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We use the open-source Moses toolkit ( Koehn et al. , 2007 ) to build a phrase-based SMT system trained on mostly MSA data ( 64M words on the Arabic side ) obtained from several LDC corpora including some limited DA data . | 11 |
Blunsom et al. ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ) utilized Bayesian methods to learn synchronous context free grammars ( SCFG ) from a parallel corpus . | 22 |
Brent ( 1993 ) relies on morphosyntactic cues in the untagged Brown corpus as indicators of six predefined subcategorization frames . | 00 |
SNoW ( Carleson et al. , 1999 ; Roth , 1998 ) is a multi-class classifier that is specifically tailored for learning in domains in which the potential number of information sources ( features ) taking part in decisions is very large , of which NLP is a principal example . | 11 |
Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech . | 44 |
Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) . | 00 |
A detailed introduction to the SBD problem can be found in Palmer and Hearst ( 1997 ) . | 00 |
In the latter case , we can also take care of transferring the value of z. However , as discussed by Meurers ( 1994 ) , creating several instances of lexical rules can be avoided . | 44 |
Using the tree-cut technique described above , our previous work ( Tomuro , 2000 ) extracted systematic polysemy from WordNet . | 33 |
The M step then treats c as fixed , observed data and adjusts 0 until the predicted vector of total feature counts equals c , using Improved Iterative Scaling ( Della Pietra et al. , 1997 ; Chen and | 11 |
More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : Daille ( 2003 ) uses derivational morphology ; Grabar and Zweigenbaum ( 2002 ) use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters . | 00 |
Barzilay and McKeown ( 2001 ) also note that the applicability of paraphrases is strongly influenced by context . | 00 |
Following the work of Stymne and Cancedda ( 2011 ) , we implement a linear-chain CRF merging system using the following features : stemmed ( separated ) surface form , part-of-speech14 and frequencies from the training corpus for bigrams/merging of word and word +1 , word as true prefix , word +1 as true suffix , plus ... | 11 |
27 Briscoe and Copestake ( 1996 ) argue that semi-productivity of lexical rules , which can be understood as a generalization of exceptions to lexical rules , can be integrated with our approach by assigning probabilities to the automaton associated with a particular lexical entry . | 00 |
They are widely used in MT as a way to figure out how to translate input in one language into output in another language ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) . | 00 |
This problem may be similar to the situation in which current formal grammars allow nonsensical but parsable collections of words ( e.g. , `` colorless green ideas ... '' ) , while before the advent of Chomskyan formalisms , a sentence was defined as the smallest meaningful collection of words ; Fowler ( 1965 , p. 546 ... | 00 |
TF is given by TFD , t , and it denotes frequency of term t in document D. IDF is given by IDFt = log ( N/dft ) , where N is the number of documents in the collection , and dft is the number of documents containing the term t. ( Salton and Yang , 1973 ) proposed the combination of TF and IDF as weighting schemes , and ... | 44 |
For some adjectives , including the ones that Bierwisch ( 1989 ) called evaluative ( as opposed to dimensional ) , this is clearly inadequate . | 00 |
Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow... | 55 |
They use a Bag of Visual Words ( BoVW ) model ( Lowe , 2004 ) to create a bimodal vocabulary describing documents . | 00 |
The semantic categories of verbs and other words are extracted from the Semantic Knowledge-base of Contemporary Chinese ( Wang et al. 2003 ) . | 11 |
This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar convers... | 00 |
Although evaluated on different data sets , this result is consistent with results from previous work ( Gatt and Belz , 2008 ; Gatt et al. , 2009 ) . | 22 |
According to Hobbs ( 1979 , p. 67 ) , these two sentences are incoherent . | 22 |
We use a standard split of 268 training documents , 68 development documents , and 106 testing documents ( Culotta et al. , 2007 ; Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) . | 11 |
When we run our classifiers on resource-tight environments such as cell-phones , we can use a random feature mixing technique ( Ganchev and Dredze , 2008 ) or a memory-efficient trie implementation based on a succinct data structure ( Jacobson , 1989 ; Delpratt et al. , 2006 ) to reduce required memory usage . | 55 |
The statistical significance test is performed by the re-sampling approach ( Koehn , 2004 ) . | 11 |
Corpus frequency : ( Vosse , 1992 ) differentiates between misspellings and neologisms ( new words ) in terms of their frequency . | 11 |
We gather similar words using Lin ( 1998a ) , mining similar verbs from a comparable-sized parsed corpus , and collecting similar nouns from a broader 10 GB corpus of English text .4 We also use Keller and Lapata ( 2003 ) 's approach to obtaining web-counts . | 11 |
Per-state joint normalization ( Eisner , 2001b , § 8.2 ) is similar but drops the dependence on a . | 22 |
There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979... | 00 |
Accordingly , we convert examples such as ( 27 ) into their generalized equivalents , as in ( 28 ) : ( 28 ) <DET> good man : bon homme That is , where Block ( 2000 ) substitutes variables for various words in his templates , we replace certain lexical items with their marker tag . | 22 |
We offer a theorem that highlights the broad applicability of these modeling techniques .4 If f ( input , output ) is a weighted regular relation , then the following statements are equivalent : ( 1 ) f is a joint probabilistic relation ; ( 2 ) f can be computed by a Markovian FST that halts with probability 1 ; ( 3 ) ... | 00 |
Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,0... | 22 |
In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ;... | 00 |
Such approaches have been tried recently in restricted cases ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ; Eisner , 2001b ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) . | 00 |
We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local win... | 22 |
In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1... | 00 |
Berger et al ( 1996 ) describe an efficient algorithm for accomplishing this in which approximations to Pst ( TIS ) are computed in parallel for all ( new ) features ft by holding all weights in the existing model fixed and optimizing only over a8t . | 00 |
The Longman lexicographers have developed a grammar coding system capable of representing in compact form a nontrivial amount of information , usually to be found only in large descriptive grammars of English ( such as Quirk et al. , 1985 ) . | 00 |
The framework represents a generalization of several predecessor NLG systems based on Meaning-Text Theory : FoG ( Kittredge and Polguere , 1991 ) , LFS ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1992 ) , and JOYCE ( Rambow and Korelsky , 1992 ) . | 33 |
We use the Clark and Curran ( 2007 ) CCG parser to analyse the sentence before and after paraphrasing . | 11 |
Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplan... | 00 |
The contextual interpreter then uses a reference resolution approach similar to Byron ( 2002 ) , and an ontology mapping mechanism ( Dzikovska et al. , 2008a ) to produce a domain-specific semantic representation of the student 's output . | 22 |
It is these orthographic variations and complex morphological structure that make Arabic language processing challenging ( Xu et al. , 2001 ; Xu et al. , 2002 ) . | 00 |
WIT has been implemented in Common Lisp and C on UNIX , and we have built several experimental and demonstration dialogue systems using it , including a meeting room reservation system ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) , a video-recording programming system , a schedule management system ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) , and a weath... | 33 |
Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) . | 00 |
Fung and McKeown ( 1997 ) attempt to translate technical terms using word relation matrices , although the resource from which such relations are derived is a pair of nonparallel corpora . | 00 |
There are many plausible representations , such as pairs of trees from synchronous tree adjoining grammars ( Abeille et al. 1990 ; Shieber 1994 ; Candito 1998 ) , lexical conceptual structures ( Dorr 1992 ) and WordNet synsets ( Fellbaum 1998 ; Vossen 1998 ) . | 00 |
Baseline Systems We choose three publicly available state-of-the-art end-to-end coreference systems as our baselines : Stanford system ( Lee et al. , 2011 ) , Berkeley system ( Durrett and Klein , 2014 ) and HOTCoref system ( Bj ¨ orkelund and Kuhn , 2014 ) . | 22 |
It is defined on different kinds of textual units , e.g. documents , parts of a document ( e.g. words and their surrounding context ) , words or concepts ( Lebart and Rajman , 2000 ) .2 Linguistic distance between words is inverse to their semantic similarity or relatedness . | 00 |
Word frequency counts in internet search engines are inconsistent and unreliable ( Veronis , 2005 ) . | 00 |
Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) . | 00 |
While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; Pechmann 1989 ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which... | 00 |
For the development of these lists we used a collection of texts of about 300,000 words derived from the New York Times ( NYT ) corpus that was supplied as training data for the 7th Message Understanding Conference ( MUC-7 ) ( Chinchor 1998 ) . | 00 |
Third , the paradigm of evidence-based medicine ( Sackett et al. 2000 ) provides a task-based model of the clinical information-seeking process . | 00 |
Following Ponzetto and Strube ( 2006 ) , we consider an anaphoric reference , NPi , correctly resolved if NPi and its closest antecedent are in the same coreference chain in the resulting partition . | 11 |
While many linguistic theories state subcategorization requirements in terms of phrase structure ( CFG categories ) , Dalrymple ( 2001 ) questions the viability and universality of such an approach because of the variety of ways in which grammatical functions may be realized at the language-specific constituent structu... | 00 |
A substring in the sentence that corresponds to a node in the representation tree is denoted by assigning the interval of the substring to SNODE of 2 These definitions are based on the discussion in ( Tang , 1994 ) and Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) . | 11 |
`` petty conversational implicature '' ( Hobbs 1979 ) , or the metarules of Section 5.2 ? | 00 |
They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) . | 44 |
Other tools have been designed around particular techniques , such as finite state machines ( Karttunen et al. , 1997 ; Mohri et al. , 1998 ) . | 00 |
Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) . | 00 |
Our own work ( Wang and Callison-Burch , 2011 ) extends the first idea to paraphrase fragment extraction on monolingual parallel and comparable corpora . | 33 |
Koehn and Hoang ( 2007 ) introduced factored SMT . | 22 |
An example of psycholinguistically oriented research work can be found in Bond and Hayes ( 1983 ) . | 00 |
Something like this approach is in fact used in some systems ( e.g. , Elhadad and Robin 1992 ; PenMan 1989 ; Hovy 1988a ) . | 00 |
Some approaches apply semantic parsing , where words and sentences are mapped to logical structure meaning ( Kate and Mooney , 2007 ) . | 00 |
Due to this inherent ambiguity , manual annotations usually distinguish between sure correspondences for unambiguous translations , and possible , for ambiguous translations ( Och and Ney 2003 ) . | 00 |
porating these two KSs into our resolver : they can Following Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , we select as the aneach be represented as a constraint or as a feature , tecedent of each NP , NPS , the closest preceding NP and they can be applied to the resolver in isolation that is classified as coreferent with NPS . | 44 |
Tenny ( 1987 ) observes that accomplishments differ from achievements only in terms of event duration , which is often a question of granularity . | 00 |
However , most strategies are based on `` internal '' or `` external methods '' ( Grabar and Zweigenbaum , 2002 ) , i.e. methods that rely on the form of terms or on the information gathered from contexts . | 22 |
Unfortunately , as shown in ( Okanohara and Tsujii , 2007 ) , with the represetation of sentences that we use , linear classifiers can not discriminate real sentences from sentences sampled from a trigram , which is the model we use as a baseline , so here we resort to a non-linear large-margin classifier ( see section... | 44 |
An off-the-shelf speech recognition device , a Nippon Electric Corporation DP-200 , was added to an existing natural language processing system , the Natural Language Computer ( NLC ) ( Ballard 1979 , Biermann and Ballard 1980 ) . | 00 |
In previous work ( Bachenko et al. 1986 ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) . | 33 |
While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see Mitkov ( 2002 ) ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance . | 00 |
Finally , the Natural Language Toolkit ( NLTK ) is a package of NLP components implemented in Python ( Loper and Bird , 2002 ) . | 00 |
But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser inductio... | 44 |
( Yang and Pedersen , 1997 ) has found strong correlations between DF , IG and the X2 statistic for a term . | 00 |
Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced . | 22 |
It has been argued that , in an incremental approach , gradable properties should be given a low preference ranking because they are difficult to process ( Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) . | 22 |
Interaction between components is coordinated by the dialogue manager which uses the informationstate approach ( Larsson and Traum , 2000 ) . | 11 |
For automatically extracting these surface level mappings we will draw on the approach to learning paraphrases from a corpus that is described in Barzilay and McKeown ( 2001 ) . | 55 |
The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) . | 22 |
1990 ) , on linguisitic acquisition ( by the use of Part-of-Speech filters hand-crafted by a linguist ) ( Oueslati , 1999 ) or , more frequently , on a combination of the two ( Smadja , 1993 ; Kilgarriff and Tugwell , 2001 , for example ) . | 22 |
Nevertheless , Juola ( 1998 , page 23 ) observes that `` a slightly more general mapping , where two adjacent terminal symbols can be merged into a single lexical item ( for example , a word and its case-marking ) , can capture this sort of result quite handily . '' | 00 |
Our work extends directions taken in systems such as Ariane ( Vauquois and Boitet , 1985 ) , FoG ( Kittredge and Polguere , 1991 ) , JOYCE ( Rambow and Korelsky , 1992 ) , and LFS ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1992 ) . | 33 |
Despite these arguments , most applied NLG systems use a pipelined architecture ; indeed , a pipeline was used in every one of the systems surveyed by Reiter ( 1994 ) and Paiva ( 1998 ) . | 00 |
And Collins ( 2000 ) argues for `` keeping track of counts of arbitrary fragments within parse trees '' , which has indeed been carried out in Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) who use exactly the same set of ( all ) tree fragments as proposed in Bod ( 1992 ) . | 00 |
The first direct application of parse forest in translation is our previous work ( Mi et al. , 2008 ) which translates a packed forest from a parser ; it is also the base system in our experiments ( see below ) . | 33 |
Similar findings have been proposed by Pandharipande ( 1993 ) that points out V1 and V2 are paired on the basis of their semantic compatibility , which is subject to syntactic constraints . | 00 |
Previously , a user study ( Lin et al. 2003 ) has shown that people are reluctant to type full natural language questions , even after being told that they were using a questionanswering system and that typing complete questions would result in better performance . | 22 |
FBLTAG ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) is an extension of the LTAG formalism . | 00 |
For example , when books should n't be copied by hand any longer , authors took the advantage and start writing original books and evaluation -- i.e. literary criticism -- unlike in the previous times ( Eisenstein , 1983 ) . | 00 |
Our proposed method is based on the automatically acquired paraphrase dictionary described in Callison-Burch ( 2008 ) , in which the application of paraphrases from the dictionary encodes secret bits . | 11 |
ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) . | 00 |
We use the same data setting with Xue ( 2008 ) , however a bit different from Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) . | 11 |
LTAG ( Schabes et al. , 1988 ) is a grammar formalism that provides syntactic analyses for a sentence by composing elementary trees with two opera - | 00 |
Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bru... | 00 |
( Michiels ( 1982 ) contains further description and discussion of LDOCE . ) | 00 |
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