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5,089
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I have a WANGTEK tape controller card (Revision E) that was used with the
Sytos backup system to take backups of a friend's system. That system has
crashed and I'm attempting to restore it.
Unfortunately, the documentation for this ancient card has been lost in the
mists of time, and I need to know the DMA, IRQ and address for this card.
Can anyone suggest how I could determine these things?
There is a bank of dip switches on the card which are set to:
---------------------
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
UPUPUP UPUPUP
UPUP UPUP
------OPEN----------
Thanks for your time.
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1,410
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For whoever does the will of my Father in heaven is my brother and sister
and mother."
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5,367
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From what I read, the other fellow told Salameh how to put it together
over the phone. The bomb was supposedly some sort of sophisticated
type, so to put a (I assume complicated) sophisticated bomb together
from instructions _over the phone_ (!) one must need some brains I would
expect.
I read this in an article in "The Australian Muslim Times", the
newspaper (weekly) of the Australian Muslim community.
If this is true, perhaps one of the Muslims based in North America (if
they see this posting) can elaborate.
I don't deny this fact.
The thrust of my argument here is that
(a) Salameh is, according to US law, innocent as he has not been found
guilty in a court of law. As his guilt has not been established, it is
wrong for people to make postings based on this assumption.
(b) Islam teaches us _not_ to harm innocents. If Muslims -- who perhaps
have not realized that Islam teaches this -- perform such actions, it is
_not_ _because_ of the teachings of Islam, but rather _in spite of_ and
_in contradiction to_ the teachings of Islam. This is an important
distinction.
I should clarify what Muslims usually mean when they say "Muslim". In
general, anyone who calls themselves a "Muslim" and does not do or
outwardly profess
something in clear contradiction with the essential teachings of Islam
is considered to be a Muslim. Thus, one who might do things contrary to
Islam (through ignorance, for example) does not suddenly _not_ become a
Muslim. If one knowingly transgresses Islamic teachings and essential
principles, though, then one does leave Islam.
The term "Muslim" is to be contrasted with "Mu'min", which means "true
believer". However, whether a Muslim is in reality a Mu'min is
something known only by God (and perhaps that person himself). So you
will not find the term Mu'min used very much by Muslims in alt.atheism,
because it is not known to anybody (except myself and God), whether I,
for example, am a "true believer" or not. For example, I could just be
putting on a show here, and in reality believe something opposite to
what I write here, without anyone knowing. Thus, when we say "Muslims"
we mean all those who outwardly profess to follow Islam, whether in
practice they might, in ignorance, transgress Islamic teachings. By
"Muslim" we do not necessarily mean "Mu'min", or "true believer" in
Islam.
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What an anal retentive you are wimp.
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You can probably get this information by calling your public health
department in your county (in Pittsburgh, they give the shots free,
as well). There are bulletins in medical libraries that give
recommendations, or you could call the infectious diseases section
of the medicine department of your local medical school. You also
will probably want to talk about Malaria prophylaxis. You will
need your doctor to get the prescription.
--
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Gordon Banks N3JXP | "Skepticism is the chastity of the intellect, and
geb@cadre.dsl.pitt.edu | it is shameful to surrender it too soon."
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9,928
|
Hello networld,
I'm looking for an X mailreader. Is there a Xelm?
Andreas
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5,197
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: While driving through the middle of nowhere, I picked up KNBR, AM 1070,
: a clear-channel station based in Los Angeles. They had an ad
: claiming that they were able to get traffic flow information from
: all of the thousands of traffic sensors that CalTrans has placed
: under the pavement. Does CalTrans sell this info? Does KNBR have
: an exclusive? What's the deal?
: ==Doug "Former L.A. commuter" Claar
You were right the second time, it is KNX. Believe it or not, I also
listen to KNX in the evenings here in Colorado! It's kind of fun driving
through the country listening to traffic jams on the 405. Back to your
original question. Yes, there are sensors just past every on-ramp and
off-ramp on the freeways. They're the same sensors used at most stoplights
now (coils in the pavement). You might want to give CalTrans a call or
even ask Bill Keene (KNX's traffic reporter). I doubt if just anyone can
get the information, but it would be worth asking just in case you can
get it.
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MG>> I went buying SIMMs recently, and the sales person told me that
the
MG>> are 9-chip SIMMs and 3-chip SIMMs, and one cannot use them interchan
MG>> If you use one, you have to use all of the same type.
don't believe everything you are told. I can tell you that mixing them
between 'banks' ok, and I can't see why mixing in one bank is not unless
they are of different speeds ( e.g. mixing of 60ns and 100ns SIMMs in one
bank ). The two only differ in the type of chips it uses. Assuming that
the SIMMS are 1Mx9 ( 9 bit wide ), here is the two equivalent
configuration. The 3-chip SIMM uses two 4-bit wide 4Mbit (1M of 4-bit
nibbles ) and one 1-bit wide 1Mbit chip ( for a total of 9-bit wide 1Mbyte
). The 9-bit SIMM uses nine 1-bit wide 1Mbit chips. These are equivalent
because of the way that it is 'pinned' on the SIMM board. At the SIMM
interface, they both act as 9-bit wide 1MByte SIMMS ( 2*4+1=9*1 ). [sorry
if too techie for ya].
MG>> Similarly, one cannot plug in two 1MB SIMMs and one 4MB SIMMs to
gi
MG>> the system a total of 6 MEG. Why is that so ?? If my system supports
MG>> of 8 MEG (it has 8 SIMM slots), can I plug in 4 4MB SIMMs to give my
MG>> 16MB ??
That sounds correct. the problem is that if your computer takes 9-bit
wide SIMMs, you can not mix different sizes in one bank. Why you ask?
Simple, if you understand why there is banks. Assuming you have a 32-bit
CPU ( 386DX or 486 ), the data bus (e.g. the mechanism to retrieve data
from memory ) is 32-bits wide, so the computer expects to see 32 bits when
it asks for data. To get that bandwidth ( 32-bit wide ), the motherboard
links 4 1Mx9 ( one bit is not data, but parity, so I will ignore that in
this simple explaination ) to get 32bits [ (9-1)*4=32 bits ]. That means
that a SIMM in a bank stores only 1/4 of the 32 bit wide data. If you
have a 16-bit bus, two 1Mx9 SIMMs are linked together to get 16-bit wide
data, which is the reason why 286 banks are 2 SIMMs wide, and 32-bit banks
are 4 SIMMs wide. If your computer required 1Mx36 ( e.g. 32-bit wide data
with 4 parity bits, used in some PS/2s and ASTs ), you could upgrade by
one SIMM at a time.
Hope that this message is not over your head, but the answer to your
question was not simple. I could of just said, 'because I said so.'
-rdd
---
. WinQwk 2.0b#0 . Unregistered Evaluation Copy
* KMail 2.95d W-NET HQ, hal9k.ann-arbor.mi.us, +1 313 663 4173 or 3959
| 3
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|
Doesn't it also have the Statue of Liberty on it or is that Richter's Mask?
The back actually has a Bee followed by a Z to represent the Beezer. It
also has something that looks like the three interconnecting circles from
the Led Zepplin 4 album cover. Is that what it is supposed to be? and if
it is does anybody know why he would put it there? Ali?
John
"The official Language of Golf is Profanity"
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1,033
|
Heavy-duty, commercial, TINY,(6x3x1/2 inch) WATERPROOF, VHF 2 watt, 2 channel,
handheld two-way radio. MOTOROLA EXPO purchased NEW for Amateur frequencies
146.10/70 & 146.34/94. Absolute M I N T condition! Never scratched, dropped,
opened, or otherwise "comprosmised"! Can be re-crystaled for business band.
has PL slot.
Original Price:
========================
MOTOROLA EXPO VHF 2WATT/2CHAN. HT--------------------$1200.00
(comes with portable charger, antenna, manual,
NEW Ni-Cad pack, back housing belt clip)
MOTOROLA extra NEW Ni-Cad pack-----------------------$ 40.00
MOTOROLA extra VHF rubber-duckie antenna-------------$ 12.50
MOTOROLA Desktop quick charger-----------------------$ 135.00
MOTOROLA External speaker-mic.-----------------------$ 125.00
MOTOROLA +12V cig. lighter Battery Eliminator--------$ 80.00
MOTOROLA Heavy-Duty Nylon holster--------------------$ 25.00
MOTOROLA EXPO Technical Manuals----------------------$ 5.00
MOTOROLA EXPO tuning/case opening tools--------------$ N/C
---------------------
$1622.50
Would like $400, or BEST OFFER!!!
Thanks a lot!
Jeff
| 5
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2,780
|
Hi,
| 16
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6,602
|
[...]
You seem to be saying that a LIMITED government will provide MORE
opportunities for private interests to use it to pursue their own
agendas, and asking libertarians to prove that this will NOT happen.
While I can't offer such a proof, it seems pretty damn plausible that
if the government does not regulate a particular area, it cannot become
a tool of private interests to pursue their own agendas in that area.
I rather suspect that it's the sort of government we have NOW that is
more likely to become such a tool, and that it IS such a tool in many
instances.
I suspect that this is because "improvement in the human condition" as
you define it is not the primary goal of libertarianism, and would not
be the primary goal of a libertarian government. My impression of
libertarianism is that its primary goal is the elimination of
government coercion except in a very limited cases.
--
Ian Sutherland
ian@eecs.nwu.edu
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|
Labour prices for car service are very expensive in Toronto compared to other
parts of Ontario. For example, there are places in Ottawa that still charge
"only" $40/hour. I've seen a couple of places charging $60/hour. The cheapest
I've heard in Toronto is $70/hour.
| 4
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10,673
|
GATEWAY Telepath 9600/9600 FAx/modem for gateway computer
with crosstalk, Winfax Pro 2.01 for windows
Never used.
$170 shipped ($195 from gateway)
| 5
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3,763
|
Actually, Hiten wasn't originally intended to go into lunar orbit at all,
so it indeed didn't have much fuel on hand. The lunar-orbit mission was
an afterthought, after Hagoromo (a tiny subsatellite deployed by Hiten
during a lunar flyby) had a transmitter failure and its proper insertion
into lunar orbit couldn't be positively confirmed.
It should be noted that the technique does have disadvantages. It takes
a long time, and you end up with a relatively inconvenient lunar orbit.
If you want something useful like a low circular polar orbit, you do have
to plan to expend a certain amount of fuel, although it is reduced from
what you'd need for the brute-force approach.
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956
|
[reply to mcovingt@aisun3.ai.uga.edu (Michael Covington)]
The guy didn't sound too shy to me. He sounded like a jerk. I say ditch
him for someone more knowledgeable and empathetic.
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For some reason the name Grayhill springs to mind -- saw something
like that in a Grayhill catalog, along with options for custom printed
overlays and a neat little electroluuminescent backing that would make
the whole shebang glow a nice shade of green ..
mighty handy if you're trying to key a door combination in the dark
and don't want to TURN ON THE &%#$!! LIGHT ..
| 11
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450
|
In addition to startup time, I leave things running because my PC doubles as
a fax machine.
However, this is off the original subject. I didn't get the replies on BIOS,
CMOS, and DOS clock/date logic. All I know is that I've been running this way
for many months and it is only recently, the last month, that I have noticed
the intermittent clock problem. As I stated, it is not always the date that
doesn't roll forward, sometimes I notice that the clock is several minutes
behind where it ought to be.
When unattended, the following are generally running minimized in Win 3.1:
Clock, WinFax Pro 3.0, Print Manager, MS-Word 1.1, File Manager, Program
Manager
A random screen saver is generally running too.
| 3
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|
It depends on your priorities. A lot of people put higher priorities
on gas mileage and cost than on safety, buying "unsafe" econoboxes
instead of Volvos. I personally take a middle ground -- the only
thing I really look for is a three-point seatbelt and 5+mph bumpers.
I figure that 30mph collisions into brick walls aren't common enough
for me to spend that much extra money for protection, but there are
lots of low-speed collisions that do worry me.
| 4
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|
Hmm. I beg to differ. It will probably make a big difference at some
point.
Thankfully, it is true that the majority go through life without
having to use a firearm. Howver, there are situations where firearms
are the most effective means of self protection. What other means do
you propose as equally effective?
New to this country? New to political theory?
Alas, I was speaking of principle. Without principle, all attempts at
republican forms of gov't are futile. There are times when public and
political opinion are contrary to principle, which is why we have a
Constitution which enumerates gov't powers and presumes certain
rights. A major reason for this was to prevent a tyranny of the
majority.
This is exactly why law should be based on reasoned thought, not
immediate perception. Of course, it doesn't always work that way.
Fortunately, while there are no guarantees, logic sometimes does
prevail. And, if not, there are still means for correction.
As far as "enough active voters" are concerned, that is still
an open question until the vote is made.
You portray a possible scenario for the future. But, how will you
silence RKBA supporters right now? As long as public debate is
allowed, such debate will continue. If we allow public debate to be
restricted or denied, then we will get a gov't we deserve.
| 9
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|
My computer won't recognise my disk after a reboot (Windows crash - Grrr!!)
Are there any options to restore everything, without losing data?
The drive previously had 3 partitions, but I do not remember the exact
settings.
I have copies of the boot data from the disk (PC-tools rescue disk). I do not
want to lose my data - 340MB IDE drive. Do I have any options?
--
| 3
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|
Actually not Jim. I just said that everyone else seemed to have skimmed by
that part and not mentioned it. You can get whatever meaning you want from it.
| 9
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|
Help: I am running some sample problems from O'Reilly volume 4,
Xt Intrisics Programming Manual, chapter 3. popup
dialog boxes and so on.
In example 3.5, page 76 : "Creating a pop-up dialog box"
The application creates window with a button "Quit" and "Press me".
The button "Press me" pops up a dialog box. The strange feature of
this program is that it always pops up the dialog box much faster the
first time. If I try to pop it up a 2nd time (3rd, 4th .... time),
it is *much* slower.
Has anyone any experience with these sample programs, or why I get
this behaviour - fast response time for the first time but slow response
time from 2nd time onwards ?
Anyone can give me some ideas on how to program popups so that each time
they popup in reasonable fast response time ?
| 16
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|
: Does anyone out there have any info on the up and coming fall comdex '93? I was
: asked by one of my peers to get any info that might be available. Or, could
: anyone point me in the right direction? Any help would be appreciated.
It's in Las Vegas (as always) between November 16th and 20th.
For more information contact: The Interface Group
300 First Avenue
Needham, MA 02194-2722
Sorry, no phone number available. Consult directory service
in Massachusetts for the number (617, 508 or 413).
-- Willy
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Since electrical wiring questions do turn up from time to time on
sci.electronics (and the answers aren't always apparent, even to those skilled
in electronics), I am hijacking the following FAQ and posting a copy here.
I've asked the writers to cross-post to sci.electronics in the future.
--- jeh@cmkrnl.com
X-NEWS: cmkrnl news.answers: 6685
Newsgroups: misc.consumers.house,rec.woodworking,news.answers,misc.answers,rec.answers
Subject: Electrical Wiring FAQ
Message-ID: <wirefaq_733900891@ecicrl>
From: clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca (Chris Lewis)
Date: 4 Apr 93 05:21:49 GMT
Reply-To: wirefaq@ferret.ocunix.on.ca (Wiring FAQ commentary reception)
Followup-To: poster
Expires: 2 May 93 05:21:31 GMT
Organization: Elegant Communications Inc., Ottawa, Canada
Summary: A series of questions and answers about house wiring
Supersedes: <wirefaq_732691289@ecicrl>
Lines: 1524
Archive-name: electrical-wiring
Last-modified: Sun Feb 21 16:56:10 EST 1993
Frequently Asked Questions on Electrical Wiring
Steven Bellovin (smb@ulysses.att.com)
Chris Lewis (clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca)
Comments to (automatic if you reply to this article):
wirefaq@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
This FAQ is formatted as a digest. Most news readers can
skip from one question to the next by pressing ^G.
Answers to many other topics related to houses can be obtained from
the misc.consumers.house archive; send an empty piece of mail to
house-archive@dg-rtp.dg.com for information.
Changes to previous issue marked with "|" in left column. Watch
particularly for "NEW" in the Questions list for new or substantively
changed answers.
Note that this is now a registered FAQ - cross-posted to news.answers
and should appear in the FAQ list of lists.
Subject: Questions answered in this FAQ
Introduction/Disclaimers
What is the NEC? Where can I get a copy?
What is the CEC? Where can I get a copy?
Can I do my own wiring? Extra pointers?
What do I need in the way of tools?
What is UL listing?
What is CSA approval?
Are there any cheaper, easier to read books on wiring?
Inspections how and what? Why should I get my wiring inspected?
My house doesn't meet some of these rules and regulations.
A word on voltages: 110/115/117/120/125/220/240
What does an electrical service look like?
What is a circuit?
"grounding" versus "grounded" versus "neutral".
What does a fuse or breaker do? What are the differences?
Breakers? Can't I use fuses?
What size wire should I use?
Where do these numbers come from?
What does "14-2" mean?
What is a "wirenut"/"marrette"/"marr connector". How are they used?
What is a GFI/GFCI?
Where should GFCIs be used?
Where shouldn't I use a GFCI?
What is the difference between a GFCI outlet and a GFCI breaker?
What's the purpose of the ground prong on an outlet, then?
Why is one prong wider than the other? Polarization
What kind of outlets do I need in a kitchen?
Where must outlets and switches be in bathrooms?
What is Romex/NM/NMD? What is BX? When should I use each?
Should I use plastic or metal boxes?
Junction box positioning?
Can I install a replacement fixture?
What does it mean when the lights brighten when a motor starts?
What is 3 phase power? Should I use it? Can I get it in my house?
Is it better to run motors at 110 or 220?
What is this nonsense about 3HP on 110V 15A circuits?
How do I convert two prong receptacles to three prong?
Are you sure about GFCIs and ungrounded outlets?
Should the test button work?
How should I wire my shop?
Underground wiring
Aluminum wiring
I'm buying a house! What should I do?
What is this weird stuff? Old style wiring
Where do I buy stuff?
Subject: Introduction/Disclaimers
Although we've done a fair bit of wiring, we are not
electricians, and we cannot be responsible for what you do. If
you're at all uncertain about what is correct or safe, *don't
do it*. Contact someone qualified -- a licensed electrician,
or your local electrical inspector. Electricity is no joke;
mistakes can result in shocks, fires, or electrocution.
Furthermore, our discussion is based on the U.S. National
Electrical Code (NEC) and the Canadian Electrical code (CEC).
To the best of our abilities, we have confirmed every detail
with the electrical code, but we don't quote sections
simply to keep this thing readable. If you think we're wrong,
we invite you to correct us, but please - quote references!
The NEC and the CEC do not, in and of themselves, have the
force of law. Many municipalities adopt it en toto. Others,
however, do not. Check your with your local building
department (and <provincial> Hydro Inspection Offices in
Canada) to find out what applies in your area. Also,
your local electrical utility may also have special requirements
for electrical service installation. Bear in mind, too, that
we say here applies primarily to ordinary single-family
residences. Multi-family dwellings, mobile homes, commercial
establishments, etc., are sometimes governed by different
rules.
Also note that, contrary to popular belief in the U.S. (and in
some parts of Canada), Canada is not a wholly-owned subsidiary
of the U.S. Consequently, the NEC does not apply in Canada.
Lots of things are the same, including voltages, line
frequencies, and the laws of physics. But there are a number
of crucial differences in the regulations. Where we can, we've
noted them, flagging the relevant passages with ``NEC'' or
``CEC''.
Remember that the CEC and NEC are minimal standards. It is often
smart to go beyond their minimal requirements.
Subject: What is the NEC? Where can I get a copy?
The NEC is a model electrical code devised and published by the
National Fire Protection Association, an insurance industry group.
It's revised every three years. The 1993 version has been released.
You can buy a copy at a decent bookstore, or by calling them directly
at 800-344-3555. The code exists in several versions. There's the
full text, which is fairly incomprehensible. There's an abridged
edition, which has only the sections likely to apply to most houses.
And there's the NEC Handbook, which contains the ``authorized
commentary'' on the code, as well as the full text. That's the
recommended version. Unfortunately, there's no handbook for
the abridged edition. And the full handbook is expensive --
US$65 plus shipping and handling.
Subject: What is the CEC? Where can I get a copy?
The Canadian Standards Association is an organization made up
of various government agencies, power utilities, insurance
companies, electrical manufacturers and other organizations.
The CSA publishes CSA Standard C22.1 which is updated every two
or three years. Each province adopts, with some amendments,
this standard and publishes a province-specific code book.
Since each province publishes its own slightly modified
standard, it would be somewhat confusing to obtain the CSA
standard itself. In this FAQ, "CEC" really means the
appropriate provincial standard. In particular, this FAQ is
derived from the Ontario Hydro Electrical Safety Code, 20th
edition (1990). Which is in turn based on CSA C22.1-1990 (16th
edition). While differences exist between the provinces, an
attempt has been made to avoid specific-to-Ontario detail.
The appropriate provincial code can be obtained from electrical
inspection offices of your provincial power authority. In
Ontario, it's Ontario Hydro. The Ontario Hydro book isn't
overly fat. It's about C$25, and includes mailed updates. I
hear that these standards are somewhat easier to read than the
equivalent NEC publications.
Don't bother asking in Quebec - DIY wiring is banned throughout
the province.
Subject: Can I do my own wiring? Extra pointers?
In most places, homeowners are allowed to do their own wiring.
In some, they're not. Check with your local electrical
inspector. Most places won't permit you to do wiring on other's
homes for money without a license. Nor are you permitted to do
wiring in "commercial" buildings. Multiple dwellings (eg: duplexes)
are usually considered "semi-commercial" or "commercial". However,
many jurisdictions will permit you to work on semi-commercial
wiring if you're supervised by a licensed electrician - if you can
find one willing to supervise.
If you do your own wiring, an important point:
Do it NEAT and WELL! What you really want to aim for is a better
job than an electrician will do. After all, it's your own home,
and it's you or your family that might get killed if you make
a mistake. An electrician has time pressures, has the skills
and knows the tricks of the trade to do a fast, safe job.
In this FAQ we've consciously given a few recommendations that
are in excess of code, because we feel that it's reasonable,
and will impress the inspector.
The inspector will know that you're an amateur. You have to
earn his trust. The best way of doing this is to spend your
time doing as neat a job as possible. Don't cut corners.
Exceed specifications. Otherwise, the inspector may get extremely
picky and fault you on the slightest transgressions.
Don't try to hide anything from the inspector.
Use the proper tools. Ie: don't use a bread knife to strip
wires, or twist wires with your fingers. The inspector
won't like it, and the results won't be that safe. And it
takes longer. And you're more likely to stick a hunk of
12ga wire through your hand that way.
Don't handle house wire when it's very cold (eg: below -10C
or 16F). Thermoplastic house wire, particularly older types
become very brittle.
Subject: What do I need in the way of tools?
First, there's the obvious -- a hammer, a drill, a few
screwdrivers, both straight and Phillips-head. If you're
lucky enough to live in Canada (or find a source of CSA-approved
devices) you need Robertson ("square recess") screwdrivers
(#1 and #2) instead of phillips.
For drilling a few holes, a 3/4" or 1" spade bit and 1/4" or
3/8" electric drill will do. If you're doing a lot, or
are working with elderly lumber, we recommend a 1/2" drill
(right-angle drills are wonderful. Can be rented) and
3/4" or 1" screw-point auger drill bits. These bits pull
you through, so they're much faster and less fatiguing, even
in 90 year old hardwood timbers.
Screw-driver bits are useful for drills, expecially if you
install your electrical boxes using screws (drywall screws
work well).
For stripping wire, use a real wire stripper, not a knife or
ordinary wire cutters. Don't buy the $3 K-mart "combo stripper,
crimper and bottle opener" types. You should expect to pay
$15 to $20 for a good "plier-type" pair. It will have sized
stripping holes, and won't nick or grab the wire - it should
be easy to strip wire with it. One model has a small hole in the
blade for forming exact wire loops for screw terminals. There
are fancier types (autostrip/cut), but they generally aren't
necessary, and pros usually don't use them.
A pair of diagonal side cutter pliers are useful for clipping ends
in constricted places. Don't use these for stripping wire.
You will need linesman pliers for twisting wires for wire nuts.
You should have a pair of needle-nose pliers for fiddling
inside boxes and closing loops, but it's better to form wire
loops with a "loop former hole" on your wire stripper - more
accurate.
If you're using non-metallic cable, get a cable stripper for
removing the sheath. Or, do what some pros do, they nick the
end of the sheath, grab the ground wire with a pair of pliers,
and simply rip the sheath back using the ground wire as a
"zipper", and cut the sheath off. You shouldn't try to strip
the sheath with a knife point, because it's too easy to
slash the insulation on the conductors. Apparently Stanley
utility knives fitted with linoleum cutters (hooked blades)
can be used to strip sheath, but there is still the possibility
that you'll gouge the conductors.
For any substantial amount of work with armored cable, it's well
worth your while to invest in a rotary cable splitter (~US$ 18).
Hack saws are tricky to use without cutting into the wire
or the insulation.
Three-prong outlet testers are a quick check for properly-wired
outlets. About $6. Multimeters tell you more, but are a lot more
expensive, and probably not worth it for most people. A simple
voltage sensor, which can detect potential through an insulated
wire not supplying any devices, is extremely helpful; they cost
about US$ 10 at Radio Shack.
You should have a voltage detector - to check that the wires are
dead before doing work on them. Neon-bulb version are cheap ($2-3)
and work well. If you get more serious, a "audible alarm" type is
good for tracing circuits without a helper. (Though I've been known
to lock the drill on, and hit breakers until the scream stops ;-)
For running wires through existing walls, you need fish tape.
Often, two tapes are needed, though sometimes, a bent hanger or
a length of thin chain will suffice. Fish tapes can be rented.
Electrical tape. Lots of it ;-) Seriously, a good and competent
wiring job will need very little tape. The tape is useful for
wrapping dicy insulation in repair work. Another use is to wrap
around the body of outlets and switches to cover the termination
screws - I don't do this, but drywall contractors prefer it (to
prevent explosions when the drywall knife collides with a live outlet
that has no cover plate).
Subject: What is UL listing?
The UL stands for "Underwriters Laboratory". It used to be
an Insurance Industry organization, but now it is independent
and non-profit. It tests electrical components and equipment
for potential hazards. When something is UL-listed, that means
that the UL has tested the device, and it meets their requirements
for safety - ie: fire or shock hazard. It doesn't necessarily
mean that the device actually does what it's supposed to, just
that it probably won't kill you.
The UL does not have power of law in the U.S. -- you are
permitted to buy and install non-UL-listed devices. However,
insurance policies sometimes have clauses in them that will
limit their liability in case of a claim made in response to
the failure of a non-UL-listed device. Furthermore, in
many situations the NEC will require that a wiring component
used for a specific purpose is UL-listed for that purpose.
Indirectly, this means that certain parts of your wiring
must be UL-listed before an inspector will approve it and/or
occupancy permits issued.
Subject: What is CSA approval?
Every electrical device or component must be certified by the
Canadian Standards Association before it can be sold in
Canada. Implicit in this is that all wiring must be done
with CSA-approved materials. They perform testing similar to
the UL (a bit more stringent), except that CSA approval is
required by law.
Again, like the UL, if a fire was caused by non-CSA-approved
equipment, your insurance company may not have to pay the
claim.
In Canada, there is a branch organization of the UL, called ULC
(UL of Canada). ULC does not have power of law, and seems to
be more a liason group between the CSA and insurance
companies.
Subject: Are there any cheaper, easier to read books on wiring?
USA: The following three books were suggested by our readers
Residential Wiring
by Jeff Markell,
Craftsman Books,
Carlsbad CA for $18.25. ISBN 0-934041-19-9.
Practical Electrical Wiring
Residential, Farm and Industrial, Based on the National
Electrical Code ANSI/NFPA 70
Herbert P. Richter and W. Creighton Schwan
McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Wiring Simplified
H. P. Richter and W. C. Schwan
Park Publishing Co.
Try to make sure that the book is based on the latest NEC
revision. Which is currently 1990.
Canada: P.S. Knight authors and publishes a book called
"Electrical Code Simplified". There appears to be a version
published specific to each province, and is very tied into the
appropriate provincial code. It focuses on residential wiring,
and is indispensible for Canadian DIY'ers. It is better to get
this book than the CEC unless you do a lot of wiring (or answer
questions on the net ;-).
It is updated each time the provincial codes are. This book is
available at all DIY and hardware stores for less than C$10.
Subject: Inspections how and what? Why should I get my wiring inspected?
Most jurisdictions require that you obtain a permit and
inspections of any wiring that is done. Amongst other more
mundane bureaucratic reasons (like insurance companies not
liking to have to pay claims), a permit and inspections
provides some assurance that you, your family, your neighbors
or subsequent owners of your home don't get killed or lose
their homes one night due to a sloppy wiring job.
Most jurisdictions have the power to order you to vacate your
home, or order you to tear out any wiring done without a
permit. California, for instance, is particularly nasty about
this.
If fire starts in your home, and un-inspected wiring is at
fault, insurance companies will often refuse to pay the damage
claims.
In general, the process goes like this:
- you apply to your local inspections office or building
department for a permit. You should have a sketch or
detailed drawing of what you plan on doing. This is
a good time to ask questions on any things you're not
sure of. If you're doing major work, they may impose
special conditions on you, require loading
calculations and ask other questions. At this point
they will tell you which inspections you will need.
- If you're installing a main panel, you will need to
have the panel and service connections inspected
before your power utility will provide a connection.
This is sometimes done by the local power authority
rather than the usual inspectors.
- After installing the boxes and wiring, but before
the insulation/walls go up, you will need a
"rough-in" inspection.
- After the walls are up, and the wiring is complete,
you will need a "final inspection".
Subject: My house doesn't meet some of these rules and regulations.
Do I have to upgrade?
In general, there is no requirement to upgrade older dwellings,
though there are some exceptions (ie: smoke detectors in some
cases). However, any new work must be done according to the
latest electrical code. Also, if you do ``major'' work, you
may be required to upgrade certain existing portions or all
of your system. Check with your local electrical inspector.
Subject: A word on voltages: 110/115/117/120/125/220/240
One thing where things might get a bit confusing is the
different numbers people bandy about for the voltage of
a circuit. One person might talk about 110V, another 117V
or another 120V. These are all, in fact, exactly the same
thing... In North America the utility companies are required
to supply a split-phase 240 volt (+-5%) feed to your house.
This works out as two 120V +- 5% legs. Additionally, since there
are resistive voltage drops in the house wiring, it's not
unreasonable to find 120V has dropped to 110V or 240V has dropped
to 220V by the time the power reaches a wall outlet. Especially
at the end of an extension cord or long circuit run. For a number
of reasons, some historical, some simple personal orneryness,
different people choose call them by slightly different numbers.
This FAQ has chosen to be consistent with calling them "110V" and
"220V", except when actually saying what the measured voltage will
be. Confusing? A bit. Just ignore it.
One thing that might make this a little more understandable
is that the nameplates on equipment ofen show the lower (ie: 110V
instead of 120V) value. What this implies is that the device
is designed to operate properly when the voltage drops that
low.
208V is *not* the same as 240V. 208V is the voltage between
phases of a 3-phase "Y" circuit that is 120V from neutral to any
hot. 480V is the voltage between phases of a 3-phase "Y"
circuit that's 277V from hot to neutral.
In keeping with 110V versus 120V strangeness, motors intended
to run on 480V three phase are often labelled as 440V...
Subject: What does an electrical service look like?
There are logically four wires involved with supplying the
main panel with power. Three of them will come from the utility
pole, and a fourth (bare) wire comes from elsewhere.
The bare wire is connected to one or more long metal bars pounded
into the ground, or to a wire buried in the foundation, or sometimes
to the water supply pipe (has to be metal, continuous to where
the main water pipe entering the house. Watch out for galvanic
action conductivity "breaks" (often between copper and iron pipe)).
This is the "grounding conductor". It is there to make sure that
the third prong on your outlets is connected to ground. This wire
normally carries no current.
One of the other wires will be white (or black with white or
yellow stripes, or sometimes simply black). It is the neutral wire.
It is connected to the "centre tap" (CEC; "center tap" in the
NEC) of the distribution transformer supplying the power. It
is connected to the grounding conductor in only one place (often
inside the panel). The neutral and ground should not be connected
anywhere else. Otherwise, weird and/or dangerous things may happen.
Furthermore, there should only be one grounding system in
a home. Some codes require more than one grounding electrode.
These will be connected together, or connected to the neutral
at a common point - still one grounding system. Adding additional
grounding electrodes connected to other portions of the house
wiring is unsafe and contrary to code.
If you add a subpanel, the ground and neutral are usually
brought as separate conductors from the main panel, and are
not connected together in the subpanel (ie: still only one
neutral-ground connection). However, in some situations
(certain categories of separate buildings) you actually do
have to provide a second grounding electrode - consult your
inspector.
The other two wires will usually be black, and are the "hot"
wires. They are attached to the distribution transformer as
well.
The two black wires are 180 degrees out of phase with each
other. This means if you connect something to both hot wires,
the voltage will be 220 volts. If you connect something to the
white and either of the two blacks you will get 110V.
Some panels seem to only have three wires coming into them.
This is either because the neutral and ground are connected
together at a different point (eg: the meter or pole) and one
wire is doing dual-duty as both neutral and ground, or in some
rare occasions, the service has only one hot wire (110V only
service).
Subject: What is a circuit?
Inside the panel, connections are made to the incoming wires.
These connections are then used to supply power to selected
portions of the home. There are three different combinations:
1) one hot, one neutral, and ground: 110V circuit.
2) two hots, no neutral, and ground: 220V circuit.
3) two hots, neutral, and ground: 220V circuit + neutral,
and/or two 110V circuits with a common neutral.
(1) is used for most circuits supplying receptacles and
lighting within your house. (3) is usually used for supplying
power to major appliances such as stoves, and dryers - they
often have need for both 220V and 110V, or for bringing several
circuits from the panel box to a distribution point. (2) is
usually for special 220V motor circuits, electric heaters, or
air conditioners.
[Note: In the US, the NEC frequently permits a circuit similar
to (2) be used for stoves and dryers - namely, that there
are two hot wires, and a wire that does dual duty as neutral
and ground, and is connected to the frame as well as providing
the neutral for 110V purposes - three prong plugs instead
of four (*only* for stoves/dryers connected to the main panel.
When connected to most sub-panels, 4 prong plugs and receptacles
are required). In our not-so-humble opinion this is crazy, but
the NFPA claims that this practice was re-evaluated for the 1992 NEC,
and found to be safe. Check your local codes, or inquire as to
local practice -- there are restrictions on when this is
permissible.]
(1) is usually wired with three conductor wire: black for hot,
white for neutral, and bare for grounding.
(2) and (3) have one hot wire coloured red, the other black, a
bare wire for grounding, and in (3) a white wire for neutral.
You will sometimes see (2) wired with just a black, white and ground
wire. Since the white is "hot" in this case, both the NEC and CEC
requires that the white wire be "permanently marked" at the ends
to indicate that it is a live wire. Usually done with paint, nail
polish or sometimes electrical tape.
Each circuit is attached to the main wires coming into the
panel through a circuit breaker or fuse.
There are, in a few locales, circuits that look like (1), (2)
or (3) except that they have two bare ground wires. Some places
require this for hot tubs and the like (one ground is "frame ground",
the other attaches to the motor). This may or may not be an
alternative to GFCI protection.
Subject: "grounding" versus "grounded" versus "neutral".
According to the terminology in the CEC and NEC, the
"grounding" conductor is for the safety ground, i.e., the green
or bare wire. The word "neutral" is reserved for the white when
you have a circuit with more than one "hot" wire. Since the white
wire is connected to neutral and the grounding conductor inside the
panel, the proper term is "grounded conductor". However, the
potential confusion between "grounded conductor" and "grounding
conductor" can lead to potentially lethal mistakes - you should
never use the bare wire as a "grounded conductor" or white wire
as the "grounding conductor", even though they are connected
together in the panel.
[But not in subpanels - subpanels are fed neutral and ground
separately from the main panel. Usually.]
In the trade, and in common usage, the word "neutral" is used
for "grounded conductor". This FAQ uses "neutral" simply to
avoid potential confusion. We recommend that you use "neutral"
too. Thus the white wire is always (except in some light
switch applications) neutral. Not ground.
Subject: What does a fuse or breaker do? What are the differences?
Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to interrupt the power
to a circuit when the current flow exceeds safe levels. For
example, if your toaster shorts out, a fuse or breaker should
"trip", protecting the wiring in the walls from melting. As
such, fuses and breakers are primarily intended to protect the
wiring -- UL or CSA approval supposedly indicates that the
equipment itself won't cause a fire.
Fuses contain a narrow strip of metal which is designed to melt
(safely) when the current exceeds the rated value, thereby
interrupting the power to the circuit. Fuses trip relatively
fast. Which can sometimes be a problem with motors which have
large startup current surges. For motor circuits, you can use
a "time-delay" fuse (one brand is "fusetron") which will avoid
tripping on momentary overloads. A fusetron looks like a
spring-loaded fuse. A fuse can only trip once, then it must be
replaced.
Breakers are fairly complicated mechanical devices. They
usually consist of one spring loaded contact which is latched
into position against another contact. When the current flow
through the device exceeds the rated value, a bimetallic strip
heats up and bends. By bending it "trips" the latch, and the
spring pulls the contacts apart. Circuit breakers behave
similarly to fusetrons - that is, they tend to take longer to
trip at moderate overloads than ordinary fuses. With high
overloads, they trip quickly. Breakers can be reset a finite
number of times - each time they trip, or are thrown
when the circuit is in use, some arcing takes place, which
damages the contacts. Thus, breakers should not be used in
place of switches unless they are specially listed for the
purpose.
Neither fuses nor breakers "limit" the current per se. A dead
short on a circuit can cause hundreds or sometimes even
thousands of amperes to flow for a short period of time, which
can often cause severe damage.
Subject: Breakers? Can't I use fuses?
Statistics show that fuse panels have a significantly higher
risk of causing a fire than breaker panels. This is usually
due to the fuse being loosely screwed in, or the contacts
corroding and heating up over time, or the wrong size fuse
being installed, or the proverbial "replace the fuse with a
penny" trick.
Since breakers are more permanently installed, and have better
connection mechanisms, the risk of fire is considerably less.
Fuses are prone to explode under extremely high overload. When
a fuse explodes, the metallic vapor cloud becomes a conducting
path. Result? from complete meltdown of the electrical panel,
melted service wiring, through fires in the electrical
distribution transformer and having your house burn down.
Breakers don't do this.
Many jurisdictions, particularly in Canada, no longer permit
fuse panels in new installations. The NEC does permit new
fuse panels in some rare circumstances (requiring the special
inserts to "key" the fuseholder to specific size fuses)
Some devices, notably certain large air conditioners, require fuse
protection in addition to the breaker at the panel. The fuse
is there to protect the motor windings from overload. Check the
labeling on the unit. This is usually only on large permanently
installed motors. The installation instructions will tell you
if you need one.
Subject: What size wire should I use?
For a 20 amp circuit, use 12 gauge wire. For a 15 amp circuit,
you can use 14 gauge wire (in most locales). For a long run,
though, you should use the next larger size wire, to avoid
voltage drops. 12 gauge is only slightly more expensive than
14 gauge, though it's stiffer and harder to work with.
Here's a quick table for normal situations. Go up a size for
more than 100 foot runs, when the cable is in conduit, or
ganged with other wires in a place where they can't dissipate
heat easily:
Gauge Amps
14 15
12 20
10 30
8 40
6 65
We don't list bigger sizes because it starts getting very dependent
on the application and precise wire type.
Subject: Where do these numbers come from?
There are two considerations, voltage drop and heat buildup.
The smaller the wire is, the higher the resistance is. When
the resistance is higher, the wire heats up more, and there is
more voltage drop in the wiring. The former is why you need
higher-temperature insulation and/or bigger wires for use in
conduit; the latter is why you should use larger wire for long
runs.
Neither effect is very significant over very short distances.
There are some very specific exceptions, where use of smaller
wire is allowed. The obvious one is the line cord on most
lamps. Don't try this unless you're certain that your use fits
one of those exceptions; you can never go wrong by using larger
wire.
Subject: What does "14-2" mean?
This is used to describe the size and quantity of conductors
in a cable. The first number specifies the gauge. The second
the number of current carrying conductors in the wire - but
remember there's usually an extra ground wire. "14-2" means
14 gauge, two insulated current carrying wires, plus bare ground.
-2 wire usually has a black, white and bare ground wire. Sometimes
the white is red instead for 220V circuits without neutral. In
the latter case, the sheath is usually red too.
-3 wire usually has a black, red, white and bare ground wire.
Usually carrying 220V with neutral.
Subject: What is a "wirenut"/"marrette"/"marr connector"? How are they
used?
A wire nut is a cone shaped threaded plastic thingummy that's used
to connect wires together. "Marrette" or "Marr connector"
are trade names. You'll usually use a lot of them in DIY wiring.
In essence, you strip the end of the wires about an inch, twist them
together, then twist the wirenut on.
Though some wirenuts advertise that you don't need to twist the
wire, do it anyways - it's more mechanically and electrically
secure.
There are many different sizes of wire nut. You should check
that the wire nut you're using is the correct size for the
quantity and sizes of wire you're connecting together.
Don't just gimble the wires together with a pair of pliers or
your fingers. Use a pair of blunt nose ("linesman") pliers,
and carefully twist the wires tightly and neatly. Sometimes
it's a good idea to trim the resulting end to make sure it
goes in the wirenut properly.
Some people wrap the "open" end of the wirenut with electrical
tape. This is probably not a good idea - the inspector may
tear it off during an inspection. It's usually done because
a bit of bare wire is exposed outside the wire nut - instead
of taping it, the connection should be redone.
Subject: What is a GFI/GFCI?
A GFCI is a ``ground-fault circuit interrupter''. It measures
the current current flowing through the hot wire and the
neutral wire. If they differ by more than a few milliamps, the
presumption is that current is leaking to ground via some other
path. This may be because of a short circuit to the chassis of
an appliance, or to the ground lead, or through a person. Any
of these situations is hazardous, so the GFCI trips, breaking
the circuit.
GFCIs do not protect against all kinds of electric shocks. If,
for example, you simultaneously touched the hot and neutral
leads of a circuit, and no part of you was grounded, a GFCI
wouldn't help. All of the current that passed from the hot
lead into you would return via the neutral lead, keeping the
GFCI happy.
The two pairs of connections on a GFCI outlet are not symmetric.
One is labeled LOAD; the other, LINE. The incoming power feed
*must* be connected to the LINE side, or the outlet will not be
protected. The LOAD side can be used to protect all devices
downstream from it. Thus, a whole string of outlets can be
covered by a single GFCI outlet.
Subject: Where should GFCIs be used?
The NEC mandates GFCIs for 110V, 15A or 20A single phase
outlets, in bathrooms, kitchens within 6' of the sink, garages,
unfinished basements or crawl spaces, outdoors, near a pool, or
just about anywhere else where you're likely to encounter water
or dampness. There are exceptions for inaccessible outlets,
those dedicated to appliances ``occupying fixed space'',
typically refrigerators and freezers, and for sump pumps and
laundry appliances.
The CEC does not mandate as many GFCIs. In particular, there
is no requirement to protect kitchen outlets, or most garage or
basement outlets. Basement outlets must be protected if you
have a dirt floor, garage outlets if they're near the door to
outside. Bathrooms and most exterior outlets must have GFCIs.
Even if you are not required to have GFCI protection, you may
want to consider installing it anyway. Unless you need a GFCI
breaker (see below), the cost is low. In the U.S., GFCI
outlets can cost as little as US$8. (Costs are a bit higher in
Canada: C$12.) Evaluate your own risk factors. Does your
finished basement ever get wet? Do you have small children?
Do you use your garage outlets to power outdoor tools? Does
water or melted snow ever puddle inside your garage?
Subject: Where shouldn't I use a GFCI?
GFCIs are generally not used on circuits that (a) don't pose a
safety risk, and (b) are used to power equipment that must run
unattended for long periods of time. Refrigerators, freezers,
and sump pumps are good examples. The rationale is that GFCIs
are sometimes prone to nuisance trips. Some people claim that
the inductive delay in motor windings can cause a momentary
current imbalance, tripping the GFCI. Note, though, that most
GFCI trips are real; if you're getting a lot of trips for no
apparent reason, you'd be well-advised to check your wiring
before deciding that the GFCI is broken or useless.
Subject: What is the difference between a GFCI outlet and a GFCI breaker?
For most situations, you can use either a GFCI outlet as the
first device on the circuit, or you can install a breaker with
a built-in GFCI. The former is generally preferred, since GFCI
breakers are quite expensive. For example, an ordinary GE
breaker costs ~US$5; the GFCI model costs ~US$35. There is one
major exception: if you need to protect a ``multi-wire branch
circuit'' (two or more circuits sharing a common neutral wire),
such as a Canadian-style kitchen circuit, you'll need a
multi-pole GFCI breaker. Unfortunately, these are expensive;
the cost can range into the hundreds of dollars, depending on
what brand of panel box you have. But if you must protect such
a circuit (say, for a pool heater), you have no choice.
One more caveat -- GFCI outlets are bulky. You may want to use
an oversize box when installing them. On second thought, use
large (actually deep) boxes everywhere. You'll thank yourself for it.
Incidentally, if you're installing a GFCI to ensure that one
specific outlet is protected (such as a bathroom), you don't
really have to go to all of the trouble to find the first
outlet in the circuit, you could simply find the first outlet
in the bathroom, and not GFCI anything upstream of it. But
protecting the whole circuit is preferred.
When you install a GFCI, it's a good idea to use the little
"ground fault protected" stickers that come with it and mark
the outlets downstream of the GFCI. You can figure out which
outlets are "downstream", simply by tripping the GFCI with the
test button and see which outlets are dead.
Subject: What's the purpose of the ground prong on an outlet, then?
Apart from their use in electronics, which we won't comment on,
and for certain fluorescent lights (they won't turn on without
a good ground connection), they're intended to guard against
insulation failures within the device. Generally, the case of
the appliance is connected to the ground lead. If there's an
insulation failure that shorts the hot lead to the case, the
ground lead conducts the electricity away safely (and possibly
trips the circuit breaker in the process). If the case is not
grounded and such a short occurs, the case is live -- and if
you touch it while you're grounded, you'll get zapped. Of
course, if the circuit is GFCI-protected, it will be a very
tiny zap -- which is why you can use GFCIs to replace
ungrounded outlets (both NEC and CEC).
There are some appliances that should *never* be grounded. In
particular, that applies to toasters and anything else with
exposed conductors. Consider: if you touch the heating
electrode in a toaster, and you're not grounded, nothing will
happen. If you're slightly grounded, you'll get a small shock;
the resistance will be too high. But if the case were
grounded, and you were holding it, you'd be the perfect path to
ground...
Subject: Why is one prong wider than the other? Polarization
Nowadays, many two-prong devices have one prong wider than the
other. This is so that the device could rely (not guaranteed!)
on one specific wire being neutral, and the other hot.
This is particularly advantageous in light fixtures, where the
the shell should neutral (safety), or other devices which want to
have an approximate ground reference (ie: some radios).
Most 2-prong extension cords have wide prongs too.
This requires that you wire your outlets and plugs the right
way around. You want the wide prong to be neutral, and the
narrow one hot. Most outlets have a darker metal for the
hot screw, and lighter coloured screw for the neutral.
If not, you can usually figure out which is which by which
prong the terminating screw connects to.
Subject: What kind of outlets do I need in a kitchen?
The NEC requires at least two 20 amp ``small appliance
circuits'' for kitchens. The CEC requires split-duplex
receptacles. Outlets must be installed such that no point is more
than 24" (NEC) (900 mm CEC) from an outlet. Every counter wider
than 12" (NEC) or 300 mm (CEC) must have at least one outlet.
The circuit these outlets are on may not feed any outlets except
in the kitchen, pantry, or dining room. Furthermore, these circuits
are in addition to any required for refrigerators, stoves, microwaves,
lighting, etc. Non-dedicated outlets within 6' of a sink *must* be
protected by a GFCI (NEC only).
Split duplex receptacles are fed with a 220V circuit. The tab
is broken on the hot side of the outlet, and one hot goes to
the upper outlet, and the other hot goes to the lower outlet.
The neutral connects to both outlets through one screw. When
"carrying through" to another outlet, the neutral must be
pigtailed, such that removing the outlet, or having the neutral
connection fall off doesn't cause the neutral to disconnect
from downstream outlets.
Subject: Where must outlets and switches be in bathrooms?
There must be at least one outlet in each bathroom, adjacent to
the sink, in addition to any outlet that may be incorporated in
the light fixture. All such outlets *must* be GFCI-protected.
Subject: What is Romex/NM/NMD? What is BX? When should I use each?
Romex is a brand name for a type of plastic insulated wire.
Sometimes called non-metallic sheath. The formal name is NM.
This is suitable for use in dry, protected areas (ie: inside
stud walls, on the sides of joists etc.), that are not subject
to mechanical damage or excessive heat. Most newer homes are
wired almost exclusively with NM wire. There are several
different categories of NM cable.
BX cable -- technically known as armored cable or "AC" has a
flexible aluminum or steel sheath over the conductors and is
fairly resistant to damage.
TECK cable is AC with an additional external thermoplastic
sheath.
Protection for cable in concealed locations: where NM or AC cable
is run through studs, joists or similar wooden members, the outer
surface of the cable must be kept at least 32mm/1.25" (CEC & NEC)
from the edges of the wooden members, or the cable should be protected
from mechanical injury. This latter protection can take the form of
metal plates (such as spare outlet box ends) or conduit.
[Note: inspector-permitted practise in Canada suggests that armored
cable, or flexible conduit can be used as the mechanical protection,
but this is technically illegal.]
Additional protection recommendations (these are rules in the
Canadian codes - they are reasonable answers to the vague
references to "exposed to mechanical damage" in both the NEC
and CEC):
- NM cable should be protected against mechanical damage
where it passes through floors or on the surface of walls
in exposed locations under 5 feet from the floor.
Ie: use AC instead, flexible conduit, wooden guards etc.
- Where cable is suspended, as in, connections to furnaces
or water heaters, the wire should be protected. Canadian
practise is usually to install a junction or outlet
box on the wall, and use a short length of AC cable
or NM cable in flexible conduit to "jump" to the appliance.
Stapling NM to a piece of lumber is also sometimes used.
- Where NM cable is run in close proximity to heating
ducts or pipe, heat transfer should be minimized by
means of a 25mm/1" air space, or suitable insulation
material (a wad of fiberglass).
- NM cable shall be supported within 300mm/1' of every box
or fitting, and at intervals of no more than 1.5m/5'.
Holes in joists or studs are considered "supports".
Some slack in the cable should be provided adjacent to
each box. [while fishing cable is technically in violation,
it is permitted where "proper" support is impractical]
- 2 conductor NM cable should never be stapled on edge.
[Knight also insists on only one cable per staple, referring
to the "workmanship" clause, but this seems more honoured
in the breach...]
- cable should never be buried in plaster, cement or
similar finish.
- cable should be protected where it runs behind baseboards.
- Cable may not be run on the upper edge of ceiling joists
or the lower edges of rafters where the headroom is more
than 1m (39").
Whenever BX cable is terminated at a box with a clamp, small
plastic bushings must be inserted in the end of the cable to
prevent the clamps forcing the sharp ends of the armor through
the insulation.
BX is sometimes a good idea in a work shop unless covered by
solid wall coverings.
In places where damage is more likely (like on the back wall of
a garage ;-), you may be required to use conduit, a
UL- (or CSA-) approved metal pipe. You use various types of
fittings to join the pipe or provide entrance/exit for the
wire.
Service entrances frequently use a plastic conduit.
In damp places (eg: buried wiring to outdoor lighting) you will
need special wire (eg: CEC NMW90, NEC UF). NMW90 looks like
very heavy-duty NMD90. You will usually need short lengths of
conduit where the wire enters/exits the ground. [See underground
wiring section.]
Thermoplastic sheath wire (such as NM, NMW etc.) should not be
exposed to direct sunlight unless explicitly approved for that
purpose.
Many electrical codes do not permit the routing of wire through
furnace ducts, including cold air return plenums constructed
by metal sheeting enclosing joist spaces. The reason for this
is that if there's a fire, the ducting will spread toxic gasses
from burning insulation very rapidly through the building.
Teflon insulated wire is permitted in plenums in many areas.
Canada appears to use similar wire designations to the US,
except that Canadian wire designations usually include the
temperature rating in Celsius. Eg: "AC90" versus "AC".
In the US, NM-B is 90 degrees celcius.
NOTE: local codes vary. This is one of the items that changes
most often. Eg: Chicago codes require conduit *everywhere*.
There are very different requirements for mobile homes.
Check your local codes, *especially* if you're doing anything
that's the slightest out of the ordinary.
Wire selection table (incomplete - the real tables are enormous,
uncommon wire types or applications omitted)
Condition Type CEC NEC
Exposed/Concealed dry plastic NMD90 NM
armor AC90 AC
TECK90
Exposed/Concealed damp plastic NMD90 NMC
armor ACWU90
TECK90
Exposed/Concealed wet plastic NMWU90
armor ACWU90
TECK90
Exposed to weather plastic NMWU
TW etc.
armor TECK90
Direct earth burial/ plastic NMWU* UF
Service entrance RWU
TWU
armor RA90
TECK90
ACWU90
[* NMWU not for service entrance]
Subject: Should I use plastic or metal boxes?
The NEC permits use of plastic boxes with non-metallic cable
only. The reasoning is simple -- with armored cable, the box
itself provides ground conductor continuity. U.S. plastic
boxes don't use metal cable clamps.
The CEC is slightly different. The CEC never permits cable
armor as a grounding conductor. However, you must still
provide ground continuity for metallic sheath. The CEC also
requires grounding of any metal cable clamps on plastic boxes.
The advantage of plastic boxes is comparatively minor even for
non-metallic sheathed cable -- you can avoid making one ground
connection and they sometimes cost a little less. On the other
hand, plastic boxes are more vulnerable to impacts. For
exposed or shop wiring, metal boxes are probably better.
Subject: Junction box positioning?
A junction box is a box used only for connecting wires together.
Junction boxes must be located in such a way that they're accessible
later. Ie: not buried under plaster. Excessive use of junction
boxes is often a sign of sloppy installation, and inspectors may
get nasty.
Subject: Can I install a replacement light fixture?
In general, one can replace fixtures freely, subject to a few
caveats. First, of course, one should check the amperage
rating of the circuit. If your heart is set on installing half
a dozen 500 watt floodlights, you may need to run a new wire
back to the panel box. But there are some more subtle
constraints as well. For example, older house
wiring doesn't have high-temperature insulation. The excess
heat generated by a ceiling-mounted lamp can and will cause the
insulation to deteriorate and crack, with obvious bad results.
Some newer fixtures are specifically marked for high
temperature wire only. (You may find, in fact, that your
ceiling wiring already has this problem, in which case
replacing any devices is a real adventure.)
Other concerns include providing a suitable ground for some
fluorescent fixtures, and making sure that the ceiling box and
its mounting are strong enough to support the weight of a heavy
chandelier or ceiling fan. You may need to install a new box
specifically listed for this purpose. A 2x4 across the ceiling
joists makes a good support. Metal brackets are also available
that can be fished into ceilings thru the junction box hole and
mounted between the joists.
There are special rules for recessed light fixtures such as
"pot" lamps or heat lamps. When these are installed in insulated
ceilings, they can present a very substantial fire hazard.
The CEC provides for the installation of pot lamps in insulated
ceilings, provided that the fixture is boxed in a "coffin" (usually
8'x16"x12" - made by making a pair of joists 12" high, and covering
with plywood) that doesn't have any insulation. (Yes, that's 8 *feet*
long)
NEC rules are somewhat less stringent. They require at least 3"
clearance between the fixture and any sort of thermal insulation.
The rules also say that one should not obstruct free air movement,
which means that a CEC-style ``coffin'' might be worthwhile.
Presumably, that's up to the local inspector. [The CEC doesn't
actually mandate the coffin per-se, this seems to be an inspector
requirement to make absolutely certain that the fixture can't get
accidentally buried in insulation. Ie: if you have insulation blown
in later.]
There are now fixtures that contain integral thermal cutouts and
fairly large cases that can be buried directly in insulation. They are
usually limited to 75 watt bulbs, and are unfortunately, somewhat
more expensive than the older types. Before you use them, you should
ensure that they have explicit UL or CSA approval for such uses.
Follow the installation instructions carefully; the prescribed location
for the sensor can vary.
There does not yet appear to be a heat lamp fixture that is approved
for use in insulation. The "coffin" appears the only legal approach.
Subject: What does it mean when the lights brighten when a motor starts?
This usually means that the neutral wire in the panel is
loose. Depending on the load balance, one hot wire may end up
being more than 110V, and the other less than 110V, with
respect to ground. This is a very hazardous situation - it can
destroy your electronic equipment, possibly start fires, and in
some situations electrocute you (ie: some US jurisdictions
require the stove frame connected to neutral).
If this happens, contact your electrical authority immediately
and have them come and check out the problem.
Note: a brief (< 1 second) brightening is sometimes normal with
lighting and motors on the same 220V with neutral circuit. A
loose main panel neutral will usually show increased brightness
far longer than one second. In case of doubt, get help.
Subject: What is 3 phase power? Should I use it? Can I get it in my house?
Three phase power has three "hot" wires, 120 degrees out of
phase with each other. These are usually used for large motors
because it is more "efficient", provides a bit more starting torque,
and because the motors are simpler and hence cheaper.
You're most likely to encounter a 3 phase circuit that shows
110 volts between any hot and ground, and 208 volts between
any two hots. The latter shows the difference between a normal
220V/110V common neutral circuit, which is 240 volts between the
two hots. There are 3 phase circuits with different voltages.
Bringing in a 3 phase feed to your house is usually
ridiculously expensive, or impossible. If the equipment you
want to run has a standard motor mount, it is *MUCH* cheaper to
buy a new 110V or 220V motor for it. In some cases it is
possible to run 3 phase equipment on ordinary power if you have
a "capacitor start" unit, or use a larger motor as a
(auto-)generator. These are tricky, but are a good solution if
the motor is non-standard size, or too expensive or too big to
replace. The Taunton Press book ``The Small Shop'' has an
article on how to do this if you must.
Note that you lose any possible electrical efficiency by using
such a converter. The laws of thermodynamics guarantee that.
Subject: Is it better to run motors at 110 or 220?
Theoretically, it doesn't make any difference. However, there
is a difference is the amount of power lost in the supply
wiring. All things being equal, a 220V motor will lose 4 times
less power in the house wiring than a 110V motor. This also
means that the startup surge loss will be less, and the motor
will get to speed quicker. And in some circumstances, the
smaller power loss will lead to longer motor life.
This is usually irrelevant unless the supply wires are more
than 50 feet long.
Subject: What is this nonsense about 3HP on 110V 15A circuits?
It is a universal physical law that 1 HP is equal to 746
watts. Given heating loss, power factor and other inefficiencies,
it is usually best to consider 1 HP is going to need 1000-1200
watts. A 110V 15A circuit can only deliver 1850 watts to a motor,
so it cannot possibly be more than approximately 2 HP. Given rational
efficiency factors, 1.5HP is more like it.
Some equipment manufacturers (Sears in particular, most router
manufacturers in general ;-) advertise a HP rating that is far
in excess of what is possible. They are giving you a "stall
horsepower" or similar. That means the power is measured when
the motor is just about to stop turning because of the load.
What they don't mention is that if you kept it in that
condition for more than a few seconds hopefully your breaker
will trip, otherwise the motor will melt -- it's drawing far
more current than it can continuously.
When comparing motors, compare the continuous horsepower. This
should be on the motor nameplate. If you can't find that figure,
check the amperage rating, which is always present.
Subject: How do I convert two prong receptacles to three prong?
Older homes frequently have two-prong receptacles instead
of the more modern three. These receptacles have no safety
ground, and the cabling usually has no ground wire. Neither
the NEC or CEC permits installing new 2 prong receptacles anymore.
There are several different approaches to solving this:
1) If the wiring is done through conduit or BX, and the
conduit is continuous back to the panel, you can connect
the third prong of a new receptacle to the receptacle
box. NEC mainly - CEC frowns on this practise.
2) If there is a copper cold water pipe going nearby, and
it's continuous to the main house ground point, you can
run a conductor to it from the third prong.
3) Run a ground conductor back to the main panel.
4) Easiest: install a GFCI receptacle. The ground lug
should not be connected to anything, but the GFCI
protection itself will serve instead. The GFCI
will also protect downstream (possibly also two prong
outlets). If you do this to protect downstream outlets,
the grounds must not be connected together. Since it
wouldn't be connected to a real ground, a wiring fault
could energize the cases of 3 prong devices connected
to other outlets. Be sure, though, that there aren't
indirect ground plug connections, such as via the sheath
on BX cable.
The CEC permits you to replace a two prong receptacle with a three
prong if you fill the U ground with a non-conducting goop.
Like caulking compound. This is not permitted in the NEC.
Subject: Are you sure about GFCIs and ungrounded outlets?
Should the test button work?
We're sure about what the NEC and CEC say. Remember, though,
that your local codes may vary. As for the TEST button -- there's
a resistor connecting the LOAD side of the hot wire to the LINE
side of the neutral wire when you press the TEST button. Current
through this resistor shows up as an imbalance, and trips the GFCI.
This is a simple, passive, and reliable test, and doesn't require
a real ground to work. If your GFCI does not trip when you press
the TEST button, it is very probably defective or miswired. Again:
if the test button doesn't work, something's broken, and potentially
dangerous. The problem should be corrected immediately.
The instructions that come with some GFCIs specify that the ground
wire must be connected. We do not know why they say this. The
causes may be as mundane as an old instruction sheet, or with the
formalities of UL or CSA listing -- perhaps the device was never
tested without the ground wire being connected. On the other hand,
UL or CSA approval should only have been granted if the device
behaves properly in *all* listed applications, including ungrounded
outlet replacement. (One of us called Leviton; their GFCIs are
labeled for installation on grounded circuits only. The technician
was surprised to see that; he agreed that the NEC does not require
it, and promised to investigate.)
Subject: How should I wire my shop?
As with any other kind of wiring, you need enough power for all
devices that will be on simultaneously. The code specifies
that you should stay under 80% of the nominal capacity of the
circuit. For typical home shop use, this means one circuit for
the major power tools, and possibly one for a dust collector or
shop vac. Use at least 12 gauge wire -- many power tools have
big motors, with a big start-up surge. If you can, use 20 amp
breakers (NEC), though CEC requires standard 20A receptacles
which means you'd have to "replug" all your equipment. Lights
should either be on a circuit of their own -- and not shared
with circuits in the rest of the house -- or be on at least two
separate circuits. The idea is that you want to avoid a
situation where a blade is still spinning at several thousand
RPM, while you're groping in the dark for the OFF switch.
Do install lots of outlets. It's easier to install them in the
beginning, when you don't have to cut into an existing cable.
It's useful if at least two circuits are accessible at each
point, so you can run a shop vac or a compressor at the same
time as the tool you really want. But use metal boxes and
plates, and maybe even metal-sheathed cable; you may have
objects flying around at high speeds if something goes a bit
wrong.
Note that some jurisdictions have a "no horizontal wiring"
rule in workshops or other unfinished areas that are used
for working. What this means is that all wiring must be
run along structural members. Ie: stapled to studs.
Other possible shop circuits include heater circuits, 220V
circuits for some large tools, and air compressor circuits.
Don't overload circuits, and don't use extension cords if you
can help it, unless they're rated for high currents. (A coiled
extension cord is not as safe as a straight length of wire of
the same gauge. Also, the insulation won't withstand as much
heat, and heat dissipation is the critical issue.)
If your shop is located at some remove from your main panel,
you should probably install a subpanel, and derive your shop
wiring from it. If you have young children, you may want to
equip this panel with a cut-off switch, and possibly a lock.
If you want to install individual switches to ``safe''
particular circuits, make sure you get ones rated high enough.
For example, ordinary light switches are not safely able to
handle the start-up surge generated by a table saw. Buy
``horsepower-rated'' switches instead.
Finally, note that most home shops are in garages or unfinished
basements; hence the NEC requirements for GFCIs apply. And
even if you ``know'' that you'd never use one of your shop
outlets to run a lawn mower, the next owner of your house might
have a different idea.
Note: Fine Woodworking magazine often carries articles on shop
wiring. April 1992 is one place to start.
Subject: Underground Wiring
You will need to prepare a trench to specifications, use
special wire, protect the wire with conduit or special plastic
tubing and possibly lumber (don't use creosoted lumber, it rots
thermoplastic insulation and acts as a catalyst in the corrosion
of lead). The transition from in-house to underground wire is
generally via conduit. All outdoor boxes must be specifically
listed for the purpose, and contain the appropriate gaskets,
fittings, etc. If the location of the box is subject to immersion
in water, a more serious style of water-proof box is needed. And
of course, don't forget the GFCIs.
The required depths and other details vary from jurisdiction to
jurisdiction, so we suggest you consult your inspector about
your specific situation.
A hint: buy a roll of bright yellow tape that says "buried power
line" and bury it a few inches above where the wire has been placed.
Subject: Aluminum wiring
During the 1970's, aluminum (instead of copper) wiring became
quite popular and was extensively used. Since that time,
aluminum wiring has been implicated in a number of house fires,
and most jurisdictions no longer permit it in new installations.
We recommend, even if you're allowed to, that do not use it for new
wiring.
But don't panic if your house has aluminum wiring. Aluminum
wiring, when properly installed, can be just as safe as copper.
Aluminum wiring is, however, very unforgiving of improper
installation. We will cover a bit of the theory behind potential
problems, and what you can do to make your wiring safe.
The main problem with aluminum wiring is a phenomenon known as
"cold creep". When aluminum wiring warms up, it expands. When
it cools down, it contracts. Unlike copper, when aluminum goes
through a number of warm/cool cycles it loses a bit of tightness each
time. To make the problem worse, aluminum oxidises, or corrodes
when in contact with certain types of metal, so the resistance
of the connection goes up. Which causes it to heat up and corrode/
oxidize still more. Eventually the wire may start getting very hot,
melt the insulation or fixture it's attached to, and possibly even
cause a fire.
Since people usually encounter aluminum wiring when they move
into a house built during the 70's, we will cover basic points of
safe aluminum wiring. We suggest that, if you're considering purchasing
a home with aluminum wiring, or have discovered it later, that you
hire a licensed electrician or inspector to check over the wiring
for the following things:
1) Fixtures (eg: outlets and switches) directly attached to
aluminum wiring should be rated for it. The device will
be stamped with "Al/Cu" or "CO/ALR". The latter supersedes
the former, but both are safe. These fixtures are somewhat
more expensive than the ordinary ones.
2) Wires should be properly connected (at least 3/4 way around
the screw in a clockwise direction). Connections should be
tight. While repeated tightening of the screws can make the
problem worse, during the inspection it would pay off to snug
up each connection.
Note that aluminum wiring is still often used for the
main service entrance cable. It should be inspected.
3) "push-in" terminals are an extreme hazard with aluminum wire.
Any connections using push-in terminals should be redone with
the proper screw connections immediately.
4) There should be no signs of overheating: darkened connections,
melted insulation, or "baked" fixtures. Any such damage should
be repaired.
5) Connections between aluminum and copper wire need to be
handled specially. Current Canadian codes require that the
wire nut used must be specially marked for connecting
aluminum to copper. The NEC requires that the wire be
connected together using special crimp devices, with an
anti-oxidant grease. The tools and materials for the latter
are quite expensive - not practical to do it yourself unless
you can rent the tool.
6) Any non-rated receptacle can be connected to aluminum wiring
by means of a short copper "pigtail". See (5) above.
7) Shows reasonable workmanship: neat wiring, properly stripped
(not nicked) wire etc.
If, when considering purchasing a home, an inspection of the wiring
shows no problems or only one or two, we believe that you can consider
the wiring safe. If there are signs of problems in many places,
we suggest you look elsewhere. If the wrong receptacles are used,
you can replace them with the proper type, or use pigtails - having
this professionally done can range from $3 to $10 per receptacle/switch.
You can do this yourself too.
Subject: I'm buying a house! What should I do?
Congratulations. But... It's generally a good idea to hire
an inspector to look through the house for hidden gotchas.
Not just for wiring, but plumbing and structural as well. If an
inspection of the wiring shows no problems or only one or two minor
ones, we believe that you can consider the wiring safe (after any
minor problems are fixed). If there are signs of problems in many
places, we suggest you look elsewhere.
Here's some hints on what to look for:
Obvious non-code wiring can include:
- Zip cord wiring, either concealed or nailed to walls
- Hot wiring on the identified (neutral) conductor without
proper marking.
- Ungrounded grounding outlets (except when downstream of
a GFCI)
- Splices hanging in mid-air (other than proper knob-and-tube)
- Switched neutrals
- Unsecured Romex swinging about like grapevines
Certain wiring practises that are actually to code (or were at one
time) sometimes reveal DIY wiring that may have hidden violations:
- Switches that seem to control nothing (abandoned, perhaps
not properly terminated wiring)
- A wall switch that shuts off a group of lights that are
separately controlled by other wall switches. (except when
it's *really* convenient ;-)
- Switches and outlets in bizarre locations
- Great numbers of junction boxes without outlets or lamps
- Junction boxes with great numbers of wires going into them
- Wiring that passes through a closet instead of a wall or
ceiling
- Backwrapped grounding wires
Subject: What is this weird stuff? Old style wiring
In the years since Edison "invented" electricity, several different
wiring "styles" have come and gone. When you buy an older home you
may encounter some of this stuff. This section describes the old
methods, and some of their idiosyncrasies.
The oldest wiring system you're likely to encounter is called
"knob and tube" (K&T). It is made up of individual conductors with
a cloth insulation. The wires are run along side structural
members (eg: joists or studs) using ceramic stand-offs (knobs).
Wire is run through structural members using ceramic tubes. Connections
were made by twisting the wire together, soldering, and wrapping
with tape. Since the hot and neutral were run separately,
the wiring tends to be rather confusing. A neutral often runs
down the centre of each room, with "taps" off to each fixture.
The hot wire tended to run from one fixture to the next. In some
cases K&T isn't colour-coded, so the neutral is often the same
colour as the hot wires.
You'll see K&T in homes built as late as the 40's.
Comments on K&T:
- the people installing K&T were pretty paranoid about
electricity, so the workmanship tends to be pretty good.
- The wire, insulation and insulators tend to stand up
very well. Most K&T I've seen, for example, is in
quite good condition.
- No grounding. Grounding is usually difficult to install.
- boxes are small. Receptacle replacement (particularly with
GFCI) can be difficult. No bushing on boxes either,
so wiring changes need special attention to box entry.
- Sometimes the neutral isn't balanced very well between
separately hot circuits, so it is sometimes possible to
overload the neutral without exceeding the fusing on
any circuit.
- Building code does not permit insulation in walls
that contain K&T.
- Connection to existing K&T from new circuits can be
tricky. Consult your inspector.
- Modern wiring practise requires considerably more
outlets to be installed than K&T systems did.
Since K&T tends to be in pretty decent condition it generally isn't
necessary to replace it simply because it's K&T. What you should
watch out for is renovations that have interfered with it and
be cautious about circuit loading. In many cases it's perfectly
reasonable to leave existing K&T alone, and add new fixtures on
new circuits using modern techniques.
After K&T, they invented multi-conductor cable. The first type
you will see is roughly a cloth and varnish insulation. It looks
much like the romex cable of the last decade or two. This stuff was
used in the 40's and 50's. Again, no grounding conductor.
It was installed much like modern wiring. Its major drawback
is that this type of insulation embrittles. We've seen whole
systems where the insulation would fracture and fall off at
a touch. BX cable of the same vintage has similar problems.
This stuff is very fragile, and becomes rather hazardous if
the wires become bare. This wiring should be left untouched as
much as possible - whenever an opportunity arises, replace it.
A simple receptacle or switch replacement can turn into a several
hour long frustrating fight with electrical tape or heat-shrink
tubing.
After this wiring technique, the more modern romex was invented.
It's almost a asphalt impregnated cloth. Often a bit sticky.
This stuff stands up reasonably well and doesn't present a hazard
and is reasonably easy to work with. It does not need to be
replaced - it should be considered as safe as the "modern" stuff -
thermoplastic insulation wire. Just don't abuse it too much.
Subject: Where do I buy stuff?
Try to find a proper electrical supply outlet near you. Their
prices will often be considerably better than chain hardware stores or
DIY centres, have better quality materials, have wider variety
including the "odd" stuff, and have people behind the counter that
know what you're talking about. Cultivate friendly knowledgeable
sales people. They'll give you much valuable information.
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Note that Bo Gritz was on the Populist party ticket with David
Duke (for veep) in 1988 until he found out that Duke was leading
he ticket, when he withdrew his candidacy. So Gritz gave up his
chance to be Vice President of the US just to aviod supporting
Duke.
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Hi,
I'm looking for an algorithm that would generate a good cross-section of
RGB colours given a limited colour map size.
The problem: I'm writing an application for the PC that may have at most 256
colors. I want to use one colormap (palette) for the application but I'd like
it to contain an even spread of colours of the visible spectrum. I could use
a 6x6x6 RGB cube but the problem is that a lot of those colours are almost
identical to the human eye.
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4,475
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Contact Chris Arthur at Chris_Arthur@pennies.stratus.com
He restores lots of old video and arcade games and knows where to get
parts.
Tony
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
-- Anthony S. Pelliccio, kd1nr/ae // Yes, you read it right, the //
-- system @ garlic.sbs.com // man who went from No-Code //
-----------------------------------// (Thhhppptt!) to Extra in //
-- Flame Retardent Sysadmin // exactly one year! //
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-- This is a calm .sig! --
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Because SCSI works well with removable media, and works well with large
capacity devices. The floppy interface you suggest handles the former, but
it doesn't have any hooks for dealing with the latter... you'd have to kludge
it. Plus, it's extremely low performance. AND, SCSI has gobs of room for
expansion compared with a floppy (I can just see it, let's stick a 5.25",
a 3.5", a tape drive, and a MO drive, all on the floppy interface. The
possibilities for unexpected collisions are enormous).
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1976 Montreal Olympics philatelic souvenirs:
1. Color-illustrated booklet in French/English containing all stamps
issued for the Games (mint never hinged) in slipcase, over $6.00
face value in stamps. $13.00 + $2.00 insured first class mailing
2. Unusual "desk pad holder" with Olympic rings on the cover and the
Montreal stadium inside. All the Canadian Olympic stamps are
displayed on the "cover" under heavy plastic. Again, over $6.00
face value. $11.00 + $2.50 insured first class mailing.
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5,452
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Well, despite what my mother told me about accepting dares, here goes.
You have to be very careful about what you mean by "question authority".
Taken literally, it is nonsense. That which is authoratative is authoratative,
and to say "I question to word of this authority" is ridiculous. If it is
open to question, it isn't an authority. On the other hand, it is perfectly
reasonable to question whether something is an authority. The catch phrase
here should be "authenticate authority." Once you have authenticated
your authority, you must believe what it says, or you are not treating it as
an authority.
The difficulty is that authenticating an authority is not easy. You
can perhaps discredit a claim to authority by showing logical inconsistency
in what it teaches, or by showing that it does not obey its own rules of
discourse. But the fact that I cannot discredit something does not, in
inself, accredit it. (Nor does the fact that I can convince myself and
other that I have discredited something necessarilly mean that it is false.)
I cannot accredit an authority by independantly verifying its teachings,
because if I can independantly verify its teachings, I don't need an
authority. I need an authority only when there is information I need which
I cannot get for myself. Thus, if I am to authenticate an authority, I must
do it by some means other than by examining its teachings.
In practical matters we accept all kinds of authorities because we don't
have time to rediscover fundamental knowledge for ourselves. Every scientist
woring today assumes, on the authority of the scintific community, all sorts
of knowledge which is necessary to his work but which he has not time to
verify for himself.
In spiritual matters, we accept authority because we have no direct source
ofinformation. We select our authorities based on various criteria. (I am
a Catholic, in part, because the historical claims of the RC church seem
the strongest.) Without authorities there would be no subject matter for
belief, unless we simply made something up for ourselves (as many do).
The atheist position seems to be that there are no authorities. This is a
reasonable assertion in itself, but it leads to a practical difficulty.
If you reject all authority out of hand, you reject all possibility of
every receiving information. Thus the atheist position can never possibly
change. It is non-falsifiable and therefore unscintific.
To demand scintific or rational proof of God's existence, is to deny
God's existence, since neither science, nor reason, can, in their very
nature, prove anything.
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I was wondering if anyone knew any changes to the temple
ceremony within the last fifty years....
Also, why do you think they were made (revelation,
assimilation to mainstream Christianity, etc.)?
I know that the God Makers was published quite a while
ago. Could rituals have been changed since then?
I am also very interested in the influence of Freemasonry
on early Mormonism, especially in the Smith family and
in the Nauvoo settlement. Info on any new studies would
be appreciated.
Thanks,
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The latest driver release is 59 and can be found at ftp.cica.indiana.edu
in the pub/pc/win3/... directory structure as pro59.zip. I checked with ATI's
BBS last nite and there were no releases past 59.
We have the ATI Local Bus card and I noticed that I get garbage around the
edges of a window when I move it. Has anybody else noticed this also?
Tom.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Thomas B. Fisk +----------------------------+ Internet: fisk@mayo.edu
Mayo Clinic | If you don't know where | Voice: (507) 255-4341
200 First Street SW | you're going you'll never | FAX: (507) 255-5484
Mail Stop 2D-337 STM | get there. |
Rochester, MN 55905 +----------------------------+
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and bill james is not? yeah. sure. do you own "the bill james players
rating book"?
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For the Lord Himself will descend from Heaven with a shout, with the voice
of an archangel, and with the trumpet of God. And the dead in Christ will
rise first. Then we who are alive and remain will be caught up together
to meet the Lord in the air. And thus we shall always be with the Lord.
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Syria had been bombing Israeli settlements from the Golan and sending
terrorist squads into Israel for years. Do you need me to provide specifics?
I can.
Why don't you give it up, Hasan? I'm really starting to get tired of your
empty lies. You can defend your position and ideology with documented facts
and arguments rather than the crap you regularly post. Take an example from
someone like Brendan McKay, with whom I don't agree, but who uses logic and
documentation to argue his position. Why must you insist on constantly spouting
baseless lies? You may piss some people off, but that's about it. You won't
prove anything or add anything worthy to a discussion. Your arguments just
prove what a poor debater you are and how weak your case really is.
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Just to complete that thought, the cooling towers cool water that
circulates through heat exchangers that recondense the turbine
exhaust back into feedwater for the heat exchangers that transfer
energy from the reactor's cooling circuit.
|---------------| |------turbine, etc---| |---------|
| > > > > .
reactor < < < > .
| > > > > C. T.
|---------------| |--------------------| |----------
The reactor has a closed loop circuit to prevent radioactive
contamination of the the turbine feedwater.
The cooling tower is a separate circuit to avoide contamination of
the turbine feedwater with atmospheric contamininats, etc.
Purifying boiler feedwater is important business at both fossil
fired and nuclear generation facilities.
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I have just finished building X11R5 on a 386 running Interactive Unix (SysVR3)
and I am having a problem with xterm. On any font larger that 5x7 it messes up
characters that are types, the cursor seems to be "too" large, or splits into
a 1/2 reverse video, 1/2 outline block (which changes when the pointer is moved
into the window). I am trying to use monospaced fonts (not -p- fonts). Is
there any way of changing the appearence of the block cursor is an Xterm?
Thanks
--
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Please unsubscribe pancamo@blkbox.com. This user has become inactive and I
wish to discontinue his participation in this mailing list.
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Mark Prado
Old pioneer song from the 1850's or so goes as follows:
"In a cavern, in a canyon,
Excavating for a mine,
Dwelt a miner, forty-niner,
And his daughter, CLEMENTINE"
Chorus:
"Oh my darling, Oh my darling,
Oh my darling Clementine.
You are lost and gone forever,
Oh my darling Clementine."
I've also had it explained (but not confirmed from a reliable data
source) that CLEMENTINE is an acronym. Something like Combined
Lunar Elemental Mapper Experiment on Extended Non Terrestrial
Intercept Near Earth. Personally, I think that acronym was made up
to fit the name (if it really is an acronym).
------------------------------------------------------------------
Wales Larrison Space Technology Investor
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: : 42 is 101010 binary, and who would forget that its the
: : answer to the Question of "Life, the Universe, and Everything else."
: : Of course the Question has not yet been discovered...
: ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
: But it WAS discovered (sort of). The question was "What is 7 times 8?"
[ Read on and there's a special prize at the bottom. Amaze your friends
and gain respect from your peers that you can carry on so long about the
number 42. ]
The original question was "What is the meaning of Life, the Universe, and
and Everything." The answer generated by Deep Thought (the 2nd largest
computer ever created) was 42. Deep Thought realized that to understand
the answer, one must really know what the question is. Unfortunately, he
didn't. But he was able to help build the largest computer (named Earth)
which could figure out the real question. (I know this is background
knowledge for everyone here... just bear with me a sec... :)
When Arthur pulled the scrabble tiles out of the bag, he spelled out
"What is nine times six?" (or the like). However, it is not clear that
the monkey-man had the right question in his brain, especially since it
was that lady in the diner (which was vaporized moments later) that came
up with the answer to how everyone could get along. On the other hand,
Marvin said he saw the answer in Dent's brain, so lets presume it's
correct.
Well, NINE TIMES SIX ***IS*** FORTY-TWO!!! ...in base 13.
Chew on that for awhile... :)
--
Chris Russell Custom software, networks, CASE tools, and consulting
Adaptive Solutions Sun SPARC, SGI IRIS, HP Apollo, Macintosh, & PC
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But good ones can collapse somewhat, then come back the next year.
Burleigh Grimes went from 20+ wins and an ERA of 3 or so in '24 to 13-19 and
an ERA around 4 in '25. He pitched well for several more years. Carlton
won 13 and lost 20 the year after his 27-10 record. (Source: Bill James
Historical Baseball Abstract.)
And let's not forget John Tudor, who started 1-5 and finished 21-6 in
1985. He had a pretty bad ERA when you take Busch Stadium into account at
the start of the season.
If I recall, he had a 4.50 ERA in the 1st half and a 3.50 ERA in the
2nd half of last year.
Hmmm, 21 runs in 11 innings. Suppose he starts 30 more games, and winds
up w/200 innings pitched. If he allows 4 runs a game in the next 189
innings, he'll have a 4.75 ERA or so at the end of the year. (I think I have
his totals right.) This is going to be hard to come back from.
My 1st hunch is that Morris is very gutsy, and that he may be pitching
through an injury and not telling anyone. My 2nd guess is that he will be
banished to the bullpen the remainder of the season after a few more starts.
(Perhaps when Stewart comes off the DL? Or will Danny Cox, who went 3 or 4
scoreless innings against the Tribe today, start for Morris? He looks like
a really good one. Gaston is scrambling to find starters, I'd imagine.
Luckily, the Jays have a very good offense.)
I don't think they would dare release him before the end of the year.
He'll just be replaced by Stewart or Cox.
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This is true for the mass market, but not for those who need strong crypto
and are willing to pay the price. After all, one can buy strong crypto today
if one is willing to spend enough.
Thus the concern is not economic.
The issue most worth worrying about is that after the system takes hold, the
government will outlaw other systems, and something voluntary will become
the only system available. That is a political, not an economic issue.
As a separate matter, you may be making an implied advocacy for cheap secure
crypto for everyone. It's true that the Clipper chip would probably prevent
that except via Clipper, but "cheap, secure crypto for everyone" is a
political discussion, not an economic one, and the whole point of Clipper is
to resolve that political (policy) tension between securing legitimate
communications and tapping the crooks.
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Yeesh, you WILL be nailing those IRLEDs. May I suggest getting your
mitts on the Siemens SFH484-2 IRLED? This unit is designed to take some big
current pulses if you can get your duty cycle down a bit. It will output
nearly a watt (975 mW) with REAL short duty cycle times.
(nice thing about the SFH484-2 is that it is CHEAP. I got mine for about
50 cents a piece, even though I had to buy 100 of them....)
BTW, I have seen IRLEDs with outputs up to 6 watts...honest,
6 WATTS. I don't have the book here at work so I can't recall the company
name. The 6 watter ain't cheap, around $108 but if you want some power,
mamamia, that's pretty hot. They also have a 4 watt, a 2 watt and a
1 watt device in their line, and will sell small quan. to individuals.
If you are interested, I can find the book at home and get the
pertinent info.
Now, as for the position detector, you might try ELTEC in Florida.
Phone number listed in the 92/93 ETID is 904-253-5328. They seem like
nice people. Their specialty is passive infrared detection devices,
so they might be able to help you out.
I'm curious about your applications if you don't mind saying.
The device sounds like it could be useful in a lasertag game, although you'd
need to up your carrier signal concept to 58.8 KHz......
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Interesting is rigth.. I wonder if they will make a mention of her being an
astronaut in the credits.. I think it might help people connect the future of
space with the present.. And give them an idea that we must go into space..
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Lets see what the dictionary has to say:
objective adj. 1. As having to do with a material object as distinguished
from a mental concept. 2. Having actual existance. 3.a. Uninfluenced
by emotion or personal prejudice. b. Based on observable phenomenon.
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In Texas (Well, Corpus Christi anyway) if you pick up the phone and dial
890 the phone company will read back the number to you.
Try it. It might work.
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Well, looking at the videos it seems that this fire started in various
places at the same time, which would indicate that this was a planned
action. I'm sure FBI and BATF didn't *deliberately* start a possible
fire, having a sniper kill Korresh would have been a far easier
method. Looking at the careful operation, and use of tear gas
that as I know don't start fires, it is less likely that this
was the case.
Sorry, but my bets are on fanatical people keen to start
Armageddon -- theirs.
Cheers,
Kent
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Nobody ever exposed your crimes like that before? What was your personal
role in the murder of Orhan Gunduz and Kemal Arikan, again? How many more
Muslims will be slaughtered by 'SDPA.ORG' as publicly declared and filed
with legal authorities? Please spell it out for us.
"...that more people have to die..."
SDPA <91@urartu.UUCP>
"Yes, I stated this and stand by it."
SDPA <255@urartu.UUCP>
January 28, 1982 - Los Angeles
Kemal Arikan is slaughtered by two Armenians while driving to work.
March 22, 1982 - Cambridge, Massachusetts
Prelude to grisly murder. A gift and import shop belonging to
Orhan Gunduz is blown up. Gunduz receives an ultimatum: Either
he gives up his honorary position or he will be "executed". He
refuses. "Responsibility" is claimed by JCAG and SDPA.
May 4, 1982 - Cambridge, Massachusetts
Orhan Gunduz, the Turkish honorary consul in Boston, would not bow
to the Armenian terrorist ultimatum that he give up his title of
"honorary consul". Now he is attacked and murdered in cold blood.
President Reagan orders an all-out manhunt-to no avail. An eye-
witness who gave a description of the murderer is shot down. He
survives... but falls silent. One of the most revolting "triumphs" in
the senseless, mindless history of Armenian terrorism. Such a murder
brings absolutely nothing - except an ego boost for the murderer
within the Armenian terrorist underworld, which is already wallowing
in self-satisfaction.
Were you involved in the murder of Sarik Ariyak?
December 17, 1980 - Sydney
Two Nazi Armenians massacre Sarik Ariyak and his bodyguard, Engin
Sever. JCAG and SDPA claim responsibility.
It is public knowledge that the founder of the Marxist-Leninist terrorist
organization, the ASALA (an integral part of ASALA/SDPA/ARF), Hagop
Hagopian, began his notorious career as a member of the terrorist
group which perpetrated the massacre of the Israeli athletes at the
Munich Olympics in 1972. And the 'Armenian Foundation' stole from the
children of Turkiye to fund the criminal activities of the ASALA/SDPA/ARF
terrorists in their cold-blooded murder of defenceless Turkish and
Kurdish people.
THE ARMENIAN FOUNDATION PROVIDED 30 BILLION TL TO ASALA
01/09/92, MILLIYET-- The Armenian Foundation based in
Istanbul is found to have provided 30 billion Turkish Lira ($6
million) to the Armenian terrorist organization ASALA which have
murdered several Turkish diplomats abroad...
Experts on international terrorism assert that the Armenian terrorists
use proceeds from drug trafficking (and from the Armenian Foundation)
to fund their deadly enterprises. The deadliest of terrorist assassins,
Carlos, proclaimed on Spanish television that his organization had
entered into a working relationship with Armenian terrorists and they
are using drug trafficking to raise money 'to continue' to slaughter
innocent people. Now, what is your personal and organizational role
in this scheme?
Recent reports which have been confirmed by the U.S. Administration,
indicate that Armenian terrorist organizations are collaborating with
those who are responsible for the bombing of the United States Marine
barracks in Beirut. You won't be able to get away with your crimes
forever; the justice is long overdue.
As for the Armenian genocide of 2.5 million Muslim people between
1914 and 1920:
Source: Documents: Volume I (1919).
"Document No: 42," Archive No: 1-2, Cabin No: 110, Drawer
No: 1(4), File No: 373, Section No: 1484(1032), Contents No: 9, 9-1.
(To the Office of Acting Supreme Commander - Acting Assistant
Section Director Major Ali Sukru)
"It is sufficient to mention just some of the terrible and shameful crimes
committed only in Erzurum to get an idea about the Armenian atrocities
in the villages...
I would also like to mention with disgust and abominable sight, a stain
on humanity, that I encountered at the west of Hasankale while my regiment
was proceeding into this town. There was a young Turkish women, apparently
once a very beautiful one, lying dead on one side of the road. A huge
stick had been inserted into her vagina. We took the corpses and left it
at a spot that was invisible from the road..."
Serdar Argic
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DeSoto's first year of manufacture was 1928, so this may indeed have been
an export special, as left hand controls were standard here by then.
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imho, you did the wrong thing. You could have been shot
or he could have run over your bike or just beat the shit
out of you. Consider that the person is foolish enough
to drive like a fool and may very well _act_ like one, too.
Just get the heck away from the idiot.
IF the driver does something clearly illegal, you _can_
file a citizens arrest and drag that person into court.
It's a hassle for you but a major hassle for the perp.
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2-gigabyte Fujitsu 5.25" disk drive
internal drive, model M26525A
(uses either a SCSI or EDI interface on your disk controller card)
brand new, still in box, never used
only $1800 (compare to $2400 in cheapest mail-order catalogs)
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|
/ hpcc01:rec.motorcycles / Stafford@Vax2.Winona.MSUS.Edu (John Stafford) / 11:06 am Apr 1, 1993 /
It depreciates much faster, too.
====================================================
John Stafford Minnesota State University @ Winona
All standard disclaimers apply.
----------
The '84 GL1200A hit the traps at 13.34 according to Cycle magazine. Yeah,
they depreciate faster than Harleys for the first couple of years then
they bottom out. Got my '86 GL1200I w/ 2275 miles on the odometer for
just under $5K in May of 1990 and would ask for $4500 now with almost
16K miles onnit....that's about 50% of what a new GL1500I would cost.
Think the '86 GL1200I originally sold for $6500 brand new, not sure.
If that's the case then it depreciated 30.77% over 7 years or a mere
$2000. Big Fat Hairy Deal! Based on what I know, Harleys tend to
depreciate your monies far more than the initial depreciation of
the bike itself when it comes to parts and service. All this about
Harleys holding their value better doesn't always wash away the
knocks on them...such as being much slower. ;-)
According to Peter Egan in the just released Cycle World his FLHS is a
real dog when he pillions his 120lb wife. All that money for a dog that
doesn't defecate much. =:-]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Graeme Harrison, Hewlett-Packard Co., Communications Components Division,
350 W Trimble Rd, San Jose, CA 95131 (gharriso@hpcc01.corp.hp.com) DoD#649
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If you can get it, you might want to try a Canadian over-the-counter product
called Secaris, which is a water-soluble gel. Compared to Vaseline or other
greasy ointments, Secaris seems more compatible with the moisture that's
already there.
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Is erythromycin effective in treating pneumonia?
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[Most info regarding dangers of reading from Floppy disks omitted]
In all fairness, how many people do you know personally who read images
from Floppy drives? I haven't tried it with JPEGs, but I do realize how
agonizingly slow it is with GIF files.
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|
Doesn't Motorola AMCU have something on the BBS yet? (512-891-3733)
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|
Newsgroups: sci.med
Path: news.larc.nasa.gov!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!sdd.hp.com!elroy.jpl.nasa.gov!swrinde!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!howland.reston.ans.net!europa.eng.gtefsd.com!emory!athena!aisun3.ai.uga.edu!mcovingt
From: mcovingt@aisun3.ai.uga.edu (Michael Covington)
Sender: usenet@athena.cs.uga.edu
Nntp-Posting-Host: aisun3.ai.uga.edu
Organization: AI Programs, University of Georgia, Athens
References: <PAULSON.93Apr19081647@cmb00.larc.nasa.gov> <116305@bu.edu> <C5uq9B.LrJ@toads.pgh.pa.us>
Date: Fri, 23 Apr 1993 03:41:24 GMT
Lines: 27
>>
>>Many of these cereals are corn-based. After your post I looked in the
>>literature and located two articles that implicated corn (contains
>>tryptophan) and seizures. The idea is that corn in the diet might
>>potentiate an already existing or latent seizure disorder, not cause it.
>>Check to see if the two Kellog cereals are corn based. I'd be interested.
>
>Years ago when I was an intern, an obese young woman was brought into
>the ER comatose after having been reported to have grand mal seizures
>why attending a "corn festival". We pumped her stomach and obtained
>what seemed like a couple of liters of corn, much of it intact kernals.
>After a few hours she woke up and was fine. I was tempted to sign her out as
>"acute corn intoxication."
>----------------------------------------------------------------------------
>Gordon Banks N3JXP | "Skepticism is the chastity of the intellect, and
How about contaminants on the corn, e.g. aflatoxin???
--
:- Michael A. Covington, Associate Research Scientist : *****
:- Artificial Intelligence Programs mcovingt@ai.uga.edu : *********
:- The University of Georgia phone 706 542-0358 : * * *
:- Athens, Georgia 30602-7415 U.S.A. amateur radio N4TMI : ** *** ** <><
What is aflatoxin?
Sharon
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|
How do you take off the driver side door panel from the inside
on an '87 Honda Prelude? The speaker went scratchy, and I want
to access its pins.
I see only one press button and the rest is snug fit.
| 4
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8,452
|
Hello world,
I want to write my Xt-application code like this:
{
do_some_work();
/* now I need some user input */
XmCreateDialog();
wait_for_user_input(input);
if (input == "OK") {
more_work();
} else {
other_work();
}
}
So "more_work() and other_work()" are not in callback functions but the
application simply waits for the user to answer the question.
How can I code this in my Xt/Motif-application?
Thanks very much in advance.
Greetings, Huub.
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|
james, i really hate to do this, but try reading the damn posts!
never was a t'bird mentioned. The discussion was about SHO's and
'stangs not being up to spec. I do not know about t'birds. I
only know that the specs quoted for the SHO by previous poster sounded
a little anemic for me to say that it was up to snuff. This does not
in any way disencourage* me from wishing to own one, nor does it make it
a bad car. It merely means that i think Ford could have added that extra
bit of safety and tossed in larger brakes, as the wheels are plenty large
enough for them to fit (if memory serves right, which it may very well not)
and the motor plenty powerful enough to need it.
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|
Yes! what you are saying is absolutey true, but what you fail to mention is the
fact that the LCIII uses the new 72 pin simms which allow 32 bit access to
each simm. In the case of the LC III, it only has one simm slot, but accesses will
be 32 bits wides.
***************************************************************************
The views expressed in this posting those of the individual author only.
[BBS Number:(613) 848-1346 MacContent is VictoriaÕs first Iconic BBS!]
***************************************************************************
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|
Is it a hidden option? I'm using PowerStrip 2.0 (by Mr. Caputo) right now
and can't find any quick discharge option. It definitely is on
mac.archive.umich.edu 'cause I submitted it!
| 14
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|
I saw in the newspaper last night that Dr. Mae Jemison, the first
black woman in space (she's a physician and chemical engineer who flew
on Endeavour last year) will appear as a transporter operator on the
"Star Trek: The Next Generation" episode that airs the week of May 31.
It's hardly space science, I know, but it's interesting.
| 10
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|
Has anyone successfully converted Interleaf graphics to CGM, or even heard
of it being done????
We'd love to hear about it.
-Mike McConnell
| 1
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7,271
|
do not pay $40 for floppy drives.. they are about $40 new.
also, you do not need documentation for floppies. installation
for these things are idiot proof.
just some advice..
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|
This makes 5! It IS SPRING!
Neither were we. Read for a few days, then try again.
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|
We used to buy Beckman 110 and HD110 ("ruggedized") versions for use
by electricians in the steel mill where I work. After a while we
got round to filling all the current-input jacks with silicone -
electricians have a regrettable habit of not checking where the last
guy left the leads before using a 3 1/2 digit 0.5 % autoranging $400
meter to check if a fuse is good or not. Its very hard on meters
(and electricians) when you put the milliamp shunt across a 600 volt
bus.
But that's not why we stopped buying Beckmans - after a while a
lot of them got "funny" in the LCD display. A black stain would
spread from one edge, or else they'd come adrift from those
Zebra connectors and fail to operate. Now we buy Flukes, the
low-end 20 series mostly ( and we still fill the amp jack with
silicone).
What the world needs is a meter that won't let you change ranges or
turn it on/off with a lead stuck in the amps jack - a little bit of
clever plastic detailing would take care of this and make the world
safer for electricans, anyway.
Not that I've ever put a meter on the wrong range into a live
circuit, no, not me...not more than a dozen times, anyway....
Bill
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: >>
: >I'm not going to argue the issue of carrying weapons, but I would ask you if
: >you would have thought seriously about shooting a kid for setting off your
: >alarm? I can think of worse things in the world. Glad you got out of there
: >before they did anything to give you a reason to fire your gun.
:
I think people have a right to kill to defend their property. Why not? Be
honest: do you really care more about scum than about your car?
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|
Archive-name: cryptography-faq/part04
Last-modified: 1993/4/15
FAQ for sci.crypt, part 4: Mathematical Cryptology
This is the fourth of ten parts of the sci.crypt FAQ. The parts are
mostly independent, but you should read the first part before the rest.
We don't have the time to send out missing parts by mail, so don't ask.
Notes such as ``[KAH67]'' refer to the reference list in the last part.
The sections of this FAQ are available via anonymous FTP to rtfm.mit.edu
as /pub/usenet/news.answers/cryptography-faq/part[xx]. The Cryptography
FAQ is posted to the newsgroups sci.crypt, sci.answers, and news.answers
every 21 days.
Contents:
* In mathematical terms, what is a private-key cryptosystem?
* What is an attack?
* What's the advantage of formulating all this mathematically?
* Why is the one-time pad secure?
* What's a ciphertext-only attack?
* What's a known-plaintext attack?
* What's a chosen-plaintext attack?
* In mathematical terms, what can you say about brute-force attacks?
* What's a key-guessing attack? What's entropy?
* In mathematical terms, what is a private-key cryptosystem?
A private-key cryptosystem consists of an encryption system E and a
decryption system D. The encryption system E is a collection of
functions E_K, indexed by ``keys'' K, mapping some set of
``plaintexts'' P to some set of ``ciphertexts'' C. Similarly the
decryption system D is a collection of functions D_K such that
D_K(E_K(P)) = P for every plaintext P. That is, succesful decryption
of ciphertext into plaintext is accomplished using the same key
(index) as was used for the corresponding encryption of plaintext
into ciphertext. Such systems, wherein the same key value is used to
encrypt and decrypt, are also known as ``symmetric'' cryptoystems.
* What is an attack?
In intuitive terms a (passive) attack on a cryptosystem is any method
of starting with some information about plaintexts and their
corresponding ciphertexts under some (unknown) key, and figuring out
more information about the plaintexts. It's possible to state
mathematically what this means. Here we go.
Fix functions F, G, and H of n variables. Fix an encryption system E,
and fix a distribution of plaintexts and keys.
An attack on E using G assuming F giving H with probability p is an
algorithm A with a pair f, g of inputs and one output h, such that
there is probability p of computing h = H(P_1,...,P_n), if we have
f = F(P_1,...,P_n) and g = G(E_K(P_1),...,E_K(P_n)). Note that this
probability depends on the distribution of the vector (K,P_1,...,P_n).
The attack is trivial (or ``pointless'') if there is probability at
least p of computing h = H(P_1,...,P_n) if f = F(P_1,...,P_n) and
g = G(C_1,...,C_n). Here C_1,...,C_n range uniformly over the possible
ciphertexts, and have no particular relation to P_1,...,P_n. In other
words, an attack is trivial if it doesn't actually use the encryptions
E_K(P_1),...,E_K(P_n).
An attack is called ``one-ciphertext'' if n = 1, ``two-ciphertext'' if
n = 2, and so on.
* What's the advantage of formulating all this mathematically?
In basic cryptology you can never prove that a cryptosystem is secure.
Read part 3: we keep saying ``a strong cryptosystem must have this
property, but having this property is no guarantee that a cryptosystem
is strong!''
In contrast, the purpose of mathematical cryptology is to precisely
formulate and, if possible, prove the statement that a cryptosystem is
strong. We say, for example, that a cryptosystem is secure against
all (passive) attacks if any nontrivial attack against the system (as
defined above) is too slow to be practical. If we can prove this
statement then we have confidence that our cryptosystem will resist
any (passive) cryptanalytic technique. If we can reduce this statement
to some well-known unsolved problem then we still have confidence that
the cryptosystem isn't easy to break.
Other parts of cryptology are also amenable to mathematical
definition. Again the point is to explicitly identify what assumptions
we're making and prove that they produce the desired results. We can
figure out what it means for a particular cryptosystem to be used
properly: it just means that the assumptions are valid.
The same methodology is useful for cryptanalysis too. The cryptanalyst
can take advantage of incorrect assumptions. Often he can try to
construct a proof of security for a system, see where the proof fails,
and use these failures as the starting points for his analysis.
* Why is the one-time pad secure?
By definition, the one-time pad is a cryptosystem where the
plaintexts, ciphertexts, and keys are all strings (say byte strings)
of some length m, and E_K(P) is just the sum (let's say the exclusive
or) of K and P.
It is easy to prove mathematically that there are _no_ nontrivial
single-ciphertext attacks on the one-time pad, assuming a uniform
distribution of keys. Note that we don't have to assume a uniform
distribution of plaintexts. (Here's the proof: Let A be an attack,
i.e., an algorithm taking two inputs f, g and producing one output h,
with some probability p that h = H(P) whenever f = F(P) and
g = G(E_K(P)) (i.e., g = G(K + P)). Then, because the distribution of
K is uniform and independent of P, the distribution of K + P must also
be uniform and independent of P. But also the distribution of C is
uniform and independent of P. Hence there is probability exactly p
that h = H(P) whenever f = F(P) and g = G(C), over all P and C. Thus
a fortiori A is trivial.)
On the other hand the one-time pad is _not_ secure if a key K is used
for more than one plaintext: i.e., there are nontrivial
multiple-ciphertext attacks. So to be properly used a key K must be
thrown away after one encryption. The key is also called a ``pad'';
this explains the name ``one-time pad.''
* What's a ciphertext-only attack?
In the notation above, a ciphertext-only attack is one where F is
constant. Given only some information G(E_K(P_1),...,E_K(P_n)) about
n ciphertexts, the attack has to have some chance of producing some
information H(P_1,...,P_n) about the plaintexts. The attack is trivial
if it has just as good a chance of producing H(P_1,...,P_n) when given
G(C_1,...,C_n) for random C_1,...,C_n.
For example, say G(C) = C, and say H(P) is the first bit of P. We can
easily write down an attack---the ``guessing attack,'' which simply
guesses that H(P) is 1. This attack is trivial because it doesn't use
the ciphertext: it has a fifty-fifty chance of guessing correctly no
matter what. On the other hand there is an attack on RSA which
produces one bit of information about P, with 100% success, using C.
If it is fed a random C then the success rate drops to 50%. So this is
a nontrivial attack.
* What's a known-plaintext attack?
The classic known-plaintext attack has F(P_1,P_2) = P_1,
G(C_1,C_2) = (C_1,C_2), and H(P_1,P_2) depending only on P_2.
In other words, given two ciphertexts C_1 and C_2 and one decryption
P_1, the known-plaintext attack should produce information about the
other decryption P_2.
Note that known-plaintext attacks are often defined in the literature
as producing information about the key, but this is pointless: the
cryptanalyst generally cares about the key only insofar as it lets him
decrypt further messages.
* What's a chosen-plaintext attack?
A chosen-plaintext attack is the first of an increasingly impractical
series of _active_ attacks on a cryptosystem: attacks where the
cryptanalyst feeds data to the encryptor. These attacks don't fit into
our model of passive attacks explained above. Anyway, a
chosen-plaintext attack lets the cryptanalyst choose a plaintext and
look at the corresponding ciphertext, then repeat until he has figured
out how to decrypt any message. More absurd examples of this sort of
attack are the ``chosen-key attack'' and ``chosen-system attack.''
A much more important form of active attack is a message corruption
attack, where the attacker tries to change the ciphertext in such a
way as to make a useful change in the plaintext.
There are many easy ways to throw kinks into all of these attacks:
for instance, automatically encrypting any plaintext P as
T,E_K(h(T+R+P),R,P), where T is a time-key (sequence number) chosen anew
for each message, R is a random number, and h is a one-way hash
function. Here comma means concatenation and plus means exclusive-or.
* In mathematical terms, what can you say about brute-force attacks?
Consider the following known-plaintext attack. We are given some
plaintexts P_1,...,P_{n-1} and ciphertexts C_1,...,C_{n-1}. We're
also given a ciphertext C_n. We run through every key K. When we find
K such that E_K(P_i) = C_i for every i < n, we print D_K(C_n).
If n is big enough that only one key works, this attack will succeed
on valid inputs all the time, while it will produce correct results
only once in a blue moon for random inputs. Thus this is a nontrivial
attack. Its only problem is that it is very slow if there are many
possible keys.
* What's a key-guessing attack? What's entropy?
Say somebody is using the one-time pad---but isn't choosing keys
randomly and uniformly from all m-bit messages, as he was supposed to
for our security proof. In fact say he's known to prefer keys which
are English words. Then a cryptanalyst can run through all English
words as possible keys. This attack will often succeed, and it's much
faster than a brute-force search of the entire keyspace.
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Some one asked me recently why they when they used XQueryBestCursor to see
if they could create of a given size it seemed to imply they could, but the
server did not create cursors of that size. Investigation showed that some X
servers will happily return any size up to the size of the root window, while
others return some fixed limit of more reasonable size. The interesting thing
to me is that the same server binary acts differently on different hardware -
a Sun4 with a cg2 will claim cursors up to root window size are OK, while a
Sun4 with a cg6 will stop at 32x32. So far I've also seen this behavior on
NCD and Phase-X X terminals and have been told it also occurs on HPs.
Actually, the NCD is even more liberal - sizes much larger then the root
winodw are gladly returned as OK. Is XQueryBestCursor semi-broken or is this
behavior correct? I'd really like to see a 2000x2000 cursor!
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1,738
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Well it rolled out two weeks ago. As we speak it is at White Sands getting
ready. I would have called my sources for the latest but they are all out
of town (in NM).
As for the future, there is at least $5M in next years budget for work
on SSRT. They (SDIO) have been looking for more funds and do seem to have
some. However, SDIO is not (I repeat, is not) going to fund an orbital
prototype. The best we can hope from them is to 1) keep it alive for
another year, and 2) fund a suborbital vehicle which MIGHT (with
major modifications) just make orbit. There is also some money for a
set of prototype tanks and projects to answer a few more open questions.
Better news comes from the new Spacelifter effort. The USAF managers of
this program are very open to SSTO and will have about $50M next
year for studies. This would be enough to bring DC-Y to PDR.
Now not all of this money will go to DC but a good case could be made
for spending half on DC.
Public support is STILL critical. Meet with your Congressperson (I'll
help you do it) and get his/her support. Also call your local media
ans get them to cover the flight tests.
Allen
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In my last post I referred to Michael Adams as "Nick." Completely my
error; Nick Adams was a film and TV actor from the '50's and early '60's
(remember Johnny Yuma, The Rebel?). He was from my part of the country,
and Michael's email address of "nmsca[...]" probably helped confuse things
in my mind. Purely user headspace error on my part. Sorry.
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7,023
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You're kidding, right? This is Flame bait in the extreme. V-max handling?
Har har har har....
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5,641
|
Ahhh go back to alt.autotheism where you belong!
| 8
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6,976
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Is there aything available for X similar to QuicKeys for the Macintosh --
something that will allow me to store and playback sequences of keystrokes,
menu selections, and mouse actions - directing them towards another
application?
If so, could someone send me information on its availability -- and if not,
how hard do we think it might be to send input to other X applications and,
hopefully, deal with their responses appropriately? (If an application is
going to take a few seconds to process I probably have to wait for it to
complete before sending another command.)
thanks,
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8,703
|
I have 1 4Mx9 70ns 36pin SIMM for Sale. It is in perfect condition. It
will not work in my system because it requires 72 pin SIMMS.
I would like to get what I paid for it. $115 + 3 for insured shipping.
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5,136
|
On the other hand, it would be kind of scary if there were *never* a final
verdict, because a party to litigation could keep saying "Oops! I forgot
to bring up this evidence," and demand a new trial. You get one bite at
the apple.
It's up to General Motors to find those witnesses in the first litigation.
You'd be up in arms if a plaintiff suing General Motors pulled the same
stunt and made them relitigate an issue that they already lost. It's not
as if General Motors couldn't file enough discovery motions to delay the
trial until they found all the witnesses they wanted.
Define "obvious bias."
Did GM move for a new trial on those grounds? No? Perhaps they had a
reason?
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8,291
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day.
Personality means something to me. That is exactly why I like Clement
(and Emrick). On the other hand, JD is a pompous, bull-headed, arrogant
know-it-all. He's a real turn-off (which is exactly what I do when he's
on). One complaint I do have about Clement is that he sometimes talks
too much. If I wanted that I'd listen to Tim McGarver doing a baseball
game.
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968
|
You're right: Thomas, Gonzalez, Sheffield, and Griffey don't even begin
to compare with Ripken, Boggs, and Gwynn, so no wonder Alomar gets so
much attention.
Sandberg got no attention his rookie year because his rookie year was
terrible. So was his sophomore year.
National League pitchers are "much better pitchers"? That certainly explains
Sheffield's 1993, hm? Are you confusing "have ERA's that are 0.40 lower
because they don't face DH's" with "much better"?
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929
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6,858
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You macinators who have used these voice messaging/FAX/data-modems. I
have a question. First what brand names do you recommend(I am mostly
interested in the voice messaging and FAX part). Is the voice part as
reliable and understandable as the sellers claim? Approximately, how
much hard drive space does an average day of callers take up, if they
speak for one minute?
Any feed back would be appreciated. My company is looking at buying
one or two. Hey, I may buy one myself too.
Thanks in advance
Don
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11,242
|
Was the ABC coverage of the Kings/Flames game supposed to be the
way it was shown in BC with CBC overriding the ABC coverage? When I flipped
to ABC, it was the same commentators, same commercials even. My question
is: Was this the real ABC coverage or did CBC just "black out" the
ABC coverage for its own?
comment:
CBC had a great chance for some double headers: Toronto/Detroit
and Vancouver/Winnipeg, but today they said that the East gets the Leafs
and the West get the Vancouver game. I thought that they would show them
both.
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8,771
|
Re: Waving...
I must say, that the courtesy of a nod or a wave as I meet other bikers while
riding does a lot of good things to my mood... While riding is a lot of fun by
itself, there's something really special about having someone say to you "Hey,
it's a great day for a ride... Isn't it wonderful that we can spend some time
on the road on days like this..." with a gesture.
Was sunny today for the first time in a week, took my bike out for a spin down
to the local salvage yard/bike shop... ran into about 20 other people who were
down there for similar reasons (there's this GREAT stretch of road on the way
down there... no side streets, lotsa leaning bends... ;) ... Went on an
impromptu coffee and bullshit run down to puyallup with a batch of people who
I didn't know, but who were my kinda people nonetheless.
As a fellow commented to me while I was admiring his bike... "Hey, it's not
what you ride, it's that you ride... As long as it has 2 wheels and an engine
it's the same thing..."
--
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If you could not tell which one had MSG, why restaurants bother to
use it at all?
If you can taste the difference, psychological reaction might play a role.
The fact is, MSG is part of natural substance. Everyone, I mean EVERYONE,
consumes certain amount of MSG every day through regular diet without
the synthesized MSG additive.
Chinese, and many other Asians (Japanese, Koreans, etc) have used
MSG as flavor enhancer for two thousand years. Do you believe that
they knew how to make MSG from chemical processes? Not. They just
extracted it from natural food such sea food and meat broth.
Baring MSG is just like baring sugar which many people react to.
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7,890
|
Hi there
Does anyone know how to get hold of data as well as stock of the
LCD displays used in the NINTENDO GAMEBOY handheld TV game machines?
Any information wouold be MOST appreciated.
Please e-mail any replies to
arawstorne@eleceng.uct.ac.za
thanks
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9,137
|
What about the common joystick found in all computer shops?
| 11
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5,435
|
I need to buy a SCSI controler for my 486 machine to use with a quantum
425F harddrive. I know that adaptec is good, but they are kind of
expensive. Essentially I want a controller in the $100-$150 range that I
can use with this drive. I plan to use Windows and later on OS 2.1 when it
comes out. Any reccomendations appreciated.
-Eric
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1,018
|
Eric, send me email with your address, I lost it! I've reconsidered!
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8,266
|
Definitely!
Safety is an important criterium for me when buying a car. I won't buy a
small car like a Civic or whatever.
Great = Safety + Handling + Speed - for me
Seems to me that you would be more "dead" in a small car than a large car
after an accident.
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2,278
|
I have lived in the Boston area for 15 years now. They have been talking
about a new Boston Garden (hockey/basketball) since I've lived here. One
day the "last hurdle" has been overcome, and the next day there's a new
hurdle. Fans have been grumbling about Foxboro Stadium (or whatever it's
called this year) for nearly as long, but there are only preliminary
proposals for a new stadium. Local politics prevents anything from being
done in a timely fashion. There will not be a new ballpark in my
lifetime.
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2,975
|
I am a good Catholic boy. A convert no less, attracted by the
rational tradition [Aquinas et al] and the emotional authenticity
[in comp. with the faddishness of Anglicanism] to Roman Catholicism. I
never had much time for the pope - or any other heirarchs - but I did, and
do, believe in the sacremental system. I always felt quite happy to
look down my nose at those such as John Emery [a few posts back] who
had to engage in circuitous textual arguments to prove their faith, entirely
oblivious to the fact that a dozen other faiths can do the same [with
miracles too], and that since their arguments depend on the belief in the
Bible as God's sole revelation, it was not very good logic to argue
that the Bible proved God. No, I was happy to accept the CHURCH as God's
revelation. It was the Church after all that existed before the Bible, the
Church that choose [under grace of course] the canon of scripture. Protestant
ludicrosity, I thought, was shown by Protestants breathtaking acceptance
of Luther's right to reject a dozen or so books he disliked.
But recently I read Peter Brown's _Body and Society_. It is very
well researched, and well written. But is raises some very upsetting
questions. The early Christians were weird - even more so than today's
carzy fundies. They had odd views on sex, odder views on the body,
totally ludicrous views about demons, and distinctly uncharitable
views about other human beings.
now the question is this: were the first Christians just as
weird, but we've got used to them, or did the pristine "Fall of the
Church" happen within one generation. It certainly did'nt have to
wait until the Triumph of the Church under Constantine. If so,
wha does this say about God's promise to always support the Church.
It's no use throwing the usual Protestant pieties about the Church
not being an organization at me. It's a community or it is nothing,
and it was the early communities that were weird. The institional
church was a model of sanity by comparison.
I would be interested in serious Catholic and Orthodox responses to
this entirely serious issue. I'm not sure it is an issue for Protestants
with their "soul alone with Jesus" approach, but for we who see the
"ecclesia" as a "koinoia" over time and space, the weird early
Christians are a problem.
[This is an exaggeration of the Protestant view. Many Protestants
have a strong appreciation for the role of the Church. "The soul
alone with God" is certainly important for Protestants, but it's by no
means the whole story.
I have read the sort of history you talk about. As you point out,
Protestants don't have quite the same problem you do, because we
believe that the church had a Fall at some point. However Protestant
mythology typically places the Fall around the time of Constantine (or
more likely, regard it as happening in a sort of cumulative fashion,
starting from Constantine but getting worse as the Pope accumulated
power during the medieval period.) The consequences of having it
earlier are somewhat worrisome even to us. Most Protestants accept
the theological results of the early ecumenical councils, including
such items as the Trinity and Incarnation. Indeed in the works of
Reformers such as Luther and Calvin, you'll find Church Fathers such
as Augustine quoted all the time. I think you'll find many
Protestants resistant to the idea that the Early Church as a whole was
"wierd". (There is an additional problem for Protestants that I don't
much want to talk about in this context, since it's been looked at
recently -- that's the question of whether one can really think of
Augustine and other Fathers as being proto-Protestants. Their views
on Mary, the authority of the Pope, etc, are not entirely congenial to
Protestant thought.)
One thing that somewhat worries me is a question of methodology.
There are certainly plenty of wierd people in the early church. What
concerns me is that they may be overrepresented in what we see. We
see every Christian who courted martyrdom. But I think there's good
reason to believe that most ordinary Christians were more prudent than
that. We see the heroic virgins. But I think there's good reason to
think that many Christians were happily married. I can't help
suspecting that the early church had the same range of wierdos and
sane people that we do now. I think there's also a certain level of
"revisionism" active in history at the moment. I don't mean that
they're manufacturing things out of whole cloth. But don't you think
there might be a tendency to emphasize the novel?
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|
I tried to install a foreign language Windows application
that required a file named WINNLS.DLL. I checked all of my
WIndows 3.1 installation disks for this file, but could not
find it. Does anybody have any idea what this file is for and
where one could get it from?
| 18
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|
I've just read Richard Langley's latest "Navstar GPS Constellation Status".
It states that the latest satellite was placed in Orbit Plane Position C-3.
There is already one satellite in that position. I know that it's almost
ten years since that satellite was launched but it's still in operation so
why not use it until it goes off?
Why not instead place the new satellite at B-4 since that position is empty
and by this measure have an almost complete GPS-constellation
(23 out of 24)?
/Thomas
================================================================================
Ericsson Telecom, Stockholm, Sweden
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|
Phil> Didn't one of the early jet fighters have these? I also think
Phil> the germans did some work on these in WWII.
The NACA came up with them before World War II. NASA is directly
descended from the NACA, with space added in.
You'll notice that I didn't mention sweep wings even though the
X-5, tested at what's now Dryden, had them. We did steal that one
dirctly from the Germans. The difference is that swept wings don't
change their angle of sweep, sweep wings do. Perhaps the similarity
of names has caused some confusion? 747s have swept wings, F-111s
have sweep wings.
Phil> A lot of this was also done by the military...
After NASA aerodynamicists proposed them and NASA test teams
demonstrated them. Richard Whitcomb and R.T. Jones, at Langley
Research Center, were giants in the field.
Dryden was involved in the flight testing of winglets and area
ruling (in the 70s and 50s, respectively). It's true that we
used military aircraft as the testbeds (KC-135 and YF-102) but
that had more to do with availability and need than with military
involvement. The YF-102 was completely ours and the KC-135 was
bailed to us. The Air Force, of course, was interested in our
results and supportive of our efforts.
Dryden flew the first digital fly by wire aircraft in the 70s. No
mechnaical or analog backup, to show you how confident we were.
General Dynamics decided to make the F-16 flyby-wire when they saw how
successful we were. (Mind you, the Avro Arrow and the X-15 were both
fly-by-wire aircraft much earlier, but analog.)
Phil> Egad! I'm disagreeing with Mary Shafer!
The NASA habit of acquiring second-hand military aircraft and using
them for testbeds can make things kind of confusing. On the other
hand, all those second-hand Navy planes give our test pilots a chance
to fold the wings--something most pilots at Edwards Air Force Base
can't do.
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5,471
|
While I didn't try the expansion personally, I know of at least two
other people who did and got the same results. Your allegation is
incorrect at best.
| 7
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6,730
|
day
Brent shows his ignorance once again. Power had been cut for weeks. And he's
never lived in a rural area if he thinks electric stoves have favor there.
They stop working when the power fails, and power restoration come MUCH slower
in the country, than the city. LP gas stoves and ovens are very much prefered.
Jim
--
jmd@handheld.com
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|
Hi Folks,
Does anyone have a copy of Playmation they'd be willing to sell me. I'd
love to try it out, but not for the retail $$$. If you have moved onto
something bigger (3DS) or better (Imagine), I'd love to buy your table scraps.
If noone is selling, can anyone recommend a place to buy Playmation
mail-order for cheap?
Thanks in advance,
Mark
--
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8,119
|
I would like to thank all those people who responded to my post. I
would, however, like to clear some things up. My tape drive is *external*.
Also, the connector on the back of it is of the male DB-37 pin variety.
As a result, I cannot easily find a cost-effective solution to use the drive.
Any advice will be greatly appreciated. I would prefer email.
Thanks!
| 3
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|
Hi folks
Thanks to the ones that replied, however, my problem turned out
to be very simple.
In my .Xresources I had a space after XTerm*font: 10x20.
Removing this and xrdb fixed my problem.
Also, same symptom, was that some of my users did not have the
proper capitals for XTerm*font.
Thanks again
| 16
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