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3101 | impressive than his father's at the same age. Apart from wives, Alexander had many more female companions. Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body". Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius' mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death. Alexander's legacy extended | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3102 | beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean. Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some , and | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3103 | was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period. The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3104 | Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire. Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris. The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons. Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3105 | Greece. However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples. In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene. An inscription from the temple, now housed in the British Museum, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias." This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life. The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3106 | "Hellenization" was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest. That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad). Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3107 | a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states. The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian. The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect. Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek. Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Aspects of Hellenistic culture | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3108 | were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century. Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India. There on the newly formed Silk Road Greek culture apparently hybridized with Indian, and especially Buddhist culture. The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism heavily influenced the development of Buddhism and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3109 | some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka, and the Mediterranean (Greco-Buddhist monasticism). Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modeled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style. Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes, and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3110 | Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'. The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan, while the Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower. The Yavanajataka (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and Paulisa Siddhanta | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3111 | texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-ranging. In the area of architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC. The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo-Corinthian capitals. Alexander and his exploits were admired | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3112 | by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. Polybius began his "Histories" by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile. The | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3113 | emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla. The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or embroidered into their clothes. On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values. Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as (friendship) and (clemency), but also (anger) and (over-desire for glory). Legendary accounts surround the life of | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3114 | Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus, invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time." In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the "Alexander Romance", later | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3115 | falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as "Pseudo-Callisthenes". This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, containing many dubious stories, and was translated into numerous languages. Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The "Alexander Romance", in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek. Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3116 | figure. The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play. One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3117 | bottom of the sea, all hands aboard. In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet "gujastak", meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the "Alexander Romance" (in "Iskandarnamah"), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges. Firdausi's "Shahnameh" ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth. Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3118 | symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality. The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the Quran is believed by some scholars to represent Alexander, due to parallels with the "Alexander Romance". In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog. He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet. The Syriac version of the "Alexander Romance" portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3119 | true God". In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest. His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian. According to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem. In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from Persian, denotes a rising young talent. In medieval Europe, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3120 | Nine Worthies, a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of chivalry. Irish playwright Aubrey Thomas de Vere wrote "Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem". Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost. Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3121 | have survived. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century. Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus. Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great (), was a king ("basileus") of the | "Alexander the Great" | [
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3122 | Alfred Korzybski Alfred Habdank Skarbek Korzybski (; July 3, 1879 – March 1, 1950) was a Polish-American independent scholar who developed a field called general semantics, which he viewed as both distinct from, and more encompassing than, the field of semantics. He argued that human knowledge of the world is limited both by the human nervous system and the languages humans have developed, and thus no one can have direct access to reality, given that the most we can know is that which is filtered through the brain's responses to reality. His best known dictum is "The map is not | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3123 | the territory". Born in Warsaw, Poland, then part of the Russian Empire, Korzybski belonged to an aristocratic Polish family whose members had worked as mathematicians, scientists, and engineers for generations. He learned the Polish language at home and the Russian language in schools; and having a French and German governess, he became fluent in four languages as a child. Korzybski studied engineering at the Warsaw University of Technology. During the First World War (1914-1918) Korzybski served as an intelligence officer in the Russian Army. After being wounded in a leg and suffering other injuries, he moved to North America in | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3124 | 1916 (first to Canada, then to the United States) to coordinate the shipment of artillery to Russia. He also lectured to Polish-American audiences about the conflict, promoting the sale of war bonds. After the war he decided to remain in the United States, becoming a naturalized citizen in 1940. He met Mira Edgerly, a painter of portraits on ivory, shortly after the1918 Armistice; They married in January 1919; the marriage lasted until his death. E. P. Dutton published Korzybski's first book, "Manhood of Humanity", in 1921. In this work he proposed and explained in detail a new theory of humankind: | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3125 | mankind as a "time-binding" class of life (humans perform time binding by the transmission of knowledge and abstractions through time which become accreted in cultures). Korzybski's work culminated in the initiation of a discipline that he named general semantics (GS). This should not be confused with semantics. The basic principles of general semantics, which include time-binding, are described in the publication "Science and Sanity", published in 1933. In 1938 Korzybski founded the Institute of General Semantics in Chicago. The post-World War II housing shortage in Chicago cost him the Institute's building lease, so in 1946 he moved the Institute to | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3126 | Lakeville, Connecticut, U.S., where he directed it until his death in 1950. Korzybski maintained that humans are limited in what they know by (1) the structure of their nervous systems, and (2) the structure of their languages. Humans cannot experience the world directly, but only through their "abstractions" (nonverbal impressions or "gleanings" derived from the nervous system, and verbal indicators expressed and derived from language). These sometimes mislead us about what is the truth. Our understanding sometimes lacks "similarity of structure" with what is actually happening. He sought to train our awareness of abstracting, using techniques he had derived from | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3127 | his study of mathematics and science. He called this awareness, this goal of his system, "consciousness of abstracting". His system included the promotion of attitudes such as "I don't know; let's see," in order that we may better discover or reflect on its realities as revealed by modern science. Another technique involved becoming inwardly and outwardly quiet, an experience he termed, "silence on the objective levels". Many devotees and critics of Korzybski reduced his rather complex system to a simple matter of what he said about the verb form "is" of the general verb "to be." His system, however, is | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3128 | based primarily on such terminology as the different "orders of abstraction," and formulations such as "consciousness of abstracting." The contention that Korzybski "opposed" the use of the verb "to be" would be a profound exaggeration. He thought that "certain uses" of the verb "to be", called the "is of identity" and the "is of predication", were faulty in structure, e.g., a statement such as, "Elizabeth is a fool" (said of a person named "Elizabeth" who has done something that we regard as foolish). In Korzybski's system, one's assessment of Elizabeth belongs to a higher order of abstraction than Elizabeth herself. | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3129 | Korzybski's remedy was to "deny" identity; in this example, to be aware continually that "Elizabeth" is "not" what we "call" her. We find Elizabeth not in the verbal domain, the world of words, but the nonverbal domain (the two, he said, amount to different orders of abstraction). This was expressed by Korzybski's most famous premise, "the map is not the territory". Note that this premise uses the phrase "is not", a form of "to be"; this and many other examples show that he did not intend to abandon "to be" as such. In fact, he said explicitly that there were | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3130 | no structural problems with the verb "to be" when used as an auxiliary verb or when used to state existence or location. It was even acceptable at times to use the faulty forms of the verb "to be," as long as one was aware of their structural limitations. One day, Korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students, and he interrupted the lesson suddenly in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits, wrapped in white paper, from his briefcase. He muttered that he just had to eat something, and he asked the students on the seats in the | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3131 | front row if they would also like a biscuit. A few students took a biscuit. "Nice biscuit, don't you think," said Korzybski, while he took a second one. The students were chewing vigorously. Then he tore the white paper from the biscuits, in order to reveal the original packaging. On it was a big picture of a dog's head and the words "Dog Cookies." The students looked at the package, and were shocked. Two of them wanted to vomit, put their hands in front of their mouths, and ran out of the lecture hall to the toilet. "You see," Korzybski | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3132 | remarked, "I have just demonstrated that people don't just eat food, but also words, and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter." William Burroughs went to a Korzybski workshop in the Autumn of 1939. He was 25 years old, and paid $40. His fellow students—there were 38 in all—included young Samuel I. Hayakawa (later to become a Republican member of the U.S. Senate), Ralph Moriarty deBit (later to become the spiritual teacher Vitvan) and Wendell Johnson (founder of the Monster Study). Korzybski was well received in numerous disciplines, as evidenced by the | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3133 | positive reactions from leading figures in the sciences and humanities in the 1940s and 1950s. As reported in the third edition of "Science and Sanity", in World War II the US Army used Korzybski's system to treat battle fatigue in Europe, under the supervision of Dr. Douglas M. Kelley, who went on to become the psychiatrist in charge of the Nazi war criminals at Nuremberg. Some of the General Semantics tradition was continued by Samuel I. Hayakawa. Alfred Korzybski Alfred Habdank Skarbek Korzybski (; July 3, 1879 – March 1, 1950) was a Polish-American independent scholar who developed a field | "Alfred Korzybski" | [
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3134 | Asteroids (video game) Asteroids is an arcade space shooter released in November 1979 by Atari, Inc. and designed by Lyle Rains, Ed Logg, and Dominic Walsh. The player controls a spaceship in an asteroid field which is periodically traversed by flying saucers. The object of the game is to shoot and destroy asteroids and saucers while not colliding with either or being hit by the saucers' counter-fire. The game becomes harder as the number of asteroids increases. "Asteroids" was one of the first major hits of the golden age of arcade games. The game sold over 70,000 arcade cabinets and | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3135 | proved both popular with players and influential with developers. It has since been ported to multiple platforms. "Asteroids" was widely imitated and directly influenced "Defender", "Gravitar", and many other video games. "Asteroids" was conceived during a meeting between Logg and Rains and used hardware developed by Howard Delman previously used for "Lunar Lander". Based on an unfinished game titled "Cosmos" and inspired by "Spacewar!", "Computer Space", and "Space Invaders", "Asteroids" physics model, control scheme and gameplay theme were derived from these earlier games and refined through trial and error. The game is rendered on a vector display in a two-dimensional | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3136 | view that wraps around in both screen axes. The objective of "Asteroids" is to destroy asteroids and saucers. The player controls a triangular ship that can rotate left and right, fire shots straight forward, and thrust forward. Once the ship begins moving in a direction, it will continue in that direction for a time without player intervention unless the player applies thrust in a different direction. The ship eventually comes to a stop when not thrusting. The player can also send the ship into hyperspace, causing it to disappear and reappear in a random location on the screen, at the | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3137 | risk of self-destructing or appearing on top of an asteroid. Each level starts with a few large asteroids drifting in various directions on the screen. Objects wrap around screen edges – for instance, an asteroid that drifts off the top edge of the screen reappears at the bottom and continues moving in the same direction. As the player shoots asteroids, they break into smaller asteroids that move faster and are more difficult to hit. Smaller asteroids are also worth more points. Two flying saucers appear periodically on the screen; the "big saucer" shoots randomly and poorly, while the "small saucer" | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3138 | fires frequently at the ship. After reaching a score of 40,000, only the small saucer appears. As the player's score increases, the angle range of the shots from the small saucer diminishes until the saucer fires extremely accurately. Once the screen has been cleared of all asteroids and flying saucers, a new set of large asteroids appears, thus starting the next level. The game gets harder as the number of asteroids increases until after the score reaches a range between 40,000 and 60,000. The player starts with 3-5 lives upon game start and gains an extra life per 10,000 points. | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3139 | When the player loses all their lives, the game ends. Machine "turns over" at 99,990 points, which is the maximum high score that can be achieved. "Asteroids" contains several bugs. The game slows down as the player gains 50-100 lives, due to a programming error in that there is no limit for the permitted number of lives. The player can "lose" the game after more than 250 lives are collected. "Asteroids" was conceived by Lyle Rains and programmed by Ed Logg with collaborations from other Atari staff. Logg was impressed with the Atari Video Computer System (later called the Atari | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3140 | 2600), and joined Atari's coin-op division and worked on "Dirt Bike", which was never released due to an unsuccessful field test. Paul Mancuso joined the development team as "Asteroids" technician and engineer Howard Delman contributed to the hardware. During a meeting in April 1979, Rains discussed "Planet Grab", a multiplayer arcade game later renamed to "Cosmos". Logg did not know the name of the game, thinking "Computer Space" as "the inspiration for the two-dimensional approach". Rains conceived of "Asteroids" as a mixture of "Computer Space" and "Space Invaders", combining the two-dimensional approach of "Computer Space" with "Space Invaders" addictive gameplay | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3141 | of "completion" and "eliminate all threats". The unfinished game featured a giant, indestructible asteroid, so Rains asked Logg: "Well, why don’t we have a game where you shoot the rocks and blow them up?" In response, Logg described a similar concept where the player selectively shoots at rocks that break into smaller pieces. Both agreed on the concept. "Asteroids" was implemented on hardware developed by Delman and is a vector game, in which the graphics are composed of lines drawn on a vector monitor. Rains initially wanted the game done in raster graphics, but Logg, experienced in vector graphics, suggested | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3142 | an XY monitor because the high image quality would permit precise aiming. The hardware is chiefly a MOS 6502 executing the game program, and QuadraScan, a high-resolution vector graphics processor developed by Atari and referred to as an "XY display system" and the "Digital Vector Generator (DVG)". The original design concepts for QuadraScan came out of Cyan Engineering, Atari's off-campus research lab in Grass Valley, California, in 1978. Cyan gave it to Delman, who finished the design and first used it for "Lunar Lander". Logg received Delman's modified board with five buttons, 13 sound effects, and additional RAM, and used | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3143 | it to develop "Asteroids". The size of the board was 4 by 4 inches, and it was "linked up" to a monitor. Logg modeled the player's ship, the five-button control scheme, and the game physics after "Spacewar!", which he had played as a student at the University of California, Berkeley, but made several changes to improve playability. The ship was programmed into the hardware and rendered by the monitor, and was configured to move with thrust and inertia. The hyperspace button was not placed near Logg's right thumb, which he was dissatisfied with, as he had a problem "tak[ing] his | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3144 | hand off the thrust button". Drawings of asteroids in various shapes were incorporated into the game. Logg copied the idea of a high score table with initials from Exidy's "Star Fire". The two saucers were formulated to be different from each other. A steadily decreasing timer that shortens intervals between saucer attacks was employed to keep the player from not shooting asteroids and saucers. The minimalist soundtrack features a "heartbeat" sound effect, which quickens as the game progresses. The game did not have a sound chip, so Delman created a hardware circuit for 13 sound effects by hand which was | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3145 | wired onto the board. A prototype of "Asteroids" was well received by several Atari staff and engineers, who would "wander between labs, passing comment and stopping to play as they went". Logg was often asked when he would be leaving by employees eager to play the prototype, so he created a second prototype specifically for staff to play. Atari went to Sacramento, California for testing, setting up prototypes of the game in local arcades to measure its potential success. The company also observed veteran players and younger players during focus group sessions at Atari itself. A group of old players | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3146 | familiar with "Spacewar!" struggled to maintain grip on the thrust button and requested a joystick, whereas younger players accustomed to "Space Invaders" noted they get no break in the game. Logg and other Atari engineers observed proceedings and documented comments in four pages. "Asteroids" was released for the Atari 2600 and Atari 8-bit family in 1981 and Atari 7800 in 1986. Released in 1981, the 2600 port was the first game to use bank switching, a technique developed by Carl Nielsen's group of engineers that increased available ROM space from 4 KB to 8 KB. Brad Stewart, the programmer tasked | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3147 | to work on the port, used bank switching to complete the game. A port for the Atari 5200, identical to the Atari 8-bit computer version, was in development in 1982, but was not published. The Atari 7800 version was a launch title and features co-operative play. The asteroids receive colorful textures, and the "heartbeat" sound effect remains intact. A technical demo of "Asteroids" was developed by iThink for the Atari Jaguar but it was never released, though a prototype exists in the hands of video game collector Richard Turner, owner of the JustClaws website who demonstrated it during E-JagFest 2000. | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3148 | It's also referred to unofficially as "Asteroids 2000". In 2017, a ROM image of the prototype was released online. "Asteroids" was immediately successful upon release. It displaced "Space Invaders" by popularity in the United States and became Atari's best selling arcade game of all time, with over 70,000 units sold. Atari earned an estimated $150 million in sales from the game, and arcade operators earned a further $500 million from coin drops. Atari had been in the process of manufacturing another vector game, "Lunar Lander", but demand for "Asteroids" was so high "that several hundred "Asteroids" games were shipped in | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3149 | "Lunar Lander" cabinets". "Asteroids" was so popular that some video arcade operators had to install large boxes to hold the number of coins spent by players. "Asteroids" received positive reviews from video game critics and has been regarded as Logg's magnum opus. William Cassidy, writing for GameSpy's "Classic Gaming", noticed its innovations, including being one of the first video games to track initials and allow players to enter their initials for appearing in the top 10 high scores, and commented, "the vector graphics fit the futuristic outer space theme very well." In 1996, "Next Generation" listed it as number 39 | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3150 | on their "Top 100 Games of All Time", particularly lauding the control dynamics which require "the constant juggling of speed, positioning, and direction." "Asteroids" was ranked fourth on "Retro Gamer"s list of "Top 25 Arcade Games"; the "Retro Gamer" staff cited its simplicity and the lack of a proper ending as allowances of revisiting the game. In 2012, "Asteroids" was listed on Time's All-TIME 100 greatest video games list. "Entertainment Weekly" named "Asteroids" one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013. It was added to the Museum of Modern Art's collection of video games. By contrast, | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3151 | in March 1983 the Atari 8-bit port won sixth place in "Softline"s Dog of the Year awards "for badness in computer games", Atari division, based on reader submissions. Richard A. Edwards reviewed the 1981 "Asteroids" home cartridge in "The Space Gamer" No. 46. Edwards commented that "This home cartridge is a virtual duplicate of the ever-popular Atari arcade game. [...] If blasting asteroids is the thing you want to do then this is the game, but at this price I can't wholeheartedly recommend it." Usage of the names of "Saturday Night Live" characters "Mr. Bill" and "Sluggo" to refer to | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3152 | the saucers in an "Esquire" article about the game led to Logg receiving a cease and desist letter from a lawyer with the "Mr. Bill Trademark." Released in 1981, "Asteroids Deluxe" is the first sequel to "Asteroids". Dave Shepperd edited the code and made enhancements to the game without Logg's involvement. The onscreen objects were tinted blue, and hyperspace was replaced by a shield that depleted if used. The asteroids rotate, and the added "killer satellite" enemy breaks apart into smaller ships when hit that home in on the player's position. The arcade machine's monitor displays vector graphics overlaying a | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3153 | holographic backdrop. The game is much more difficult than the original and enables saucers to shoot across the screen boundary, eliminating a common strategy for high scores in the original game. It was followed by Owen Rubin's "Space Duel" in 1982, featuring colorful geometric shapes and co-op multiplayer gameplay. In 1987's "Blasteroids", Ed Rotberg added "power-ups, ship morphing, branching levels, bosses, and the ability to dock your ships in multiplayer for added firepower". "Blasteroids" uses raster graphics instead of vectors. The game was included as part of the Atari Lynx title "Super Asteroids & Missile Command", and featured in the | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3154 | original "Microsoft Arcade" compilation in 1993, the latter with four other Atari video games: "Missile Command", "Tempest", "Centipede", and "Battlezone". Activision made an enhanced version of "Asteroids" for PlayStation, Nintendo 64, Microsoft Windows, and the Game Boy Color in 1998. Doug Perry, writing for entertainment and video game journalism website IGN, praised the high-end graphics – with realistic space object models, backgrounds, and special effects – for making "Asteroids" "a pleasure to look at" while being a homage to the original arcade version. The Atari Flashback series of dedicated video game consoles have included both the 2600 and the arcade | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3155 | versions of "Asteroids". Published by Crave Entertainment on December 14, 1999, "Asteroids Hyper 64" is the Nintendo 64 port of "Asteroids". The game's graphics were upgraded to 3D, with both the ship and asteroids receiving polygon models along static backgrounds, and it was supplemented with weapons and a multiplayer mode. IGN writer Matt Casamassina was pleased that the gameplay was faithful to the original but felt the minor additions and constant "repetition" was not enough to make the port "warrant a $50 purchase". He was disappointed about the lack of music and found the sound effects to be of poor | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3156 | quality. In 2001, Infogrames released "Atari Anniversary Edition" for the Sega Dreamcast, PlayStation, and PC compatibles. Developed by Digital Eclipse, it included emulated versions of Asteroids and other old Atari games. Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot criticized the Dreamcast version for its limitations, such as the presentation of vector graphics on a low resolution television set, which obscures the copyright text in "Asteroids". The arcade and Atari 2600 versions of "Asteroids", along with "Asteroids Deluxe", were included in "Atari Anthology" for both Xbox and PlayStation 2. Released on November 28, 2007, the Xbox Live Arcade port of "Asteroids" has revamped HD | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3157 | graphics along with an added intense "throttle monkey" mode. Both "Asteroids" in its arcade and 2600 versions and "Asteroids Deluxe" were ported to Microsofts "Game Room" download service in 2010. Glu Mobile released a mobile phone port of the game with supplementary features as well as the original arcade version. "Asteroids" was included on "Atari Greatest Hits Volume 1" for the Nintendo DS. Craig Harris, writing for IGN, noted that the Nintendo DS's small screen can not properly display details of games with vector graphics. "Asteroids" inspired many direct clones." By December 1981 "BYTE" observed that "If imitation is the | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3158 | sincerest form of flattery, then [Atari's "Asteroids" has] a lot to be proud of ... Its popularity has inspired numerous imitations", including eight for personal computers. Quality Software's "Asteroids in Space" (1980) was one of the best selling games for the Apple II and was voted one of the most popular software titles of 1978-80 by "Softalk" magazine. Others clones include Acornsoft's "Meteors", "Moons of Jupiter" for the VIC-20, "MineStorm" for the Vectrex, and "Apple-Oids" is a 1980 clone for the Apple II, with asteroids in the shape of apples. The Mattel Intellivision title "Meteor!" , an "Asteroids" clone, was | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3159 | cancelled to avoid a lawsuit, and was reworked as "Astrosmash". The resultant game borrows elements from "Asteroids" and "Space Invaders". The saucer in the original game design was supposed to take a shot as soon as it appeared. This action was altered so there would be a delay before the saucer shoots. Additionally, the saucers can only aim at the player's ship on-screen, but are not capable of aiming across a screen boundary. In response to both of these behaviors, some players adopted a strategy referred to as "lurking", in which the player keeps the ship on the opposite side | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3160 | of the screen from the saucer when it appears, easily moving across the boundary if necessary. By keeping just one or two rocks in play, the player can shoot across the boundary and quickly destroy saucers to accumulate points indefinitely on a single credit, with little risk of being destroyed. Arcade operators began to complain about losing revenue due to this exploit. In response, Atari issued a patched EPROM to attempt to correct the issue, and due to the impact of this exploit, Atari and other companies changed their development and testing policies to try to prevent future games from | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3161 | having such exploits. On February 6, 1982, Leo Daniels of Carolina Beach, North Carolina, set a world record score of 40,101,910 points. On November 13 of the same year, 15-year-old Scott Safran of Cherry Hill, New Jersey, set a new record at 41,336,440 points. In 1998, to congratulate Safran on his accomplishment, the Twin Galaxies Intergalactic Scoreboard searched for him for four years until 2002, when it was discovered that he had died in an accident in 1989. In a ceremony in Philadelphia on April 27, 2002, Walter Day of Twin Galaxies presented an award to the surviving members of | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3162 | Safran's family, commemorating his achievement. On April 5, 2010, John McAllister broke Safran's record with a high score of 41,838,740 in a 58-hour Internet livestream. Asteroids (video game) Asteroids is an arcade space shooter released in November 1979 by Atari, Inc. and designed by Lyle Rains, Ed Logg, and Dominic Walsh. The player controls a spaceship in an asteroid field which is periodically traversed by flying saucers. The object of the game is to shoot and destroy asteroids and saucers while not colliding with either or being hit by the saucers' counter-fire. The game becomes harder as the number of | "Asteroids (video game)" | [
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3163 | Asparagales Asparagales (asparagoid lilies) is an order of plants in modern classification systems such as the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Web. The order takes its name from the type family Asparagaceae and is placed in the monocots amongst the lilioid monocots. The order has only recently been recognized in classification systems. It was first put forward by Huber in 1977 and later taken up in the Dahlgren system of 1985 and then the APG in 1998, 2003 and 2009. Before this, many of its families were assigned to the old order Liliales, a very large order | Asparagales | [
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3164 | containing almost all monocots with colourful tepals and lacking starch in their endosperm. DNA sequence analysis indicated that many of the taxa previously included in Liliales should actually be redistributed over three orders, Liliales, Asparagales and Dioscoreales. The boundaries of the Asparagales and of its families have undergone a series of changes in recent years; future research may lead to further changes and ultimately greater stability. In the APG circumscription, Asparagales is the largest order of monocots with 14 families, 1,122 genera, and about 36,000 species. The order is clearly circumscribed on the basis of molecular phylogenetics, but is difficult | Asparagales | [
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3165 | to define morphologically, since its members are structurally diverse. Most species of Asparagales are herbaceous perennials, although some are climbers and some are tree-like. The order also contains many geophytes (bulbs, corms and various kinds of tuber). According to telomere sequence, at least two evolutionary switch-points happened within the order. Basal sequence is formed by TTTAGGG like in majority of higher plants. Basal motif was changed to vertebrate-like TTAGGG and finally the most divergent motif CTCGGTTATGGG appears in "Allium". One of the defining characteristics (synapomorphies) of the order is the presence of phytomelanin, a black pigment present in the seed | Asparagales | [
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3166 | coat, creating a dark crust. Phytomelanin is found in most families of the Asparagales (although not in Orchidaceae, thought to be a sister to the rest of the group). The leaves of almost all species form a tight rosette, either at the base of the plant or at the end of the stem, but occasionally along the stem. The flowers are not particularly distinctive, being 'lily type', with six tepals and up to six stamina. The order is thought to have first diverged from other related monocots some 120–130 million years ago (early in the Cretaceous period), although given the | Asparagales | [
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3167 | difficulty in classifying the families involved, estimates are likely to be uncertain. From an economic point of view, the order Asparagales is second in importance within the monocots to the order Poales (which includes grasses and cereals). Species are used as food and flavourings (e.g. onion, garlic, leek, asparagus, vanilla), as cut flowers (e.g. freesia, gladiolus, iris, orchids), and as garden ornamentals (e.g. day lilies, lily of the valley, "Agapanthus"). Thus although most species in the order are herbaceous, some no more than 15 cm high, there are a number of climbers ("e.g.", some species of "Asparagus"), as well as | Asparagales | [
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3168 | several genera forming trees (e.g. "Agave", "Cordyline", "Yucca", "Dracaena", "Aloe" ), which can exceed 10 m in height. Succulent genera occur in several families (e.g. "Aloe"). Almost all species have a tight cluster of leaves (a rosette), either at the base of the plant or at the end of a more-or-less woody stem as with "Yucca". In some cases the leaves are produced along the stem. The flowers are in the main not particularly distinctive, being of a general 'lily type', with six tepals, either free or fused from the base and up to six stamina. They are frequently clustered | Asparagales | [
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3169 | at the end of the plant stem. The Asparagales are generally distinguished from the Liliales by the lack of markings on the tepals, the presence of septal nectaries in the ovaries, rather than the bases of the tepals or stamen filaments, and the presence of secondary growth. They are generally geophytes, but with linear leaves, and a lack of fine reticular venation. The seeds characteristically have the external epidermis either obliterated (in most species bearing fleshy fruit), or if present, have a layer of black carbonaceous phytomelanin in species with dry fruits (nuts). The inner part of the seed coat | Asparagales | [
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3170 | is generally collapsed, in contrast to Liliales whose seeds have a well developed outer epidermis, lack phytomelanin, and usually display a cellular inner layer. The orders which have been separated from the old Liliales are difficult to characterize. No single morphological character appears to be diagnostic of the order Asparagales. As circumscribed within the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system Asparagales is the largest order within the monocotyledons, with 14 families, 1,122 genera and about 25,000–42,000 species, thus accounting for about 50% of all monocots and 10–15% of the flowering plants (angiosperms). The attribution of botanical authority for the name Asparagales belongs | Asparagales | [
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3171 | to Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (1767 – 1851) who coined the word 'Asparaginae' in 1829 for a higher order taxon that included "Asparagus" although Adanson and Jussieau had also done so earlier (see History). Earlier circumscriptions of Asparagales attributed the name to Bromhead (1838), who had been the first to use the term 'Asparagales'. The type genus, "Asparagus", from which the name of the order is derived, was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, with ten species. He placed "Asparagus" within the "Hexandria Monogynia" (six stamens, one carpel) in his sexual classification in the "Species Plantarum". The majority of taxa | Asparagales | [
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3172 | now considered to constitute Asparagales have historically been placed within the very large and diverse family, Liliaceae. The Liliaceae family was first described by Michel Adanson in 1763, and in his taxonomic scheme he created eight sections within it, including the Asparagi with "Asparagus" and three other genera. The system of organising genera into families is generally credited to Antoine Laurent de Jussieu who formally described both the Liliaceae and the type family of Asparagales, the Asparagaceae, as Lilia and Asparagi, respectively, in 1789. Jussieu established the hierarchical system of taxonomy (phylogeny), placing "Asparagus" and related genera within a division | Asparagales | [
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3173 | of Monocotyledons, a class (III) of "Stamina Perigynia" and 'order' Asparagi, divided into three subfamilies. The use of the term "Ordo" (order) at that time was closer to what we now understand as Family, rather than Order. In creating his scheme he used a modified form of Linnaeus' sexual classification but using the respective topography of stamens to carpels rather than just their numbers. While De Jussieu's "Stamina Perigynia" also included a number of 'orders' that would eventually form families within the Asparagales such as the Asphodeli (Asphodelaceae), Narcissi (Amaryllidaceae) and Irides (Iridaceae), the remainder are now allocated to other | Asparagales | [
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3174 | orders. Jussieu's Asparagi soon came to be referred to as "Asparagacées" in the French literature (Latin: Asparagaceae). Meanwhile, the 'Narcissi' had been renamed as the 'Amaryllidées' (Amaryllideae) in 1805, by Jean Henri Jaume Saint-Hilaire, using "Amaryllis" as the type species rather than "Narcissus", and thus has the authority attribution for Amaryllidaceae. In 1810 Brown proposed that a subgroup of Liliaceae be distinguished on the basis of the position of the ovaries and be referred to as Amaryllideae and in 1813 de Candolle described Liliacées Juss. and Amaryllidées Brown as two quite separate families. The literature on the organisation of genera | Asparagales | [
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3175 | into families and higher ranks became available in the English language with Samuel Frederick Gray's "A natural arrangement of British plants" (1821). Gray used a combination of Linnaeus' sexual classification and Jussieu's natural classification to group together a number of families having in common six equal stamens, a single style and a perianth that was simple and petaloid, but did not use formal names for these higher ranks. Within the grouping he separated families by the characteristics of their fruit and seed. He treated groups of genera with these characteristics as separate families, such as Amaryllideae, Liliaceae, Asphodeleae and Asparageae. | Asparagales | [
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3176 | The circumscription of Asparagales has been a source of difficulty for many botanists from the time of John Lindley (1846), the other important British taxonomist of the early nineteenth century. In his first taxonomic work, "An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany" (1830) he partly followed Jussieu by describing a subclass he called Endogenae, or Monocotyledonous Plants (preserving de Candolle's "Endogenæ phanerogamæ") divided into two tribes, the Petaloidea and Glumaceae. He divided the former, often referred to as petaloid monocots, into 32 orders, including the Liliaceae (defined narrowly), but also most of the families considered to make up the | Asparagales | [
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3177 | Asparagales today, including the Amaryllideae. By 1846, in his final scheme Lindley had greatly expanded and refined the treatment of the monocots, introducing both an intermediate ranking (Alliances) and tribes within orders ("i.e." families). Lindley placed the Liliaceae within the Liliales, but saw it as a paraphyletic ("catch-all") family, being all Liliales not included in the other orders, but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them better. The order Liliales was very large and had become a used to include almost all monocotyledons with colourful tepals and without starch in their endosperm (the lilioid monocots). | Asparagales | [
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3178 | The Liliales was difficult to divide into families because morphological characters were not present in patterns that clearly demarcated groups. This kept the Liliaceae separate from the Amaryllidaceae (Narcissales). Of these Liliaceae was divided into eleven tribes (with 133 genera) and Amaryllidaceae into four tribes (with 68 genera), yet both contained many genera that would eventually segregate to each other's contemporary orders (Liliales and Asparagales respectively). The Liliaceae would be reduced to a small 'core' represented by the Tulipae tribe, while large groups such Scilleae and Asparagae would become part of Asparagales either as part of the Amaryllidaceae or as | Asparagales | [
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3179 | separate families. While of the Amaryllidaceae, the Agaveae would be part of Asparagaceae but the Alstroemeriae would become a family within the Liliales. The number of known genera (and species) continued to grow and by the time of the next major British classification, that of Bentham and Hooker in 1883 (published in Latin) several of Lindley's other families had been absorbed into the Liliaceae. They used the term 'series' to indicate suprafamilial rank, with seven series of monocotyledons (including Glumaceae), but did not use Lindley's terms for these. However they did place the Liliaceous and Amaryllidaceous genera into separate series. | Asparagales | [
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3180 | The Liliaceae were placed in series Coronariae, while the Amaryllideae were placed in series Epigynae. The Liliaceae now consisted of twenty tribes (including Tulipeae, Scilleae and Asparageae), and the Amaryllideae of five (including Agaveae and Alstroemerieae). An important addition to the treatment of the Liliaceae was the recognition of the Allieae as a distinct tribe that would eventually find its way to the Asparagales as the Allioideae subfamily of the Amaryllidaceae. The appearance of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859 changed the way that taxonomists considered plant classification, incorporating evolutionary information into their schemata. The Darwinian approach led to | Asparagales | [
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3181 | the concept of phylogeny (tree-like structure) in assembling classification systems, starting with Eichler. Eichler, having established a hierarchical system in which the flowering plants (angiosperms) were divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons, further divided into former into seven orders. Within the Liliiflorae were seven families, including Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. Liliaceae included "Allium" and "Ornithogalum" (modern Allioideae) and "Asparagus". Engler, in his system developed Eichler's ideas into a much more elaborate scheme which he treated in a number of works including "Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien" (Engler and Prantl 1888) and "Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien" (1892–1924). In his treatment of Liliiflorae the Liliineae were a | Asparagales | [
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3182 | suborder which included both Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae families. The Liliaceae had eight subfamilies and the Amaryllidaceae four. In this rearrangement of Liliaceae, with fewer subdivisions, the core Liliales were represented as subfamily Lilioideae (with Tulipae and Scilleae as tribes), the Asparagae were represented as Asparagoideae and the Allioideae was preserved, representing the alliaceous genera. Allieae, Agapantheae and Gilliesieae were the three tribes within this subfamily. In the Amaryllidacea, there was little change from Bentham and Hooker. A similar approach was adopted by Wettstein. In the twentieth century the Wettstein system (1901–1935) placed many of the taxa in an order called | Asparagales | [
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3183 | 'Liliiflorae'. Next Johannes Paulus Lotsy (1911) proposed dividing the Liliiflorae into a number of smaller families including Asparagaceae. Then Herbert Huber (1969, 1977), following Lotsy's example, proposed that the Liliiflorae be split into four groups including the 'Asparagoid' Liliiflorae. The widely used Cronquist system (1968–1988) used the very broadly defined order Liliales. These various proposals to separate small groups of genera into more homogeneous families made little impact till that of Dahlgren (1985) incorporating new information including synapomorphy. Dahlgren developed Huber's ideas further and popularised them, with a major deconstruction of existing families into smaller units. They created a new | Asparagales | [
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3184 | order, calling it Asparagales. This was one of five orders within the superorder Liliiflorae. Where Cronquist saw one family, Dahlgren saw forty distributed over three orders (predominantly Liliales and Asparagales). Over the 1980s, in the context of a more general review of the classification of angiosperms, the Liliaceae were subjected to more intense scrutiny. By the end of that decade, the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, the British Museum of Natural History and the Edinburgh Botanical Gardens formed a committee to examine the possibility of separating the family at least for the organization of their herbaria. That committee finally recommended | Asparagales | [
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3185 | that 24 new families be created in the place of the original broad Liliaceae, largely by elevating subfamilies to the rank of separate families. The order Asparagales as currently circumscribed has only recently been recognized in classification systems, through the advent of phylogenetics. The 1990s saw considerable progress in plant phylogeny and phylogenetic theory, enabling a phylogenetic tree to be constructed for all of the flowering plants. The establishment of major new clades necessitated a departure from the older but widely used classifications such as Cronquist and Thorne based largely on morphology rather than genetic data. This complicated discussion about | Asparagales | [
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3186 | plant evolution and necessitated a major restructuring. "rbc"L gene sequencing and cladistic analysis of monocots had redefined the Liliales in 1995. from four morphological orders "sensu" Dahlgren. The largest clade representing the Liliaceae, all previously included in Liliales, but including both the Calochortaceae and Liliaceae "sensu" Tamura. This redefined family, that became referred to as core Liliales, but corresponded to the emerging circumscription of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (1998). The 2009 revision of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system, APG III, places the order in the clade monocots. From the Dahlgren system of 1985 onwards, studies based mainly on morphology had | Asparagales | [
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3187 | identified the Asparagales as a distinct group, but had also included groups now located in Liliales, Pandanales and Zingiberales. Research in the 21st century has supported the monophyly of Asparagales, based on morphology, 18S rDNA, and other DNA sequences, although some phylogenetic reconstructions based on molecular data have suggested that Asparagales may be paraphyletic, with Orchidaceae separated from the rest. Within the monocots, Asparagales is the sister group of the commelinid clade. This cladogram shows the placement of Asparagales within the orders of Lilianae "sensu" Chase & Reveal (monocots) based on molecular phylogenetic evidence. The lilioid monocot orders are bracketed, | Asparagales | [
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3188 | namely Petrosaviales, Dioscoreales, Pandanales, Liliales and Asparagales. These constitute a paraphyletic assemblage, that is groups with a common ancestor that do not include all direct descendants (in this case commelinids as the sister group to Asparagales); to form a clade, all the groups joined by thick lines would need to be included. While Acorales and Alismatales have been collectively referred to as "alismatid monocots" (basal or early branching monocots), the remaining clades (lilioid and commelinid monocots) have been referred to as the "core monocots". The relationship between the orders (with the exception of the two sister orders) is pectinate, that | Asparagales | [
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3189 | is diverging in succession from the line that leads to the commelinids. Numbers indicate crown group (most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest) divergence times in mya (million years ago). A phylogenetic tree for the Asparagales, generally to family level, but including groups which were recently and widely treated as families but which are now reduced to subfamily rank, is shown below. The tree shown above can be divided into a basal paraphyletic group, the 'lower Asparagales (asparagoids)', from Orchidaceae to Asphodelaceae, and a well-supported monophyletic group of 'core Asparagales' (higher asparagoids), comprising the | Asparagales | [
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3190 | two largest families, Amaryllidaceae "sensu lato" and Asparagaceae "sensu lato". Two differences between these two groups (although with exceptions) are: the mode of microsporogenesis and the position of the ovary. The 'lower Asparagales' typically have simultaneous microsporogenesis (i.e. cell walls develop only after both meiotic divisions), which appears to be an apomorphy within the monocots, whereas the 'core Asparagales' have reverted to successive microsporogenesis (i.e. cell walls develop after each division). The 'lower Asparagales' typically have an inferior ovary, whereas the 'core Asparagales' have reverted to a superior ovary. A 2002 morphological study by Rudall treated possessing an inferior ovary | Asparagales | [
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3191 | as a synapomorphy of the Asparagales, stating that reversions to a superior ovary in the 'core Asparagales' could be associated with the presence of nectaries below the ovaries. However, Stevens notes that superior ovaries are distributed among the 'lower Asparagales' in such a way that it is not clear where to place the evolution of different ovary morphologies. The position of the ovary seems a much more flexible character (here and in other angiosperms) than previously thought. The APG III system when it was published in 2009, greatly expanded the families Xanthorrhoeaceae, Amaryllidaceae, and Asparagaceae. Thirteen of the families of | Asparagales | [
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3192 | the earlier APG II system were thereby reduced to subfamilies within these three families. The expanded Xanthorrhoeaceae is now called "Asphodelaceae". The APG II families (left) and their equivalent APG III subfamilies (right) are as follows: Orchidaceae is the largest family of all angiosperms and hence by far the largest in the order. The Dahlgren system recognized three families of orchids, but DNA sequence analysis later showed that these families are polyphyletic and so should be combined. Several studies suggest (with high bootstrap support) that Orchidaceae is the sister of the rest of the Asparagales. Other studies have placed the | Asparagales | [
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3193 | orchids differently in the phylogenetic tree, generally among the Boryaceae-Hypoxidaceae clade. The position of Orchidaceae shown above seems the best current hypothesis, but cannot be taken as confirmed. Orchids have simultaneous microsporogenesis and inferior ovaries, two characters that are typical of the 'lower Asparagales'. However, their nectaries are rarely in the septa of the ovaries, and most orchids have dust-like seeds, atypical of the rest of the order. (Some members of Vanilloideae and Cypripedioideae have crustose seeds, probably associated with dispersal by birds and mammals that are attracted by fermenting fleshy fruit releasing fragrant compounds, e.g. vanilla.) In terms of | Asparagales | [
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3194 | the number of species, Orchidaceae diversification is remarkable. However, although the other Asparagales may be less rich in species, they are more variable morphologically, including tree-like forms. The four families excluding Boryaceae form a well-supported clade in studies based on DNA sequence analysis. All four contain relatively few species, and it has been suggested that they be combined into one family under the name Hypoxidaceae "sensu lato". The relationship between Boryaceae (which includes only two genera, "Borya" and "Alania"), and other Asparagales has remained unclear for a long time. The Boryaceae are mycorrhizal, but not in the same way as | Asparagales | [
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3195 | orchids. Morphological studies have suggested a close relationship between Boryaceae and Blandfordiaceae. There is relatively low support for the position of Boryaceae in the tree shown above. The relationship shown between Ixioliriaceae and Tecophilaeaceae is still unclear. Some studies have supported a clade of these two families, others have not. The position of Doryanthaceae has also varied, with support for the position shown above, but also support for other positions. The clade from Iridaceae upwards appears to have stronger support. All have some genetic characteristics in common, having lost Arabidopsis-type telomeres. Iridaceae is distinctive among the Asparagales in the unique | Asparagales | [
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3196 | structure of the inflorescence (a rhipidium), the combination of an inferior ovary and three stamens, and the common occurrence of unifacial leaves whereas bifacial leaves are the norm in other Asparagales. Members of the clade from Iridaceae upwards have infra-locular septal nectaries, which Rudall interpreted as a driver towards secondarily superior ovaries. The next node in the tree (Xanthorrhoeaceae "sensu lato" + the 'core Asparagales') has strong support. 'Anomalous' secondary thickening occurs among this clade, e.g. in "Xanthorrhoea" (family Asphodelaceae) and "Dracaena" (family Asparagaceae "sensu lato"), with species reaching tree-like proportions. The 'core Asparagales', comprising Amaryllidaceae "sensu lato" and Asparagaceae | Asparagales | [
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3197 | "sensu lato", are a strongly supported clade, as are clades for each of the families. Relationships within these broadly defined families appear less clear, particularly within the Asparagaceae "sensu lato". Stevens notes that most of its subfamilies are difficult to recognize, and that significantly different divisions have been used in the past, so that the use of a broadly defined family to refer to the entire clade is justified. Thus the relationships among subfamilies shown above, based on APWeb , is somewhat uncertain. Several studies have attempted to date the evolution of the Asparagales, based on phylogenetic evidence. Earlier studies | Asparagales | [
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3198 | generally give younger dates than more recent studies, which have been preferred in the table below. A 2009 study suggests that the Asparagales have the highest diversification rate in the monocots, about the same as the order Poales, although in both orders the rate is little over half that of the eudicot order Lamiales, the clade with the highest rate. The taxonomic diversity of the monocotyledons is described in detail by Kubitzki. Up-to-date information on the Asparagales can be found on the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. The APG III system's family circumscriptions are being used as the basis of the Kew-hosted | Asparagales | [
-0.09437516331672668,
0.05598608776926994,
0.05293016508221626,
-0.27778640389442444,
-0.41177424788475037,
0.486061155796051,
0.6399863958358765,
0.20131376385688782,
-0.5340842604637146,
-0.4090166985988617,
0.1653321385383606,
-0.005146225914359093,
-0.23027130961418152,
0.1008569374680... |
3199 | "World Checklist of Selected Plant Families". With this circumscription, the order consists of 14 families (Dahlgren had 31) with approximately 1120 genera and 26000 species. Order Asparagales The earlier 2003 version, APG II, allowed 'bracketed' families, i.e. families which could either be segregated from more comprehensive families or could be included in them. These are the families given under "including" in the list above. APG III does not allow bracketed families, requiring the use of the more comprehensive family; otherwise the circumscription of the Asparagales is unchanged. A separate paper accompanying the publication of the 2009 APG III system provided | Asparagales | [
-0.2263941913843155,
0.05223977193236351,
0.05631610006093979,
-0.33983734250068665,
-0.4441406726837158,
0.6953892111778259,
0.848584771156311,
0.0482841394841671,
-0.3672129809856415,
-0.14973056316375732,
-0.08103732019662857,
-0.2534005641937256,
-0.733376681804657,
0.11232861876487732... |
3200 | subfamilies to accommodate the families which were discontinued. The first APG system of 1998 contained some extra families, included in square brackets in the list above. Two older systems which use the order Asparagales are the Dahlgren system and the Kubitzki system. The families included in the circumscriptions of the order in these two systems are shown in the first and second columns of the table below. The equivalent family in the modern APG III system (see below) is shown in the third column. Note that although these systems may use the same name for a family, the genera which | Asparagales | [
-0.31766796112060547,
0.003856917843222618,
-0.018628055229783058,
-0.5012925267219543,
-0.39212092757225037,
0.5159552693367004,
0.8544824719429016,
-0.03189990669488907,
-0.5205390453338623,
-0.37176138162612915,
0.002195226028561592,
-0.03187483549118042,
-0.7934510707855225,
0.19620481... |
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