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8701 | boiling point higher than a branched-chain alkane due to the greater surface area in contact, thus the greater van der Waals forces, between adjacent molecules. For example, compare isobutane (2-methylpropane) and n-butane (butane), which boil at −12 and 0 °C, and 2,2-dimethylbutane and 2,3-dimethylbutane which boil at 50 and 58 °C, respectively. For the latter case, two molecules 2,3-dimethylbutane can "lock" into each other better than the cross-shaped 2,2-dimethylbutane, hence the greater van der Waals forces. On the other hand, cycloalkanes tend to have higher boiling points than their linear counterparts due to the locked conformations of the molecules, which | Alkane | [
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8702 | give a plane of intermolecular contact. The melting points of the alkanes follow a similar trend to boiling points for the same reason as outlined above. That is, (all other things being equal) the larger the molecule the higher the melting point. There is one significant difference between boiling points and melting points. Solids have more rigid and fixed structure than liquids. This rigid structure requires energy to break down. Thus the better put together solid structures will require more energy to break apart. For alkanes, this can be seen from the graph above (i.e., the blue line). The odd-numbered | Alkane | [
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8703 | alkanes have a lower trend in melting points than even numbered alkanes. This is because even numbered alkanes pack well in the solid phase, forming a well-organized structure, which requires more energy to break apart. The odd-numbered alkanes pack less well and so the "looser" organized solid packing structure requires less energy to break apart. The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, again depending on the ability of the alkane in question to pack well in the solid phase: This is particularly true for isoalkanes (2-methyl isomers), which | Alkane | [
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8704 | often have melting points higher than those of the linear analogues. Alkanes do not conduct electricity in any way, nor are they substantially polarized by an electric field. For this reason, they do not form hydrogen bonds and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistence of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in entropy). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the second law of thermodynamics suggests that this reduction | Alkane | [
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8705 | in entropy should be minimized by minimizing the contact between alkane and water: Alkanes are said to be hydrophobic in that they repel water. Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good, a property that is called lipophilicity. Different alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves. The density of the alkanes usually increases with the number of carbon atoms but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane–water mixture. The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the electron configuration of | Alkane | [
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8706 | carbon, which has four valence electrons. The carbon atoms in alkanes are always sp-hybridized, that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals. These orbitals, which have identical energies, are arranged spatially in the form of a tetrahedron, the angle of cos(−) ≈ 109.47° between them. An alkane molecule has only C–H and C–C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of an sp orbital of carbon with the 1s orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap | Alkane | [
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8707 | of two sp orbitals on different carbon atoms. The bond lengths amount to 1.09 × 10 m for a C–H bond and 1.54 × 10 m for a C–C bond. The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp orbitals—they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae that represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not correspond with the reality. The structural formula and the bond angles are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There | Alkane | [
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8708 | is a further degree of freedom for each carbon–carbon bond: the torsion angle between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its conformation. Ethane forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C–C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C–C bond, one will see the so-called Newman projection. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the | Alkane | [
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8709 | projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However, the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon–carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: eclipsed conformation and staggered conformation. The two conformations, also known as rotamers, differ in energy: The staggered conformation is 12.6 kJ/mol lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation (the least stable). This difference | Alkane | [
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8710 | in energy between the two conformations, known as the torsion energy, is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C–C bond. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10 seconds. The case of higher alkanes is more complex but based on similar principles, with the antiperiplanar conformation always being the most favored around each carbon–carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes | Alkane | [
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8711 | are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealized forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: Alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest. Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon–carbon, and carbon–hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the "absence" of other characteristic spectroscopic features of a different functional group like –OH, –CHO, | Alkane | [
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8712 | –COOH etc. The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960 cm, while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300 cm. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450 cm and 1375 cm, while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm and 1450 cm. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725 cm. The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at "δ" = 0.5–1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: | Alkane | [
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8713 | "δ" = 8–30 (primary, methyl, –CH), 15–55 (secondary, methylene, –CH–), 20–60 (tertiary, methyne, C–H) and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of nuclear Overhauser effect and the long relaxation time, and can be missed in weak samples, or samples that have not been run for a sufficiently long time. Alkanes have a high ionization energy, and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to | Alkane | [
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8714 | the relative stability of the resulting free radicals. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group ("M" − 15) is often absent, and other fragments are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH groups. Alkanes are only weakly reactive with ionic and other polar substances. The acid dissociation constant (pK) values of all alkanes are above 60, hence they are practically inert to acids and bases (see: carbon acids). This inertness is the source of the term "paraffins" (with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In crude oil the alkane | Alkane | [
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8715 | molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. However redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen ("if" present in sufficient quantity to satisfy the reaction stoichiometry) leads to combustion without any smoke, producing carbon dioxide and water. Free radical halogenation reactions occur with halogens, leading to the production of haloalkanes. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal | Alkane | [
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8716 | complexes in C–H bond activation. Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. In highly branched alkanes, the bond angle may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as steric hindrance, and can substantially increase the reactivity. All alkanes react with oxygen in a combustion reaction, although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of | Alkane | [
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8717 | carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is: In the absence of sufficient oxygen, carbon monoxide or even soot can be formed, as shown below: For example, methane: See the alkane heat of formation table for detailed data. The standard enthalpy change of combustion, Δ"H", for alkanes increases by about 650 kJ/mol per CH group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of Δ"H" than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable. Alkanes react with halogens in a so-called "free radical halogenation" reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the | Alkane | [
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8718 | alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. Free radicals are the reactive species that participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly exothermic, and can lead to an explosion. These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are three steps: Experiments have shown that all halogenation produces a mixture of all possible isomers, indicating that all hydrogen atoms are susceptible to reaction. The mixture produced, however, is not a statistical mixture: Secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms are preferentially replaced due to the greater stability of secondary and tertiary free-radicals. | Alkane | [
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8719 | An example can be seen in the monobromination of propane: Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermal or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism with formation of free-radicals. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts (usually solid acids such as silica-alumina and zeolites), which promote a heterolytic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, usually a carbocation and the very unstable hydride anion. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C–C scission in position | Alkane | [
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8720 | beta (i.e., cracking) and intra- and intermolecular hydrogen transfer or hydride transfer. In both types of processes, the corresponding reactive intermediates (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination. Dragan and his colleague were the first to report about isomerization in alkanes. Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a platinum catalyst. In isomerization, the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In other words, it does not lose any carbons or hydrogens, keeping the same molecular | Alkane | [
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8721 | weight. In reformation, the alkanes become cycloalkanes or aromatic hydrocarbons, giving off hydrogen as a by-product. Both of these processes raise the octane number of the substance. Butane is the most common alkane that is put under the process of isomerization, as it makes many branched alkanes with high octane numbers. Alkanes will react with steam in the presence of a nickel catalyst to give hydrogen. Alkanes can be chlorosulfonated and nitrated, although both reactions require special conditions. The fermentation of alkanes to carboxylic acids is of some technical importance. In the Reed reaction, sulfur dioxide, chlorine and light convert | Alkane | [
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8722 | hydrocarbons to sulfonyl chlorides. Nucleophilic Abstraction can be used to separate an alkane from a metal. Alkyl groups can be transferred from one compound to another by transmetalation reactions. Alkanes form a small portion of the atmospheres of the outer gas planets such as Jupiter (0.1% methane, 2 ppm ethane), Saturn (0.2% methane, 5 ppm ethane), Uranus (1.99% methane, 2.5 ppm ethane) and Neptune (1.5% methane, 1.5 ppm ethane). Titan (1.6% methane), a satellite of Saturn, was examined by the "Huygens" probe, which indicated that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane onto the moon's surface. Also on Titan the Cassini | Alkane | [
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8723 | mission has imaged seasonal methane/ethane lakes near the polar regions of Titan. Methane and ethane have also been detected in the tail of the comet Hyakutake. Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal, which is thought to imply that its ices formed in interstellar space, away from the Sun, which would have evaporated these volatile molecules. Alkanes have also been detected in meteorites such as carbonaceous chondrites. Traces of methane gas (about 0.0002% or 1745 ppb) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by methanogenic microorganisms, such as Archaea in the gut of ruminants. | Alkane | [
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8724 | The most important commercial sources for alkanes are natural gas and oil. Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some propane and butane: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons were formed when marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) died and sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an anoxic environment and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction: These hydrocarbon deposits, collected in porous rocks trapped beneath | Alkane | [
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8725 | impermeable cap rocks, comprise commercial oil fields. They have formed over millions of years and once exhausted cannot be readily replaced. The depletion of these hydrocarbons reserves is the basis for what is known as the energy crisis. Methane is also present in what is called biogas, produced by animals and decaying matter, which is a possible renewable energy source. Alkanes have a low solubility in water, so the content in the oceans is negligible; however, at high pressures and low temperatures (such as at the bottom of the oceans), methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid methane | Alkane | [
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8726 | clathrate (methane hydrate). Although this cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the amount of combustible energy of the known methane clathrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together. Methane extracted from methane clathrate is, therefore, a candidate for future fuels. Acyclic alkanes occur in nature in various ways. Certain types of bacteria can metabolize alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains. On the other hand, certain archaea, the methanogens, produce large quantities of methane by the metabolism of carbon dioxide or other | Alkane | [
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8727 | oxidized organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of hydrogen: Methanogens are also the producers of marsh gas in wetlands, and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year—the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them. The methane output of cattle and other herbivores, which can release 30 to 50 gallons per day, and of termites, is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the intestines of humans. Methanogenic archaea are, hence, at the end of the carbon cycle, with carbon being released back into the atmosphere | Alkane | [
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8728 | after having been fixed by photosynthesis. It is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way. Alkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three eukaryotic groups of organisms: fungi, plants and animals. Some specialized yeasts, e.g., "Candida tropicale", "Pichia" sp., "Rhodotorula" sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon or energy. The fungus "Amorphotheca resinae" prefers the longer-chain alkanes in aviation fuel, and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions. In plants, the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the plant cuticle and epicuticular | Alkane | [
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8729 | wax of many species, but are only rarely major constituents. They protect the plant against water loss, prevent the leaching of important minerals by the rain, and protect against bacteria, fungi, and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered, between 27 and 33 carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants by decarboxylation of even-numbered fatty acids. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity. More volatile short-chain alkanes are also produced by and | Alkane | [
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8730 | found in plant tissues. The Jeffrey pine is noted for producing exceptionally high levels of "n"-heptane in its resin, for which reason its distillate was designated as the zero point for one octane rating. Floral scents have also long been known to contain volatile alkane components, and "n"-nonane is a significant component in the scent of some roses. Emission of gaseous and volatile alkanes such as ethane, pentane, and hexane by plants has also been documented at low levels, though they are not generally considered to be a major component of biogenic air pollution. Edible vegetable oils also typically contain | Alkane | [
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8731 | small fractions of biogenic alkanes with a wide spectrum of carbon numbers, mainly 8 to 35, usually peaking in the low to upper 20s, with concentrations up to dozens of milligrams per kilogram (parts per million by weight) and sometimes over a hundred for the total alkane fraction. Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% pristane (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, CH). They are important as pheromones, chemical messenger materials, on which insects depend for communication. In some species, e.g. the support beetle "Xylotrechus colonus", pentacosane | Alkane | [
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8732 | (CH), 3-methylpentaicosane (CH) and 9-methylpentaicosane (CH) are transferred by body contact. With others like the tsetse fly "Glossina morsitans morsitans", the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (CH), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (CH), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (CH) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (CH), and acts by smell over longer distances. Waggle-dancing honey bees produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane. One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the sand bee ("Andrena nigroaenea") and the early spider orchid ("Ophrys sphegodes"); the latter is dependent for pollination on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a | Alkane | [
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8733 | mate; in the case of "A. nigroaenea", the females emit a mixture of tricosane (CH), pentacosane (CH) and heptacosane (CH) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odor. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result, numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempt to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this | Alkane | [
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8734 | endeavor is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen, which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms. As stated earlier, the most important source of alkanes is natural gas and crude oil. Alkanes are separated in an oil refinery by fractional distillation and processed into many different products. The Fischer–Tropsch process is a method to synthesize liquid hydrocarbons, including alkanes, from carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This method is used to produce substitutes for petroleum distillates. There is usually little need for alkanes to be synthesized in | Alkane | [
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8735 | the laboratory, since they are usually commercially available. Also, alkanes are generally unreactive chemically or biologically, and do not undergo functional group interconversions cleanly. When alkanes are produced in the laboratory, it is often a side-product of a reaction. For example, the use of "n"-butyllithium as a strong base gives the conjugate acid, "n"-butane as a side-product: However, at times it may be desirable to make a section of a molecule into an alkane-like functionality (alkyl group) using the above or similar methods. For example, an ethyl group is an alkyl group; when this is attached to a hydroxy group, | Alkane | [
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8736 | it gives ethanol, which is not an alkane. To do so, the best-known methods are hydrogenation of alkenes: Alkanes or alkyl groups can also be prepared directly from alkyl halides in the Corey–House–Posner–Whitesides reaction. The Barton–McCombie deoxygenation removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols e.g. and the Clemmensen reduction removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes or alkyl-substituted compounds e.g.: The applications of alkanes depend on the number of carbon atoms. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. Methane and ethane are the main components of natural | Alkane | [
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8737 | gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is, however, easier to transport them as liquids: This requires both compression and cooling of the gas. Propane and butane are gases at atmospheric pressure that can be liquefied at fairly low pressures and are commonly known as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). Propane is used in propane gas burners and as a fuel for road vehicles, butane in space heaters and disposable cigarette lighters. Both are used as propellants in aerosol sprays. From pentane to octane the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in internal combustion | Alkane | [
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8738 | engines, as they vaporize easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes knocking, than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the octane rating of the fuel, where 2,2,4-trimethylpentane ("isooctane") has an arbitrary value of 100, and heptane has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances. Alkanes from nonane to, for instance, hexadecane (an alkane with sixteen carbon | Alkane | [
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8739 | atoms) are liquids of higher viscosity, less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of diesel and aviation fuel. Diesel fuels are characterized by their cetane number, cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However, the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly. Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of fuel oil and lubricating oil. In the latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means | Alkane | [
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8740 | that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as paraffin wax, for example, in candles. This should not be confused however with true wax, which consists primarily of esters. Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in bitumen, used, for example, in road surfacing. However, the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by cracking. Some synthetic polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene are alkanes with chains containing hundreds of thousands of carbon atoms. These materials are used in innumerable applications, and billions of | Alkane | [
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8741 | kilograms of these materials are made and used each year. Alkanes are chemically very inert apolar molecules which are not very reactive as organic compounds. This inertness yields serious ecological issues if they are released into the environment. Due to their lack of functional groups and low water solubility, alkanes show poor bioavailability for microorganisms. There are, however, some microorganisms possessing the metabolic capacity to utilize n-alkanes as both carbon and energy sources. Some bacterial species are highly specialised in degrading alkanes; these are referred to as hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria. Methane is flammable, explosive and dangerous to inhale, because it is | Alkane | [
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8742 | a colorless, odorless gas, special caution must be taken around methane. Ethane is also extremely flammable, dangerous to inhale and explosive. Both of these may cause suffocation. Similarly, propane is flammable and explosive. It may cause drowsiness or unconsciousness if inhaled. Butane has the same hazards to consider as propane. Alkanes also pose a threat to the environment. Branched alkanes have a lower biodegradability than unbranched alkanes. However, methane is ranked as the most dangerous greenhouse gas. Although the amount of methane in the atmosphere is low, it does pose a threat to the environment. Alkane In organic chemistry, an | Alkane | [
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8743 | Appellate procedure in the United States United States appellate procedure involves the rules and regulations for filing appeals in state courts and federal courts. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court in the jurisdiction where the case was prosecuted. There are many types of standard of review for appeals, such as "de novo" and abuse of discretion. However, most appeals begin when a party files a petition for review to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court's decision. An appellate court is a | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8744 | court that hears cases on appeal from another court. Depending on the particular legal rules that apply to each circumstance, a party to a court case who is unhappy with the result might be able to challenge that result in an appellate court on specific grounds. These grounds typically could include errors of law, fact, procedure or due process. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts. The specific procedures for appealing, including even whether there is a right of appeal from a particular type of decision, can vary greatly | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8745 | from state to state. The right to file an appeal can also vary from state to state; for example, the New Jersey Constitution vests judicial power in a Supreme Court, a Superior Court, and other courts of limited jurisdiction, with an appellate court being part of the Superior Court. A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant", "plaintiff in error", "petitioner" or "pursuer", and a party on the other side is called a "appellee". A "cross-appeal" is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example, suppose at trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8746 | to pay $50,000. If the defendant files an appeal arguing that he should not have to pay any money, then the plaintiff might file a cross-appeal arguing that the defendant should have to pay $200,000 instead of $50,000. The appellant is the party who, having lost part or all their claim in a lower court decision, is appealing to a higher court to have their case reconsidered. This is usually done on the basis that the lower court judge erred in the application of law, but it may also be possible to appeal on the basis of court misconduct, or | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8747 | that a finding of fact was entirely unreasonable to make on the evidence. The appellant in the new case can be either the plaintiff (or claimant), defendant, third-party intervenor, or respondent (appellee) from the lower case, depending on who was the losing party. The winning party from the lower court, however, is now the respondent. In unusual cases the appellant can be the victor in the court below, but still appeal. An appellee is the party to an appeal in which the lower court judgment was in its favor. The appellee is required to respond to the petition, oral arguments, | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8748 | and legal briefs of the appellant. In general, the appellee takes the procedural posture that the lower court's decision should be affirmed. An appeal "as of right" is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal "by leave" or "permission" requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the court may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal the lower court's decision. In the Supreme Court, | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8749 | review in most cases is available only if the Court exercises its discretion and grants a writ of certiorari. In tort, equity, or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal "as of right". And due to the double jeopardy principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict of acquittal. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal "as of right" from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8750 | a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion. Likewise, in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law "by leave" from the trial court or the appellate court. The ability of the prosecution to appeal a decision in favor of a defendant varies significantly internationally. All parties must present grounds to appeal, or it will not be heard. By convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first. This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals, the name of the case in the law reports reverses (in some cases twice) as | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8751 | the appeals work their way up the court hierarchy. This is not always true, however. In the federal courts, the parties' names always stay in the same order as the lower court when an appeal is taken to the circuit courts of appeals, and are re-ordered only if the appeal reaches the Supreme Court. Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context. The first is the traditional "direct" appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction petition, in which the petitioner-appellant | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8752 | files the appeal in a court of first instance—usually the court that tried the case. The key distinguishing factor between direct and collateral appeals is that the former occurs in state courts, and the latter in federal courts. Relief in post-conviction is rare and is most often found in capital or violent felony cases. The typical scenario involves an incarcerated defendant locating DNA evidence demonstrating the defendant's actual innocence. "Appellate review" is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate jurisdiction take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from judicial review, which refers | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8753 | to the court's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act or administrative decision is defective for jurisdictional or other reasons (which may vary by jurisdiction). In most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate review is by filing an appeal of the final judgment. Generally, an appeal of the judgment will also allow appeal of all other orders or rulings made by the trial court in the course of the case. This is because such orders cannot be appealed "as of right". However, certain critical interlocutory court orders, such as the denial of a | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8754 | request for an interim injunction, or an order holding a person in contempt of court, can be appealed immediately although the case may otherwise not have been fully disposed of. There are two distinct forms of appellate review, "direct" and "collateral". For example, a criminal defendant may be convicted in state court, and lose on "direct appeal" to higher state appellate courts, and if unsuccessful, mount a "collateral" action such as filing for a writ of habeas corpus in the federal courts. Generally speaking, "[d]irect appeal statutes afford defendants the opportunity to challenge the merits of a judgment and allege | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8755 | errors of law or fact. ... [Collateral review], on the other hand, provide[s] an independent and civil inquiry into the validity of a conviction and sentence, and as such are generally limited to challenges to constitutional, jurisdictional, or other fundamental violations that occurred at trial." "Graham v. Borgen", 483 F 3d. 475 (7th Cir. 2007) (no. 04-4103) (slip op. at 7) (citation omitted). In Anglo-American common law courts, appellate review of lower court decisions may also be obtained by filing a petition for review by prerogative writ in certain cases. There is no corresponding right to a writ in any | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8756 | pure or continental civil law legal systems, though some mixed systems such as Quebec recognize these prerogative writs. After exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal. The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a prisoner challenges the grounds of the conviction based on an error that occurred at trial or some other stage in the adjudicative process. An appellant's claim(s) must usually be preserved at trial. | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8757 | This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude, appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For example, Connecticut applies the following standard to review unpreserved claims: 1.the record is adequate to review the alleged claim of error; 2. the claim is of constitutional magnitude alleging the violation of a fundamental right; 3. the alleged constitutional violation clearly exists and clearly deprived the defendant of a fair trial; 4. if subject to harmless error analysis, the | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8758 | state has failed to demonstrate harmlessness of the alleged constitutional violation beyond a reasonable doubt. All States have a post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief, an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review. Typical claims might include ineffective assistance of counsel and actual innocence based on new evidence. These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal, however some states allow for collateral relief to be sought on direct appeal. After direct appeal, the conviction is considered final. An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8759 | a direct appeal. That is, it goes to the intermediate appellate court, followed by the highest court. If the petition is granted the appellant could be released from incarceration, the sentence could be modified, or a new trial could be ordered. A "notice of appeal" is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country. The specific rules of the legal system | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8760 | will dictate exactly how the appeal is officially begun. For example, the appellant might have to file the notice of appeal with the appellate court, or with the court from which the appeal is taken, or both. Some courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court's own web site. In New Jersey, for example, the Administrative Office of the Court has promulgated a form of notice of appeal for use by appellants, though using this exact form is not mandatory and the failure to use it is not a jurisdictional defect provided that all pertinent information is | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8761 | set forth in whatever form of notice of appeal is used. The deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short: traditionally, it is measured in days, not months. This can vary from country to country, as well as within a country, depending on the specific rules in force. In the U.S. federal court system, criminal defendants must file a notice of appeal within 10 days of the entry of either the judgment or the order being appealed, or the right to appeal is forfeited. Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8762 | court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue). If the appellate court finds no defect, it "affirms" the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8763 | "below" (i.e., in the lower court), it may "modify" the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify ("reverse" or "vacate") the whole decision or any part of it. It may, in addition, send the case back ("remand" or "remit") to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect. In some cases, an appellate court may review a lower court decision "de novo" (or completely), challenging even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial motion to dismiss | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8764 | or motion for summary judgment which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony. Another situation is where appeal is by way of "re-hearing". Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court. Sometimes, the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8765 | rules, to file the appeal.) Generally, there is no trial in an appellate court, only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed—unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in "very" rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as prosecutorial misconduct. In some systems, an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8766 | before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court. The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers, if represented, or "pro se" if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written briefs and sometimes in oral argument to | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8767 | the court at a hearing. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs. In an adversarial system, appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore, if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner, or against legal precedent, that judgment will stand if not appealed – even if it might have been overturned on appeal. The United States legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8768 | "de novo" or an appeal on the record. A trial de novo is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial trial. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial "de novo" by a court of record. In such a proceeding, all issues and evidence may be developed newly, as though | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8769 | never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals. In some cases, an application for "trial de novo" effectively erases the prior trial as if it had never taken place. The Supreme Court of Virginia has stated that '"This Court has repeatedly held that the effect of an appeal to circuit court is to "annul the judgment of the inferior tribunal as completely as if there had been no previous trial."' The only exception | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8770 | to this is that if a defendant appeals a conviction for a crime having multiple levels of offenses, where they are convicted on a lesser offense, the appeal is of the lesser offense; the conviction represents an acquittal of the more serious offenses. "[A] trial on the same charges in the circuit court does not violate double jeopardy principles, . . . subject only to the limitation that conviction in [the] district court for an offense lesser included in the one charged constitutes an acquittal of the greater offense, permitting trial de novo in the circuit court only for the | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8771 | lesser-included offense." In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. Precedent and case law figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed reversible error, that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8772 | unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously improper argument by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8773 | appeal" by objecting. In cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an "abuse of discretion" standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8774 | the wrong legal standard. In some cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8775 | his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial. A lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words "May it please the court." After an appeal is heard, the "mandate" is a formal notice of a decision by a court of appeal; this notice is transmitted to the trial court and, when filed by the clerk of the trial court, constitutes the final judgment on the | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8776 | case, unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings in the trial court. The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court's opinion, which sets out the legal reasoning for its decision. In some jurisdictions the mandate is known as the "remittitur". The result of an appeal can be: There can be multiple outcomes, so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings, reverse others and remand the case all at the same time. Remand is not required where there is nothing left to do in the case. "Generally speaking, an appellate court's judgment provides 'the final directive of the appeals | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8777 | courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified'". Some reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back without comment other than "review improvidently granted". In other words, after looking at the case, they chose not to say anything. The result for the case of "review improvidently granted" is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court stamp of approval. Appellate procedure in the United States United States appellate procedure involves the rules and regulations for filing appeals | "Appellate procedure in the United States" | [
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8778 | Answer (law) In law, an Answer was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or response, or objection, or a correct solution of a problem. In the common law, an Answer is the first pleading by a defendant, usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an "optional" "pre-answer" motion to dismiss or demurrer; if such a motion is | "Answer (law)" | [
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8779 | unsuccessful, the defendant "must" file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment. In a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either guilty or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction. Criminal cases may | "Answer (law)" | [
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8780 | lead to fines or other punishment, such as imprisonment. The famous Latin "Responsa Prudentium" ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative. During debates of a contentious nature, deflection, colloquially known as 'changing the topic', has been widely observed, and is often seen as a failure to answer a question. Answer (law) In law, an Answer was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or response, or objection, | "Answer (law)" | [
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8781 | Appellate court An appellate court, commonly called an appeals court, court of appeals (American English), appeal court (British English), court of second instance or second instance court, is any court of law that is empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court or other lower tribunal. In most jurisdictions, the court system is divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case; at least one intermediate appellate court; and a supreme court (or court of last resort) which primarily reviews the decisions of | "Appellate court" | [
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8782 | the intermediate courts. A jurisdiction's supreme court is that jurisdiction's highest appellate court. Appellate courts nationwide can operate under varying rules. The authority of appellate courts to review the decisions of lower courts varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some areas, the appellate court has limited powers of review. Generally, an appellate court's judgment provides the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified. The Court of Appeal of New Zealand, located in Wellington, is New | "Appellate court" | [
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8783 | Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court. In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, rather than in the Supreme Court. The Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka, located in Colombo, is the second senior court in the Sri Lankan legal system. In the United States, both state and federal appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were. Furthermore, U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before | "Appellate court" | [
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8784 | the trial court. Hence, such an appellate court will not consider an appellant's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal. In most U.S. states, and in U.S. federal courts, parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an appeal to contest that outcome. However, appeals may be costly, and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore, only | "Appellate court" | [
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8785 | a small proportion of trial court decisions result in appeals. Some appellate courts, particularly supreme courts, have the power of discretionary review, meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case. Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court an court of appeal or court of appeals. Historically, others have titled their appellate court a court of errors (or court of errors and appeals), on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals (which existed from | "Appellate court" | [
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8786 | 1844 to 1947), the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (which has been renamed the Connecticut Supreme Court), the Kentucky Court of Errors (renamed the Kentucky Supreme Court), and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals (since renamed the Supreme Court of Mississippi). In some jurisdictions, a court able to hear appeals is known as an appellate division. The phrase "court of appeals" most often refers to intermediate appellate courts. However, the Maryland and New York systems are different. The Maryland Court of Appeals and the New York Court of Appeals are the highest appellate courts in those states. The | "Appellate court" | [
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8787 | New York Supreme Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction. Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on one hand, and appeals from the Court of Federal Claims on the other. Appellate court An appellate | "Appellate court" | [
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8788 | Arraignment Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant. In response to arraignment, the defendant is expected to enter a plea. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdiction but generally include peremptory (setting out reasons why a trial cannot proceed), not guilty, guilty, the Alford (a type of guilty plea where the defendant asserts innocence but concedes that they will be found guilty, only used in the United States) and "nolo contendere" (or no contest). In Australia, arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the | Arraignment | [
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8789 | court reading out the indictment. The judge will testify during the indictment process. In every province in Canada except British Columbia, defendants are arraigned on the day of their trial (?). In British Columbia, arraignment takes places in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer. The defendant is asked whether he or she pleads guilty or not guilty to each charge. In France, the general rule is that one cannot remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from the time of the arrest. However, police custody can last another 24 hours in | Arraignment | [
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8790 | specific circumstances, especially if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment, or if the investigation is deemed to require the extra time, and can last up to 96 hours in certain cases involving terrorism, drug trafficking or organised crime. The police needs to have the consent of the prosecutor (in the vast majority of cases, the prosecutor will consent). In Germany, if one has been arrested and taken into custody by the police one must be brought before a judge as soon as possible and at the latest on the day after the arrest. At the first | Arraignment | [
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8791 | appearance, the accused is read the charges and asked for a plea. The available pleas are, guilty, not guilty, and no plea. No plea allows the defendant to get legal advice on the plea, which must be made on the second appearance. In South Africa, arraignment is defined as the calling upon the accused to appear, the informing of the accused of the crime charged against him, the demanding of the accused whether he be guilty or not guilty, and the entering of his plea. His plea having been entered he is said to stand arraigned. In England, Wales, and | Arraignment | [
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8792 | Northern Ireland, arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment. In England and Wales, the police cannot legally detain anyone for more than 24 hours without charging them unless an officer with the rank of superintendent (or above) authorises detention for a further 12 hours (36 hours total), or a judge (who will be a magistrate) authorises detention by the police before charge for up to a maximum of 96 hours, but for terrorism-related offences people can be held by the police for up to 28 | Arraignment | [
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8793 | days before charge. If they are not released after being charged, they should be brought before a court as soon as practicable. The United States has 57 court systems – one each for federal (1), state (50), commonwealth (2), territorial (3), and federal district (1) jurisdictions. Each jurisdiction establishes its own rules of criminal procedure. All 57 sets of rules must comply with certain provisions of the U.S. Constitution (e.g. the privilege against self-incrimination, prohibition of excessive bail, etc.) but otherwise are bound only by their own local constitutions and statutes. At federal level, the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure | Arraignment | [
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8794 | provide that "arraignment shall [consist of an] open...reading [of] the indictment...to the defendant...and call[] on him to plead thereto. He/she shall be given a copy of the indictment...before he/she is called upon to plead." Federal arraignment takes place in two stages. The first is called the initial arraignment and must take place within 48 hours of an individual's arrest, 72 hours if the individual was arrested on the weekend and not able to go before a judge until Monday. During this arraignment the defendant is informed of the pending legal charges and is informed of his or her right to | Arraignment | [
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8795 | retain counsel. The presiding judge also decides at what amount, if any, to set bail. During the second arraignment, a post-indictment arraignment or PIA, the defendant is allowed to enter a plea. In New York, most people arrested must be released if they are not arraigned within 24 hours. In California, arraignments must be conducted without unnecessary delay and, in any event, within 48 hours of arrest, excluding weekends and holidays. Thus, an individual arrested without a warrant, in some cases, may be held for as long as 168 hours (7 days) without arraignment or charge. For example, both Thanksgiving | Arraignment | [
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8796 | Day and the day after Thanksgiving are state holidays in California. So, if someone was arrested at 9:00 am on the Tuesday before Thanksgiving, the 48-hour period would not expire at 9:00 am on Thursday as it normally would, because that is a holiday; and the next day is a holiday; and the two days after that are the weekend; so the arraignment need not take place until 9:00 am on Monday morning following the arrest on the previous Tuesday. In Michigan, the procedure differs for misdemenours and felonies. A defendant is allowed to enter a plea when arraigned for | Arraignment | [
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8797 | a misdemeanour but no plea is entered by a defendant charged with a felony. In either case, the judge explains the defendant's rights to him/her, advises of his/her right to an attorney, sets pre-release bail (except when inappropriate), and sets a date for a pre-trial conference (misdemeanour only) or pre-exam conference (felonies only, and only in some counties). Because of the Michigan Constitution's guarantee of a speedy arraignment, a least one judge in every Michigan District Court is on 24-hour call every day, including weekends and holidays, so that the arraignment can be held as soon after the arrest as | Arraignment | [
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8798 | possible. The wording of the arraignment varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. However, it generally conforms with the following principles: Video arraignment is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of videoconferencing technology. Use of video arraignment system allows the courts to conduct the requisite arraignment process without the need to transport the defendant to the courtroom by using an audio-visual link between the location where the defendant is being held and the courtroom. Use of the video arraignment process addresses the problems associated with having to transport defendants. The transportation of defendants requires time, puts additional demands | Arraignment | [
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8799 | on the public safety organizations to provide for the safety of the public, court personnel and for the security of the population held in detention. It also addresses the rising costs of transportation. If the defendant pleads guilty, an evidentiary hearing usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing, the judge assesses the offense, the mitigating factors, and the defendant's character, and passes sentence. If the defendant pleads not guilty, a date is set for a preliminary hearing or a trial. In the past, a defendant who refused to plead (or "stood mute") | Arraignment | [
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8800 | was subject to peine forte et dure (Law French for "strong and hard punishment"). Today in common-law jurisdictions, the court enters a plea of not guilty for a defendant who refuses to enter a plea. The rationale for this is the defendant's right to silence. This is also often the stage at which arguments for or against pre-trial release and bail may be made, depending on the alleged crime and jurisdiction. Arraignment Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant. In response to arraignment, the defendant is expected to enter a plea. | Arraignment | [
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