interest when filing their claim, on September 16, 1964, after remand, they moved to vacate or amend the latter judgment so as to allow 6%- interest -thereon from December 29, 1960; the motion was formerly denied. The claimants now bring the judgment and order denying their motion here by appeal for further review.
The appeal is presented under two points.:
“POINT I CLAIMANTS ARE ENTITLED TO INTEREST ON THEIR CLAIMS EITHER AS A PART OF THE 'BENEFITS’, OR BY VIRTUE OF STATUTORY INTEREST ON THE JUDGMENT. IN THEIR FAVOR.
“POINT II CLAIMANTS ARE ENr TITLED TO INTERr EST AS ‘DAMAGES CAUSED BY TPIE TAKING OF THE APPEAL’, WITHIN KEN-NECOTTS SUPERSE-DEAS BOND.”
We do not reach the points on the merits. The district court lost jurisdiction of the case when it was appealed, and on remand regained only such jurisdiction as the supreme court’s opinion and the mandate conferred. The question of interest was not involved in the former appeal, nor was the question expressly or impliedly decided by the decision; hence, the only jurisdiction conferred by the opinion was to enter an order reinstating the case upon its docket, thus bringing the case to an end.
Clearly, there’ is a conflict in the mandate and the supreme court’s opinion. The court’s opinion did not confer jurisdiction on the trial court to enter the second judgment or to entertain a motion for the payment of interest. True, the mandate directed the court “to enter your judgment in favor of appellees and against appellants and the sureties on the supersedeas bond on file herein,” but the form of mandate was inappropriate. Upon remand, the district court must look to the opinion of the supreme court, no't to the mandate, and, if -there is any conflict in 'the supreme court’s opinion and the mandate, the mandate- must give way to the court’s opinion as the law of the case. State ex rel. Del Curto v. District Court of Fourth Judicial Dist., 51 N.M. 297, 183 P.2d 607; Albuquerque Broadcasting Co. v. Bureau of Revenue, 54 N.M. 133, 215 P.2d 819; Primus v. Clark, 58 N.M, 588, 273 P.2d 963; Sproles v. McDonald, 74 N.M. 243, 392 P.2d 584. Also see Burroughs v. United States Fidelity & Guaranty Co., 74 N.M. 618, 397 P.2d 10.
The trial court is directed to vacate and set aside its order and its judgment entered August 18, 1964.
NOBLE, J., and WALDO SPIESS, J., Court of Appeals, concur. | [
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OPINION
LaFEL E. OMAN, Judge, Court of Appeals.
These consolidated cases are before this court on appeal from a judgment entered pursuant to verdicts of a jury finding the issues in favor of defendant and against plaintiffs.
On September 11, 1962, plaintiffs-decedents were making a delivery of propane from a tank truck into a stationary storage tank through a two-inch delivery hose, which was identified as having been manufactured for and sold by defendant. The date of the manufacture of the hose was undetermined, but it had been installed in either 1957 or 1958 at the truck stop, where the delivery of propane was being made, and which is located on U. S. Highway 66 in Bernalillo County, New Mexico.
After arriving at the truck stop and making the necessary connections between the tank truck and the storage tank for the delivery of the propane, decedents commenced their delivery operations and then went to a cafe about 100 feet distant. They had been in the cafe just a short time when they heard a loud “whoosh.” They immediately ran from the cafe toward their truck, and very shortly after they reached the truck the escaping gas in some way became ignited and they received burns from which they died.
The gas was escaping through a rupture in the two-inch Stratoflex carbon steel wire braid hose. The hose consisted of an inner tube of neoprene, covered with a carbon steel wire braid for reinforcement, and an outer cover of rubberized material.
The theory of plaintiffs, insofar as it is material to this appeal, is that the hose, although manufactured by United States Rubber Company, was manufactured upon the order of the.defendant and pursuant to defendant’s design; that defendant had negligently designed the hose; and that defendant had negligently failed to warn of the dangers associated with the use of the hose.
The. sole point of contention on this appeal is that the trial court erred in refusing plaintiffs’ tender, as a part of their case in chief, of .the deposition of Ed T. Sabin, Administrator of the Liquified Petroleum Gas Administration, State of Oklahoma, and their tender of portions of this-deposition on rebuttal.
Plaintiffs’ position is that this deposition was admissible as evidence of actual notice or knowledge by the defendant of the potential danger connected with the use of this hose.
The deposition consists of 55 pages of testimony and several exhibits. Much of the deposition is objectionable as hearsay, as well as being questionable for other reasons. However, plaintiffs state that they were not offering the deposition for the truth of the statements, but only as evidence that defendant had notice or knowledge of the dangers connected with the use of its wire braid hose.
Mr. Sabin testified that several accidents had happened in Oklahoma by reason of the rupture of carbon steel wire braid hoses. On June 13, 1960 the members of the board of the Liquefied Petroleum Gas Administration held a meeting. It was decided at this meeting, as a matter of board policy, to issue a warning by way of a form letter to the effect that “wire-braid” hose was not suitable for L-P gas. This warning letter was dated July 1, 1960 and referred to “wire-braid” hose having ruptured on several occasions, and the addressees were advised they should start at once to replace any wire braid hose now being used.
A copy of this letter was sent to all L-P gas dealers in Oklahoma, and to some other companies, including hose.companies. How ever, no record was kept as to the names or number of persons to whom this letter was sent, except for the L-P gas dealers in Oklahoma. Mr. Sabin testified that he could not say whether “any one person or any twenty persons got it.” He did feel sure United States Rubber Company got one. Pie had no idea as to whether defendant was one of the persons to whom a copy of this letter was mailed. He was not too familiar with the defendant. He was not familiar with the particular type hose involved in the present case. He knew there were many types of wire braid hoses. He was unable to state, or to furnish any record or information, as to the number of ruptured hoses which had come to the board’s attention, or as to the age or manner in which such hoses had been used or treated. He testified that he doubted if he “could recite a specific case where the rupture of a hose was laid directly to carbon steel wire braid hose, where that was considered the cause of the accident.”
The deposition also contained references to many matters which occurred subsequent to the date of the warning letter and had no connection with the letter or the reasons for its issuance.
Plaintiffs urge that they had established by other competent evidence that carbon steel wire braid hose was potentially dangerous, and now, regardless of the correctness of the decision by the Oklahoma board in writing the letter, or the truth and nature of the information upon which the board acted, and regardless of the question of whether defendant had ever been mailed a copy of the letter, they were still entitled to have the entire deposition received into evidence for the single purpose of showing notice or knowledge by the defendant that the use of carbon steel wire braid hose was potentially dangerous. They contend there was sufficient foundation for an inference that defendant either received a copy of the letter, or in some other way was made aware of its contents or of the board’s action in issuing the letter.
The trial of the case consumed a full week, and the trial judge, who heard all the evidence, refused to admit the deposition, and again refused to admit the portions thereof offered on rebuttal. In the light of all the evidence, and the doubtful probative value of any portions of the deposition to establish notice or knowledge on the part of the defendant, we are in no position to say that the trial court abused its discretion. The determination of relevancy and materiality of any offered evidence, as to any particular issue, rests largely within the trial court’s discretion. Elliott v. Black River Electric Cooperative, 233 S.C. 233, 104 S.E.2d 357, 370, 74 A.L.R. 2d 907; Atlanta Joint Terminals v. Knight, 98 Ga.App. 482, 106 S.E.2d 417, 422, 79 A.L.R.2d 539; 20 Am.Jur., Evidence, § 247 at 240-241; 31A C.J.S. Evidence § 159, at 435. See also Transwestern Pipe Line Company v. Yandell, 69 N.M. 448, 459, 367 P.2d 938; Garrett v. Howden, 73 N.M. 307, 311, 387 P.2d 874.
The fact that one of the defendant’s witnesses testified that at the request of various agencies of other states the defendant, in conjunction with United States Rubber Company, caused the defendant’s hose to be examined, tested and approved by the Underwriters Laboratory, did not make the portions of the deposition then offered on rebuttal any less objectionable, and did not operate to then make the tendered portions material and relevant upon the issue of notice or knowledge. The determination of the materiality and relevancy of rebuttal testimony, like evidence offered upon any issue at any other stage of the trial, lies largely within the discretion of the trial court. See McCormick, Evidence, § 152 at 315; California Sugar & White Pine Co. v. Whitmer Jackson & Co., 33 N.M. 117, 127, 128, 263 P. 504. See also authorities cited above.
The deposition, and the portions thereof which were offered on rebuttal, were also properly refused by the trial court because the tenders included matters which were largely hearsay and matters which could not possibly relate to the question of whether or not defendant received a copy of the warning letter from the Oklahoma board, or the question of whether or not defendant had notice or knowledge of the claimed dangers inherent in its product.
Plaintiffs’ position is that:
“ * * * the operative fact was that the Oklahoma Board had sent the warning letter * * *. The evidence showing the reason for the Oklahoma Board’s, action which is alleged to constitute hearsay was not, therefore, offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted. Such evidence showed only the reason for the Oklahoma Board’s action, and thus the important fact is that the Board had received reports of the dangers associated with the use of the hose, and whether such reports were in fact true was not in issue.
“ * * *. The portions of the offered evidence which are alleged to constitute hearsay were not offered, then, to prove that the hose was unsafe, but merely to show that the Oklahoma Board believed the hose to be unsafe because of the same defects as those shown by the plaintiffs, and that this 'state of mind’ on the part of the Oklahoma Board is what compelled it to issue the warning letter.”
If the fact that a statement was. made becomes relevant to an issue in the case, evidence of an out-of-court utterance of the statement is admissible, not for the purpose of proving the truth of the matter-stated, but merely for the purpose of estab • lishing the fact that the statement was made. McCormick, Evidence, § 228 at 463-464 ; 6 Wigmore, Evidence, § 1770 at 190 ■(3rd Ed. 1940) ; II Jones, Evidence, § 271 ;at 521 (5th Ed. 1958).
However, this rule of evidence does mot embrace the telephone calls and other communications from unknown and unnamed persons concerning reputed ruptures in wire braid hoses which were not relevant to the issue of notice or knowledge by the defendánt of inherent danger in its product.
An utterance by one person, which is offered only to evidence the state of mind which ensued in another person in consequence of the utterance, is admissible insofar as the hearsay rule is concerned. Crespin v. Albuquerque Gas & Electric Co., 39 N.M. 473, 50 P.2d 259; McCormick, Evidence, § 228 at 464; II Jones, Evidence, § 271 at 522 (5th Ed. 1958). However, the state of mind which ensued as a result of the utterance must be relevant to an issue in the case.
If, as plaintiffs contend, the important or operative fact was that the Oklahoma Board sent the warning letter, then neither the board’s state of mind, if in fact it can be said the board had reached a state of mind, the hearsay reports which occasioned this state of mind, nor the many matters referred to in the deposition, which occurred subsequent to the date of the warning letter and which in no way relate to the same or the reasons for its issuance, was of any importance to a determination of the question of notice to or knowledge by defendant. The important fact to be determined on this question was whether or not the defendant had received the warning letter, and thus had been put on notice. What the board may have believed, and the hearsay matters upon which this belief was predicated, and many other matters contained in the deposition, were not relevant to the issue. If, in fact, the belief or state of mind of the board, and the hearsay matters which came to the board’s attention to cause such belief or state of mind, had any probative value, such would have been to prove the plaintiffs’ contention that the hose was dangerous, and the admission of the tenders for this purpose would admittedly have been improper.
Thus, assuming only for the sake of argument that there were some portions of the deposition which may have been properly admitted for the purpose of establishing either notice or knowledge on the part of the defendant, either as a part of plaintiffs’ case in chief, or by way of rebuttal, the plaintiffs cannot be heard to complain of the court’s refusal of their tenders, when the tenders included inadmissible matters. I Wigmore, Evidence, § 17 at 320. (3rd Ed. 1940); Berkshire v. Harem, 181 Or. 42, 178 P.2d 133; Smith v. White, 231 Or. 425, 372 P.2d 483. See also 26A C.J.S. Depositions § 91 b, at 437.
Finding no error on the part of the trial court in refusing the tenders made by-plaintiffs, it follows that the judgment must be affirmed. It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., CHAVEZ, and MOISE JJ., and E. T. HENSLEY, Jr. Chief Judge, Court of Appeals, concur. | [
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NOBLE, Justice.
This action was commenced as one to foreclose materialmen’s liens in connection with the construction of the Keith home,’ but by cross-complaint Institute for Essential Housing, Inc. (hereafter termed I.E.H.) sought foreclosure of a note and mortgage executed by the Keiths and allegedly given to I.E.H. to finance the house. The material liens are not now an issue. I.E.H. has appealed from a summary judgment dismissing its cross-complaint. This appeal, therefore, turns on whether the pleadings, answers to interrogatories and affidavits present a genuine issue of fact requiring determination.
It is firmly established that in considering a motion for summary judgment, the pleadings, depositions and affidavits must be viewed in the most favorable aspect they will bear in support of the party opposing the motion. Ginn v. MacAluso, 62 N.M. 375, 310 P.2d 1034; Sooner Pipe & Supply Corp. v. Doerrie, 69 N.M. 78, 364 P.2d 138; Hubbard v. Mathis, 72 N.M. 270, 383 P.2d 240. And, summary judgment will be granted only when the moving party is entitled to the judgment as a matter of law upon clear and undisputed facts. Rules of Civil Procedure, Rule 56(c) '(§ 21-1-1(56) (c), N.M.S.A.1953); Srader v. Pecos Construction Company, 71 N.M. 320, 378 P.2d 364; Hubbard v. Mathis, supra.
So considered, we think that there were genuine issues of fact to be resolved in this case and that summary judgment was improper. Without attempting to detail all of them, we merely point out the fol lowing issues of fact which have not been resolved. Keith alleges and I.E.H. denies that the note and mortgage were delivered upon the condition that they would only become effective upon construction of the Keith home in accordance with certain plans and specifications. Keith alleges and I.E.H. denies that I.E.H. agreed to “furnish materials and build a house” for Keith. I.E.H. denies that a purported construction contract is in fact its agreement or that it was executed in its behalf by an authorized agent.
The arguments on appeal make it apparent to us that the trial court may have been influenced in rendering summary judgment by the contention that I.E.H. built the house without a contractor’s license and, therefore, could not enforce a claim for collection of compensation for such collection. In the first place, the issue of whether I.E.H. agreed to construct the Keith house is one of fact to be determined upon a trial of the issues and, since the question will no doubt be again before the trial court when the case is heard on its merits, we shall discuss it. The forfeiture clause (§ 67-16-14, N.M.S.A.1953) .of the Contractors’ License Law reads, so far as pertinent: •
“No contractor * * * shall * * * bring or maintain any action in any court of the state for the collection of compensation for the performance of any act for which a license is required by this act without alleging and proving, that such contractor was a duly licensed contractor * *
It is plain that since the statute only prohibits an unlicensed contractor from bringing or maintaining an action “for the collection of compensation” for construction work, recovery by I.E.H. is prohibited only if its action on the note and mortgage is one for collection of compensation for a construction contract. It does not appear that it was such an action. The action framed by the cross-complaint of I.E.H. is one seeking judgment on a promissory note and to foreclose a mortgage given as security therefor. That cross-claim constitutes the action with which we are now concerned. From its very nature, a promissory note is a separate contract, Broyles v. Achor, 78 S.W.2d 459 (St. Louis Ct.App.1935), and an action based thereon is a separate cause of action. Grue v. Hensley, 357 Mo. 592, 210 S.W.2d 7. Keith’s defense claiming that I.E.H. an unlicensed contractor, agreed to-build his house does not make the I.E.H. counterclaim on the note and mortgage an action prohibited by § 67-16-14, supra.
It follows that the case must be reversed and the district court instructed to vacate the summary judgment and to proceed further in a manner not inconsistent with this, opinion.
It is so ordered.
CARMODY, C. J., and CHAVEZ, J.„ concur. ■ ■
PER CURIAM.
The motion for rehearing is denied. The following is in addition to the opinion heretofore filed. | [
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] |
OPINION
ZINN, District Judge.
Tomas Lucero, appellant, was convicted of first degree murder on July 27, 1972. On August 15, 1972, he was sentenced to life imprisonment.
He asks that his conviction be reversed, that his sentence be set aside and that he be granted a new trial.
Reversal is sought on several grounds. The absence of a material witness is the one upon which appellant chiefly relies.
The conviction is reversed and the judgment and sentence is set aside, with directions that a new trial be granted appellant.
The ground for our reversal is the failure of the trial court to grant the continuance sought by appellant for lack of an important material witness. The only person alive who witnessed the events out of which the prosecution arose, other than the defendant, was his thirteen-year-old daughter. This child was residing in Indiana at the time of trial. Counsel for defendant initiated action under the provisions of § 41-12-13 et seq., N.M.S.A.1953, relating^» securing the attendance of witnesses from other states, and the Indiana court issued its subpoena. The subpoena was apparently received by the witness on July 16, 1972, but she did not appear in response. The motion to dismiss or to vacate the trial setting for lack of the witness was filed on July 24, 1972, the day the trial commenced. The trial judge denied the motion on a tentative basis on the opening day of the trial. A jury was selected and the actual trial begun the J.ollowing day. The matter of- the absent witness was raised internpittently throughout the trial by defense counsel. During the presentation of the prosecution testimony, the court refused to let defense counsel cross-examine a police officer about information that he had obtained from the absent witness, noting that it was hearsay and not mentioned on direct testimony.
The court considered the problem of the absent witness at some length, then permitted the police officer who interviewed the daughter to testify. It consisted of summaries frorn^a report that he had written following his interview with the child. The court, before and after the officer’s testimony was received, advised the jury that it was a very unusual procedure.
The motion for continuance and the affidavit made as a part of it complied substantially with the requirements of § 21-8-10, N.M.S.A.1953. This wa.s a trial rule subsequently repealed but applicable to this case. The court made no ruling indicating any insufficiency of the application for continuance. There was no action taken by the prosecution as allowed under § 21-8-11, N.M.S.A.1953, to obviate the continuance by admitting the facts stated in the affidavit to be the substance of the witness’ proposed testimony, to allow it to be considered by the jury. The net result of these omissions places the matter squarely within the rulings of State v. Sibold, 83 N.M. 678, 496 P.2d 738 (Ct.App.1972); State v. Gallegos, 46 N.M. 387, 129 P.2d 634 (1942); State v. Riddel, 37 N.M. 148, 19 P.2d 751 (1933). The court had no discretion to exercise in this situation. The continuance was a matter of right, and the failure to grant it was error, requiring reversal.
Appellant raises other points for reversal. Those challenging a failure to instruct on defense of habitation and the offense of manslaughter cannot be answered except by speculating as to what the testimony of the absent witness would be. This we cannot do.
A question of cumulative error ’ was raised. In view of the reversal, this need not be answered.
Appellant claims error in the court allowing him but five peremptory challenges to jurors. He contends twelve was the proper allowance for the crime of first.de gree murder under Rule of Criminal Procedure 39(d) (1) (i) [§ 41-23-39(d) (1) (i), N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp.1973)].
The Rules of Criminal Procedure were not applicable to the trial of cases initiated before their effective date, July 1, 1972. The provisions of § 41-10-3, N.M. S.A.1953, apply to this case. That rule limits peremptory jury challenges to five for defendants in cases not punishable by death. The crime of which appellant was accused occurred during that hiatus in the laws of this state when capital punishment did not obtain for this crime.
Complaint is made of a failure to supply the appellant’s counsel with a copy of the testimony before the grand jury. This denial was correct in the absence of a showing of a particularized need, the basis for such a motion at that time. State v. Tackett, 78 N.M. 450, 432 P.2d 415 (1967). If raised by appellant upon a new trial, this will need to be evaluated by the trial judge in light of the current decisions on this point. See State v. Felter, 85 N.M. 619, 515 P.2d 138 (1973); State v. Vigil, 85 N.M. 735, 516 P.2d 1118 (1973); State v. Baca, 85 N.M. 55, 508 P.2d 1352 (Ct.App.1973).
A further point relates to the refusal to hear testimony of a polygraph examiner who had administered a test to appellant to aid in evaluating his capacity to stand trial and his defense of exculpable insanity.
The testimony was offered in conjunction with the testimony of the psychologist who testified to the court on the issue of the appellant’s present capacity to be tried. The court heard the testimony as a tender, then rejected it. This tender of the polygraph examiner’s testimony came as a part of the hearing before the court without a jury.
Objection was made to the testimony before the tender by the prosecution. The tender included questions of the witness as to his personal education, training and experience in the field. He described the operation of the polygraph in general. He related the questioning of the defendant and demonstrated the responses as they appeared on the test chart. He expressed his interpretation of the test response to certain questions.
No questions were asked of the witness as to his view of the reliability of the test procedure in general or as to the validity of his results on the appellant. There was no attempt made by defense counsel to offer the polygraph operator’s testimony to the jury at the trial which followed.
The failure to accept the testimony of the polygraph test was not error. This court has held to the rule which admits polygraph test results when each of these requirements are met: 1. The tests were stipulated to by both parties to the case; 2. When no objection is offered at trial; 3. When the court has evidence of the qualifications of the polygraph operator to establish his expertise; 4. Testimony to establish the reliability of the testing procedure employed as approved by the authorities in the field; and 5. The validity of the tests made on the subject. State v. Chavez, 82 N.M. 238, 478 P.2d 566 (Ct.App.1970); State v. Chavez, 80 N.M. 786, 461 P.2d 919 (Ct.App.1969); Chavez v. State, 456 F.2d 1072 (10th Cir. 1972); State v. Varos, 69 N.M. 19, 363 P.2d 629 (1961) ; State v. Trimble, 68 N.M. 406, 362 P.2d 788 (1961).
To the extent that the opinions in State v. Alderete, 86 N.M. 176, 521 P.2d 138 (Ct.App.1974), depart from this rule, they are hereby overruled.
The conviction and sentence is reversed. The cause is remanded with instructions to vacate the conviction, judgment and sentence and to grant the defendant a new trial.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MONTOYA, J., concur. | [
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NOBLE, Justice.
Manuel A. Sanchez owns a twenty-acre tract of land at the southerly side of Santa Fe to which the only access was by a meandering dirt road leading from the Albuquerque-Santa Fe highway across vacant land. Dale Bellamah Homes of New Mexico (hereafter termed “Bellamah”) bought this vacant tract lying between the Sanchez land and the highway and in the course of its development as a housing-project built houses across the access road,, effectively closing it to travel. Two jury verdicts were returned against Bellamah,. (1) assessing damages for trespass to and removal of dirt from the Sanchez land,, and (2) fixing damages for wrongful interference with the access road. Bellamah has appealed from the judgment following the jury verdicts and attacks only the jury’s finding that Sanchez had an easement of a roadway for ingress and egress.
A prescriptive right is founded' upon a presumption of a grant even though there may never have been one. In addition, a prescriptive right is obtained by use-alone and does not depend upon a statute.. It is acquired by an open, uninterrupted,, peaceable, notorious, adverse use, under a claim of right, continued for a period of ten years with the knowledge or imputed knowledge of the owner. Hester v. Sawyers, 41 N.M. 497, 71 P.2d 646, 112 A.L.R. 536; Castillo v. Tabet Lumber Company, 75 N. M. 492, 406 P.2d 361. Wilson v. Williams, 43 N.M. 173, 87 P.2d 683, as well as Hester and Castillo also settled the rule in this state that the owner is charged with knowledge of an open, adverse, notorious, peaceable, and uninterrupted use from which acquiescence is implied. 2 Thompson on Real Property, 1961 Replacement, §§ 33S and 340.
, The question here, as in Hester, is whether the user was adverse under a claim of right or was only permissive. Bellamah contends that absent evidence of a distinct and positive assertion by Sanchez of a right hostile to the owner which was brought home to him by words or acts, the verdict lacks substantial support in the evidence.
The great weight of the decisions hold that proof of an open, notorious, continuous and uninterrupted user for the prescriptive period, without evidence of how it began, raises a presumption that the use was adverse and under a claim of right. LaRue v. Kosich, 66 Ariz. 299, 187 P.2d 642; Trueblood v. Pierce, 116 Colo. 221, 179 P.2d 671, 171 A.L.R. 1270; Sinnett v. Werelus, 83 Idaho 514, 365 P.2d 952; Poulos v. F. H. Hill Co., 401 Ill. 204, 81 N.E.2d 854; American Oil Company v. Alexanderian, 338 Mass. 112, 154 N.E.2d 127; Scott v. Weinheimer, 140 Mont. 554, 374 P.2d 91; Feldman v. Knapp, 196 Or. 453, 250 P.2d 92; Zollinger v. Frank, 110 Utah 514, 175 P.2d 714, 170 A.L.R. 770; Northwest Cities Gas Co. v. Western Fuel Co., 13 Wash.2d 75, 123 P.2d 771. Compare Hunt Land Holding Co. v. Schramm, 121 So.2d 697 (Fla.App.1960). This court in Hester v. Sawyers, supra, firmly established the rule that such proof not only raises the presumption but that when the user has been continued for the prescriptive period, the presumption of a grant is conclusive. See, also, Castillo v. Tabet Lumber Company, supra.
Bellamah concedes that this road has been in existence and traveled at will by Sanchez and others for more than thirty years; that the use has been continuous, open, uninterrupted, peaceable and notorious; but it contends that the way in this case, as in Hester, extends over open and unenclosed land, thus creating an exception to the general rule that such use will be presumed to be adverse and under a claim of right. Plester recognized that a person using a way over large bodies of open and unenclosed lands cannot acquire a permanent right unless his intention to do so was known to the owner or was so plainly apparent from acts that knowledge should be imputed to him. But, the Hester rule was limited in Maestas v. Maestas, 50 N.M. 276, 175 P.2d 1003 and in Castillo v. Tabet Lumber Company, supra, to instances where the use of the way was over “large bodies of unenclosed land * * * where the owners thereof could not reasonably know of passings over said lands.” We think the distinction made in Maestas is equally valid in the instant case.
There is evidence that the land over which this road ran was a small tract near the southerly boundary of the Santa Fe city limits. The road meandered over it from the Albuquerque highway to the Sanchez land, a distance of approximately one-half mile, and some 72 buildings were located within an area varying in radius from three-eighths to one mile. The roadway was well defined and is plainly shown on the U.S. Geological map prepared in 1951. We think that under these circumstances, Bellamah and its predecessors either had knowledge or were charged with knowledge of Sanchez’ use of the road and of his possible claim to an easement. They failed to make inquiry which would have revealed his claim to the right of way. Under such circumstances, the owner of the servient tenement is charged with notice of facts which an inquiry would have disclosed. Mutz v. Le Sage, 61 N.M. 219, 297 P.2d 876; Anno. 41 A.L.R. 1442, 1448.
From what has been said, it follows that the judgment appealed from shall be affirmed. In view of our determination of the appeal, it is unnecessary to consider the cross-appeal which only challenges certain instructions.
The judgment appealed from is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
CHAVEZ and COMPTON, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
HENDLEY, Judge.
Convicted of two counts of trafficking in a controlled substance (§ 54 — 11-20, N. M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol.1962, pt. 2, Supp. 1973)) defendant appeals raising three points for reversal: (1) failure to disclose informant’s identity; (2) failure to give an “absent witness” instruction; and, (3) failure to sentence pursuant to State v. Herrera, 86 N.M. 134, 520 P.2d 554 (Ct.App. 1974).
Failure to Disclose
Informant’s Identity
The two heroin sales for which defendant was found guilty occurred at the residence of defendant’s mother. At the time of the first sale, Officer Herrera and the informant went to the back of the house and knocked on the window of the converted garage in which defendant lived. A shade was opened revealing two people in the room. One, Officer Herrera identified as John and the other Ross. The informant said “hi” to the two and told them that Officer Herrera was “all right.” Ross then made a sale to Officer Herrera between the wooden slats covering the window. Two days later a similar transaction took place, although John was not present when Ross made the sale. The informer accompanied Officer Herrera but said nothing. Immediately after the second sale, a surveillance officer saw a man whom he identified as defendant step out of the house and watch Officer Herrera and the informer drive off. Officer Herrera identified defendant by photo some two or three weeks after the occurrences. Defendant testified that he had never seen Officer Herrera before he coincidentally saw him in court two months prior to trial. He stated he had never sold heroin to Officer Herrera.
Prior to trial defendant moved for disclosure of the informer’s identity on the ground that his “ * * * testimony would be pertinent at trial.” He also moved, at the close of the prosecution’s case and at the end of trial, for dismissal for failure to disclose. All motions were denied.
To determine the merit of defendant’s claim we must weigh his right to a defense against the state’s interest in preserving the informer’s identity. State v. Romero, 86 N.M. 674, 526 P.2d 816 (Ct.App.1974).
Here, the informer’s testimony could be highly relevant to the defense. Defendant’s case rested on misidentification by the officer. Two officers identified defendant. Other circumstantial evidence tied to him to the residence. In reply defendant asserted that he had not seen Officer Herrera until two months before trial and that he had not sold heroin to Herrera. The informer supposedly knew the man who sold heroin to the officer, for it was his function “ * * * to introduce the undercover agent to someone who is suspected of selling narcotics.” If the informer would testify it was not the defendant to whom he introduced the officer, that testimony would be crucial in bolstering defendant’s misidentification defense. Compare State v. Bauske, 86 N.M. 484, 525 P.2d 411 (Ct.App.1974).
The state disputes the relevance of this projected testimony. It first argues that the informer here was neither a sole participant nor a direct participant in the criminal transaction as was the informer in Roviaro v. United States, 353 U.S. 53, 77 S.Ct. 623, 1 L.Ed.2d 639 (1957), where the court required disclosure. That the informer was not a sole participant in this case makes his testimony all the more crucial. The accompanying officer was defendant’s most damning witness. Only the informer can rebut that testimony. To say that the informer was not a direct participant is not entirely accurate. Although he did not directly participate in the criminal act and may therefore not have been a material witness on the issue of entrapment, (see Kilgore v. State, 50 Ala.App. 501, 280 So.2d 206 (1973)), he did directly participate in the introduction. He obviously had direct knowledge of the identity of the man with whom the officer was dealing. As to the relevant question here, misidentification, he was a direct participant.
The state also argues that since there was another witness in the room who presumably knew defendant when the first sale was consummated and since defendant obviously knew the informant, because the informer introduced him to the officer, he could call either to the stand if he really wanted to. This argument, which validly applies to entrapment cases, is totally illogical where the defendant claims misidentification. How can he know these two people if hfe was not present at either sale? Compare United States v. Connolly, 479 F.2d 930 (9th Cir. 1973), cert. dismissed in 414 U.S. 897, 94 S.Ct. 248, 38 L.Ed.2d 139 (1973); United States v. Day, 384 F.2d 464 (3rd Cir. 1967). Neither could he have gleaned the other witness’ identity from court testimony, which identified him only as John.
The state’s interest here is, as always, the protection of the “cover” of important informers. That interest is less in cases where the police specifically decide to take the informer with them when they make a deal. As United States v. Day, supra, points out, the person who deals with the agent knows the informer’s identity. Therefore, in this case, since the police decided to “blow” the informer’s cover, in order to make the sale, they themselves lessened the state’s interest. Furthermore, we propose to grant a remedy that will totally vindicate the state’s interest if the informer’s testimony is not relevant to defendant’s misidentification defense.
We find the balance to weigh clearly in favor of disclosure if the informer’s testimony is as helpful to defendant’s case as he contends. See Evidence Rule 510(c) (2); State v. Bauske, supra. We therefore remand to the trial court to hold an in camera hearing to determine whether the informer will in fact so testify.
Failure to Give an "Absent Witness” Instruction
Defendant tendered an instruction which stated: ■
“No. 1. If a witness, who could have given material testimony on an issue in this case that would elucidate the transaction, was peculiarly available to or could have been made available to testify by one party but was not called by that party and his absence has not been sufficiently accounted for, or explained, then you may infer that the testimony of that witness would have been unfavorable to the party who failed to call that witness.”
The question of error in failure to give this requested instruction is moot in light of the above disposition of the informer disclosure issue. If the informer’s testimony is found to be relevant, defendant will be granted a new trial. If the testimony is not relevant the court would have been correct in refusing the instruction. See State v. Soliz, 80 N.M. 297, 454 P.2d 779 (Ct.App.1969).
Failure to Sentence Pursuant to State v. Herrera, Supra
This point has no merit. State v. Herrera, supra, was overruled by State v. Herrera, 86 N.M. 224, 522 P.2d 76 (1974).
We conditionally affirm the judgment. We remand the case to the trial court for the in camera hearing to determine the relevance of the informer’s testimony. If the court determines the testimony is sufficiently relevant defendant is to be awarded a new trial. If the testimony is not sufficiently relevant the judgment will stand affirmed. See State v. Torres, 81 N.M. 521, 469 P.2d 166 (Ct.App.1970).
It is so ordered.
SUTIN and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
Plaintiff brought suit against defendant in the district court seeking (1) a determination of the respective rights of the parties to the flow of water in China Draw, (2) an injunction commanding defendant to refrain from diverting more than his share of water from the draw, and (3) damages for losses allegedly sustained by plaintiff as a result of defendant’s claimed unlawful diversion of waters from the draw.
The parties own or control adjoining ranch properties. Plaintiff alleged and defendant admitted:
That the waters of China Draw “drained through a portion of defendant’s ranch, and by natural course, onto plaintiff’s ranch.”
“That plaintiff and his predecessors to such property have had, and made, beneficial use of the waters flowing down China Draw continually since conducting grazing operations thereon.”
In his answer, defendant alleged that he “has also made beneficial use of waters flowing down China Draw continually for his grazing operations thereon.”
The case came on for trial on December 20, 1972. A brief dialogue between the trial court and trial counsel was initiated by the court. This dialogue related solely to the fact that neither party had received a permit from the State Engineer to appropriate waters from China Draw, and neither had filed an application to appropriate any of these waters prior to his actual use thereof. This dialogue ended with the announcement by the trial court that: “The case will be dismissed.” An order was entered dismissing the case with prejudice upon the following recited grounds:
“ * * * [T]he plaintiff having presented his Memorandum Brief to the Court by way of letter addressed December 15th, 1972,. and both parties having answered ready to the inquiry by the Court.
“The Court reading from the said Brief and plaintiff’s attorney asserting that the condition expressed in the said Brief was correct wherein plaintiff asserts that no applications were on file for permits with the State Engineer prior to defendant’s diversion of water.
“And it further appearing that under Section 75-5-1 of the New Mexico Statutes Annotated, the plaintiff has filed his Notice of Intention to Make Formal Application for Permit to appropriate all waters of China Draw within one year from October 31st, 1972, that the same was considered as a Notice of Intention to Make Formal Application for Permit, and that no permit had been granted.
“And it further appearing to the Court that the plaintiff has not exhausted his administrative remedies in accordance with Section 75-5-29 of New Mexico Statutes Annotated, and that this action is premature.
“And it further appearing that until the said plaintiff has exhausted his rights under administrative procedure according to New Mexico Statutes, this Court does not have jurisdiction and the said case should be dismissed.”
We are of the opinion that the trial court erred. This was a suit in which the parties sought an adjudication of their respectively claimed rights to the use of waters of the draw. The fact that neither had secured a permit from the State to beneficially use the waters, did not necessarily prevent the acquisition by either or both of rights to the beneficial use of waters from the draw by appropriation, and did not necessarily prevent the acquisition of rights to the use of these waters by either as against the other. We cannot tell from the record when these claimed rights were supposedly acquired by the parties. Clearly, if they were acquired pursuant to common law appropriations by the parties or their predecessors in interest prior to the enactment of our first Water Code [Ch. 49, Laws of 1907], these rights were in no way dependent on the existence of an application to or a permit from the State Engineer. See N.M.Const, art. XVI, § 1; § 75-8-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 11, pt. 2, 1968); Harkey et al. v. Smith et al., 31 N.M. 521, 525, 247 P. 550, 551 (1926).
The unappropriated waters of every natural stream or watercourse belong to the public and are subject to appropriation for beneficial use. N.M.Const. art. XVI, § 2; § 75-1-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 11, pt. 2, 1968). If China Draw is not in fact a natural stream or watercourse as defined in § 75-1-1, supra, then our Water Code [Ch. 75, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 11, pt. 2, 1968)], under which permits for appropriation are required, is not applicable to the surface waters to which the parties claim rights. If this draw does constitute a natural stream or watercourse, if there are unappropriated waters therein, and if the parties to this suit have been making beneficial use thereof as they have alleged, then they are entitled to have their respective rights to this use and to the flow of these waters adjudicated as between themselves, even though this adjudication will not affect the rights of the State in these waters. Compare Carlsbad Irr. Dist. v. Ford, 46 N.M. 335, 128 P.2d 1047 (1942), in which two cases were consolidated for trial and appeal.
In the Carlsbad cases, the Irrigation District, on behalf of beneficial owners of the right to use waters from the Pecos River, sought and secured injunctive relief against defendants, who had no right to the use of the waters of the river. Defendants were restrained from diverting waters therefrom, even though the waters which defendants were diverting may have been unappropriated waters. In this regard, the court twice stated in its opinion that the right to use or control the waters in question was in the Irrigation District, or these were unappropriated waters of the State of New Mexico, and defendants had shown no right in themselves under our Irrigation Code or otherwise.
Also compare the statements concerning legally enforceable rights based upon mere possession contained in Goss v. Bisset, 411 S.W.2d 50, 53 (Ky.1967); Rohner v. Neville, 230 Or. 31, 39, 365 P.2d 614, 617, 368 P.2d 391 (1961); VI-A American Law of Property, § 2812 at 37 (A. J. Casner ed. 1954); 73 C.J.S. Property § 14 at 200 (1951).
The order dismissing the case with prejudice should be reversed and the cause remanded to the district court for trial on the issues properly presented by the pleadings.
It is so ordered.
STEPHENSON and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
This appeal concerns a second motion for post-conviction relief under § 21 — 1— 1(93), N.M.S.A. (Repl.Vol. 4).
The contention is that petitioner did not voluntarily and intelligently waive his right to a direct appeal from his conviction for armed robbery. The record shows that petitioner took a direct appeal and that after the appeal was docketed in this Court, the appeal was dismissed at his request.
Petitioner’s contention at the evidentiary hearing on the second motion was that his dismissal of his direct appeal was involuntary. Petitioner’s motion asserts that through his attorney he negotiated a bargain with the District Attorney. The bargain was that petitioner would dismiss his direct appeal in exchange for the District Attorney not prosecuting petitioner as a habitual offender. The motion alleges that the bargain was kept. Evidence at the evidentiary hearing would support a finding by the trial court that dismissal of the direct appeal was not involuntary on petitioner’s part. No such finding was made.
The denial of petitioner’s first motion for post-conviction relief was affirmed. Faulkner v. State, 83 N.M. 742, 497 P.2d 744 (Ct.App.1972). The contention made in the second motion could have been raised in the first motion. Thus this appeal is subject to State v. Gillihan, 86 N. M. 439, 524 P.2d 1335, decided July 26, 1974, Gillihan states “ * * * we will not consider grounds asserted in a second or successive Rule 93 proceeding which could have been, but were not, asserted in a prior Rule 93 proceeding. Such grounds omitted in the prior proceedings are deemed waived.”
We have mentioned two dispositional grounds. However, we do not decide this case on either ground. The trial court’s order states that “having determined the issues involved in the Petition for post-conviction relief” it is ordered that petitioner be returned to the penitentiary. We do not know what the trial court determined; there is no order denying the motion. Absent such an order there is no basis for the appeal. Section 21-1-1(93) (e), supra.
The appeal is dismissed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
ZINN, District Judge.
Appellant was the defendant in a divorce action brought by appellee as plaintiff. Six months after the decree was obtained, appellee applied for a modification of the terms of the decree as to child support and division of the community property and sought alimony. Relief was granted appellee under the theory of fraud and misrepresentation on the part -of appellant, and a judgment was entered increasing child support from $200.00 to $400.00 a month, awarding her a money judgment in the sum of $60,628.00 in addition to the property and money originally awarded her, decreeing that appellant pay her alimony of $350.00 per month and awarding her $2,500.00 for attorneys’ fees. Appellant seeks a reversal of this judgment and restoration of the original decree.
The appellant as defendant did not contest the original divorce action. Appellee selected her attorney without objection by appellant. He did not have counsel. The details of the property settlement and the amount of child support were mutually discussed by the parties before and after the complaint was filed. Both parties gave de tails of the proposed settlement to appellee’s attorney. While no written stipulation or agreement was executed, they agreed to the terms of the proposed decree. Appellee’s counsel informed her that the division of community property proposed would give her considerably less than an equal share. He advised her not to agree to the settlement. She acknowledged that she was aware of this inequality. Because of her attorney’s apprehensions about this disparity, he prepared a written statement which she signed expressly acknowledging his advice and that the terms of the decree were as she wanted them. Her statement ended:
“ * * * however, I have decided to accept the less than one half of the estate in final settlement due to my own personal reasons.”
Within a week after filing the complaint and two days following their agreeing upon the terms of the decree, the appellee with her counsel appeared in court and presented the cause as a settled matter and obtained the decree. Appellant did not appear in court.
The theory of the grant of relief to appellee from the first judgment appears to have rested upon Rule 60(b) of the Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1(60) (b), N. M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4 1970)], giving a trial.court jurisdiction to relieve a party from a final judgment upon timely application for certain grounds or reasons. The grounds include those of “fraud * * * misrepresentation, or other misconduct of an adverse party.”
Setting aside husband and wife property settlements for fraud has been the subject of cases here and in other jurisdictions. Beals v. Ares, 25 N.M. 459, 185 P. 780 (1919); Trujillo v. Padilla, 79 N.M. 245, 442 P.2d 203 (1968). In Beals v. Ares, a husband, in contemplation of divorce made a property settlement with the wife through his attorney, in which she accepted $4,000.00 in settlement of her share of community assets worth over $100,000.00. The wife did not have independent legal advice, she was not told the extent or the value of the community property, nor was she told of her entitlement to a half interest in the community property.
In Trujillo v. Padilla, the wife, who could not read English, executed documents in that language, a deed of the community property and an answer and waiver to a divorce proceeding, in the office of her husband’s lawyer. She received nothing for her interest in the property. She was informed that the property was the separate property of the husband which was untrue. She had no independent counsel.
The court in each case evaluated the relationship and found the dominance of the husband and the confidence of the wife to exist.
Neither Beals v. Ares, nor Trujillo v. Padilla, held that the mere fact of marriage created a fiduciary relationship in which the husband presumptively occupies the role of dominance and the wife confidence. In each case the facts supported the existence of the dominion of the one and the confidence of the other.
The elements necessary to establish - a fraud wrought by one of the persons who occupies a fiduciary relationship is not quite the same as in other circumstances.
If from the facts it appears that the parties have such a relationship to each other, and then as a result of confidence reposed by the one, dominion and influence resulting from such confidence can be exercised by the other, fraud and undue influence may be presumed to exist when an advantage is gained by the dominant party at the expense of the confiding party. Harrison v. Harrison, 21 N.M. 372, 155 P. 356 (1916).
Cases from other jurisdictions give some perspective on the issues of fiduciary relationships arising in the marriage and how to view the parties’ relative positions as to dominance or confidence.
In Collins v. Collins, 48 Cal.2d 325, 309 P.2d 420 (1957), the parties agreed on the terms of a property settlement and divorce. The wife went to Nevada and obtained the divorce incorporating the settlement. Later she asked the California court to set aside the settlement on the ground of failure to disclose assets by the husband as a fiduciary.
In answering the wife’s contentions the court from that opinion said:
“Plaintiff urges that on August 13, 1953, when she executed the property settlement and deeds, defendant had a fiduciary duty to her and was required to fully disclose to her the value and character of their property.
“Plaintiff, however, had ample opportunity to investigate, with the aid of independent counsel, the character and value of the property of the parties. Plaintiff had contemplated obtaining a divorce for some time before she made the property settlement agreement and obtained the divorce. Defendant did nothing to hinder her investigation of the property or to cause her to execute the agreement precipitately. Defendant owed plaintiff no duty to force her to investigate the properties when she announced that she was satisfied with the agreement prepared by defendant’s counsel.
“ ‘ * * * [3] The decision of plaintiff’s attorneys to accept defendant’s proposal without a contest, although now claimed to have been ill-advised and unfair to her was her decision and she is bound thereby.’
“ * * * Here the parties were dealing with one another at arm’s length — or at least the husband gave the wife every opportunity to deal at arm’s length— when the settlement agreement was negotiated. The wife had independent advice. The fact that it appears that she was eager to secure a Nevada divorce and that therefore she did not obtain, or have her counsel obtain, a complete listing of the properties of the parties is not chargeable to the husband.
“ * * * when the parties to a marriage are negotiating a property settlement with recognition that their interests are adverse and are dealing at arm’s length, neither spouse owes to the other the duty of disclosure which he or she would owe if their relation remained in fact a confidential one. (See Migala v. Dakin (1929), 99 Cal.App. 60, 64, 277 P. 898; Chadwick v. Chadwick (1928), 95 Cal.App. 690, 700, 273 P. 86). They do not need to be embittered toward each other to act at arm’s length; temperate negotiations of adverse interest is much more likely than rancorous combat to produce a fair property settlement agreement. It is a long recognized rule that such settlements between husband and wife (of course in the absence of fraud) are highly favored in the law. (McClure v. McClure (1893), 100 Cal. 339, 343, 34 P. 822; Hensley v. Hensley (1918), 179 Cal. 284, 287-288, 183 P. 445; Hill v. Hill (1943), 23 Cal.2d 82, 89, 142 P.2d 417; Adams v. Adams (1947), 29 Cal.2d 621, 624 [1], 177 P.2d 265; Patton v. Patton (1948), 32 Cal.2d 520, 523, 196 P.2d 909.)
“ * * * Jorgensen v. Jorgensen (1948), 32 Cal.2d 13, 22-23, 193 P.2d 728. * * * held, ‘A husband at the time of divorce or separation is entitled to take a position favorable to his own interest in claiming as his separate property assets that a court might hold to be community property. Confronted with the assertion by the husband that certain assets are his separate property the wife must take her own position and if necessary investigate the facts. (Citations.) If the wife and her attorney are satisfied with the husband’s classification of the property as separate or community, the wife cannot reasonably contend that fraud was committed or that there was such mistake as to allow her to overcome the finality of a judgment. * * * Plaintiff is barred from obtaining equitable relief by her admission that she and her attorney did not investigate the facts, choosing instead to rely on the statements of the husband as to what part of the disclosed property was community property.’ ”
Blair v. Blair, 140 Mont. 278, 370 P.2d 873 (1962) was an action brought by a divorced wife seeking to set aside a property settlement obtained in an Oregon divorce decree. After holding that the wife’s attempt was a forbidden collateral attack on a judgment of a sister state entitled to full faith and credit in the courts of Montana, that court said:
“There was no trust established, express, implied or constructive as the result of these negotiations by plaintiff and defendant. On the contrary, both parties and their respective counsel were dealing at arm’s length. See Buchmayer v. Buchmayer, 68 Cal.App.2d 462, 157 P.2d 9.
“The Florida Supreme Court in Cooper v. Cooper, Fla., 69 So.2d 881, denied the contention that there was a fiduciary relationship between husband and wife when a divorce action is pending. To the same effect is O’Melia v. Adkins, 73 Cal.App. 2d 143, 166 P.2d 298; and Shlensky v. Shlensky, 369 Ill. 179, 15 N. E.2d 694.”
Le Bert-Francis v. Le Bert-Francis, 194 A.2d 662 (D.C.App.1963) was another case in which the wife was attempting to get a property settlement set aside. Her main contention was that the burden of proof was on the husband to affirmately show that the separation agreement was made after full disclosure.
“Essentially the wife’s argument is that every separation agreement in which the wife, for the consideration expressed in the agreement, releases the husband from all other obligations for support, is presumptively fraudulent. Some of the older cases lend support to this contention. They appear to be based on the early common law conception that a wife was so completely under the dominance of her husband that it was impossible for her to freely and voluntarily contract with him. More recent cases hold that there is no presumption that separation agreements are fraudulent, and that one who asserts the invalidity of such agreement has the burden of proving that it is tainted by fraud, duress or overreaching.
“Some of the earlier cases regard a separation agreement as presumptively fraudulent because of a supposed fiduciary or confidential relation existing between the parties, but even before the turn of the century Judge Sanborn speaking for the Eighth Circuit, used these oft-quoted words:
‘The result is that the fact that the parties to the agreement of separation occupied the confidential relation of husband and wife did not render it presumptively void, and did not cast upon the appellees the burden of pleadings or of proving that it was just and fair to the appellant.’
“The modern trend holds that when a husband and wife have separated or are about to separate and seek by agreement to settle their respective rights and obligations they deal at arm’s length. We need not go that far but we do rule that when husband and wife have separated and are negotiating a separation agreement the previously existing confidential relationship has been so impaired that it cannot of itself raise a presumption that any agreement reached will be invalid.”
In each situation, the relationship that exists between the parties when the questioned transaction occurs or is undertaken is critical. The presumption of fraud that may be utilized to aid the party seeking to set aside the transaction is available only to the one proving that they were in the confidential relationship and the other party was in the dominant position. Without the fiduciary relationship existing in fact at the time of the agreement then, to set aside the transaction requires that fraud and misrepresentation be proven by the challenging party in the ordinary sense.
It is questionable as to whether the relationship of dominance and confidence existed between the parties to this action when the divorce settlement was made. The appellee was advised by independent legal counsel in the property settlement and divorce.
An examination of the findings of the trial court on the dominance of the husband and the confidence of the wife so as to support the conclusion it made of a trustee relationship is necessary to see whether the presumptions of fraud need be considered or whether actual fraud is required to support the action of the court.
The facts found by the trial court as to the confidential relationship of the parties were silent except as to the fact that they were married. Conclusions of law bearing on the subject relate:
“3. That defendant stands in a position of trustee and owed to the plaintiff a duty of full and fair disclosure as to the value of the property.
‡ >[£ ‡
“9. Throughout these divorce proceedings the plaintiff was controlled by the defendant.
« * * ‡ »
The conclusion as to the trusteeship arising and imposing the fiduciary obligation upon the appellant husband and the statement as to control of plaintiff are not supported in the evidence or in the court’s findings of fact.
Making a presumption of fraud and the imposition upon the appellant of the burden of disproving fraud under the Beals v. Ares, supra, formula was erroneous.
If the action of the trial court is to be supported on the basis of fraud and misrepresentation by the appellant, it must be based upon actual fraud.
A look at the record on the issue of actual fraud discloses the following in the decision of the court:
(Findings of Fact)
“10. * * *, the defendant falsely and fraudulently represented unto the plaintiff the following:
‘If you accept the property that I am going to give you I will remarry you after the divorce and if I do not remarry you I will always take care of you and the children.’ (Conclusions of Law)
“1. That the defendant falsely and fraudulently represented unto the plaintiff that if she would accept his proposal on her share of community property and support, that subsequent to the decree of divorce he would marry the plaintiff.
« * * * »
The promise to marry mentioned in the finding and the conclusion quoted above need testing against the testimony. Appellee stated on direct examination:
“He told me that probably we would remarry and he said ‘if you do it this way and don’t make it hard on me,’ he said, ‘we’ll probably remarry and if we don’t I’ll always see that you and the children are taken care of financially and any other way that I can.’ ”
“Q. Are you saying Mrs. Unser that the reason you allowed this decree to be entered was because your husband assured you that you would remarry and if that didn’t happen he would see to it that your financial needs were taken care of?
“A. That’s right.”
The trial court’s conclusion of an unequivocal promise of marriage, fraudulently made is not supported in the evidence nor by the court’s own finding of fact.
Fraud and misrepresentation under Rule 60(b) requires the same elements as fraud in the ordinary sense. An actionable fraud is a misrepresentation of a fact, known to be untrue by the maker, and made with an intent to deceive and to induce the other party to act upon it with the other party relying upon it to his injury or detriment. Sauter v. St. Michael’s College, 70 N.M. 380, 374 P.2d 134 (1962).
Could the statement relating to remarriage be deemed a statement of fact? Sometimes statements made as to a present intent to act in the future when the stated intent is false and meets the other criteria of expected reliance and actual reliance to damage or injury have been a basis of actionable fraud. Werner v. City of Albuquerque, 55 N.M. 189, 229 P.2d 688 (1951); Pacific Royalty Company v. Williams, 227 F.2d 49 (10th Cir. 1955), cert, denied 351 U.S. 951, 76 S.Ct. 847, 100 L. Ed. 1474.
The court’s finding and the testimony indicates the promise to marry was not a certain statement of present intent as to a future act but evidenced some reservation which was communicated clearly to the other party. That the promising party held a present intent not to perform the promised act when the promise was expressed is a matter for proof by the one complaining of fraud. Werner v. City of Albuquerque, supra. Neither the evidence nor a finding of fact establishes this.
in summary, the action of the trial court in setting aside all terms of the original decree except the dissolution of marriage was an improper action under Rule 60(b) of the Rules of Civil Procedure, supra. There was no showing of fraud, misrepresentation or misconduct on the part of the appellant which supports the action of the trial court in setting aside the essentials of the original divorce decree.
It was contended by appellee at trial, although not on appeal, that the court had jurisdiction to act upon the questions of alimony and child support under the terms of the decree first entered which reserved such jurisdiction, or under statutory provisions.
The original decree contained a final paragraph reciting:
“IT IS FURTHER ORDERED, ADJUDGED AND DECREED, that this Court shall maintain jurisdiction over the parties and the subject matter herein, to enter, any such orders as it may from time to time deem necessary.”
The statute in force when the original decree was entered, § 22-7-6, N.M.S.A. 1953 reads in part:
“ * * * the court * * * may modify and change any order in respect to alimony allowed the wife, whenever circumstances render such change proper; * * * and may modify and change any order in respect to the guardianship, care, custody, maintenance or education of said children, whenever circumstances render such change proper * * *.”
The general reservation of jurisdiction by the court is not effective to grant jurisdiction when it contravenes statutes fixing jurisdictional limits. This jurisdiction is conferred by statute and any reservation in the decree is ineffectual surplusage. See Mindlin v. Mindlin, 41 N.M. 155, 66 P.2d 260 (1937). We hold that a general reservation of jurisdiction is ineffective to uphold an award of alimony allowed after the entry of a final decree of divorce.
The general rule is that where a divorce decree is silent on any award of alimony to the wife, that judgment is res judicata on the question of alimony and precludes a later alimony award. See Annot., 43 A.L.R.2d 1387.
As this court recently held in Gruber v. Gruber (No. 9691 filed June 28, 1974), 86 N.M. 523 P.2d 1353 (1974):
“ * * * [our] § 22-7-6, supra, does not authorize an award of alimony subsequent to the entry of the final decree, when that decree did not initially award any alimony, unless the claimant is entitled to relief under Rules 59 or 60, supra, * *
Thus, in the present case, absent a showing of relief under Rules 59 or 60, the awarding of alimony to appellee by the trial court, when no alimony was awarded at the time of the divorce, cannot he allowed under § 22-7-6, supra.
The increased child support awarded cannot be supported by the evidence or findings and conclusions entered in this case. While it remains within the jurisdiction of the trial court to make such a change in the event of a change of circumstance, such proof was not offered here. The requirement for a change in the amount of child support ordered is well established in New Mexico. § 22-7-6, supra, requires a showing of changed circumstances. As to the degree and kind of change in circumstances required, the change must be substantial, materially affecting the existing welfare of the child. The change in circumstances must have occurred since the prior adjudication where child support was originally awarded. See our review of the New Mexico cases in Allgood v. Orason, 85 N.M. 260, 511 P.2d 746 (1973); Merrill v. Merrill, 82 N.M. 458, 483 P.2d 932 (1971). See also Al-bright v. Albright, 45 N.M. 302, 115 P.2d 59 (1941).
As to the award of attorneys’ fees, while the matter is discretionary, this discretion is exercised in the usual case where the party has achieved some success through litigation in asserting a right and imposing liability. The specific authority of the court is contained in § 22-7-6, N. M.S.A.1953, which has been construed to include attorneys’ fees. That statute says:
“ * * * and may make such order, relative to the expenses of the suit, as will insure the wife an efficient preparation and presentation of her case, * * * »
Dunne v. Dunne, 83 N.M. 377, 492 P.2d 994 (1972). An award of attorneys’ fees in this case is inappropriate when the matter of attorneys’ fees was covered by the original decree, and this effort to set aside that decree on ill-founded grounds has come to naught.
In view of the foregoing, the decision of the trial court is reversed and the cause remanded with instructions that the decree of September 18, 1970, be reinstated and the judgment of February 21, 1973, modifying that earlier decree be set aside.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MONTOYA, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
LOPEZ, Judge.
Plaintiffs appeal from an order of the district court dismissing their amended complaint alleging that the defendants, certified public accountants, negligently prepared certain federal income tax returns, on the ground that the action was barred by the statute of limitations. We reverse.
The issue on appeal concerns the time from which the statute of limitations runs. The general statute § 23 — 1—1, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Vol. 5) reads as follows:
“23-1-1. Limitation on time of bringing actions. — The following suits or actions may be brought within the time hereinafter limited, respectively, after their causes accrue, and not afterwards, except when otherwise specially provided.”
All parties agree that the applicable statute in this case is § 23-1-4, N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 5), and that the period of limitation is four years:
“23-1-4. Accounts — Unwritten contracts — Injuries to property — Conversion —Fraud—Unspecified actions — Four-year limitation. — Those founded upon accounts and unwritten contracts; those brought for injuries to property or for the conversion of personal property or for relief upon the ground of fraud, and all other actions not herein otherwise provided for and specified within four [4] years.”
The facts disclose that Rupert Chisholm died in 1963 leaving his wife, Joy S., a daughter Joy Ann, and a son Rupert Larry. The deceased had been a partner in the Pioneer Construction Company. Sometime after his death, but in the same year, Joy S. Chisholm retained the services of the defendant Scott to prepare the federal income tax return for the partnership, her individual return and the return for the deceased’s estate. The partnership return was filed on April 5, 1964.
The partnership owned a number of lots, a large number of which were sold during 1963, 1964, and 1965. The Internal Revenue Code, Title 26 U.S.C.A. §§ 743(b) and 754 (1964), provided that in case of the death of a partner, the partnership could elect to take a stepped-up value basis on the partnership property.
The code and regulations require that, to be valid, those elections be made in the partnership tax year in which the death of a partner occurs. The return prepared by defendants did not include this election. The income earned from the sale of lots was then computed on the stepped-up basis rather than on the original cost to the partnership. This resulted in an underpayment and the Internal Revenue Service sent notice of a deficiency assessment to plaintiffs on February 17, 1967.
Plaintiffs contend the statute of limitations commences to run at the time that the Internal Revenue Service gives notice of an assessment of tax deficiency, in this case February 17, 1967. They argue that defendants’ failure to make the indicated tax elections did not give rise to an action for damages until injury was sustained as a result of the alleged negligence.
Defendants claim that the cause of action arose and the statute started to run when the 1963 partnership return was filed on April 5, 1964. They further contend that “[t]he present case involves the alleged malpractice or professional negligence of an accountant and is directly analogous to medical malpractice suits.” Defendants argue that, therefore, as in medical malpractice cases, the statute of limitations begins to run from the date of the alleged negligent act or omission, citing Roybal v. White, 72 N.M. 285, 383 P.2d 250 (1963).
We do not agree that the professional negligence suit against an accountant is “directly analogous” to a professional negligence suit against a doctor. There are compelling reasons why they should be treated differently:
(1) Roybal was a personal injury case, alleging medical malpractice, and controlled by statute of limitations § 23-1-8, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Vol. 5). In Spurlin v. Paul Brown Agency, Inc., 80 N.M. 306, 454 P.2d 963 (1969), our Supreme Court has held that the period of limitation in § 23- 1-4, supra, begins to run when the cause of action accrues; and there is no cause of action for negligence until there has been a resulting injury to the plaintiff. The injury to plaintiffs in this case was the assessment made by the Internal Revenue Service; and a taxpayer does not owe a tax deficiency until the IRS renders its assessment in written notice to the taxpayer. 26 U.S.C. §6155(a) (1964).
(2) In medical malpractice cases, the evidence is generally gathered after the fact of injury or omission, often with difficulty. In a case of malpractice by a certified public accountant, the evidence is easily documented from the date of the negligent act or omission in the form of accounting records. The maximum possible time-lapse from the date of a negligent act or omission until the date of filing suit in such a case would be seven years: three years from the filing of the erroneous return until notification of the taxpayer by the IRS, 26 U.S.C. § 6501 (1964), and four years from that date, the time of injury, until suit might be filed, § 23-1-4, supra. During such a period, accountant records are readily available, as the transcript in this case indicates. In a medical malpractice situation, evidence can be lost and memories fade; but in accountant malpractice the evidence usually consists of documents which speak for themselves even when memories fade.
(3) In medical malpractice cases the injury occurs, and is often easily ascertained, at the time of the negligent act or omission. See Annot., 80 A.L.R.2d 368 (1961). In a tax deficiency situation, the injury occurs only when the party aggrieved receives notice by mail from the tax commissioner. See Annot., 26 A.L.R.3d 1438 (1969). See also, Annot., 18 A.L.R.3d 978 (1968). A person needs special training to know whether his tax return has been erroneously prepared. No special training is required to feel pain. In the relationship of accountant and client, the trust and confidence that the client places in the professional person places him in a vulnerable position should that trust and confidence be misplaced. It is the policy of the law to encourage that trust and confidence; likewise it is the duty of the law to protect the client from the negligent acts of the professional person.
California recognizes a distinction between the application of the statute to medical and other types of malpractice. In 1970 the California legislature placed a maximum limitation upon the bringing of a medical malpractice case of four years from the date of injury or one year after discovery, whichever occurs first. West’s Ann.C.C.P. § 340.5. Case law in California, however, holds that the statute of limitations begins to run as to malpractice by a certified public accountant only after the date of injury, with no maximum placed upon the time of injury. Moonie v. Lynch, 256 Cal.App.2d 361, 64 Cal.Rptr. 55 (1967); cited with approval in Neel v. Magana et al., 6 Cal.3d 176, 98 Cal.Rptr. 837, 491 P.2d 421 (1971). For a general discussion of statutes of limitations as applied in various malpractice situations, see 28 Md.L.Rev. 47 (1968).
Within the limiting factors of this case, therefore, the statute may not be deemed to have run until four years after notice had been given by the IRS. The liability imposed by this notice becomes the injury which forms the plaintiffs’ cause of action.
We therefore conclude that the cause of action in this case is not barred. The issues raised by the complaint are yet to be determined, and we offer no consideration of their merits. The order of dismissal of the lower court is hereby reversed with direction to the trial court to reinstate the case upon its docket and to proceed in' a manner not inconsistent with this opinion.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ, J., concurs.
HENDLEY, J., dissents. | [
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OPINION
CAMPOS, District Judge.
Meliton and Albina Nolasco, appellees, filed a quiet title action against, among others, Nick (Nicasio) and Vivian Nolasco, appellants. In response to a motion to appoint a special master, the trial court did so. The' motion prayed appointment so that the special master could survey the premises and determine “whether or not any boundary conflicts exist” between the appellees and the appellants. The special master, on June 8, 1971, filed his report. Appellees then moved that the court accept the special master’s findings. On December 28, 1971, for reasons not explained on the record, the court entered an order resubmitting the matter to the special master. This order, in pertinent part, read as follows :
“It is ORDERED :
"1. * * *
“2. That the Special Master set the time and place for the first meeting of the parties or their attorneys to be held within twenty (20) days after the date of this order of reference and shall notify the parties or their attorneys.
“3. That the Special Master will make a specific finding as to the width of Tract 122, Map 24 of the Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District.
“4. That the Special Master shall file another Report of the Special Master indicating his findings and conclusions reached after the first meeting of the parties hereinbefore ordered.”
On January 17, 1972, the special master filed a supplemental report. This report refers to a meeting between the lawyers and the special master on November 1, 1971, almost two months before the court order was entered. The report is silent as to compliance with the order of December 28, 1971, that the special master set a time and place for a “first meeting” of the parties. Appellants objected to the report on the specific ground that the special master did not comply with the court’s directive to conduct a first meeting or hearing.
It is the position of appellants that the failure of the special master to comply with the order of December 28, 1971, to set a time and place for a first meeting or hearing, and the subsequent acceptance by the court of the findings of the special master, notwithstanding the fact that a meeting or hearing was never held, is error. We agree and reverse.
The meeting of November 1, 1971, cannot possibly be the “meeting” ordered by the court on December 28, 1971. Rule 53(d)(1), Rules of Civil Procedure (§ 21-1-1(53) (d)(1), N.M.S.A.1953 [Repl.Vol. 4, 1970]), provides for a “first meeting.” The reasons for such a meeting seem obvious enough. It gives the parties the opportunity to meet with the special master and present to him their testimony, evidence and viewpoints so that the special master, in turn, can prepare his report to the court. That opportunity, regardless of what had preceded at other times between the special master and the attorneys, was denied the appellants after the resubmittal. Appellants were entitled to this opportunity to be heard before the special master. See Barelas Community Ditch Corp. v. City of Albuquerque, 63 N.M. 25, 312 P.2d 549 (1957). This denial requires reversal for further proceedings consistent with the views herein expressed.
It is so ordered.
OMAN and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
HERNANDEZ, Judge.
This case involves the appeal of a judgment arising from a jury verdict for the plaintiff, Oscar F. Crawford (Insured), in an action brought alleging breach of contract and bad faith and negligence of the defendant (Insurer) which resulted in a judgment against the Insurer in the sum of $633,000.
The Insurer alleges three points of error: (1) that Insurer was entitled to a directed verdict on the issues submitted to the jury; (2) that the trial court’s instruction on .the Insured’s theory of the case created false issues; (3) that the trial court erred in failing to give Insurer’s instruction pertaining to prejudice.
The Insured cross-appealed alleging error for failure to instruct on punitive damages.
We affirm.
A prior action involving the Insured arose out of a one-car accident in which Lonnie Woolett was rendered a paraplegic. The Insured’s business associate, John M. Penrose, was the driver of the car. Woolett’s complaint prayed for compensatory, special and punitive damages which totaled $3,000,000 plus $150,000 for alleged breach of contract for failure to provide liability insurance coverage.
The Insured’s policy provided for a maximum bodily injury benefit of $100,000 for each person. It excluded coverage for employees of the Insured if the accident arose out of the use of the automobile in the business of the Insured. It did not apply to liability assumed by the Insured under any contract or agreement nor did it provide coverage for punitive damages. It did provide that the Insurer would defend any suit, even if the suit was groundless, false or fraudulent. It also provided that the Insurer could make such investigation, negotiation and settlement of any claim or s'uit as it deemed expedient.
The trial court in the instant action concluded that the issue of whether Woolett was an employee was litigated in the prior action and determined adversely to the Insured. Therefore, it held as a matter of law that the employee exclusion applied. This holding is not questioned on appeal.
The defense of the prior litigation from investigation through trial to judgment was conducted by persons and attorneys retained by the Insurer.
Insurer’s points 1 and 2 will be considered together and as prologue we wish to set forth certain rules of law that will govern that consideration.
The relationship of Insurer and Insured gives rise to a duty on the part of the Insurer to act in good faith in all of its relations with the Insured. No one single definition of “good faith” is practicable because of the infinite variety of situations in which problems concerning it might arise. Thus the question of good faith or its converse bad faith must be determined from the particular facts in each case. Lujan v. Gonzales, 84 N.M. 229, 501 P.2d 673 (Ct.App.1972).
£2] “ * * * [A] party is entitled to have the jury instructed on all correct legal theories of his case which are supported by substantial evidence.” LeBarge v. Stewart, 84 N.M. 222, 501 P.2d 666 (Ct. App.1972).
Upon a motion for a directed verdict, the trial court must view the evidence in the light most favorable to the party resisting the motion and indulge all reasonable inferences in support of him and ignoring conflicts in the evidence unfavorable to him. If reasonable minds might differ as to the conclusion to be reached from the evidence or permissible inferences, then the question is for the jury. Archuleta v. Johnston, 83 N.M. 380, 492 P.2d 997 (Ct.App.197i).
The facts most favorable to the verdict are these: The accident out of which the initial action arose occurred on May 31, 1966. The Insurer upon being notified of the accident ordered an investigation. On June 2, 1966 the investigators submitted their report which indicated that Woolett claimed to be an employee of the Insured. On May 24, 1967 Woolett filed suit in the Superior Court in San Francisco, California, against the Insured and others. Defense of the suit was tendered to the Insurer who accepted and engaged attorney Robert E. Friedrich on June 12, 1967 to handle the defense. Friedrich 'was an experienced trial attorney who had represented the Insurer for about five and one-half years on a case to case referral basis. On June 19, 1967 Friedrich wrote to the Insurer :
“I have conducted a detailed review of this file, and, as you have so aptly observed * * * two things are most readily apparent * * * (2) Whether or not the employee exclusion is applicable to the coverage claim herein. What is now required * * * is an immediate opinion from a New Mexico lawyer * * * [wjhether or not an employee exclusion is a valid exclusion in New Mexico.
ifc ‡ ‡
If we intend, to decline coverage * * * this should be done at the earliest possible date, so they cannot claim prejudice by the delay in securing other counsel. In any event, they should be advised to obtain counsel, if for no other reason than that the complaint far exceeds the amounts of their coverage.”
On July 28, 1967 the Insured signed a reservation of rights agreement prepared by attorney Russell Mann, portions of which are as follows:
“WHEREAS, the INSURED is desirous of having the COMPANY, its agents, representatives and attorneys to continue to investigate the aforesaid alleged losses, possibly negotiate for a settlement, and to furnish to INSURED a full and complete defense to said cause * * * WHEREAS, the COMPANY is desirous of continuing * * * to furnish INSURED with a full and complete defense * * * with the understanding that such investigation; possible settlement negotiations and defense * * * shall not in any way change, waive, invalidate or forfeit any of the terms, conditions or requirements of the subject insurance policy or any of the rights of any of the parties hereto under said policy.
* * * * * *
* * * INSURED hereby covenants and agrees with the COMPANY that the COMPANY’S agents, representatives or attorneys may continue to investigate the alleged losses, damages, causes or circumstances surrounding the occurrence in question, possibly negotiate for settlement and furnish to the INSURED a full and complete defense to such cause and that no such action taken by the COMPANY shall in any way waive any right that the COMPANY may now or hereinafter have, under the terms of the policy * * * to escape 'liability from any judgment that may be rendered against the INSURED and the INSURED does hereby expressly consent and accede to the reservations by the COMPANY of all its rights in the premises * * * so that the rights of the said COMPANY will in all respects be identical with its rights had it refused to participate in such investigation, possible settlement negotiations and defense of any claims made against INSURED * * * »
It was signed by the Insured and “AMERICAN EMPLOYERS INSURANCE COMPANY By Russell D. Mann, Attorney and Agent.”
On January 9, 1968 Friedrich wrote the following to the Insurer:
“Needless to say in view of the very substantial injuries which the plaintiff received, this is a very serious case, indeed, and an excess letter should be directed to Oscar F. Crawford. * * * ******
It might be will [sic] to point out in your excess letter that if Woolett should establish that he is an employee of any of the addressees of the letter, that th^ policy contains language which would exclude any coverage as to the claim brought by him. * * *
This is certainly a case of doubtful liability, but one with a very large potential exposure, and as we have discussed many times, the coverage question remains obscure.”
On January 22, 1968 Friedrich wrote to the Insurer:
“Following our discussion I am dictating herein what I feel would be an appropriate form of excess letter. * * * As I explained, in discussing the coverage and defense situation with Mr. Mann, the attorney employed by your Dallas Office in Roswell, New Mexico, he told me that there was no New Mexico law on the subject of a determination of the existence of coverage. * * *
******
This, of course, gives rise to the thought that perhaps the thing to do is to bring a declaratory relief action in New Mexico, to determine whether or not there is coverage.”
On February 2, 1968 in response to Friedrich’s suggestion the Insurer wrote the following to the Insured:
“In this action, the plaintiff asks for damages in excess of the policy limits * * * You are further advised that said policy does not cover contractual matters, such as * * * the claim of Mr. Woolett, that he was promised $150,000 worth of insurance and, also, that punitive damages in any form are not covered by this policy. * * * It is suggested that while Mr. Friedrich will represent your interests pursuant to the reservation of rights agreement * * * you may choose to employ counsel of your own selection and at your own expense to represent your interests in connection with any possible exposure beyond the limits of this policy. * * * ’>
On September 4, 1969 Friedrich wrote to Mr. Penrose, one of the defendants in the initial action, with copies to the Insured and Attorney Mann, telling him of an offer of settlement received from Woolett’s attorney on August 29, 1969 offering to settle for $175,000. The letter also stated: “I have been in contact with Employers Group of Insurance Companies, as well as Russell Mann and as of now I do not know what either the insurance company or Mr. Crawford will do, if anything.” Mr. Mann called the Insured in connection with this offer and asked if he wanted to settle. The Insured said he did not. Mr. Mann made no recommendations to the Insured nor did he tell him what the Insurer might or might not do. The Insurer made no counter-offer nor did it solicit other offers at lesser figures.
Friedrich in answer to questions relating to his discussions with the Insurer concerning Woolett’s offer of August 28, 1969 testified as follows:
“A. The thread of it was that the policy limits being $100,000, that it would require that Mr. Crawford contribute in order to come close to the $175,000. The question arose as to whether or not the company was prepared to pay the $100,000.
“Q. I take it that their decision was not to do so?
“A. I suggested that they pay $100,000, and the report eventually came back to me that they would not do so.”
He further testified:
“ * * * As to Mr. Crawford, all of the contacts until the time of this deposition were made through Mr. Mann, and I was at all times informed that Mr. Crawford was unwilling to make any payment of any amount towards any settlement. And I had solicited from Mr. Resner [Woolett’s attorney] an offer or asked him to make an offer, and I had at the same time advised the company that if an offer was received within the policy limits, that it was in the best interests of all concerned that it should be paid. * * * Later after this offer was received, I asked the company to extend the policy limits authority to me, if only for a limited period of time, and this was not done.”
Of particular significance is the Insurer’s letter to Friedrich of October 27, 1969 which states in part:
“We have concluded that the case is fraught with potential conflicts of interest * * *. [W]e have carefully brought out to everybody’s attention that if the plaintiff is an employee of Pen-rose, then there is no coverage under this policy. We are confronted with multiple traces, all the way from denial of coverage to denial of liability and subsequent litigation of that issue as well. Nevertheless, because of the very difficult problems involved and to provide all of the people involved with the maximum protection possible, it is our conclusion that we must introduce into this case other counsel. * * * [Y]our office should continue to represent John M. Penrose * * *. [W]e should continue the defense of Crawford through the office of Russell D. Mann.
5j« ifc 0¡¡ ifc ‡ ‡
It is still our Company’s attitude that since the plaintiff has alleged employment that we are not responsible and do not provide coverage under this contract. * * * [I]t is entirely possible, as a matter of fact probably [sic], that we will associate other counsel on behalf of American Employers Insurance Company. * * * ”
The Insurer did in fact retain Mr. Preston N. Ericksen to represent itself on November 4, 1969. Mr. Ericksen’s testimony as to what he was supposed to do “ * * * was primarily to investigate what procedure should be undertaken to protect the position of the company that there was no coverage.” Some time during the latter part of December, 1969 it was decided that Mr. Ericksen should file a declaratory relief action to resolve the question of coverage. He was also to seek an injunction to stay the trial of the Woolett case which was set for March 2, 1970, pending the resolution of coverage. The declaratory relief action was filed February 12, 1970. A temporary restraining order dated February 16, 1970 staying the trial of the Woolett case was issued and an order to show cause on the matter was set for March 22, 1970. The temporary restraining order was lifted at the hearing on the 22nd and the request for further stay denied. The Woolett case as a result of these actions was continued until March 30, 1970. The Insured was named as a party defendant in the declaratory action but never personally served. Mr. Ericksen was in the process of having him served through the Secretary of State of California when the injunction was denied. The Insured first learned of the declaratory action from Friedrich on March 30, 1970. However, no explanation was given him as to what was intended to be accomplished by it.
The trial of the initial action lasted from March 30, 1970 through April 21, 1970. On April 14, 1970 Woolett’s attorney by letter to Friedrich made the following request : “On behalf of the plaintiff and my client in this action, Lonnie G. Woolett, I herewith solicit from the defendants and the insurance carrier a good faith offer of settlement to be made prior to the conclusion of evidence in the present trial.”
The letter was shown to the Insured on the 14th. No recommendations were made and no contribution requested of him by either Friedrich or' Mann. On April IS, 1970 a letter dated the 14th from the Insurer to Friedrich was received and shown to the Insured. It read in part as follows:
“Our position is clear. We have a Declaratory Relief action under consideration. We do not believe there is coverage for the defendants under this contract for indemnity. We are defending under reservation. Our company has never manifested the attitude that this case should be settled (nor, we are told, has Mr. Crawford) for any reason. It is our firm conviction coverage for legal indemnity does not exist and we cannot, therefore extend an offer to settle as suggested by Mr. Resner.”
The Insured testified that this was the first time that he had been told by anyone that coverage did not exist. On April 23, 1970 the Insurer wrote to the Insured :
“As you are further aware, there was a dispute between us relating to the existence of the insurance protection under our policy and the defense of Woolett’s suit was handled under the terms of a Reservation of Rights agreement signed by you July 28, 1967. In California, the duty to defend is separate and distinct from the obligation to indemnify (payment of judgments) after becoming aware of the testimony presented in the above trial it is clear, and it is our conclusion that a contract of employment existed between you and plaintiff, Woolett. It is necessary therefore, that we advise you coverage for indemnification does not exist * * * and that we are unable to satisfy any part of the verdict rendered against you.” [Emphasis ours]
Mr. Friedrich when asked about the separate representation of Mr. Penrose and Mr. Crawford at the Woolett trial answered: “We both conducted the trial, the main burden of conducting the defense was my responsibility.” And “I asked most of the questions and made almost all of the objections if that is what you mean.” Mr. Ericksen did not participate in the Woolett trial.
Judge Snead charged the jury that: “Plaintiffs claims [sic] that the Defendant was negligent or breached its obligation to use good faith in dealing with Plaintiffs in one or more of the following acts:
(A) By failure to inform Plaintiffs of the decision of Defendant to deny insurance coverage in a timely and appropriate manner.
(B) Failure to resolve the question of insurance coverage in a timely and appropriate manner.
(C) Retention of defense of case after conflicts between the interests of the Plaintiffs and the Defendant were known to exist.
(D) Failure to follow the advise of counsel in the conduct of the defense.
(E) Failure to give proper consideration to the financial risks to the Plaintiffs when balanced against the monetary interests of Defendant.”
The Insurer raises several questions which are peripheral to the main question of good faith: We will consider these peripheral questions first.
The Insurer argues that we must first decide whether the duty of good faith arises from contract or tort because the decision dictates the law of which State will apply, i. e., California or New Mexico. It states that if the duty arises from contract the law of New Mexico will apply since the policy was issued and countersigned in New Mexico and conversely if tort, the law of California will apply since that is where all of the alleged acts of bad faith occurred.
As we stated earlier it is the relationship of the Insurer and Insured that gives rise to the duty. That relationship has its inception in the contract of insurance, however, the breach of the duty can embrace more than the breach of the implied covenant of good faith. It can be the exercise of poor judgment not amounting to negligence or it can be negligence. It can also embrace an intent to mislead or deceive. Consequently, the breach of the duty of good faith sounds in both contract and tort and we apply the law of New Mexico. Comunale v. Traders & General Insurance Company, 50 Cal.2d 654, 328 P. 2d 198 (1958).
The Insurer contends that since it was determined that Woolett was an employee of the Insured and hence there was no coverage there was no duty of good faith. That is to say, that the determination that there was no coverage retroactively absolved the Insurer of all duty of good faith. As was pointed out in Lujan v. Gonzales, supra, the obligation of an Insurer to pay is independent of its obligation to defend. The subsequent determination that there was no coverage did not relieve the Insurer of its duty of acting in good faith in the conduct of that defense.
The Insurer alleges that it had no obligation to file a declaratory judgment action as to coverage prior to the Woolett suit. That is correct. What it had was the duty to act in good faith in its relations with the Insured. There are several things that it could or should have done to fulfill this obligation. One of which was to have had the question of coverage determined in a separate action far enough in advance of the Woolett suit so that the conduct of that defense would not have been affected by having that question unanswered. The Insurer’s abortive eleventh hour action is pertinent only in so far as it relates to the question of the Insurer’s breach of the duty of good faith.
The Insurer also contends that the conflict of interest between it and the Insured over the question of coverage was not such as would excuse it from its duty to defend. This, too, is correct.
“* * * It is generally held that the existence of a conflict of interest alone does not excuse an insurer from defending. * * * [Citation omitted] Moreover, there are several methods of resolving the conflict, none of which involve an abdication of the insurer’s duty to defend under the insurance contract. See Employers’ Fire Insurance Co. v. Beals, 103 R.I. 623, 240 A.2d 397 (1968); Burd v. Sussex Mutual Insurance Co., 56 N.J. 383, 267 A.2d 7 (1970). * *
Insurer claims that it sought to avoid the conflicts in every way possible, even to the extent of retaining three attorneys to “protect everyone’s interest.” We pass for the moment the question of what an Insurer should do when faced with such a dilemma. This record graphically demonstrates that attorneys retained by an insurer to represent the insured in circumstances such as these are placed in an untenable position of divided loyalty which cannot be allowed. Any objective reader of the foregoing correspondence could only conclude that they were all written with the best interest of the Insurer in mind.
Defendant argues that: “* * * [B]ad faith has been found in a variety of situations but in every instance the insurance carrier either wrongfully refused to defend the tort action, wrongfully denied coverage or wrongfully refused to accept a settlement offer within the policy limits.” Granted that those are the usual situations where acts of bad faith have arisen but those are not the only situations where they might arise. The duty of good faith cannot be so narrowly circumscribed. As we stated above there can be an infinite variety‘of situations out of which such acts might arise. Lujan v. Gonzales, supra; see Yeomans v. All State Insurance Co., 121 N.J.Super. 96, 296 A.2d 96 (1972).
We turn now to the primary issue of whether under the particular circumstances of this case the Insurer breached its obligation of good faith. The record is clear that from the outset Insurer was aware of the serious conflict of interest that existed as to coverage. Over two and one-half years before trial they were advised that if they were going to deny coverage they should do so as soon as possible to avoid prejudice to the Insured. Half a year later they were advised to tell the Insured that the policy contained language which would exclude coverage should it be determined that Woolett was the Insured’s employee. On April 15, 1970 in the midst of trial the Insured was notified that coverage was being denied.
The acceptance by the Insurer of the defense knowing that a serious conflict of interest existed, which would be resolved in that litigation, without notifying the Insured of the conflict in terms that he would understand and with sufficient emphasis that he would appreciate the gravity of the situation that he faced was a breach of good faith. The continued control of the defense after frequent admonishments by counsel to make full disclosure of their position borders on intentional deception. True they did have the Insured sign a reservation of rights agreement. This agreement had provisions relative to coverage which were couched in terms so general that only those experienced in insurance law could appreciate their portent. Such a reservation cannot be used as a defense to a charge of bad faith.
Where a conflict of interest as serious as this one exists between an insurer and its insured which could affect decisions as to settlement, the strategy and manner of the defense, decisions as to the need for collateral actions, etc., the insurer must insist that the insured retain separate counsel of his own choosing. The reasonable value of these attorney’s fees should be borne by the insurer. To do otherwise would allow an insurer to shift to its insured the defense to which he is entitled by the terms of the policy. See Satterwhite v. Stolz, 79 N.M. 320, 442 P.2d 810 (Ct.App.1968); Prashker v. United States Guarantee Company, 1 N.Y.2d 584, 136 N. E.2d 871 (1956).
As to the trial court’s instruction on the Insurer’s theory of the case creating false issues, there is no merit to this contention.
The introduction to N.M.U.J.I. 3.0 reads in part as follows:
“The key to appropriate instructions is the formulation of the issues of the lawsuit. The reading of a group of abstract statements of law, even though applicable to the evidence in the case and artfully drawn are of little guidance to the jury in the duty which they are bound to perform unless the court properly summarizes the true issues.
The pleadings supply the foundation, byt only the foundation. It is the evidence adduced at trial which truly determines the issues that are presented to the jury for their adjudication. No matter how adroit or bombastic the pleadings may be drawn, it is the duty of the court to submit to the jury only those issues which are supported by the evidence.”
It is our opinion that the trial court’s instructions correctly presented the issues as joined by the pleadings and presented by the evidence.
The trial court correctly rejected the Insurer’s motion for a directed verdict because much of the evidence in this case was contradicted and reasonable minds could differ as to the inferences or conclusions to be drawn from it.
Insurer’s point 3 is that the trial court erred in refusing to give the following instruction : “In order for an insurance company to be liable for its conduct toward its insured or for the conduct of an insured to relieve an insurance company of liability to an insured such conduct of one party must have resulted in prejudice to the other party.”
The trial court did not err in refusing this instruction for two reasons: First, it was not necessary that the Insurer’s conduct result in prejudice to the Insured. As we stated previously, a breach of the duty of good faith sounds in both contract and tort and prejudice is not an essential element for recovery under either. It was necessary that the Insurer’s conduct result in injury to the Insured. “Injury”, is defined as something done against the right or rights of a party, producing damage. Clark v. Cassetty, 71 N.M. 89, 376 P.2d 37 (1962). We do, however, acknowledge that prejudice and damage might well result from the same injury. Second there is nothing in the record to indicate that the Insured did anything which resulted in prejudice to the.Insurer.
The sole point raised in the Insured’s cross-appeal is that the trial court erred in refusing to submit the issue of punitive damages to the jury.
The law in New Mexico governing this point is set forth in Loucks v. Albuquerque National Bank, 76 N.M. 735, 418 P.2d 191 (1966).
“Punitive or exemplary damages may be awarded only when the conduct of the wrongdoer may be said to be maliciously intentional, fraudulent, oppressive, or committed recklessly or with a wanton disregard of the plaintiffs’ rights.
******
* * * the trial court may properly remove a case from consideration by the jury only when no true issues of fact have been presented. * * * the right of jury trial on any issue of fact presented by the pleadings is provisional, and if the evidence fails to form such issue of fact the right of jury trial disappears. * * * In determining whether or not a question of fact has been raised on any proper issue in the case, the trial court must view the evidence in its most favorable aspect to support the party raising the issue, and indulge all reasonable inferences or conclusions to be drawn from the evidence. If reasonable minds cannot differ as to the result to be reached from a consideration of the evidence, and all inferences to be drawn therefrom, then, and only then, does the issue become one of law to be determined by the court and to be taken from the jury.”
In spite of the fact that the bad faith conduct of the Insurer tended to obscure and confuse the question of punitive damages we believe that the trial judge was correct in taking this issue from the jury. Although the actions of the Insurer could be characterized as entirely self-interested they do not rise to the level of being “maliciously intentional, fraudulent, oppressive, or committed recklessly or with a wanton disregard of the Plaintiff’s rights.” It is so ordered.
LOPEZ, J., concurs.
SUTIN, J., dissents. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
This is an original proceeding in mandamus. We heretofore entered an alternative writ and subsequently a peremptory writ commanding the Governor, the Director of the Department of Finance and Administration and the Chief of the Division of Financial Control, Department of Finance and Administration, to permanently treat as nullities certain vetoes attempted by the Governor. We also quashed portions of the alternative writ whereby certain other vetoes were questioned, and stated we would subsequently issue this written opinion.
We are here concerned with vetoes and attempted vetoes of certain language contained in the General Appropriations Act of 1974, commonly and hereinafter referred to as House Bill 300 (Ch. 3, Laws of 1974, passed by the Special Session; § 11-4-4, N.M.S.A.1953 (Int.Supp.1974). In accomplishing these vetoes and attempted vetoes, the Governor was acting under the authority vested and claimed to be vested in him by Art. IV, § 22, Constitution of New Mexico, which provides:
“Every bill passed by the legislature shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the governor for approval. If he approves, he shall sign it, and deposit it with the secretary of state; otherwise, he shall return it to the house in which it originated, with his objections, which shall be entered at large upon the journal; and such bill shall not become a law unless thereafter approved by two-thirds of the members present and voting in each house by yea and nay vote entered upon its journal. Any bill not returned by the governor within three days, Sundays excepted, after being presented to him, shall become a law, whether signed by him or not, unless the legislature by adjournment prevent such return. Every bill presented to the governor during the last three days of the session shall be approved by him within twenty days after the adjournment and shall be by him immediately deposited with the secretary of state. Unless so approved and signed by him such bill shall not become a law. The governor may in like manner approve or disapprove any part or parts, item or items, of any bill appropriating money, and such parts or items approved shall become a law, and such as are disapproved shall be void unless passed over his veto, as herein provided. (As amended September 15, 1953.)” [Emphasis added]
It is the emphasized language of this section of our constitution with which we are particularly concerned. The disapproval by the Governor of an item or part of a bill under this authority is commonly referred to as a “line item veto.” However, the word “line” does not appear in the constitutional language conferring this authority, and the use thereof in relation to a veto under this authority is misleading and has caused some confusion.
Not all of the vetoes by the Governor of items or parts of the General Appropriations Act of 1974 have been questioned by petitioner. Before considering each of the questioned vetoes or attempted vetoes, we must first resolve the threshold questions of (1) whether mandamus is an appropriate proceeding by which to test and resolve the constitutionality of the questioned vetoes and (2) whether petitioner has standing to seek such a writ for this purpose.
As to the propriety of mandamus proceedings as a means by which to test the constitutionality of the questioned vetoes, respondents contend the Governor cannot be compelled to exercise his veto power or to exercise it in a particular manner, and that an exercise of the veto power by the Governor requires the exercise of judgment and discretion, which is not a subject of judicial control. We fully agree that the exercise of the veto power requires judgment and discretion on the part of the Governor and that he cannot be compelled by the Legislature or by this Court to exercise this power or to exercise it in a particular manner. We do not agree, however, that the manner in which the Governor exercises the power is beyond judicial review or judicial control, if the manner in which it is exercised is beyond the Governor’s constitutional authority. The power of veto, like all powers constitutionally conferred upon a governmental officer or agency, is not absolute and may not be exercised without any restraint or limitation whatsoever. The very concept of such absolute and unrestrained power is inconsistent with the concept of “checks and balances,” which is basic to the form and structure of State government created by the people of New Mexico in their constitution, and is inconsistent with the fundamental principle that under our system of government no man is completely above the law. See Jenkins v. Knight, 46 Cal.2d 220, 293 P.2d 6 (1956).
We have heretofore recognized the power of the courts to pass upon the validity of a Governor’s veto, although not in a mandamus proceeding. Dickson v. Saiz, 62 N.M. 227, 308 P.2d 205 (1957). This Court exercises constitutionally invested original jurisdiction in mandamus against all State officers, boards and commissions. Art. VI, § 3, Constitution of New Mexico; State ex rel. L. v. Marron, 17 N.M. 304, 128 P. 485 (1912). We have recognized mandamus as a proper proceeding in which to question the constitutionality of legislative enactments. State v. Mechem, 56 N. M. 762, 250 P.2d 897 (1952). We fail to understand why it is not a proper vehicle by which to test the constitutionality of vetoes or attempted vetoes by the Governor, Other jurisdictions have utilized it for this specific purpose. State ex rel. Cason v. Bond, 495 S.W.2d 385 (Mo. 1973); Fulmore v. Lane, 104 Tex. 499, 140 S.W. 405, 1082 (1911); Commonwealth v. Dodson, 176 Va. 281, 11 S.E.2d 120 (1940).
The next question presented is whether petitioner has standing to seek a writ of mandamus for the purpose of testing the constitutionality of the questioned vetoes. The entire question of standing in New Mexico is somewhat in a state of confusion, and it is impossible to reconcile in principle the many decisions of this Court upon this question. For excellent articles in which the problem is discussed in some depth see Utton, Law of Standing in New Mexico, 2 N.M.L.Rev. 171 (1972); Muir, Ad Valorem Tax Status of a Private Lessee’s Interest in Publicly Owned Property: Taxability of Possessory Interests in Industrial Projects Under the New Mexico Internal Revenue Bond Act, 3 N.M.L.Rev. 136, 174 — 180 (1973). However, as conceded by respondents, since State ex rel. Castillo Corp. v. New Mexico St. T, Com’n, 79 N.M. 357, 443 P.2d 850 (1968), and State v. Campbell, 75 N.M. 86, 400 P.2d 956 (1965), it has been clearly and firmly established that even though a private party may not have standing to invoke the power of this Court to resolve constitutional questions and enforce constitutional complianee, this Court, in its discretion, may grant standing to private parties to vindicate the public interest in cases presenting issues of great public importance. There is no claim that the issues here presented are not of great public interest or importance, and we consider them of sufficiently great importance and interest to the public to grant standing to petitioner to raise and present them in these proceedings.
Respondents urge us to follow the course taken in State ex rel. Overton v. New Mexico State Tax Com’n, 81 N.M. 28, 462 P.2d 613 (1969). We decline to do so. Here, as already stated, we are presented with unquestioned issues of great public importance and interest.
Petitioner is a citizen, an elector, a taxpayer, a State Senator, a member of the Senate Finance and Rules Committee, and a member of the Legislative Finance Committee. By failing to predicate our holding as to standing on one or more of these facts, we in no way suggest that one or more thereof would not be sufficient to give petitioner standing in these proceedings. We simply elect to confer standing on the basis of the importance of the public issues involved.
Petitioner’s challenges of the vetoes of Subsection L, Section 3, General Provisions, and Section 8, Contingency Clause, have now been abandoned and are no longer before us.
We shall next consider, the remaining seven challenged vetoes. However, before undertaking an individual consideration of these challenged vetoes, a resolution, insofar as necessary, as to what is meant by the following quoted language from Art. IV, § 22, supra, would be helpful, since all of these vetoes and attempted vetoes were accomplished pursuant to the authority vested in the Governor by this language:
“ * * *. The governor may * * * disapprove any part or parts, item or items, of any bill appropriating money, and such parts or items * * * as are disapproved shall be void unless passed over his veto, * • *
The legislative power of the State of New Mexico is vested in the Legislature. Article IV, § 1, Constitution of New Mexico. Except for interest or other payments on the public debt, money shall be paid out of the treasury of the State only upon appropriations made by the Legislature, and every law making an appropriation shall distinctly specify the sum appropriated and the object to which it is to be applied. Article IV, § 30, Constitution of New Mexico. The supreme executive power of the State is vested in the Governor, whose principal function, insofar as legislatively enacted law is concerned, is to faithfully execute these laws. Article V, § 4, Constitution of New Mexico. He does, however, have the power to exercise veto control over the enactments of the Legislature to the extent that this power or authority is vested in him by Art. IV, § 22, supra. As to bills appropriating money, he clearly has the power to veto a “part or parts” or “item or items” thereof. The Legislature may not properly abridge that power by subtle drafting of conditions, limitations or restrictions upon appropriations, and the Governor may not properly distort legislative appropriations or arrogate unto himself the power of making appropriations by carefully striking words, phrases or sentences from an item or part of an appropriation.
What is meant by “part or parts” and “item or items” in the context and manner in which these terms appear in the above quoted language from Art. IV, § 22, supra, and what is the nature and purpose of the veto power conferred upon the Governor by this section of our constitution? Respondents call attention to dictionary definitions of “item” and “part” and conclude that there is considerable difference between an “item,” which they say “denotes a detail of expenditure or income, a distinct sum of money,” and a “part,” which they say “clearly denotes any portion, division, element, contingency, fraction, fragment or piece of a bill appropriating money.” In disposing of a like argument as to the difference between “item” and “part,” as these words appear in the provisions of the Iowa Constitution relative to the partial veto of appropriation bills, the Supreme Court of Iowa stated:
“ * * *. Both plaintiff and defendants emphasize the distinction between the words ‘item’ and ‘part’ or ‘parts’ as the same appear variously in the item veto provisions of our Constitution and of the constitutions of sister states. We are not persuaded there is any significant distinction between or among these terms, nor are we disposed to import to the word ‘item’ any technical meaning. * * * »
State ex rel. Turner v. Iowa State Highway Com’n, 186 N.W.2d 141, 149 (Iowa 1971).
We agree with the Iowa court. This view is consistent with the language of our opinion in Dickson v. Saiz, supra, in which the question for decision was:
“ * * * whether Art. IV, § 22, of the Constitution in giving the Governor power as to bills presented to him during the last three days of a legislative session, to veto ‘any part or parts, item or items, of any bill appropriating money’ which he disapproves, limits him in any exercise of the power to action on general appropriation bills.”
The bill there in question was not a general appropriation bill but a bill in which money was appropriated. In reaching the conclusion that “item or items, part or parts” was incorporated in our Constitution with the intent to give it broader meaning than merely “items of appropriation,” we quoted in part from the brief of amici curiae as follows:
“ ‘It [the Constitutional Convention] specifically rejected a proposal which limited the partial veto power to items of appropriations. It specifically adopted a proposal which increased the partial veto power to parts of bills of general legislation which contained incidental items of appropriation.’ ”
This and other language in our opinion in the Saiz case, as well as the re- suit reached, indicate the purpose or purposes for the inclusion of the terms “part or parts,” “item or items” and “parts or items” in our Constitution were to extend or enlarge the partial veto power thereby conferred beyond the partial veto power conferred by the constitutions of other states wherein that power is limited to (1) items of appropriation, and (2) to general appropriation bills. However, the extension or enlargement of the partial veto power to cover (1) bills of general legislation, which contain incidental items of appropriation, as well as general appropriation bills, and (2) to “items or parts” thereof in addition to “items of appropriation,” does not mean there are no limitations on the partial veto of bills appropriating money.
The power of partial veto is the power to disapprove. This is a negative power, or a power to delete or destroy a part or item, and is not a positive power, or a power to alter, enlarge or increase the effect of the remaining parts or items. It is not the power to enact or create new legislation by selective deletions. Bengzon v. Secretary of Justice, 299 U.S. 410, 57 S.Ct. 252, 81 L.Ed. 312 (1937); Fitzsimmons v. Leon, 141 F.2d 886 (1st Cir. 1944) ; State v. Holder, 76 Miss. 158, 23 So. 643 (1898); State ex rel. Cason v. Bond, supra; Veto Case, 69 Mont. 325, 222 P. 428 (1924); Fulmore v. Lane, supra. Thus, a partial veto must be so exercised that it eliminates or destroys the whole of an item or part and does not distort the legislative intent, and in effect create legislation inconsistent with that enacted by the Legislature, by the careful striking of words, phrases, clauses or sentences.
We now turn our attention to the challenged vetoes. We shall consider them in the order in which they were presented and argued by the parties in their respective briefs.
The Legislature unconditionally appropriated for the State Planning Office the sum of $324,800 from the State’s general fund and $712,800 from Federal funds. This appropriation of both State and Federal funds in the total amount of $1,037,600 has not been questioned. It was followed by a contingent appropriation to this office of $150,000, which was stated as follows:
“In addition to the above appropriation, there is appropriated the sum of $150,000 from the general fund for the purpose of saving harmless the state planning office from loss of federal funds available for continuing the present operations of the office. This only «pen certification « writing fey the state planning ef-fleer; approved fey the director- ef the department ef -f-i-nanee and administration; that -federal funds te continue the ageney'o epcrat-ten are net available-; provided; however; that ne funds shall fee disbursed front this appropriation which wfeuld aHew an operating budget- greater titan $-l-,037;699.”
The language shown as stricken or lined out in this and in the hereinafter quoted portions of House Bill 300 are the portions purportedly vetoed by the Governor. He gave as his reasons for this particular veto:
“ * * *. This language would have had the effect of negating the contingent appropriation made [in the first quoted sentence] in that no part of the contingent appropriation could be utilized if any federal funds continued to be available to the Planning Office. I do not believe that it was the intent of the legislature to so restrict this contingent appropriation.”
It is plain to us that the Legislature placed a very explicitly worded contingency upon the disbursement of this appropriation and a very explicitly worded limiting or restrictive proviso, provision or condition upon the amount of funds from this appropriation which could be disbursed. We do not question the sincerity of the Governor’s effort to evaluate the intent of the Legislature, and we do not purport to know upon what he based this evaluation. However, as already stated, we find the language to be very clear, and we have no reason to believe the Legislature meant something other than what is plainly expressed in its language. The Legislature stated that the appropriation should become effective only upon certain conditions, and the funds therefrom could be used only to the extent necessary to increase the operating budget of the agency to $1,037,600. The effect of this attempted veto was to affirmatively appropriate $150,000 without conditions and without regard to the limitation on the amount thereof which could be disbursed.
We have heretofore held that the Legislature has the power to affix reasonable provisions, conditions or limitations upon appropriations and upon the expenditure of the funds appropriated. State v. State Board of Finance, 69 N.M. 430, 367 P.2d 925 (1961); State ex rel. L. v. Marron, supra. The Governor may not distort, frustrate or defeat the legislative purpose by a veto of proper legislative conditions, restrictions, limitations or contingencies placed upon an appropriation and permit the appropriation to stand. He would thereby create new law, and this power is vested in the Legislature and not in the Governor. Therefore, the attempted veto was invalid. See the following cases from other jurisdictions in which this question has arisen and in which the decisions are in accord with our view: In Re Opinion of the Justices, 294 Mass. 616, 2 N.E.2d 789 (1936); State v. Holder, supra; State ex rel. Cason v. Bond, supra; Veto Case, supra ; Commonwealth v. Dodson, supra. See also Attorney General Opinion No. 69-25, Report of the Attorney General of New Mexico.
The next challenged veto consisted of striking language from a conditional or contingent appropriation to the State Racing Commission. This contingent appropriation and the portions thereof purportedly vetoed, follow:
“fe the event the state scientific lafeeeatery cannot provide necessary chemical tests requiring specialized equipment, an additional $58,000 is hereby appropriated to the commission to contract íe? such p n t*tti ^
The Governor gave the following reasons for his attempt to veto the stricken language:
“ * * * The legislature was evidently concerned with the over-all ability of our Racing Commission to detect small quantities of drugs which may affect the stamina or speed of a race horse. The appropriation of an additional $58,000 was made to up-grade the type of chemical tests to be conducted. More advanced methods of testing will of course cost additional money. House Memorial 10 requests the Racing Commission to consider the State Police laboratory as the laboratory for such tests. House Bill 300 indicates consideration should be given to the use of the new state scientific laboratory. The veto of this language will give the Racing Commission the flexibility of choosing the laboratory which will best serve the need of the people of this State.”
Obviously the Governor was endeavoring to substitute his judgment for that of the Legislature as to how to best spend the $58,000 appropriated for chemical tests. Regardless of whether or not his judgment in this regard is better than that of the Legislature, the fact remains it was for the Legislature to determine the condition or contingency under which the Racing Commission could spend this appropriation for contract services. Clearly the Governor has attempted to distort the legislative will and to defeat the legislative condition precedent or the contingency upon which this appropriation rests. This attempted veto must fail for the same reasons that the attempted veto of the conditions placed by the Legislature on the appropriation to the State Planning Office must fail.
We also observe that this effort to distort and frustrate the legislative purpose, by striking portions of a complete and readily understandable sentence, is an at tempt to appropriate funds for an uncertain purpose by grammatically incorrect language.
The next challenged veto relates to the appropriation for the State Personnel Board. This appropriation was in the amount of $688,800, but was subject to the following limitation which the Governor undertook to veto:
^ ^ NT J-N -C h ^ /n ■*-> r‘*'V| <\-1 1 JN OtlO UT ttTC LIUU VT5 U.‘ppl\jpi. lcCL.11711 uj.j.cvi-1e 4- ** * •* J ♦* f <11 UC wpvxftí jTtt jirl^yttlTtiyttXTny vi* TTTttt^ i^tTvoj policies ©c plans which have significant financial impact ©n would require significant futuro appropriations to maintain without prior speclfie legislative approval.”
The reasons assigned by the Governor in his executive message for this attempted veto were:
“ * * *. This is an attempt to place substantive law in House Bill 300. In addition it would severely limit the discretionary powers of the State Personnel Board. Opinions of the Attorney General indicate that requiring legislative approval of the promulgation of rules for executive agencies violates the separation of powers provision of our State Constitution. I have the assurance of the State Personnel Board that they will not take any action which will have a significant effect upon State expenditures without placing a delayed date on such action in order to give the legislature ample time to consider such action.”
Respondents contend the Legislature’s inclusion of the purportedly vetoed limiting language constituted:
“ * * * an unconstitutional intrusion upon the executive rule making power. Rather than a limitation upon the expenditure of appropriated sums, the vetoed language in question is a requirement that the State Personnel Board seek the Legislature’s approval of certain of its rules, policies or plans.”
We are of the opinion that this is at best a strained construction of the legislative language. Clearly, the limitation is on the spending of funds from the appropriation for the promulgating or filing of rules, policies and plans which fall within the stated categories and not on the promulgation or filing thereof. The Legislature, which has the power and is charged with the responsibility of appropriating State money, is certainly concerned with matters which would have a significant financial impact upon or require significant future appropriations of State funds, and may properly limit the expenditure of appropriated funds for uses which will have such impact or require such future appropriations.
This veto must fail for the same reasons recited for the failure of the previously discussed attempted vetoes.
The next veto which has been challenged is concerned with an appropriation of $4,000 to the Construction Industries Commission for the purpose of establishing a revolving fund for the purchase and resale of literature. The Governor in no way disturbed the appropriation or the fact that “it shall be used only for the purpose of establishing a revolving fund to be used for the purchase and resale of literature.” His veto went only to the following language:
“There shah he au amount of $4;000 %e the credit of the fund at the ead of each ■fiscal year.”
The Governor gave as his reason for his veto:
“The language vetoed * * * would have prohibited the Construction Industries Commission from having an inventory of literature at the end of the fiscal year. I do not believe that the legislature desired such a rigid restriction. Rather I believe that the purpose of this provision was for the Commission to maintain a revolving fund whose balance at the end of the fiscal year would be $4,000. This would include cash, receivables and inventory on hand. I will instruct this Commission to accomplish this purpose.”
Respondents now contend, and we believe correctly, that the Governor’s action did not change the purpose for which the revolving fund was established. We are unable to agree with the position of petitioner that the language deleted by the Governor “thereby purportedly authorized the expenditure of $4,000 for other than the creation of a revolving fund.” This appears to us to be a futile attempt to create an issue or find a difference between the positions of the Legislature and the Governor, when in fact there is no such issue or difference. This being so, the veto should stand.
The two challenged vetoes we now consider relate to each other and represent perhaps the greatest divergence in views of the parties as to the constitutional powers vested in the Governor by Art. IV, § 22, supra.
The Governor sought to veto the qualifying prepositional phrase, consisting of five words, to Subsection G, Section 3— General Provisions — of House Bill 300:
“fe categories wherein specifically authorized, the department of finance and administration may approve increases in budgets of state agencies whose actual revenue from sources other than the general fund and unreverted and unemcumbered balances exceed appropriations made in the General Appropriation Act of 1974. Such actual revenues exclusive of shared revenue are hereby appropriated. In approving such budget increases, the department shall advise the legislature through its officers and appropriate committees in writing of the conditions under which the increased budget is approved and the expenditures authorized together with justification for the adjustments.”
The Governor also struck the following language from the appropriations made under nine separately designated categories:
“The department of finance and ad-es in agencies in this category pursuant to -Section 3? subsection G of this act:”
Comparable language was also included in that portion of the vetoed language from the “Higher Education” category, which language shall hereinafter be quoted and discussed.
Since these ten categories, including that of Higher Education, do not constitute all the categories contained in House Bill 300 and do not include all the State agencies to which appropriations were made, the effect of these attempted vetoes was to conditionally appropriate additional funds, or at least authorize their appropriation, to the agencies not included in the ten stated categories. Respondents deny this was the effect of these attempted vetoes, and assert that, even if the effect thereof be so construed, the Governor was acting within his authority in so doing. We disagree. As above stated, the power of partial veto is a power to disapprove and to thereby delete or destroy a part or item, and it is not the positive power to alter, enlarge or increase appropriations by enacting legislation through the device of selective deletions. See State v. Holder, supra; State ex. rel. Cason v. Bond, supra; Veto Case, supra; Fulmore v. Lane, supra. These attempted vetoes were constitutionally invalid.
The final veto which has been challenged and with which we are here concerned was the striking by the Governor of the following language from the category of Higher Education:
“fe fee event feat actual revenues to state agencies fe this category exceed fee amounts appropriated from-?
ife federal funds? er
Th efeez state funds fe fee form of revenues received fe fee sfetyfeird fiscal year? or
other state funds fe fee form- of receipts? carnfegs or balances from bond -issue proceeds? or
^4r other state -funds fe fee -form- of receipts or balances resulting from aets of fee -1974 legislative session? or
^ other state -funds fe the form of scholarships? gifts? donations? private endowments er other gra> teities received fro» an outside oettrec-† ©f
■"dr other state -funds in the for» of increased income from auxiliary activities-?
“the department of finance and admin « t-r ^nfl T*OT-1" tu y. f 113 ti. tbXiUlí liTU. V <XUJJi U V L. Til” t5Jv^J”HCil LUI ” \J 1 such excess funds received pursuant to Section dj subsection G of this aetr fhovidedj that the department of finance and administration may approve the temporary use of balances whieh shall fee restored te the original amount prior te the dose of the 63rd fiscal year.”
The Governor gave as his reason for striking this language:
“Article XI, Section 13 of the New Mexico Constitution provides that the legislature shall provide for the control and management of each of the State’s educational institutions by a board of regents. The effect of [the vetoed language] would be to cause confusion and to severely limit the flexibility of the boards of regents in the control and management of the institutions. * * * tt
The University of New Mexico, New Mexico State University, New Mexico Highlands University, Eastern New Mexico University and New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology have appeared through their respective regents as amici curiae and, in support of respondents, urge the validity of this veto by the Governor. These institutions also persuasively argue that the Legislature lacks authority to appropriate Federal funds, scholarships, gifts, donations, private endowments or other gratuities granted or given to or otherwise received by these institutions from sources other than the State of New Mexico, and lacked authority to provide that “the department of finance and administration may approve the temporary use of balances which shall be restored to the original amount prior to the close of the 63rd fiscal year.”
Contrary to what petitioner says, these institutions do not contend that the Legislature may not even consider the availability of non-state funds in detailing the amount of general fund appropriations to be made to them. Their contention is that the Legislature may not validly assume to appropriate and consequently control the expenditure of these funds.
We fully appreciate that this cause arose out of challenges to vetoes and purported vetoes by the Governor under his partial veto powers. However, we have elected to confer standing on petitioner to raise issues touching on the validity or invalidity of these vetoes and purported vetoes because of the great public importance of the issues involved. We are of the opinion that the public interest in and importance of the issues involved are not limited solely to the question of the Governor’s authority to strike certain language from House Bill 300. The question of the validity of the Legislature’s inclusion of some of this language in its bill is also of great public interest and importance. The question of the authority of the Legislature to appropriate and control non-state funds available to these educational institutions has been raised and argued by the parties, and we shall decide this question as well as the question of the validity of the Governor’s action in disapproving this language relating to the purported appropriations of non-state funds.
As to the authority of the Governor to veto this language under his partial veto power, we are of the opinion that this was a proper exercise of his power. This item or part of House Bill 300 related solely to Higher Education and to an attempt on the part of the Legislature to authorize additional appropriations to or expenditures by the agencies in this category of actual revenues, in the event these revenues should exceed the amounts appropriated from the six numbered and named funds and the Department of Finance and Administration should approve. However, these additional appropriations or expenditures were conditioned upon or limited by the provisions that “the department of finance and administration may approve the temporary use of balances which shall be restored to the original amount prior to the close of the 63rd fiscal year.”
This item or part of House Bill 300 stands as a separate and distinct conditional and provisional appropriation or. authorization to expend funds, and the veto thereof operated to delete or destroy it. The deletion or destruction of this item or part does not alter the effect of the remaining parts or items, except to the extent that striking or removing a part always effects a change in the whole.
As to the authority of the Legislature to appropriate non-state funds available to the institutions of higher learning, we are of the opinion that the Legislature lacks authority to appropriate these funds or to control the use thereof through the power of appropriation.
The powers of control and management of each of these institutions is vested in a Board of Regents. Article XII, § 13, Constitution of New Mexico; §§ 73-22-4; 73-25-3; 73-26-3 and 73-27-4, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 11, pt. 1, 1968). The Legislature has expressly recognized the authority of these institutions to receive benefits and donations from the United States and from private individuals and corporations; to buy, sell, lease or mortgage real estate; and to do all things, which in the opinions of the respective Boards of Regents, will be for the best interests of the institutions in the accomplishment of their purposes or objects. Section 73-30-15, N. M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 11, pt. 1, 1968).
In Mac Manus v. Love, Colo., 499 P.2d 609 (1972), the Supreme Court of Colorado was faced with the question of whether the Colorado Legislature had the power to appropriate Federal funds. Article III of the Colorado Constitution contains language concerning separation of the powers vested in the three departments of government, which is identical with the language of Art. Ill, § 1 of the New Mexico Constitution. In construing and applying this language and some of its prior decisions, the Colorado court held “that federal contributions are not the subject of the appropriative power of the legislature” and the Legislature’s attempt to do so was “[constitutionally] void as an infringement upon the executive function of administration.” We agree.
As already stated, our Legislature clearly has the power, and perhaps the duty, in appropriating State monies to consider the availability of Federal funds for certain purposes, but it has no power to appropriate and thereby endeavor to control the manner and extent of the use or expenditure of Federal funds made available to our institutions of higher learning. Control over the expenditure of these funds rests with the Federal government and the Boards of Regents of the respective institutions. Likewise, funds in the form of scholarships, gifts, donations, private endowments or other gratuities granted or given to the institutions, or otherwise received by them from sources other than the State of New Mexico, are not subject to appropriation by the Legislature. These funds belong to the institutions, and these institutions must make full and complete reports thereof to the Governor, who in turn must transmit these reports to the Legislature. Article V, § 9, Constitution of New Mexico. However, the fact, that these reports and the information contained therein are made available to the Legislature for its information and use in the performance of its proper legislative functions, does not confer on the Legislature the power to appropriate and thereby limit or control the use or disbursement of these funds. The matter of expenditure or disbursement of these funds rests with the Boards of Regents, subject to applicable law. Compare Gipson v. Ingram, 215 Ark. 812, 223 S.W. 2d 595 (1949); State v. State Board of Education, 33 Idaho 415, 196 P. 201 (1921); State v. Kansas State Highway Commission, 139 Kan. 391, 32 P.2d 493 (1934); Fanning v. University of Minnesota, 183 Minn. 222, 236 N.W. 217 (1931); State v. Board of Examiners of State, 121 Mont. 402, 194 P.2d 633 (1948); State v. Searle, 77 Neb. 155, 108 N.W. 1119, 109 N.W. 770 (1906); State v. Regents of University of New Mexico, 32 N.M. 428, 258 P. 571 (1927).
The final matter to be considered in these proceedings is respondent’s contention that “a finding that the governor’s veto authority has been unconstitutionally applied nullifies the Appropriation Bill [House Bill 300] as a whole.” Respondents cite no authority for this contention, and we are not impressed with their arguments in support thereof. An unconstitutional veto must be disregarded and the bill given the effect intended by the Legislature. Opinion of the Justices, 306 A.2d 720 (Del.1973); State ex rel. Turner v. Iowa State Highway Commission, supra; In Re Opinion of the Justices, supra; State ex rel. Cason v. Bond, supra; Commonwealth v. Dodson, supra.
The peremptory writ of mandamus heretofore issued is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and STEPHENSON, MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
Plaintiffs sought to quiet their title to 17.917 acres of land lying in the Syá SEJ4 of a designated section. The westerly 8 acres lie in the SWJ4 SEi/j.. These- 8 acres are the only lands with which we are concerned on this appeal.
The district court entered a final judgment and decree quieting title to the entire 17.917 acre tract in plaintiffs. Defendant, Cleo H. Duggar, who claimed the said westerly 8 acres, has appealed. We affirm.
Plaintiffs claimed, and the district court found and concluded, that plaintiffs had acquired title to these 8 acres by adverse possession pursuant to the provisions of § 23-1-22, N.M.S.A.1953. The trial court held that under this statute the plaintiffs were required to prove that they and their predecessors had been in adverse possession of the 8 acres continuously and in good faith for a period of ten years. This possession must have been under color of title, and plaintiffs must have paid taxes on the property during these years. The parties agree with this holding.
It was stipulated that defendant is the holder of the regular chain of title to the SWj4 SEi/j. beginning with the patent thereto and that she and her former husband paid taxes thereon for the years 1959 to 1972, both inclusive.
Defendant concedes that plaintiffs and their predecessors in title had been in exclusive possession of and had exclusively utilized the 8 acres situate in the SWj4 SE14 for more than ten years preceding the filing of their complaint. These'lands were at all material times fenced and placed in irrigated permanent pasture and irrigated crops by plaintiffs and their predecessors. Defendant testified she knew the location of the SW14 SE14. Over the years she saw that the 8 acres were fenced, controlled, used and possessed by plaintiffs’ predecessors, but she at no time went to any of them and made claim to the lands.
Defendant’s position is that the possession of the lands by plaintiffs and their predecessors was not under color of title, and that they had not paid the taxes thereon for ten years.
Deeds in statutory form dated July 1955 and July 1959 are the instruments relied upon to evidence color of title. The 1959 deed conveys approximately 3 acres of land lying immediately to the east of the tract conveyed by the 1955 deed. However, that small portion of the 8 acres in dispute included in the lands conveyed by the 1959 deed is of no particular significance to our problem here, since the question presented is that of the adequacy of the description of the lands in the two deeds. If the description in the 1955 deed is sufficient to give validity thereto as color of title, the description in the 1959 deed is equally valid for this purpose. Thus, we shall refer primarily to the description in the 1955 deed. The description of the property covered by that deed was:
“Part of a 20 acre tract lying and being north of and adjoining the right-of-way boundary line of U. S. Highway No. 380, in the SEJ4 SEJ4-----------Sec. 6
“Twp. 8 S., Rg. 11 E., N.M.P.M. more particularly described as follows, to wit: Beginning at the point on the southwest corner of the above described tract, where it touches the right-of-way boundary line of U. S. Highway No. 380, which is point No. 1 of this tract;
“Thence along the north boundary line of said tract, in an easterly direction, a distance of 1300 feet, to point No. 2; “Thence at right angle south, a distance of 470 feet to the right-of-way boundary line of Highway No. 380, to point No. 3; “Thence along the right-of-way boundary line of said U. S. Highway No. 380, to point No. 1, the place of beginning.”
It is apparent that the land described is in the shape of a right-angled triangle, with the right angle being the northeast corner of the tract. The southeast corner, or point No. 3 in the deed description, is the point at which the easterly line of this right-angled triangle intersects the north right-of-way boundary line of Highway No. 380. This point is 470 feet south of the northeast corner. The westerly point or corner of this triangle, which is the point of beginning of the deed description and is referred to as the “southwest corner,” is 1300 feet west of the northeast corner and upon the north right-of-way boundary of the highway. The north right-of-way line of the highway constitutes the south line, or hypotenuse, of this right-angled triangle. This north line of the highway, and consequently the south line of the triangle, is a straight line, as evidenced by a survey plat of the highway and of that portion of the S]/2 SEj4 lying north of the highway. At the outset of the trial, this plat was offered and received into evidence by stipulation of the parties. There was no limitation upon this offer, and the plat was obviously before the district court and is before this court as evidence upon all issues in the case to which it has any relevance. Thus, we are concerned with a right-angled triangle whose sides are 1300 feet, 470 feet and 1382.35 feet in length. The area thereof in acres is 7.0133. A triangle of this type and dimensions, by using the north line of the SWJ4 SE14, which is an established survey line, as the north line of the triangle, and the point where this line touches the north boundary line of the highway as the point of beginning, which is consistent with the beginning point in the deed description, corresponds with the westerly and by far the greater portion of the triangular shaped portion of the SWJ4 SE14 lying north of the north boundary line of the highway. It appears from the plat and the acreage in the triangle described, that this 1955 deed did not cover the- entire portion of the SW54 SE14 lying north of the highway, but that very small portion thereof which may not have been covered is the easterly most portion and this is covered by the 1959 deed.
In view of these circumstances, it appears to us that a surveyor could have gone upon the ground at the time of the execution of either the 1955 or 1959 deed and very shortly have ascertained what lands were intended to be conveyed, and could have come only to the conclusion that the lands intended to be conveyed lie in the SW14 SE14, rather than in the SE}4 SE14, except for the easterly and greater portion of the lands conveyed by the 1959 deed. Certainly, he could have come to no other conclusion after checking the evidence on the ground, such as the existing fences, growing crops, and the fact that the portion of the SWJ4 SEj4 lying north of the highway was a triangular tract such as described. Inquiries of the grantors and grantees named in these deeds would have further confirmed this conclusion, as would the fact that the grantees went into possession of the lands in question pursuant to the grants in the deeds and remained in possession without objection or complaint from the grantors. See Marquez v. Padilla, 77 N.M. 620, 426 P.2d 593 (1967). In Hughes v. Meem, 70 N.M. 122, 125, 371 P.2d 235, 238 (1962) we quoted the following with approval from 16 Am.Jur., Deeds, § 262 (1938) :
“ ‘ * * * The purpose of a description of the land, which is the subject matter of a deed of conveyance, is to identify such subject matter; and it may be laid down as a broad general principle that a deed will not be declared void for uncertainty in description if it is possible by any reasonable rules of construction to ascertain from the description, aided by extrinsic evidence, what property is intended to be conveyed. It is sufficient if the description in the deed or conveyance furnishes a means of identification of the land or by which the property conveyed can be located. * * * So, if a surveyor with the deed before him can, with the aid of extrinsic evidence if necessary, locate the land and establish its boundaries, the description therein is sufficient.’ 16 Am.Jur. (Deeds) § 262.”
See also State ex rel. State Highway Department v. Davis, 85 N.M. 759, 517 P. 2d 743 (1973); Quintana v. Montoya, 64 N.M. 464, 330 P.2d 549, 71 A.L.R.2d 397 (1958); Adams v. Cox, 52 N.M. 56, 191 P.2d 352 (1948); Garcia v. Pineda et al., 33 N.M. 651, 275 P. 370 (1929).
Besides, in her brief in chief, defendant “ * * * submits that the descriptions in the deeds relied upon by Plaintiff are at best ambiguous and conflicting * * * and it was only by use of the highway map that the ambiguous descriptions might be construed 'to cover the lands in dispute.”
We are not sure just which highway map defendant is referring to, but we assume she means a map which was apparently viewed by the district court by stipulation of the parties, but which map was not received into evidence and is not before us on this appeal.
Defendant then argues that the highway map could be used for the purpose of resolving the ambiguity only if it had been referred to in the deeds. We disagree with this contention. See State ex rel. State Highway Department v. Davis, supra; Hughes v. Meem, supra; Quintana v. Montoya, supra; Redfearn v. Kuhia, 50 Hawaii 77, 431 P.2d 945 (1967).
However, as above stated, the plat or map heretofore referred to was admitted into evidence for all purposes by stipulation. The highway and the lands in question are shown thereon, and this map, which is in evidence, serves equally well to resolve the ambiguity, or obvious mistake, in the deed description.
In addition, one of the witnesses called at trial was the grantee in the 1955 deed and also one of the grantees in the 1959 deed. This witness was also one of the grantors who conveyed the 17.917 acre tract to plaintiff by a deed executed in April 1972. This 17.917 acre tract was admittedly correctly described in this 1972 deed, and the lands in question are included therein.
This witness was expressly asked by both the plaintiffs and defendant, without objection, as to the location of the lands conveyed to him by the 1955 and 1959 deeds, and he identified these lands by reference to the plat which is in evidence. Thus, evidence was admitted, with out objection, whereby the lands described in the 1955 and 1959 deeds were unquestionably identified as including the 8 acres in question.
For the reasons stated, there can be no merit to defendant’s first point relied upon for reversal.
Her second point is that the evidence fails to support the district court’s finding to the effect that plaintiffs 'and their predecessors had paid taxes on the lands in question for ten years.
The tax schedules for the years 1960 to 1972, covering the lands described in the 1955 and 1959 deeds, show the lands covered by the 1955 deed as 8 acres and the lands covered by the 1959 deed as 3 acres for a total of 11 acres. These tax schedules expressly refer to the metes and bounds descriptions contained in Book 37 at page 358 (the book and page of the deed records where the 1955 deed appears of record) and Book 44 at page 234 (the book and page of the deed records where the 1959 deed appears of record), except for the years 1962 to 1966 and 1968 to 1972. During these years, the page at which the 1955 deed appears of record is mistakenly shown on the tax schedules as 378 rather than 358. However, the correct book number appears in all the schedules. Obviously, this has been a mistake by the office of the county assessor, in which these schedules were prepared. It is true the lands were described as being in the SE)4 SEJ4 in accordance with the erroneous description in the deeds, but the approximately 11 acres, which is clearly the approximate acreage described in these deeds, were occupied by plaintiffs’ predecessors, were under fence and were being cultivated and grazed by them. See Hobson v. Miller, 64 N.M. 215, 326 P.2d 1095 (1958); Frericks v. Sorensen, 113 Cal.App.2d 759, 248 P.2d 949 (1952).
There can be no reasonable doubt that plaintiffs’ predecessors returned and paid taxes on 11 acres; the tax schedules prepared by the tax assessor related to the approximately 11 acres covered by the 1955 and 1959 deeds; and the only acreage which could have been covered by these schedules, returns and payments were the approximately 11 acres covered by these two deeds.
There is absolutely no merit to defendant’s point 2.
Defendant asserts a third point for reversal. However, nothing is presented therein which is not dependent upon her claims as to color of title and taxes presented in the first two points, and we have resolved those claims against her.
The judgment should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
STEPHENSON and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Defendant appeals his conviction of an attempt to commit armed robbery. Section 40A-28-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6) and § 40A-16-2, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6, Supp.1973). He complains of remarks made by the prosecutor in the prosecution’s final argument to the jury. We discuss two issues: (1) whether the issue was raised in the trial court, and (2) whether the plain error rule applies to the remarks.
Whether Issue Raised in the Trial Court
During final argument, the prosecutor stated: “The defense attorney brought up the constitutional rights of Mr. Sanchez. I ask you, did Mr. Sanchez have any regard for the constitutional rights of Mr. Gallegos on that morning when he stuck those knives in his throat ? What about the constitutional rights — ” At this point the argument was interrupted* and a conference was held at the bench. Defendant’s objection to the above remarks was sustained. The prosecutor then concluded his argument by asking the jury to return a verdict consistent with the evidence.
Defendant claims the reference to “constitutional rights” was prejudicial and influenced the jury by injecting a false issue into the case. We do not consider the merits of this contention. The objection, which was sustained, was that the prosecutor, in his final argument, not be “allowed to go into anything that' I did not go into.” See § 41-23-40(n), N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6, Supp.1973). The contention now made was never raised in the trial court. It will not be considered for the first time on appeal. Section 21-12-11, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Int.Supp.1974); compare State v. Vallejos, 86 N.M. 39, 519 P.2d 135 (Ct. App.1974).
Whether the Plain Error Rule Applies
Defendant asserts the allegedly improper comment of the prosecutor can be raised for the first time on appeal on the basis that the comment was plain error. Cases cited in support of this contention are federal cases. New Mexico has not adopted the federal plain error rule. State v. Lopez, 84 N.M. 402, 503 P.2d 1180 (Ct.App.1972). Subsequent to the Lopez decision, the New Mexico Supreme Court adopted Rules of Evidence. The Rules of Evidence are not applicable in this case. Even if the Rules did apply, they do not aid defendant. The Rules of Evidence refer to “plain errors affecting substantial rights.” That reference is part of a rule concerned with evidentiary rulings. Section 20-4-103, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, Supp.1973). No evidentiary ruling is involved in defendant’s contention. New Mexico has no plain error rule applicable to defendant’s claim; the claim will not be reviewed.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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Ordered that petition for writ of certiorari be and the same is hereby denied.
Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 1066, 85 N.M. 9, 518 P.2d 1213 be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals. | [
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] |
OPINION
McMANUS, Chief Justice.
On May 9, 1972, the District Court of Luna County issued its order directing the court clerk of the county to execute a release of a mortgage to Investor Properties, Inc., appellee, and in the same order denied appellant’s (Leonard Farms) request for an accounting. From this order this appeal follows.
To set the stage, appellant sold to Carlsbad Riverside Terrace Apartments, Inc. (Carlsbad) certain farms for $590,000.00. The payment of the purchase price was to be represented by an assumption of a debt evidenced by a note and a mortgage of $342,320.00 owed by appellant to Kansas City Life Insurance Company, plus the execution of a note and second mortgage of $217,680.00 to appellant and, in addition, the payment of $30,000.00 cash to appellant. Carlsbad defaulted when it failed to pay an installment on the first mortgage note to Kansas City Life, and also failed to pay on the second mortgage note to appellant. Appellant paid the Kansas City Life installment and began a foreclosure suit. Judgment was rendered in favor of appellant and on November 12, 1972, the property was ordered sold to satisfy the judgment. The foreclosure sale was held on January 24, 1972 and the property was purchased by appellant for $175,000.00. On this same date, the court entered an order extending the statutory redemption to a later date and ordered that the right of statutory redemption be subject to the continuing jurisdiction of the court. Thereafter, a judgment creditor of Carlsbad assigned its judgment (and therefore its redemption rights) to Clovis National Bank, who in turn assigned the judgment to one Robert McAnally. McAnally then assigned the judgment to Investor Properties, Inc. (appellee).
On April 28, 1972, appellee offered $189,000.00 in order to redeem the property pursuant to § 24-2-19, N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp. 1973), and on May 1, 1972, an order was entered by the district court in which the court found that appellee had made a proper tender in good faith, that a valid question existed as to the right of the foreclosure purchaser (appellant) to recover money paid by it on the prior first mortgage (to Kansas City Life) from appellee, and that appellee should be required to deposit security (a bond) with the court sufficient to indemnify the appellant for the installment on the prior first mortgage paid by appellant, together with any interest thereon, should it be later decided that appellee-redemptioner was liable for same. The court then found that, in satisfaction of the bond, the appellee could “ * * * file a mortgage to the clerk * * * ” of the court on property in Grant County, New Mexico. The mortgage on the Grant County land was ordered instead of a mortgage on the redeemed property since “ * * * [t]he parties have understood and agreed that redemptioner (appellee) is conveying title to the property being redeemed concurrent with its redemption and that such land is conveyed without further liens or rights as to the parties of this suit as against the ultimate purchasers thereof.” The mortgage on the Grant County property was filed on May 8, 1972. On May 9, 1972, the court released to the appellant the redemption money ($189,000.00) without prejudice so that the question of determining if the appellee owed any additional amounts could be reserved for later determination.
On August 8, 1972, appellee filed a motion which was heard by the district court on December 5, 1972. At this hearing it was determined that appellee should prepare an order asserting that if appellant wished to litigate the price of redemption question, it should file suit within 60 days, and if it did not so file the court would be disposed to release the mortgage on the Grant County property.
On April 12, 1973, appellee moved for and obtained an order to show cause why the mortgage should not be released. On May 18, 1973, an order was entered releasing the mortgage. On May 31, 1973, the court entered an order denying a motion for an accounting, finding it lacked jurisdiction to determine the matter. The sole issue on appeal therefore is whether or not the district court committed error in denying the motion for an accounting because of the lack of jurisdiction.
Section 24-2-19, N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp. 1973), provides:
“After sale of any real estate pursuant to any such judgment or decree of any court, the real estate may be redeemed by the former defendant or owner thereof, his heirs, personal representatives or assigns or by any junior mortgagee or other junior lienholder by paying to the purchaser, his personal representatives or assigns, the amount paid, with interest from the date of purchase at the rate of ten per cent [10%] a year together with all taxes, interest and penalties thereon paid by the purchaser, with interest on such taxes, interest and penalties at the rate of ten per cent [10’%] a year from the date of payment, or by making deposit of like amount or amounts in cash in the office of the clerk of the district court wherein the order, judgment or decree, under which said sale was made, was entered, at any time within nine [9] months from the date of sale.”
Appellee followed this section to the letter in his $189,000.00 offer to redeem the property, which sum was broken down as follows:
Amount realized from sale $175,000.00
Interest to 5-1-72
$47.95 per day for 99 days 4,747.05
Taxes paid by purchaser on 4-26-72 8,718.69
Interest on taxes to 5-1-72 12.25
Farming costs 423.33
Balance for good grace 98.68
Total $189,000.00
The district court approved of this breakdown and we must now decide if the court was correct in going further than the statute provides by having the appellee issue to the clerk of the court a mortgage on the Grant County property. Appellee contends that the court did not have the discretion to order this mortgage. We cannot agree with this contention.
In Keel v. Vinyard, 48 Idaho 49, 279 P. 420 (1929), it was held that where a junior mortgagee purchases at his own foreclosure sale subject to senior mortgages, and during the redemption period is compelled to protect his title by making payments on the prior mortgages, such payments cannot be included under the usual statutory provisions in the amount required to redeem the property. However, the junior mortgagee is entitled to an equitable lien for such payments. Also see Equity Mortgage Corporation v. Loftus, 323 F.Supp. 144 (E.D.Va.1970).
In the case before us, the court therefore could have exercised its authority to make a determination of an additional amount, if any, to be paid over to appellant (in effect, an accounting) when appellant so requested such a determination. As a result, we must necessarily hold that the court had the jurisdiction to impress an equitable lien and to entertain appellant’s amended complaint for an accounting.
The order denying Leonard Farms’ motion for an accounting is reversed.
It is so ordered.
OMAN and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Defendant appeals his conviction of an attempt to commit aggravated burglary. Sections 40A-28-1 and 40A-16-4, N.M.S. A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). The issues concern: (1) written transcript of the preliminary examination and (2) delay in holding the preliminary examination.
Written transcript of the preliminary examination.
Testimony at the preliminary examination was recorded on tape. The district attorney tendered this tape to defendant for his use at the trial. Defendant asserts the tape was insufficient. He contends he was entitled to a “written” transcript of the proceedings at the preliminary examination. His request for such a transcript was denied by the trial court. Defendant claims the denial deprived him of his constitutional right to equal protection. This contention is answered adverse to defendant in State ex rel. Moreno v. Floyd, 85 N.M. 699, 516 P.2d 670, decided December 7, 1973.
Delay in holding the preliminary examination.
Section 41-23-20(d), N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6, Supp.1973) states:
“Time: A preliminary hearing shall be held within a reasonable time but in any event not later than ten [10] days following ' the initial appearance if the defendant is in custody and no later than twenty [20] days if he is not in custody * * * >>
Defendant asserts his preliminary examination was not held within the time provided by the above rule. Because of the asserted rule violation, he contends his conviction should be reversed and the charge against him should be dismissed. We disagree.
A criminal complaint and an arrest warrant were issued December 18, 1972. The record indicates defendant was in custody from the time of his arrest. His first appearance before a magistrate was December 19, 1972. Rights which are required to be explained to a defendant at this first appearance include the right to the assistance of counsel, and the possible right to representation by an attorney at State expense. Section 41-23-19, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6, Supp.1973).
An unexecuted affidavit concerning defendant’s ability to employ counsel bears the notation that, on December 19, 1972, defendant refused to sign the affidavit and refused to “give information for an attorney.” There is also a notation to the effect that the preliminary examination had been scheduled for December 27 “so preliminary is pending.”
A criminal information was filed in the district court on February 23, 1973. At a hearing before the district court on February 26, 1973, the defendant admitted that at the time of his appearance before the magistrate he was unwilling to accept the appointment of an attorney to represent him. Defendant explained that he did not want an appointed attorney unless he was allowed to select the attorney. The court disapproved this procedure. Defendant stated he wished to represent himself but would accept appointed counsel to “act as my assistant.” The court then deferred further proceedings until defendant could be advised by counsel as to his legal rights. An attorney was appointed as defendant’s “legal advisor” on February 28, 1973.
The next court appearance of defendant was May 30, 1973. At that hearing, defendant stated he desired to have a preliminary examination. Defendant also expressed the desire to have counsel appointed to represent him. The court ordered that a preliminary examination be held that day and appointed the “legal advisor” to act as defendant’s counsel.
The foregoing shows that a preliminary examination was scheduled in compliance with § 41-23-20(d), supra. The inference is that the examination was not held at the scheduled time because of defendant’s refusal to supply information to the magistrate. This information was needed for a determination as to whether defendant was entitled to court appointed counsel.
The question of counsel was resolved on February 28, 1973, but there is nothing explaining the delay from December 19, 1972, to February 26, 1973. A preliminary examination was held May 30, 1973, but there is nothing explaining the delay from the appointment of a legal ad-visor on February 28, 1973, until May 30, 1973. With these unexplained delays, defendant’s claim that § 41-23-20 (d), supra, had been violated cannot be answered on the basis that the delays were attributable to defendant. United States v. Catino, 403 F.2d 491 (2d Cir. 1968), cert. denied, [Pagano v. United States], 394 U.S. 1003, 89 S.Ct. 1598, 22 L.Ed.2d 780 (1969); Powell v. United States, 122 U.S.App.D.C. 229, 352 F.2d 705 (1965).
On the basis that § 41-23-20(d), supra, had been violated, defendant sought dismissal of the criminal charge. Assuming a rule violation, the remedy for the violation is not dismissal. When a defendant has been denied a timely preliminary examination, the court is to proceed in its discretion in fashioning relief to an aggrieved defendant. United States v. Green, 305 F.Supp. 125 (S.D.N.Y.1969). However, neither dismissal of the charge, nor reversal of a conviction, is an appropriate remedy if there is no showing of prejudice. Powell v. United States, supra. Compare State v. Budau, 86 N.M. 21, 518 P.2d 1225 (Ct.App.1973). Here, no prejudice is shown.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY, J., concurs. | [
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OPINION
HARTZ, Judge.
Defendant appeals his convictions for second-degree murder and tampering with evidence. He asserts four grounds for reversal of his convictions: (1) the admission into evidence of his confession to Detective Barbara Cantwell; (2) the seizure of four newspaper clippings and a letter during the search of his home, and the admission into evidence of three of the clippings; (3) the failure of the district court to grant him sufficient time for scientific analysis of the automobile in which the victim was shot; and (4) prosecutorial misconduct during trial. We affirm.
I. BACKGROUND
Tony Lopez was killed by a shot to the head on September 7, 1991, while sitting in the driver’s seat of his automobile in the parking lot of a 7-11 convenience store in Albuquerque. Lopez had driven into the parking lot shortly after Defendant had arrived in a car driven by David Vigil. Vigil’s other passengers were his girlfriend, Defendant’s girlfriend, and Daniel Gallegos. Defendant and Vigil were in the store when Gallegos came in to tell them that the person who had “messed up your car” was in the parking lot. Gallegos had recognized Lopez as one of the people who had attacked Defendant, Vigil, and Gallegos two months earlier in an incident that had resulted in extensive damage to some automobiles and injuries to Vigil severe enough to require hospitalization. When Defendant came out to the parking lot, he too recognized Lopez as one of the people involved in the earlier fight. Gallegos approached Lopez’s vehicle and began pounding on a window while yelling at Lopez. Within seconds Lopez began to back up the vehicle. Defendant fired his gun. Defendant, who admitted firing a shot, testified that he thought a passenger in the back seat was reaching for a gun. The passenger was not injured but Lopez was killed. The gun was never recovered. Defendant testified that he had sold the gun.
We will recite other facts in the discussions of the particular issues to which they relate.
II. DEFENDANT’S CONFESSION
On September 16, 1991, Defendant voluntarily went to the police station to ask whether there was a warrant for his arrest. He was curious because he knew that Gallegos had been arrested five days earlier. He was told that there was no warrant but that officers wanted to question him. After Defendant invoked his right to remain silent, he was arrested. On the way to booking, while Detective Cantwell was walking Defendant from the police station to the jail across the street, she told him “that it looked good for him that he turned himself in.” Defendant responded, “I didn’t mean to shoot him.” When Cantwell then asked “What?”, he repeated his statement. Cantwell testified that prior to Defendant’s confession her only questioning related to information needed for booking, such as with whom he was living.
The State concedes that it would have been improper for Cantwell to engage in any interrogation of Defendant other than that “‘normally attendant to arrest and custody.’ ” State v. Edwards, 97 N.M. 141, 144, 637 P.2d 572, 575 (Ct.App.) (quoting Rhode Island v. Innis, 446 U.S. 291, 301, 100 S.Ct. 1682, 1689, 64 L.Ed.2d 297 (1980)), cert. denied, 97 N.M. 621, 642 P.2d 607 (1981). The issue is whether Cantwell’s statement to Defendant although not express questioning was its “functional equivalent” and therefore constituted interrogation. See id. Interrogation includes “ ‘words or actions on the part of police officers that they should have known were reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response.’” Id. (quoting Innis, 446 U.S. at 301, 100 S.Ct. at 1689).
We hold that Cantwell’s statement did not constitute interrogation. It was not a statement that she should have expected to exert such emotional pressure on Defendant as to evoke an incriminating response. See Innis (defendant told officers where he had put a sawed-off shotgun after he heard officers’ police-car conversation regarding danger to children posed by the shotgun; statement admissible). We affirm the ruling of the district court.
III. NEWSPAPER CLIPPINGS AND LETTER
Three newspaper clippings admitted into evidence at trial were seized during a search of Defendant’s home pursuant to a warrant. Headlines from, all three clippings related to the shooting at the 7-11.
Defendant does not challenge the validity of the search warrant. His claim is that seizure of the clippings was unlawful because the warrant did not authorize the seizure. The warrant authorized seizure only of clothes worn on the night of the robbery, guns, ammunition, and receipts or bags from the 7-11 store where the shooting occurred.
The validity of the seizure of the clippings depends upon whether the seizure was permissible under the “plain view” doctrine. The doctrine allows the warrantless seizure of an item if (1) “the officer did not violate the Fourth Amendment in arriving at the place from which the evidence could be plainly viewed”; (2) the item’s “incriminating character [was] ‘immediately apparent’ ”; and (3) the officer had “a lawful right of access to the object itself.” Horton v. California, 496 U.S. 128, 136-37, 110 S.Ct. 2301, 2308, 110 L.Ed.2d 112 (1990); see Arizona v. Hicks, 480 U.S. 321, 107 S.Ct. 1149, 94 L.Ed.2d 347 (1987); State v. Luna, 93 N.M. 773, 779, 606 P.2d 183, 189 (1980).
The heart of Defendant’s argument is his contention that “[i]f items must be moved or read to establish their evidentiary value, they cannot be said to be evidence properly seized ‘in plain view.’ ” Although there is a core of truth in Defendant’s contention, it is not fully accurate, and the inaccuracy makes all the difference to the result here.
First, there is nothing wrong with an officer’s moving an object in the course of execution of a search warrant if such movement is in furtherance of the search for items enumerated in the warrant. Here, the clippings were on the top shelf of the bedroom closet, covered by a drawing. The warrant authorized the seizure of receipts from the 7-11. The officers executing the warrant could properly look through the papers to see if there were any seizable receipts. See United States v. Barnes, 909 F.2d 1059, 1070 (7th Cir.1990) (search of spiral notebook for cocaine); United States v. Yu, 755 F.Supp. 578, 581-82 (S.D.N.Y.1991) (gun registration certificate seized during search pursuant to warrant for documents relating to wire fraud); State v. Apelt, 176 Ariz. 349, 861 P.2d 634, 647-48 (1993) (en banc) (business cards seized while searching for receipts, utility bills, and airline tickets); cf. United States v. Silva, 714 F.Supp. 693 (S.D.N.Y.1989) (improper for agent to leaf through notebook page by page).
Second, the incriminating character of an object may be “immediately apparent” even though the incriminating character derives from writing on the object — that is, even though establishing the object’s evidentiary value requires reading. The question is how much reading is required. When the words that convey the incriminating message are so visible to the casual eye that it would require a conscious effort not to absorb the message, the incriminating character is undoubtedly “immediately apparent.” That was the case here. Each of the clippings contained a size-able headline concerning the killing at the 7-11. Anyone who picked up one of the clippings and glanced at it would realize that its presence in Defendant’s home corroborated his involvement with the killing. Courts have regularly applied the plain view doctrine to written materials. See United States v. Giannetta, 909 F.2d 571, 577-79 (1st Cir.1990) (banking documents), United States v. Berkowitz, 927 F.2d 1376, 1388-89 (7th Cir.1991) (file stolen from office of United States Attorney; agent recognized his own handwriting on some files), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 112 S.Ct. 141, 116 L.Ed.2d 108 (1991), and — U.S. -, 113 S.Ct. 1058, 122 L.Ed.2d 364 (1993); Barnes, 909 F.2d at 1070 (spiral notebook containing business notations); Yu, 755 F.Supp. at 581-82 (gun registration certificates); Apelt, 861 P.2d at 647-48 (business cards); cf. Joseph v. State, 807 S.W.2d 303, 308 (Tex.Crim.App.1991) (en banc) (improper to read contents of greeting card that was not incriminating on its face). Indeed, this Court has previously upheld the seizure of written material under the plain view doctrine. State v. Dobbs, 100 N.M. 60, 65-67, 665 P.2d 1151, 1156-58 (Ct.App.) (notations on open page of city directory and list of names on handwritten sheets), cert. quashed, 100 N.M. 53, 665 P.2d 809 (1983). We affirm the district court’s ruling that seizure of the clippings was lawful.
Defendant also complains about the seizure of a fourth newspaper clipping, which related to the murder rate in Albuquerque in general, and a letter written by Defendant. Neither of these documents was admitted into evidence at trial. Although Defendant does not suggest any prejudice resulting from the seizure of the fourth clipping, he contends that his trial strategy was affected by the letter. He asserts that because he believed that the letter would be admitted at trial, “his counsel was forced to admit some gang involvement of [Defendant] and discuss Lopez’s involvement in gangs, as a part of his trial strategy.” He also suggests that defense counsel may have advised Defendant not to testify at trial if he had known that the letter would be excluded. This argument perplexes us, however, because Defendant admits that prior to trial the State indicated that it would not seek to introduce the letter, except perhaps for impeachment of Defendant. Defendant has not established any prejudice arising from the seizure of the letter. Thus, any error in the seizure was harmless.
Finally, Defendant contends that the three clippings relating to the 7-11 killing were inadmissible at trial even if they had been properly seized. He contends that they were irrelevant because “they did not go to any contested issue at trial.” We disagree. The clippings satisfied the definition of relevance in our rules of evidence. SCRA 1986, 11-401. They were probative of Defendant’s involvement in the events at the 7-11. We find no abuse of discretion in the district court’s decision to admit the evidence.
IV.INSPECTION OF VICTIM’S AUTOMOBILE
Defendant sought to examine the automobile in which Lopez was shot, primarily to determine whether a second shot may have been fired. Evidence of a second shot would generate doubt that Defendant’s shot was the one that killed Lopez.
Defendant filed a motion that the State be ordered to allow access to Lopez’s automobile for an independent examination. The State responded that the vehicle was private property which was not in the custody or control of the district attorney or any law enforcement agency. At a hearing on March 31, 1992, the district court found that the vehicle was not in the control of the State and denied the motion. The district court then noted that defense counsel was free to issue a subpoena duces tecum for the vehicle.
On August 6, 1992, the second day of trial, the district court conducted a hearing on a motion in limine filed by Defendant seeking to bar testimony of the prosecution witness who had examined the vehicle. Defendant contended that he had been prevented from having an independent examination conducted. Evidence at the hearing showed, however, that Defendant had never obtained a subpoena duces tecum for the vehicle. The district court ordered that the vehicle be made available for inspection by Defendant.
The following day Defendant proffered evidence that it would take thirty days to obtain test results on material from the vehicle. Defendant moved for a mistrial or a thirty-day continuance of the trial. The district court denied the motion. We find no error.
Defendant relies oft various appellate decisions that recognize the obligation of the State to preserve and produce evidence relevant to the defense. See, e.g., Mathis v. State, 112 N.M. 744, 746, 819 P.2d 1302, 1304 (1991); State v. Sandoval, 99 N.M. 173, 175, 655 P.2d 1017, 1019 (1982). These decisions are inapposite. The State did not destroy any evidence, lose any evidence, or fail to disclose or produce evidence under its control. The evidence here (the victim’s automobile) was preserved by private parties and was available to Defendant through legal process. The only problem was that Defendant delayed in obtaining legal process necessary to compel production of the automobile by its owners. Any prejudice to Defendant was the result of this delay. There was no abuse of discretion in denying relief to Defendant. See State v. Smith, 92 N.M. 533, 537, 591 P.2d 664, 668 (1979) (denial of continuance is reviewed for abuse of discretion).
V. PROSECUTORIAL MISCONDUCT
We have reviewed Defendant’s allegations of prosecutorial misconduct in the questioning of witnesses, closing argument, and statements at the sentencing hearing. We find no reversible error. In particular, we fail to see any impropriety in the prosecutor’s use of the word “murder” while conducting a prosecution for second-degree murder.
VI. CONCLUSION.
For the above reasons we affirm the judgment of the district court.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
APODACA and PICKARD, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
BLACK, Judge.
Defendant Concha is a member of the Taos Pueblo. Plaintiff Salas is a member of the Zia Pueblo who resides in Rio Rancho. Plaintiff Wacondo is a member and resident of the Jemez Pueblo. Plaintiffs’ claims arise out of a shooting committed within the exterior boundaries of the Jemez Pueblo. As a result of the shooting, Defendant was convicted in federal court of voluntary manslaughter and assault.
Plaintiffs filed a complaint for personal injuries seeking compensatory and punitive damages for the wrongful death and injuries they suffered as a result of Defendant’s aetions. Defendant moved to dismiss the complaint for lack of jurisdiction, claiming that the matter fell within the exclusive jurisdiction of the Jemez Pueblo. The Sandoval County District Court granted the motion and dismissed the case, since “all of the parties are Indians and the causes of action arose on Indian lands.”
Plaintiffs appeal, arguing that they have the right to seek redress against another Indian, not a member of the Jemez Pueblo, in state court. The issue is whether Indian sovereignty or federal policy would require the state courts to recognize exclusive jurisdiction in the Jemez courts because all of the parties are Indian, even though not members of the Jemez Pueblo. Under these facts, we agree with Plaintiffs and reverse.
I. STATE JURISDICTION
As a general rule, Indians may sue non-Indians in state court. Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation v. Wold Eng’g, P.C., 467 U.S. 138, 148-49, 104 S.Ct. 2267, 2274-75, 81 L.Ed.2d 113 (1984). This general rule holds true even though some or all of the transaction at issue occurred on an Indian reservation. Foster v. Luce, 115 N.M. 331, 333, 850 P.2d 1034, 1036 (Ct.App.1993); see also Margery H. Brown & Brenda C. Desmond, Montana Tribal Courts: Influencing the Development of Contemporary Indian Law, 52 Mont.L.Rev. 211, 265 (1991) (“In contrast to the rule applicable to lawsuits brought by non-Indians against Indians in reservation-based claims, the rules applicable to reservation-based claims brought by Indians permit the filing of those claims in either state or tribal court.”) (footnote omitted). The New Mexico Supreme Court has specifically held that an Indian may invoke the jurisdiction of a state court to protect his rights to recover for personal injuries arising from an accident on Indian land. Paiz v. Hughes, 76 N.M. 562, 564-65, 417 P.2d 51, 52 (1966). On the other hand, disputes which involve only tribal members or internal tribal policy must generally be maintained in tribal forums. See Fisher v. District Court, 424 U.S. 382, 389, 96 S.Ct. 943, 947, 47 L.Ed.2d 106 (1976). In sum: “In matters not affecting either the Federal Government or the tribal relations, an Indian has the same status to sue and be sued in state courts as any other citizen.” Felix Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law ch. 19, § 5, at 379 (1942 ed.); Paiz, 76 N.M. at 566, 417 P.2d at 53.
II. FEDERAL POLICY
Defendant relies upon Public Law No. 83-280, 67 Stat. 588 (1953) (codified in part at 28 U.S.C. § 1360) (“Public Law 280”), to argue that New Mexico lacks jurisdiction over any dispute involving Indians on reservation land. Public Law 280 delegated to certain designated states jurisdiction over reservation activities of both members and nonmembers and provides that state criminal and civil prohibitory laws “that are of general application” shall also be in effect on Indian reservations. Other states were given the option to accept such jurisdiction. New Mexico, one of the states given the option to accept such jurisdiction, has not done so. On its face, then, Public Law 280 would seem relevant only if the New Mexico courts were seeking to supplant the jurisdiction of the Jemez court.
In considering whether a federal statute preempts state jurisdiction, it is necessary to consider the goals and purposes of the federal legislation. Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee Corp., 464 U.S. 238, 248, 104 S.Ct. 615, 621, 78 L.Ed.2d 443 (1984). In matters affecting Indian-state relations it also depends on the nature of the particular interests. Foundation Reserve Ins. Co. v. Garcia, 105 N.M. 514, 515, 734 P.2d 754, 755
(1987); William C. Canby, Jr., The Status of Indian Tribes in American Law Today, 62 Wash.L.Rev. 1, 7 (1987). The primary concern of Congress in enacting Public Law 280 was to provide a state forum for resolving legal disputes between reservation Indians and other private citizens. Bryan v. Itasca County, 426 U.S. 373, 383, 96 S.Ct. 2102, 2108, 48 L.Ed.2d 710 (1976). Public Law 280 was intended as an expansion of state jurisdictions for disputes involving reservation Indians and not as a prohibition on exercising jurisdiction the state would otherwise possess. South Naknek v. Bristol Bay Borough, 466 F.Supp. 870, 879 (D.Alaska 1979). It is therefore difficult to determine how providing a state forum for tribal members who wish to sue a nonmember Indian conflicts with the goals or purposes of Public Law 280.
Defendant next argues that the Indian CM Rights Act, 25 U.S.C. §§ 1301-1341 (1968), and the Indian Self-Determination Act, 25 U.S.C. §§ 450-450n (1975), express a federal policy in favor of furthering self-government. Initially, we note the Indian Self-Determination Act defines Indian in reference to tribal membership, 25 U.S.C. § 450b(a), and the Indian Civil Rights Act has been found not to preempt state court jurisdiction of a suit for negligence and breach of contract brought by a tribe against a non-Indian in state court, Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation, 467 U.S. at 150-51, 104 S.Ct. at 2275-76. More generally, however, we do not question the existence of a federal policy encouraging the development of tribal self-government or its embodiment in either of those statutes. Why application of such a policy requires exclusive tribal jurisdiction in the present context, however, is more difficult to fathom. Here, a Taos Pueblo Indian claims exclusive jurisdiction for the Jemez courts because the shooting occurred in the Jemez Pueblo. Since Defendant is not a Jemez member, however, the interests of the Jemez Pueblo would appear to favor providing a choice of courts to Plaintiff Wacondo, who is a Jemez member.
If tribal court jurisdiction over nonmembers and non-Indians was exclusive, tribes would lose the right to stipulate with such outsiders that disputes could be arbitrated or adjudicated in a state forum. Tribal courts alone could then decide cases such as breach of contract and negligence. If this were the law, not only might there be a chilling effect on doing business with Indian tribes, but also, on some reservations, there would be no available forum to resolve disputes. Rather than strengthen sovereignty, this would create a great disincentive to non-Indians interested in reservation business.
In addition, a judicially imposed monopoly would not necessarily tend to improve the administration of tribal court systems in furtherance of the acknowledged federal policy. The availability of concurrent jurisdiction could arguably have a positive influence on the tribal courts. The existence of such a positive influence is particularly likely in New Mexico where the state and tribal judges interact frequently on matters affecting the administration of justice. See, e.g., NMSA 1978, § B2A-6-21 (Repl.Pamp.1993) (provision for state court recognition of tribal court involuntary placement orders).
Amici would advance the New Mexico Enabling Act, Pub.L. No. 61-310, 36 Stat. 557 (1910), as another basis for preemption. However, amici take the issues in the case as they find them, St. Vincent Hospital v. Salazar, 95 N.M. 147, 149, 619 P.2d 823, 825 (1980), and the parties did not raise the Enabling Act. In any event, it is clear that the purpose of the limiting language in the New Mexico Enabling Act was not to deny Indians equal access to state courts. Jicarilla Apache Tribe v. United States, 601 F.2d 1116, 1133 (10th Cir.), cert. denied, 444 U.S. 995, 100 S.Ct. 530, 62 L.Ed.2d 426 (1979); State Sec., Inc. v. Anderson, 84 N.M. 629, 630, 506 P.2d 786, 787 (1973).
III. TRIBAL SOVEREIGNTY
Our Supreme Court considered the types of situations in which exclusive tribal court jurisdiction would be appropriate in Foundation Reserve Insurance Co.:
Exclusive tribal jurisdiction exists where an action involves a proprietary interest in Indian land; or when an Indian sues another Indian on a claim for relief recognized only by tribal custom and law; or when an Indian is being sued by a non-Indian over an occurrence or transaction arising in Indian country.
105 N.M. at 516, 734 P.2d at 756 (citations omitted). The facts of the present case do not fit within any of these categories. See also State Sec., Inc., 84 N.M. at 631, 506 P.2d at 788 (powers not reserved to Indians for their exclusive jurisdiction include suits by Indians against outsiders).
Defendant argues that allowing Plaintiffs to bring this suit in state court would infringe on the right of reservation Indians to make their own laws and be governed by them. See Williams v. Lee, 358 U.S. 217, 220, 79 S.Ct. 269, 271, 3 L.Ed.2d 251 (1959). We note that this Court and our Supreme Court have found it useful to consider three specific factors in determining whether the exercise of state court jurisdiction would infringe upon the right of a tribe to make its own laws and be governed by them. See Foundation Reserve Ins. Co., 105 N.M. at 515, 734 P.2d at 755; Chino v. Chino, 90 N.M. 203, 206, 561 P.2d 476, 479 (1977); Hartley v. Baca, 97 N.M. 441, 443, 640 P.2d 941, 943 (Ct.App.1981), cert. quashed, 98 N.M. 51, 644 P.2d 1040 (1982). These factors are: “(1) whether the parties are Indians or non-Indians; (2) whether the cause of action arose within the Indian reservation; and (3) what is the nature of the interest to be protected.” Foundation Reserve Ins. Co., 105 N.M. at 515, 734 P.2d at 755.
As to the first factor, while all the parties in the present case are Indians, both Defendant Concha and Plaintiff Salas are part of an increasingly problematic group in regards to tribal jurisdiction: nonmember Indians. See Frank Pommersheim, The Crucible of Sovereignty: Analyzing Issues of Tribal Jurisdiction, 31 Ariz.L.Rev. 329, 355 (1989) (the answer to which governing body has the jurisdiction over nonmember Indians and for what purposes “portends new devel opments on the ever-changing frontier of Indian jurisdiction”). As to the second factor, there is no question that the cause of action arose in the Jemez Pueblo. The third factor, however, is the critical one to the analysis of the present ease. Defendant has failed to show how recognizing concurrent jurisdiction in tribal and state courts would impinge upon tribal sovereignty in the present context.
The facts here compel the conclusion that the “nonmember” Defendant cannot require Plaintiffs to forego their option of seeking redress in state district court. Nothing in our decision implies the Jemez Pueblo is in any way limited in providing a forum or remedies in this dispute. Our holding is merely that neither federal law nor tribal sovereignty precludes Indian plaintiffs from pursuing their state remedies against a nonmember Indian in state court.
Although the holding does not directly apply because our case does not deny or limit tribal jurisdiction, we find the language used by the United States Supreme Court in Duro v. Reina, 495 U.S. 676, 110 S.Ct. 2053, 109 L.Ed.2d 693 (1990), to discuss tribal authority over nonmembers apropos in this context as well:
[Tjribes are not mere fungible groups of homogenous persons among whom any Indian would feel at home. On the contrary, wide variations in customs, art, language, and physical characteristics separate the tribes, and their history has been marked by both intertribal alliances and animosities. Petitioner’s general status as an Indian says little about his consent to the exercise of authority over him by a particular tribe.
Id. at 695, 110 S.Ct. at 2065 (citations omitted).
IV. CONCLUSION
We do not believe state courts’ concurrent jurisdiction over torts committed within the boundaries of one pueblo by a member of another pueblo is preempted by federal law. Nor do we find that the provision of a state remedy, in this limited context, will in any way inhibit the right of reservation Indians to make their own laws and be governed by them. For these reasons, we must reverse the district court with instructions that Plaintiffs’ complaint be reinstated to the docket.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
DONNELLY and ALARID, JJ., concur.
. The parties filed conflicting affidavits regarding whether the Jemez Pueblo courts would entertain a civil claim against a nonmember. Since the district court expressly refused to consider such evidence, we decline to consider it on appeal. See SCRA 1986, 1-012 (Repl.1992); cf. Rekart v. Safeway Stores, Inc., 81 N.M. 491, 493-94, 468 P.2d 892, 894-95 (Ct.App.1970) (discussing difference between motion to dismiss and motion for summary judgment).
. Indeed, it has even been suggested that restricting the access of Indians to state courts may run afoul of the Fourteenth Amendment and the contemporaneous legislation passed to implement it. Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation, 467 U.S. at 152 n. 12, 104 S.Ct. 2276 n. 12; cf. Richard E. Ransom & William G. Gilstrap, Indians — Civil Jurisdiction in New Mexico — State, Federal and Tribal Courts, 1 N.M.L.Rev. 196, 209-10 n. 56 (1971) (discussing an unreported Bernalillo County case where this argument was raised but not decided). Others reject this argument on the assumption Indians "are not 'subject to the jurisdiction of the United States' in the constitutional Sense.” David C. Williams, The Borders of the Equal Protection Clause: Indians as Peoples, 38 UCLA L.Rev. 759, 860 (1991).
. It is true in response to Duro Congress promptly amended the Indian Civil Rights Act to restore tribal criminal jurisdiction over nonmembers. See Pub.L. No. 102-137, 105 Stat. 646 (1991). However, since we assume the Jemez Pueblo would have concurrent civil jurisdiction, we do not find the Duro holding or the subsequent Congressional action directly relevant to our decision. See State v. Pena, 117 N.M. 528, 873 P.2d 274 (Ct.App.1994) (N.M.Ct.App. filed this day)]. | [
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OPINION
FRANCHINI, Justice.
Ray Swinney appeals from an order of dismissal for failure to state a claim upon which relief may be granted. Swinney served as Superintendent of Schools in Deming, New Mexico, District No. 1, of the Deming Board of Education (Board) under a contract of employment. Swinney alleged that in connection with the Board’s decision to terminate his employment contract, certain terms of the contract were breached. The Board filed a motion to dismiss and the trial court granted the motion on the grounds that Swinney was terminated and not discharged, and therefore, the regulation relied on in his complaint did not apply to him. In addition, the trial court stated that Swinney’s allegations were based, not on a valid written contract, but instead, on an implied contract, and that therefore the Board was immune from suit under NMSA 1978, Section 37-1-23(A) (Repl.Pamp.1990). We affirm the trial court’s dismissal of this case, in part for different reasons. See Jaramillo v. Jaramillo, 113 N.M. 57, 62, 823 P.2d 299, 304 (1991) (holding that “[a] lower court’s decision will be affirmed on review if that decision was correct, even though the court may have used an incorrect rationale in arriving at its result”).
I.
On reviewing a ruling on a motion to dismiss we will assume as true all facts well pleaded and question whether plaintiff may prevail under any state of facts provable under the claim. DeBaca, Inc. v. Montoya, 91 N.M. 419, 420, 575 P.2d 608, 604 (1978). On January 15, 1991, the Board voted not to renew Swinney’s employment contract for the 1991-92 school year because of unsatisfactory work performance. Swinney continued until May, 1991, at which time he was placed on administrative leave. Swinney identified three sources of his contractual rights which he contends entitled him to an opportunity to correct alleged unsatisfactory work performance, receive written notice of the reasons for his termination, and participate in a hearing at which the merits of his termination would be decided. They were NMSA 1978, Section 22-10-14 (Repl. Pamp.1993), the Deming Public School’s Official Manual (Manual), and State Board of Education Regulation No. 89-1 (January 18, 1989).
Before examining the contractual rights that Swinney contends entitle him to notice and a hearing, we first look at the different treatment afforded teachers and administrators in our statutes and case law. School administrators may have employment contracts of one or two years. NMSA 1978, § 22-10-11(B)(4) (Repl.Pamp.1993). A person employed by such contract has no legitimate expectation of reemployment, and no contract shall be construed as “an implied promise of continued employment pursuant to a subsequent contract.” Section 22-10-11(E). While certified school instructors have certain rights under our statutory scheme, administrators have no tenure rights as administrators. See id.; NMSA 1978, §§ 22-10-12 to -16 (Repl.Pamp.1993); see also Atencio v. Board of Educ. of PeNasco Indep. Sch. Dist., 99 N.M. 168, 169-70, 655 P.2d 1012, 1013-14 (1982) (surmising that previously tenured school instructor lost tenure rights when reemployed as a certified school administrator); Hayden v. Lee, 90 N.M. 272, 273, 562 P.2d 833, 834 (1977) (holding that administrators are neither tenured nor non-tenured). Section 22-10-14 provides that only certified school instructors with three or more years of service are entitled to procedural due process following notice of termination. There is no similar protection provided to administrators that are terminated.
Nor do we interpret, as Swinney contends, the amendment of Section 22-10-16 after Atencio to expand the scope of Section 22-10-14 to include administrators. Section 22-10-16 currently exempts three categories of individuals from the provisions of Section 22-10-14. All of these categories include individuals who are teachers who might otherwise be determined to be “certified school instructors” within the meaning of various provisions of the School Personnel Act, NMSA 1978, §§ 22-10-1 to -26 (Repl. Pamp.1993). Section 22-10-16 exempts persons not holding a standard certificate, certified school instructors hired to replace certified school instructors that entered military service, and persons who are not qualified to teach. The exemption eliminated after Atencio was for “a certified school instructor who is also a certified school administrator and who is required to spend more than one-half of his employment time in administrative functions.” NMSA 1978, Section 22-10-16(B) (Supp.1983) (amended 1983). Thus, as in the other exemptions, we are dealing with individuals who are teachers. Eliminating this exemption does not indicate an intent by the legislature to grant administrators the termination procedures accorded to tenured certified school instructors by Section 22-10-14. If they had such intention surely they would have amended Section 22-10-14 to include by its terms both “school instructors” and “administrators” as is the case in other provisions of the School Personnel Act.
For purposes of the motion to dismiss we assume that the Manual applies to and is incorporated into Swinney’s employment contract. Swinney contends that the Manual in effect at the time of his termination provided in express terms that no personnel could be terminated except for uneorreeted unsatisfactory work performance or insubordination. It provided further that before anyone is terminated, they must receive written notification of the reasons for the termination and a hearing before the Board in order to determine whether good cause existed for the termination.
The Manual states that the “Scope and Purpose” of the Board’s reemployment and termination policy is “intended to cover decisions by the Deming Board of Education to reemploy or terminate school personnel when their existing contracts expire. [The Board’s] purpose is to ensure that any decisions to terminate such employees comply with Section 22-10-14 NMSA as amended, 1978.”
The Manual, as applied to Swinney, requiring that the employee be given the opportunity to correct his deficiencies, amounts to de facto tenure for administrators. As we discussed above, this is in direct conflict with the School Personnel Act, which provides nontenured employees with no expectation of continued employment.
Local school boards are creations of our legislature. See NMSA 1978, §§ 22-5-1 to -12 (Repl.Pamp.1993). A local school board has only limited authority to promulgate policies and enter into contracts. See Section 22-5-4. Any attempt by a local school board to enter into a contract or formulate a policy that violates the specific statutory provisions governing it is ultra vires and void. See Gragg v. Unified Sch. Dist. No. 287, 6 Kan.App.2d 152, 627 P.2d 335, 339 (1981). We agree with the following statement in Gragg: “A school district has only such power and authority as is granted by the legislature, and its power to contract, including contracts for employment, is only such as is conferred either expressly or by necessary implication.” Id. 627 P.2d at 338 (quoting Wichita Pub. Sch. Employees Union v. Smith, 194 Kan. 2, 397 P.2d 357, 359 (1964)).
Any attempt by the Board to enter into a contract or promulgate a termination policy giving an employee rights in conflict with the School Personnel Act would be ultra vires and void. We must therefore hold that Swinney had no contractual right to continued employment or tenure. Consequently the tenure procedures set out in the Manual do not apply to administrators.
Swinney’s allegation that Regulation 89-1 provides him additional rights under his contract, either on its own or as part of the Manual, is also unfounded. Regulation 89-1 specifically relates to discharge of an employee. “Discharge” is defined in Section 22-10-2(A) as “the act of severing the employment relationship with an employee prior to the expiration of the current employment contráete.]” “Terminate,” on the other hand, is defined in Subsection D of the same statute as “the act of not reemploying an employee for the ensuing school year[.]” Regulation 89-1 is inapplicable to Swinney because he was terminated and not discharged.
Swinney’s employment contract did not entitle him to a renewal of employment or an opportunity to correct unsatisfactory work performance. For all the above reasons, we affirm the trial court’s dismissal of this case.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
BACA and FROST, JJ., concur.
RANSOM, J., specially concurs.
MONTGOMERY, C.J., dissents. | [
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OPINION
BACA, Justice.
Plaintiffs-Appellants, The Regents of New Mexico State University, New Mexico State University (“NMSU”), and Aetna Casualty & Surety Company (“Aetna”), appealed when the trial court granted a motion for summary judgment in favor of Defendant-Appellee, Siplast, Inc. (“Siplast”). The action arose out of damages sustained to the Pan-American Center located at NMSU in Las Cruces due to a fire that occurred while the building was being re-roofed. NMSU was covered by a policy issued by Aetna that covered all of the property that it owned. Aetna covered the damage to the Pan-American Center and then filed suit against Van Winkle Roofing, Inc. (“Van Winkle”), Ronnie Van Winkle, United Construction Products, Inc., Tectum, Inc. and Siplast to recover the amount it paid out for the damage caused by the fire. All of the defendants subsequently filed motions for summary judgment on the grounds that as co-insureds under the Aetna policy, Aetna could not subrogate against them, and that the waiver clause in the re-roofing contract was a contractual bar to suit against them. Siplast was the only defendant remaining when the trial court entered its order granting summary judgment. On appeal, we address four issues: (1) Whether the trial court’s decision to change its ruling on Siplast’s motion for summary judgment was an abuse of discretion; (2) whether summary judgment was precluded because a material issue of fact existed as to whether Siplast was a subcontractor, a sub-subcontractor, an agent, or an employee of NMSU; (3) whether Siplast was a co-insured under the policy; and (4) whether an insurance company may subrogate against its insured under New Mexico law. We review this case pursuant to SCRA 1986, 12 — 102(A)(1) (Repl.Pamp.1992), and affirm.
I
On May 11, 1987, NMSU entered into a contract with Van Winkle for the re-roofing of the Pan-American Center. Siplast provided various materials which were used by Van Winkle for the re-roofing project and performed inspection services to the extent necessary to provide Siplast’s ten-year guarantee to Van Winkle. On August 11, 1987, a fire caused damage to the Pan-American Center, both to the re-roofing work as well as to other areas of the building. Aetna alleged in its complaint that the negligence of Van Winkle, Siplast, and the other defendants caused the fire. Aetna paid out NMSU’s claim for damage to the building and subsequently filed suit against Siplast for subrogation, claiming that Siplast was not covered under the Aetna policy. Siplast filed a motion for summary judgment, claiming that because it was a subcontractor within the meaning of the waiver clause in the contract between Van Winkle and NMSU, the waiver clause constituted a contractual bar to the suit. Siplast also claimed that, as an insured under the Aetna policy, Aetna could not subrogate against it. The trial court denied Siplast’s motion, reasoning that NMSU had waived any claim for damages by fire to the re-roofing project against contractors, subcontractors, and sub-subcontractors only to the extent covered by property insurance obtained pursuant to the re-roofing contract. The trial court also concluded that Siplast could raise the issue of whether it was subcontractor as a motion for directed verdict at the close of plaintiffs case at trial.
Thereafter, Siplast filed a motion to reconsider summary judgment. Fourteen months later the district court, with a different judge presiding over the case, granted Siplast’s motion for summary judgment, concluding that, as a matter of law, Siplast was a subcontractor, a sub-subcontractor, an agent, or an employee of NMSU, and was, therefore, an insured under the policy with Aetna. Aetna and NMSU appeal from this order.
II
We first address whether the trial court’s decision to change its ruling on Siplast’s motion for summary judgment was an abuse of discretion. Aetna contends that the trial court abused its discretion by reversing the prior ruling denying Siplast’s motion for summary judgment. We disagree.
In our recent opinion in Tabet Lumber Co. v. Romero we decided this identical issue and held that
[t]he district court “has the inherent authority to reconsider its interlocutory order, and it is not the duty of the [trial court] to perpetuate error when it realizes it has mistakenly ruled.” The grant or denial of a motion for summary judgment is an interlocutory order, and, therefore, the [trial court] could properly reconsider its previous ruling notwithstanding the fact that a different judge had issued that ruling.
117 N.M. 429, 431, 872 P.2d 847, 849 (1994) (citations omitted).
The trial court’s order denying summary judgment was not a final order and, hence, was subject to later reversal by a different judge ruling on the motion for reconsideration.
III
We next address whether the trial court correctly granted summary judgment in favor of Siplast. Summary judgment is properly granted in a case when no genuine issues of material fact are presented and the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. SCRA 1986, 1-056(C) (Repl.Pamp.1992); New Mexico Physicians Mut. Liab. Co. v. LaMure, 116 N.M. 92, 100, 860 P.2d 734, 742 (1993). If the facts are undisputed and only a legal interpretation of the facts remains, summary judgment may be properly granted. Koenig v. Perez, 104 N.M. 664, 665, 726 P.2d 341, 342 (1986).
Aetna argues that the question whether Siplast was a contractor, a subcontractor, or a sub-subcontractor presents a genuine issue of material fact and, therefore, summary judgment was improperly granted. We cannot agree. The facts are undisputed that Siplast entered into an agreement with Van Winkle, the contractor, to supply materials with a ten-year guarantee for the re-roofing project. Siplast also agreed to provide “specifications, instructions and recommendations for the application and installation” of the materials supplied by it. Two of Siplast’s representatives conducted numerous job site visits to ensure that Van Winkle employees were correctly using the materials and to assist with any problems. From July 22 through October 1, 1987, Siplast’s representatives conducted inspections, consultations, and instructional work at the site on at least twelve different days. The contracts between NMSU and Van Winkle, Aetna and NMSU, and Van Winkle and Siplast were also before the trial court. The trial court did not have to determine any genuine issue of fact; rather, the court was only required to conclude, as a matter of law, whether Siplast was a subcontractor or a material-man. Thus, we determine whether the trial court correctly concluded that Siplast was entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Section 11.3.6 of the construction contract provided for a waiver of all rights against each other by the owner, contractor, subcontractors, and sub-subcontractors “for damages caused by fire ... to the extent covered by Insurance obtained.” NMSU purchased and maintained property insurance with Aetna for the entire project. The policy with Aetna covered “contractors’, subcontractors’ and sub-subcontractors’ interests in property in the course of construction, alteration or repair and when completed, to the extent of Insured’s liability therefor. This coverage does not extend to ... tools, machinery or equipment.”
A subcontractor on the re-roofing project was defined in the construction contract as: “a person or entity who has a direct contract with the Contractor to perform any of the Work at the site.” Aetna contends that because Siplast “merely delivered materials to the site and was under no ‘direct contract’ to ‘perform work at the site,’ Siplast was not [a] subcontractor as defined by the contract” but was only a materialman. Hence, Aetna argues that Siplast was not covered under the Aetna policy. The undisputed facts, however, directly contradict these assertions.
Siplast not only supplied roofing materials to Van Winkle but, pursuant to its contract with Van Winkle, gave instructions and supervised the use of its materials by Van Winkle’s employees. Siplast representatives were on the job site at least twelve different times, usually for at least two hours at a time. During the times the Siplast representatives were on the site, they provided instruction and answered questions regarding the installation of Siplast’s materials. Siplast easily falls into the “subcontractor” definition provided by the contract.
The trial court correctly concluded that Siplast was a subcontractor under the definition provided for in the construction contract and under our current case law. In Vulcraft v. Midtown Business Park, Ltd., 110 N.M. 761, 764, 800 P.2d 195, 198 (1990), this Court rejected the line of cases requiring that “work must be done at the construction site for a party to qualify as a subcontractor.” Instead, we adopted the rule enunciated in Theisen v. County of Los Angeles, 54 Cal.2d 170, 5 Cal.Rptr. 161, 352 P.2d 529 (1960) (in bank), that
“one who agrees with the prime contractor to perform a substantial specified portion of the work of construction which is the subject of the general contract in accord with the plans and specifications by which the prime contractor is bound has ‘charge of the construction’ of that part of the work of improvement and is a subcontractor although he does not undertake to himself incorporate such portion of the projected structure into the building.”
Id. 5 Cal.Rptr. at 169, 352 P.2d at 538. We stated that “[t]he factor distinguishing a subcontractor from a materialman is performance. A subcontractor cannot merely supply goods, but must perform some act, using its skill and labor, to conform some material to contract specifications.”
Vulcraft, 110 N.M. at 766, 800 P.2d at 200.
Following this rule, this Court set out four factors that courts are to consider when distinguishing between a subcontractor and a materialman. These factors are not mandatory, but are criteria designed to assist the court in determining the status of a party. First, “[t]o qualify as a subcontractor, the party must perform some portion of the work for which the owner originally contracted. It is not necessary that the work be done at the construction site, but work must be performed to the contract’s plans and specifications.” Id. Second, “[t]he work performed must ... be substantial.” Id. Third, the court should ascertain whether the custom in the trade considers the materials supplied by the party to be common in the trade or prepared to conform to specifications of the contract. Id. at 767, 800 P.2d at 201. Finally, the intent of the parties may also be a factor considered by the court. Id. Here, Siplast provided evidence that it met at least two of the factors. Siplast performed a portion of the work originally contracted for by providing the specified materials and assisting in their installation according to the specifications of the contract. Siplast also performed a “substantial” amount of the contracted work on the project by providing the materials specified by NMSU and ensuring their proper installation according to the specifications of the contract. Although we are unable to determine whether Siplast met the other factors enunciated in Vulcraft, we are satisfied that at least two established that Siplast was a subcontractor. Thus, we hold the trial court correctly concluded that Siplast was a subcontractor on the Pan-American Center re-roofing project.
IV
Aetna further argues that even if Siplast was a subcontractor on the project, it was not a co-insured and even if Siplast was a co-insured under the policy, Aetna had the right to subrogate against it unaer New Mexico law. We discuss each of these contentions in turn.
A.
Aetna claims that the language of the insurance policy is unambiguous and does not insure Siplast for its product nor for any event flowing from the application of its product on the job site. We cannot agree. NMSU was required to acquire builder’s risk insurance on the construction project. Section Two of the “Property Coverage Form” provides:
[T]he insurance provided by this form covers the following property and interests:
F. contractors’, subcontractors’ and sub-subcontractors’ interests in property in the course of construction, alteration or repair and when completed, to the extent of Insured’s liability therefor.
We have already determined in Section III of this opinion that Siplast was a subcontractor under the construction contract and under New Mexico law. As a subcontractor, Siplast was insured under this policy.
B.
Aetna further contends that even if Siplast is a co-insured under the policy, Aetna may subrogate against it under New Mexico law. This issue has never been specifically determined by New Mexico courts. Although the Court of Appeals suggested in United Nuclear Corp. v. Mission Ins. Co., 97 N.M. 647, 652-54, 642 P.2d 1106, 1110-12 (Ct.App.1982), that New Mexico would follow the minority of jurisdictions and hold that insurance companies may subrogate against their insureds in certain instances, we choose to follow the majority of jurisdictions and recognize the rule that “an insurer may not be subrogated against a contractor who is insured against damage to his own property under a builder’s risk policy, even though the subcontractor’s negligence may have resulted in a loss to another co-insured.” Id. at 658, 642 P.2d at 1117 (Donnelly, J., dissenting). The reasoning behind the majority rule is:
With agreements to insure, the risk of loss is not intended to be shifted to one of the parties; it is intended to be shifted to an insurance company in return for a premium payment. Neither party intends to assume a potential liability; rather both are demonstrating “normal” business foresight in avoiding liability and allocating it to an insurer....
Thus, we believe the better reasoning is found in those cases holding that an agreement to insure is an agreement to provide both parties with the benefits of insurance. Individuals understand that insurance will protect them against the consequences of their own negligence and more than likely assume that if one who is a party to a contract agrees as part of his or its duties to provide insurance, that the insurance will protect both of them regardless of the cause of the loss (excepting, of course, wanton and willful acts). If that were not their intent, each would provide his or its own insurance protection and there would be no need for the contract to place the duty on one of them.
Morsches Lumber, Inc. v. Probst, 180 Ind.App. 202, 388 N.E.2d 284, 287 (1979).
Here, in the re-roofing contract, the parties agreed that recovery for damage to the project from one of the enumerated perils was to be limited to the property insurance required by Section 11.3.1, which included the interests of the owner, the contractor, the subcontractors, and the sub-subcontractors. Furthermore, under Section 11.3.6 the owner and the contractor waived their rights for damages covered by the property insuranee, except rights to proceeds. In addition, the owner or the contractor was to require similar waivers by the subcontractors and the sub-subcontractors. “The construction contract here explicitly required that the property insurance procured by [NMSU] include the interests of the various contracting parties. That the protection thereby afforded was intended to constitute the exclusive source for redress of damages sustained is buttressed by the waiver provisions” contained in the construction contract. South Tippecanoe Sch. Bldg., Corp. v. Shambaugh & Son, Inc., 182 Ind.App. 350, 395 N.E.2d 320, 327 (1979). Additionally, the Aetna policy provided a list of causes of physical loss which were specifically excluded from coverage. The negligence of a contractor or subcontractor was not included in this list. “[I]t is well established that where negligence causes a loss, that loss is considered to be fortuitous and within the coverage of an all risks policy uníess the policy specifically excludes it from coverage.” Baugh-Belarde Constr. Co. v. College Utils., 561 P.2d 1211, 1215 (Alaska 1977) (footnote omitted). In fact, the Aetna policy specifically stated in Section Four that “[tjhis form insures against all perils causing loss, except perils specifically excluded in this form.” The parties to the construction contract were limited in recovery for property damage to the proceeds of the insurance required to be carried under the contract.
Many policy considerations support the rule we adopt today prohibiting subrogation against an insured. First, we wish to avoid the conflict of interest that would occur if an insurer were permitted to recover from one of its own insureds. Id. at 1214. Because Siplast was an insured, it was under a duty to cooperate fully with its insurer in the insurer’s investigation of the loss. This duty of cooperation required Siplast to answer Aetna’s investigator’s questions and to permit inspection of its property and equipment on the site. The insurer, Aetna, could then use the information given to it under the duty of cooperation to build a case against its own insured. The Montana Supreme Court recognized this danger in Home Ins. Co. v. Pinski Brothers, Inc., 160 Mont. 219, 500 P.2d 945, 949 (1972):
To permit the insurer to sue its own insured for a liability covered by the insurance policy would violate these basic equity principles, as well as violate sound public policy. Such action, if permitted, would (1) allow the insurer to expend the premiums collected from its insured to secure a judgment against the same insured on a risk insured against; (2) give judicial sanction to the breach of the insurance policy by the insurer; (3) permit the insurer to secure information from its insured under the guise of policy provisions available for later use in the insurer’s subrogation action against its own insured; (4) allow the insurer to take advantage of its conduct and conflict of interest with its insured; and (5) constitute judicial approval of a breach of the insurer’s relationship with its own insured.
A second policy consideration for not allowing builder’s risk insurers to subrogate against their insureds is reduction of litigation. Baugh-Belarde, 561 P.2d at 1215. The cost of litigating these claims would ultimately fall on the general public in the form of increased insurance premiums. This leads to a third policy consideration — the higher construction costs that would also result because of the cost of litigation and because each subcontractor on a construction project would be forced to purchase its own liability insurance for loss to the entire project at higher premiums. This would result in increased bids by subcontractors, increasing the entire cost of a construction project. Id. We agree with the Alaska Supreme Court that “these policy problems can be avoided by viewing the builder’s risk policy as a single policy which protects each insured party against his own negligence. The entire loss should be borne by the insurer which has accepted one premium covering the entire property.” Id.
Accordingly, we conclude that Siplast was entitled to summary judgment as a matter of law and that the trial court was correct in ruling that Aetna could not recover through subrogation from a subcontractor which was insured under its builder’s risk policy. The order of the trial court is AFFIRMED.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
MONTGOMERY, C.J., and RANSOM, J., concur.
. See e.g., Transamerica Ins. Co. v. Gage Plumbing & Heating Co., 433 F.2d 1051 (10th Cir.1970); Baugh-Belarde Constr. Co. v. College Utils., 561 P.2d 1211 (Alaska 1977); St. Paul Fire & Marine Ins. Co. v. Murray Plumbing & Heating Corp., 65 Cal.App.3d 66, 135 Cal.Rptr. 120 (1976); United States Fire Ins. Co. v. Beach, 275 So.2d 473 (La.1973); Independent Sch. District No. 877 v. Loberg Plumbing & Heating Co., 266 Minn. 426, 123 N.W.2d 793 (1963); Home Ins. Co. v. Pinski Bros., Inc., 160 Mont. 219, 500 P.2d 945 (1972); Factory Ins. Ass'n v. Donco Corp., 496 S.W.2d 331 (Mo.Ct.App.1973); Board of Educ. v. Hales, 566 P.2d 1246 (Utah 1977). | [
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] |
OPINION
RANSOM, Chief Justice.
We issued a writ of certiorari to the Court of Appeals to review an opinion of that Court sanctioning forcible police entry pursuant to a warrant within ten to fifteen seconds after the executing officer announced his authority and purpose. See State v. Attaway, 114 N.M. 83, 835 P.2d 81 (Ct.App.1992). In this opinion, we discuss the standard by which we review a district court’s determination that exigent circumstances were present, examine the basis for the “knock and announce” rule under federal and state law, and review the state and federal constitutional arguments asserted below. We affirm.
Facts. On January 5, 1990, Clovis Police Department Detective Robert Littlejohn requested SWAT team assistance to execute arrest and search warrants on Lyonal Attaway. The search warrant authorized the search of Attaway’s residence for drugs, drug paraphernalia, and weapons. Littlejohn briefed the SWAT team sometime prior to the operation. At 6:00 Saturday morning, January 6, the SWAT team approached the front door to the Attaway home with the warrants. Officer Wayne Atchley opened the storm door to the house, knocked on the inner door, and announced both his purpose and authority. The officers testified at a suppression hearing that they noticed a light on in the front of the house. After approximately ten to fifteen seconds passed without response, the officers forcibly breached the front door and set off a diversionary device inside the house. The officers apprehended a woman, later identified as Attaway’s spouse, as she fled from the front part of the house. The officers discovered and apprehended Attaway in his bedroom. Pursuant to the arrest and subsequent search, the officers seized from the house several weapons, including a submachine gun and a sawed-off shotgun, methamphetamines, drug paraphernalia, and a videocassette recording.
Attaway moved to suppress all the evidence seized. He contended that the officers failed to comply with the knock-and-announce rule and that this failure rendered the search unreasonable under the United States and New Mexico constitutions. See U.S. Const, amend. IV; N.M. Const, art. II, § 10. The trial court denied the motion and Attaway was convicted on one count of distribution of a controlled substance under NMSA 1978, Section 30-31-22(A)(2) (Repl. Pamp.1989) and one count of possession of a controlled substance under NMSA 1978, Section 30-31-23(B)(4) (Repl.Pamp.1989). The Court of Appeals affirmed and Attaway petitioned this Court for a writ of certiorari.
Standard for reviewing determination of exigent circumstances. In State v. Sanchez, 88 N.M. 402, 540 P.2d 1291 (1975), this Court held that a district court’s determination of exigent circumstances was a question of fact, subject to the deferential substantial evidence standard of review:
The questions of “good faith belief’ and “exigent circumstances” are questions of fact for the trial court to determine, and the findings of the trial court in these regards are entitled to be accorded the same weight and given the same consideration as is generally accorded a trial court’s findings by appellate courts. Substantial evidence is the measure of proof, or the quality and quantity of the evidence, required to support the findings of the trial court.
88 N.M. at 403, 540 P.2d at 1292 (citations omitted). In the Court of Appeals, Attaway contended that review of the trial court’s exigency determination should not be simply one of substantial evidence. The Court of Appeals appears to have agreed, see 114 N.M. at 86, 835 P.2d at 84, but offered no rationale for its conclusion. We likewise agree and offer the following rationale.
—Fact-finding. Initially, the trial court must establish the historical facts that animate the transaction to be evaluated. The court performs this fact-finding role by reciting events and assessing the credibility of the testimony offered. This component of the analysis is purely factual, and a trial court is to be given wide latitude in determining that an historical fact has been proven. We review these purely factual assessments to determine if the fact-finder’s conclusion is supported in the record by substantial evidence. See State v. Bloom, 90 N.M. 192, 194, 561 P.2d 465, 467 (1977) (stating that appellate court must limit itself “to a consideration of whether the evidence substantially support[s] the trial court’s finding”).
—Application of law to the facts, the mixed question of law and fact. As to review of the trial court’s application of law to the facts in its decision-making process, we find most useful the analysis in the oft-cited case of United States v. McConney, 728 F.2d 1195 (9th Cir.) (en banc), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 824, 105 S.Ct. 101, 83 L.Ed.2d 46 (1984). There, the court invoked principles of appellate review and erected a framework, based on policy considerations, for determining whether a mixed question is to be reviewed de novo or under a more deferential standard:
The appropriate standard of review for a district judge’s application of law to fact may be determined, in our view, by reference to the sound principles which underlie the settled rules of appellate review____ If the concerns of judicial administration— efficiency, accuracy, and precedential weight — make it more appropriate for a district judge to determine whether the established facts fall within the relevant legal definition, we should subject his determination to deferential, clearly erroneous review. If, on the other hand, the concerns of judicial administration favor the appellate court, we should subject the district judge’s finding to de novo review---- [T]he pivotal question is do the concerns of judicial administration favor the district court or ... the appellate court.
If application of the rule of law to the facts requires an inquiry that is “essentially factual]” ... — one that is founded “on the application of the fact-finding tribunal’s experience with the mainsprings of human conduet[]” ... — the concerns of judicial administration will favor the district court, and the district court’s determination should be classified as one of fact renewable under the clearly erroneous standard. If, on the other hand, the question requires us to consider legal concepts in the mix of fact and law and to exercise judgment about the values that animate legal principles, then the concerns of judicial administration will favor the appellate court, and the question should be classified as one of law and reviewed de novo.
Id. at 1202 (quoting Pullman-Standard v. Swint, 456 U.S. 273, 288, 289-90 n. 19, 102 S.Ct. 1781, 1789, 1790-91 n. 19, 72 L.Ed.2d 66 (1982); Commissioner v. Duberstein, 363 U.S. 278, 289, 80 S.Ct. 1190, 1198, 4 L.Ed.2d 1218 (1960)).
The court identified two interests behind the deferential standard applied to questions of fact. First, by assigning primary responsibility for resolving factual disputes to the court in the superior position — the trial court — the risk of judicial error is minimized. McConney, 728 F.2d at 1201. Second, the deferential standard relieves the appellate court “of the burden of a full-scale independent review and evaluation of the evidence.” Id. In comparison, with respect to de novo review, appellate judges are better able to concentrate their resources on legal questions because they are free from the time-consuming process of hearing evidence. Id In addition, the “judgment of at least three members of an appellate panel is brought to bear on every case” and the “collaborative, deliberative process of appellate courts reduces the risk of judicial error on questions of law.” Id The court observed that the binding nature of an appellate ruling, contrasted with the limited force of a factual determination, militates in favor of concentrating combined appellate resources on the issue to ensure the correctness of the legal result. Id.
The court applied that methodology to conclude that the mixed question of exigent circumstances should be subject to de novo review as a question of law. Id at 1205. According to the court, deciding whether the facts present exigencies “goes beyond the historical facts.” Id “The mixed question of exigency is rooted in constitutional principles and policies---- [I]ts resolution requires us to consider abstract legal doctrines, to weigh underlying policy considerations, and to balance competing legal interests.” Id (footnotes omitted). We likewise have applied de novo review to threshold constitutional issues such as the voluntariness of confessions, see Aguilar v. State, 106 N.M. 798, 799, 751 P.2d 178, 179 (1988), and to the validity of search warrants, see State v. Snedeker, 99 N.M. 286, 290, 657 P.2d 613, 617 (1982).
The myriad rules, exceptions, and exceptions to exceptions that flourish in the jurisprudence of search and seizure are often no more than factual manifestations of the constitutional requirement that searches and seizures be reasonable. The rules and tests, based as they are on careful balancing of the underlying constitutional values, reflect the efforts of appellate judges to establish objec-' five standards to measure and inform law enforcement practices. In this sense, none of the rules or their exceptions is talismanic. Rather, each is a proxy for reasonableness, generally applicable, but inherently factual. As the court in McConney observed, “[t]he essential and difficult question raised by this balancing is how much risk police officers can reasonably be expected to assume before disregarding the rules society has adopted to otherwise circumscribe the exercise of their considerable discretionary authority in carrying out their vital law enforcement duties.” 728 F.2d at 1205. This question is one that extends beyond fact-finding and implicates an assessment of broader legal policies that the New Mexico Constitution entrusts to the reasoned judgment of the appellate courts of this state. See N.M. Const, art. VI, §§ 1, 2, 28, 29.
When, as here, “the relevant legal principle can be given meaning only through its application to the particular circumstances of a case,” an appellate court is “reluctant to give the trier of fact’s conclusions presumptive force and, in so doing, strip ... [an] appellate court of its primary function as an expositor of law.” Miller v. Fenton, 474 U.S. 104, 114, 106 S.Ct. 445, 451, 88 L.Ed.2d 405 (1985) (citing other factors). It is the duty of appellate courts to shape the parameters of police conduct by placing the constitutional requirement of reasonableness in factual context and we can discharge that duty only through meaningful review of lower court determinations. Thus, we conclude that the mixed question involved in determining exigency lies closest in proximity to a conclusion of law, and hold that such determinations are to be reviewed de novo. See McConney, 728 F.2d at 1203 (stating that factors favoring de novo review are most predominate when the mixed question implicates constitutional rights). To the extent that State v. Sanchez is inconsistent with this opinion, it is overruled.
The rule of announcement and forced entry. — Common law beginnings and acceptance in the federal and state courts. Commentators and courts have traced the rule of announcement to early common-law decisions describing the legal limitations on the execution of civil process. See, e.g., G. Robert Blakey, The Rule of Announcement and Unlawful Entry: Miller v. United States and Ker v. California, 112 U.Pa.L.Rev. 499, 500-08 (1964); Michael R. Sonnenreieh & Stanley Ebner, No-Knock and Nonsense, An Alleged Constitutional Problem, 44 St. John’s L.Rev. 626, 627-29 (1970); Ker v. California, 374 U.S. 23, 47-48, 83 S.Ct. 1623, 1636-1637, 10 L.Ed.2d 726 (1963) (Brennan, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part); Miller v. United States, 357 U.S. 301, 307-09, 78 S.Ct. 1190, 1194-96, 2 L.Ed.2d 1332 (1958); Accarino v. United States, 179 F.2d 456, 460-64 (D.C.Cir.1949); Commonwealth v. Cundriff, 382 Mass. 137, 415 N.E.2d 172, 174-78 (1980) (rule in context of arrest warrant), cert. denied, 451 U.S. 973, 101 S.Ct. 2054, 68 L.Ed.2d 353 (1981); State v. Parker, 283 Minn. 127, 166 N.W.2d 347, 350 (1969). The rule of announcement first was articulated in that context in Semayne’s Case, 77 Eng.Rep. 194 (K.B.1603):
In all cases when the King is party, the sheriff (if the doors be not open) may break the party’s house, either to arrest him, or to do other execution of the K[ing]’s process, if otherwise he cannot enter. But before he breaks it, he ought to signify the cause of his coming, and to make request to open doors____
Id. at 195 (footnotes omitted).
The rule of Semayne’s Case was followed by early English and American courts in cases involving the execution of an arrest warrant. See Sonnenreich & Ebner, supra, at 629 (discussing cases). There was, however, little discussion in the early cases of the rule’s applicability to forcible entry pursuant to a search warrant. See Blakey, supra, at 503-08. The first American opinion to discuss the rule in the context of a search warrant was Bell v. Clapp, 10 Johns. 263 (N.Y.Sup.Ct.1813). Although announcement was not at issue in Bell because the officers did announce their identity and purpose, the court affirmed the right of the officers, upon due demand, to break and enter. Id. at 265-66. Since Bell, many states have codified the rule of announcement as part of state search and seizure practice and the rule has be come embedded firmly in the common law. Congress, as well, requires adherence to the rule in a statute that parallels many state statutory formulations:
The officer may break open any outer or inner door or window of a house, or any part of a house, or any thing therein, to execute a search warrant, if, after notice of his authority and purpose, he is refused admittance or when necessary to liberate himself or a person aiding him in the execution of the warrant.
18 U.S.C. § 3109 (1988); see also Sonnenreich & Ebner, supra, at 630-39 (reviewing statutory and common-law rules in several states).
The common-law rule serves diverse purposes. It prevents the needless destruction of the homeowner’s property — an act with potentially devastating human consequences in pre-industrialized society. See Lee v. Gansel, 98 Eng.Rep. 935, 938 (K.B.1774) (stating that a contrary rule “would leave the family within[ ] naked and exposed to thieves and robbers”). In addition, the rule protects the sanctity of the home and individual privacy. Ker, 374 U.S. at 52, 83 S.Ct. at 1638 (Brennan, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). Finally, the rule protects both the occupant and police from the possible violent response of a startled occupant suddenly confronted with an unannounced entry by an unknown person. People v. Dumas, 9 Cal.3d 871, 109 Cal.Rptr. 304, 309, 512 P.2d 1208, 1213 (1973) (in bank).
—Federal Law. The Supreme Court has not determined whether officers executing a search warrant must knock and announce prior to entry. The Court follows the general rule that the Fourth Amendment prohibits only unreasonable searches. Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 558, 99 S.Ct. 1861, 1884, 60 L.Ed.2d 447 (1979). The test of reasonableness does not lend itself to “precise definition or mechanical application.” Id. at 559, 99 S.Ct. at 1884. In each case, the need for the particular search must be weighed against the intrusion into the privacy rights of individuals. Id. In this case, Attaway argues that his Fourth Amendment right was violated because the police executed a search of his home without first knocking, announcing their presence, and allowing adequate time for him to answer the door. We must determine whether the conduct of the police officers was reasonable in light of the facts known to them at the time they executed the warrant.
In Ker v. California, the Supreme Court held that the method of entry incident to lawful arrest accompanied by a search is governed by Fourth Amendment reasonableness standards. 374 U.S. at 40-41, 83 S.Ct. at 1633-34. In a plurality opinion, eight justices agreed that a police officer’s manner of entry is subject to the Fourth Amendment standards of reasonableness "with four of the eight concluding that the unannounced entry was reasonable and four concluding it was unreasonable, id. at 46, 83 S.Ct. at 1635-36; the ninth upheld the entry using a Fourteenth Amendment due process analysis. Id. at 44-45, 83 S.Ct. at 1645-46. The .dispute centered on the circumstances that would justify abandonment of the notice requirement. From the various opinions in Ker, three elements of the rule of announcement emerge: (1) notice of presence; (2) identification of authority; and (3) statement of lawful purpose.
After first determining that the arrests were lawful, Justice Clark examined the method of entry under Fourth Amendment reasonableness principles. Ker, 374 U.S. at 38-41, 83 S.Ct. at 1632-34. The officers had entered without knock or notice, but the Court concluded that under the specific facts of the case the method of entry was reasonable: “In addition to the officers’ belief that Ker was in possession of narcotics, which could be quickly and easily destroyed, Ker’s furtive conduct in eluding them shortly before the arrest was ground for the belief that he might well have been expecting the police.” Id. at 40, 83 S.Ct. at 1633. Apparently, Justice Clark viewed compliance or noncompliance with the rule of announcement as an indicator of the reasonableness of the officer’s conduct under the circumstances. See id. at 37-38, 83 S.Ct. at 1631-1632. Justice Clark appeared to accept an inevitable discovery rationale, stating that the constitution would not be violated if an officer discovers evidence more quickly than he would have had he followed the rules.
Concurring in part and dissenting in part, Justice Brennan reasoned that the rule is part of the constitutional requirement that searches be reasonable:
The protections of individual freedom carried into the Fourth Amendment undoubtedly included this firmly established requirement of an announcement by police officers of purpose and authority before breaking into an individual’s home. The requirement is no mere procedural nicety or formality attendant upon the service of a warrant. Decisions in both the federal and state courts have recognized, as did the English courts, that the requirement is of the essence of the substantive protections which safeguard individual liberty.
It is much too late in the day to deny that a lawful entry is as essential to vindication of the protections of the Fourth Amendment as, for example, probable cause to arrest or a search warrant for a search not incidental to an arrest.
Ker, 374 U.S. at 49, 53, 83 S.Ct. at 1637, 1640 (citation omitted) (footnote omitted). In his view, failure to comply with the rule of announcement is per se unreasonable except in three narrow circumstances:
[T]he Fourth Amendment is violated by an unannounced police intrusion into a private home, with or without an arrest warrant, except (1) where the persons within already know of the officers’ authority and purpose, or (2) where the officers are justified in the belief that persons within are in imminent peril of bodily harm, or (3) where those within, made aware of the presence of someone outside (because, for example, there has been a knock at the door), are then engaged in activity which justifies the officers in the belief that an escape or the destruction of evidence is being attempted.
Id. at 47, 83 S.Ct. at 1636. Only the second exception does not rest on the occupant’s awareness of the officer’s presence. Justice Brennan refused to recognize any further exceptions to the rule. Id. at 55, 83 S.Ct. at 1640. First, any exception not requiring a showing of awareness of presence “necessarily implies a rejection of the inviolable presumption of innocence.” Id. at 56, 83 S.Ct. at 1641. Second, loud noises or running within the house amount “only to ambiguous conduct,” insufficient to form a basis for belief that an escape is being attempted or evidence is being destroyed. Id. at 57, 83 S.Ct. at 1641. Finally, announcement minimizes the danger both to officers and occupants that likely would attend a surprise entry and it decreases the probable impact of forcible entry in cases of mistaken identity. Id. at 57-58, 83 S.Ct. at 1641-1642.
Justice Brennan found that because no exception to the rule of announcement was present under the facts in Ker, the search was unreasonable and the evidence should have been suppressed. He reasoned that the officers’ general knowledge, gained through their experience with drug dealers, did not satisfy the constitutional test for application of the destruction of evidence exception: “The subjective judgment of the police officers cannot constitutionally be a substitute for what has always been considered a necessarily objective inquiry, namely, whether circumstances exist in the particular case which allow an unannounced police entry.” Id. at 63, 83 S.Ct. at 1644 (footnote omitted).
Lower federal courts have applied the principles of Ker to searches under a warrant. In United States v. Francis, 646 F.2d 251 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 454 U.S. 1082, 102 S.Ct. 637, 70 L.Ed.2d 616 (1981), the court summed up the state of the law:
Although the Supreme Court has not addressed the issue [of whether the Fourth Amendment requires officers executing a search warrant to knock, announce, and be refused admittance before entering] many federal courts have---- Though each case by itself is less than compelling, their conclusion has been unanimous: the [F]ourth [A]mendment forbids the unannounced, forcible entry of a dwelling in the absence of exigent circumstances.
Id. at 257-58 (footnote omitted); see also Rivera v. United States, 928 F.2d 592, 606 (2d Cir.1991) (holding Fourth Amendment requires officers executing search warrant to make a reasonable effort to provide actual, not merely pro forma, notice of their identity and purpose); United States v. Andrus, 775 F.2d 825, 844 (7th Cir.1985) (holding that the “[F]ourth [AJmendment requires that the state officers’ conduct in enforcing a search warrant be reasonable”); United States v. Baker, 638 F.2d 198, 202 n. 7 (10th Cir.1980) (knock-and-announee rule incorporated “to some extent” in Fourth Amendment). But see United States v. Sagaribay, 982 F.2d 906, 910 (5th Cir.) (knock-and-announce rule only a factor in determining reasonableness but not an inflexible part of the Fourth Amendment), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 114 S.Ct. 160, 126 L.Ed.2d 120 (1993); United States v. Nolan, 718 F.2d 589, 600-02 (3d Cir.1983) (holding that the Fourth Amendment and the federal knock-and-announee statute overlap, but do not coincide). Thus, at the very least it appears that the rule of announcement is an important component of a reasonable search under the Fourth Amendment.
—New Mexico law. — The New Mexico Constitution embodies a knock-and-announce requirement. In New Mexico, the ultimate question in all cases regarding alleged search and seizure violations is whether the search and seizure was reasonable. State v. Martinez, 94 N.M. 436, 440, 612 P.2d 228, 232, cert. denied, 449 U.S. 959, 101 S.Ct. 371, 66 L.Ed.2d 226 (1980). This rule of law is best served by the application of certain objective criteria in deciding the reasonableness of any search and seizure. The application of objective criteria in determining whether officers have violated the knock and announce requirements will secure the right of each citizen to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures and, at the same time, will provide law enforcement with clear standards of conduct.
New Mexico has no statute setting forth the requirements of announcement prior to a forcible entry when executing a search warrant nor do we have a deep history of common-law decisions on the question. Yet, recent opinions from our intermediate appellate court have suggested that Article II, Section 10 incorporates a knock-and-announce requirement. In State v. Baca, 87 N.M. 12, 528 P.2d 656 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 87 N.M. 5, 528 P.2d 649 (1974), the Court of Appeals sought guidance from the common law in determining whether the New Mexico constitutional provision prohibiting unreasonable searches placed limitations on the method of entry that police employ when executing a search warrant. After quoting the text of Article II, Section 10, the Court observed:
[W]e are obliged to look to the common law to determine what procedure must be followed prior to a forced entry. We recognize that some uncertainty exists as to common law requirements. Our view is that an officer, prior to forcible entry, must give notice of authority and purpose, and be denied admittance. This is a general standard. Noncompliance with this standard is justified if exigent circumstances exist.
Id. at 13-14, 528 P.2d at 657-58 (citations omitted). Because the circumstances in Baca suggested exigencies sufficient to justify forcible entry, the Court concluded that “the defendant’s constitutional right to freedom from unreasonable search and seizure was not violated.” Id. at 14, 528 P.2d at 658.
We believe that the rule of announcement in Baca rests on state constitutional grounds. The requirement that officers executing a search warrant announce their identity and purpose and be denied admission is a critical component of a reasonable search under Article II, Section 10. As we stated in State v. Gutierrez, 116 N.M. 431, 444, 863 P.2d 1052, 1065 (1993), “we observe that Article II, Section 10 expresses the fundamental notion that every person in this state is entitled to be free from unwarranted governmental intrusions.” The announcement requirement advances important Article II, Section 10 values by preventing needless destruction of private property, eliminating unnecessary intrusions upon privacy, and reducing the risk of violence both to police and occupants. Recognizing that the rule of announcement has a basis in our constitution “best effectuates the constitutional proscription of unreasonable searches and seizures.” See id. at 446, 863 P.2d at 1067. Thus, if an officer attempts to execute a search warrant without complying with the announcement rule and exigent circumstances are not present, the entry is unreasonable and the officer commits an “unwarranted governmental intrusion” in violation of the accused’s Article II, Section 10 rights.
We are aware that courts and commentators have criticized elevation of the common-law rule to constitutional status. See State v. Valentine, 264 Or. 54, 504 P.2d 84 (1972) (in banc), cert. denied, 412 U.S. 948, 93 S.Ct. 3001, 37 L.Ed.2d 1000 (1973); Sonnenreich & Ebner, supra, at 647 (arguing that elevation of rule of announcement to constitutional dimension in Ker was “historically unsound”). In Valentine, the court reasoned that “the interest of the momentary protection of the privacy of the householder ... [is] not of sufficient substance to rise to constitutional stature and require the exclusion of otherwise competent evidence.” 504 P.2d at 89. If the constitutional requirement that searches be “reasonable” reaches no more than privacy — the right to be let alone — the rule of announcement does little to protect that privacy. See id. at 87. As Sonnenreich and Ebner observe: “Once identity and purpose are stated, entry must always be permitted; if permission is denied, or even delayed for an inordinate amount of time, entry may be forced, provided the officer has a valid purpose in gaining admission.” Sonnenreich & Ebner, supra, at 647. Under this view, privacy interests are limited to a few seconds in which to respond to the officer’s call.
Under Article II, Section 10, however, the concept of reasonableness cannot be defined so narrowly. “Reasonableness” is given life by the factual matrix in which events take place. Justice Frankfurter’s observations on this point are particularly apt:
To say that the search must be reasonable is to require some criterion of reason. It is no guide at all ... to say that an “unreasonable search” is forbidden — that the search must be reasonable. What is the test of reason which makes a search reasonable? The test is the reason underly ing and expressed by the Fourth Amendment: the history and the experience which it embodies and the safeguards afforded by it against the evils to which it was a response.
United States v. Rabinowitz, 339 U.S. 56, 83, 70 S.Ct. 430, 442, 94 L.Ed. 653 (1950) (Frankfurter, J., dissenting), overruled by Chimel v. California, 395 U.S. 752, 89 S.Ct. 2034, 23 L.Ed.2d 685 (1969) (accepting Justice Frankfurter’s language as the rule). We agree that the knock-an,d-announce criterion is vital to the constitutional constraint against unreasonable search and seizure; and we agree with the many federal courts that construe the rule of announcement as being constitutionally based. Article II, Section 10 embodies the disparate values of privacy, sanctity of the home, occupant safety, and police expedience and safety. We believe, therefore, that the knoek-and-announce criterion is more than just another circumstance to be considered in evaluating the reasonableness of the execution of a warrant.
In addition to the federal cases cited construing the rule of announcement in Ker as part of the Fourth Amendment, several state courts view compliance with the rule of announcement as part of the state constitutional proscription against unreasonable searches and seizures. See, e.g., State v. Dusch, 259 Ind. 507, 289 N.E.2d 515, 517 (1972) (holding that state constitution requires announcement of authority before conducting search); State v. Sakellson, 379 N.W.2d 779, 784 (N.D.1985) (holding that unannounced entry violates state constitution if the entry is not reasonable “under special circumstances”). In Dusch, the Indiana Supreme Court recognized that eight of the nine justices in Ker believed the Fourth Amendment embodied an announcement of authority requirement. 289 N.E.2d at 516. The court also found that cases from its jurisdiction indicated the rule of announcement was part of the constitutional proscription against unreasonable searches and seizures. Id. at 517. Based on this, the court held that the rule of announcement was required by the Indiana Constitution. Id. We also rely on Ker and on past case law from’our jurisdiction, see, e.g., Baca, 87 N.M. at 12, 528 P.2d at 656, to support our belief that the New Mexico Constitution requires law enforcement personnel to knock and announce their authority when executing a warrant.
—Constitutional knock-and-announce requirement to be balanced against countervailing exigencies. Noncompliance with the rule of announcement is not per se violative of Article II, Section 10. The essence of the reasonableness requirement of Article II, Section 10 does not require rigid adherence to the rule. The interests served by the rule of announcement must be balanced against potentially countervailing, legitimate government interests. In the context of search and seizure, a balance must be struck against the backdrop of probable cause to search. The right of the officers to enter the premises matures the moment a detached and neutral judicial officer determines that there is probable cause to search the premises. From that moment, governmental interests in the expeditious and safe execution of a search warrant are legitimate and strong. An otherwise legal search pursuant to a warrant is not made unreasonable by an unannounced entry when privacy and occupant safety interests are minimal and the interests of law enforcement are strong. Thus, partial compliance or non-compliance with the rule of announcement may be excused if exigent circumstances exist.
We expressly endorse the widely accepted, general exception to the rule of announcement based on an officer’s objectively reasonable belief that full or partial compliance with the rule of announcement would increase the risk of danger to the officers effectuating the warrant. See 2 Wayne R. LaFave, Search and Seizure § 4.8(e) (2d ed. 1987 & Supp.1994) (discussing danger to person exceptions). The risk of peril exception is consistent with the balance of interests that we have identified above. The state’s interests in safe execution of a warrant, when coupled with specific knowledge that the occupants of the place to be searched pose a serious risk to the officers, outweigh the occupants’ interests in privacy of the home.
Exigent circumstances, while measured at the time of the entry, may be established by facts known to the officers prior to entry. See People v. Dumas, 9 Cal.3d 871, 109 Cal.Rptr. 304, 309, 512 P.2d 1208, 1213 (1973) (in bank) (stating that “unannounced entry may be excused on the basis of information received before reaching the location at which entry is to be effected when the information reasonably leads the officer to believe that compliance would increase his peril or frustrate the arrest”); Sanchez, 88 N.M. at 404, 540 P.2d at 1293 (validating unannounced entry based on facts known to the officers beforehand). To hold otherwise, especially when the exception is based on peril to the officers or occupants, makes little practical sense. If the police, through reliable sources, obtain in advance specific information suggesting that the particular defendant will likely respond with violence to a search or arrest warrant, those facts are probative of whether the officers reasonably believed that compliance with the rule of announcement would increase peril to themselves.
One inevitable question that must be addressed is whether the mere ownership or possession of firearms is insufficient to give rise to a risk of peril exigency. In Dumas, the court stated:
Police knowledge of the existence of a firearm excuses compliance with announcement requirements only where the officers reasonably believe the weapon will be used against them if they proceed with the ordinary announcements. This belief must be based on specific facts and not on broad, unsupported presumptions.
512 P.2d at 1213 (citations omitted). In State v. Williams, 168 Wis.2d 970, 485 N.W.2d 42 (1992), however, the Wisconsin Supreme Court criticized the implicit belief of the court in Dumas that individuals are more likely to shoot unknown intruders and less likely to shoot identified police officers, and stated that the Dumas rationale “is outdated as applied to armed drug dealers in the 1990s.” Id. at 47. The Williams court believed that “gun's are tools of the illegal drug trade” and concluded that “a person in possession of both firearms and large quantities of illegal drugs poses a significant threat to the safety of law enforcement officers.” Id. at 48. Based on this, the Williams court concluded that the mere presence of firearms and drugs together gives rise to exigent circumstances because of the “violence associated with drug trafficking today.” See id. at 47-48.
We do not believe that giving notice and announcement of purpose necessarily is more compelling when an officer knows that a suspect possesses weapons. Cf. Dumas, 512 P.2d at 1213 (stating that compliance with rule is more compelling when officers are aware of weapons). We do believe, however, that our constitution requires an officer to have knowledge of the specific individual’s propensity to use violence before an unannounced entry would be considered reasonable. General knowledge regarding the propensity of armed drug dealers is not sufficient to excuse compliance with announcement requirements. See People v. Gastelo, 67 Cal.2d 586, 63 Cal.Rptr. 10, 12, 432 P.2d 706, 708 (1967). “Exceptions to the entry requirement must be founded on particularity and not on generality.” Dusch, 289 N.E.2d at 518.
The requirement of specificity is to be liberally construed because direct evidence of a suspect’s propensity rarely will be available. Specific evidence that might give the officers reason to believe that a particular suspect known to possess weapons presents a danger to the officers may be factored into the reasonableness determination. Thus, for example, knowledge that a suspect owns weapons and knowledge that the sus pect has committed a crime of violence may be sufficient to reasonably conclude that the suspect is likely to use those weapons. The same might be true if the police have knowledge that the suspect possesses a large cache of illegal or unusually dangerous weapons, or that the suspect possesses weapons coupled with other circumstances tending to show violent or unpredictable behavior.
The method of entry was reasonable as a matter of New Mexico Constitutional law. In reviewing the risk of peril exception we follow the view that endorses an objective test of whether, under the facts established, a reasonable, well-trained, and prudent police officer would believe that full or partial compliance "with the rule of announcement would create or enhance the danger to the entering officers. See State v. Ford, 310 Or. 623, 801 P.2d 754, 763 (1990). In so doing, we consider all of the circumstances as found or impliedly found by the trial court to be present at the time of entry.
Here, the trial court entered no findings of fact. In denying the motion to suppress in an oral order from the bench, the trial court judge only stated:
It is my finding and my determination that the officers had a reasonable cause for the method of entry chosen based on the information related to them by the various officers who had been in charge of collecting information, that they had a reasonable cause to believe that they might be in jeopardy if they waited a length of time for announcement and answer. So the breach and the entry was justified in my determination.
Thus, under a de novo review, we must draw from the record to derive findings based on reasonable facts and inferences and determine whether those facts and inferences support the conclusion reached by the court. The record fully supports a finding that shortly before the search Detective Little-john supplied the SWAT team members with the following information:
1. Attaway was believed to be both an amphetamine user and a dealer of substantial quantity;
2. There was an outstanding California warrant for Attaway’s arrest;
3. Attaway had been convicted of weapons and drug charges in the past;
4. Attaway possessed a large arsenal of weapons including an automatic weapon, two sawed-off shotguns, a couple of rifles, and numerous handguns; and
5. Attaway had threatened police officers.
In addition, it is uncontroverted that the officers did knock, announce their authority, and wait a short period of time before entering the residence. Finally, Officer Samuel Haddy, commander of the SWAT team, testified that after announcement of purpose and authority, - the team was in an exposed and vulnerable position on the front porch of the Attaway home and there was no place to seek “cover” from any hostile action.
Given these facts, we are satisfied that the ten to fifteen second pause in this case was sufficient time for the officers to wait before executing their forcible entry into the house. In assessing these factors, Officer Haddy testified that “I fully expected to be involved in an armed confrontation due to the fact of the past arrests that we were shown for weapons and narcotics and the fact that the gentleman was wanted in California and he had made threats against police officers.” The time interval, while extremely short for 6:00 A.M. on a Saturday morning, was sufficiently long given the highly specific indicia that Attaway posed a menace to police executing the warrant. Therefore, we hold that the method of entry was reasonable under Article II, Section 10 of the New Mexico Constitution.
The entry was reasonable under federal law. For the same reasons, we are satisfied that the Fourth Amendment reasonableness requirement was not violated in this case. The Supreme Court has not expressly recognized that an officer’s reasonable apprehension of peril will excuse noncompliance with any knock-and-announce rule that might exist under the Fourth Amendment. See Ker, 874 U.S. at 89-41, 83 S.Ct. at 1632-1634. As we noted, however, lower federal courts have held with substantial uniformity that the Fourth Amendment embodies a knock- and-announce requirement and its attendant exceptions. See, e.g., Rivera, 928 F.2d at 606; Andrus, 775 F.2d at 844; Francis, 646 F.2d at 257-58; Baker, 638 F.2d at 202 n. 7; cf. Minnesota v. Olson, 495 U.S. 91, 100, 110 S.Ct. 1684, 1689, 109 L.Ed.2d 85 (1990) (endorsing state court statement that risk of danger is an exigent circumstance that may justify warrantless entry to arrest or search).
Federal courts, under circumstances that are similar and perhaps less compelling have found no violation of the federal knock-and-announce statute requiring exclusion of evidence. See, e.g., United States v. Nabors, 901 F.2d 1351, 1354 (6th Cir.) (holding suppression not required under federal statute when officers waited only briefly after announcement before forcible entry when police knew that defendant was suspected of trafficking in narcotics, was a felon in possession of “an array of firearms,” and wore a bullet proof vest), cert. denied, 498 U.S. 871, 111 S.Ct. 192, 112 L.Ed.2d 154 (1990); see also Marvin O. Meier, Annotation, What Constitutes Violation of 18 USCS § 3109 Requiring Federal Officer to Give Notice of His Authority and Purpose Prior to Breaking Open Door or Window or Other Part of House to Execute Search Warrant, 21 A.L.R.Fed. 820, 856-61, 867-77 (1974 & Supp.1993) (citing cases applying “apprehension of peril” exception and cases in which police announced both authority and purpose before forcible entry). Therefore, we hold that the method of entry was reasonable under the Fourth Amendment.
Conclusion. For all of the foregoing reasons, we affirm that part of the judgment of the Court of Appeals concluding that the method of entry was reasonable under the facts of this case. In addition, we adopt the reasoning of the Court of Appeals on all other points raised in the petition and, accordingly, affirm the judgments of conviction in their entirety.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
FROST, J., concurs.
BACA, J., specially concurs.
. The opinion of the Court of Appeals does not articulate the constitutional predicate for its analysis. At the suppression hearing, both the trial court and the defendant relied on State v. Baca, 87 N.M. 12, 528 P.2d 656 (Ct.App.) (explication of rule of announcement and exceptions based on exigent circumstances), cert. denied, 87 N.M. 5, 528 P.2d 649 (1974), and on relevant Fourth Amendment jurisprudence.
. While we require findings of fact and conclusions of law in civil actions tried to the court, we have no such requirement, civil or criminal, for rulings on motions to suppress. Thus, in most cases, an appellate court is presented only with a conclusion that the search was reasonable or unreasonable, often articulated in shorthand {e.g., exigent circumstances or noncompliance with the rule of announcement). The interests of judicial administration, however, require de novo review of the trial court's determination of exigency. While it would be helpful for the trial court to enter findings of fact and conclusions of law in suppression hearings, the failure to do so will not preclude de novo review.
. We recognize that our legal tradition often has drawn a sharp distinction between arrest and search and seizure. See Blakey, supra, at 511 n. 89 (discussing historical roots of distinction). We do not, however, rule on the soundness of this distinction in this opinion.
. The state statutes typically establish only the right, upon due demand, of officers to enter forcibly. New profess to codify the common-law exceptions to the rule. Those authorizing forcible entry after notice include: Ala.Code § 15—5—9 (1982); Alaska Stat. § 12.35.040 (1990); Ariz. Rev.Stat.Ann. § 13-3916 (1989); Cal. Penal Code § 1531 (West 1982); D.C.Code Ann. § 25-129(g) (1991) (searches for alcohol), § 33—565(g) (1993) (searches for narcotics); Fla.Stat. § 933.09 (1991); Ga.Code Ann. § 17-5-27 (Harrison 1990); Haw.Rev.Stat. § 803-37 (1985); Idaho Code §§ 19-4409, 4410 (1987); Ind.Code Ann. § 35-33-5-7 (Burns 1985); Iowa Code § 808.6 (1991); Ky.Rev.Stat.Ann. § 70.077 (execution of process for recovery of property), § 70.-078 (arrest) (1980); Mich.Comp. Laws Ann. § 780.656 (West 1982); Neb.Rev.Stat. § 29-411 (1989); Nev.Rev.Stat. § 179.055 (1991); N.Y.Crim.Proc.Law. § 690.50 (Consol. 1986); N.C.Gen.Stat. § 15A-251 (1988); N.D.Cent. Code § 29-29-08 (1991); Ohio Rev.Code Ann. § 2935.12 (Baldwin 1992); Okla.Stat.Ann. tit. 22, § 1228 (West 1991); Or.Rev.Stat. § 133.605 (1991); Rules Crim.Proc., Rule 2007, 42 Pa. Cons.Stat.Ann. (1989); S.C.Code Ann. § 23-15-60 (Law.Co-op.1989); S.D. Codified Laws Ann. § 23A-35-8 (1988); Tex. Penal Code Ann. § 9.51 (West 1974); Utah Code Ann. § 77-23-10 (1990); W.Va.Code § 62-1A-5 (1992); Wyo.Stat. § 7-7-104 (1987); see also Model Code of Pre-Arraignment Procedure § SS 220.3 (Proposed Official Draft 1975).
Many state statutes authorize the use of reasonable and necessary force in executing a search warrant, without expressly requiring announcement: 725 ILCS 5/108-8 (1992 State Bar Ed.); Kan.Stat.Ann. § 22-2508 (1988); La.Code Crim.Proc.Ann. art. 164 (West 1991); Miss.Code Ann. § 99-27-15 (1972); Mont.Code Ann. § 46-5-228 (1993); Wis.Stat. § 968.14 (1985).
. For support, Justice Clark quoted a passage from Justice Traynor’s opinion in People v. Maddox, 46 Cal.2d 301, 294 P.2d 6, cert. denied, 352 U.S. 858, 77 S.Ct. 81, 1 L.Ed.2d 65 (1956). See Ker, 374 U.S. at 39-40, 83 S.Ct. at 1632-34. Justice Traynor wrote:
It must be borne in mind that the primary purpose of the constitutional guarantees is to prevent unreasonable invasions of the security of the people in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, and when an officer has reasonable cause to enter a dwelling to make an arrest and as an incident to that arrest is authorized to make a reasonable search, his entry and his search are not unreasonable. Suspects have no constitutional right to destroy or dispose of evidence, and no basic constitutional guarantees are violated because an officer succeeds in getting to a place where he is entitled to be more quickly than he would, had he complied with section 844. Moreover, since the demand and explanation requirements of section 844 are a codification of the common law, they may reasonably be interpreted as limited by the common law rules that compliance is not required if the officer's peril would have been increased or the arrest frustrated had he demanded entrance and stated his purpose. Without the benefit of hindsight and ordinarily on the spur of the moment, the officer must decide these questions in the first instance.
Maddox, 294 P.2d at 9 (citations omitted).
. As the law in New Mexico stands now, if an officer does not knock and announce his presence prior to entering a dwelling, the entry presumptively is unreasonable because Baca states that “prior to forcible entry, [an officer] must give notice of authority and purpose, and be denied admittance.” 87 N.M. at 13, 528 P.2d at 657 (emphasis added). If an officer does not knock and announce prior to forcible entry and exigent circumstances are not present, the fruits of that search would be excluded as a violation of the general constitutional reasonableness requirement. In essence, Baca gives the knock- and-announce rule constitutional significance because failure to comply with the rule leads to exclusion of the evidence under the general reasonableness requirement. The effect of recognizing that the rule exists on a constitutional level does not change the current status of the law and it emphasizes the Court’s strong belief in the protection of individual privacy and in the reasonable execution of warrants.
. We recognize that other circumstances might create sufficient exigency to justify noncompliance with the rule, of announcement. See Baca, 87 N.M. at 14, 528 P.2d at 658 (stating that officer peril, fleeing suspect, and possible destruction of evidence are examples of exigent circumstances); United States v. Dohm, 597 F.2d 535, 538 (5th Cir.1979) (stating that if suspect knows of officer's presence and purpose before compliance with knock and announce rule, then officer need not comply with rule). We list these possible circumstances to place the term "exigency” in perspective, but because we are not faced with these factual situations in the current case, we do not fully address their validity.
. We disagree with the conclusion of the Court of Appeals that it was not clear whether the officers who executed the warrant knew of the threats Attaway had made against police officers. We have reviewed the record, and conclude that the following uncontroverted colloquy establishes to our satisfaction that Littlejohn informed the SWAT team members of the threats:
The Court: With regard to the generic threats toward police officers, what did you advise the SWAT team officers?
Littlejohn: I told the police officers that I had information from an informant that Mr. Attaway had made specific threats against police officers, myself included.
Therefore, the threats can be used as evidence that exigent circumstances did exist that gave the officers a reasonable belief that their lives would be in peril if they waited any longer than ten to fifteen seconds. | [
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OPINION
BIVINS, Judge.
Convicted of possession of heroin with intent to distribute, contrary to NMSA 1978, Section 30-31-20(A)(3) (Cum.Supp. 1991), Defendant appeals raising the following issues: (1) whether the no-knock warrant was unlawful; (2) and, if unlawful, whether exigent circumstances existed at the time of execution that justified the officers’ entry; (3) whether the affidavit for the search warrant was facially insufficient; (4) whether the search warrant was overbroad or the search conducted was outside the scope of the warrant; (5) whether the trial court erred in denying Defendant’s motion for disclosure of the informants’ identities; (6) whether the trial court erred in joining Defendant’s case with co-defendant’s case; (7) whether the trial court erred in failing to declare a mistrial; or, alternatively, in failing to inform the jury that co-defendant had pled guilty to possession of heroin; and (8) whether the trial court erred in submitting to the jury only that evidence designated as relevant to Defendant. Other issues listed in the docketing statement but not briefed are deemed abandoned. See State v. Fish, 102 N.M. 775, 777, 701 P.2d 374, 376 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 102 N.M. 734, 700 P.2d 197 (1985). We reverse on the fourth issue and remand for a new trial. Because we remand the action for a retrial, we find it necessary to also address issues one, two, three, and five. We need not address issues six, seven, or eight.
FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
After conducting an evidentiary hearing on Defendant’s Motion to Suppress, the trial court entered its order denying the Motion. In the order, the trial court found that a magistrate issued a no-knock search warrant on December 20, 1989; that while New Mexico Rules of Criminal Procedure for both magistrate and district courts contain specific rules for the issuance of search warrants, those rules neither prohibit nor authorize no-knock search warrants; that the officers executing the search warrant in this case neither knocked nor announced their presence prior to entry; that entry was made pursuant to the search warrant only after a child who opened the door through which one of the officers entered announced the presence of the police officers; and that the manner of execution of the search warrant did not violate Defendant’s rights under either the New Mexico or federal constitution. Based on those findings, the trial court concluded that a magistrate or a judge is not authorized to issue a no-knock search warrant; that the search warrant in this case was legally valid, but that the no-knock provision was of no consequence; and that the manner of execution of the warrant did not violate Defendant’s constitutional rights. We read the trial court’s conclusions to mean that, while determining that there is no authority to issue a no-knoek search warrant, in this case it had no significance because exigent circumstances justified the officers entering without first announcing their presence and purpose.
1. No-Knock Warrant
Because the trial court concluded as a matter of law that a magistrate or judge has no authority to issue a no-knock search warrant, Defendant understandably briefed that issue. The State, however, chose not to brief that issue, placing its entire reliance on the existence of exigent circumstances to justify the avoidance of the “knock and announce” rule. Since the State has opted not to defend the adoption of the no-knock search warrant, we decline to consider that question in this appeal. We think it prudent to consider the validity of no-knoek search warrants on the particular facts and circumstances presented in a case where the issue is properly presented and when fully briefed by both sides. That was not done here.
2. Exigent Circumstances
While the Rules of Criminal Procedure both for the district and magistrate courts do not expressly require that law enforcement officers give notice of authority and purpose before making a forcible entry, see SCRA 1986, 5-211(C) and 6-208(D), common law imposes that requirement. See State v. Sanchez, 88 N.M. 402, 403, 540 P.2d 1291, 1292 (1975). See generally 2 Wayne R. LaFave, Search and Seizure § 4.8 (1987 & Supp.1992) [hereinafter Search and Seizure ] (generally required that officers give notice of authority and purpose prior to entry of premises with search warrant). Non-compliance with this standard is justified if exigent circumstances exist. State v. Valdez, 111 N.M. 438, 441, 806 P.2d 578, 581 (Ct.App.1990) (test for exigent circumstances is “ ‘whether, on the basis of the facts known to a prudent, cautious, trained officer, the officer could reasonably conclude that swift action was necessary’ ” (quoting State v. Copeland, 105 N.M. 27, 31, 727 P.2d 1342, 1346 (Ct.App.1986))), cert. denied, 111 N.M. 316, 805 P.2d 85 (1991). See generally 2 Search and Seizure, supra, § 4.8(d) (discussing destruction of evidence exception to knock and announce rule).
Questions regarding good faith belief and exigent circumstances are questions of fact for the trial court, and the trial court’s findings are given the same consideration as they are generally accorded under the substantial evidence standard. State v. Sanchez, 88 N.M. 402, 403, 540 P.2d 1291, 1292 (1975). The circumstances surrounding the entry without notice of authority and purpose must be evaluated from the standpoint of a “prudent, cautious and trained police officer.” Id. While the officers executing the warrant may rely on information obtained in advance of execution, we view the circumstances at the time of execution to determine if exigency exists. Cf. State v. Calvillo, 110 N.M. 114, 118, 792 P.2d 1157, 1161 (Ct.App.) (“The issue is not what the circumstances eventually show; it is whether, on the basis of facts known to a prudent, cautious, trained officer, the officer could reasonably conclude that swift action was necessary.”), cert. denied, 110 N.M. 72, 792 P.2d 49 (1990).
Based on information provided by confidential informants, a police officer (Lara) obtained a warrant to search co-defendant Jiminez’ residence, together with the vehicles of Defendant and co-defendant parked at that residence, and the occupants in the residence at the time the warrant was to be executed. Officer Lara testified at the suppression hearing that approximately six to eight officers participated in the execution of the warrant. Several officers arrived in a van clearly marked with the “Sheriff Department” name and insignia. Other officers arrived in either marked or unmarked vehicles. Officer Lara was wearing a raid jacket with an emblem on the front and “Sheriff’s Department” clearly written on the back. Other officers were either in plain clothes, uniform, or wearing similar raid jackets. The officers parked the van on the street near the driveway to the residence. Officer Lara and one or more officers proceeded toward the front door while several other officers went to the rear door. Officer Lara said that he observed several small children, ages five through seven, playing in the front yard. Upon arrival, he announced himself to the children as a police officer. One or more of the children started yelling “Cops! Cops!” with one child running from the yard through a screen door at the front entrance. Officer Lara followed in pursuit. Upon entering the front door, he observed Defendant make a dash toward the rear; however, other officers had entered through the rear door and apprehended him.
When questioned as to the basis for the no-knock entry, Officer Lara testified that it was based upon his experience and the information received from the informants. Officer Lara said that fourteen years experience taught him that traffickers in small amounts of heroin or cocaine usually destroy the contraband when confronted by police. With respect to the information provided by the informants, Officer Lara said that one or more informants had told him that co-defendant Jiminez had said that he would attempt to destroy the evidence if he saw the police coming. That information was contained in the affidavit for the search warrant.
Once the children ran screaming into the house, the trial court could reasonably determine that the occupants were alerted to the presence of the police, and the police were justified in assuming, based on their experience and information they had in this particular case, that evidence was about to be destroyed. Cf. United States v. Carter, 566 F.2d 1265, 1269 (5th Cir.) (where officer was “virtually certain” that persons inside knew of his presence and purpose making announcement would be a “useless gesture”), cert. denied, 436 U.S. 956, 98 S.Ct. 3069, 57 L.Ed.2d 1121 (1978); People v. Vargas, 36 Cal.App.3d 499, 111 Cal.Rptr. 745, 748 (1973) (strict compliance with announcement requirement excused where officers have reason to believe occupants already know purpose of entry); Commonwealth v. Beard, 501 Pa. 385, 461 A.2d 790, 792-93 (1983) (noncompliance with announcement requirement excused where police reasonably believe occupant knew purpose and would attempt to destroy evidence).
We believe the dissenting opinion not only errs in applying a subjective test to determine that exigent circumstances did not exist, but ignores the standard of review. For example, the dissent refers to Officer Lara’s testimony where he speculated that the children yelling “Cops! Cops!” was of no significance. If we were to apply a subjective standard, as the dissent seems to propose, then this testimony might be of value. This is not the test. The test is whether based on facts known to a prudent, cautious, trained officer, that officer could reasonably conclude that swift action was necessary. See Valdez, 111 N.M. at 441, 806 P.2d at 581; Sanchez, 88 N.M. at 403, 540 P.2d at 1292. As we have pointed out, Officer Lara, based on his experience, knew that traffickers in small amounts of heroin or cocaine usually destroyed the contraband when confronted by police, and an informant had said co-defendant promised to do just that. Based on those facts, coupled with the children’s yelling, the trial court could find swift action justified. With the officers’ presence already made known by the children’s actions, the court could find further announcement of presence and purpose unnecessary. When we view the evidence from the standpoint of whether evidence supports the trial court’s finding of exigent circumstances, we believe it does. An appellate court should not review to find evidence that would support a different result.
In addition, the dissent appears to ignore the standard of review. This court has previously held that “the reviewing court views the evidence in the light most favorable to the initial factual determination, resolving all conflicts in the evidence and indulging all inferences in favor of the trial court’s factual determination.” See State v. Wisdom, 110 N.M. 772, 774, 800 P.2d 206, 208 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 110 N.M. 749, 799 P.2d 1121 (1990).
We, therefore, hold that the evidence supports a finding of exigent circumstances that would justify execution of a search warrant without the requirement of first knocking and announcing the purpose.
3. Sufficiency of Affidavit
Defendant contends that the affidavit did not meet the requirements of the two-pronged test set forth in State v. Cordova, 109 N.M. 211, 214, 784 P.2d 30, 33 (1989). The supreme court held that “an affidavit must set forth both: (1) a substantial basis for believing the informant; and (2) a substantial basis for concluding the informant gathered the information of illegal activity in a reliable fashion.” See also SCRA 1986, 5-211(E). The affidavit indicates that one of the informants had personally observed drugs at the residence and that the informant had in the past provided reliable information. See Cordova, 109 N.M. at 217-18, 784 P.2d at 36-37 (fact that informant had provided reliable information in the past is relevant to determination of credibility); Wisdom, 110 N.M. at 777, 800 P.2d at 211. In addition, there is evidence that a police officer had observed the informant drive to the residence and purchase heroin. We hold that there was sufficient information to authorize a search warrant of the residence.
4. Scope of Search
Defendant also argues that the search warrant was overbroad in its authorization for a search of the occupants of the residence and vehicles parked at the residence.
a. Search of Person
Defendant contends that the warrant was overbroad and was not supported by probable cause to search Defendant. We agree. In examining the affidavit, we are unable to find sufficient probable cause to support the issuance of a search warrant concerning Defendant. Irrespective of the scope of the warrant, however, it is possible that Defendant’s actions alone provided probable cause for his arrest and a search incident to his arrest. We remand for a determination by the trial court of whether there was independent probable cause to support a warrantless arrest of Defendant, and, if so, whether the search of Defendant’s person was sufficiently contemporaneous with his arrest to be upheld as a search “incident to” arrest.
(i) Probable Cause
Upon lawful entry into the residence, officers observed Defendant rise from the sofa and drop a package onto the sofa. This package was later determined to be marijuana. A vial of heroin was also found on the sofa where Defendant had been sitting. Cf. State v. Copeland, 105 N.M. 27, 31, 727 P.2d 1342, 1346 (Ct.App.) (“Probable cause exists when the facts and circumstances within the officers’ knowledge * * * are sufficient to warrant a [person] of reasonable caution to believe that an offense has been, or is being, committed.”), cert. denied, 104 N.M. 702, 726 P.2d 856 (1986). On remand, the trial court should determine whether the evidence supports a finding of probable cause to believe that Defendant had committed or was committing a criminal offense. If the trial court finds that there was independent probable cause to arrest Defendant, the court must then determine whether the search was “incident to” Defendant’s arrest.
(ii) Incident to Arrest
We are unable to determine from the briefs or the record the precise time Defendant was placed under arrest and whether the search was sufficiently contemporaneous to the arrest to justify the search as being “incident to” the arrest. As long as the fruits of the search were not necessary to justify the arrest, the search is lawful “[w]here the formal arrest followed quickly on the heels of the challenged search.” Rawlings v. Kentucky, 448 U.S. 98, 111, 100 S.Ct. 2556, 2564, 65 L.Ed.2d 633 (1980); see also In re Doe, 89 N.M. 83, 85, 547 P.2d 566, 568 (Ct.App.) (where probable cause for arrest, search and seizure contemporaneous with, but before the arrest, was valid), cert. denied, 89 N.M. 206, 549 P.2d 284 (1976); State v. Garcia, 83 N.M. 490, 493, 493 P.2d 975, 978 (Ct.App.1971) (same), cert. denied, 83 N.M. 473, 493 P.2d 958 (1972). We remand for a determination of whether the search was valid as being “incident to” a lawful arrest.
b. Search of Vehicle
In addition to searching Defendant, the officers searched a ear parked at the residence in which they found balloons of a type used to transport heroin and a tape case with Defendant’s name on it containing marijuana seeds. Defendant contends that: (1) the warrant was overbroad and was not supported by probable cause; and (2) the search was invalid because the vehicle searched did not belong to Defendant.
The State argues that because Defendant failed to include this argument in his Motion to Suppress, he has failed to preserve the argument for appeal. We disagree. The committee commentary to Rule 5-212 of the New Mexico Rules of Criminal Procedure specifically states that the Rules “do not require motion objecting to illegally seized evidence prior to trial.” SCRA 1986, 5-212; see also State v. Alberico (No. 12,-368, slip op. at 3 n. 1) (Ct.App.1991). See generally 4 Search and Seizure, supra, § 11.1(a) (discussing split in jurisdictions between contemporaneous objection rule and requirement that objection be made at pretrial motion to suppress). Defendant adequately preserved the issue under Rule 12-216 of the New Mexico Rules of Appellate Procedure, SCRA 1986, 12-216, by objecting at trial to the evidence obtained from the search of the vehicle. The trial court overruled Defendant’s objection and admitted the evidence. Defendant contends that the warrant authorizing a search of “vehicle[ ] presently parked at the residence belonging to * * * Ray Ortega” was overbroad in that it failed to outline facts supporting probable cause to believe that there was heroin or distribution paraphernalia in the vehicle. We agree. In addition, even if the affidavit was supported by the requisite probable cause, the warrant was invalid because it did not describe the vehicle with sufficient particularity. The fact that Defendant did not own the vehicle searched is not necessarily fatal. For the search to be upheld, however, the warrant must contain sufficient correct descriptive facts to indicate the place to be searched. See U.S. Const, amend. IV (no warrants shall issue except those “particularly describing the place to be searched”). While make, model, year, color, owner, and license is not ordinarily required, some combination of details such as make and license are necessary to adequately apprise the officer of the vehicle to be searched. See, e.g., State v. Sansom, 112 N.M. 679, 680, 818 P.2d 880, 881 (Ct.App.1991) (affidavit described vehicle to be searched as a “1974 red and white GMC pickup truck with New Mexico license plate number LC8767”); State v. Donaldson, 100 N.M. 111, 118, 666 P.2d 1258, 1265 (Ct.App.) (affidavit describing vehicle as “ ‘Blue 1977 Volkswagen Scirrocco, NM License No. DED-915, Vehicle Identification No. 5372016198’ ”), cert. denied, 100 N.M. 53, 665 P.2d 809 (1983); State v. Lopez, 99 N.M. 791, 792, 664 P.2d 989, 990 (Ct.App.1982) (affidavit describing vehicle to be searched as a “ ‘Blue Chevy or GMC pickup, possible year 1967-1973, short wheel base with damage to the left front fender and headlight’ ”). See generally 2 Search and Seizure, supra, § 4.5(d); 1 Wayne R. LaFave & Jerold H. Israel, Criminal Procedure § 3.4(e), at 226 (1984 & Supp.1991). We hold that the warrant contained insufficient correct descriptive facts to uphold the search in this action.
Finally, the State contends that any error in admitting the evidence obtained from the vehicle was harmless error. We disagree. We cannot say that there is no “reasonable possibility that the evidence complained of might have contributed to the conviction.” Clark v. State, 112 N.M. 485, 487, 816 P.2d 1107, 1109 (1991); see also Sansom, 112 N.M. at 684, 818 P.2d at 885 (setting forth test for harmless error). We reverse and remand for a retrial without the use of evidence found in the vehicle in question.
5. Disclosure of Informants’ Identities
Defendant contends that the trial court erred in denying his motion for disclosure of the identities of the confidential informants. We remand to the trial court for rehearing pursuant to SCRA 1986, 11-510(C)(2) within the guidelines set forth below. See State v. Perez, 102 N.M. 663, 667, 699 P.2d 136, 140 (Ct.App.1985) (balancing state’s interest in maintaining anonymity of informant to rights of defendant to fair trial). The State does not object to this disposition of the issue.
There are three options for the trial court on remand. First, if the trial court finds that the informant knows of nothing helpful to the defense, then disclosure is not required. Second, if the trial court finds otherwise, then the trial court shall balance the appropriate interests under Rule 11 — 510(C)(2). If the interests against disclosure outweigh the probative force of the matters known to the informant, then disclosure is not required. Third, if the probative force outweighs the interests against disclosure, then on retrial there shall be a disclosure of the informant’s identity. See State v. Gallegos, 96 N.M. 54, 57-58, 627 P.2d 1253, 1256-57 (Ct.App.1981) (factors to balance under Rule 11-510(C)(2)).
CONCLUSION
For the reasons stated, we reverse and remand for a new trial. See State v. Post, 109 N.M. 177, 181, 783 P.2d 487, 491 (Ct.App.1989) (“[Wjhen a trial court erroneously admits evidence that is excluded on appeal, and the remaining evidence is insufficient to support a verdict, double jeopardy does not preclude a retrial.”).
IT IS SO ORDERED.
FLORES, J., concurs.
CHAVEZ, J., concurs in part and dissents in part. | [
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OPINION
FROST, Justice.
Plaintiff, Cathi Richardson, appeals the summary judgment entered in favor of defendants, which dismissed plaintiffs claims of legal malpractice and breach of contract. Plaintiffs claims arose from defendants’ advise to settle a personal injury suit against Daniel Castillo who caused injuries to plaintiff in an automobile accident during his lunch break. On plaintiff’s behalf, defendants negotiated a settlement with Castillo, which required plaintiff to sign a general release of liability in favor of Castillo. Subsequently, a suit filed by plaintiff against Castillo’s employer, alleging respondeat superior, was dismissed with prejudice upon the district court’s determination that the general release barred any claims against the employer as a matter of law. Plaintiff then sued defendants alleging that but for their erroneous advice she could have been made whole in her first lawsuit in that she could have recovered from Castillo’s employer the damages not paid by Castillo. Defendants answered that Castillo was not in the scope of his employment at the time of the accident and, therefore, even if counselling plaintiff to sign the release was in error, plaintiff was not harmed because her underlying claim against the employer was without merit. Defendants’ motion for summary judgment on this issue was granted by the trial court. This appeal followed.
Plaintiff alleges the district court erred in granting summary judgment because shé produced “substantial competent evidence” to contradict defendants’ contention that Castillo was outside the scope of his employment at the time of the accident, and, therefore, the issue should have been decided by the fact finder and not by the court as a matter of law. We affirm.
Plaintiff filed this case in October 1990, thereby coming under the 1989 amendment to our summary judgment rule, SCRA 1986, 1-056. This appeal particularly concerns the procedure mandated by Subsection (D)(2):
The moving party shall submit to the court a written memorandum containing a short, concise statement of the reasons in support of the motion with a list of authorities relied upon. A party opposing the motion shall * * * submit to the court a written memorandum containing a short, concise statement of the reasons in opposition to the motion with authorities. The moving party may * * * submit a written reply memorandum.
The memorandum in support of the motion shall set out a concise statement of all of the material facts as to which the moving party contends no genuine issue exists. The facts shall be numbered and shall refer with particularity to those portions of the record upon which the moving party relies.
A memorandum in opposition to the motion shall contain a concise statement of the material facts as to which the party contends a genuine issue does exist. Each fact in dispute shall be numbered, shall refer with particularity to those portions of the record upon which the opposing party relies, and shall state the number of the moving party’s fact that is disputed. All material facts set forth in the statement of the moving party shall be deemed admitted unless specifically controverted.
The following material facts were set out in defendants’ memorandum in support of their motion:
1. On July 24, 1986, an accident occurred between Cathi Richardson and Daniel Castillo. (Complaint at 112).
2. Plaintiff retained the law firm of Glass, Fitzpatrick & Bolnick (“the Firm”) to represent her with respect to her claim. (Complaint at 113).
3. The firm negotiated a settlement with Daniel Castillo on behalf of Cathi Richardson. (Complaint at 1111 5-6).
4. No allegation is made as to the adequacy of the settlement with Daniel Castillo. (Complaint).
5. In connection with the settlement, a Release of Liability was prepared and signed. (Id. at 11 6).
6. Suit was filed against Pat Goodwin’s alleging respondeat superior liability in Pat Goodwin’s for injuries caused by Pat Goodwin’s employee, Daniel Castillo. (Complaint, Richardson v. Pat Goodwin’s Office Equipment Co., CV 89-00292, copy attached as Exhibit 1).
7. The action against Pat Goodwin’s was dismissed with prejudice because the release of Daniel Castillo was held as a matter of law to have released Pat Goodwin’s. (Motion for Summary Judgment and Order re CV 89-00292: copies attached as Exhibits 2 and 3).
8. Pat Goodwin’s asserted in its Answer to the complaint in No. CV 89-00292, in part that “Defendant denies that at the time of the accident alleged in plaintiff’s Complaint, Daniel Castillo was acting within the course of his employment with defendant.” (Copy attached as Exhibit 4).
9. Daniel Castillo, in his employment with Pat Goodwin’s, was required to drive his own vehicle to various locations. (Affidavit of Daniel Castillo at 113: copy attached as Exhibit 5).
10. At the time of the accident, Daniel Castillo was returning to work from a lunch break. (Affidavit of Daniel Castillo at If 5).
11. Daniel Castillo’s last work call prior to lunch was at Carlisle and Comanche. Pat Goodwin’s was located on South San Pedro. Rather than return to work following the last work call, Daniel Castillo went home' for lunch. Daniel Castillo resided at Louisiana and Montgomery. Following lunch, Daniel Castillo was returning to work at the time of the accident. The accident occurred on Louisiana, north of Comanche. (Affidavit of Daniel Castillo at UK 4-5).
12. The accident occurred at a location farther north than Daniel Castillo would have been in the course of his employment and farther east than he would have been in the course of his employment (judicial notice). (Affidavit of Mary Golden: copy attached as Exhibit 6).
13. Daniel Castillo did not consider that he was in the course and scope of his employment at the time of the accident. (Affidavit of Daniel Castillo at If 6).
14.Cathi Richardson, by and through her agent-attorney, David Pearlman, represented that she believed that Daniel Castillo was not in the course and scope of his employment at the time of the accident. (Affidavit of David Houliston at II 6: copy attached as Exhibit 7).
It should be noted that pursuant to plaintiff’s motion to strike Castillo’s affidavit, the district court ordered that portion stricken where Castillo testified he was not within the course of his employment at the time of the accident; however, the court did permit his testimony that during lunch breaks he wa,s on his own time. In the same order, the trial court took judicial notice of the relative location of the various streets relevant to the parties’ dispute.
Plaintiff’s response to the motion alleged the inappropriateness of summary judgment “because a substantial question of material fact remains whether Daniel Castillo was acting within the scope of his employment at the time he injured Plaintiff.” Plaintiff supported her opposition to the motion with a memorandum of law and affidavits from the employer’s general manager, Castillo, and herself. Plaintiff’s memorandum of law contains two distinct parts: a factual background and an argument. The memorandum does not “contain a concise statement of the material facts as to which the party contends a genuine issue does exist” nor is each fact in dispute numbered or referenced with particularity to the record. In addition, plaintiff failed to state the number of defendants’ facts that are disputed. Rather than dispute the facts set out in the motion, plaintiff asserts other facts, most of which defendants do not dispute as argued in their answer brief. Only parenthetically does plaintiff dispute the general manager’s affidavit by stating that it “fails to establish facts which require that summary judgment be entered in Defendant’s [sic] favor” and the employer’s attorney’s affidavit by stating it “is disputed in its entirety, and therefore can not [sic] be the basis of a summary judgment.”
Plaintiff failed in her burden to oppose the motion for summary judgment. Plaintiffs response to the motion and her supporting memorandum do not controvert any facts in the manner mandated by Rule 1-056(D)(2). The rule establishes that the material facts set forth by the moving party “shall be deemed admitted unless specifically controverted.” If these facts are taken as true, then the conclusion must be that Castillo was not acting within the scope of his employment at the time of the accident. Accordingly, based on the pleadings, the district court found no question of material fact and properly entered summary judgment in favor of defendants as a matter of law.
Where facts are not in dispute and the only issue is the legal effect of those facts, summary judgment is proper. Koenig v. Perez, 104 N.M. 664, 666, 726 P.2d 341, 343 (1986). Here, the legal question is whether Castillo was acting within the scope of his employment at the time of the accident based on the uncontroverted facts before the court. New Mexico’s uniform jury instruction, SCRA 1986, 13-407, defines scope of employment and is the legal standard applicable to this case:
An act of an employee is within the scope of employment if: (1) It was something fairly and naturally incidental to the employer’s business assigned to the employee, and (2) It was done while the employee was engaged in the employer’s business with the view of furthering the employer’s interest and did not arise entirely from some external, independent and personal motive on the part of the employee.
See Benham v. All Seasons Child Care, Inc., 101 N.M. 636, 638, 686 P.2d 978, 980 (Ct.App.) (Judge Wood cites instruction and reviews New Mexico case law interpreting the term “scope of employment”), cert. denied, 101 N.M. 686, 687 P.2d 743 (1984).
Defendants made out a prima facie case supported by the following unchallenged material facts: (1) the denial, made by the employer in its answer to the complaint, that Castillo was acting within the course of his employment; (2) statements made by Castillo in his affidavit that at the time of the accident he was on his own time, returning to the shop from his lunch break, and that his employer required him to drive his own vehicle; (3) the statement made by the employer’s general manager that the accident occurred at a location where Castillo would not have been in the course of his employment; and (4) plaintiff’s affidavit testimony of her belief that Castillo was not acting within the scope of his employment at the time of the accident. From these facts, the district court properly determined that, at the time of the accident, Castillo was acting entirely for his purpose and not one incident to his employment.
“It is well settled in New Mexico that employers are not responsible for an employee’s negligence in operating a motor vehicle enroute [sic] to or from work absent additional circumstances evidencing control by the employer at the time of the negligent act by the employee.” Zamora v. Foster, 84 N.M. 177, 178, 500 P.2d 1001, 1002 (Ct.App.1972). Aside from plaintiff’s failure to controvert defendants’ asserted material facts, plaintiff also failed to establish that Castillo’s employer exercised any control over him while he drove to the shop after lunch breaks. The only showing here is that Castillo was on his personal time at the time of the accident.
Plaintiff had the burden of not only proving her counsel’s negligence, but also that she would have recovered at trial in the underlying action. See George v. Caton, 93 N.M. 370, 600 P.2d 822 (Ct.App.) (in legal malpractice action measure of damages is amount that would have been recovered by client except for attorney’s negligence), cert. quashed, 93 N.M. 172, 598 P.2d 215 (1979). Accordingly, the district court’s dismissal of the claim is affirmed.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
MONTGOMERY and FRANCHINI, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
BLACK, Judge.
Defendant appeals his conviction of five counts of dissemination of obscene material in violation of Farmington, New Mexico, Ordinance Number 89-920, Section 21-50.1 (1989) (the Ordinance). He raises four issues on appeal: 1) whether the Farmington Ordinance violates Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution, the free speech provision; 2) whether the trial court improperly admitted opinion evidence regarding community standards and improperly instructed the jury on those standards; 3) whether, as a matter of constitutional law, the magazines are patently offensive; and 4) whether there was sufficient evidence that the magazines lack serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value. We remand for a new trial, based on the district court’s improper jury instruction on the community standard.
FACTS
Defendant operated the Farmington Magazine and Book Store. He sold a wide variety of magazines and books from this outlet, including the five magazines in controversy here: The Best of Club, Forbidden Erotica, Hot Swinging Couples, Over 40, and Swank. The controversy between the City of Farmington (City) and Defendant arose when two City residents investigated Defendant’s store for possible violations of the obscenity Ordinance. As a result of this investigation, a complaint was filed in municipal court, and Defendant and one of his employees were convicted of disseminating obscene materials.
Defendant appealed to the district court and received a trial de novo. Prior to trial, Defendant filed a motion to dismiss, alleging that the City Ordinance violated Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitu-' tion. The trial court denied the motion, apparently because it was not timely under the local rules. After hearing testimony and examining the magazines involved, the jury found Defendant guilty of five counts of dissemination of obscene materials.
I. THE CONSTITUTIONALITY OF THE CITY ORDINANCE
The City argues that Defendant's failure to timely file his motion to dismiss precludes him from now arguing the issue of the unconstitutionality of the Ordinance. In a criminal prosecution the constitutionality of the statute (or ordinance) pursuant to which the defendant was convicted may be raised for the first time on appeal. State v. Aranda, 94 N.M. 784, 617 P.2d 173 (Ct.App.1980). Therefore, even though the motion to dismiss was not denied on its merits below, the constitutionality of the City’s obscenity Ordinance may be argued on appeal. See State v. Lujan, 103 N.M. 667, 672-73, 712 P.2d 13, 18-19 (Ct.App.1985), cert. denied, 103 N.M. 740, 713 P.2d 556 (1986).
The Farmington Ordinance at issue provides:
(a) No person shall:
(1) Knowingly sell, show or otherwise disseminate in any manner obscene material; or
(2) Knowingly possess obscene material with the intent to sell, show or otherwise disseminate the same.
(b) For the purposes of this section, “obscene material” shall be defined as material, written, pictorial or recorded, which:
(1) Taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest in sex as judged by the average person applying local contemporary community standards;
(2) Describes or depicts in a patently offensive way any of the following behavior designed or intended to stimulate sexual excitement: the description, depiction or simulated portrayal of the acts of sodomy, fellatio, cunnilingus, masturbation, excretory functions, ejaculation, sexual intercourse, bestiality, sadism or masochism; and
(3) Taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value.
A. Standard of Review
In considering any constitutional challenge, we must establish the proper legal rules of construction. There is a presumption that all legislative acts, including municipal ordinances, are constitutional. City of Albuquerque v. Jones, 87 N.M. 486, 535 P.2d 1337 (1975). And it is the duty of the appellate court to uphold such legislation unless satisfied beyond all reasonable doubt that the legislation is outside the constitution. State v. Ball, 104 N.M. 176, 718 P.2d 686 (1986). The burden is therefore upon the party attacking the constitutionality of the enactment to show that the act is invalid. Jones, 87 N.M. at 488, 535 P.2d at 1339.
B. Prior Restraint
Defendant initially argues that Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution prohibits all prior restraints on speech and publication, and the City Ordinance constitutes such a prior restraint. That section of our constitution, which is pivotal to this appeal, provides: “Every person may freely speak, write and publish his sentiments on all subjects, being responsible for the abuse of that right; and no law shall be passed to restrain or abridge the liberty of speech or of the press.”
We believe Defendant misconstrues the nature of “prior restraint.” Pri- or restraint means only that the government may not enjoin or restrain a particular expression prior to its judicial review, even though the same expression could constitutionally be subject to punishment afterwards. Laurence H. Tribe, American Constitutional Law § 12-34 (2d ed. 1988); Martin H. Redish, The Proper Role of the Prior Restraint Doctrine In First Amendment Theory, 70 Va.L.Rev. 53 (1984); see also Fantasy Book Shop, Inc. v. City of Boston, 652 F.2d 1115 (1st Cir.1981). A municipal anti-obscenity ordinance does not constitute a prior restraint on speech when the municipality has the burden of instituting prompt judicial proceedings and there is no provision for restraint prior to such judicial review. Eastern Books v. Bagnoni, 446 F.Supp. 643 (W.D.Pa.1978); cf. State v. Jackson, 224 Or. 337, 356 P.2d 495 (1960) (statute making it a crime to prepare, publish, sell, distribute, or give away any obscene or indecent matter is not a prior restraint).
C.Free Speech is not Absolute
Defendant next urges us to “hold that there is no exception, whether for obscenity or otherwise, to the absolute right of free publication stated in the first clause of Article II, Section 17.” One need only consider this proposition logically to realize it cannot stand. No civilization can survive which allows its press to freely publish troop movements in times of war, or permits its citizens to falsely yell “Fire!” in a crowded theater. Even in a society which cherishes free speech above other personal liberties, life presents situations where such civil liberties must be balanced. See Blount v. TD Publishing Corp., 77 N.M. 384, 388, 423 P.2d 421, 424 (1966).
While the language of Article II, Section 17, unambiguously protects speech on all subjects, our supreme court has recognized that the state may constitutionally regulate the place and manner of such speech. Nall v. Baca, 95 N.M. 783, 626 P.2d 1280 (1980) (nude dancing may be restricted in liquor establishments); Stuckey’s Stores, Inc. v. O'Cheskey, 93 N.M. 312, 600 P.2d 258 (1979) (commercial billboard “speech” may be regulated), appeal dismissed, 446 U.S. 930, 100 S.Ct. 2145, 64 L.Ed.2d 783 (1980). The supreme court has also recognized that the constitutional liberty to speak freely can be limited to the extent it conflicts with other constitutionally protected rights. State ex rel New Mexico Press Ass’n v. Kaufman, 98 N.M. 261, 648 P.2d 300 (1982) (media’s right to free speech may be limited when necessary to guarantee defendant a fair trial).
Moreover, Defendant emphasizes the initial language of Article II, Section 17, and ignores the clear limitation also contained in that section. After granting citizens the right to speak freely, our constitution makes each person “responsible for the abuse of that right.” A citizen who “abuses” the right of free speech may be legally liable. See Blount, 77 N.M. at 388, 423 P.2d at 424. Can obscenity be an “abuse” of free speech? We believe it can.
Dicta in various New Mexico cases appear to acknowledge that obscenity may be an abuse of the right to “freely speak, write and publish.” In Curry v. Journal Publishing Co., the supreme court said:
The First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States provides that Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; the effect of which was to prevent Congress from interfering with such rights as they existed at the time of the adoption of this amendment. Similar provisions are a part of the constitution of each of the forty-eight states. See section 17 of article 2 of the New Mexico Constitution.
“The constitutional liberty of speech and of the press, as we understand it, implies a right to freely utter and publish whatever the citizen may please, and to be protected against any responsibility for so doing, except so far as such publications, from their blasphemy, obscenity, or scandalous character, may be a public offense, or as by their falsehood and malice they may injuriously affect the standing, reputation, or pecuniary interests of individuals.”
41 N.M. 318, 328, 68 P.2d 168, 174-75 (1937) (emphasis added) (quoting 2 Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional LAmitations 886 (8th ed. 1927)).
Much more recently in State v. Gattis, 105 N.M. 194, 730 P.2d 497 (Ct.App.1986), this court upheld a statute proscribing malicious use of the telephone against a challenge based on the First Amendment of the United States Constitution. In doing so, we quoted from von Lusch v. State, 39 Md.App. 517, 387 A.2d 306, 310 (1978). “ ‘Freedom of speech does not encompass the right to abuse the telephone with the specific intent to annoy and to harass the recipient of the call.’ ” 105 N.M. at 199, 730 P.2d at 502.
The language of Article II, Section 17, therefore, recognizes that obscenity may be an abuse of free speech. Other jurisdictions have reached the same conclusion when interpreting substantially similar constitutional provisions.
Although the language guaranteeing free speech in Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution differs somewhat from the First Amendment of the United States Constitution, it is virtually identical to the language adopted by thirty-nine other states which also make citizens responsible for the “abuse” of the right. Some state courts have followed the United States Supreme Court’s interpretation of the First Amendment, Roth v. United States, 354 U.S. 476, 77 S.Ct. 1304, 1 L.Ed.2d 1498 (1957), and found that por-' nography or obscenity is not entitled to protection under such language; others have found that all speech is protected, but obscenity may be an “abuse” of the right. Our conclusion that obscenity constitutes an abuse of the right to freely speak and publish is, then, both plain in the language of Article II, Section 17, and supported by the interpretation given similar provisions by several other state courts.
We also find little of relevance in the “historical facts” offered by Defendant, who relies heavily on State v. Henry, 302 Or. 510, 732 P.2d 9 (1987), for his interpretation of history. In Henry the Oregon Supreme Court traced the history of obscenity regulation in England and its American colonies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. That court relied on Oregon’s limited criminalization of distributing obscenity only to minors in the nineteenth century, and concluded that obscenity — unlike perjury, solicitation of crime, and fraud — did not fall within any recognized exception to free speech at the time Oregon’s Bill of Rights was adopted in 1857.
The Colorado Supreme Court participated in the same process and reached the opposite conclusion in People v. Ford, 773 P.2d 1059 (Colo.1989) (en banc). That court expressly rejected the historical analysis set forth in Henry, saying:
We also decline to adopt the historical analysis in State v. Henry, 302 Or. 510,
732 P.2d 9 (1987), because the Oregon court concentrated on the state of the law in the early 19th century rather than at the time our constitution was adopted in 1876. We believe that the status of obscenity regulation across the nation in the early 1870’s is more relevant in assessing whether the framers of our- constitution intended to protect obscenity.
773 P.2d at 1065. The Colorado court noted that not only was the Colorado Constitution adopted twenty years after Oregon’s, but that Colorado had statutes prohibiting the dissemination of obscenity both before and immediately after the adoption of its constitution in 1876. Id.; see also Long v. 130 Mkt. St. Gift & Novelty, 294 Pa.Super. 383, 440 A.2d 517 (1982) (concluding the “abuse” language was adopted because the First Amendment was thought to be absolute at the time the Pennsylvania Constitution was adopted).
A similar historical analysis of Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution produces no definitive answer, but provides no solace for Defendant. The 1846 Kearny frame of government consisted of a code of laws, including a bill of rights, promulgated by Brigadier General Kearny after his occupation of Santa Fe during the Mexican War. Leyes del Territorio de Nuevo Mejico, introduction (1846). The twelfth article of the bill of rights provided: “That free communications of thoughts and opinions is one of the invaluable rights of freemen, and that every person may freely speak, write or print on any subject — being re sponsible for every abuse of that liberty.” Id. at 15.
New Mexico’s initial move toward statehood began immediately after execution in 1848 of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Constitution of the State of New Mexico, 1850 vii-viii (Stagecoach Press 1965). Even though New Mexico, including what is now Arizona, was not yet an organized territory, a “state” constitution was drafted and adopted. Id. As early as 1850, the proposed New Mexico Constitution copied the free speech clause already widely adopted in other states: “Every person may freely speak, write and publish, his sentiments on all subjects, being responsible for the abuse of that liberty.” Id. at 15 (N.M. Proposed Const, of 1850, art. I, § 5). Further attempts at statehood produced constitutions containing guarantees of free speech, but always making citizens responsible for its abuse. See N.M. Proposed Const, of 1872, art. II, § 4; N.M. Proposed Const, of 1889, art. II, § 16.
After being rebuffed in its first attempt at statehood, New Mexico organized its territorial government under the Organic Act in 1851. L. Bradford Prince, New Mexico’s Struggle for Statehood 22-23 (1910). In 1873 the United States Congress passed an act applicable to all its territories, including New Mexico, which provided in part:
[Wjhoever ... shall sell, or lend, or give away, or in any manner exhibit, or shall otherwise publish or offer to publish in any manner, or shall have in his possession, for any such purpose or purposes, any obscene book, pamphlet, paper, writing, advertisement, circular, print, picture, drawing or other representation, figure, or image on or of paper or other material, or any cast, instrument, or other article of an immoral nature ... shall be imprisoned at hard labor ... or fined____
An Act for the Suppression of Trade in, and Circulation of, Obscene Literature and Articles of Immoral Use, ch. 258, 17 Stat. 598 (1873).
In November 1910, the New Mexico Constitutional Convention adopted the state constitution containing the language of Article II, Section 17. Dorothy I. Cline, New Mexico’s 1910 Constitution (1985). What, then, did the framers of Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution intend by making every person responsible for the “abuse” of free speech? It seems likely they understood there was nothing inherently contradictory in adopting this constitutional standard at a time when the distribution of obscene materials had long been prohibited in the territory.
Moreover, since almost one-third of the constitutional delegates were lawyers who received their legal training in other states, they may have brought some understanding on the subject from their states of origin. Id. at 30. Two of the primary drafters, Thomas B. Catron and Charles A. Spiess, for example, were born and educated in Missouri. Id. at 31-35. In spite of constitutional language similar to that adopted by the 1910 New Mexico convention, Missouri had long recognized the state could prohibit obscenity. State v. Van Wye, 136 Mo. 227, 37 S.W. 938 (1896); State v. Appling, 25 Mo. 315 (1857). Another prominent convention leader, Charles Springer, had come from Iowa to practice law near Cimarron. Cline, supra, at 35. Iowa, too, had constitutional language virtually identical to that adopted by the New Mexico delegates, but also had recognized the power of the state to criminalize the distribution of obscenity. Iowa Rev.Laws, part IV, tit. 23, ch. 172, § 4359 (1860) (as cited in Ford, 773 P.2d at 1065 n. 7); State v. Doty, 103 Iowa 699, 73 N.W. 352 (1897).
Even if we found the language of Article II, Section 17, ambiguous and resorted to the historical setting as urged by Defendant, we could not accept his conclusion that the framers of the 1910 constitution intended no liability for obscenity as an abuse of free speech. Moreover, as the Colorado Supreme Court stated in Ford, the history of obscenity regulation in the years immediately preceding the adoption of our constitution is more relevant than the early English law and English colonial law which were the foundation for the Oregon court in Henry. While evidence of the historical context of our 1910 constitution is not conclusive, it augurs in favor of finding that the language of Article II, Section 17, was not intended to preclude the regulation of obscenity as an abuse of free speech.
If the language of the constitution is plain, definite, and free from ambiguity, the intent is to be found in the instrument itself and it is not necessary to resort to such extrinsic aids as the conditions of its adoption. Flaska v. State, 51 N.M. 13, 177 P.2d 174 (1946); State ex rel. Delgado v. Romero, 17 N.M. 81, 124 P. 649 (1912). The drafters of the constitution are presumed to give the words their plain, natural, and usual significance. Wylie Bros. Contracting Co. v. Albuquerque-Bernalillo County Air Quality Control Bd., 80 N.M. 633, 459 P.2d 159 (Ct.App.1969). We believe the term “abuse” clearly qualifies the constitutional right to free speech and press in New Mexico. Even if we did not find the language clear, however, the extrinsic aids offered by Defendant do not convince us the City Ordinance runs afoul of Article II, Section 17.
II. WHAT CONSTITUTES AN “ABUSE” OF FREE SPEECH AND PRESS UNDER ARTICLE II, SECTION 17?
A. Jury Instructions
That “obscenity” may be an “abuse” of free speech and press is, then, clear. What type of material constitutes such an abuse is less clear. The Farmington ordinance tracks the definition of obscenity approved by the United States Supreme Court in Miller v. California, 413 U.S. 15, 93 S.Ct. 2607, 37 L.Ed.2d 419 (1973). Defendant urges us to interpret Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution so as to reject the definition of obscenity set forth in Miller. We note initially that, while we relied upon the definition of obscenity set forth in Miller and other United States Supreme Court cases to affirm a conviction for distribution of obscene material in State v. Johnson, 104 N.M. 430, 722 P.2d 681 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 104 N.M. 378, 721 P.2d 1309 (1986), the defendant in Johnson did not contend that the Curry County ordinance under which he was convicted violated Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution. Johnson therefore offers no direct guidance on this issue.
The Miller definition of obscenity has also been cited with approval by the New Mexico Attorney General’s office in opining on the authority of the State to proscribe the possession of child pornography. AG Op. No. 90-24 (1990). And while by no means identical, our legislature adopted criteria somewhat similar to those in Miller in prohibiting the sexual exploitation of children. See NMSA 1978, § 30-6A-2 (Repl.Pamp.1984). Again, however, this offers little guidance on whether Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution mandates a different legal analysis under the City Ordinance.
Defendant argues that the free expression provision of the New Mexico Constitution provides greater protection than the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. While the difference in the language used in the First Amendment and Article II, Section 17, may be some evidence that the drafters of the New Mexico Constitution intended a somewhat different scope of protection, our supreme court has recognized that Article II, Section 17, “reads substantially the same” as the First Amendment. Nall v. Baca, 95 N.M. 783, 787, 626 P.2d 1280, 1284 (1980) (dictum); see also Curry, 41 N.M. at 328, 68 P.2d at 174-75 (Article II, Section 17, characterized as “similar” to the First Amendment). Even where the language of our state constitution is almost identical to the federal constitution, however, federal decisions do not control the nature and scope of the rights guaranteed by the New Mexico Constitution. State v. Cordova, 109 N.M. 211, 784 P.2d 30 (1989). While it is settled constitutional law that state courts may not restrict the protection afforded by the federal Constitution, as interpreted by the United States Supreme Court, they may find greater protection under their state constitutions, even when the language is identical. McCauley v. Tropic of Cancer, 20 Wis.2d 134, 121 N.W.2d 545 (1963); William J. Brennan, Jr., The Bill of Rights and the States: The Revival of State Constitutions as Guardians of Individual Rights, 61 N.Y.U.L.Rev. 535, 548 (1986).
Defendant argues that the “contemporary community standard” provided by Miller, and adopted in the City Ordinance, allows the majority to impose its moral standards on the minority. He notes, correctly we believe, that the purpose of such constitutional protections is to prevent the majority from limiting the personal liberties of political, religious, and cultural dissenters while propagating their views in the marketplace of ideas. See West Virginia State Bd. of Educ. v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624, 638, 63 S.Ct. 1178, 1185-86, 87 L.Ed. 1628 (1943); Richardson v. Carnegie Library Restaurant, Inc., 107 N.M. 688, 697, 763 P.2d 1153, 1162 (1988). Defendant, however, does not offer a formula he believes less “oppressive” than Miller or any state precedent interpreting similar constitutional provisions. Rather, he contends for absolute freedom of expression. As we have indicated, we find little legal support for such an interpretation and have declined to adopt it.
We can, however, assume that the authors of the New Mexico Constitution were aware of the language of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and consciously chose to adopt a different formula. We must therefore determine the legal significance of such a choice.
In considering language different from the First Amendment but similar to Article II, Section 17, other state courts have adopted various interpretations. A majority of the Maine Supreme Court opted to follow the United States Supreme Court and hold obscenity is not protected under the “abuse” language of their state constitution. City of Portland v. Jacobsky, 496 A.2d 646 (Me.1985). However, in a thoughtful partial concurrence, Justice Scolnik pointed out that the “abuse” standard of the Maine Constitution sets different parameters than the language of the First Amendment:
Unlike the First Amendment (“Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ... ”), Article I, Section 4 [of the Maine Constitution] is an affirmative grant of liberty to the citizen: “[e]very citizen may freely speak, write and publish his sentiments on any subject, being responsible for the abuse of this liberty.”
Looking first at the plain meaning of this clause, one finds that it has not been overlaid by judicial interpretation as has the federal First Amendment. On its face, Article I, Section 4 does not merely vouchsafe protection to the expression of ideas of value, but to “sentiments on any subject.” The word “sentiments,” comporting elements of emotion and feeling, may, by itself, be broader than “ideas.” More important, no subject is unprotected. The Maine Constitution extends at least the protection of constitutional-level scrutiny to the expression of sentiments on any subject, whether it be hostile and vulgar as in State v. John W., [418 A.2d 1097 (Me.1980) ] or sexually explicit, as in the present case. None should be deemed wholly without protection and, by the plain language of Article I, Sec tion 4, that protection only recedes so far as to permit holding the citizen “responsible for the abuse of this liberty.” [Footnotes omitted.]
496 A.2d at 653.
The issue, then, is what standard the finder of fact, either judge or jury, should use to determine whether an “abuse” has Occurred. In this regard, we are impressed with Defendant’s argument that the district court erred in giving the jury the following instructions:
Contemporary community standards are determined by what the community as a whole in fact finds acceptable. The community as a whole is society at large, and not particular people or particular groups. What some people think the community ought or ought not to accept is not important nor is what you as an individual juror think is good or bad. It is what people in general, the community as a whole, accept that is determinative. You should judge how the average person in this community would view this material.
For this case, the “community” is the City of Farmington, N.M.
“Patently offensive” means that which offends or affronts local contemporary community standards because it goes beyond the customary limits of candor and decency in describing or representing sexual matters. Contemporary community standards are set by what is in fact accepted in the community as a whole.
While there is some question, it seems likely that these instructions would pass constitutional muster under the First Amendment. Defendant, however, argues that Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution offers more protection than the First Amendment. We are inclined to agree that our constitution requires a standard somewhat broader than “decency” and “accepted in the community as a whole.”
When we consider the jury instructions given in this case, we believe they allowed the jury to convict Defendant for speech which was merely “unacceptable” or beyond “decency.” The purpose of free speech and press is to preserve “the independence of public discourse so that a democratic will within a culturally heterogeneous state can emerge under conditions of neutrality, and so that individuals can use the medium of public discourse to persuade others to experiment in new forms of community life.” Robert C. Post, The Constitutional Concept of Public Discourse: Outrageous Opinion, Democratic Deliberation, and Hustler Magazine v. Falwell, 103 Harv.L.Rev. 601, 684 (1990). Freedoms of expression require “breathing space.” New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254, 271-72, 84 S.Ct. 710, 721, 11 L.Ed.2d 686 (1964). “Acceptance” is really the lowest common denominator, and may well limit dialogue on significant public issues beyond obscenity. Tribe, supra, § 12-16, at 913. “Decency” implies what is “proper.” Ford, 773 P.2d at 1066. The community, or indeed the average person, may well find some speech “unacceptable” or not “decent” which is nonetheless constitutionally permissible. Professor Schauer recognized this distinction, saying:
In most obscenity cases, the materials would in fact offend most people. But there is another possible interpretation, that asks not whether the materials offend the community or the average person, but whether the community or the average person is offended by the materials being available to those who wish to see them. In other words, are the community standards tolerant, even though most members of the community might themselves be offended by the materials.
Frederick F. Schauer, The Law of Obscenity 133 (1976).
Rather than allowing the fact finder to determine that material is an abuse of the grant of free speech under Article II, Section 17, based on the “acceptance” of the community, we believe more is required. We believe our constitution requires that, although the community might not find the materials “acceptable,” it must find them “intolerable” before they may be deemed as an “abuse” of the right to freely speak, write, and publish sentiments on all subjects.
In reaching this conclusion, we are persuaded by a ease heavily relied upon by the City for other theories, People v. Ford, 773 P.2d 1059 (Colo.1989) (en banc). In Ford the Colorado Supreme Court determined that obscenity could be an abuse of the right to freely speak under the Colorado Constitution, but held that an “abuse” could only be defined in terms of speech that was intolerable and not merely unacceptable. Id. at 1066-67. In requiring a new trial because the jury had been instructed on a community standard based on “acceptance,” the Colorado court reasoned:
We also believe that the “tolerance” standard is acceptable under the Colorado Constitution. We have previously stated, and reaffirm today, that our constitution extends broader protection to freedom of expression than does the first amendment to the United States Constitution. See People v. Seven Thirty-Five East Colfax, Inc., 697 P.2d 348 (Colo.1985). In order to be constitutionally sufficient, the definition of “patently offensive” must incorporate a standard which protects all but the most insufferable of sexually explicit material. Although both federal and state courts have approved definitions of “patently offensive” which incorporate community standards of decency, acceptance, or tolerance, we believe that the tolerance standard better protects freedom of expression, and is the only standard of the three which would satisfy the Colorado Constitution. Whereas “decency” implies a community standard of what is proper, and “acceptance” connotes approval, tolerance stretches the community’s standards to their outermost limits. When a tolerance standard is employed, material is not offensive unless the community cannot endure it.
773 P.2d at 1066. The “tolerance” standard has also been advanced by legal scholars and adopted in other jurisdictions as the proper measure when “abuse” is constitutionally mandated. State ex rel. Collins v. Superior Court, 163 Ariz. 246, 787 P.2d 1042 (1986) (en banc) (interpreting First Amendment); Leech v. American Booksellers Ass’n, 582 S.W.2d 738 (Tenn.1979); Michael K. Curtis, Obscenity: The Justices’ (Not So) New Robes, 8 Campbell L.Rev. 387, 410 (1986); cf. State v. Davidson, 481 N.W.2d 51 (Minn.1992) (although tolerance might better reflect the appropriate considerations in obscenity cases, instruction based on “acceptance” permissible).
We likewise believe that “the tolerance standard better protects freedom of expression,” Ford, 773 P.2d at 1066, and is the only standard which can truly satisfy Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution. Since defining community standards to require the speech or publication at issue be beyond community tolerance also has received approval under the First Amendment, only one jury instruction defining community standards should be necessary.
B. Non-Expert Testimony on Community Standards
Defendant next argues that the trial court abused its discretion in allowing James Bacon and Keith Baker to testify that they felt the five magazines violated the community standard. Since this case is remanded for a new trial, we will briefly consider this issue.
Baker gave his opinion on community standards. He testified that he was acquainted with the twenty or so employees he supervises at a Farmington-area oil company, sees people at his church and his “spa,” and has children involved in “lots of activities.” Like Bacon, he basically testified that, in his opinion, the magazines at issue appealed to a prurient interest in sex as judged by an average person applying the community standards of Farmington.
Defendant argues that Baker and Bacon were not properly qualified to testify as experts on the community standard; however, there is nothing in the rec ord to show that they were offered as expert witnesses. A review of their testimony shows that they were simply giving their own opinions based on their own observations. This is valid lay testimony. The only foundation required for this kind of testimony is a showing of first-hand knowledge and a rational connection between the observations made and the opinion formed. State v. Luna, 92 N.M. 680, 594 P.2d 340 (Ct.App.1979).
Defendant further argues that, even as lay opinion, Baker’s and Bacon’s testimony should not have been admitted. Where the magazines were actually presented to the jury, which presumably represents a random cross-section of the community and can judge what the community will tolerate, no further testimony, especially of a non-expert nature, is necessary. Olsen v. Doerfler, 14 Mich.App. 428, 165 N.W.2d 648 (1968); Schauer, supra, at 135. However, the fact that the testimony is not strictly necessary does not mean that a court abuses its discretion when it is admitted. See State v. Worley, 100 N.M. 720, 676 P.2d 247 (1984) (admission of evidence is discretionary with trial court).
III. STANDARD OF APPELLATE REVIEW
Defendant urges us to determine “as a matter of constitutional fact, the magazines are not patently offensive.” The proper role of the appellate court in obscenity cases is one which has engendered a variety of opinions. E.H. Schopler, Annotation, Modem Concept of Obscenity, 5 A.L.R.3d 1158, § 15(b) (1966 & Supp. 1991); see also Comment, Removal of Supreme Court Appellate Jurisdiction: A Weapon Against Obscenity?, 1969 Duke L.J. 291. Many courts have held that the appellate court is obligated to make an independent, de novo review of all the evidence. See, e.g., State v. LeWitt, 3 Conn. Cir. 605, 222 A.2d 579 (1966); Dyke v. State, 232 Ga. 817, 209 S.E.2d 166 (1974), cert. denied, 421 U.S. 952, 95 S.Ct. 1687, 44 L.Ed.2d 106 (1975); People v. Anderson, 130 Ill.App.3d 318, 85 Ill.Dec. 540, 473 N.E.2d 1345 (1985), aff'd, 112 Ill.2d 39, 96 Ill.Dec. 58, 490 N.E.2d 1263 (1986). Other jurisdictions review the record only for substantial evidence. United States v. Cutting, 538 F.2d 835 (9th Cir.1976), cert. denied, 429 U.S. 1052, 97 S.Ct. 766, 50 L.Ed.2d 769 (1977); Nissinoff v. Harper, 212 So.2d 666 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1968); Court v. State, 63 Wis.2d 570, 217 N.W.2d 676 (1974). We are inclined to follow the second line of precedent, for as Professor Sehauer notes, “If the appellate court were not in any way influenced by the rulings or verdict below, then there would be no purpose in having trials at all in obscenity cases.” Schauer, supra, at 152.
We also believe our approval of the Miller test with the community standard based on tolerance influences the level of appellate review. Under Miller, which is also the model for this City Ordinance, we believe the first two prongs of the three-prong test are primarily factual issues to be judged by contemporary community standards. Miller, 413 U.S. at 24-26, 93 S.Ct. at 2615-16; State v. Anderson, 322 N.C. 22, 366 S.E.2d 459, cert. denied, 488 U.S. 975, 109 S.Ct. 513, 102 L.Ed.2d 548 (1988). Obviously, the judge or jurors who live in the community are better able to determine what the community can tolerate. The “patently offensive” test is also measured by community tolerance and, because of the constitutional aspects of the decision, the scope of review must be broader than for a conventional factual determination; however, deference to the jury findings is again due. Schauer, supra, at 114; see also Smith v. United States, 431 U.S. 291, 97 S.Ct. 1756, 52 L.Ed.2d 324 (1977).
On the third prong (i.e., whether the work has serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value) the appellate court will possess at least equal expertise and authority. The “value” of a work is not to be judged by community standards. Pope v. Illinois, 481 U.S. 497, 107 S.Ct. 1918, 95 L.Ed.2d 439 (1987). “The value of a work, unlike its prurient appeal or patent offensiveness ... does not vary from community to community based on the degree of local acceptance it has won.” 3 Ronald D. Rotunda et al., Treatise on Constitutional Law § 20.61, at 102 (1986 & Supp.1991).
Although somewhat dated, Professor Schauer’s treatise summarizes the appropriate appellate role in this process succinctly:
In other words, the appellate court must make an independent review, but the question to be asked is not whether the materials are obscene, but whether the materials create a jury issue as to obscenity. Since this involves questions of constitutional law, more evidence is needed to create a jury issue than in other criminal cases, not by virtue of a different standard, but by virtue of the various elements of the Roth-Miller test.
Schauer, supra, at 152.
We have independently reviewed the evidence under these standards. We believe there was sufficient evidence to submit this case to the jury on the first two prongs of Miller. Defendant does not seriously argue, nor did our independent examination discover, that the magazines have any serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value. We therefore decline Defendant’s invitation to hold that “as a matter of constitutional fact, the magazines are not patently offensive.”
IV. SUBSTANTIAL EVIDENCE ON LACK OF VALUE
Finally, Defendant argues, because “the city failed to present substantial evidence that the magazines as a whole lacked serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value,” the convictions must be reversed. As indicated earlier, “Once the allegedly obscene material is actually placed into evidence the state need not present expert testimony that the material is obscene, lacks serious artistic value, or any other ancillary evidence of obscenity.” Rotunda et al., supra, § 20.61(g).
CONCLUSION
Based on our conclusion that Article II, Section 17 of the New Mexico Constitution requires that an “abuse” of free speech only occurs when the community cannot tolerate the matter on trial, we hold that a new trial is required and the jury must be so instructed.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
CHAVEZ and PICKARD, JJ„ concur.
. The following table from the Index Digest of State Constitutions 485 (Richard A. Edwards ed., 2d ed. 1959) indicates the precise linguistic formulations of the “abuse” standard:
Every person may speak on all subjects, being responsible for abuse of that liberty. Ala I 4; Colo II 10; Ga I Sec I 15; Iowa 17; La I 3; Tex I 8.
Same; inserts “freely” before “speak”. Alas I 5; Ariz II 6; Fla DR 13; Ida I 9; 111 II 4; Kan BR 11; Ky 8; Me I 4; Mich II 4; Minn I 3; Mont III 10; Nebr 15; NJ I 6; NM II 17; ND I 9; Okla II 22; SD VI 5; Wash I 5; Wis I 3; Wyo I 20.
Every citizen may freely speak on all subjects, being responsible for abuse of that right. Cal I 9; Conn I 5; Nev 19; NY I 8; Ohio 111; Pa I 7; Tenn I 19; Va I 12.
Citizens of state ought to be allowed to speak on all subjects, being responsible for abuse of that privilege. Md DR 40.
Every person to be free to say, write or publish, or otherwise communicate whatever he will on any subject, being responsible for abuse of that liberty. Mo I 8.
Restrictions on Legislation
No law to restrict right to speak freely on any subject; but for abuse of that right every person to be responsible. Ind I 9; Ore I 8.
The Utah Constitution also adopts a responsibility for abuse standard in the following terms: "All men have the inherent and inalienable right ... to communicate freely their thoughts and opinions, being responsible for the abuse of that right." Utah Const, art. I, § 1. The Delaware Constitution provides in relevant part: "The press shall be free to every citizen who undertakes to examine the official conduct of men acting in a public capacity; and any citizen may print on any subject, being responsible for the abuse of that liberty.” Del. Const, art. I, § 5.
. See, e.g., Fordyce v. State, 569 N.E.2d 357 (Ind.Ct.App.1991); State v. Simmer, 111 S.W.2d 372 (Mo.1989) (en banc); City of Urbana ex rel. Newlin v. Downing, 43 Ohio St.3d 109, 539 N.E.2d 140 (1989); West Gallery Corp. v. Salt Lake City Bd. of Comm'rs, 586 P.2d 429 (Utah 1978); Fine Arts Guild, Inc. v. City of Seattle, 74 Wash.2d 503, 445 P.2d 602 (1968) (en banc).
. People v. Ford, 773 P.2d 1059 (Colo.1989) (en banc); Long v. 130 Mkt. St. Gift & Novelty, 294 Pa.Super. 383, 440 A.2d 517 (1982); K. Gordon Murray Prods., Inc. v. Floyd, 217 Ga. 784, 125 S.E.2d 207 (1962); People v. Neumayer, 405 Mich. 341, 275 N.W.2d 230 (1979); cf. State v. Davidson, 481 N.W.2d 51 (Minn.1992) (obscenity a per se abuse).
. Cf. State v. Sutton, 112 N.M. 449, 455, 816 P.2d 518, 524 (Ct.App.) (dictum) (difference in language in the state constitutional provision regarding search and seizure "is some evidence that the state constitutional provision may be interpreted to provide broader protection than the federal”), cert. denied, 112 N.M. 308, 815 P.2d 161 (1991).
. Providing a legal definition of obscenity has proved a monumental task. Pornography, Obscenity & the Law 2-6 (Lester A. Sobel ed., 1979); Cynthia L. Estlund, Speech on Matters of Public Concern: The Perils of an Emerging First Amendment Category, 59 Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 1, 42-43 (1990). Indeed, the late Justice Harlan pronounced this problem "intractable” as early as 1968. Interstate Circuit, Inc. v. City of Dallas, 390 U.S. 676, 704. 88 S.Ct. 1298, 1313, 20 L.Ed.2d 225 (1968) (Harlan, J., concurring and dissenting). This problem is perhaps best illustrated by federal decisions holding that, while “obscenity” is not entitled to protection, "indecency” is protected by the First Amendment. FCC v. Pacifica Found., 438 U.S. 726, 98 S.Ct. 3026, 57 L.Ed.2d 1073 (1978); Action for Children's Television v. FCC, 932 F.2d 1504 (D.C.Cir.1991), cert. denied, - U.S. -, 112 S.Ct. 1281, 117 L.Ed.2d 507 (1992).
. Smith v. United States, 431 U.S. 291, 305, 97 S.Ct. 1756, 1766, 52 L.Ed.2d 324 (1977); United States v. Various Articles of Obscene Merchandise, 709 F.2d 132, 136-37 (2d Cir.1983); Red Bluff Drive-In, Inc. v. Vance, 648 F.2d 1020, 1028-29 (5th Cir.1981), cert. denied, 455 U.S. 913, 102 S.Ct. 1264, 71 L.Ed.2d 453 (1982).
. The Miller test requires the trier of fact to determine “(a) whether 'the average person, applying contemporary community standards’ would find that the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest; (b) whether the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by the [ordinance]; and (c) whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value." 413 U.S. at 24, 93 S.Ct. at 2615 (citation omitted) (quoting Roth v. United States, 354 U.S. 476, 489, 77 S.Ct. 1304, 1311, 1 L.Ed.2d 1498 (1956)). | [
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OPINION
HARTZ, Judge.
Leroy Ortiz appeals from a decision of the Workers’ Compensation Administration (WCA) that (1) reduced his previous award of permanent total disability to 55% permanent partial disability and (2) granted Claimants, Barnett & Casbarian, Inc., (Employer) and National Union Fire Insurance Company of Pittsburgh, a credit for overpayment of $23,249. We reverse and remand for reconsideration.
I. BACKGROUND
On July 29, 1987, Ortiz filed a claim under the Workers’ Compensation Act for permanent total disability and other benefits as a result of an accident on July 29, 1985. On September 22,1987, a WCA PreHearing Officer submitted a Recommended Resolution which included a finding of permanent total disability for Ortiz. Ortiz accepted the Recommended Resolution; Claimants did not object to it. The Recommended Resolution therefore bound the parties. See NMSA 1978, § 52-5-5(C); Norman v. Lockheed Eng’g & Science Co., 112 N.M. 618, 817 P.2d 1260 (Ct.App.1991).
On February 15, 1990, Claimants petitioned to reduce Ortiz’s benefits and to receive credit for allegedly excessive benefits already paid. The Pre-Trial Order stated the issues as:
1. Whether [Ortiz’s] total disability benefits should be reduced because of his employment in an elected capacity as Business Agent/Financial Secretary-Treasurer for Local Union No. 412, and if so, to what percentage and when.
2. Whether Claimants’ [sic] are entitled to any reimbursement for alleged overpayment of benefits.
After an evidentiary hearing the Workers’ Compensation Judge (WCJ) filed a decision that included comprehensive findings of fact and conclusions of law. Among the undisputed findings are the following: Ortiz was injured on July 29, 1985, in the course of his employment with Employer. Before the accident Ortiz was a pipe fitter supervisor, a job whose duties included paperwork and inspection of pipe fittings. His earlier employment had included work as a plumber, pipe fitter, pipe fitter foreman, and welder. In June 1987 Ortiz was elected as business agent/financial secretary-treasurer for Union Local 412 of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada, and Ortiz had continued in that position up to the time of the hearing on November 29, 1990. The WCJ found that Ortiz was employable as a financial secretary-treasurer and business agent.
The parties stipulated in the Pre-Trial Order that Ortiz was disabled from work as a pipe fitter, plumber, laborer, or pipe fitter supervisor. The record also reflects that Ortiz had twice been a job steward for Local 412 and served as president of the Local, a volunteer job, from May 1986 to June 1987. He won election to his paid union office in 1987 by twelve votes, and he was reelected in 1990 by more than fifty votes.
The WCJ ruled that Ortiz was rendered 55% permanently partially disabled from August 1, 1987, and ordered that $23,249 in prior overpayments be credited toward future benefit payments owed Ortiz by Claimants. The WCJ elaborated on his decision in a Memorandum Opinion which reasoned that an elected union-official position constitutes work within the meaning of the Workers’ Compensation Act and that a change in employment status constituted a change in condition under NMSA 1978, Section 52-5-9, even without a change in medical condition. The opinion also explained the basis for granting the credit to Claimants.
II. DISCUSSION
As the parties agree, we are governed by the definitions of partial and total disability enacted in 1965. The statutory provisions read as follows:
As used in the Workmen’s Compensation Act [52-1-1 to 52-1-69 NMSA 1978], “total disability” means a condition whereby a workman, by reason of an injury arising out of, and in the course of, his employment, is wholly unable to perform the usual tasks in the work he was performing at the time of his injury, and is wholly unable to perform any work for which he is fitted by age, education, training, general physical and mental capacity and previous work experience.
NMSA 1978, § 52-1-24.
As used in the Workmen’s Compensation Act [52-1-1 to 52-1-69 NMSA 1978], “partial disability” means a condition whereby a workman, by reason of injury arising out of and in the course of his employment, is unable to some percentage-extent to perform the usual tasks in the work he was performing at the time of his injury and is unable to some percentage-extent to perform any work for which he is fitted by age, education, training, general physical and mental capacity and previous work experience.
NMSA 1978, § 52-1-25.
A. Work For Which Ortiz is Fitted
Ortiz’s primary contention is that his union office is not “work for which he is fitted by age, education, training, general physical and mental capacity and previous work experience.” § 52-1-24. If this contention is correct, then Ortiz must be totally disabled, because there is no evidence in the record that he is fitted for any other work. We hold, however, that the WCJ could properly determine that the union office is work for which Ortiz is fitted.
First, we agree with the WCJ that the duties of an elective position can be “work” within the meaning of Sections 52-1-24 and -25. The word “work” is not defined in the Workmen’s Compensation Act. We note, however, that salaried elected public officers are covered by the Act. NMSA 1978, § 52-1-3.1 (Repl. Pamp.1987). Because the disability of an elected public officer is determined in part by whether the official is able “to perform the usual tasks in the work he was performing at the time of his injury,” Section 52-1-24 (emphasis added), we infer that the duties of elected public officers constitute “work” and conclude that the duties of a person elected to a job also may come within the statutory usage of the word “work.”
Ortiz further contends that even if the elective position he holds is “work,” it is not work “for which he is fitted by age, education, training, general physical and mental capacity and previous work experience.” § 52-1-24. To be sure, the fact of his election to his position does not establish his fitness. On the other hand, the possibility that an unsuitable person might be elected to the position does not establish that Ortiz is not fitted for the work he is doing. To determine Ortiz’s fitness for his work, we examine the duties of the position in light of his background.
As union business agent, Ortiz’s duties are: performing paperwork at a desk, conducting on-site inspections of contractors’ job sites, settling jurisdictional disputes, participating in contract negotiations, attending monthly membership meetings and making reports, serving on the Real Estate Corporation and as a trustee on the Pension/Health & Welfare Fund, conducting public relations work, and appointing and instructing job stewards. Job duties of the union financial secretary-treasurer are: performing financial transactions, ordering and paying for office supplies, taking care of members’ travel cards and death benefits, collecting dues, making bank deposits, signing checks, and checking payroll reports.
Perhaps the ideal candidate for this position would be a young, physically vigorous individual with many years of experience in plumbing and degrees in accounting, law, and journalism. The likelihood of finding the ideal candidate is slim. One jieed not be ideal for the job to be “fitted” for it. The WCJ could properly find that Ortiz was fitted for the job if he possessed strong qualifications in some areas and was passable in other areas in which he could improve with experience and training. Ortiz’s experience as a plumber and union member certainly enabled him to understand the needs and desires of union members. He had served twice as a job steward, giving him valuable experience for selecting and instructing others for such a position. He had worked as a general superintendent on jobs, dealing with labor disputes arising out of contracts and mediating disputes between members and between clients. In his position at the time of his injury, Ortiz was a supervisor who spent 10 to 15% of his time doing paperwork, a task that now takes about 20% of his time. His skills from his prior work experience also qualify him to perform on-site inspections. As president of the union local from May 1986 to June 1987 Ortiz conducted monthly membership meetings and undoubtedly honed public relations skills. Ortiz was physically capable of performing all the duties of his elective position except some climbing that would be helpful for on-site inspections. On this record the WCJ could properly find that Ortiz was fitted by age, education, training, general physical and mental capacity and previous work experience for the elective position of union business agent/financial secretary-treasurer.
As his final argument on this point, Ortiz contends that his benefits for total disability must be reinstated because the WCJ did not make specific findings regarding his fitness but found only that Ortiz was “employable” as a financial secretary-treasurer and business agent. We disagree. Findings need not cover every material fact, only ultimate facts. McCleskey v. N.C. Ribble Co., 80 N.M. 345, 455 P.2d 849 (Ct.App.1969). See SCRA 1986, 1-052(B)(1)(b) (district court rule that findings shall consist only of ultimate facts). The WCJ made a finding regarding the extent of Ortiz’s permanent partial disability. “[A] finding that a workman, to a stated percentage extent, is partially and permanently disabled is a finding of an ultimate fact.” Id. at 346, 455 P.2d at 850.
In short, we reject Ortiz’s contention that the WCJ could not properly find that he is fitted for his union elective position under the criteria set forth in Section 52-1-24. This holding, however, does not end our inquiry. Ortiz also argues that the special, the unusual, nature of his present employment requires that it not be considered in determining his disability. We now turn to that question.
B. The Odd-Lot Doctrine and Partial Disability
In addition to his claim that he is not “fitted” for his elective position, Ortiz contends that the odd-lot doctrine, see generally 2 Arthur Larson, The Law of Workmen’s Compensation § 57.51 (1989) [hereinafter Larson], requires that he be found permanently totally disabled. He quotes the following proposition from Lozano v. Archer, 71 N.M. 175, 181, 376 P.2d 963, 967 (1962):
“An employe[e] who is so injured that he can perform no services other than those which are so limited in quality, dependability, or quantity that a reasonably stable market for them does not exist, may well be classified as totally disabled.” (Quoting Lee v. Minneapolis St. Ry. [230 Minn. 315] 41 N.W.2d 433, 436 (Minn.1950)).
Ortiz contends that the doctrine applies because there is no evidence of his fitness for any position other than the elective office. This contention requires us to examine the concepts of disability and partial disability under the Workmen’s Compensation Act.
1. Capacity to Perform Work
Under the definitions of total and partial disability in Sections 52-1-24 and - 25, “the primary test of disability [is] capacity to perform work.” Quintana v. Trotz Constr. Co., 79 N.M. 109, 111, 440 P.2d 301, 303 (1968), overruled on other grounds by American Tank & Steel Corp. v. Thompson, 90 N.M. 513, 565 P.2d 1030 (1977). The word “capacity” connotes qualities inherent in the individual. “Capacity to perform work” is the product of the individual’s physical and mental power and dexterity, as augmented by education, training, and experience. One’s capacity to perform work should ordinarily be considered to remain constant so long as one’s prowess does not change.
At the same time, however, whether an individual’s skills constitute a capacity to perform work depends upon what work is being performed by members of society. A physically disabled mathematician may have no capacity to perform work in a primitive society but be a prized employee in the post-industrial age. Thus, in measuring one’s capacity to perform work it is necessary to look to the job market.
How do we define the pertinent job market? Is it the specific jobs available to the injured worker at a particular time or is it the general market in which workers are being employed — the collection of all jobs, whether filled or unfilled? The Workmen’s Compensation Act is not a wage-replacement statute which simply compares the worker’s earnings before and after injury. Under a wage-replacement statute, benefits could be determined on the basis of the specific situation of the worker, with benefits being adjusted as the worker finds or loses a job. When the measure of benefits is the worker’s capacity, however, benefits should not ordinarily change just because of a fluctuation in job openings. It would be peculiar to speak of a change in one’s capacity as specific jobs open up or become filled. In other words, the job market by which disability is to be measured should be the general market in which workers are being employed.
Although no case is directly in point, Strickland v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co., 107 N.M. 500, 760 P.2d 793 (Ct.App.1988), supports this view. That opinion considered a claim of disability under the 1986 amendments to the Workmen’s Compensation Act, commonly referred to as the Interim Act. Under that Act total disability required a “permanent physical impairment ... resulting by reason of an accidental injury arising out of and in the course of employment whereby a workman is wholly unable to earn comparable wages or salary.” NMSA 1978, § 52-1-24 (Cum.Supp. 1986). Worker admitted that his medical restrictions did not prevent him from performing clerical work but stated that there were no job openings available. We rejected his contention that “the inability to earn comparable wages need not result from his physical impairment, but may be due to the unavailability of work.” Strickland, 107 N.M. at 502, 760 P.2d at 795. In other words, a worker’s ability (or capacity) is a quality independent of the vagaries of job openings.
Applying our analysis thus far to the facts of this case, we conclude that the election of Ortiz to his union position is irrelevant to the determination of his disability. Because his disability is measured by his capacity to perform work, it does not matter whether he actually succeeds in obtaining a particular job. The material fact is the existence of a job for which Ortiz is fitted. Whether or not he obtains the votes necessary for election to the position does not affect his capacity to perform work.
2. Meaning of Partial Disability
The next question that presents itself is how does the existence of the union elective position affect the measure of Ortiz’s disability. The answer to this question requires consideration of the meaning of partial disability.
If a worker is, like Ortiz, wholly unable to perform the usual tasks in the work he was performing at the time of his injury, his partial disability is determined by his inability “to some percentage-extent to perform any work for which he is fitted.” § 52-1-25. In Anaya v. New Mexico Steel Erectors, 94 N.M. 370, 610 P.2d 1199 (1980), our supreme court clarified that “work for which he is fitted” includes work that the worker could do before his injury but is now unable to do because of the injury. How is the percentage computed?
The natural reading of the statutory definition of partial disability is that partial disability is measured by the extent to which the worker is unable to perform work for which he or she was fitted before the injury. If the jobs for which a worker is fitted are reduced in number, then the worker’s percentage of disability is increased. After all, the worker is then able to perform only a percentage of the work that the worker could perform before. Although New Mexico case law has not addressed in any depth the meaning of “partial disability,” no opinion is contrary to our view and the results in several cases support the view that a worker is partially disabled if the worker is unable to perform jobs that he or she could perform before the work injury. In Anaya the supreme court affirmed an award of 50% disability to a heavy construction worker whose injury restricted his subsequent employment to light construction and maintenance. In Jaramillo v. Kaufman Plumbing & Heating Co., 103 N.M. 400, 708 P.2d 312 (1985), the supreme court adopted the opinion of Judge Donnelly from this court, upholding an award of 15% permanent partial disability to a worker whose injury prevented him from continuing employment as a carpenter but who was qualified to serve as a law enforcement officer, a position for which he had experience prior to his accident. In Schober v. Mountain Bell Telephone, 96 N.M. 376, 630 P.2d 1231 (Ct.App.1980), we upheld an award of 30% permanent partial disability to a worker who could no longer obtain employment in electronics but could work in installing sprinkler systems. Gonzales v. Stanke-Brown & Assocs., 98 N.M. 379, 381, 648 P.2d 1192, 1194 (Ct.App.1982), affirmed a finding that a cement finisher’s partial disability increased as a result of an accident that decreased his ability to perform certain tasks such as using a sledge hammer and handling forms.
These representative cases illustrate that the percentage of partial disability is based on the reduction in the spectrum of work for which the injured worker is fitted. The reduction may be the result of the elimination of certain jobs that the worker can no longer perform (carpenter, heavy laborer, etc.) or a reduction in the worker’s ability to perform certain tasks associated with the worker’s current job (handling forms, etc.), which presumably reduces the work er’s job opportunities.
We find additional support for our conclusion in jurisdictions that measure disability in terms of wage-earning capacity. Several courts in those jurisdictions have held that a worker earning as much as before the work injury is partially disabled if the spectrum of employment opportunity has been reduced by the accident. See Todd Shipyards Corp. v. Allan, 666 F.2d 399 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 459 U.S. 1034, 103 S.Ct. 444, 74 L.Ed.2d 600 (1982); Shroyer v. Industrial Comm’n, 98 Ariz. 388, 405 P.2d 875 (1965) (in division); Taylor v. Columbia Falls Aluminum Co., 243 Mont. 464, 795 P.2d 433 (1990); Ford v. State Accident Ins. Fund, 7 Or.App. 549, 492 P.2d 491 (1972).
3. What is an odd-lot job?
Do any special considerations come into play when the worker suffers an almost complete reduction in the spectrum of work for which he or she is fitted? Ortiz argues that when the only job for which he is fitted is a job such as the union elective position, the odd-lot doctrine applies and he is entitled to benefits for total permanent disability.
Although we find this contention close to being right, we do not apply the odd-lot doctrine in this circumstance. As it has been applied in other jurisdictions, the odd-lot doctrine excludes casual or odd-job employment from consideration in determining a worker’s disability. For example, Larson, supra, summarized Minneapolis Street Railway, the opinion quoted by our Supreme Court in Lozano v. Archer, 71 N.M. 175, 376 P.2d 963 (1962), as follows:
Claimant, a streetcar flagman, as a result of being caught between two street-ears, suffered the loss of his left eye, 75 percent loss of use of his left arm, 10 percent loss of use of the right ankle and foot, and severe post-traumatic neurosis. He worked for short periods thereafter as a conductor, as an income tax worker, as a house-to-house canvasser, and as a detective, all with great difficulty and discomfort. The supervisor of placements of the Minnesota state employment service was permitted to testify that gainful jobs with reasonable continuity were not available for a person so handicapped. The Supreme Court, applying the rule quoted above, held that such evidence was admissible, and that the sporadic employment and earnings shown were not inconsistent with this concept of total disability.
§ 57.51(a) at 10-164.67. Judge Cardozo wrote of the “odd lot” man whose only work “is likely to be casual and intermittent.” Jordan v. Decorative Co., 230 N.Y. 522, 130 N.E. 634, 636 (1921). We can appreciate the qualitative difference between a regular job and intermittent employment and how that difference could justify not considering intermittent employment when measuring a person’s capacity to perform work. Nevertheless, the job for which Ortiz is fitted — that of union business agent/financial secretary-treasurer— is not a casual or intermittent job. It is a full-time, continuing employment.
We recognize that Ortiz’s job is apparently unique and that the statement of the odd-lot doctrine in Minneapolis Street Railway, which was quoted in Lozano, may be read as including within the doctrine not only casual and odd-job employment but also regular employment in a special job in which only a very few people are employed. But we reject the application of the odd-lot doctrine in this circumstance. We see no principled way to determine where to draw a line saying that a particular job is sufficiently rare that it should not be considered in evaluating the extent of disability. If a unique job should not be considered, what about a job in which only two persons are employed? What if a job is unique, but only two or three persons are qualified to perform it? Rather than excluding consideration of a full-time, continuing job because of its rarity, the rarity should simply be factored into the determination of the extent of partial disability. If the worker can perform only a unique job, the worker’s partial disability may be very close to 100% — so the disability benefits obtained would be almost the same as they would be if the odd-lot doctrine were applied to such a circumstance (which is why we said above that Ortiz’s contention is close to being right) — but in principle the disability is not 100%.
Lozano, which affirmed an award of total disability benefits to a worker employed in his family’s grocery store, is not contrary to our understanding of the odd-lot doctrine. New Mexico law at that time defined disability in terms of wage earning ability. Lozano found that worker could not earn wages in a competitive market. His only work was assisting his wife in a family grocery store, and any income derived therefrom could be attributed to capital investment rather than his labors.
4. Ortiz’s Percentage-Extent of Disability
Imbedded in Ortiz’s briefs is the contention that the WCJ awarded too low a percentage of permanent partial disability. In an argument that merges into his odd-lot doctrine argument, Ortiz contends that his job opportunities have been reduced to such a large extent by his injury that the WCJ should not have reduced his total disability benefits. We take this contention to be that his partial disability was so close to 100% that the WCJ should have continued disability benefits at the 100% level. The WCJ found a partial disability of only 55%. Thus, implicit in this argument of Ortiz is that the record cannot support such a reduced partial disability award.
As illustrated by the New Mexico opinions cited above on the issue of partial disability, e.g., Schober v. Mountain Bell Telephone, 96 N.M. at 382, 630 P.2d at 1237, ordinarily we do not review on appeal the percentage of the partial disability award. That determination is essentially a fact-finding by the lower tribunal. Id. In this case, however, we believe that a remand for reconsideration is appropriate because the WCJ appears to have applied an incorrect legal standard in making his findings.
One indication that the WCJ applied the incorrect legal standard is the result reached by the WCJ. The spectrum of job opportunities for Ortiz was reduced so dramatically by his injury that an award of just 55% permanent partial disability would be very difficult to justify under the legal standard set forth in this opinion. A second indication is the WCJ’s determination that Ortiz’s election constituted a sufficient change in condition to warrant a modification of the benefits awarded by the recommended resolution. This statement by the WCJ is incorrect because, as noted above, a worker’s capacity to perform work is the same whether or not the worker obtains a job for which he or she is fitted. A worker’s employment after an award of disability may be new evidence revealing the worker’s capacity to perform work and the new evidence may justify reopening the award, but the employment itself is not a change in condition. Because it appears that the WCJ applied an incorrect legal standard in awarding Ortiz’s percentage-extent of disability, reconsideration of the award is necessary. See Whittenberg v. Graves Oil & Butane Co., 113 N.M. 450, 827 P.2d 838 (Ct.App.1991).
III. CONCLUSION
We remand to the WCJ for reconsideration of Ortiz’s percentage of permanent partial disability. The WCJ should determine Ortiz’s partial disability after considering (1) the reduction in the spectrum of job opportunities for which Ortiz is fitted as a result of his injury, (2) Ortiz’s inability to perform tasks in his present job, and (3) any increase in Ortiz’s job opportunities as a result of post-injury training and experience. The WCJ should also reconsider, in light of this opinion, whether an award of retroactive credit to respondents is equitable under the circumstances.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
BLACK, J., concurs.
BIVINS, J., dissents.
. In particular, we note that the test for disability is not wage-earning ability. Quintana, 79 N.M. at 111, 440 P.2d at 303. Thus, we reject Ortiz’s contention that he must be considered totally disabled because he is now able to earn only a fraction of what he could earn before his injury. To the extent that Aranda v. Mississippi Chem. Corp., 93 N.M. 412, 416, 600 P.2d 1202, 1206 (Ct.App.1979), relied upon by Ortiz, suggests that disability is measured by a decrease in ability to earn a pre-injury level of income, Aranda misstates the law.
. Nothing in this opinion calls into question our prior recognition that in order to encourage employers to assist their injured workers, a special job created by an employer for an injured worker may be considered in reducing th'e employer’s liability for payment of disability benefits to the worker. See Dodrill v. Albuquerque Utils. Corp., 103 N.M. 737, 713 P.2d 7 (Ct.App.1985); Salcido v. Transamerica Ins. Group, 102 N.M. 217, 219, 693 P.2d 583, 585 (1985); Aranda v. Mississippi Chem. Corp., 93 N.M. 412, 600 P.2d 1202 (Ct.App.1979).
. Of course, rehabilitation can restore the worker to a position of being able to perform as wide a spectrum of work as before the accident, thereby ending any disability. See Medina v. Wicked Wick Candle Co., 91 N.M. 522, 577 P.2d 420 (Ct.App.1977).
. In his dissent Judge Bivins contends that Orti^j did not preserve this issue before the WCJ and did not raise it properly on appeal. Although this is a close question, we disagree. Ortiz has consistently argued that, in accordance with the odd-lot doctrine, he is entitled to benefits for total disability because his opportunities for employment have been drastically limited. To address this contention properly, it was necessary for us to study the odd-lot doctrine and to consider the scope of that doctrine in light of the statutory provisions governing partial disability. Our analysis led to the conclusion that a major reduction in the spectrum of job opportunities should not result in application of the odd-lot doctrine and an award of total disability, but should be factored into an award of partial disability, even though the partial disability award may end up being very close to 100%. Having performed that analysis, we could then simply affirm the WCJ on the ground that we have rejected Ortiz’s invocation of the odd-lot doctrine. Doing so, however, would serve only to deny Ortiz the benefit of a legal analysis of partial disability that his appellate issues required us to undertake. Although not without reservation, we believe that in the circumstances of this case Ortiz's argument that (1) his job opportunities are so limited that his disability should be 100%, can be said to incorporate the argument that (2) his job opportunities are so limited that his disability should be much greater than 55%. Ortiz’s argument under the odd-lot doctrine sufficiently alerted the WCJ and this court to the inadequacy of the partial disability award that he is entitled to benefit on remand from our analysis of the concept of partial disability. | [
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OPINION
FLORES, Judge.
Employer appeals a workers’ compensation order awarding claimant permanent partial disability benefits. The award of partial disability benefits was based on a combination of amputation of an index finger and part of a thumb, phantom pain, and secondary depression. Employer contends that claimant did not have an injury separate and distinct from the amputation of the finger and thumb and is entitled only to benefits pursuant to the scheduled injury section of the Workers’ Compensation Act. See NMSA 1978, § 52-1-43 (Repl.Pamp.1987). We are persuaded that, in this case, the record supports the determination of the workers’ compensation judge (WCJ) that claimant’s pain and secondary depression were injuries separate and distinct from the amputation and claimant is entitled to partial disability benefits.
On June 9, 1988, while working as a carpenter, claimant was injured. The injury resulted in amputation of his index finger and part of the thumb on his left hand. In addition to reconstructive surgery to his hand, claimant received extensive psychological and psychiatric treatment after the accident. For a couple of years, employer paid total disability benefits and all of claimant’s medical expenses. In 1990, employer refused to pay medical benefits and claimant filed a claim with the workers’ compensation administration for payment of unpaid medical bills and total disability benefits. After a formal hearing, the WCJ found that claimant had suffered a compensable injury to his left hand. The WCJ also found claimant suffered from disabling pain as a result of the accident. The WCJ determined that in addition to the impairment to his left hand, claimant suffered impairment to separate and distinct parts of the body. Those separate impairments were phantom pain and secondary depression. As a result of the WCJ finding separate impairments, claimant was awarded partial permanent disability benefits rather than scheduled injury benefits.
In order to be entitled to partial disability benefits rather than scheduled injury benefits, claimant must first show that the loss or loss of use of a specific body member has caused a separate and distinct disability or impairment to a part or parts of the body other than the specific member injured. Harrison v. Animas Valley Auto & Truck Repair, 107 N.M. 373, 758 P.2d 787 (1988). The Workers’ Compensation Act does not compensate for non-disabling pain. Tafoya v. Leonard Tire Co., 94 N.M. 716, 717, 616 P.2d 429, 430 (Ct.App.1980); Gomez v. Hausman Corp., 83 N.M. 400, 402, 492 P.2d 1263, 1265 (Ct.App.1971). “The question of whether a separate and distinct impairment exists is one for the fact finder to determine.” Beltran v. Van Ark Care Ctr., 107 N.M. 273, 275, 756 P.2d 1, 3 (Ct.App.1988). Our review is to determine whether the evidence was sufficient on the record as a whole to support the determination of the fact finder. Tallman v. ABF (Arkansas Best Freight), 108 N.M. 124, 767 P.2d 363 (Ct.App.1988).
Here, the WCJ found that beyond his scheduled injury claimant suffered separate and distinct impairments resulting from phantom pain and secondary depression. Employer does not appear to argue that there was insufficient evidence to support the findings of the WCJ regarding the separate and distinct impairment from pain. It contends instead that pain cannot be a separate and distinct injury that would remove claimant from the scheduled injury section. Section 52-1-43. Employer argues that pain is not an injury, but simply the body’s reaction to actual physical harm. Medically, that is true. However, under New Mexico workers’ compensation law, pain can be an injury that is disabling so as to allow benefits for a work-related accident. See Herndon v. Albuquerque Pub. Schs., 92 N.M. 635, 593 P.2d 470 (Ct.App.1978). Therefore, there is no support for employer’s argument that pain is not an injury. It is true that there is New Mexico case law to the effect that pain associated with an injury is not a separate and distinct impairment. See Hise Constr. v. Candelaria, 98 N.M. 759, 652 P.2d 1210 (1982); Sisneros v. Breese Indus., Inc., 73 N.M. 101, 385 P.2d 960 (1963). Those cases, however, were decided prior to the full development of the distinction between impairment of the scheduled member and impairment to other parts of the body as a result of injury to the scheduled member. Those cases also were decided on the basis that the pain was not incapacitating or was the kind of pain normally associated with the injury.
We agree with employer that not all pain is sufficient to support a finding that such pain constitutes a separate and distinct impairment. Further, we recognize that since every injury is accompanied by pain, there would never be an injury falling into the scheduled injury section if we were to hold that all pain is a separate and distinct injury. This result is absurd and clearly was not envisioned by the legislature. Gonzales v. Lovington Pub. Schs., 109 N.M. 365, 785 P.2d 276 (Ct.App.1989) (this court will not interpret statutes in a manner that produces absurd results).
We do, however, believe that certain pain associated with a physical injury can be of such a nature as to be a separate and distinct impairment. Where there is evidence indicating that pain associated with a physical injury is disabling in nature, such pain may constitute a separate and distinct impairment. See Harrison, 107 N.M. at 375, 758 P.2d at 789 (Ransom, J., special concurrence); see also Southern Farm Bureau Casualty Ins. Co. v. Aguirre, 690 S.W.2d 672 (Tex.Ct.App.1985). We agree with Justice Ransom that incapacitating pain is a disability. It affects the whole person and limits or prevents a claimant from doing the work he or she did prior to the physical injury.
It is for the fact finder to determine whether the pain is so incapacitating as to make it a separate and distinct impairment. Cf. Beltran, 107 N.M. at 275, 756 P.2d at 3 (whether separate impairment exists constitutes issue of fact). Here, employer argues that the pain being suffered by claimant is not extreme, excessive, or unusual for the injuries he sustained. There was testimony to the effect that phantom pain is suffered by 90 to 100% of all amputees. The doctors testified that such pain decreases over time. However, there was some indication that pain or sensitivity will always be present in association with this injury. Further, claimant testified regarding the pain he was experiencing.
Employer argues that there is no way for the fact finder to objectively determine to what extent the worker feels pain. We do not agree. Where, as here, there is evidence that the injury sustained by claimant gave rise to severe pain requiring that he receive medical treatment, including reasonable and necessary psychological or psychiatric care to enable him to cope with pain, this evidence is sufficient to permit the WCJ to find that claimant’s pain is disabling in nature.
Here, there was evidence that the pain being suffered by claimant required special psychological and psychiatric treatment, not only for the pain but also for the depression caused by the pain. Employer concedes that claimant suffered from mental impairment, but contends it was only in association with the hand injury and that such mental impairment has already been compensated. Employer argues claimant is entitled to benefits for only 125 weeks because the partial disability was based on the combination of a scheduled injury and a mental impairment. See NMSA 1978, § 52-1-42 (Repl.Pamp.1987). We do not agree that the partial disability was based solely on the secondary mental impairment. The partial disability included the impairment from pain. Therefore, employer’s argument for a limitation of the benefits is without merit.
We hold that incapacitating pain can be an impairment separate and distinct so as to remove a disability from the scheduled injury section of the statute. Here, there was sufficient evidence for the WCJ to have found that the pain claimant suffered was incapacitating and, therefore, a separate and distinct impairment removing the claim for benefits from the scheduled injury section. The WCJ’s award of permanent partial disability benefits is affirmed.
Claimant requests an award of attorney fees on appeal. Claimant is entitled to an award of reasonable attorney fees if he is awarded compensation, medical, or related benefits, and successfully upholds such award on appeal. See Mathis v. Trailways Lines, Inc., 111 N.M. 292, 804 P.2d 1111 (Ct.App.1990). Claimant is awarded attorney fees on appeal in the amount of $1500.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
DONNELLY and CHAVEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
DONNELLY, Judge.
The Children, Youth & Families Department (the Department) appeals from three orders denying a predecessor agency, the Child Services Division of the State Human Services Department (HSD), an award of costs, and directing that HSD pay costs, including witness and guardian ad litem fees, following the district court’s denial of Petitioners’ petition for adoption. The Department argues on appeal that the court erred in: (1) denying HSD its costs; (2) ordering that it pay Petitioners’ costs; and (3) ordering that HSD pay the fee for an expert witness appointed by the court pursuant to SCRA 1986,11-706(B), and to reimburse the Administrative Office of the Courts (AOC) for the attorney fees of the guardian ad litem. We affirm in part and reverse in part. FACTS
The HSD placed C.E.H. and C.S.P., two minor half-sisters, with Petitioners on September 2, 1986. Petitioners had been previously approved by HSD as foster parents. After the children had resided in Petitioners’ home over four years, on November 1, 1990, HSD gave its written consent for Petitioners to adopt both girls.
Petitioners filed a petition to adopt the children on November 13, 1990. During the pendency of the adoption proceedings, on December 19, 1990, HSD, without prior notice to Petitioners, removed the children from Petitioners’ custody. In part, HSD based its removal of the children from the home of Petitioners upon alleged physical and emotional abuse of C.E.H. by Kay Arlene Stailey. On January 10, 1991, Petitioners moved for issuance of an order to show cause, requesting that the court order HSD to appear and show cause why C.E.H. and C.S.P. should not be returned to the custody of Petitioners pending the hearing on the adoption. The court issued an order directing HSD to show cause on January 14, 1991. HSD filed an entry of appearance in the case on January 11,1991. Hearings on the order to show cause were held on January 31 through February 1, 1991, and on February 19-20, 1991.
On January 11, 1991, the court appointed Celia Foy Castillo to serve as guardian ad litem for the children and, on March 14,1991, pursuant to SCRA 11-706, the court appointed Lynn B. Daugherty, a psychologist, to serve as a court-appointed expert. The order appointing Dr. Daugherty directed, among other things, that she:
[R]eport the results of her investigation, evaluations and review, including any recommendations in regard to the future physical custody of the minor children, visitation, therapy and any other recommendation to this Court and to the attorneys ... to assist the Court in determining the placement of the minor children ... and determining whether the Petitioners are proper adoptive parents____
Dr. Daugherty conducted a psychological evaluation of Petitioners and the two children, and issued a written report on June 13, 1991, recommending that the children not be returned to Petitioners’ custody.
At the conclusion of the hearing on the order to show cause, the court took the cause under advisement. Following receipt of Dr. Daugherty’s report, on November 26, 1991, the court wrote a lengthy letter to counsel in the case stating, among other things, that “[b]ased on the testimony ... [and] evidence ... and the extensive report and recommendations of Dr. Daugherty, this Court is constrained to deny Petitioner’s [sic] motion that the children ... be returned to the Petitioners and [deny their request] that a decree of adoption be granted to them.”
The letter additionally recited: “[Petitioners’] continued procrastination in obtaining [family] therapy and the other factors [listed by the court] leave this Court with no alternative but to find that there is little likelihood that that therapy would be obtained if the children are returned to [Petitioners’] home.” The court also said:
Despite my finding that [HSD] breached [its] own Adoption Placement Agreement, that they had little or no basis for taking the action they took in December, 1990, or if they had a basis, they did not have documentation of it, I cannot in good conscience make a finding that it is in the best interest and welfare of these two girls to return them to the [Petitioners’] home____
Although the court ruled in favor of HSD, it criticized HSD’s actions leading to the removal of the children from Petitioners’ home. The court also noted that HSD’s placement of the children with Petitioners had been “handled by the Department in a distressingly poor fashion”; that HSD had “failed in [its] obligation to keep all of the parties, including this Court, advised of the developments throughout the period that the children were in foster care”; and HSD’s concerns leading to the removal of the children from Petitioners’ home were never brought to the court’s attention in periodic review hearings conducted in other cases.
The court’s letter also concluded that there was no documentary evidence to explain the shift in position by an expert witness relied upon by HSD at the hearing on the order to show cause, and that witness’s earlier position that Petitioners were suitable adoptive parents when the two girls were initially placed with Petitioners. The court further observed that at trial HSD emphasized that Petitioner Kay Arlene Stailey was in need of psychological counselling, but that no one from HSD ever sought to determine if she was receiving therapy, and “[t]he emphasis on her receiving therapy only arose in 1990,” and “this aspect of the case was poorly managed and handled.”
Because of the findings set forth in its letter, the court stated it would order the Department to “reimburse the Petitioners for all of their costs of this action and ... [to] reimburse the DFA and the Administrative Office of the Courts” for the fee of Dr. Daugherty.
Following receipt of the court’s letter directing that the Department reimburse Petitioners for “all of their costs of this action,” Petitioners filed a motion requesting that the court also order HSD to pay Petitioners’ costs and attorney fees, totalling in the sum of $8068.87. Included in this sum was Petitioners’ claim of $4000 for payment of their attorney fees. The guardian ad litem also submitted a statement and request for payment of attorney fees in the amount of $3861.55. The court entered an order directing that HSD pay the guardian ad litem’s fees in the sum of $3861.55. By separate orders entered the same day, the court denied Petitioners’ request that the children be returned to their custody, denied their petition for adoption, but ordered that HSD pay Petitioners’ costs in the amount of $4262.87. These orders, also entered June 8, 1992, directed that HSD reimburse the Department of Finance and Administration and the AOC in the amount of $14,270.42 “for the fee of the witness appointed pursuant to Rule 11-706, SCRA 1986....”
DISCUSSION
The Department argues that because the court denied Petitioners’ claims for relief, HSD was the prevailing party in the action, and the court erred in refusing to permit HSD to recover its costs as a matter of course. The Department also argues that the court erred in ordering HSD to reimburse Petitioners for all of their costs in this action. In advancing its arguments, the Department relies upon the provisions of both NMSA 1978, Section 39-3-30 (Repl. Pamp.1991), and SCRA 1986,1-054(E) (Repl. Í992). Section 39-3-30 provides that a prevailing party shall recover its costs against the other party “unless the court orders otherwise for good cause shown.” Similarly, SCRA 1-054(E) allows costs to be awarded to the prevailing party as a matter of course.
The party in whose favor a judgment is rendered is generally deemed to be the prevailing party. South v. Lucero, 92 N.M. 798, 804, 595 P.2d 768, 774 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 92 N.M. 675, 593 P.2d 1078 (1979). Under both Section 39-3-30 and SCRA 1-054(E), our Supreme Court has recognized, however, that a court is not compelled to mechanically award costs to a prevailing party but is invested with discretion. See also Mascarenas v. Jaramillo, 111 N.M. 410, 415, 806 P.2d 59, 64 (1991) (trial court’s discretion in awarding costs will not be disturbed on appeal absent a showing of abuse). An abuse of discretion is demonstrated when the court’s action is clearly untenable or is contrary to logic and reason. Rivera v. Brazos Lodge Corp., 111 N.M. 670, 675, 808 P.2d 955, 960 (1991); see also Spruyt v. Spruyt, 115 N.M. 405, 407, 851 P.2d 1072, 1074 (1998).
Although the court’s orders in the instant case, directing that HSD reimburse Petitioners for all of their costs, to pay the costs of the expert witness appointed by the court, and to reimburse the AOC for the attorney fees of the guardian ad litem, did not recite the reasons for the court’s ruling, its letter decision, dated November 26,1991, contained findings of fact and conclusions of law indicating the basis for its decision. See McCaffery v. Steward Constr. Co., 101 N.M. 51, 55-56, 678 P.2d 226, 230-31 (Ct.App.1984) (court’s letter decision may satisfy requirements of SCRA 1986, 1-052(B)(1) (Repl.1992)).
DENIAL OF COSTS TO HSD
The Department argues that because HSD was the prevailing party in the proceedings below, the court erred in not permitting HSD to recover its costs incurred in defending this action. We disagree.
SCRA 1-054(E) allows an award of costs to prevailing party “unless the court otherwise directs.” See also § 39-3-30 (permitting denial of award of costs for “good cause”). The assessment of costs is entrusted to the sound discretion of the court, and absent a showing of an abuse of discretion, a reviewing court will not interfere with such discretion. South, 92 N.M. at 804, 595 P.2d at 774; Robison v. Campbell, 101 N.M. 393, 397-98, 683 P.2d 510, 514-15 (Ct.App.) (even if appellant is considered prevailing party, trial court can, for good cause, “otherwise direct” which party shall be allowed costs or amount of costs allocated), certs. denied, 101 N.M. 362, 683 P.2d 44 (1984); Hales v. Van Cleave, 78 N.M. 181, 185, 429 P.2d 379, 383 (Ct.App.) (for good reason, court may decline to award portion of costs in favor of prevailing party), cert. denied, 78 N.M. 198, 429 P.2d 657 (1967).
The criticism of HSD recited in the court’s letter decision primarily focused upon the acts of HSD in /ailing to keep the court apprised of its concerns about the suitability of Petitioner Kay Arlene Stailey as a foster parent or as a potential adoptive parent, the failure of HSD at an early date to clearly relay to Petitioners their need to obtain appropriate therapy, the acts of HSD in removing the children from Petitioners’ home without prior notice to Petitioners and in violation of the adoption agreement, and the credibility of certain witnesses called by HSD. Virtually all of the acts and omissions cited by the court occurred prior to HSD’s filing of its entry of appearance in the present case. However, HSD’s behavior prior to the petition for adoption and its removing the children from Petitioners’ home could reasonably have been viewed by the court as conduct that unnecessarily foreclosed the adoption and caused Petitioners to needlessly litigate. See National Transformer Corp. v. France Mfg. Co., 215 F.2d 343, 362 (6th Cir.1954) (trial court’s order directing each side to bear its own costs upheld where litigation was result of both parties permitting relationship to deteriorate into prolonged, burdensome, and costly litigation).
TAXATION OF PETITIONERS’ COSTS AND EXPERT WITNESS FEES
The Department also asserts that the court abused its discretion in ordering that HSD pay Petitioners’ costs and the fee of the expert witness appointed by the court pursuant to SCRA 11-706. Whether a prevailing party may be required to pay the costs of the losing party, or whether the prevailing party may be required to pay the attorney fees of a guardian ad litem, constitute issues of first impression in New Mexico. In considering these questions, we have examined federal court decisions interpreting Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 54(d), because the language of SCRA 1-054(E) closely parallels its federal counterpart. Cf. Fed.R.Civ.P. 54(d). See City of Birmingham v. City of Fairfield, 396 So.2d 692, 696 (Ala.1981) (federal decisions construing Federal Rule of Procedure 54(d) highly persuasive where state rule is modeled on federal rule); see also Sundial Press v. City of Albuquerque, 114 N.M. 236, 239, 836 P.2d 1257, 1260 (Ct.App.1992).
A. Costs of Losing Party
The Department contends that the court was without authority to award costs against the state. We disagree. In Kirby v. New Mexico State Highway Department, 97 N.M. 692, 698-99, 643 P.2d 256, 262-63 (Ct. App.), cert. quashed, 98 N.M. 51, 644 P.2d 1040 (1982), this Court, acknowledging that the statutes omitted any express provision governing the allowance of costs against the state, nevertheless held that successful claimants in a tort action brought against the state were entitled to recover their reasonable costs of litigation from the state. Cf. United States v. R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co., 416 F.Supp. 313, 315-16 (D.N.J.1976) (rejecting argument that costs of court-appointed expert witness could not be chargeable against United States).
The Department argues alternatively that even if costs may be assessed against the state generally, the court erred in ordering HSD to pay Petitioners’ costs, because it was the prevailing party. A trial court is invested with wide discretion in awarding costs and may, under appropriate circumstances, order each party to bear its own costs. See Hall v. State Farm Fire & Cas. Co., 937 F.2d 210, 216-17 (5th Cir.1991). The court cannot, however, order a prevailing party to share, or shoulder, all or part of the costs of an unsuccessful litigant, unless the costs are intended to serve as a sanction and the court clearly expresses its reasons for imposing such sanction. See id. (court may not order prevailing party to pay costs of losing party unless costs intended to serve as sanction); Jones v. Schellenberger, 225 F.2d 784, 794-95 (7th Cir.1955) (prevailing party charged with costs where conduct caused prolonged litigation and increased costs), cert. denied, 350 U.S. 989, 76 S.Ct. 476, 100 L.Ed. 855 (1956); see also Sheets v. Yamaha Motors Corp., U.S.A., 891 F.2d 533, 539 (5th Cir.1990) (trial court, in exceptional circumstances, may tax costs against prevailing party as a sanction). See generally Laura B. Bartell, Taxation of Costs and Awards of Expenses in Federal Court, 101 F.R.D. 553, 562-63 (1984).
Absent a finding of bad faith or misconduct by a prevailing party during litigation, we conclude that neither SCRA 1-054(E) nor Section 39-3-30 authorizes a court to award costs against a prevailing party. See Hall, 937 F.2d at 216. The record fails to show facts which would support a finding of exceptional circumstances amounting to bad faith or misconduct on the part of HSD during the course of the litigation in the instant case so as to justify the imposition of sanctions against HSD.
In construing Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 54(d), the court in Baez v. United States Department of Justice, 684 F.2d 999, 1004 (D.C.Cir.1982) (per curiam), noted that a presumption exists that a prevailing party normally is entitled to costs as a matter of course and liability for costs is a normal incident of defeat. The court also observed:
Every circuit court that has considered the question (ten out of twelve) has not only recognized the presumption, but has held that a court may neither deny nor reduce a prevailing party’s request for costs without first articulating some good reason for doing so. Accordingly, federal courts have placed on the unsuccessful parties some burden of showing circumstances sufficient to overcome the presumption favoring the prevailing party. The result is that trial judges have rarely denied costs to a prevailing party whose conduct has not been vexatious when the losing party has been capable of paying such costs.
684 F.2d at 1004 (footnotes omitted); see also Congregation of the Passion, Holy Cross Province v. Touche, Ross & Co., 854 F.2d 219, 222 (7th Cir.1988).
Thus we conclude that the court erred in ordering HSD to pay Petitioners’ costs.
B. Payment of Expert Witness Fee
Under SCRA 11-706(A) the court is invested with discretion to appoint an impartial expert witness to assist the court in determining complex and disputed factual issues. Sanders v. New Mexico Health & Env’t Dep’t, 108 N.M. 484, 439-40, 773 P.2d 1241, 1246-47 (Ct.App.1989). SCRA 11-706(B) specifies the method of compensation for expert witnesses appointed by the court, and provides:
Expert witnesses so appointed are entitled to reasonable compensation in whatever sum the judge may allow. The compensation thus fixed is payable from funds which may be provided by law in criminal cases and civil actions and proceedings involving just compensation under the fifth amendment to the United States Constitution and Article II, Section 2 of the New Mexico Constitution. In other civil actions and proceedings the compensation shall be paid by the parties in such proportion and at such time as the judge directs, and thereafter charged in like manner as other costs. [Emphasis added.]
The court is clothed with broad discretion under SCRA 11-706(B) in apportioning among the parties the costs of an expert witness appointed by the court. See Webster v. Sowders, 846 F.2d 1032, 1038 (6th Cir.1988) (district court has authority to apportion costs under Fed.R.Evid. 706(b), including excusing impecunious parties from their share); Computer Assocs. lnt'l, Inc. v. Altai, Inc., 775 F.Supp. 544, 573 (E.D.N.Y.1991) (ordering that costs of expert witness appointed by court be borne equally by both parties), aff'd in part on other grounds & vacated in part, 982 F.2d 693 (2d Cir.1992); Leesona Corp. v. Varta Batteries, Inc., 522 F.Supp. 1304, 1312 n. 21 (S.D.N.Y.1981) (court may apportion costs of expert regardless of ultimate victor in lawsuit). See generally 3 Jack B. Weinstein & Margaret A. Berger, Weinstein’s Evidence ¶ 706[03], at 706-28 (1993).
Although the court, in appropriate instances, may direct that Petitioners and HSD both share the costs of an expert witness appointed by the court, we conclude on the basis of the record before us that, absent a showing of bad faith or other misconduct on the part of HSD during the course of the litigation or absent a showing that Petitioners are unable to pay a portion of the expert witness fee, the court erred in directing that HSD be required to pay the entire cost of the court-appointed expert witness. See Badillo v. Central Steel & Wire Co., 717 F.2d 1160, 1165 (7th Cir.1983) (inability of party to pay is proper factor to be considered in granting or denying taxable costs).
ATTORNEY FEES FOR GUARDIAN AD LITEM
The court also approved payment of attorney fees for the services of the guardian ad litem appointed by the court in the amount of $3861.55. The order directed that “HSD shall pay [such amount] to the Guardian Ad Litem.” The Department argues that the court lacked the authority to order HSD to pay this award of attorney fees. The Department also contends that the award should be taxed as costs and assessed against the losing party.
NMSA 1978, Section 40-7-48 (Repl.Pamp.1989), in effect at the time of entry of the court’s order, authorized the court to appoint a guardian ad litem for a child or children who are the subject of any proceeding for adoption. This section was repealed and replaced by NMSA 1978, Section 32A-5-33 (Repl.Pamp.1993) of the Adoption Act, effective July 1, 1993. See 1993 N.M.Laws, ch. 77, § 236. Former Section 40-7-48 was silent as to the method for payment of attorney fees for a guardian ad litem appointed by the court. Our Supreme Court, however, has promulgated an order adopting guidelines for the payment of attorney fees for counsel appointed by the court. See Supreme Court Miscellaneous Order No. 8000 filed November 17, 1987; see also Sanders, 108 N.M. at 440, 773 P.2d at 1247. This order generally governs the method of payment of attorneys appointed to serve as a guardian ad litem in adoption proceedings and authorizes payment of their fees from funds appropriated to the AOC. See Supreme Court Miscellaneous Order No. 8000 filed November 17, 1987.
While the Department appears to take the position that a district court could treat guardian ad litem attorney fees the same way it treats expert witness fees and order reimbursement to the AOC from the losing party, we need not decide whether the dis trict court may do so in the absence of a specific statute or rule. See generally G. Van Ingen, Annotation, Allowance of Fees for Guardian Ad Litem, Appointed for Infant Defendant, as Costs, 30 A.L.R.2d 1148 (1953). For the same reasons expressed in our discussion of the expert witness fees, the court erred in directing that HSD be required to pay the entire cost of the guardian ad litem.
CONCLUSION
For the reasons discussed above, we affirm the court’s order requiring HSD to bear its own costs. The orders directing that HSD pay Petitioners’ costs and reimburse the Department of Finance and Administration and the AOC for the fee of the court-appointed expert witness and the fee of the guardian ad litem are reversed, and the cause is remanded for further proceedings consistent herewith.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
CHAVEZ and PICKARD, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
MINZNER, Judge.
On defendants’ motion for rehearing, the prior opinion was withdrawn, and the cause was remanded for a factual inquiry by the district court. That inquiry having been made, a supplemental record and transcript has been filed with this court. After the supplemental record and transcript were filed, defendants filed a supplemental motion to dismiss. The following opinion now is substituted for the prior one.
This matter is before us on defendants’ motion to dismiss plaintiffs’ appeal for lack of jurisdiction. In a related action, defendants filed a motion in district court to strike plaintiffs’ notice of appeal and related documents. The district court denied the motion and defendants have brought a separate appeal from that denial. At issue in both appeals is whether, under prior appellate rules, an appellant’s failure to serve a timely notice of appeal on opposing counsel deprives the appellate court of jurisdiction to hear the appeal. In order to expedite the two appeals, we consolidate them and decide the common issue.
We hold that the late service of notice was not jurisdictionally defective and, on these facts, plaintiffs’ appeal should be allowed to proceed. Consequently, we deny defendants’ motions. Because our disposition as to plaintiffs’ appeal renders defendants’ appeal moot, we dismiss that appeal.
BACKGROUND.
Summary judgment was granted in favor of defendants on November 24, 1986. Plaintiffs filed a timely notice of appeal in the district court on December 23, 1986 under NMSA 1978, Civ.App.Rule 4 (Supp. 1985). See also NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 3 (Repl.Pamp.1984). It was not until January 20, 1987, however, that plaintiffs served notice of the appeal on opposing counsel and filed proof of service with the clerk of the district court. Under Civ.App. Rule 4(c), which required service of notice “[n]ot later than the date of filing the notice of appeal,” service of the notice was untimely. Cf. SCRA 1986, 12-202(D)(3).
On January 16, 1987, defendants, having independently learned of the appeal by examining the district court record, filed a motion in the district court to strike the notice of appeal and related documents. A hearing on the motion was scheduled for January 21. On the afternoon of January 20, plaintiffs effected service of notice by hand-delivering a copy to counsel for defendants and also filed proof of service in the district court. The following day the district court denied defendants’ motion to strike the notice of appeal. Defendants appealed that ruling, and also filed a motion in this court to dismiss plaintiffs’ original appeal. Because defendants’ appeal was from an order entered after December 31, 1986, it was subject to calendaring. See SCRA 1986, 12-210.
This court initially proposed to dismiss defendants’ appeal on the ground that the district court lacked jurisdiction to hear and rule on the motion to strike. At the same time, we deferred ruling on defendants’ motion to dismiss plaintiffs’ original appeal. Both sides have filed various briefs, response memoranda and motions. As a result of their efforts, the issues that must be decided at this stage have been clarified, and we now resolve them.
We first discuss whether this court now has jurisdiction over plaintiffs’ appeal and whether defendants have shown non-jurisdictional grounds to dismiss plaintiffs’ appeal. Because we decide both these issues in favor of plaintiffs, we need not reach defendants’ contention that the trial court had jurisdiction to entertain their motion to strike the notice of appeal. That contention rests on the premise that the notice of appeal was jurisdictionally defective, which our decision rejects.
WHETHER TIMELY SERVICE OF THE NOTICE OF APPEAL WAS A JURISDICTIONAL REQUIREMENT IN NEW MEXICO UNDER PRIOR APPELLATE RULES.
The procedural requirements for instituting an appeal are governed by statutes or rules that vary widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. 4 Am.Jur.2d, Appeal and Error, § 309 (1962). Thus, in New York, an appeal is perfected by either the timely filing of a notice of appeal or timely service of notice of appeal on opposing counsel; a showing of mistake or excusable neglect may excuse late performance of either one of these two steps. Peck v. Ernst Bros., Inc., 81 A.D.2d 940, 439 N.Y.S.2d 515 (1981). Under North Carolina rules, however, both filing and service of the notice of appeal must be accomplished in order to confer appellate jurisdiction. Shaw v. Hudson, 49 N.C.App. 457, 271 S.E.2d 560 (1980).
Under the federal rules, an appeal is perfected by the sole act of filing a timely notice of appeal. 9 J. Moore, B. Ward & J. Lucas, Moore’s Federal Practice, ¶ 203.10 (2d ed. 1987). However, as defendants have noted, the federal rule differs from the New Mexico rule in that it is the clerk of the court who is responsible for serving notice under the federal rule, whereas, under the New Mexico rule, that responsibility is on the appellant.
The question on appeal in this case requires that we construe our prior rules and cases in order to identify what was required of plaintiffs in this case. As stated above, plaintiffs’ appeal was brought pursuant to Rule 4 of the old civil appellate rules. The service requirement contained in Civ.App.Rule 4(c) has been modified three times in recent years — most recently under the new appellate rules — and, arguably, each modification has served to make the service requirement ever more clearly a technical requirement.
The relevant language under the 1985 amendment is as follows:
Service of notice of appeal. Not later than the date of filing the notice of appeal any party appealing shall serve a copy thereof on all parties to the judgment, order or decision appealed from, * * * and promptly file proof of service with the clerk of the district court. If such service be made later than fifteen days before expiration of the time within which the appeal may be taken, any party so served may appeal within fifteen days after such service. [Emphasis added.]
Our cases recognize a distinction between subject matter jurisdiction, which does depend on the timely filing of a notice of appeal (or timely allowance of appeals under appellate rules prior to 1961), and personal jurisdiction, which is acquired through service of notice on the parties to the appeal. See generally Pankey v. Hot Springs Nat’l Bank, 42 N.M. 674, 84 P.2d 649 (1938). Our cases, under older versions of the relevant appellate rules, followed the rule that timely service of the notice of appeal is not a jurisdictional prerequisite to perfecting an appeal, see id,., but rather that appellate courts have inherent power to relieve against fraud, accident, or excusable mistakes, and that the appellate court, once having jurisdiction of the cause, may take the necessary steps to bring before it the parties to the appeal. See, e.g., Baca v. Anaya, 14 N.M. 20, 89 P. 314 (1907).
The power of appellate courts to add parties on appeal is expressly stated in NMSA 1978, Civ.App.Rule 21(a) (Repl. Pamp.1984) (now SCRA 1986, 12-301(A)), which provides that, “At any stage of an appeal the appellate court may, on motion or upon its own initiative, add, drop or substitute parties on such terms as it may deem proper.” (Emphasis added.) Moreover, it should be noted that the initial subparagraph of Civ.App.Rule 4, now Rule 12-202(A), has remained substantially unchanged during this time, and that, unlike the counterpart rule in North Carolina, for instance — which requires both filing and service of notice — the New Mexico rule appears to condition jurisdiction on the sole act of filing a notice of appeal. Subparagraph (a) of the 1985 version of Civ.App. Rule 4 states simply that, “An appeal permitted by law as of right from a district court shall be taken by filing a notice of appeal with the clerk of the district court in which the judgment, order or decision appealed from is rendered within the time allowed * * *.” (Emphasis added.)
Defendants seek a different result relying on our holding in In re Application No. 0436-A, 101 N.M. 579, 686 P.2d 269 (Ct.App.1984). In that case, we construed an administrative appeal statute, NMSA 1978, Section 72-7-1 (Repl.1985), which permits de novo appeals to the district court from administrative decisions of the state engineer. As defendants correctly note, we held in In re Application No. 0436-A that filing of notice of appeal and service of notice were both jurisdictional prerequisites under the statute. It should be noted, however, that the operative act for perfecting an appeal under Section 72-7-l(B) is not the filing of a notice of appeal in the district court, but rather, “serving a notice of appeal upon the state engineer and all parties interested within thirty days * *.” Thus, under Section 72-7-l(B), filing of notice and service of notice is accomplished simultaneously. Thus, by its terms, Section 72-7-l(B) precludes the problems presented under Rule 12-202, which makes filing of the notice and service of the notice a two-step process.
In Childers v. Lahann, 18 N.M. 487, 138 P. 202 (1914), the supreme court said that appeals are favored on the merits and that late service of notice would be granted by the appellate court upon a showing of good cause. Construing the relevant rules as a whole, and under our cases, we conclude that there is no jurisdictional barrier to plaintiffs’ appeal.
WHETHER GOOD CAUSE WAS SHOWN FOR UNTIMELY SERVICE OF NOTICE OF APPEAL.
Neither the supreme court nor the court of appeals has added parties to an appeal without cause. See Commercial Standard Ins. Co. of Ft. Worth, Tex. v. Hitson, 73 N.M. 328, 388 P.2d 56 (1963); Rael v. Gonzales Funeral Home, 94 N.M. 269, 609 P.2d 351 (Ct.App.1980). This is not, however, a case in which there was a complete failure to serve notice of appeal. Rather, the issue is whether this court should invoke its inherent power to relieve against accidents and excusable mistakes, Baca v. Anaya, and its authority to add parties under Civ.App.Rule 21, and allow the appeal to proceed notwithstanding the late service of notice.
In making this determination, the court must consider the nature of the case, the reasons for the late service, and the actual prejudice to defendants. In remanding the cause after granting defendants’ motion for rehearing, we directed the district court to conduct a factual inquiry into the reasons for late service, and any prejudice to defendants arising from the fact of late service and to make a determination of whether plaintiffs’ neglect was excusable and whether defendants had been prejudiced. On remand, the trial court determined that plaintiffs’ neglect was excusable and that defendants suffered no prejudice. In their supplemental motion to dismiss, defendants have argued that the court’s findings are not supported by substantial evidence and that the burden of showing prejudice should be placed on plaintiffs. We disagree.
Plaintiffs’ lead trial counsel was on vacation when the notice of appeal was filed. He instructed an associate to supervise the progress of the appeal in his absence and instructed his secretary to make sure the notice of appeal was timely filed. It was standard office practice for his secretary to serve all pleadings and notices on opposing counsel. Counsel served notice of appeal on defendants’ counsel as soon as the matter was brought to his attention. Although we do not condone the oversight in this case, we consider the importance of the case, which involves a personal injury claim involving serious injuries. Also, we consider the fact that defendants demonstrated no actual prejudice as a result of the untimely notice. See In re Application No. 0436-A. In re Application No. 0436-A held that a showing of prejudice was necessary to deprive the district court of jurisdiction. We conclude that there was a sufficient showing of accident or excusable mistake and that such a showing permits us to allow plaintiffs’ appeal to proceed. See Peck v. Ernst Bros., Inc.; Baca v. Anaya. We are not persuaded that the burden of showing prejudice should be placed on plaintiffs. See Pankey v. Hot Springs Nat’l Bank.
Notwithstanding the express language of Civ.App.Rule 21, and the lack of limitation therein, defendants argue that the rule can have no application after the time for filing a notice of appeal has expired. Defendants cite two cases that we believe are distinguishable. In Clark v. Rosenwald, 30 N.M. 175, 230 P. 378 (1924), the court held that an indispensable party cannot be joined after the prescribed time for filing the appeal has run. However, Clark v. Rosenwald was expressly distinguished in a later case on the grounds that the appellate rule applicable in Clark v. Rosenwald was subsequently modified. The court in Ferguson-Steere Motor Co. v. State Corporation Commission, 59 N.M. 220, 282 P.2d 705 (1955), observed that the applicable rule was revised so that “[tjhere is no time limit by statute or rule on the right to make application to add parties [in the appellate court], though obviously unseemly delay, or prejudice to the opposite party, would be factors of great weight in looking with disfavor on such an application.” Id. at 225, 282 P.2d at 708.
The second case cited by defendants is Brown v. New Mexico State Board of Education, 83 N.M. 99, 488 P.2d 734 (1971). Like Clark v. Rosenwald, this case was distinguished in a subsequent case. Montoya v. Department of Fin. & Admin., 98 N.M. 408, 649 P.2d 476 (Ct.App.1982). Moreover, Brown v. New Mexico State Board of Education is factually distinguishable from this case in that the party sought to be added on appeal in Brown v. New Mexico State Board of Education was not a named party in the lower court proceeding.
The policy of favoring appeals on their merits is expressed in NMSA 1978, Civ. App.Rule 31 (Supp.1985) (now SCRA 1986, 12-312), and in many decisions of the supreme court and this court. On the record before us, this policy should prevail. Accordingly, defendants’ motions to dismiss plaintiffs’ appeal are denied.
CONCLUSION.
We hold that plaintiffs’ appeal was not jurisdictionally defective because under the relevant rules late service may be excused. We further hold, on these facts, that good cause was shown to allow plaintiffs’ appeal to proceed. Under these circumstances, we need not reach defendants’ contention that the trial court had jurisdiction to strike plaintiffs’ notice of appeal. Because we have jurisdiction over plaintiffs’ appeal, it is clear that defendants’ initial and supplemental motions to dismiss the appeal were properly before this court, and that defendants’ appeal is now moot. Defendants’ appeal is dismissed.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
BIVINS and GARCIA, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
RANSOM, Justice.
State Savings and Loan Association of Lubbock (State Savings) sued E.E. Anderson for money due on two promissory notes and to foreclose a security interest. Anderson, a Texas resident, was engaged in a ready-mix concrete business in New Mexico where at least part of the secured equipment was located. On February 5, 1986, a local New Mexico lawyer filed an Entry of Appearance in which he stated that “The undersigned attorney hereby enters his appearance and acceptance of service on behalf of * * * E.E. Anderson * * * * ” The record is silent as to how, when, or whether the New Mexico attorney received a copy of the summons, the complaint, or other pleadings. The fact of receipt, however, is not material.
Summary judgment was entered in favor of State Savings based upon the decision of the court that the entry of appearance and acceptance of service filed by Anderson’s New Mexico attorney operated as a general appearance invoking the in personam jurisdiction of the court. Anderson appeals, limiting his challenge to the entry of appearance filed by his attorney, and not the acceptance of service. State Savings ac knowledges that the defense of lack of jurisdiction over the person is sustainable when made by motion following an entry of appearance. The focus of State Savings, however, is on the acceptance of service. We affirm.
Although authorities specifically on point have not been uncovered, it is recognized that, when the court has jurisdiction over the subject matter of a suit, a defendant who has accepted service waives objection to personal jurisdiction and, by reason of such acceptance, cannot afterwards object to the proceedings. See Smith v. Moore Mill & Lumber Co., 101 Cal.App. 492, 281 P. 1049 (1929). The fact that Anderson's attorney filed with the court an acceptance of service evinces a waiver of any jurisdictional challenge and is legally sufficient to confer personal jurisdiction. See Haggerty v. Sherburne Mercantile Co., 120 Mont. 386, 186 P.2d 884 (1947). In Haggerty, the defendant corporation, taking cognizance of an action filed against it, authorized its attorney to appear in the action and to “admit service for [the corporation].” The court held that “[b]y authorizing their counsel to ‘admit service for’ them the defendants voluntarily waived compliance with the provisions * * * for personal service of summons * * * * " 120 Mont. at 391, 186 P.2d at 889.
Authority of the local attorney to accept service of process in New Mexico on behalf of his client may be inferred by the court from the attorney’s act of filing the acceptance. However, an attorney does not, merely by virtue of general employment, actually have authority to accept service of process on behalf of his client. The inference that such authority exists may be dispelled by evidence that the act of the attorney was not in fact authorized by the client. But here, Anderson does not reply to the assertion of State Savings that Anderson failed to present any evidence which would contradict an inference of actual authority of the New Mexico attorney to accept service of process locally.
Acceptance of service of process which will preclude an objection to defects therein may be made in one’s behalf by his agent, but it must be made to appear that such agent was authorized to bind his principle by the acceptance of process. Authority of an agent to bind his principle by acceptance of service may be implied by law from the ostensible relationship between the parties * * * *
62 Am.Jur.2d Process § 29 (1972) (Acceptance of Service; by agent) at 813 nn. 1 and 2.
We hold that the attorney’s filing of an acceptance of service here constituted a voluntary waiver of compliance with required provisions for personal service. Accordingly, we affirm the in personam jurisdiction of the district court.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
WALTERS, J., concurs.
STOWERS, J., concurs in result only. | [
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] |
OPINION
SCARBOROUGH, Chief Justice.
This case is before us on remand from the Supreme Court of the United States. In State v. Earnest, 103 N.M. 95, 703 P.2d 872 (1985), this Court held that defendant was entitled to a new trial because the trial court admitted into evidence against defendant a statement made by an accomplice who was not subject to cross-examination. In New Mexico v. Earnest, 477 U.S. 648, 106 S.Ct. 2734, 91 L.Ed.2d 539 (1986), the Supreme Court vacated our judgment and remanded for proceedings “not inconsistent with the opinion in Lee v. Illinois, 476 U.S. 530, 106 S.Ct. 2056, 90 L.Ed.2d 514 (1986).” We reverse our prior opinion and affirm defendant’s conviction.
In Lee v. Illinois, the Supreme Court held that the trial court’s reliance on a codefendant’s confession as substantive evidence against the petitioner violated the petitioner’s rights under the confrontation clause of the sixth amendment. In Lee v. Illinois, the codefendant was not subject to cross-examination. The Supreme Court reasoned that accomplices’ confessions which incriminate defendants are presump tively unreliable and that the eodefendant’s confession did not bear sufficient independent “indicia of reliability” to rebut the presumption of unreliability.
Presumably, in the case before us, it is intended that we give the State “an opportunity to overcome the weighty presumption of unreliability attaching to codefendant statements by demonstrating that the particular statement at issue bears sufficient ‘indicia of reliability’ to satisfy Confrontation Clause concerns.” New Mexico v. Earnest, 477 U.S. at 650, 106 S.Ct. at 2735, 91 L.Ed.2d at 540 (Rehnquist, J., concurring). Having considered the excellent briefs and oral arguments of both parties on remand, we conclude that the statement at issue bears sufficient “indicia of reliability” to satisfy Confrontation Clause concerns. We therefore hold that the trial court did not err in admitting the statement as substantive evidence against defendant.
The statement at issue was given by one Boeglin after defendant, Boeglin, and another person (Perry Conner) were arrested and charged in connection with a murder. Boeglin’s statement detailed the events surrounding the murder. Boeglin admitted to having attempted to cut the victim’s throat. Boeglin also stated that defendant shot the victim in the head.
At defendant’s trial, Boeglin refused to testify. See State v. Earnest, 103 N.M. at 98, 703 P.2d at 875. Finding that the statement given by Boeglin was reliable, the trial court allowed it to be admitted into evidence.
Boeglin’s statement was reliable. It was reliable, first, because the colloquy between Boeglin and the investigating officers reflects the fact that Boeglin was not offered any leniency in exchange for his statement. In fact, Boeglin was convicted of murder and is serving a life sentence. It was reliable, second, because the statement was strongly against Boeglin’s penal interest. Boeglin admitted that it was he who tried to cut the victim’s throat and it is clear from the colloquy that at the time the statement was given the wounds to the throat were though to have been the cause of death. Moreover, Boeglin was exposed to a possible sentence of death as a result of his admitted participation in a murder committed under aggravating circumstances, i.e., during the course of a kidnapping and with the purpose of killing a witness. The statement was reliable, third, because Boeglin did not attempt in the statement to shift responsibility from himself to his accomplices. He told a gruesome story which equally implicated all three men. And the statement was reliable, finally, because there was independent evidence presented at trial which substantially corroborated Boeglin’s description of events surrounding the murder. For example: Boeglin’s description of a drug deal involving fourteen grams of methamphetamine was corroborated by Michael Blount; Boeglin’s description of the accomplices’ belief that the victim was an informant was corroborated by Dana Boeglin; Boeglin’s description of an attempt to kill the victim with an overdose of methamphetamine was corroborated by the testimony of a toxicologist; and Boeglin’s description of where the gun used to kill the victim was hidden led to recovery of the gun. In sum, Boeglin’s statement bore sufficient independent indicia of reliability to rebut the weighty presumption of unreliability; the trial court therefore did not err in admitting it into evidence.
Defendant also contends that the trial court deprived defendant of a fair trial by questioning defense witness Perry Conner concerning drug transactions at the New Mexico State Penitentiary. Conner was called as a defense witness. He testified that he was serving a life sentence for the murder of the victim. He also testified that defendant was not involved in the murder. To discredit Conner, the (prosecutor) reminded Conner of allegedly inconsistent statements made by Conner when the prosecutor interviewed him in prison. Conner claimed that he did not remember what he said during the prison interview because he was high on drugs at the time. Later, the trial judge inquired of Conner concerning drug use and trafficking in the penitentiary. The trial judge’s questions were concerned solely with Conner’s independent activities in prison. The questions did not suggest bias against defendant and did not involve defendant in any way.
Under the circumstances, we fail to see how defendant was prejudiced by the trial judge’s questioning. The questions did not impeach Conner’s testimony; on the contrary, they assumed its truthfulness. Moreover, the jury was already aware of Conner’s history of drug abuse. Defense counsel elicited statements to that effect during direct examination. In sum, the trial judge’s questions were not inappropriate and did not display bias against defendant. We therefore conclude that the trial court did not err on this point. See State v. Sedillo, 76 N.M. 273, 414 P.2d 500 (1966).
Defendant’s conviction is affirmed.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
SOSA, Senior Justice, and STOWERS, WALTERS and RANSOM, JJ., concur. | [
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ON MOTION FOR REHEARING
Petitioner’s motion for rehearing is granted. The Opinion filed December 18, 1986, is withdrawn and the following Opinion is substituted in its place:
OPINION
RANSQM, Justice.
This case is before the Court on writ of certiorari to the court of appeals to review the correctness of that court’s imposition of vicarious tort liability upon an absent owner-lessor of a liquor license. Liability arose out of lessee’s service of alcohol to an intoxicated patron who injured third parties. Lessor Ashbaugh was granted an interlocutory appeal when, based on the Liquor Control Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 60-3A-1 to 3A-5, 60-7A-1 to 7A-25 (Repl. Pamp.1981), the trial court denied his motion for summary judgment. The facts and proceedings are more specifically set forth in the opinion of the court of appeals and will not be repeated here.
Under Section 60-3A-2(B) of the Liquor Control Act, enacted in 1981, the licensee is fully liable and accountable for the use of the license. This accountability includes but is not limited to violations of the Act. Under Section 60-7A-16, it is a violation for a person to knowingly sell or serve alcoholic beverages to an intoxicated person. On September 13, 1982, prior to the December 1982 occurrence resulting in the injuries here, this Court held that, prospectively, liability may arise to a third party whose injuries are proximately caused by such sale or service. Lopez v. Maez, 98 N.M. 625, 651 P.2d 1269 (1982).
New Mexico has recognized no innkeeper accountability apart from violations of the Act. Further, in 1983 the legislature provided specifically that:
No civil liability shall be predicated upon the breach of Section 60-7A-16 NMSA 1978 by a licensee, except in the case of the licensee who:
(1) sold or served alcohol to a person who was intoxicated; and
(2) it was reasonably apparent to the licensee that the person buying or apparently receiving service of alcoholic beverages was intoxicated; and
(3) the licensee knew from the circumstances that the person buying or receiving service of alcoholic beverages is [was] intoxicated.
NMSA 1978, § 41-11-1(A) (Supp.1983). “Licensee” is defined as the person licensed and the agents or servants of the licensee. § 41-11-1(C) (Supp.1983).
Liability of the person licensed must now be predicated upon the knowing acts of the licensee, or upon vicarious liability for the knowing acts of agents or servants whose work the licensee has the right to control. See SCRA 1986, 13-403 and 406. The absent owner-lessor of the license would not be liable for the acts of a lessee not in the employ of the licensee. See id.
Plaintiffs do not assert liability of the licensee based upon any use of the license except as related to a breach of Section 60-7A-16. If Section 41-11-1(A) were applicable, then defendant would be neither directly nor vicariously liable under Section 60-7A-16. However, Section 41-11-1(A), enacted in 1983, cannot be applicable because at the time of the injury in 1982 the cause of action created by Section 60-3A-2(B) and recognized by Lopez v. Maez inured to the plaintiffs as a vested right. See Torres v. Sierra, 89 N.M. 441, 445, 553 P.2d 721, 725 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 8, 558 P.2d 620 (1976).
We cannot now apply Section 41-11-1(A) retroactively against the plaintiff and divest him of that right. This Court in Rubalcava v. Garst, 53 N.M. 295, 298, 206 P.2d 1154, 1156 (1949), quoting with approval from Baker v. Tulsa Bldg. & Loan Ass’n, 179 Okl. 432, 435, 66 P.2d 45, 49 (1936), declared:
[A] ‘vested right’ is the power to do certain actions or possess certain things lawfully, and is substantially a property right, and may be created either by common law, by statute, or by contract. And when it has been once created, and has become absolute, it is protected from the invasion of the Legislature by those provisions in the Constitution which apply to such rights. And a failure to exercise a vested right before the passage of a subsequent statute, which seeks to divest it, in no way affects or lessens that right. (Emphasis added.)
There is a rational basis for full liability of a licensee who might otherwise insulate himself or herself from accountability through a lease that passes profits to the lessor/licensee from an irresponsible lessee. It is contemplated that the person who seeks and is awarded the license be responsible and accountable for use of the license. While the legislature may not be said to have specifically foreseen in its 1981 legislation that a licensee would be liable for third-party injuries proximately caused by a lessee’s violation of the Liquor Control Act, the legislature was not required to consider all prospects for liability when it provided that the licensee be fully liable and accountable for the use of the license. The legislation was clearly intended to be all inclusive, not selective.
Legislation is often written in terms which are broad enough to cover many situations which could not be anticipated at the time of enactment. So a statute, expressed in general terms and written in the present or future tense, will be applied, not only to existing but also prospectively to future things and conditions.
2A N. Singer, Sutherland Statutory Construction § 49.02, at 348 (Sands 4th Ed. 1984). See also Anderson v. Black & Decker (U.S.), Inc., 597 F.Supp. 1298, 1302 (E.D.Ky.1984) (“Under the plain meaning rule statutes ordinarily apply to unforeseen developments unless such application would lead to an absurd result.”).
We agree with the court of appeals that Section 60-3A-2(B) is clear on its face and needs no interpretation. The licensee is fully liable and accountable for the use of the license, and this accountability includes violation of the Act. The exception for an absent owner-lessor of a license was not adopted until after liability attached in this case. We accept the reasoning of the court of appeals and affirm its opinion.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
SOSA, Senior Justice and WALTERS, J., concur.
SCARBOROUGH, C.J. (not participating).
STOWERS, J. (dissenting). | [
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OPINION
BIVINS, Judge.
In this wrongful death action, plaintiffs claim their decedent, Alex B. Martinez, fell ill and died after eating “Queso Blanco” cheese manufactured by defendants Max Romero and Genevieve Romero and sold by defendant Kaune’s Food Store. This appeal concerns only the state defendants, in whose favor the trial court granted summary judgment. It raises the issue of whether the waiver of immunity for the negligence of public employees in the operation or maintenance of any building includes the inspections of foods and food manufacturing or processing operations. We hold it does not and affirm.
In their complaint against the State Health and Environment Improvement Division and four “John Doe” defendants, plaintiffs allege the state defendants either failed to inspect, or negligently inspected, Kaune’s food-sale operation and should have seized the contaminated cheese. They also claim the state defendants failed to inspect the Romeros’ cows and should have banned the sale of raw-milk products by those defendants. To support these claims, plaintiffs cite various statutes governing the inspection of food, as well as state licensing regulations affecting food distributors.
The state defendants were sued under the Tort Claims Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 41-4-1 to -29 (Repl.1986). These defendants moved to dismiss for failure to state a claim upon which relief can be granted, arguing that the conduct complained of has not been waived under the Tort Claims Act and that they are, therefore, immune from suit. Because matters outside the pleadings were considered, the trial court treated the state defendants’ motion as one for summary judgment. SCRA 1986,1-012(B); Transamerica Ins. Co. v. Sydow, 97 N.M. 51, 636 P.2d 322 (Ct.App.1981).
Since it provides a clear statement as to how courts approach tort claims against governmental entities and public employees, we quote from Begay v. State, 104 N.M. 483, 486, 723 P.2d 252, 255 (Ct.App.1985), rev’d on other grounds, Smialek v. Begay, 104 N.M. 375, 721 P.2d 1306 (1986):
Common law sovereign immunity for tort actions was abolished by the Supreme Court in Hicks v. State, 88 N.M. 588, 544 P.2d 1153 (1975). The following year, the New Mexico Legislature responded by passing the Tort Claims Act which reinstated governmental immunity except in eight classes of activities which are specifically set out as exemptions within the Act. Fireman’s Fund Insurance Company v. Tucker, 95 N.M. 56, 618 P.2d 894 (Ct.App.1980). Section 41-4-2 of the Act provides in part: “[I]t is declared to be the public policy of New Mexico that governmental entities and public employees shall only be liable within the limitations of the Tort Claims Act * * Further, Section 41-4-4 declares that governmental entities and public employees, while acting within the scope of their duties, shall be immune from liability for any tort except as waived by the Act. Tompkins v. Carlsbad Irrigation District, 96 N.M. 368, 630 P.2d 767 (Ct.App.1980). The public policy declaration of Section 41-4-2, and the immunities proviso of Section 41-4-4, taken together, require that plaintiffs’ cause of action must fit within one of the exceptions to the immunity granted to governmental entities and public employees. If immunity has been waived, the particular agency that caused the harm may be held liable for the negligent act or omission of the public employee.
Plaintiffs rely on Section 41-4-6 as the basis for waiving immunity. That section provides:
The immunity granted pursuant to Subsection A of Section 41-4-4 NMSA 1978 does not apply to liability for damages resulting from bodily injury, wrongful death or property damage caused by the negligence of public employees while acting within the scope of their duties in the operation or maintenance of any building, public park, machinery, equipment or furnishings. Nothing in this section shall be construed as granting waiver of immunity for any damages arising out of the operation or maintenance of works used for diversion or storage of water. [Emphasis added.]
In applying any waiver of immunity, we first determine whether the legislative intent can be ascertained from the plain meaning of the statute. Smith v. Village of Corrales, 103 N.M. 734, 713 P.2d 4 (Ct.App.1985). We do not read into the statute language that is not there. Id. In the instant case, we cannot agree that the legislature intended to include the inspection of foods and food processing within the meaning of Section 41-4-6.
In considering a similar contention, we held in Wittkowski v. State, 103 N.M. 526, 710 P.2d 93 (Ct.App.1985), modified on other grounds, Abalos v. Bernalillo County District Attorney’s Office, 105 N.M. 554, 34 P.2d 794 (Ct.App.1987), that Section 41-4-6 covered premises liability situations only. In Wittkowski, we rejected the claim that since the penitentiary is a building, the operation of that building must include the security, custody and classification of inmates. For the same reason, we must reject plaintiffs’ claims here. Those claims do not involve any kind of claimed physical defect in a building. Wittkowski is controlling. See also Pemberton v. Cordova, 105 N.M. 476, 734 P.2d 254 (Ct.App.1987) (Section 41-4-6 will not be expanded to include negligent supervision of students; Section 41-4-6 waives immunity only for physical defects). The state discusses at length the issue of whether the state operated or maintained the dairy or food store. Because we dispose of the case on the above ground, we need not consider this issue.
Plaintiffs urge that in determining whether any exception of the Tort Claims Act applies, reference must be made to traditional tort concepts of duty and the reasonably prudent person’s standard of care in the performance of that duty. See § 41-4-2. They then proceed to outline the duties prescribed by the Food Service Sanitation Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 25-1-1 to -14 (Orig.Pamp. & Cum.Supp.1985 [now Repl.Pamp.1987]), followed by a discussion of how the state defendants breached those duties. Plaintiffs then cite to foreign cases in which governmental agencies have been held liable for negligent inspections in various settings. In ruling that there was no waiver of immunity, the trial court assumed, as do we, that an underlying cause of action exists. That is not the focus of this appeal. Notwithstanding the possibility that plaintiffs might have a cause of action for breach of duty outside the Tort Claims Act, such is of no consequence unless immunity has been waived for the activities giving rise to that breach. Here, there has been no waiver. Pemberton v. Cordova.
In asserting their claim that Section 41-4-6 provides the necessary waiver, plaintiffs ask us to compare that section with Section 41-4-7, which waives immunity for the negligent operation of airports. Section 41-4-7 contains an exception to the waiver of liability if the employee is complying with federal or state law or regulation governing the use or operation of airports. Plaintiffs argue that if the legislature had intended to create a similar exception for the operation or maintenance of buildings under Section 41-4-6, it knew how to do so. Because the legislature did not add a similar exception, plaintiff contends the legislature “intended to allow liability [under Section 41-4-6] * * * when the condition which resulted arose out of compliance, or the lack thereof, with federal or state law or regulations governing the use and operation of said buildings, machinery, equipment, or furnishings.” We are not persuaded. Under our cases, Sec tion 41-4-6 is plain on its face. Since it does not cover the activities involved, there is no reason to carve out any exception.
We do not view this result as inconsistent with Miller v. New Mexico Department of Transportation, 106 N.M. 253, 741 P.2d 1374 (1987). Miller deals with the direct involvement of the Department of Transportation in issuing a permit for an oversized vehicle. The supreme court examined both the legislative intent and the meaning of “maintenance of a highway” under Section 41-4-ll(A) and concluded that issuance of the permit fell within that statutory waiver of immunity. The supreme court reasoned that the legislature intended to protect the general public from injury by imposing liability when governmental agencies failed to maintain safe public highways. Miller, however, addressed a specific use for a specific time and place. Such distinguishes that case from the instant case. Moreover, we do not believe the supreme court in Miller intended to extend liability to situations as presented in our case. To do so would open the door to liability for virtually all activities licensed or inspected by state agencies. The licensing scheme is too pervasive to extend such liability to the state. Imposing such liability would circumvent the very grant of immunity provided by the Tort Claims Act, subject to the specific waivers of immunity outlined in Sections 41-4-5 to -12. The “operation or maintenance of any building” waiver of immunity provided by Section 41-4-6 cannot extend to the state’s licensing or inspection of the dairy farm or food store in our case.
We affirm the trial court. Plaintiffs shall pay the costs of their appeal.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
ALARID and MINZNER, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
GARCIA, Judge.
Appellant appeals the fair hearing decision of the Human Services Department (HSD) denying her benefits. The fair hearing decision notice was dated April 28, 1987, and was received by appellant’s representative on April 29, 1987. The notice of appeal was filed in this court on May 29, 1987. HSD moved to dismiss the appeal because the notice of appeal was not timely filed. We agree and dismiss the appeal.
The issue here requires resolution of a conflict between a rule and a statute. SCRA 1986, 12-601(A) provides that:
Notwithstanding any other provision of law, direct appeals from orders, decisions or actions of boards, commissions, administrative agencies or officials shall be taken by filing a notice of appeal * * * within thirty (30) days from the date of the order, decision or action appealed from.
On the other hand, NMSA 1978, Section 27-3-4(A) (Repl.Pamp.1984) provides that an appeal may be taken within thirty (30) days of “receiving written notice of the decision.” We note that the prior rule did not conflict with the statute. See NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 13 (Repl.Pamp.1984).
Appellant contends that the statute governs, relying on In re Application of Angel Fire Corp., 96 N.M. 651, 634 P.2d 202 (1981). There, the supreme court ruled that where a statute established the administrative procedure for taking a case out of the administrative framework and into court, the statutorily required administrative procedures must be fully complied with. “The courts have no authority to alter the statutory scheme, cumbersome as it may be.” Id. at 652, 634 P.2d at 203.
We are unpersuaded by appellant’s argument because the statutory provision at issue here is distinguishable from the language upon which appellant relies. The supreme court held that the statutory provisions governing appealable orders and service of the notice of appeal were jurisdictional. In Angel Fire, the statute set forth orders and decisions allowed to be appealed, and the manner of transferring jurisdiction from the administrative to the judiciary. In In re Application No. 0436-A, 101 N.M. 579, 686 P.2d 269 (Ct.App.1984), this court distinguished these statutory provisions from one requiring proof of service within a particular time, holding that the latter requirement was not one to which Angel Fire’s language of mandatory compliance was applicable.
As with In re Application No. 0436-A, this case deals with a time limitation on the right to appeal rather than a method of appealing. Our courts have long held that such time limits are peculiarly within the power of the judiciary to set. See American Auto. Ass’n v. State Corp. Comm’n, 102 N.M. 527, 697 P.2d 946 (1985); State v. Arnold, 51 N.M. 311, 183 P.2d 845 (1947). Moreover, we have no authority to set aside a recently enacted supreme court rule. See Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973).
The requirement that the time for appeal runs from the date of decision is eminently reasonable. For example, it is virtually impossible to calculate appeal time when it runs from receipt of the decision rather than the date of the decision itself. Also, it is beneficial in the management of its caseload for the appellate court to know when the time for appeal commences to run, without litigation over when an applicant for public assistance received notice of the fair hearing decision. Cf. State v. Brionez, 90 N.M. 566, 566 P.2d 115 (Ct.App.1977) (one concept behind appellate rules is to place responsibility for appellate delays in the appellate court). We view the requirement for calculating when the time for appeals runs as a requirement that is within the power of the judiciary to set.
When Angel Fire was decided, the relevant appellate rule for administrative appeals governed “[e]xcept as may be otherwise provided by law.” See Civ.App.R. 13. This case, as did American Auto. Ass’n, presents a direct conflict between supreme court rule and statutory provisions. Because the requirement in question lies within the supreme court’s rule-making authority, and because it is now covered by supreme court rules, we apply the rule rather than the statute.
Alternatively, appellant contends that HSD should be estopped from denying that the effective date of its decision was April 29, since the decision informed appellant of her right to seek judicial review in this court “within thirty (30) days of receipt of this notice.” She asserts that this is one of those instances where estoppel against the state should apply because “right and justice demand it.” See State ex rel. Dep’t of Human Serv. v. Davis, 99 N.M. 138, 654 P.2d 1038 (1982). However, the timely filing of a notice of appeal is governed by rules adopted by the supreme court and is jurisdictional. American Auto. Ass’n v. State Corp. Comm’n; State v. Arnold. We cannot consider the hardship to an individual litigant because we have no discretion in the matter. See Miller v. Doe, 70 N.M. 432, 374 P.2d 305 (1962). In Miller, as in this case, the appellant was misled as to the proper time for taking an appeal. Under Miller, the fact that appellant was misled does not serve to excuse the tardy filing of her notice of appeal.
Finally, appellant contends that HSD was required to notify her directly of her right to appeal under Angel Fire. She asserts that notification of her representative was insufficient, and that the notification must include accurate advice as to the time for taking the appeal. As to the former, the statute only requires notification of the “applicant or recipient, or his representative” of the decision. NMSA 1978, § 27-3-3(D) (Repl.Pamp.1984). The statute then requires that the notice also inform the applicant or recipient of his right to judicial review. Id. If the notice of decision could be sent to a representative while the notice of right of review could only be sent to the applicant, it would make no sense that the notice must also inform of the right to judicial review. We believe the statute provides for joint notice of decision and notice of the right of review, and that, consequently, the notice of the right of review could be sent to the representative.
As to appellant’s latter contention, the statute only requires notification of the right to review. Appellant received such notice. We will not require complete advice concerning the right to judicial review, including all the details of how the right is enforced. Some details of how to obtain review were not included in the notice, e.g., by filing a notice of appeal, and we will not rewrite or add words to a statute. See Garrison v. Safeway Stores, 102 N.M. 179, 692 P.2d 1328 (Ct.App.1984).
In sum, HSD has complied with the statutory procedures. Having failed to properly appeal in accordance with Rule 12-601, appellant’s appeal is dismissed.
No costs are awarded.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
ALARID and MINZNER, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
DONNELLY, Chief Judge.
Upon motion for rehearing, the prior opinion of the court is withdrawn and the following opinion is substituted.
This is an appeal by defendant as personal representative of the wife’s estate, from a judgment entered following a jury trial in favor of plaintiff as personal representative of the estate of the deceased husband. We discuss initially a threshold jurisdictional issue concerning whether the claims of husband’s estate against wife’s estate have been timely presented. We remand for a hearing and adoption of specific findings of fact and conclusions of law as to the elements essential to plaintiff’s claim and for further proceedings.
FACTS
Husband and wife lived together with their four-year-old grandson, Dennis Stuertz. Both husband and wife had been previously married to other spouses, and each had a child or children from their former marriages. The parties had been married thirty-seven years at the time of their deaths. Following their marriage, husband and wife adopted three children. Each of the surviving children are now adults.
Sometime during the late evening hours of November 25, 1981, after the husband and his grandson had gone to bed, the wife started the engine of her automobile while it was parked in the closed garage attached to the home of the parties. The wife then prepared a bed for herself and laid down next to the exhaust pipe and was asphyxiated. Carbon monoxide fumes from the motor vehicle traveled from the garage, through a door which had been left partially ajar, into the main portion of the residence, also resulting in the deaths of the husband and the grandchild.
Following the deaths of husband and wife, both estates were probated. Initially, plaintiff was appointed as the personal representative of both the husband’s and the wife’s estates. However, after an investigation indicated that the wife’s suicide may have also accidentally caused the husband’s death and that of the grandchild, plaintiff resigned as personal representative of wife’s estate, and defendant was substituted as the personal representative of the estate of the wife. In November 1982, a wrongful death action was filed by plaintiff as personal representative of the husband’s estate against the personal representative of wife’s estate, alleging that the wife negligently permitted carbon monoxide from the vehicle to travel into the house and bedroom where her husband and grandchild were sleeping, thereby resulting in their deaths.
Defendant’s answer denied that the wife had proximately caused the death of the husband. After a jury trial, a verdict was returned in favor of plaintiff on the wrongful death action in the sum of $93,000.00.
PRESENTATION OF CLAIMS
Defendant moved to dismiss plaintiff’s wrongful death action against defendant based upon plaintiff’s failure to timely present his claim against wife’s estate. Following a hearing, the trial court denied the motion.
Plaintiff was appointed personal representative of the estate of both husband and wife on January 8, 1982. On September 20, 1982, plaintiff resigned as personal representative of wife’s estate. Defendant was appointed personal representative of wife’s estate on September 21, 1982. The wrongful death action filed by plaintiff against defendant was filed on November 10, 1982. No formal notice was presented to the personal representative of wife’s estate concerning husband’s tort action until the filing of husband’s wrongful death action. The record indicates the first publication of notice to creditors occurred on January 22, 1982.
Defendant argues that the trial court erred in refusing to dismiss plaintiff’s action because plaintiff failed to present timely notice of his wrongful death claim on behalf of husband’s estate as required by NMSA 1978, Section 45-3-803.
The nonclaim statute of the Probate Code, Section 45-3-803, contains specific time limitations governing the presentation of claims against a decedent’s estate. This statute provides in applicable part:
A. All claims against a decedent’s estate which arose before the death of the decedent, including claims * * * founded on * * * tort or other legal basis * * * are barred against the estate, the personal representative and the heirs and devisees of the decedent, unless presented as follows:
(1) within two months after the date of the first publication of notice to creditors if notice is given in compliance with Section 3-801 [45-3-801 NMSA 1978] * * *
B. All claims against a decedent’s estate which arise at or after the death of a decedent * * * founded on * * * tort or other legal basis, are barred against the estate, the personal representative and the heirs and devisees of the decedent, unless presented as follows:
(2) any other claim, within four months after it arises.
C. Nothing in this section affects or prevents:
(2) to the limits of the insurance protection only, any proceeding to establish liability of the decedent or the personal representative for which he is protected by liability insurance.
In denying the motion to dismiss, the trial court did not indicate the basis for its ruling. Defendant argues that when a claim is not timely presented, the trial court is without jurisdiction to hear the claim. Plaintiff, however, asserts that defendant failed to include in the record on appeal those portions of the trial court’s proceedings relating to the hearing on the motion to dismiss, and that absent this portion of the record, jurisdiction of the court may be presumed.
Under this posture, which party carries the burden of establishing the timely presentation of a claim? We determine that this burden in the trial court falls upon plaintiff.
One of the chief aims of the Probate Code is to promote and facilitate the speedy administration and closing of estates. NMSA 1978, § 45-l-102(B)(3). A primary objective of a nonclaim statute is the expeditious and orderly processing of decedents’ estates. See In re Estate of Levine, 145 Ariz. 185, 700 P.2d 883 (App.1985); cf. Levers v. Houston, 49 N.M. 169, 159 P.2d 761 (1945).
New Mexico follows the rule recognizing that timely filing of claims against a decedent’s estate is mandatory, and if not timely filed, the claims are barred as a matter of law. See In re Will of Skarda, 88 N.M. 130, 537 P.2d 1392 (1975); In re Estate of Welch, 80 N.M. 448, 457 P.2d 380 (1969); Bowman v. Butler, 98 N.M. 357, 648 P.2d 815 (Ct.App.1982); In re Estate of Oney, 95 N.M. 640, 624 P.2d 1037 (Ct.App.1981). There is no statutory provision that authorizes the trial court to extend the time limits specified in Section 45-3-803. See In re Estate of Oney.
The burden of establishing a timely presentment of a claim against an estate rests upon the claimant. Mann v. Redmon, 27 N.D. 346, 145 N.W. 1031 (1914); see also In re Estate of Daigle, 634 P.2d 71 (Colo.1981) (En Banc); Beach v. Mizner, 131 Ohio St. 481, 3 N.E.2d 417 (1936); General Talking Pictures Corp. v. Hyatt, 114 Utah 362, 199 P.2d 147 (1948); Empson v. Fortune, 102 Wash. 16, 172 P. 873 (1918); cf. Continental Coffee Co. v. Estate of Clark, 84 Nev. 208, 438 P.2d 818 (1968) (burden is on party who files late creditor’s claim in probate proceeding to offer justification for favorable exercise of discretion); contra Hitt v. J.B. Coghill, Inc., 641 P.2d 211 (Alaska 1982) (bar of nonclaim statute is an affirmative defense to be pleaded and proved by the estate).
Unlike the bar of an ordinary statute of limitations, these cases hold that the claimant must plead facts showing the claim is timely. See e.g., Mann v. Redmon. Non-claim statutes limit the right of a creditor to file a late claim. See Beach v. Mizner. In describing the claim as jurisdictional, the Colorado Supreme Court refused to hold that the nonclaim statute was tolled by the minority of a child. In re Estate of Daigle.
The filing of a “claim” against a decedent’s estate, within the contemplation of Section 45-3-803, includes all liabilities of the decedent, whether arising in contract, in tort or otherwise, as well as liabilities of the estate. NMSA 1978, § 45-l-201(A)(4). But see Lucero v. Northrip Logging Co., 101 N.M. 420, 683 P.2d 1342 (Ct.App.1984) (claim for workmen’s compensation falls outside of Section 45-3-803). In contrast to express provisions of the Workmen’s Compensation Act, nothing in the statutes allowing recovery for wrongful death (NMSA 1978, Sections 41-2-1 to -4 (Repl. 1986)) expresses a legislative intent to create an exception to Section 45-3-803.
The Colorado Supreme Court in In re Estate of Daigle, interpreted a provision of the Uniform Probate Code identical to Section 45-3-803 of this state’s Probate Code, determining that compliance with the non-claim statute is jurisdictional. The court said:
Our construction of the nonclaim statute as jurisdictional in character, and therefore not subject to the tolling provisions otherwise applicable to statutes of limitations, is consistent with one of the basic purposes of the Colorado Probate Code: “[t]o promote a speedy and efficient system for settling the estate of the decedent and making distribution to his successors.”
Id. at 76.
The court in Daigle also held that the nonclaim statute “creates a jurisdictional bar to a claim untimely filed” on behalf of a claimant against a decedent’s estate, except to the extent of the liability insurance exemption contained in the statute.
Applying the above authorities to the facts of the present case, we find that plaintiff bore the burden of establishing the timely presentation of his claim against wife’s estate. At the hearing on defendant’s motion to dismiss, no record was made. On appeal, the record before us does not disclose what matters were presented at that hearing. The trial court denied the motion. As a general rule, where the record is deficient, every presumption will be indulged in favor of the correctness of the trial court’s ruling. Nichols v. Nichols, 98 N.M. 322, 648 P.2d 780 (1982). Defendant contends that it was the burden of plaintiff to establish that jurisdiction existed, once it was challenged, and thus that plaintiff had the burden to affirmatively show in the record the existence of facts to support jurisdiction. Under the record before us both sides seek to place the burden upon the other for the deficient record. In the interests of justice we conclude that a remand is required on this matter. In reviewing this aspect of the appeal, the record does not disclose whether or not plaintiff’s claim rested upon liability insurance, including either a household policy or automobile insurance policy, insuring against the negligence of wife, and the trial court’s order denying defendant’s motion to dismiss does not disclose whether plaintiff’s claim was determined to come within the insurance exception as provided in Section 45-3-803(C)(2) of the Probate Code, or was grounded upon some other basis. Accordingly, we remand for hearing and adoption of specific findings of fact on this issue.
Where doubt or ambiguity exists as to the basis for the court’s ruling, the ends of justice may require that the cause be remanded for specific findings on a determinative issue. See Farrar v. Hood, 56 N.M. 724, 249 P.2d 759 (1952); State ex rel. Human Services Dept. v. Coleman, 104 N.M. 500, 723 P.2d 971 (Ct.App.1986); cf. Sands v. American G.I. Forum, Inc., 97 N.M. 625, 642 P.2d 611 (Ct.App.1982). If plaintiff’s claim is based upon the insurance exception of Section 45-3-803(C)(2), the claim is timely; if, however, insurance does not exist for the claim herein, plaintiff’s claim must be dismissed.
The cause is remanded to the trial court for a hearing and for adoption of specific findings of fact and conclusions of law within sixty days from the date hereof, concerning whether specific insurance protection exists so as to bring the wrongful death claim of husband’s estate within the statutory exception contained in Section 45-3-803(0(2). In the event the trial court determines that no specific insurance protection exists, the action must be dismissed; otherwise, a copy of the trial court’s amended findings and conclusions and amended judgment should be filed with this court.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
MINZNER and APODACA, JJ., concur. | [
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0.01732780784368515,
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0.015290925279259682,
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0.02965346910059452,
0.031277403235435486,
-0.03051803447306156,
-0.028293650597333908
] |
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