ialvarenga/acl-arc-revised · Datasets at Hugging Face

text stringlengths 15 1.09k	intent class label 6 classes
Such technologies require significant human input , and are difficult to create and maintain ( Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .	00
â¢ The transition probability a is 0.7 using the EM algorithm ( Rabiner , 1989 ) on the TREC4 ad-hoc query set .	11
This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .	22
Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .	00
The combination of likelihood and prior modeling , HMMs , and Viterbi decoding is fundamentally the same as the standard probabilistic approaches to speech recognition ( Bahl , Jelinek , and Mercer 1983 ) and tagging ( Church 1988 ) .	22
Some recent GRE algorithms have done away with the separation between content determination and linguistic realization , interleaving the two processes instead ( Stone and Webber 1998 ; Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) .	22
We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) .	11
Ushioda et al. ( 1993 ) run a finite-state NP parser on a POS-tagged corpus to calculate the relative frequency of the same six subcategorization verb classes .	00
In addition , there are a number of projects under way to develop substantial lexicons from machine readable sources ( see Boguraev , 1986 for details ) .	00
Secondly , as ( Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) show , marginalizing out the different segmentations during decoding leads to improved performance .	55
Agreement between two annotation sets is calculated here in terms of Cohen 's kappa ( Cohen , 1960 ) 1 and corrected kappa ( Brennan and Prediger , 1981 ) 2 .	11
This approach is taken , for example , in LKB ( Copestake 1992 ) where lexical rules are introduced on a par with phrase structure rules and the parser makes no distinction between lexical and nonlexical rules ( Copestake 1993 , 31 ) .	22
Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .	22
There have been many studies on parsing techniques ( Poller and Becker , 1998 ; Flickinger et al. , 2000 ) , ones on disambiguation models ( Chiang , 2000 ; Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) , and ones on programming/grammar-development environ -	00
( 7 ) NEIGHBOR : Research in lexical semantics suggests that the SC of an NP can be inferred from its distributionally similar NPs ( see Lin ( 1998a ) ) .	44
These features are carefully designed to reduce the data sparseness problem and some of them are inspired by previous work ( He et al. , 2008 ; Gimpel and Smith , 2008 ; Marton and Resnik , 2008 ; Chiang et al. , 2009 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ; Shen et al. , 2009 ; Xiong et al. , 2009 ) : 1 .	44
With a minimal set of features and a small number of lexical entries , Niyogi ( 2001 ) has successfully modeled many of the argument alternations described by Levin ( 1993 ) using a Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) style analysis .	00
The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .	00
Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) .	55
Rubenstein and Goodenough ( 1965 ) reported an intra-subject correlation of r = .85 for 15 subjects judging the similarity of a subset ( 36 ) of the original 65 word pairs .	22
The flexible architecture we have presented enables interesting future research : ( i ) a straightforward improvement is the use of lexical similarity to reduce data sparseness , e.g. ( Basili et al. , 2005 ; Basili et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ) .	00
Nugget F-score has been employed as a metric in the TREC question-answering track since 2003 , to evaluate so-called definition and `` other '' questions ( Voorhees 2003 ) .	00
Part of speech taggers typically require input in the format of a single sentence per line ( for example Brill 's tagger ( Brill , 1992 ) ) and parsers generally aim to produce a tree spanning each sentence .	00
More specifically , we use LIBSVM ( Chang and Lin , 2001 ) with a quadratic kernel K ( xZ , xj ) = ( - yxT xj + r ) 2 and the built-in one-versus-all strategy for multi-class classification .	11
This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .	22
Other approaches use less deep linguistic resources ( e.g. , POS-tags Stymne ( 2008 ) ) or are ( almost ) knowledge-free ( e.g. , Koehn and Knight ( 2003 ) ) .	22
For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .	00
This description can then be given the standard set-theoretical interpretation of King ( 1989 , 1994 ) . '	00
Williams and Koehn ( 2011 ) used unification in an SMT system to model some of the	22
Based on a computational grammar that associates natural language expressions with both a syntactic and a semantic representation , a paraphrastic gram ` As we shall briefly discuss in section 4 , the grammar is developed with the help of a meta-grammar ( Candito , 1999 ) thus ensuring an additional level of abstraction .	11
5 The open source Moses ( Hoang et al. 2007 ) toolkit from www.statmt.org/moses/ .	11
Reiter describes a pipelined modular approach as a consensus architecture underlying most recent work in generation ( Reiter 1994 ) .	00
Unlike other POS taggers , this POS tagger ( Mikheev 2000 ) was also trained to disambiguate sentence boundaries .	11
` See ( King , 1994 ) for a discussion of the appropriateness of TIG for HPSG and a comparison with other feature logic approaches designed for HPSG .	00
This heuristic is called soft union ( DeNero and Klein 2007 ) .	11
We consider the Creative Commons model as the most suitable one to let each author choose the rights to reserve ( Lessig , 2004 ) .	11
5An alternative strategy to step ( 4 ) is to perform a database lookup based on the ambiguous query and summarize the results ( Litman et al. , 1998 ) , which we leave for future work .	55
For example , the forward-backward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) trains only Hidden Markov Models , while ( Ristad and Yianilos , 1996 ) trains only stochastic edit distance .	00
The right-side context of a non-terminal category -- the probability of generating a category to the right of the current constituent 's category -- corresponds directly to the category transitions used for the HMM supertagger of Garrette et al. ( 2014 ) .	22
For example , Gay et al. ( 2005 ) experimented with abstracts and full article texts in the task of automatically generating index term recommendations and discovered that using full article texts yields at most a 7.4 % improvement in F-score .	00
To model o ( Li , S â T ) , o ( Ri , S â T ) , i.e. the reordering of the neighboring phrases of a function word , we employ the orientation model introduced by Setiawan et al. ( 2007 ) .	11
In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .	00
Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) .	00
It provides a fine grained NE recognition covering 100 different NE types ( Sekine , 2008 ) .	11
MEDLINE , the authoritative repository of abstracts from the medical and biomedical primary literature maintained by the National Library of Medicine , provides the clinically relevant sources for answering physicians ' questions , and is commonly used in that capacity ( Cogdill and Moore 1997 ; De Groote and Dorsch 2003 ) .	00
To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by SmrÅ¾ ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .	22
Table 5 shows our mapping from publication type and MeSH headings to evidence grades based on principles defined in the Strength of Recommendations Taxonomy ( Ebell et al. 2004 ) .	11
We run GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2000 ) on the training corpus in both directions ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) to obtain the word alignment for each sentence pair .	11
The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering .	00
McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .	22
Previously LDA has been successfully used to infer unsupervised joint topic distributions over words and feature norms together ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .	00
It would seem therefore that the iteration of the PT operation to form a closure is needed ( cfXXX Zadrozny 1987b ) .	22
Since earlier versions of the SNoW based CSCL were used only to identify single phrases ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) and never to identify a collection of several phrases at the same time , as we do here , we also trained and tested it under the exact conditions of CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) to compare it to other shallow parsers .	33
In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .	00
Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .	00
Our plan is to implement a windowed or moving-average version of BLEU as in ( Chiang et al. , 2008 ) .	55
This result is consistent with other works using this model with these features ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .	22
However , Dunning ( 1993 ) claims that the log-likelihood chisquared statistic ( G2 ) is more appropriate for corpus-based NLP .	44
Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - .	00
In other words AJAX is a web development technique for creating interactive web applications using a combination of XHTML and CSS , Document Object Model ( or DOM ) , the XMLHTTPRequest object ( Wikipedia , 2005 ) .	00
Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .	11
Using the bottom-up , dynamic programming technique ( see the appendix for details ) of computing inside probabilities ( Lari and Young 1990 ) , we can efficiently compute the probability of the sentence , P ( w \| G ) .	11
Identical to the standard perceptron proof , e.g. , Collins ( 2002 ) , by inserting in loss-separability for normal separability .	00
McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .	00
For the evaluation of the results we use the BLEU score ( Papineni et al. , 2001 ) .	11
At the same time , we believe our method has advantages over the approach developed initially at IBM ( Brown et al. 1990 ; Brown et al. 1993 ) for training translation systems automatically .	22
Some of the intuitions we associate with this notion have been very well expressed by Turner ( 1987 , pp. 7-8 ) : ... Semantics is constrained by our models of ourselves and our worlds .	00
All current approaches to monolingual TE , either syntactically oriented ( Rus et al. , 2005 ) , or applying logical inference ( Tatu and Moldovan , 2005 ) , or adopting transformation-based techniques ( Kouleykov and Magnini , 2005 ; Bar-Haim et al. , 2008 ) , incorporate different types of lexical knowledge to support textual inference .	00
A more flexible approach is used by Reiter and Sripada ( 2002 ) , where users can specify boundary values for attributes like rainfall , specifying , for example , rain counts as moderate above 7 mm/h , as heavy above 20 mm/h , and so on .	00
Alternatively , we may think of user-centered comparative studies ( Hersh et al. , 1995 ) .	55
The EM algorithm ( Dempster et al. , 1977 ) can maximize these functions .	11
ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .	00
To address this problem , we are currently working on developing a metagrammar in the sense of ( Candito , 1999 ) .	55
These observations and this line of reasoning has not escaped the attention of theoretical linguists : Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) propose that argument structure is , in fact , encoded syntactically .	00
For all experiments reported in this section we used the syntactic dependency parser MaltParser v1 .3 ( Nivre 2003 , 2008 ; KÃ¼bler , McDonald , and Nivre 2009 ) , a transition-based parser with an input buffer and a stack , which uses SVM classifiers	11
Using WordNet , annotating the sem feature of an adjective involves first choosing the correct sense for the adjective 2Some descriptions of int modifiers can be found in ( Cheng and Mellish , 2000b ) .	00
There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) .	00
The disambiguation of person names in Web results is usually compared to two other Natural Language Processing tasks : Word Sense Disambiguation ( WSD ) ( Agirre and Edmonds , 2006 ) and Cross-document Coreference ( CDC ) ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ) .	00
Michiels ( 1982 ) and Akkerman et al. ( 1985 ) provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description .	00
The numeral ( whether it is implicit , as in ( 3 ) , or explicit ) can be construed as allowing the reader to draw inferences about the standards employed ( Kyburg and Morreau 2000 ; DeVault and Stone 2004 ) : ( 3 ) , for example , implies a standard that counts 10 cm as large and 8 cm as not large .	00
The table also presents the closest comparable experimental results reported by McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) .1 McKnight and Srinivasan ( henceforth , M&S ) created a test collection consisting of 37,151 RCTs from approximately 12 million MEDLINE abstracts dated between 1976 and 2001 .	22
Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .	00
We have since improved the interface by incorporating a capability in the recognizer to propose additional solutions in turn once the first one fails to parse ( Zue et al. 1991 ) To produce these `` N-best '' alternatives , we make use of a standard A * search algorithm ( Hart 1968 , Jelinek 1976 ) .	11
All experiments have been performed using MaltParser ( Nivre et al. , 2006 ) , version 0.4 , which is made available together with the suite of programs used for preand post-processing .1	11
Another paper ( Yoshinaga et al. , 2001 ) describes the detailed analysis on the factor of the difference of parsing performance .	00
Other psycholing-uistic studies that confirm the validity of paragraph units can be found in Black and Bower ( 1979 ) and Haberlandt et al. ( 1980 ) .	00
Many lexicons , both automatically acquired and manually created , are more fine grained in their approaches to subcategorized clausal arguments , differentiating , for example , between a that-clause and a to + infinitive clause ( Ushioda et al. 1993 ) .	00
Experiments ( Section 5 ) show that forestbased extraction improves BLEU score by over 1 point on a state-of-the-art tree-to-string system ( Liu et al. , 2006 ; Mi et al. , 2008 ) , which is also 0.5 points better than ( and twice as fast as ) extracting on 30-best parses .	33
To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by SmrÅ¾ ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .	22
Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .	00
Automatic text categorization has been used in search engines , digital library systems , and document management systems ( Yang , 1999 ) .	00
Other work on modeling the meanings of verbs using video recognition has also begun showing great promise ( Mathe et al. , 2008 ; Regneri et al. , 2013 ) .	00
We use the same data setting with Xue ( 2008 ) , however a bit different from Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) .	22
Optimizing for dependency arc length is particularly important as parsers tend to do worse on longer dependencies ( McDonald and Nivre , 2007 ) and these dependencies are typically the most meaningful for downstream tasks , e.g. , main verb dependencies for tasks	44
More recently , an alignment selection approach was proposed in ( Huang , 2009 ) , which computes confidence scores for each link and prunes the links from multiple sets of alignments using a hand-picked threshold .	22
Secondly , we need to investigate techniques for identifying identical documents , virtually identical documents and highly repetitive documents , such as those pioneered by Fletcher ( 2004b ) and shingling techniques described by Chakrabarti ( 2002 ) .	55
4To prove ( 1 ) â ( 3 ) , express f as an FST and apply the well-known Kleene-Sch Â¨ utzenberger construction ( Berstel and Reutenauer , 1988 ) , taking care to write each regexp in the construction as a constant times a probabilistic regexp .	11
Curran ( 2003 )	00
Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) showed how the perceptron algorithm can be used to efficiently compute the best parse with DOP1 's subtrees , reporting a 5.1 % relative reduction in error rate over the model in Collins ( 1999 ) on the WSJ .	00
For MT the most commonly used heuristic is called grow diagonal final ( Och and Ney 2003 ) .	22

Such technologies require significant human input , and are difficult to create and maintain ( Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .

00

â¢ The transition probability a is 0.7 using the EM algorithm ( Rabiner , 1989 ) on the TREC4 ad-hoc query set .

11

This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .

22

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .

00

The combination of likelihood and prior modeling , HMMs , and Viterbi decoding is fundamentally the same as the standard probabilistic approaches to speech recognition ( Bahl , Jelinek , and Mercer 1983 ) and tagging ( Church 1988 ) .

22

Some recent GRE algorithms have done away with the separation between content determination and linguistic realization , interleaving the two processes instead ( Stone and Webber 1998 ; Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) .

22

We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) .

11

Ushioda et al. ( 1993 ) run a finite-state NP parser on a POS-tagged corpus to calculate the relative frequency of the same six subcategorization verb classes .

00

In addition , there are a number of projects under way to develop substantial lexicons from machine readable sources ( see Boguraev , 1986 for details ) .

00

Secondly , as ( Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) show , marginalizing out the different segmentations during decoding leads to improved performance .

55

Agreement between two annotation sets is calculated here in terms of Cohen 's kappa ( Cohen , 1960 ) 1 and corrected kappa ( Brennan and Prediger , 1981 ) 2 .

11

This approach is taken , for example , in LKB ( Copestake 1992 ) where lexical rules are introduced on a par with phrase structure rules and the parser makes no distinction between lexical and nonlexical rules ( Copestake 1993 , 31 ) .

22

Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .

22

There have been many studies on parsing techniques ( Poller and Becker , 1998 ; Flickinger et al. , 2000 ) , ones on disambiguation models ( Chiang , 2000 ; Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) , and ones on programming/grammar-development environ -

00

( 7 ) NEIGHBOR : Research in lexical semantics suggests that the SC of an NP can be inferred from its distributionally similar NPs ( see Lin ( 1998a ) ) .

44

These features are carefully designed to reduce the data sparseness problem and some of them are inspired by previous work ( He et al. , 2008 ; Gimpel and Smith , 2008 ; Marton and Resnik , 2008 ; Chiang et al. , 2009 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ; Shen et al. , 2009 ; Xiong et al. , 2009 ) : 1 .

44

With a minimal set of features and a small number of lexical entries , Niyogi ( 2001 ) has successfully modeled many of the argument alternations described by Levin ( 1993 ) using a Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) style analysis .

00

The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .

00

Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) .

55

Rubenstein and Goodenough ( 1965 ) reported an intra-subject correlation of r = .85 for 15 subjects judging the similarity of a subset ( 36 ) of the original 65 word pairs .

22

The flexible architecture we have presented enables interesting future research : ( i ) a straightforward improvement is the use of lexical similarity to reduce data sparseness , e.g. ( Basili et al. , 2005 ; Basili et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ) .

00

Nugget F-score has been employed as a metric in the TREC question-answering track since 2003 , to evaluate so-called definition and `` other '' questions ( Voorhees 2003 ) .

00

Part of speech taggers typically require input in the format of a single sentence per line ( for example Brill 's tagger ( Brill , 1992 ) ) and parsers generally aim to produce a tree spanning each sentence .

00

More specifically , we use LIBSVM ( Chang and Lin , 2001 ) with a quadratic kernel K ( xZ , xj ) = ( - yxT xj + r ) 2 and the built-in one-versus-all strategy for multi-class classification .

11

This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .

22

Other approaches use less deep linguistic resources ( e.g. , POS-tags Stymne ( 2008 ) ) or are ( almost ) knowledge-free ( e.g. , Koehn and Knight ( 2003 ) ) .

22

For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .

00

This description can then be given the standard set-theoretical interpretation of King ( 1989 , 1994 ) . '

00

Williams and Koehn ( 2011 ) used unification in an SMT system to model some of the

22

Based on a computational grammar that associates natural language expressions with both a syntactic and a semantic representation , a paraphrastic gram ` As we shall briefly discuss in section 4 , the grammar is developed with the help of a meta-grammar ( Candito , 1999 ) thus ensuring an additional level of abstraction .

11

5 The open source Moses ( Hoang et al. 2007 ) toolkit from www.statmt.org/moses/ .

11

Reiter describes a pipelined modular approach as a consensus architecture underlying most recent work in generation ( Reiter 1994 ) .

00

Unlike other POS taggers , this POS tagger ( Mikheev 2000 ) was also trained to disambiguate sentence boundaries .

11

` See ( King , 1994 ) for a discussion of the appropriateness of TIG for HPSG and a comparison with other feature logic approaches designed for HPSG .

00

This heuristic is called soft union ( DeNero and Klein 2007 ) .

11

We consider the Creative Commons model as the most suitable one to let each author choose the rights to reserve ( Lessig , 2004 ) .

11

5An alternative strategy to step ( 4 ) is to perform a database lookup based on the ambiguous query and summarize the results ( Litman et al. , 1998 ) , which we leave for future work .

55

For example , the forward-backward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) trains only Hidden Markov Models , while ( Ristad and Yianilos , 1996 ) trains only stochastic edit distance .

00

The right-side context of a non-terminal category -- the probability of generating a category to the right of the current constituent 's category -- corresponds directly to the category transitions used for the HMM supertagger of Garrette et al. ( 2014 ) .

22

For example , Gay et al. ( 2005 ) experimented with abstracts and full article texts in the task of automatically generating index term recommendations and discovered that using full article texts yields at most a 7.4 % improvement in F-score .

00

To model o ( Li , S â T ) , o ( Ri , S â T ) , i.e. the reordering of the neighboring phrases of a function word , we employ the orientation model introduced by Setiawan et al. ( 2007 ) .

11

In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .

00

Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) .

00

It provides a fine grained NE recognition covering 100 different NE types ( Sekine , 2008 ) .

11

MEDLINE , the authoritative repository of abstracts from the medical and biomedical primary literature maintained by the National Library of Medicine , provides the clinically relevant sources for answering physicians ' questions , and is commonly used in that capacity ( Cogdill and Moore 1997 ; De Groote and Dorsch 2003 ) .

00

To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by SmrÅ¾ ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .

22

Table 5 shows our mapping from publication type and MeSH headings to evidence grades based on principles defined in the Strength of Recommendations Taxonomy ( Ebell et al. 2004 ) .

11

We run GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2000 ) on the training corpus in both directions ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) to obtain the word alignment for each sentence pair .

11

The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering .

00

McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .

22

Previously LDA has been successfully used to infer unsupervised joint topic distributions over words and feature norms together ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .

00

It would seem therefore that the iteration of the PT operation to form a closure is needed ( cfXXX Zadrozny 1987b ) .

22

Since earlier versions of the SNoW based CSCL were used only to identify single phrases ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) and never to identify a collection of several phrases at the same time , as we do here , we also trained and tested it under the exact conditions of CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) to compare it to other shallow parsers .

33

In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .

00

Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .

00

Our plan is to implement a windowed or moving-average version of BLEU as in ( Chiang et al. , 2008 ) .

55

This result is consistent with other works using this model with these features ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .

22

However , Dunning ( 1993 ) claims that the log-likelihood chisquared statistic ( G2 ) is more appropriate for corpus-based NLP .

44

Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - .

00

In other words AJAX is a web development technique for creating interactive web applications using a combination of XHTML and CSS , Document Object Model ( or DOM ) , the XMLHTTPRequest object ( Wikipedia , 2005 ) .

00

Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .

11

Using the bottom-up , dynamic programming technique ( see the appendix for details ) of computing inside probabilities ( Lari and Young 1990 ) , we can efficiently compute the probability of the sentence , P ( w | G ) .

11

Identical to the standard perceptron proof , e.g. , Collins ( 2002 ) , by inserting in loss-separability for normal separability .

00

McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .

00

For the evaluation of the results we use the BLEU score ( Papineni et al. , 2001 ) .

11

At the same time , we believe our method has advantages over the approach developed initially at IBM ( Brown et al. 1990 ; Brown et al. 1993 ) for training translation systems automatically .

22

Some of the intuitions we associate with this notion have been very well expressed by Turner ( 1987 , pp. 7-8 ) : ... Semantics is constrained by our models of ourselves and our worlds .

00

All current approaches to monolingual TE , either syntactically oriented ( Rus et al. , 2005 ) , or applying logical inference ( Tatu and Moldovan , 2005 ) , or adopting transformation-based techniques ( Kouleykov and Magnini , 2005 ; Bar-Haim et al. , 2008 ) , incorporate different types of lexical knowledge to support textual inference .

00

A more flexible approach is used by Reiter and Sripada ( 2002 ) , where users can specify boundary values for attributes like rainfall , specifying , for example , rain counts as moderate above 7 mm/h , as heavy above 20 mm/h , and so on .

00

Alternatively , we may think of user-centered comparative studies ( Hersh et al. , 1995 ) .

55

The EM algorithm ( Dempster et al. , 1977 ) can maximize these functions .

11

ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .

00

To address this problem , we are currently working on developing a metagrammar in the sense of ( Candito , 1999 ) .

55

These observations and this line of reasoning has not escaped the attention of theoretical linguists : Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) propose that argument structure is , in fact , encoded syntactically .

00

For all experiments reported in this section we used the syntactic dependency parser MaltParser v1 .3 ( Nivre 2003 , 2008 ; KÃ¼bler , McDonald , and Nivre 2009 ) , a transition-based parser with an input buffer and a stack , which uses SVM classifiers

11

Using WordNet , annotating the sem feature of an adjective involves first choosing the correct sense for the adjective 2Some descriptions of int modifiers can be found in ( Cheng and Mellish , 2000b ) .

00

There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) .

00

The disambiguation of person names in Web results is usually compared to two other Natural Language Processing tasks : Word Sense Disambiguation ( WSD ) ( Agirre and Edmonds , 2006 ) and Cross-document Coreference ( CDC ) ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ) .

00

Michiels ( 1982 ) and Akkerman et al. ( 1985 ) provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description .

00

The numeral ( whether it is implicit , as in ( 3 ) , or explicit ) can be construed as allowing the reader to draw inferences about the standards employed ( Kyburg and Morreau 2000 ; DeVault and Stone 2004 ) : ( 3 ) , for example , implies a standard that counts 10 cm as large and 8 cm as not large .

00

The table also presents the closest comparable experimental results reported by McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) .1 McKnight and Srinivasan ( henceforth , M&S ) created a test collection consisting of 37,151 RCTs from approximately 12 million MEDLINE abstracts dated between 1976 and 2001 .

22

Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .

00

We have since improved the interface by incorporating a capability in the recognizer to propose additional solutions in turn once the first one fails to parse ( Zue et al. 1991 ) To produce these `` N-best '' alternatives , we make use of a standard A * search algorithm ( Hart 1968 , Jelinek 1976 ) .

11

All experiments have been performed using MaltParser ( Nivre et al. , 2006 ) , version 0.4 , which is made available together with the suite of programs used for preand post-processing .1

11

Another paper ( Yoshinaga et al. , 2001 ) describes the detailed analysis on the factor of the difference of parsing performance .

00

Other psycholing-uistic studies that confirm the validity of paragraph units can be found in Black and Bower ( 1979 ) and Haberlandt et al. ( 1980 ) .

00

Many lexicons , both automatically acquired and manually created , are more fine grained in their approaches to subcategorized clausal arguments , differentiating , for example , between a that-clause and a to + infinitive clause ( Ushioda et al. 1993 ) .

00

Experiments ( Section 5 ) show that forestbased extraction improves BLEU score by over 1 point on a state-of-the-art tree-to-string system ( Liu et al. , 2006 ; Mi et al. , 2008 ) , which is also 0.5 points better than ( and twice as fast as ) extracting on 30-best parses .

33

To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by SmrÅ¾ ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .

22

Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .

00

Automatic text categorization has been used in search engines , digital library systems , and document management systems ( Yang , 1999 ) .

00

Other work on modeling the meanings of verbs using video recognition has also begun showing great promise ( Mathe et al. , 2008 ; Regneri et al. , 2013 ) .

00

We use the same data setting with Xue ( 2008 ) , however a bit different from Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) .

22

Optimizing for dependency arc length is particularly important as parsers tend to do worse on longer dependencies ( McDonald and Nivre , 2007 ) and these dependencies are typically the most meaningful for downstream tasks , e.g. , main verb dependencies for tasks

44

More recently , an alignment selection approach was proposed in ( Huang , 2009 ) , which computes confidence scores for each link and prunes the links from multiple sets of alignments using a hand-picked threshold .

22

Secondly , we need to investigate techniques for identifying identical documents , virtually identical documents and highly repetitive documents , such as those pioneered by Fletcher ( 2004b ) and shingling techniques described by Chakrabarti ( 2002 ) .

55

4To prove ( 1 ) â ( 3 ) , express f as an FST and apply the well-known Kleene-Sch Â¨ utzenberger construction ( Berstel and Reutenauer , 1988 ) , taking care to write each regexp in the construction as a constant times a probabilistic regexp .

11

Curran ( 2003 )

00

Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) showed how the perceptron algorithm can be used to efficiently compute the best parse with DOP1 's subtrees , reporting a 5.1 % relative reduction in error rate over the model in Collins ( 1999 ) on the WSJ .

00

For MT the most commonly used heuristic is called grow diagonal final ( Och and Ney 2003 ) .

22