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Unless very high rates of misspellings are to be expected ( this explains the favorable results for trigram indexing in ( Franz et al. , 2000 ) ) one can not really recommend this method . | 22 |
Another technique for making better use of unlabeled data is cotraining ( Blum and Mitchell 1998 ) , in which two sufficiently different learners help each other learn by labeling training data for one another . | 00 |
Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech . | 44 |
Church ( 1995 , p. 294 ) studied , among other simple text normalization techniques , the effect of case normalization for different words and showed that `` sometimes case variants refer to the same thing ( hurricane and Hurricane ) , sometimes they refer to different things ( continental and Continental ) and sometim... | 00 |
This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics . | 22 |
Berger et al. 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ; Soricut and Brill 2006 ) . | 22 |
( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions . | 00 |
This choice is motivated by an observation we made previously ( Hasan and Ng , 2013a ) : since each post in a sequence is a reply to the preceding post , we could exploit their dependencies by determining their stance labels together .3 As our sequence learner , we employ a maximum entropy Markov model ( MEMM ) ( McCal... | 33 |
This is mainly due to the fact that Arabic is a non-concatenative language ( Al-Shalabi and Evens , 1998 ) , and that the stem/infix obtained by suppression of infix and prefix add-ons is not the same for words derived from the same origin called the root . | 00 |
The features can be easily obtained by modifying the TAT extraction algorithm described in ( Liu et al. , 2006 ) . | 33 |
The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( Boguraev , 1987 ; Russell et al. , 1986 ; Phillips and Thompson , 1986 ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English . | 00 |
As a result , researchers have re-adopted the once-popular knowledge-rich approach , investigating a variety of semantic knowledge sources for common noun resolution , such as the semantic relations between two NPs ( e.g. , Ji et al. ( 2005 ) ) , their semantic similarity as computed using WordNet ( e.g. , Poesio et al... | 00 |
See Lopez and Resnik ( 2006 ) for further discussion . | 00 |
The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and... | 00 |
More generally , distributional clustering techniques ( Sch ¨ utze , 1992 ; Pereira et al. , 1993 ) could be applied to extract semantic classes from the corpus itself . | 55 |
Following our previous work ( Karamanis and Manurung 2002 ; Althaus , Karamanis , and Koller 2004 ) , the input to information ordering is an unordered set of informationbearing items represented as CF lists . | 33 |
In the disambiguation of capitalized words , the most widespread method is POS tagging , which achieves about a 3 % error rate on the Brown corpus and a 5 % error rate on the WSJ corpus , as reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) . | 22 |
Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) . | 22 |
This alignment is done on the basis of both length ( Gale and Church [ 7 ] ) and a notion of cognateness ( Simard [ 16 ] ) . | 11 |
mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance . | 00 |
raw length value as a feature , we follow our previous work ( Rubino et al. , 2013 ; Wagner et al. , 2014 ) and create multiple features for length using a decision tree ( J48 ) . | 33 |
fields generally follow the pattern of `` introduction '' , `` methods '' , `` results '' , and `` conclusions '' ( SalangerMeyer , 1990 ; Swales , 1990 ; OrËasan , 2001 ) . | 00 |
A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) . | 00 |
It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; Watson 1997 ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) . | 00 |
Results from other systems show that measures of semantic coherence between a student and a system were positively associated with higher learning gain ( Ward and Litman , 2006 ) . | 55 |
We have presented an ensemble approach to word sense disambiguation ( Pedersen , 2000 ) where multiple Naive Bayesian classifiers , each based on co -- occurrence features from varying sized windows of context , is shown to perform well on the widely studied nouns interest and line . | 00 |
To solve these scaling issues , we implement Online Variational Bayesian Inference ( Hoffman et al. , 2010 ; Hoffman et al. , 2012 ) for our models . | 11 |
Other similar approaches include those of Cicekli and G ¨ uvenir ( 1996 ) , McTait and Trujillo ( 1999 ) , Carl ( 1999 ) , and Brown ( 2000 ) , inter alia . | 00 |
Cases of intracategorial synonymy are relatively straigthtforward as several electronic synonym dictionnaries for french are available ( Ploux , 1997 ) . | 00 |
Sanderson , 1994 studied the issue of disambiguation for mono-lingual M. | 00 |
There have been many studies on parsing techniques ( Poller and Becker , 1998 ; Flickinger et al. , 2000 ) , ones on disambiguation models ( Chiang , 2000 ; Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) , and ones on programming/grammar-development environ - | 00 |
A previous work along this line is Sproat et al. ( 1996 ) , which is based on weighted finite-state transducers ( FSTs ) . | 22 |
A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) . | 22 |
An HPSG grammar consists of lexical entries and ID grammar rules , each of which is described with typed feature structures ( Carpenter , 1992 ) . | 00 |
Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and... | 00 |
Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bru... | 00 |
The BEETLE II system architecture is designed to overcome these limitations ( Callaway et al. , 2007 ) . | 00 |
In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) . | 00 |
9 We only use the minimal GHKM rules ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) here to reduce the complexity of the sampler . | 11 |
Our results also confirm the insights gained by Blitzer et al. ( 2007 ) , who observed that in crossdomain polarity analysis adding more training data is not always beneficial . | 22 |
This result is consistent with other works using this model with these features ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) . | 22 |
For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et ... | 00 |
We found that the oldest system ( Brown et al. , 1992 ) yielded the best prototypes , and that using these prototypes gave state-of-the-art performance on WSJ , as well as improvements on nearly all of the non-English corpora . | 00 |
We follow Lewis and Steedman ( 2014 ) in allowing a small set of generic , linguistically-plausible unary and binary grammar rules . | 11 |
Other approaches use less deep linguistic resources ( e.g. , POS-tags Stymne ( 2008 ) ) or are ( almost ) knowledge-free ( e.g. , Koehn and Knight ( 2003 ) ) . | 22 |
1 The representation in Mohri and Pereira ( 1998 ) is even more compact than ours for grammars that are not self-embedding . | 22 |
⢠cross-language information retrieval ( e.g. , McCarley 1999 ) , ⢠multilingual document filtering ( e.g. , Oard 1997 ) , ⢠computer-assisted language learning ( e.g. , Nerbonne et al. 1997 ) , ⢠certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. , Macklovitch 1994 ; Melamed 1996a ) , ⢠concordancing for bili... | 00 |
Lee et al. ( 2012 ) model entity coreference and event coreference jointly ; Durrett and Klein ( 2014 ) consider joint coreference and entity-linking . | 00 |
We carried out two parallel experiments with two parsers available for Czech , parser I ( Hajie et al. , 1998 ) and parser II ( Charniak , 1999 ) . | 11 |
In a log-linear parameterization , for example , a prior that penalizes feature strengths far from 1 can be used to do feature selection and avoid overfitting ( Chen and Rosenfeld , 1999 ) . | 11 |
The PICO framework ( Richardson et al. 1995 ) for capturing well-formulated clinical queries ( described in Section 2 ) can serve as the basis of a knowledge representation that bridges the needs of clinicians and analytical capabilities of a system . | 00 |
The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; Gruber , 1965 ; Fillmore , 1968 ) . | 00 |
One approach to partial parsing was presented by Buchholz et al. ( 1999 ) , who extended a shallow-parsing technique to partial parsing . | 00 |
Hirschberg and Litman ( 1987 ) and Litman and Hirschberg ( 1990 ) also examine the relation between discourse and prosodic phrasing . | 00 |
Morris and Hirst ( 2004 ) pointed out that many relations between words in a text are non-classical ( i.e. other than typical taxonomic relations like synonymy or hypernymy ) and therefore not covered by semantic similarity . | 00 |
To sum up , this work has been carried out to automatically classify Arabic documents using the NB algorithm , with the use of a different data set , a different number of categories , and a different root extraction algorithm from those used in ( Yahyaoui , 2001 ) . | 22 |
Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , ... | 11 |
In our previous work ( Salloum and Habash , 2011 ; Salloum and Habash , 2012 ) , we applied our approach to tokenized Arabic and our DA-MSA transfer component used feature transfer rules only . | 22 |
Table 2 shows the results on identifying all phrases -- chunking in CoNLL2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) terminology . | 11 |
We prepare the training data by splitting compounds in two steps , following the technique of Fritzinger and Fraser ( 2010 ) . | 11 |
More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) . | 00 |
ASARES has been previously applied to the acquisition of word pairs sharing semantic relations defined in the Generative Lexicon framework ( Pustejovsky , 1995 ) and called qualia relations ( Bouillon et al. , 2001 ) . | 00 |
The basic Python reflection has already been implemented and used for large scale experiments with POS tagging , using pyMPI ( a message passing interface library for Python ) to coordinate experiments across a cluster of over 100 machines ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) . | 00 |
The system utilizes several large size biological databases including three NCBI databases ( GenPept [ 11 ] , RefSeq [ 12 ] , and Entrez GENE [ 13 ] ) , PSD database from Protein Information Resources ( PIR ) [ 14 ] , and | 11 |
Undesirable consequences of this fact have been termed `` label bias '' ( Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) . | 00 |
The emphasis on narrativity takes into account the use of blogs as public diaries on the web , that is still the main current interpretation of this literary genre , or metagenre ( McNeill , 2005 ) . | 00 |
The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; Gruber , 1965 ; Fillmore , 1968 ) . | 00 |
Our recovery policy is modeled on the TargetedHelp ( Hockey et al. , 2003 ) policy used in task-oriented dialogue . | 33 |
As a result , researchers have re-adopted the once-popular knowledge-rich approach , investigating a variety of semantic knowledge sources for common noun resolution , such as the semantic relations between two NPs ( e.g. , Ji et al. ( 2005 ) ) , their semantic similarity as computed using WordNet ( e.g. , Poesio et al... | 00 |
There are many more distinctions which are conveyed by the conjunction of grammar codes and word qualifiers ( see Michiels , 1982 , for further details ) . | 00 |
Venables and Ripley ( 1994 ) describe an efficient algorithm ( of linear complexity in the number of training sentences ) for computing the LDA transform matrix , which entails computing the withinand between-covariance matrices of the classes , and using Singular Value Decomposition ( SVD ) to compute the eigenvectors... | 11 |
For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( Ide et al. , 2002 ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) , currently used for training POS taggers . | 00 |
The extraction of each PICO element relies to a different extent on an annotated corpus of MEDLINE abstracts , created through an effort led by the first author at the National Library of Medicine ( Demner-Fushman et al. 2006 ) . | 11 |
This approach is taken in computational syntactic grammars ( e.g. Jensen 1986 ) ; the number of unlikely parses is severely reduced whenever possible , but no attempt is made to define only the so-called grammatical strings of a language . | 00 |
Features were discovered from the actual sentence plan trees that the SPG generated through the feature derivation process described below , in a manner similar to that used by Collins ( 2000 ) . | 22 |
feature Cohen 's k corrected k agreement 73.59 98.74 dial act 84.53 98.87 turn 73.52 99.16 Table 2 : Inter-coder agreement on feedback expression annotation Although researchers do not totally agree on how to measure agreement in various types of annotated data and on how to interpret the resulting figures , see Artste... | 00 |
Two applications that , like help-desk , deal with question -- answer pairs are : summarization of e-mail threads ( Dalli , Xia , and Wilks 2004 ; Shrestha and McKeown 2004 ) , and answer extraction in FAQs ( Frequently Asked Questions ) ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; | 22 |
We would like to use features that look at wide context on the input side , which is inexpensive ( Jiampojamarn et al. , 2007 ) . | 55 |
Although this is only true in cases where y occurs in an upward monotone context ( MacCartney and Manning , 2007 ) , in practice genuine contradictions between y-values sharing a meronym relationship are extremely rare . | 44 |
A similar method is included in PATR-II ( Shieber et al. 1983 ) and can be used to encode lexical rules as binary relations in the CUF system ( Dorre and Eisele 1991 ; Done and Dorna 1993b ) or the TFS system ( Emele and Zajac 1990 ; Emele 1994 ) . | 22 |
One area of current interest concerns the left-to-right arrangement of premodifying adjectives within an NP ( e.g. , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou 1999 ; Malouf 2000 ) . | 00 |
Secondly , the cooperative principle of Grice ( 1975 , 1978 ) , under the assumption that referential levels of a writer and a reader are quite similar , implies that the writer should structure the text in a way that makes the construction of his intended model easy for the reader ; and this seems to imply that he sho... | 44 |
The grammar code system used in LDOCE is based quite closely on the descriptive grammatical framework of Quirk et al. ( 1972 , 1985 ) . | 33 |
IGEN uses standard chart generation techniques ( Kay , 1996 ) in its base generator to efficiently produce generation candidates . | 00 |
For example , Jokinen and Ragni ( 2007 ) and Jokinen et al. ( 2008 ) find that machine learning algorithms can be trained to recognise some of the functions of head movements , while Reidsma et al. ( 2009 ) show that there is a dependence between focus of attention and assignment of dialogue act labels . | 00 |
Not having to represent the frame explicitly not only enables the linguist to express only the relevant things , but also allows a more compact representation of lexical rules where explicit framing would require the rules to be split up ( Meurers 1994 ) . | 00 |
Michiels proposed rules for doing this for infinitive complement codes ; however there seems to be no principled reason not to extend this approach to computing the underlying relations in other types of VP as well as in cases of NP , AP and PP predication ( see Williams ( 1980 ) , for further discussion ) . | 00 |
Later works , such as Atallah et al. ( 2001a ) , Bolshakov ( 2004 ) , Taskiran et al. ( 2006 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006b ) , further made use of part-ofspeech taggers and electronic dictionaries , such as WordNet and VerbNet , to increase the robustness of the method . | 00 |
Sedivy et al. ( 1999 ) asked subjects to identify the target of a vague description in a visual scene . | 00 |
We use the same splits as Garrette et al. ( 2014 ) . | 11 |
For english , there is for instance the 15 year old HewlettPackard test suite , a simple text file listing test sentences and grouping them according to linguistics phenomena ( Flickinger et al. , 1987 ) ; and more recently , the much more sophisticated TSNLP ( Test Suite for Natural Language Processing ) which include... | 00 |
We work with a semi-technical text on meteorological phenomena ( Larrick , 1961 ) , meant for primary school students . | 11 |
We performed translation experiments with an implementation of the IBM-4 translation model ( Brown et al. , 1993 ) . | 11 |
Unless it is desired to intentionally filter these out as being outside of the new domain , one can insert some arbitrarily small probability for these arcs , using , for example , an N-gram back-off model ( Katz 1987 ) . | 00 |
Efficient hardware implementation is also possible via chip-level parallelism ( Rote , 1985 ) . | 55 |
The Nash arbitration plan , for example , would allow a doubly graded description whenever the product of the Values for the referent r exceeds that of all distractors ( Nash 1950 ; cfXXX Gorniak and Roy 2003 ; Thorisson 1994 , for other plans ) . | 00 |
However , more recent work ( Cahill et al. 2002 ; Cahill , McCarthy , et al. 2004 ) has presented efforts in evolving and scaling up annotation techniques to the Penn-II Treebank ( Marcus et al. 1994 ) , containing more than 1,000,000 words and 49,000 sentences . | 00 |
This equivalence is doing essentially the same job as Pereira 's pronoun abstraction schema in Pereira ( 1990 ) . | 22 |
For more details on the proprieties of SSTC , see Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) . | 00 |
The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed . | 22 |
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