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8801 | America the Beautiful "America the Beautiful" is an American patriotic song. The lyrics were written by Katharine Lee Bates, and the music was composed by church organist and choirmaster Samuel A. Ward at Grace Episcopal Church in Newark, New Jersey. The two never met. Bates originally wrote the words as a poem, "Pikes Peak," first published in the Fourth of July edition of the church periodical "The Congregationalist" in 1895. At that time, the poem was titled "America" for publication. Ward had originally written the music, "Materna," for the hymn "O Mother dear, Jerusalem" in 1882, though it was not | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8802 | first published until 1892. Ward's music combined with the Bates poem was first published in 1910 and titled "America the Beautiful". The song is one of the most popular of the many U.S. patriotic songs. In 1893, at the age of 33, Bates, an English professor at Wellesley College, had taken a train trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado, to teach a short summer school session at Colorado College. Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her poem, including the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the "White City" with its promise of the | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8803 | future contained within its gleaming white buildings; the wheat fields of America's heartland Kansas, through which her train was riding on July 16; and the majestic view of the Great Plains from high atop Pikes Peak. On the pinnacle of that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel. The poem was initially published two years later in "The Congregationalist" to commemorate the Fourth of July. It quickly caught the public's fancy. Amended versions were published in 1904 and 1911. The | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8804 | first known melody written for the song was sent in by Silas Pratt when the poem was published in "The Congregationalist." By 1900, at least 75 different melodies had been written. A hymn tune composed in 1882 by Samuel A. Ward, the organist and choir director at Grace Church, Newark, was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Just as Bates had been inspired to write her poem, Ward, too, was inspired. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from Coney Island back to his home | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8805 | in New York City after a leisurely summer day and he immediately wrote it down. Supposedly, he was so anxious to capture the tune in his head, he asked fellow passenger friend Harry Martin for his shirt cuff to write the tune on. He composed the tune for the old hymn "O Mother Dear, Jerusalem," retitling the work "Materna." Ward's music combined with Bates's poem was first published together in 1910 and titled "America the Beautiful." Ward died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain since the music was only first applied to the song in | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8806 | 1904. Bates was more fortunate since the song's popularity was well established by the time of her death in 1929. At various times in the more than 100 years that have elapsed since the song was written, particularly during the John F. Kennedy administration, there have been efforts to give "America the Beautiful" legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, "The Star-Spangled Banner," but so far this has not yet succeeded. Proponents prefer "America the Beautiful" for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8807 | adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as "The Star-Spangled Banner." Some prefer "America the Beautiful" over "The Star-Spangled Banner" due to the latter's war-oriented imagery. Others prefer "The Star-Spangled Banner" for the same reason. While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, "America the Beautiful" continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans, and was even being considered "before" 1931, as a candidate to become the national anthem of the United States. This song was used as the background music of the television | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8808 | broadcast of the Tiangong-1 launch. The song is often included in songbooks in a wide variety of religious congregations in the United States. Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album "101 Gang Songs" (1961). In 1976, while the United States celebrated its bicentennial, a soulful version popularized by Ray Charles peaked at number 98 on the US R&B Charts. Ray Charles did this again in 1984 to re-elect Ronald Reagan. Ray Charles did this yet again in Miami, Florida in 1999. Three different renditions of the song have entered the Hot Country Songs charts. The first | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8809 | was by Charlie Rich, which went to number 22 in 1976. A second, by Mickey Newbury, peaked at number 82 in 1980. An all-star version of "America the Beautiful" performed by country singers Trace Adkins, Sherrié Austin, Billy Dean, Vince Gill, Carolyn Dawn Johnson, Toby Keith, Brenda Lee, Lonestar, Lyle Lovett, Lila McCann, Lorrie Morgan, Jamie O'Neal, The Oak Ridge Boys, Collin Raye, Kenny Rogers, Keith Urban and Phil Vassar reached number 58 in July 2001. The song re-entered the chart following the September 11 attacks. A punk rock adaptation of the song was recorded in 1976 by New York | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8810 | band The Dictators, and released on their album "Every Day is Saturday". Popularity of the song increased greatly following the September 11 attacks; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. During the first taping of the "Late Show with David Letterman" following the attacks, CBS newsman Dan Rather cried briefly as he quoted the fourth verse. For Super Bowl XLVIII, The Coca-Cola Company aired a multilingual version of the song, sung in several different languages. The commercial received some criticism on social media sites, such as Twitter and Facebook, and | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8811 | from some conservatives, such as Glenn Beck. Despite the controversies, Coca-Cola later reused the Super Bowl ad during Super Bowl LI, the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Winter Olympics and 2016 Summer Olympics and for patriotic holidays. "From sea to shining sea," originally used in the charters of some of the English Colonies in North America, is an American idiom meaning "from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean" (or vice versa). Other songs that have used this phrase include the American patriotic song "God Bless the U.S.A." and Schoolhouse Rock's "Elbow Room." The phrase and the song are also | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8812 | the namesake of the Shining Sea Bikeway, a bike path in Bates's hometown of Falmouth, Massachusetts. The phrase is similar to the Latin phrase """" ("From sea to sea"), which serves as the official motto of Canada. "Purple mountain majesties" refers to the shade of the Pikes Peak in Colorado Springs, Colorado, which inspired Bates to write the poem. Lynn Sherr's 2001 book "America the Beautiful" discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. The book points out that the poem has the same meter as that of "Auld Lang Syne"; the songs can | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8813 | be sung interchangeably. Additionally, Sherr discusses the evolution of the lyrics, for instance, changes to the original third verse written by Bates. Melinda M. Ponder, in her 2017 biography "Katharine Lee Bates: From Sea to Shining Sea", draws heavily on Bates's diaries and letters to trace the history of the poem and its place in American culture. The song appears in Ellen Raskin's "The Westing Game". America the Beautiful "America the Beautiful" is an American patriotic song. The lyrics were written by Katharine Lee Bates, and the music was composed by church organist and choirmaster Samuel A. Ward at Grace | "America the Beautiful" | [
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8814 | Assistive technology Assistive technology is an umbrella term that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities or elderly population while also including the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. People who have disabilities often have difficulty performing activities of daily living (ADLs) independently, or even with assistance. ADLs are self-care activities that include toileting, mobility (ambulation), eating, bathing, dressing and grooming. Assistive technology can ameliorate the effects of disabilities that limit the ability to perform ADLs. Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had | "Assistive technology" | [
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8815 | great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to, or changing methods of interacting with, the technology needed to accomplish such tasks. For example, wheelchairs provide independent mobility for those who cannot walk, while assistive eating devices can enable people who cannot feed themselves to do so. Due to assistive technology, people with disabilities have an opportunity of a more positive and easygoing lifestyle, with an increase in "social participation," "security and control," and a greater chance to "reduce institutional costs without significantly increasing household expenses." The term adaptive technology is often used as the synonym for assistive technology; however, they are | "Assistive technology" | [
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8816 | different terms. Assistive technology refers to "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities", while adaptive technology covers items that are specifically designed for persons with disabilities and would seldom be used by non-disabled persons. In other words, "assistive technology is any object or system that increases or maintains the capabilities of people with disabilities," while adaptive technology is "any object or system that is specifically designed for the purpose of increasing or maintaining the capabilities of people with disabilities." | "Assistive technology" | [
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8817 | Consequently, adaptive technology is a subset of assistive technology. Adaptive technology often refers specifically to electronic and information technology access. Wheelchairs are devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled, and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that most people have. Wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people to perform mobility-related activities of daily living which include feeding, toileting, dressing, grooming, and bathing. The devices come in a number of variations where they can be propelled either by hand or by motors where the occupant uses electrical controls to | "Assistive technology" | [
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8818 | manage motors and seating control actuators through a joystick, sip-and-puff control, or other input devices. Often there are handles behind the seat for someone else to do the pushing or input devices for caregivers. Wheelchairs are used by people for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. People with both sitting and walking disability often need to use a wheelchair or walker. Patient transfer devices generally allow patients with impaired mobility to be moved by caregivers between beds, wheelchairs, commodes, toilets, chairs, stretchers, shower benches, automobiles, swimming pools, and other patient support systems (i.e., radiology, | "Assistive technology" | [
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8819 | surgical, or examining tables). The most common devices are Patient lifts (for vertical transfer), Transfer benches, stretcher or convertible chairs (for lateral, supine transfer), sit-to-stand lifts (for moving patients from one seated position to another i.e., from wheelchairs to commodes), air bearing inflatable mattresses (for supine transfer i.e., transfer from a gurney to an operating room table), and sliding boards (usually used for transfer from a bed to a wheelchair). Highly dependent patients who cannot assist their caregiver in moving them often require a Patient lift (a floor or ceiling-suspended sling lift) which though invented in 1955 and in common | "Assistive technology" | [
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8820 | use since the early 1960s is still considered the state-of-the-art transfer device by OSHA and the American Nursing Association. A walker or walking frame or Rollator is a tool for disabled people who need additional support to maintain balance or stability while walking. It consists of a frame that is about waist high, approximately twelve inches deep and slightly wider than the user. Walkers are also available in other sizes, such as for children, or for heavy people. Modern walkers are height-adjustable. The front two legs of the walker may or may not have wheels attached depending on the strength | "Assistive technology" | [
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8821 | and abilities of the person using it. It is also common to see caster wheels or glides on the back legs of a walker with wheels on the front. A prosthesis, prosthetic, or prosthetic limb is a device that replaces a missing body part. It is part of the field of biomechatronics, the science of using mechanical devices with human muscle, skeleton, and nervous systems to assist or enhance motor control lost by trauma, disease, or defect. Prostheses are typically used to replace parts lost by injury (traumatic) or missing from birth (congenital) or to supplement defective body parts. Inside | "Assistive technology" | [
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8822 | the body, artificial heart valves are in common use with artificial hearts and lungs seeing less common use but under active technology development. Other medical devices and aids that can be considered prosthetics include hearing aids, artificial eyes, palatal obturator, gastric bands, and dentures. Prostheses are specifically "not" orthoses, although given certain circumstances a prosthesis might end up performing some or all of the same functionary benefits as an orthosis. Prostheses are technically the complete finished item. For instance, a C-Leg knee alone is "not" a prosthesis, but only a prosthetic "component". The complete prosthesis would consist of the attachment | "Assistive technology" | [
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8823 | system to the residual limb — usually a "socket", and all the attachment hardware components all the way down to and including the terminal device. Keep this in mind as nomenclature is often interchanged. The terms "prosthetic" and "orthotic" are adjectives used to describe devices such as a prosthetic knee. The terms "prosthetics" and "orthotics" are used to describe the respective allied health fields. Many people with serious visual impairments live independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. Examples of assistive technology for visually impairment include screen readers, screen magnifiers, Braille embossers, desktop video magnifiers, and voice recorders. | "Assistive technology" | [
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8824 | Screen readers are used to help the visually impaired to easily access electronic information. These software programs run on a computer in order to convey the displayed information through voice (text-to-speech) or braille (refreshable braille displays) in combination with magnification for low vision users in some cases. There are a variety of platforms and applications available for a variety of costs with differing feature sets. One example of screen readers is Apple VoiceOver. This software is provided free of charge on all Apple devices. Apple VoiceOver includes the option to magnify the screen, control the keyboard, and provide verbal descriptions | "Assistive technology" | [
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8825 | to describe what is happening on the screen. There are thirty languages to select from. It also has the capacity to read aloud file content, as well as web pages, E-mail messages, and word processing files. Braille is a system of raised dots formed into units called braille cells. A full braille cell is made up of six dots, with two parallel rows of three dots, but other combinations and quantities of dots represent other letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or words. People can then use their fingers to read the code of raised dots. A braille embosser is, simply put, | "Assistive technology" | [
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8826 | a printer for braille. Instead of a standard printer adding ink onto a page, the braille embosser imprints the raised dots of braille onto a page. Some braille embossers combine both braille and ink so the documents can be read with either sight or touch. A refreshable braille display or braille terminal is an electro-mechanical device for displaying braille characters, usually by means of round-tipped pins raised through holes in a flat surface. Computer users who cannot use a computer monitor use it to read a braille output version of the displayed text. Desktop video magnifiers are electronic devices that | "Assistive technology" | [
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8827 | use a camera and a display screen to perform digital magnification of printed materials. They enlarge printed pages for those with low vision. A camera connects to a monitor that displays real-time images, and the user can control settings such as magnification, focus, contrast, underlining, highlighting, and other screen preferences. They come in a variety of sizes and styles; some are small and portable with handheld cameras, while others are much larger and mounted on a fixed stand. A screen magnifier is software that interfaces with a computer's graphical output to present enlarged screen content. It allows users to enlarge | "Assistive technology" | [
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8828 | the texts and graphics on their computer screens for easier viewing. Similar to desktop video magnifiers, this technology assists people with low vision. After the user loads the software into their computer's memory, it serves as a kind of "computer magnifying glass." Wherever the computer cursor moves, it enlarges the area around it. This allows greater computer accessibility for a wide range of visual abilities. A large-print keyboard has large letters printed on the keys. On the keyboard shown, the round buttons at the top control software which can magnify the screen (zoom in), change the background color of the | "Assistive technology" | [
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8829 | screen, or make the mouse cursor on the screen larger. The "bump dots" on the keys, installed in this case by the organization using the keyboards, help the user find the right keys in a tactile way. Assistive technology for navigation has exploded on the IEEE Xplore database since 2000, with over 7,500 engineering articles written on assistive technologies and visual impairment in the past 25 years, and over 1,300 articles on solving the problem of navigation for people who are blind or visually impaired. As well, over 600 articles on augmented reality and visual impairment have appeared in the | "Assistive technology" | [
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8830 | engineering literature since 2000. Most of these articles were published within the past 5 years, and the number of articles in this area is increasing every year. GPS, accelerometers, gyroscopes, and cameras can pinpoint the exact location of the user and provide information on what's in the immediate vicinity, and assistance in getting to a destination. Wearable technology are smart electronic devices that can be worn on the body as an implant or an accessory. New technologies are exploring how the visually impaired can receive visual information through wearable devices. Some wearable devices for visual impairment include: Personal emergency response | "Assistive technology" | [
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8831 | systems (PERS), or Telecare (UK term), are a particular sort of assistive technology that use electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. An example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for hypothermia risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild dementia). Notably, these alerts can be customized to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a caregiver or contact center who can respond appropriately. In human–computer interaction, | "Assistive technology" | [
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8832 | computer accessibility (also known as accessible computing) refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people, regardless of disability or severity of impairment, examples include web accessibility guidelines. Another approach is for the user to present a token to the computer terminal, such as a smart card, that has configuration information to adjust the computer speed, text size, etc. to their particular needs. This is useful where users want to access public computer based terminals in Libraries, ATM, Information kiosks etc. The concept is encompassed by the CEN EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems - Man-Machine Interface. This development | "Assistive technology" | [
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8833 | of this standard has been supported in Europe by SNAPI and has been successfully incorporated into the Lasseo specifications, but with limited success due to the lack of interest from public computer terminal suppliers. People in the d/Deaf and hard of hearing community have a more difficult time receiving auditory information as compared to hearing individuals. These individuals often rely on visual and tactile mediums for receiving and communicating information. The use of assistive technology and devices provides this community with various solutions to auditory communication needs by providing higher sound (for those who are hard of hearing), tactile feedback, | "Assistive technology" | [
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8834 | visual cues and improved technology access. Individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing utilize a variety of assistive technologies that provide them with different access to information in numerous environments. Most devices either provide amplified sound or alternate ways to access information through vision and/or vibration. These technologies can be grouped into three general categories: Hearing Technology, alerting devices, and communication support. A hearing aid or deaf aid is an electroacoustic device which is designed to amplify sound for the wearer, usually with the aim of making speech more intelligible, and to correct impaired hearing as measured by audiometry. | "Assistive technology" | [
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8835 | This type of assistive technology helps people with hearing loss participate more fully in their hearing communities by allowing them to hear more clearly. They amplify any and all sound waves through use of a microphone, amplifier, and speaker. There is a wide variety of hearing aids available, including digital, in-the-ear, in-the-canal, behind-the-ear, and on-the-body aids. Assistive listening devices include FM, infrared, and loop assistive listening devices. This type of technology allows people with hearing difficulties to focus on a speaker or subject by getting rid of extra background noises and distractions, making places like auditoriums, classrooms, and meetings much | "Assistive technology" | [
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8836 | easier to participate in. The assistive listening device usually uses a microphone to capture an audio source near to its origin and broadcast it wirelessly over an FM (Frequency Modulation) transmission, IR (Infra Red) transmission, IL (Induction Loop) transmission, or other transmission methods. The person who is listening may use an FM/IR/IL Receiver to tune into the signal and listen at his/her preferred volume. This type of assistive technology allows users to amplify the volume and clarity of their phone calls so that they can easily partake in this medium of communication. There are also options to adjust the frequency | "Assistive technology" | [
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8837 | and tone of a call to suit their individual hearing needs. Additionally, there is a wide variety of amplified telephones to choose from, with different degrees of amplification. For example, a phone with 26 to 40 decibel is generally sufficient for mild hearing loss, while a phone with 71 to 90 decibel is better for more severe hearing loss. Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is an umbrella term that encompasses methods of communication for those with impairments or restrictions on the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC systems are extremely diverse and depend on the capabilities of | "Assistive technology" | [
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8838 | the user. They may be as basic as pictures on a board that are used to request food, drink, or other care; or they can be advanced speech generating devices, based on speech synthesis, that are capable of storing hundreds of phrases and words. Assistive Technology for Cognition (ATC) is the use of technology (usually high tech) to augment and assist cognitive processes such as attention, memory, self-regulation, navigation, emotion recognition and management, planning, and sequencing activity. Systematic reviews of the field have found that the number of ATC are growing rapidly, but have focused on memory and planning, that | "Assistive technology" | [
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8839 | there is emerging evidence for efficacy, that a lot of scope exists to develop new ATC. Examples of ATC include: NeuroPage which prompts users about meetings, Wakamaru, which provides companionship and reminds users to take medicine and calls for help if something is wrong, and telephone Reassurance systems. Memory aids are any type of assistive technology that helps a user learn and remember certain information. Many memory aids are used for cognitive impairments such as reading, writing, or organizational difficulties. For example, a Smartpen records handwritten notes by creating both a digital copy and an audio recording of the text. | "Assistive technology" | [
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8840 | Users simply tap certain parts of their notes, the pen saves it, and reads it back to them. From there, the user can also download their notes onto a computer for increased accessibility. Digital voice recorders are also used to record "in the moment" information for fast and easy recall at a later time. Educational software is software that assists people with reading, learning, comprehension, and organizational difficulties. Any accommodation software such as text readers, notetakers, text enlargers, organization tools, word predictions, and talking word processors falls under the category of educational software. Adaptive eating devices include items commonly used | "Assistive technology" | [
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8841 | by the general population like spoons and forks and plates. However they become assistive technology when they are modified to accommodate the needs of people who have difficultly using standard cutlery due to a disabling condition. Common modifications include increasing the size of the utensil handle to make it easier to grasp. Plates and bowls may have a guard on the edge that stops food being pushed off of the dish when it is being scooped. More sophisticated equipment for eating includes manual and powered feeding devices. These devices support those who have little or no hand and arm function | "Assistive technology" | [
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8842 | and enable them to eat independently. Assistive technology in sports is an area of technology design that is growing. Assistive technology is the array of new devices created to enable sports enthusiasts who have disabilities to play. Assistive technology may be used in adaptive sports, where an existing sport is modified to enable players with a disability to participate; or, assistive technology may be used to invent completely new sports with athletes with disabilities exclusively in mind. An increasing number of people with disabilities are participating in sports, leading to the development of new assistive technology. Assistive technology devices can | "Assistive technology" | [
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8843 | be simple, or "low-tech", or they may use highly advanced technology. "Low-tech" devices can include velcro gloves and adaptive bands and tubes. "High-tech" devices can include all-terrain wheelchairs and adaptive bicycles. Accordingly, assistive technology can be found in sports ranging from local community recreation to the elite Paralympic Games. More complex assistive technology devices have been developed over time, and as a result, sports for people with disabilities "have changed from being a clinical therapeutic tool to an increasingly competition-oriented activity". In the United States there are two major pieces of legislation that govern the use of assistive technology within | "Assistive technology" | [
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8844 | the school system. The first is Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the second being the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) which was first enacted in 1975 under the name The Education for All Handicapped Children Act. In 2004, during the reauthorization period for IDEA, the National Instructional Material Access Center (NIMAC) was created which provided a repository of accessible text including publisher's textbooks to students with a qualifying disability. Files provided are in XML format and used as a starting platform for braille readers, screen readers, and other digital text software. IDEA defines assistive technology | "Assistive technology" | [
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8845 | as follows: "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability. (B) Exception.--The term does not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, or the replacement of such device." Assistive technology in this area is broken down into low, mid, and high tech categories. Low tech encompasses equipment that is often low cost and does not include batteries or requires charging. Examples include adapted paper and pencil grips for writing or masks and color overlays | "Assistive technology" | [
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8846 | for reading. Mid tech supports used in the school setting include the use of handheld spelling dictionaries and portable word processors used to keyboard writing. High tech supports involve the use of tablet devices and computers with accompanying software. Software supports for writing include the use of auditory feedback while keyboarding, word prediction for spelling, and speech to text. Supports for reading include the use of text to speech (TTS) software and font modification via access to digital text. Limited supports are available for math instruction and mostly consist of grid based software to allow younger students to keyboard equations | "Assistive technology" | [
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8847 | and auditory feedback of more complex equations using MathML and Daisy. One of the largest problems that affect people with disabilities is discomfort with prostheses. An experiment performed in Massachusetts utilized 20 people with various sensors attached to their arms. The subjects tried different arm exercises, and the sensors recorded their movements. All of the data helped engineers develop new engineering concepts for prosthetics. Assistive technology may attempt to improve the ergonomics of the devices themselves such as Dvorak and other alternative keyboard layouts, which offer more ergonomic layouts of the keys. Assistive technology devices have been created to enable | "Assistive technology" | [
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8848 | people with disabilities to use modern touch screen mobile computers such as the iPad, iPhone and iPod touch. The Pererro is a plug and play adapter for iOS devices which uses the built in Apple VoiceOver feature in combination with a basic switch. This brings touch screen technology to those who were previously unable to use it. Apple, with the release of iOS 7 had introduced the ability to navigate apps using switch control. Switch access could be activated either through an external bluetooth connected switch, single touch of the screen, or use of right and left head turns using | "Assistive technology" | [
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8849 | the device's camera. Additional accessibility features include the use of Assistive Touch which allows a user to access multi-touch gestures through pre-programmed onscreen buttons. For users with physical disabilities a large variety of switches are available and customizable to the user's needs varying in size, shape, or amount of pressure required for activation. Switch access may be placed near any area of the body which has consistent and reliable mobility and less subject to fatigue. Common sites include the hands, head, and feet. Eye gaze and head mouse systems can also be used as an alternative mouse navigation. A user | "Assistive technology" | [
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8850 | may utilize single or multiple switch sites and the process often involves a scanning through items on a screen and activating the switch once the desired object is highlighted. The form of home automation called assistive domotics focuses on making it possible for elderly and disabled people to live independently. Home automation is becoming a viable option for the elderly and disabled who would prefer to stay in their own homes rather than move to a healthcare facility. This field uses much of the same technology and equipment as home automation for security, entertainment, and energy conservation but tailors it | "Assistive technology" | [
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8851 | towards elderly and disabled users. For example, automated prompts and reminders utilize motion sensors and pre-recorded audio messages; an automated prompt in the kitchen may remind the resident to turn off the oven, and one by the front door may remind the resident to lock the door. Overall, assistive technology aims to allow people with disabilities to "participate more fully in all aspects of life (home, school, and community)" and increases their opportunities for "education, social interactions, and potential for meaningful employment". It creates greater independence and control for disabled individuals. For example, in one study of 1,342 infants, toddlers | "Assistive technology" | [
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8852 | and preschoolers, all with some kind of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability, the use of assistive technology created improvements in child development. These included improvements in "cognitive, social, communication, literacy, motor, adaptive, and increases in engagement in learning activities". Additionally, it has been found to lighten caregiver load. Both family and professional caregivers benefit from assistive technology. Through its use, the time that a family member or friend would need to care for a patient significantly decreases. However, studies show that care time for a professional caregiver increases when assistive technology is used. Nonetheless, their work load is significantly | "Assistive technology" | [
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8853 | easier as the assistive technology frees them of having to perform certain tasks. There are several platforms that use machine learning to identify the appropriate assistive device to suggest to patients, making assistive devices more accessible. Assistive technology Assistive technology is an umbrella term that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities or elderly population while also including the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. People who have disabilities often have difficulty performing activities of daily living (ADLs) independently, or even with assistance. ADLs are self-care activities that include toileting, mobility (ambulation), eating, bathing, dressing | "Assistive technology" | [
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8854 | Abacus The abacus ("plural" abaci or abacuses), also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool that was in use in Europe, China and Russia, centuries before the adoption of the written Hindu–Arabic numeral system. The exact origin of the abacus is still unknown. Today, abacuses are often constructed as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires, but originally they were beans or stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets of wood, stone, or metal. Abacuses come in different designs. Some designs, like the bead frame consisting of beads divided into tens, are used mainly to teach | Abacus | [
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8855 | arithmetic, although they remain popular in the post-Soviet states as a tool. Other designs, such as the Japanese soroban, have been used for practical calculations even involving several digits. For any particular abacus design, there usually are numerous different methods to perform a certain type of calculation, which may include basic operations like addition and multiplication, or even more complex ones, such as calculating square roots. Some of these methods may work with non-natural numbers (numbers such as and ). Although today many use calculators and computers instead of abacuses to calculate, abacuses still remain in common use in some | Abacus | [
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8856 | countries. Merchants, traders and clerks in some parts of Eastern Europe, Russia, China and Africa use abacuses, and they are still used to teach arithmetic to children. Some people who are unable to use a calculator because of visual impairment may use an abacus. The use of the word "abacus" dates before 1387 AD, when a Middle English work borrowed the word from Latin to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from Greek ἄβαξ "abax" which means something without base, and improperly, any piece of rectangular board or plank. Alternatively, without reference to ancient texts on etymology, it | Abacus | [
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8857 | has been suggested that it means "a square tablet strewn with dust", or "drawing-board covered with dust (for the use of mathematics)" (the exact shape of the Latin perhaps reflects the genitive form of the Greek word, ἄβακoς "abakos"). Whereas the table strewn with dust definition is popular, there are those that do not place credence in this at all and in fact state that it is not proven. Greek ἄβαξ itself is probably a borrowing of a Northwest Semitic, perhaps Phoenician, word akin to Hebrew "ʾābāq" (אבק), "dust" (or in post-Biblical sense meaning "sand used as a writing surface"). | Abacus | [
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8858 | The preferred plural of "abacus" is a subject of disagreement, with both "abacuses" and "abaci" (hard "c") in use. The user of an abacus is called an "abacist". The period 2700–2300 BC saw the first appearance of the Sumerian abacus, a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal number system. Some scholars point to a character from the Babylonian cuneiform which may have been derived from a representation of the abacus. It is the belief of Old Babylonian scholars such as Carruccio that Old Babylonians "may have used the abacus for the operations | Abacus | [
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8859 | of addition and subtraction; however, this primitive device proved difficult to use for more complex calculations". The use of the abacus in Ancient Egypt is mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus, who writes that the Egyptians manipulated the pebbles from right to left, opposite in direction to the Greek left-to-right method. Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have been used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument have not been discovered. During the Achaemenid Empire, around 600 BC the Persians first began to use the abacus. Under the Parthian, Sassanian and Iranian empires, | Abacus | [
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8860 | scholars concentrated on exchanging knowledge and inventions with the countries around them – India, China, and the Roman Empire, when it is thought to have been exported to other countries. The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC. Also Demosthenes (384 BC–322 BC) talked of the need to use pebbles for calculations too difficult for your head. A play by Alexis from the 4th century BC mentions an abacus and pebbles for accounting, and both Diogenes and Polybius mention men that sometimes stood for more and sometimes for less, like the | Abacus | [
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8861 | pebbles on an abacus. The Greek abacus was a table of wood or marble, pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations. This Greek abacus saw use in Achaemenid Persia, the Etruscan civilization, Ancient Rome and, until the French Revolution, the Western Christian world. A tablet found on the Greek island Salamis in 1846 AD (the Salamis Tablet), dates back to 300 BC, making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It is a slab of white marble long, wide, and thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the center of the tablet is | Abacus | [
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8862 | a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semicircle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them, but with the semicircle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line. Also from this time frame the "Darius | Abacus | [
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8863 | Vase" was unearthed in 1851. It was covered with pictures including a "treasurer" holding a wax tablet in one hand while manipulating counters on a table with the other. The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC. The Chinese abacus, known as the "suanpan" (算盤, lit. "calculating tray"), is typically tall and comes in various widths depending on the operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom. The beads are usually rounded and made of | Abacus | [
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8864 | a hardwood. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam; beads moved toward the beam are counted, while those moved away from it are not. The "suanpan" can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick movement along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center. The prototype of the Chinese abacus is the appeared during the Han Dynasty, and the beads are oval. In the Song Dynasty or before used the 4:1 type or four beads abacus similar to the modern abacus or commony | Abacus | [
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8865 | known as Japanese style abacus, "you can make a number by hand," and "beads are counted", which can be expressed as a decimal number. Therefore, the abacus is designed as a four-bead abacus. In the early Ming Dynasty, the abacus began to appear in the form of 1:5 abacus. The upper deck had one bead and the bottom had five beads. "you can make a number by hand," and "the number of beads will be counted". Binary or any of the following numbers, so the abacus is designed as a five-bead abacus. In the late Ming Dynasty, the abacus styles | Abacus | [
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8866 | that appeared in the form of 2:5. The upper deck had two beads, and the bottom had five beads. "You can make a number by hand," and "Beads are counted." It can be expressed in hexadecimal or any of the following numbers, and because the calculation method at that time is a Chinese catty equal to sixteen tael（一斤十六兩）which means hexadecimal, the abacus is designed as a two-five bead. "Suanpan" can be used for functions other than counting. Unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools, very efficient suanpan techniques have been developed to do multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, square | Abacus | [
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8867 | root and cube root operations at high speed. There are currently schools teaching students how to use it. In the long scroll "Along the River During the Qingming Festival" painted by Zhang Zeduan during the Song dynasty (960–1297), a "suanpan" is clearly visible beside an account book and doctor's prescriptions on the counter of an apothecary's (Feibao). The similarity of the Roman abacus to the Chinese one suggests that one could have inspired the other, as there is some evidence of a trade relationship between the Roman Empire and China. However, no direct connection can be demonstrated, and the similarity | Abacus | [
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8868 | of the abacuses may be coincidental, both ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. Where the Roman model (like most modern Korean and Japanese) has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal place, the standard "suanpan" has 5 plus 2. (Incidentally, this allows use with a hexadecimal numeral system, which was used for traditional Chinese measures of weight.) Instead of running on wires as in the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese models, the beads of Roman model run in grooves, presumably making arithmetic calculations much slower. Another possible source of the "suanpan" is Chinese counting rods, which operated with a | Abacus | [
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8869 | decimal system but lacked the concept of zero as a place holder. The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the Tang dynasty (618–907) when travel in the Indian Ocean and the Middle East would have provided direct contact with India, allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the decimal point from Indian merchants and mathematicians. The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome, as in Greece, was by moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles ("calculi") were used. Later, and in medieval Europe, jetons were manufactured. Marked lines indicated units, fives, tens etc. as in | Abacus | [
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8870 | the Roman numeral system. This system of 'counter casting' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe, and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century. Due to Pope Sylvester II's reintroduction of the abacus with modifications, it became widely used in Europe once again during the 11th century This abacus used beads on wires, unlike the traditional Roman counting boards, which meant the abacus could be used much faster. Writing in the 1st century BC, Horace refers to the wax abacus, a board covered with a thin layer of black wax on which columns and figures were | Abacus | [
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8871 | inscribed using a stylus. One example of archaeological evidence of the Roman abacus, shown here in reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD. It has eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads in each. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives –five units, five tens etc., essentially in a bi-quinary coded decimal system, related to the Roman numerals. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman "ounces" | Abacus | [
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8872 | (i.e. fractions). The decimal number system invented in India replaced the abacus in Western Europe. The "Abhidharmakośabhāṣya" of Vasubandhu (316-396), a Sanskrit work on Buddhist philosophy, says that the second-century CE philosopher Vasumitra said that "placing a wick (Sanskrit "vartikā") on the number one ("ekāṅka") means it is a one, while placing the wick on the number hundred means it is called a hundred, and on the number one thousand means it is a thousand". It is unclear exactly what this arrangement may have been. Around the 5th century, Indian clerks were already finding new ways of recording the contents | Abacus | [
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8873 | of the Abacus. Hindu texts used the term "śūnya" (zero) to indicate the empty column on the abacus. In Japanese, the abacus is called "soroban" (, lit. "Counting tray"), imported from China in the 14th century. It was probably in use by the working class a century or more before the ruling class started, as the class structure did not allow for devices used by the lower class to be adopted or used by the ruling class. The 1/4 abacus, which is suited to decimal calculation popular appeared circa 1930, and became widespread as the Japanese abandoned hexadecimal weight calculation | Abacus | [
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8874 | which was still common in China. Today's Japanese abacus is a 1:4 type, four-bead abacus was introduced from China in the Muromachi era. It adopts the form of the upper deck one bead and the bottom four beads. The top bead on the upper deck was equal to five and the bottom one is equal to one like the Chinese or Korean abacus , and the decimal number can be expressed, so the abacus is designed as one four abacus. The beads are always in the shape of a diamond. The quotient division is generally used instead of the division | Abacus | [
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8875 | method; at the same time, in order to make the multiplication and division digits consistently use the division multiplication. Later, Japan had a 3:5 abacus called天三算盤, which is now the Ize Rongji collection of Shansi Village in Yamagata City. There were also had 2:5 beads abacus. With the four-bead abacus spread, it is also common to use Japanese abacus around the world. There are also improved Japanese abacus in various places. One of the Japanese-made abacus made in China is an aluminum frame plastic bead abacus. The file is next to the four beads, and the "clearing" button, press the | Abacus | [
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8876 | clearing button, immediately put the upper bead to the upper position, the lower bead is dialed to the lower position, immediately clearing, easy to use. The abacus is still manufactured in Japan today even with the proliferation, practicality, and affordability of pocket electronic calculators. The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese primary schools as part of mathematics, primarily as an aid to faster mental calculation. Using visual imagery of a soroban, one can arrive at the answer in the same time as, or even faster than, is possible with a physical instrument. The Chinese abacus migrated from | Abacus | [
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8877 | China to Korea around 1400 AD. Koreans call it "jupan" (주판), "supan" (수판) or "jusan" (주산). The four beads abacus( 1:4 ) was introduced to Korea Goryeo Dynaty from the China during Song Dynasty, later the five beads abacus (5:1) abacus was introduced to Korean from China during the Ming Dynasty. Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a "nepohualtzintzin" in ancient Aztec culture. This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system. The word Nepōhualtzintzin comes from Nahuatl and it is formed by the roots; "Ne" – personal -; "pōhual" or "pōhualli" – the account -; and "tzintzin" | Abacus | [
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-0.332191526889801,
0.087864428758621... |
8878 | – small similar elements. Its complete meaning was taken as: counting with small similar elements by somebody. Its use was taught in the Calmecac to the "temalpouhqueh" , who were students dedicated to take the accounts of skies, from childhood. The Nepōhualtzintzin was divided in two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord. In the left part there were four beads, which in the first row have unitary values (1, 2, 3, and 4), and in the right side there are three beads with values of 5, 10, and 15 respectively. In order to know the value of | Abacus | [
-0.09077338129281998,
0.3271558880805969,
0.2027934044599533,
-0.009394973516464233,
-0.6710954308509827,
0.5308998227119446,
0.4742145836353302,
0.14231820404529572,
-0.22791239619255066,
-0.05733199045062065,
0.32734841108322144,
0.2867819368839264,
-0.14646072685718536,
-0.0753661543130... |
8879 | the respective beads of the upper rows, it is enough to multiply by 20 (by each row), the value of the corresponding account in the first row. Altogether, there were 13 rows with 7 beads in each one, which made up 91 beads in each Nepōhualtzintzin. This was a basic number to understand, 7 times 13, a close relation conceived between natural phenomena, the underworld and the cycles of the heavens. One Nepōhualtzintzin (91) represented the number of days that a season of the year lasts, two Nepōhualtzitzin (182) is the number of days of the corn's cycle, from its | Abacus | [
0.028074784204363823,
0.6121429800987244,
0.24151498079299927,
-0.05838652327656746,
-0.7317554950714111,
0.7655720710754395,
0.7754759192466736,
0.34874457120895386,
-0.3826880156993866,
-0.06189470738172531,
0.3480547070503235,
0.10860849916934967,
-0.16340038180351257,
0.156697392463684... |
8880 | sowing to its harvest, three Nepōhualtzintzin (273) is the number of days of a baby's gestation, and four Nepōhualtzintzin (364) completed a cycle and approximate a year (1 days short). When translated into modern computer arithmetic, the Nepōhualtzintzin amounted to the rank from 10 to the 18 in floating point, which calculated stellar as well as infinitesimal amounts with absolute precision, meant that no round off was allowed. The rediscovery of the Nepōhualtzintzin was due to the Mexican engineer David Esparza Hidalgo, who in his wanderings throughout Mexico found diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of | Abacus | [
-0.11922202259302139,
0.4300866425037384,
0.00345811084844172,
-0.19813168048858643,
-0.5060628056526184,
1.0992650985717773,
0.41593828797340393,
0.21155476570129395,
-0.42175063490867615,
0.2090766429901123,
0.3896261155605316,
0.060784291476011276,
0.1461440622806549,
0.336936354637146,... |
8881 | them made in gold, jade, encrustations of shell, etc. There have also been found very old Nepōhualtzintzin attributed to the Olmec culture, and even some bracelets of Mayan origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures. George I. Sanchez, "Arithmetic in Maya", Austin-Texas, 1961 found another base 5, base 4 abacus in the Yucatán Peninsula that also computed calendar data. This was a finger abacus, on one hand 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used; and on the other hand 0, 1, 2 and 3 were used. Note the use of zero at the | Abacus | [
-0.5262035131454468,
0.28827211260795593,
0.02959834411740303,
0.23278963565826416,
-0.5467450618743896,
0.720014750957489,
0.27509909868240356,
0.1986871212720871,
-0.6424329280853271,
-0.1890694946050644,
0.4422389268875122,
0.027755584567785263,
0.07486972957849503,
0.054461780935525894... |
8882 | beginning and end of the two cycles. Sanchez worked with Sylvanus Morley, a noted Mayanist. The quipu of the Incas was a system of colored knotted cords used to record numerical data, like advanced tally sticks – but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a yupana (Quechua for "counting tool"; see figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 an explanation of the mathematical basis of these instruments was proposed by Italian mathematician Nicolino De Pasquale. By comparing the form of several | Abacus | [
-0.292277455329895,
0.15804748237133026,
-0.20519940555095673,
0.1477942019701004,
-0.3372396230697632,
0.5845407247543335,
0.21780911087989807,
-0.0016319884452968836,
-0.312814325094223,
-0.0966091901063919,
0.23853503167629242,
0.28231281042099,
-0.2641814947128296,
-0.14634746313095093... |
8883 | yupanas, researchers found that calculations were based using the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20 and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at a minimum. The Russian abacus, the "schoty" (счёты), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire, usually positioned near the user, with four beads for quarter-ruble fractions). Older models have another 4-bead wire for quarter-kopeks, which were minted until 1916. The Russian abacus is often | Abacus | [
-0.1545221507549286,
0.07653222978115082,
0.14764299988746643,
-0.11106706410646439,
-0.23593220114707947,
0.7790870666503906,
0.1698809117078781,
-0.18675237894058228,
-0.6174008250236511,
-0.08309875428676605,
-0.14788654446601868,
0.031601760536432266,
-0.48271045088768005,
0.2582063674... |
8884 | used vertically, with wires from left to right in the manner of a book. The wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually are of a different color from the other eight beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different | Abacus | [
-0.04029658064246178,
-0.1983373910188675,
0.30606696009635925,
-0.11888039112091064,
-0.23174014687538147,
0.384939581155777,
0.2134590595960617,
-0.1632041037082672,
-0.46255433559417725,
-0.34995952248573303,
-0.08207684755325317,
0.3917523920536041,
-0.5430822372436523,
0.0158917251974... |
8885 | color. As a simple, cheap and reliable device, the Russian abacus was in use in all shops and markets throughout the former Soviet Union, and the usage of it was taught in most schools until the 1990s. Even the 1874 invention of mechanical calculator, Odhner arithmometer, had not replaced them in Russia and likewise the mass production of Felix arithmometers since 1924 did not significantly reduce their use in the Soviet Union. The Russian abacus began to lose popularity only after the mass production of microcalculators had started in the Soviet Union in 1974. Today it is regarded as an | Abacus | [
-0.3437056839466095,
0.31155070662498474,
0.19903378188610077,
-0.25696489214897156,
-0.03700009733438492,
0.5176794528961182,
0.3502584397792816,
0.19706471264362335,
-0.19594256579875946,
-0.5409082174301147,
-0.31036314368247986,
0.29968175292015076,
-0.41963863372802734,
0.287330597639... |
8886 | archaism and replaced by the handheld calculator. The Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by the mathematician Jean-Victor Poncelet, who served in Napoleon's army and had been a prisoner of war in Russia. The abacus had fallen out of use in western Europe in the 16th century with the rise of decimal notation and algorismic methods. To Poncelet's French contemporaries, it was something new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and demonstration aid. The Turks and the Armenian people also used abacuses similar to the Russian schoty. It was named a "coulba" | Abacus | [
-0.4356580674648285,
0.3047695755958557,
-0.004660825710743666,
-0.04561140015721321,
-0.08877287060022354,
0.8227840662002563,
0.08881127089262009,
0.04218077287077904,
-0.44975656270980835,
-0.6262609362602234,
-0.14164038002490997,
0.06319433450698853,
-0.47632285952568054,
0.1183798089... |
8887 | by the Turks and a "choreb" by the Armenians. Around the world, abacuses have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching the numeral system and arithmetic. In Western countries, a bead frame similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires and a vertical frame has been common (see image). It is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy. The wire frame may be used either with positional notation like other abacuses (thus the 10-wire version may represent numbers up to 9,999,999,999), or each bead may represent one unit (so that e.g. 74 | Abacus | [
0.2504202127456665,
0.11777225881814957,
-0.10917546600103378,
0.002622848143801093,
-0.25099432468414307,
0.6316786408424377,
0.307188481092453,
0.04117416962981224,
-0.4395902752876282,
-0.2606580853462219,
-0.3055828809738159,
-0.09926158934831619,
-0.5407818555831909,
0.196051359176635... |
8888 | can be represented by shifting all beads on 7 wires and 4 beads on the 8th wire, so numbers up to 100 may be represented). In the bead frame shown, the gap between the 5th and 6th wire, corresponding to the color change between the 5th and the 6th bead on each wire, suggests the latter use. The red-and-white abacus is used in contemporary primary schools for a wide range of number-related lessons. The twenty bead version, referred to by its Dutch name "rekenrek" ("calculating frame"), is often used, sometimes on a string of beads, sometimes on a rigid framework. | Abacus | [
0.07330553233623505,
-0.0039825281128287315,
0.10339202731847763,
-0.3075479567050934,
-0.1187635213136673,
0.5903480052947998,
0.49180760979652405,
-0.3830363154411316,
-0.6191299557685852,
-0.3949476182460785,
-0.16139395534992218,
0.26726585626602173,
-0.24199025332927704,
-0.0342511273... |
8889 | By learning how to calculate with abacus, one can improve his mental calculation which becomes faster and more accurate in doing large number calculations. Abacus‐based mental calculation (AMC) was derived from the abacus which means doing calculation, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, in mind with an imaged abacus. It is a high-level cognitive skill that run through calculations with an effective algorithm. People doing long-term AMC training shows higher numerical memory capacity and has more effectively connected neural pathways. They are able to retrieve memory to deal with complex processes to calculate. The processing of AMC involves both the | Abacus | [
-0.1586330085992813,
0.20203813910484314,
-0.09896890074014664,
-0.03271801769733429,
-0.3118918836116791,
0.6158968210220337,
-0.14967551827430725,
-0.2623060643672943,
-0.19189786911010742,
-0.6611523628234863,
0.1363227814435959,
0.6907321214675903,
-0.2463379204273224,
-0.3365543484687... |
8890 | visuospatial and visuomotor processing which generate the visual abacus and perform the movement of the imagery bead. Since the only thing needed to be remembered is the finial position of beads, it takes less memory and less computation time. An adapted abacus, invented by Tim Cranmer, called a Cranmer abacus is still commonly used by individuals who are blind. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they do not move inadvertently. This keeps the beads in place while the users feel or manipulate them. They use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions | Abacus | [
0.17120271921157837,
0.04049886763095856,
0.07750507444143295,
-0.14914348721504211,
-0.15094198286533356,
0.6694198846817017,
0.2942814826965332,
-0.2176337093114853,
-0.3217537999153137,
-0.5660375952720642,
-0.3348757028579712,
0.5675568580627441,
-0.5975285768508911,
-0.060996592044830... |
8891 | multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, square root and cube root. Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators, the abacus is still very often taught to these students in early grades, both in public schools and state schools for the blind. The abacus teaches mathematical skills that can never be replaced with talking calculators and is an important learning tool for blind students. Blind students also complete mathematical assignments using a braille-writer and Nemeth code (a type of braille code for mathematics) but large multiplication and long division problems can be long and difficult. The abacus gives blind and visually impaired | Abacus | [
-0.38814058899879456,
0.5152193307876587,
-0.32488682866096497,
0.03557773679494858,
-0.08336912840604782,
0.20981071889400482,
0.39460721611976624,
-0.029355259612202644,
-0.28773796558380127,
-0.6634138226509094,
-0.4089892506599426,
0.43353989720344543,
-0.14135761559009552,
-0.46861472... |
8892 | students a tool to compute mathematical problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number machine a very useful tool throughout life. The binary abacus is used to explain how computers manipulate numbers. The abacus shows how numbers, letters, and signs can be stored in a binary system on a computer, or via ASCII. The device consists of a series of beads on parallel wires arranged in three separate rows. The beads represent a switch on the computer in either an "on" or "off" position. Abacus | Abacus | [
0.28296852111816406,
0.18347981572151184,
0.19099061191082,
0.20139048993587494,
-0.02003033645451069,
0.49677422642707825,
-0.08945287764072418,
-0.2359037697315216,
-0.25845202803611755,
-0.4511910080909729,
-0.08887000381946564,
0.1304994523525238,
-0.42465218901634216,
0.14724169671535... |
8893 | Acid An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid). The first category of acids is the proton donors or Brønsted acids. In the special case of aqueous solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion HO and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents. A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H. | Acid | [
-0.33906063437461853,
0.6220601201057434,
0.40288686752319336,
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-0.6951378583908081,
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-0.5709965825080872,
-0.11326558142900467,
-0.626098096370697,
0.64230889081954... |
8894 | Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide a practical description of an acid. Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals (like calcium) to form salts. The word "acid" is derived from the Latin "acidus/acēre" meaning "sour". An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as 'acid' (as in 'dissolved in acid'), while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of positive hydrogen ions | Acid | [
-0.19652576744556427,
0.7042664885520935,
0.042856864631175995,
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-0.38457560539245605,
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0.5609449148178101,
0.004865417256951332,
0.2130577564239502,
-0.41455012559890747,
-0.4182882606983185,
0.017960356548428535,
-0.6104402542114258,
0.80438446998... |
8895 | in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic. Common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid (a solution of hydrogen chloride which is found in gastric acid in the stomach and activates digestive enzymes), acetic acid (vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries), and citric acid (found in citrus fruits). As these examples show, acids (in the colloquial sense) can be solutions or pure substances, and can be derived from acids (in the strict sense) that are solids, liquids, or gases. Strong acids and some | Acid | [
-0.18437273800373077,
0.7267523407936096,
-0.26974278688430786,
-0.04570779204368591,
-0.2799656093120575,
0.12561377882957458,
0.37425076961517334,
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0.23582977056503296,
-0.3940783143043518,
-0.4376477599143982,
0.2976362407207489,
-0.43678542971611023,
0.4756157994270... |
8896 | concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair. An example is boron trifluoride (BF), whose boron atom has a vacant orbital which can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base, for example the nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH). Lewis considered this as a generalization of the Brønsted definition, so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly "or" by releasing protons | Acid | [
-0.3195493519306183,
0.3959755301475525,
-0.10579709708690643,
-0.2896423935890198,
-0.7346041202545166,
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0.42310795187950134,
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-0.6271920204162598,
-0.056670352816581726,
-0.5577315092086792,
0.50966531038... |
8897 | (H) into the solution, which then accept electron pairs. However, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids. In modern terminology, an "acid" is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as "a Lewis acid". Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in | Acid | [
-0.2639232873916626,
0.6682192087173462,
0.11686594039201736,
-0.27591803669929504,
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0.47484293580055237,
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-0.497379869222641,
0.019442183896899223,
-0.5573788285255432,
0.73917973041534... |
8898 | water, so the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions are the most relevant. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified, acid-base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H) from an acid to a base. Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can also function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions (H) or protons in 1884. An Arrhenius acid is | Acid | [
-0.33894044160842896,
0.5254189968109131,
0.023691250011324883,
-0.29232364892959595,
-0.7452824711799622,
0.054356515407562256,
0.4183521568775177,
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0.27271467447280884,
-0.15260638296604156,
-0.28096097707748413,
-0.19456394016742706,
-0.44989755749702454,
0.79121452... |
8899 | a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H ions in the water. Note that chemists often write H("aq") and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid-base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion, HO. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid. An Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide | Acid | [
-0.00962809193879366,
0.7109162211418152,
0.009429973550140858,
-0.04569430649280548,
-0.4252215623855591,
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0.3441151976585388,
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0.15623138844966888,
-0.2850086987018585,
-0.38868212699890137,
0.020858516916632652,
-0.518339991569519,
0.709722876548... |
8900 | (OH) ions when dissolved in water. This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form HO molecules: HO + OH ⇌ HO + HO Due to this equilibrium, any increase in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, while an Arrhenius base increases it. In an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10 moles per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions, acidic | Acid | [
-0.6217276453971863,
0.564816951751709,
0.19972950220108032,
-0.026018714532256126,
-0.325130432844162,
0.048373498022556305,
0.3372330069541931,
-0.4422309100627899,
0.24625186622142792,
-0.24305930733680725,
-0.2429761290550232,
-0.03982958570122719,
-0.5832343697547913,
0.60700982809066... |
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