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flying schools are commercial businesses engaged in the training of pilots both for recreational purposes and for those intending to fly professionally they make widespread use of fixed @@ wing light aircraft associated with traditional ga not only for flying lessons but also as club aircraft rented out to qualified pi... |
private flying can be for both recreational purposes and personal transport using aircraft that are owned individually collectively as part of a syndicate or rented from a flying club a survey of pilots conducted between 2001 and 2002 indicated that the most common purposes of recreational flights were local flights ne... |
private flying is most associated with the traditional form of factory @@ produced two and four @@ seater single piston @@ engine training and touring aircraft examples of these are the cessna 152 cessna 172 and piper cherokee all with their origins in the 1950s and the more modern designs of cirrus the average cost p... |
there is a strong vintage aircraft movement in the uk with two @@ thirds of the 500 registered historic aircraft active these cover the whole spectrum of civil and military aviation examples being the de havilland dragon rapide airliner of the 1930s and the world war ii ( wwii ) spitfire fighter there are many post @@ ... |
competitive gliding in the uk takes place between may and september regionals are local competitions organised and run by one of the bigger gliding clubs in the region and represent the entry level to glider racing races are handicapped according to glider performance and normally take place over nine days success in t... |
handicapped air racing is open to any propeller @@ driven aircraft capable of maintaining a minimum speed of 100 miles ( 160 km ) per hour in level flight races are a case of fly low fly fast turn left consisting of 4 5 laps round a 20 25 mile ( 32 40 km ) circuit faster aircraft are handicapped by starting after slow... |
aerobatic competitions take place for both powered aircraft and gliders with up to 30 events each year in the uk and ireland starting at the beginner level pilots can move up to standard ( powered aircraft ) or sports ( glider ) levels and then on to intermediate advanced and finally unlimited classes each step up requ... |
parachute competitions are held at club regional national and international levels and include the disciplines of accuracy landings freefall gymnastics formation skydiving canopy formation freestyle and and skysurfing british teams consistently win medals in canopy formation world championships and a british team took... |
aerodrome is a collective term for any location from which flying operations take place although more specific terminology can be used to characterise its purpose the caa strategic review of ga applies the term airport to locations which predominantly support large scale commercial operations and airfield to locations ... |
the factors used in determining how an individual aerodrome is categorised by the gasar study are based broadly on size and facilities the six types of aerodrome are described in size order as regional airports ( eg east midlands ) major ga airports ( eg oxford ) developed ga airfields ( eg ) basic ga airfields ( eg ... |
airports generally have long fully lit hard @@ surfaced runways full air traffic control and navigation and landing aids they are usually located on urban fringes support commercial and business operations and often exclude certain types of light aircraft at the more located airfields the lighter end of aviation such ... |
most aerodromes used for public transport operations are required to be licensed by the caa to be granted a licence an aerodrome operator must satisfy the caa that the physical conditions at the aerodrome and its environs are acceptable the scale of equipment and facilities provided are adequate for the flying activiti... |
there are an estimated 27 @@ 000 civil aircraft registered in the uk 96 per cent of which are engaged in ga activities in 2005 the ga fleet comprised 9 @@ 000 fixed @@ wing aircraft 4 @@ 100 microlights 1 @@ 300 helicopters 1 @@ 800 airships / balloons 2 @@ 500 gliders and some 7 @@ 000 hang gliders estimates put the n... |
the number of pilots licensed by the caa to fly powered aircraft in 2005 was 47 @@ 000 of whom 28 @@ 000 held a private pilot licence the remainder held professional pilot licences either a commercial pilot licence or an airline transport pilot licence although not all of these would be engaged in ga activities in addi... |
the number of aerodromes that support ga in the uk is difficult to establish with certainty 2008 united kingdom flight guide lists 355 and the flight equipment uk vfr flight guide 2008 lists nearly 500 farm' strips' and private airfields flight guide lists more than 300 landing sites the gasar study estimates 1 @@ 1... |
the sector was estimated to employ nearly 12 @@ 000 people and directly contribute £ 1 @@ 4 billion to the uk economy in 2005 making it roughly seven per cent of the size of the cat industry nearly half of the economic contribution was generated by business aviation |
most sectors of ga for which data are available have experienced growth in aircraft numbers and hours flown over the last two decades the lighter end of the ga spectrum microlights amateur built and airships and balloons have in particular shown strong growth although the last of these activities was severely curtailed... |
business aviation has shown strong growth although the numbers of aircraft on the uk register have declined this reflects a shift away from turboprop aircraft towards foreign @@ registered business jets based in the uk which are estimated to be growing in numbers however twin piston @@ engined aircraft numbers have dec... |
since 1990 the total number of hours flown annually by the ga sector has remained in the range 1 @@ 25 1 @@ 35 million the dominant sector being traditional ga flying which accounts for 0 @@ 6 million per year an overall increase in aircraft numbers combined with nil growth in hours flown has brought the annual average... |
the objective of regulation is to promote high standards of safety in all aspects of aviation and this is the main area of interaction between the caa and the ga sector efforts focus on assuring appropriate standards of airworthiness pilot qualification the rules for the movement of aircraft and equipment to be carrie... |
within this framework certain sectors of ga are governed on a devolved basis in all cases the caa / easa retains responsibility for safety regulation but representative bodies particularly of sectors that are not included in the scope of easa are granted greater oversight of their activities the majority of microlight ... |
under caa and easa rules all aircraft are required to meet certain standards of airworthiness to fly safely and legally aircraft that meet these standards are issued with a certificate of airworthiness however british @@ registered aircraft which are excluded from the scope of easa and which cannot satisfy the requirem... |
the pilot qualification most relevant to ga is the private pilot licence ( ppl ) which permits the holder to fly for recreational purposes without remuneration in addition to the european @@ wide joint aviation regulations flight crew licensing ( jar @@ ) standard the caa also issues uk @@ specific national licences i... |
between 1995 and 2004 there were 2 @@ 630 accidents involving ga aircraft of which 139 were fatal resulting in the loss of 317 lives the majority of accidents involved small fixed @@ wing aircraft engaged in private flights and analysis attributes the most common causes of these to flight handling skills poor judgement... |
there were 27 fatal accidents involving ga aircraft in 2007 resulting in the loss of 48 lives these compare with 16 accidents claiming a total of 19 lives the previous year and although the 2007 statistics are higher than average they are not exceptional |
the growth in commercial air transport ( cat ) has eroded the operational freedom of ga both in the air and on the ground at larger airports difficulty with access to larger airports is compounded by a decline in the number of aerodromes generally and existing sites are often threatened with closure and re @@ developme... |
airspace is shared by cat military and ga users it is divided into controlled airspace in which aircraft must always be under the control of an air traffic controller and uncontrolled airspace in which aircraft can operate autonomously although ga flights can under certain conditions enter controlled airspace they oper... |
controlled airspace is essential for the provision of a known air traffic environment necessary for the safe operation of cat a caa review found that mixing [ commercial ] operations with other users is considered undesirable even untenable by commercial operators however this position has resulted in extensive class a... |
increases in the number of cat operations and in the number of airports they operate from has resulted in a corresponding increase in class a controlled airspace between 1997 and 2006 this area grew in size from 13 per cent of all airspace to 22 per cent nationally and from 24 per cent to 43 per cent in airspace above ... |
regional airports such as edinburgh airport have experienced strong growth in cat operations in recent years these operations are commercially and operationally incompatible with ga and although there is no evidence of deliberate discrimination the effect has been to discourage or exclude it ga aircraft are being subje... |
in addition to this de facto loss of facilities the number of aerodromes in the uk has been in decline over the last 50 years as a result of increasing urbanisation and the closure of airfields built during wwii alternative and more profitable uses for land can also lead to existing aerodromes being threatened with clo... |
the planning system is critical to the viability and operation of ga aerodromes with many cities lacking scheduled air transport services between them and with ga access to commercial airports becoming increasingly difficult and expensive a viable network of aerodromes supporting ga air transport operations is regarded... |
public opinion towards aviation generally is worsening based on increasing environmental concerns relating to emissions and noise and private flying has been criticised by respondents to a government consultation on aircraft noise as a frivolous or selfish activity in terms of environmental complaints and enquiries mad... |
planning guidance on aircraft noise advises that in some circumstances the public perceive general aircraft noise levels as more disturbing than similar levels around major airports this is a result of the tonal characteristics of light aircraft engines and the activities they are engaged in including repetitive circu... |
sms zrínyi ( his majesty's ship zrínyi ) was a radetzky @@ class pre @@ dreadnought battleship ( schlachtschiff ) of the austro @@ hungarian navy ( kuk kriegsmarine ) named for the zrinski a noble croatian family zrínyi and her sisters erzherzog franz ferdinand and radetzky were the last pre @@ dreadnoughts built by th... |
during world war i zrínyi saw action in the adriatic sea she served with the second division of the austro @@ hungarian navy's battleships and shelled senigallia as part of the bombardment of the key seaport of ancona italy during may 1915 however allied control of the strait of otranto meant that the austro @@ hungari... |
with the war going against the austrians by the end of 1918 zrínyi was prepared to be transferred to the new state of slovenes croats and serbs on 10 november 1918 just one day before the end of the war navy officers sailed the battleship out of pola ( pula ) and eventually surrendered to a squadron of american submari... |
zrínyi was built at the stabilimento tecnico triestino dockyard in trieste the same place where her sister ships were built earlier she was laid down on 15 november 1908 and launched from the slipway on 12 april 1910 the teak used on zrínyi's deck was the only material austria @@ hungary had to purchase abroad to build... |
zrínyi was 138 @@ 8 m ( 455 ft 4 in ) long and had a beam of 24 @@ 6 m ( 80 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 8 @@ 1 m ( 26 ft 9 in ) she displaced 14 @@ 508 long tons ( 14 @@ 741 t ) normally and up to 15 @@ 845 long tons ( 16 @@ 099 t ) with a full combat load she was powered by two @@ shaft four @@ cylinder vertical triple e... |
the ship's primary armament consisted of four 30 @@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) 45 @@ caliber guns in two twin gun turrets this was augmented by a heavy secondary battery of eight 24 cm ( 9 @@ 4 in ) guns in four wing turrets the tertiary battery consisted of twenty 10 cm l / 50 guns in casemated single mounts four 47 mm ( 1 @@ 85 ... |
the ship was assigned to the austro @@ hungarian fleet's 1st battle squadron after her 1911 commissioning in 1912 zrínyi and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern mediterranean sea on the second cruise into the aegean sea conducted from november to december zrínyi and her sister ships wer... |
in 1913 zrínyi participated in an international naval demonstration in the ionian sea to protest the balkan wars ships from other navies included in the demonstration were the british pre @@ dreadnought hms king edward vii the italian pre @@ dreadnought ammiraglio di saint bon the french armored cruiser edgar quinet an... |
during that year the first of four new dreadnoughts sms viribus unitis that made up the tegetthoff class the only dreadnoughts built for the austro @@ hungarian navy came into active service with the commissioning of these dreadnoughts zrínyi and her sisters were moved from the 1st division to the 2nd division of the 1... |
at that time of the assassination of archduke franz ferdinand of austria on 28 june 1914 the battleships in the austro @@ hungarian navy consisted of the radetzky class the tegetthoff class ( which still had one ship sms szent istván under construction ) the erzherzog karl class and finally the older habsburg class alo... |
on 23 may 1915 between two and four hours after news of the italian declaration of war reached the main austro @@ hungarian naval base at pola zrínyi and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the italian and montenegrin coast their focus was on the important naval base at ancona and later the coast of montenegro th... |
the objective of the bombardment of ancona was to delay the italian army from deploying its forces along the border with austria @@ hungary by destroying critical transportation systems the surprise attack on ancona succeeded in delaying the italian deployment to the alps for two weeks this delay gave austria @@ hungar... |
aside from the attack on ancona the austro @@ hungarian battleships were largely confined to pola for the duration of the war their operations were limited by admiral anton haus the commander of the austro @@ hungarian navy who believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any italian attempt to seize the... |
after the austro @@ hungarian empire collapsed in 1918 the austrians wanted to turn the fleet over to the newly created state of slovenes croats and serbs ( later to become a part of the kingdom of yugoslavia ) in order to prevent the italians from claiming the ships as spoils of war however the victorious allies refus... |
on the morning of 7 november 1920 zrínyi was decommissioned uss chattanooga took her in tow and assisted by brooks and hovey towed the battleship to italy under the terms of the treaties of versailles and st germain zrínyi was ultimately turned over to the italian government at venice she was broken up for scrap later ... |
geopyxis carbonaria is a species of fungus in the genus geopyxis family pyronemataceae first described to science in 1805 and given its current name in 1889 the species is commonly known as the charcoal loving elf @@ cup dwarf acorn cup stalked bonfire cup or pixie cup the small goblet @@ shaped fruitbodies of the fung... |
the fungus was first described scientifically in 1805 by johannes baptista von albertini and lewis david de schweinitz as peziza carbonaria mordecai cubitt cooke illustrated the fruitbodies spores and asci in his 1879 work seu icones fungorum figures of fungi from all parts of the world in 1889 pier andrea saccardo tr... |
the specific epithet carbonaria derives from the latin word for charcoal common names given to the fungus include charcoal loving elf @@ cup dwarf acorn cup pixie cup and the british mycological society approved stalked bonfire cup |
the fruitbodies ( ) of geopyxis are cup shaped 1 2 cm wide and have fringed whitish margins the inner spore @@ bearing surface of the cup the hymenium is brick red and smooth while the exterior surface is a dull yellow and may be either smooth or have blister @@ like spots ( pustules ) the stipe is small ( 1 1 @@ 5 m... |
in mass the spores are whitish the spores are elliptical smooth hyaline devoid of oil droplets ( ) and have dimensions of 13 18 by 7 9 µm they are thin walled and germinate and grow rapidly in vitro in the absence of external stimuli the asci are 190 225 by 9 10 µm the paraphyses are slightly club @@ shaped unbranched... |
the closely related elf cup ( geopyxis ) has a pale orange to yellowish fruitbody that is deeply cup shaped before flattening in maturity and its crushed flesh often has an odor of sulfur it may be distinguished microscopically by its paraphyses which lack the orange @@ brown granules characteristic of g carbonaria i... |
geopyxis carbonaria is widespread on burned soil or charcoal in the spring and throughout the growing season it is one of the most common pioneer species found on burned ground the charred litter on the forest floor increases the underlying soil ph as well as the availability of minerals fruitbodies are produced from 1... |
the fungus is found in europe ( from where it was originally described ) and is widespread throughout north america the north american distribution extends north to alaska in 2010 it was reported for the first time from turkey |
although primarily a saprotrophic fungus involved in the post @@ fire breakdown of duff and coniferous roots geopyxis carbonaria has been shown to be capable of forming ectomycorrhizae with norway spruce ( picea abies ) it had been demonstrated earlier in laboratory experiments that the fungus has a biotrophic interact... |
large fruitings of the fungus are often associated with damage to the host tree such as that which occurs with burning a field study conducted in norway demonstrated that fruit bodies were more likely to be found in areas that were heavily burned compared to locations with light to moderate burning where the trees rema... |
the gold dollar or gold one @@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the united states bureau of the mint from 1849 to 1889 the coin had three types over its lifetime all designed by mint chief engraver james b longacre the type 1 issue had the smallest diameter of any united states coin ever minted |
a gold dollar had been proposed several times in the 1830s and 1840s but was not initially adopted congress was finally galvanized into action by the increased supply of bullion caused by the california gold rush and in 1849 authorized a gold dollar in its early years silver coins were being hoarded or exported and the... |
gold did not again circulate in most of the nation until 1879 once it did the gold dollar did not regain its place in its final years it was struck in small numbers causing speculation by hoarders it was also in demand to be mounted in jewelry the regular issue gold dollar was last struck in 1889 the following year con... |
in proposing his plan for a mint and a coinage system secretary of the treasury alexander hamilton in 1791 proposed that the one @@ dollar denomination be struck both as a gold coin and as one of silver representative of the two metals which he proposed be made legal tender congress followed hamilton's recommendation o... |
in 1831 the first gold dollar was minted at the private mint of christopher bechtler in north carolina much of the gold then being produced in the united states came from the mountains of north carolina and georgia and the dollars and other small gold coins issued by bechtler circulated through that region and were now... |
soon after the began to strike their private issues secretary of the treasury levi woodbury became an advocate of having the mint of the united states ( mint when described as an institution ) strike the one @@ dollar denomination in gold he was opposed by the mint director robert m patterson woodbury persuaded presi... |
consideration was given to including the gold dollar as an authorized denomination in the revisionary legislation that became the mint act of 1837 the philadelphia newspaper public ledger in december 1836 supported a gold dollar stating that the dollar is the smallest gold coin that would be convenient and as it would ... |
in january 1844 north carolina representative james iver mckay the chairman of the committee on ways and means solicited the views of director patterson on the gold dollar patterson had more of gobrecht's pattern dollar struck to show to committee members again advising against a coin that if issued would be only about... |
even before 1848 record amounts of gold were flowing to american mints to be struck into coin but the california gold rush vastly increased these quantities this renewed calls for a gold dollar as well as for a higher denomination than the eagle ( $ 10 piece ) then the largest gold coin in january 1849 mckay introduced... |
mckay got his fellow democrat new hampshire senator charles atherton to introduce the bill to authorize the gold dollar and the double eagle in the senate on february 1 1849 atherton was chairman of the senate finance committee mckay introduced a version into the house on february 20 debate began the same day the dolla... |
the officers at the philadelphia mint including chief coiner franklin peale were mostly the friends and relations of director patterson the outsider in their midst was chief engraver james b longacre successor to gobrecht ( who had died in 1844 ) a former copper @@ plate engraver longacre had been appointed through the... |
when longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 he had no one to assist him longacre wrote the following year that he had been warned by a mint employee that one of the officers ( undoubtedly peale ) planned to undermine the chief engraver's position by having the work of preparing designs and dies done out... |
the engraving was unusually minute and required very close and incessant labor for several weeks i made the original dies and hubs for making the working dies twice over to secure their perfect adaptation to the coining machinery i had a wish to execute this work single handed that i might thus silently reply to those ... |
the type 1 gold dollar depicts a head of liberty facing left with a coronet or tiara on her head bearing her name her hair is gathered in a bun she is surrounded by 13 stars representing the original states the reverse features the date and denomination within a wreath with the name of the nation near the rim |
contemporary reviews of the type 1 design were generally favorable the new york weekly tribune on may 19 1849 described the new dollar as undoubtedly the neatest tiniest lightest coin in this country it is too delicate and beautiful to pay out for potatoes and sauerkraut and salt pork oberon might have paid puck with i... |
mint records indicate the first gold dollars were produced on may 7 1849 longacre's diary notes state instead that the first were struck on may 8 a few coins in proof condition were struck on the first day along with about 1 @@ 000 for circulation there are five major varieties of the 1849 gold dollar from philadelphia... |
the continued flow of gold from california made silver expensive in terms of gold and us silver coins began to flow out of the country for melting in 1849 a flow that accelerated over the next several years as the price of the metal continued to rise by 1853 a thousand dollars in silver coin contained $ 1 @@ 042 worth ... |
as early as 1851 new york congressman william duer alleged that that patterson had made the gold dollar too small in diameter on purpose to provoke criticism patterson retired that year after 16 years in his position and under his successor george n eckert annular gold dollar and half dollar patterns were struck public... |
the act of february 21 1853 that had lightened the silver coins also authorized a gold three @@ dollar piece which began to be produced in 1854 to ensure that the three @@ dollar piece was not mistaken for other gold coins it had been made thinner and wider than it would normally be and longacre put a distinctive desig... |
nevertheless the type 2 gold dollar ( as it came to be known ) proved unsatisfactory as the mints had difficulty in striking the new coin so that all details were brought out this was due to the high relief of the design the three southern branch mints especially had trouble with the piece many of the type 2 pieces qui... |
the type 2 and 3 gold dollars depict liberty as a native american princess with a fanciful feathered headdress not resembling any worn by any indian tribe this image is an inexact copy of the design longacre had made for the three @@ dollar piece and is one of a number of versions of liberty longacre created based on t... |
art historian cornelius vermeule deprecated the indian princess design used by longacre for the obverses of the types 2 and 3 gold dollar and for the three @@ dollar piece the' princess' of the gold coins is a banknote engraver's elegant version of folk art of the 1850s the plumes or feathers are more like the crest o... |
the gold dollar continued to be produced in the late 1850s though mintages declined from the figures of two million or more each year between 1850 and 1854 only about 51 @@ 000 gold dollars were produced in 1860 with over two @@ thirds of that figure at philadelphia just under a third at san francisco and 1 @@ 566 at d... |
the other candidate for the rarest from that mint is the 1861 @@ d with an estimated mintage of 1 @@ 000 and perhaps 45 to 60 known two pairs of dies were shipped from philadelphia to dahlonega on december 10 1860 they arrived on january 7 1861 two weeks before georgia voted to secede from the union as the american civ... |
dahlonega like the other two branch mints in the south closed its doors after the 1861 strikings it and the charlotte facility never reopened the new orleans mint again struck coins from 1879 to 1909 but did not strike gold dollars again after 1861 the only issuance of gold dollars outside philadelphia was at san franc... |
the outbreak of the civil war shook public confidence in the union and citizens began hoarding specie gold and silver coins in late december 1861 banks and then the federal treasury stopped paying out gold at face value by mid @@ 1862 all federal coins even the base metal cent had vanished from commerce in much of the ... |
since gold did not circulate in the united states ( except on the west coast ) in the postwar period much of the production of coins of that metal in the united states was double eagles for export accordingly although 1 @@ 361 @@ 355 gold dollars were struck in 1862 the last time production would exceed a million the m... |
in the 1870s and 1880s public interest grew in the low @@ mintage gold dollar collecting coins was becoming more popular and a number of numismatists put aside some gold dollars and hoped for increases in value the mint most likely channeled its production through some favored philadelphia dealers though proof coins co... |
james pollock in his final report as mint director in 1873 advocated limiting striking of gold dollars to depositors who specifically requested it the gold dollar is not a convenient coin on account of its small size and it suffers more proportionately from abrasion than larger coins his successors called for its abo... |
a total of 19 @@ 499 @@ 337 gold dollars were coined of which 18 @@ 223 @@ 438 were struck at philadelphia 1 @@ 004 @@ 000 at new orleans 109 @@ 138 at charlotte 90 @@ 232 at san francisco and 72 @@ 529 at dahlonega according to an advertisement in the february 1899 issue of the numismatist gold dollars brought $ 1 @@ ... |
the gold dollar had a brief resurrection during the period of early united states commemorative coins between 1903 and 1922 nine different issues were produced with a total mintage of 99 @@ 799 these were minted for various public events did not circulate and none used longacre's design |
the johnson corey chaykovsky reaction ( sometimes referred to as the corey chaykovsky reaction or ccr ) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of epoxides aziridines and it was discovered in 1961 by a william johnson and developed significantly by e j corey and michael chaykovsky the reacti... |
the reaction is most often employed for epoxidation via methylene transfer and to this end has been used in several notable total syntheses ( see synthesis of epoxides below ) additionally detailed below are the history mechanism scope and enantioselective variants of the reaction several reviews have been published |
the original publication by johnson concerned the reaction of 9 @@ with substituted benzaldehyde derivatives the attempted wittig @@ like reaction failed and a oxide was obtained instead noting that reaction between the sulfur and did not afford as had the phosphorus and arsenic |
the subsequent development of ( ) methanide ( ch3 ) and ( ) methanide ( ch3 ) ( known as corey chaykovsky reagents ) by corey and chaykovsky as efficient methylene @@ transfer reagents established the reaction as a part of the organic canon |
the reaction mechanism for the johnson corey chaykovsky reaction consists of nucleophilic addition of the ylide to the carbonyl or imine group a negative charge is transferred to the heteroatom and because the sulfonium cation is a good leaving group it gets expelled forming the ring in the related wittig reaction the ... |
the trans diastereoselectivity observed results from the reversibility of the initial addition allowing equilibration to the favored anti betaine over the syn betaine initial addition of the ylide results in a betaine with adjacent charges density functional theory calculations have shown that the rate @@ limiting step... |
the degree of reversibility in the initial step ( and therefore the diastereoselectivity ) depends on four factors with greater reversibility corresponding to higher selectivity |
stability of the substrate with higher stability leading to greater reversibility by favoring the starting material over the betaine |
stability of the ylide with higher stability similarly leading to greater reversibility |
hindrance in the betaine with greater hindrance leading to greater reversibility by formation of the intermediate and slowing the rate @@ limiting rotation of the central bond |
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