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621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
with a typical weight of . While UMB, the International Olympic Committee-recognized world carom billiards authority, technically permits balls as small as , no major manufacturer produces such balls any longer, and the "de facto" standard is . The three standard balls in most carom billiards games consist of a completely white cue ball, a second cue ball with typically a red or black dot on it (to aid in differentiation between the two cue balls), and a third, red ball. In some sets of balls, however, the second cue ball is solid yellow. Both types of ball sets are permitted in tournament play.
Billiard balls have been made from many different materials throughout the history of the game, | 13,000 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
including clay, wood, ivory, plastics (including celluloid, Bakelite, crystalate, and phenolic resin, polyester and acrylic) and even steel. The dominant material from 1627 until the early- to mid-20th century was ivory. The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters. It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $10,000 for a substitute material. The first viable substitute was celluloid billiard balls, invented by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868, but the material was volatile and highly inflammable, sometimes exploding during manufacture.
## Cues.
Carom | 13,001 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
billiard cues have specialized refinements making them different from the typical pool cue with which many people are more familiar. Such cues tend to be shorter and lighter overall, with a shorter , a thicker and , a wooden joint (in high-end examples) and wood-to-wood joint (for a one-piece cue "feel"), a fast, conical , and a smaller diameter as compared with pool cues. Typical cues are in length and in weight—lighter for straight rail, heavier for three-cushion—with a tip in diameter. The specialization makes the cue significantly stiffer, which aids in handling the larger and heavier billiard balls as compared with pool cues. It also acts to reduce (sometimes called "squirt"), which may | 13,002 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
be defined as displacement of the cue ball's path away from the parallel line formed by the cue stick's direction of travel. It is a factor that occurs every time () is employed, and its effects are magnified by speed. In some carom games, deflection plays a large role because many shots require extremes of , coupled with great speed; this is a combination typically minimized as much as possible, by contrast, in pool. The wood used in carom cues can vary widely, and most quality carom cues are handmade.
## Heated slate.
The slate bed of a billiard table is often heated to about 5 °C (9 °F) above room temperature, which helps to keep moisture out of the cloth to aid the balls rolling and rebounding | 13,003 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
in a consistent manner, and generally makes a table play faster. A heated table is required under international carom rules and is an especially important requirement for the games of three-cushion billiards and artistic billiards. Heating table beds is an old practice. Queen Victoria (lived 1819–1901) had a billiard table that was heated using zinc tubes, although the aim at that time was chiefly to keep the then-used ivory balls from warping. The first use of electric heating was for an 18.2 balkline tournament held in December 1927 between Welker Cochran and Jacob Schaefer, Jr. "The New York Times" announced it with fanfare: "For the first time in the history of world's championship balkline | 13,004 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
billiards a heated table will be used ..."
# History of games.
## Straight rail.
Straight rail, sometimes referred to as carom billiards, straight billiards, the three-ball game, the carambole game, and the free game in Europe, is thought to date to the 18th century, although no exact time of origin is known. It was known as French caroms, French billiards or the French game in early times, taking those bygone names from the French who popularized it. The object of straight rail is simple: one point, called a "count", is scored each time a player's cue ball makes contact with both object balls (the second cue ball and the third ball) on a single . A win is achieved by reaching an agreed upon | 13,005 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
number of counts.
At straight rail's inception there was no restriction on the manner of scoring. However, the technique of "crotching", or freezing two balls into the corner where the rails meet—the "crotch"—vastly increasing counts, resulted in an 1862 rule which allowed only three counts before at least one ball had to be driven away. Techniques continued to develop which increased counts greatly despite the crotching prohibition, especially the development of a variety of "" techniques. The most important of these, the "", involves the progressive nudging of the object balls down a rail, ideally moving them just a few centimeters on each count, keeping them close together and positioned | 13,006 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
at the end of each stroke in the same or near the same configuration such that the nurse can be replicated again and again.
Straight rail is still popular in Europe, where it is considered a fine practice game for both balkline and three-cushion billiards. Additionally, Europe hosts professional competitions known as "pentathlons" after the ancient Greek Olympic competitions, in which straight rail is featured as one of five billiards disciplines at which players compete, the other four being 47.1 balkline, cushion caroms, 71.2 balkline and three-cushion billiards.
Straight rail was played professionally in the US from 1873 to 1879, but is uncommon there today.
## The champion's game.
The | 13,007 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
new game appearing in 1879, called the champion's game or limited-rail, is considered an intermediary game between straight rail and balkline and was designed with the specific intent of frustrating the rail nurse. The game employed diagonal lines—balklines—at the table's corners to regions where counts were restricted, thus "cutting off four triangular spaces in the four corners, [taking] away of the 'nursing' surface of the end rails and on the long rails." Ultimately, however, despite its divergence from straight rail, the champion's game simply expanded the dimensions of the balk space defined under the existing crotch prohibition which was not sufficient to stop nursing.
## Balkline.
Balkline | 13,008 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
succeeded the champion's game, adding more rules to curb nursing techniques. There are many variation of balkline but all divide the table into marked regions called "balk spaces". Such balk spaces define areas of the in which a player may only score up to a threshold number of points while the are within that region.
In the balkline games, rather than drawing balklines a few inches from the corners, the entire table is divided into rectangular balk spaces, by drawing balklines a certain distance lengthwise and widthwise across the length of the table a set number of inches parallel out from each rail. This divides the table into eight rectangular balkspaces. Additionally, rectangles are drawn | 13,009 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
where each balkline meets a rail, called "anchor spaces", which developed to stop a number of nursing techniques that exploited the fact that if the object balls straddled a balkline, no count limit was in place.
For the most part, the differences between one balkline game to another is defined by two measures: 1) the spacing of the balklines, and 2) the number of points that are allowed in each balk space before at least one ball must leave the region. Generally, balkline games, and their particular restrictions, are given numerical names indicating both of these characteristics; the first number indicated either inches or centimeters depending on the game, and the second, after a dot or a | 13,010 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
slash, indicates the count restriction in balk spaces, which is always either one or two. For example, in "18.2 balkline", one of the more prominent balkline games and of U.S. origin, the name indicates that balklines are drawn 18 inches distant from each rail, and only two counts are allowed (before the first short, we call "entrée" and for the second short "dedans") in a balk space before a ball must leave (in 18.1, we call directly the first short "dedans"). By contrast, in "71.2 balkline", of French invention, lines are drawn 71 centimeters distant from each rail, also with a two count restriction for balk spaces.
Over its history balkline has had many variations including 8.2, 10.2, 12.2, | 13,011 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
13.2, 12½.2, 14.1, 14.2, 18.1, 18.2, 28.2, 38.2, 39.2, 42.2, 45.1, 45.2, 47.1, 47.2, 57.2 and 71.2 balkline. In its various incarnations, balkline was the predominate carom discipline from 1883 to the 1930s when it was overtaken by three-cushion billiards (and pocket billiards). Balkline is popular in Europe and the Far East.
## Cushion caroms.
Cushion caroms, sometimes called by its original name, the indirect game, is traceable to 1820s Britain and is a descendant of the "doublet game" dating to at least 1807. The game is sometimes referred to as "one-cushion" or "one-cushion billiards", which is the direct translation of its name into English from various other languages such as Spanish | 13,012 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
(""una banda"") and German (""einband"").
The object of the game is to score cushion caroms, meaning a carom off of both object balls with at least one rail being struck before the hit on the second object ball. Cushions caroms was defunct for a number of years, but was revived in the late 1860s as another alternative to straight rail, for the same reasons that balkline developed, i.e., as an alternative to the tedium engendered by the use of the "rail nurse" "(see above)". Cushion caroms is still popular in Europe.
## Three-cushion billiards.
In three-cushion billiards, sometimes called three-cushion carom, or carambole, the object is to carom off both object balls with at least three being | 13,013 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
contacted before the contact of the cue ball with the second object ball. Three-cushion is a very difficult game. Averaging one point per is professional-level play, and averaging 1.5 to 2 is world-class play. An average of one means that for every turn at the table, a player makes 1 point and misses once, thus making a point on 50% of his or her shots.
The origin of the game is not entirely known. It is undisputed that one Wayman Crow McCreery of St. Louis, Missouri popularized the game in the 1870s. At least one publication categorically states he invented the game as well. The first three-cushion billiards tournament took place January 14–31, 1878 in St. Louis, with McCreery a participant | 13,014 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
and New Yorker Leon Magnus the winner. The high run for the tournament was just 6 points, and the high average a 0.75. The game was infrequently played, with many top carom players of the era voicing their dislike of it, until after the 1907 introduction of the Lambert Trophy. By 1924, three-cushion had become so popular that two giants in other billiard disciplines agreed to take up the game especially for a challenge match. On September 22, 1924, Willie Hoppe, the world's balkline champion (who later took up three-cushion with a passion), and Ralph Greenleaf, the world's straight pool title holder, played a well advertised, multi-day, to 600 . Hoppe was the eventual winner with a final score | 13,015 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
in of 600–527.
Three-cushion billiards retains great popularity in parts of Europe, Asia, and Latin America, and is the most popular carom billiards game played in the US today, where pool is far more widespread. The principal governing body of the sport is the Union Mondiale de Billard (UMB). It had been staging world three-cushion championships since the late 1920s. The International Olympic Committee-recognized World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA) cooperates with the UMB to keep their rulesets synchronized.
## Artistic billiards.
In artistic billiards, sometimes called fantasy billiards or (in French) fantaisie classique, players compete at performing 76 preset shots of varying difficulty. | 13,016 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
Each set shot has a maximum point value assigned for perfect execution, ranging from a 4-point minimum for lowest level difficulty shots, and climbing to an 11-point maximum for shots deemed highest in difficulty level. There is a total of 500 points available to a player. The governing body of the sport is the Confédération Internationale de Billard Artistique (CIBA).
Each shot in an artistic billiards match is played from a well-defined position (in some venues within an exacting two millimeter tolerance), and each shot must unfold in an established manner. Players are allowed three attempts at each shot. In general, the shots making up the game—even 4-point shots—require a high degree of | 13,017 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
skill, devoted practice and specialized knowledge to perform.
World title competition first started in 1986 and required the use of ivory balls. However, this requirement was dropped in 1990. The highest score ever achieved in world competition was 374, by the Frenchman Jean Reverchon in 1992, while the highest score in competition overall is 427 set by Belgian Walter Bax on March 12, 2006 at a competition held in Deurne, Belgium, beating his own previous record of 425. The game is played predominantly in western Europe, especially in France, Belgium and the Netherlands.
# Competition disciplines.
- Triathlon: Straight rail, Balkline and One-cushion or Balkline, One-cushion und Three-cushion | 13,018 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
(like the actually ANAG Billiard Cup).
- Pentathlon: Straight rail, Balkline (47.2 & 71.2), One-cushion and Three-cushion.
# In popular culture.
- Carom billiards appear in "The Hustler" (1961) and "Le Cercle Rouge" (1970).
# External links.
- Union Mondiale de Billard — world tournament sanctioning body
- Archival Billiard Resource
- Kozoom.com: Online Carom Billiard Magazine live streaming all UMB events
- Animation showing the "rail nurse" with a description
- BiliardoWeb - The first Italian Community and e-magazine (in Italian)
- "Il Biliardo Universale", by Fabio Margutti - siteweb on the "Margutti's system" and theory of the multiple centers (in Italian)
- USBA 3-Cushion Billiard | 13,019 |
621039 | Carom billiards | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carom%20billiards | Carom billiards
com: Online Carom Billiard Magazine live streaming all UMB events
- Animation showing the "rail nurse" with a description
- BiliardoWeb - The first Italian Community and e-magazine (in Italian)
- "Il Biliardo Universale", by Fabio Margutti - siteweb on the "Margutti's system" and theory of the multiple centers (in Italian)
- USBA 3-Cushion Billiard Rules USBA 3-Cushion Billiard Rules
- Billiard Diamond System Calculator simulates cue ball path on billiard table
- Biljartsporten - The largest billiard games website from The Netherlands (in Dutch)
- Billard Passion - Teaching aid and technical basis for carom.
- Kozoom Store - Largest choice of cues and accessories for carom billiards. | 13,020 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
Geology of the Grand Canyon area
The geology of the Grand Canyon area includes one of the most complete and studied sequences of rock on Earth. The nearly 40 major sedimentary rock layers exposed in the Grand Canyon and in the Grand Canyon National Park area range in age from about 200 million to nearly 2 billion years old. Most were deposited in warm, shallow seas and near ancient, long-gone sea shores in western North America. Both marine and terrestrial sediments are represented, including lithified sand dunes from an extinct desert. There are at least 14 known unconformities in the geologic record found in the Grand Canyon.
Uplift of the region started about 75 million years ago during | 13,021 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
the Laramide orogeny; a mountain-building event that is largely responsible for creating the Rocky Mountains to the east. In total, the Colorado Plateau was uplifted an estimated . The adjacent Basin and Range Province to the west started to form about 18 million years ago as the result of crustal stretching. A drainage system that flowed through what is today the eastern Grand Canyon emptied into the now lower Basin and Range province. Opening of the Gulf of California around 6 million years ago enabled a large river to cut its way northeast from the gulf. The new river captured the older drainage to form the ancestral Colorado River, which in turn started to form the Grand Canyon.
Wetter | 13,022 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
climates brought upon by ice ages starting 2 million years ago greatly increased excavation of the Grand Canyon, which was nearly as deep as it is now, 1.2 million years ago. Volcanic activity deposited lava over the area 1.8 million to 500,000 years ago. At least 13 lava dams blocked the Colorado River, forming lakes that were up to deep. The end of the last ice age and subsequent human activity has greatly reduced the ability of the Colorado River to excavate the canyon. Dams in particular have upset patterns of sediment transport and deposition. Controlled floods from Glen Canyon Dam upstream have been conducted to see if they have a restorative effect. Earthquakes and mass wasting erosive | 13,023 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
events still affect the region.
# Deposition of sediments.
## Vishnu Basement Rocks.
At about 2.5 and 1.8 billion years ago in Precambrian time, sand, mud, silt, and ash were laid down in a marine basin adjacent to an orogenic belt. From 1.8 to 1.6 billion years ago at least two island arcs collided with the proto-North American continent. This process of plate tectonics compressed and grafted the marine sediments in the basin onto the mainland and uplifted them out of the sea. Later, these rocks were buried under the surface and pressure-cooked into metamorphic rock. The resulting Granite Gorge Metamorphic Suite, which is part of the Vishnu Basement Rocks, consists of the metasedimentary | 13,024 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
Vishnu Schist and the metavolcanic Brahma and Rama Schists that were formed 1.75 billion to 1.73 billion years ago. This is the resistant rock now exposed at the bottom of the canyon in the Inner Gorge.
As the volcanic islands collided with the mainland around 1.7 billion years ago, blobs of magma rose from the subduction zone and intruded the Granite Gorge Metamorphic Suite. These plutons slowly cooled to form the Zoroaster Granite; part of which would later be metamorphosed into gneiss. This rock unit can be seen as light-colored bands in the darker garnet-studded Vishnu Schist (see 1b in ). The intrusion of the granite occurred in three phases: two during the initial Vishnu metamorphism | 13,025 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
period, and a third around 1.4 billion years ago. The third phase was accompanied by large-scale faulting, particularly along north–south faults, leading to a partial rifting of the continent. The collision expanded the continent from the Wyoming–Colorado border into Mexico and almost doubled the crust's thickness in the Grand Canyon region. Part of this thickening created the high ancestral Mazatzal Mountains.
Subsequent erosion lasting 300 million years stripped much of the exposed sediments and the mountains away. This reduced the very high mountains to small hills a few tens to hundreds of feet (tens of meters) high. Geologist John Wesley Powell called this major gap in the geologic record, | 13,026 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
which is also seen in other parts of the world, the Great Unconformity. Other sediments may have been added but, if they ever existed, were completely removed by erosion. Such gaps in the geologic record are called unconformities by geologists. The Great Unconformity is one of the best examples of an exposed nonconformity, which is a type of unconformity that has bedded rock units above igneous or metamorphic rocks.
## Grand Canyon Supergroup.
In late Precambrian time, extension from a large tectonic plate or smaller plates moving away from Laurentia thinned its continental crust, forming large rift basins that would ultimately fail to split the continent. Eventually, this sunken region of | 13,027 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
Laurentia was flooded with a shallow seaway that extended from at least present-day Lake Superior to Glacier National Park in Montana to the Grand Canyon and the Uinta Mountains. The resulting Grand Canyon Supergroup of sedimentary units is composed of nine varied geologic formations that were laid down from 1.2 billion and 740 million years ago in this sea. Good exposures of the supergroup can be seen in eastern Grand Canyon in the Inner Gorge and from Desert View, Lipan Point and Moran point.
The oldest section of the supergroup is the Unkar Group. It accumulated in a variety of fluvial, deltaic, tidal, nearshore marine, and offshore marine environments. The first formation to be laid down | 13,028 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
in the Unkar Group was the Bass Formation. Fluvial gravels initially accumulated in shallow river valleys. They later lithified into a basal conglomerate that is known as the Hotauta Member of the Bass Formation. The Bass Formation was deposited in a shallow sea near the coast as a mix of limestone, sandstone, and shale. Diagenesis later altered the bulk of the limestone into dolomite. It is thick and grayish in color. Averaging 1250 million years old, this is the oldest layer exposed in the Grand Canyon that contains fossils—stromatolites. Hakatai Shale is made of thin beds of marginal-marine-derived mudstones, sandstones, and shale that, together, are thick. This formation indicates a short-lived | 13,029 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
regression (retreat) of the seashore in the area that left mud flats. Today it is very bright orange-red and gives the Red Canyon its name. Shinumo Quartzite is a resistant marine sedimentary quartzite that was eroded to form monadnocks that later became islands in Cambrian time. Those islands withstood wave action long enough to become re-buried by other sediments in the Cambrian Period. Dox Formation is over thick and is made of sandstone with some interbedded shale beds and mudstone that were deposited in fluvial and tidal environments. Ripple marks and other features indicate it was close to the shore. Outcrops of this red to orange formation can be seen in the eastern parts of the canyon. | 13,030 |
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Fossils of stromatolites and algae are found in this layer. At 1070 ± 70 million years old, the Cardenas Basalt is the youngest formation in the Unkar Group. It is made of layers of dark brown basaltic rocks that flowed as lava up to thick.
Nankoweap Formation is around 1050 million years old and is not part of a group. This rock unit is made of coarse-grained sandstone, and was deposited in a shallow sea on top of the eroded surface of the Cardenas Basalt. The Nankoweap is only exposed in the eastern part of the canyon. A gap in the geologic record, an unconformity, follows the Nankoweap.
All formations in the Chuar Group were deposited in coastal and shallow sea environments about 1000 to | 13,031 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
700 million years ago. The Galeros Formation is a mainly greenish formation composed of interbedded sandstone, limestone, and shale. Fossilized stromatolites are found in the Galeros. The Kwagunt Formation consists of black shale and red to purple mudstone with some limestone. Isolated pockets of reddish sandstone are also found around Carbon Butte. Stromatolites are found in this layer. The Sixtymile Formation is made of tan-colored sandstone with some small sections of shale.
About 800 million years ago the supergroup was tilted 15° and block faulted in the Grand Canyon Orogeny. Some of the block units moved down and others moved up while fault movement created north–south-trending fault-block | 13,032 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
mountain ranges. About 100 million years of erosion took place that washed most of the Chuar Group away along with part of the Unkar Group (exposing the Shinumo Quartzite as previously explained). The mountain ranges were reduced to hills, and in some places, the whole of the supergroup were removed entirely, exposing the basement rocks below. Any rocks that were deposited on top of the Grand Canyon Supergroup in the Precambrian were completely removed. This created a major unconformity that represents 460 million years of lost geologic history in the area.
## Tonto Group.
During the Paleozoic era, the western part of what would become North America was near the equator and on a passive margin. | 13,033 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
The Cambrian Explosion of life took place over about 15 million years in this part of the world. Climate was warm and invertebrates, such as the trilobites, were abundant. An ocean started to return to the Grand Canyon area from the west about 550 million years ago. As its shoreline moved east, the ocean began to concurrently deposit the three formations of the Tonto Group.
Tapeats Sandstone averages 525 million years old and is made of medium- to coarse-grained sand and conglomerate that was deposited on an ancient shore (see 3a in ). Ripple marks are common in the upper members of this dark brown thin-bedded layer. Fossils and imprint trails of trilobites and brachiopods have also been found | 13,034 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
in the Tapeats. Today it is a cliff-former that is thick. Bright Angel Shale averages 515 million years old and is made of mudstone-derived shale that is interbedded with small sections of sandstone and shaly limestone with a few thin beds of dolomite. It was mostly deposited as mud just offshore and contains brachiopod, trilobite, and worm fossils (see 3b in figure 1). The color of this formation is mostly various shades of green with some brownish-tan to gray parts. It is a slope-former and is thick. Glauconite is responsible for the green coloration of the Bright Angel. Muav Limestone averages 505 million years old and is made of gray, thin-bedded limestone that was deposited farther offshore | 13,035 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
from calcium carbonate precipitates (see 3c in figure 1). The western part of the canyon has a much thicker sequence of Muav than the eastern part. The Muav is a cliff-former, thick.
These three formations were laid down over a period of 30 million years from early-to-middle Cambrian time. Trilobites followed by brachiopods are the most commonly reported fossils in this group but well-preserved fossils are relatively rare. We know that the shoreline was transgressing (advancing onto land) because finer grade material was deposited on top of coarser-grained sediment. Today, the Tonto Group makes up the Tonto Platform seen above and following the Colorado River; the Tapeats Sandstone and Muav | 13,036 |
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Limestone form the platform's cliffs and the Bright Angel Shale forms its slopes. Unlike the Proterozoic units below it, the Tonto Group's beds basically lie in their original horizontal position. The Bright Angel Shale in the group forms an aquiclude (barrier to groundwater seeping down), and thus collects and directs water through the overlying Muav Limestone to feed springs in the Inner Gorge.
## Temple Butte, Redwall, and Surprise Canyon.
The next two periods of geologic history, the Ordovician and the Silurian, are missing from the Grand Canyon sequence. Geologists do not know if sediments were deposited in these periods and were later removed by erosion or if they were never deposited | 13,037 |
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in the first place. Either way, this break in the geologic history of the area spans about 65 million years. A type of unconformity called a disconformity was formed. Disconformities show erosional features such as valleys, hills and cliffs that are later covered by younger sediments.
Geologists do know that deep channels were carved on the top of the Muav Limestone during this time. Streams were the likely cause, but marine scour may be to blame. Either way, these depressions were filled with freshwater limestone about 385 million years ago in the Middle Devonian in a formation that geologists call the Temple Butte Limestone (see 4a in figure 1). Marble Canyon in the eastern part of the park | 13,038 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
displays these filled purplish-colored channels well. Temple Butte Limestone is a cliff-former in the western part of the park where it is gray to cream-colored dolomite. Fossils of animals with backbones are found in this formation; bony plates from freshwater fish in the eastern part and numerous marine fish fossils in the western part. Temple Butte is thick; thinner near Grand Canyon Village and thicker in western Grand Canyon. An unconformity representing 40 to 50 million years of lost geologic history marks the top of this formation.
The next formation in the Grand Canyon geologic column is the cliff-forming Redwall Limestone, which is thick (see 4b in figure 1). Redwall is composed of | 13,039 |
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thick-bedded, dark brown to bluish gray limestone and dolomite with white chert nodules mixed in. It was laid down in a retreating shallow tropical sea near the equator during 40 million years of the early-to-middle Mississippian. Many fossilized crinoids, brachiopods, bryozoans, horn corals, nautiloids, and sponges, along with other marine organisms such as large and complex trilobites have been found in the Redwall. In late Mississippian time, the Grand Canyon region was slowly uplifted and the Redwall was partly eroded away. A Karst topography consisting of caves, sinkholes, and subterranean river channels resulted but were later filled with more limestone. The exposed surface of Redwall | 13,040 |
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gets its characteristic color from rainwater dripping from the iron-rich redbeds of the Supai and Hermit shale that lie above.
Surprise Canyon Formation is a sedimentary layer of purplish-red shale that was laid down in discontinuous beds of sand and lime above the Redwall (see 4c in figure 1). It was created in very late Mississippian and possibly in very earliest Pennsylvanian time as the land subsided and tidal estuaries filled river valleys with sediment. This formation only exists in isolated lenses that are thick. Surprise Canyon was unknown to science until 1973 and can be reached only by helicopter. Fossil logs, other plant material and marine shells are found in this formation. An | 13,041 |
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unconformity marks the top of the Surprise Canyon Formation and in most places this unconformity has entirely removed the Surprise Canyon and exposed the underlying Redwall.
## Supai Group.
An unconformity of 15 to 20 million years separates the Supai Group from the previously deposited Redwall Formation. Supai Group was deposited in late Mississippian, through the Pennsylvanian and into the Early Permian time, some 320 million to 270 million years ago. Both marine and non-marine deposits of mud, silt, sand and calcareous sediments were laid down on a broad coastal plain similar to the Texas Gulf Coast of today. Around this time, the Ancestral Rocky Mountains rose in Colorado and New Mexico | 13,042 |
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and streams brought eroded sediment from them to the Grand Canyon area.
Supai Group formations in the western part of the canyon contain limestone, indicative of a warm, shallow sea, while the eastern part was probably a muddy river delta. This formation consists of red siltstones and shale capped by tan-colored sandstone beds that together reach a thickness of 600 to 700 ft (around 200 m). Shale in the early Permian formations in this group were oxidized to a bright red color. Fossils of amphibian footprints, reptiles, and plentiful plant material are found in the eastern part and increasing numbers of marine fossils are found in the western part.
Formations of the Supai Group are from oldest | 13,043 |
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to youngest (an unconformity is present at the top of each): Watahomigi (see 5a in figure 1) is a slope-forming gray limestone with some red chert bands, sandstone, and purple siltstone that is thick. Manakacha (see 5b in figure 1) is a cliff- and slope-forming pale red sandstone and red shale that averages thick in Grand Canyon. Wescogame (see 5c in figure 1) is a ledge- and slope-forming pale red sandstone and siltstone that is thick. Esplanade (see 5d in figure 1) is a ledge- and cliff-forming pale red sandstone and siltstone that is thick. An unconformity marks the top of the Supai Group.
## Hermit, Coconino, Toroweap, and Kaibab.
Like the Supai Group below it, the Permian-aged Hermit | 13,044 |
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Formation was probably deposited on a broad coastal plain (see 6a in figure 1). The alternating thin-bedded iron oxide, mud and silt were deposited via freshwater streams in a semiarid environment around 280 million years ago. Fossils of winged insects, cone-bearing plants, and ferns are found in this formation as well as tracks of vertebrate animals. It is a soft, deep red shale and mudstone slope-former that is approximately thick. Slope development will periodically undermine the formations above and car- to house-sized blocks of that rock will cascade down onto the Tonto Platform. An unconformity marks the top of this formation .
Coconino Sandstone formed about 275 million years ago as | 13,045 |
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the area dried out and sand dunes made of quartz sand invaded a growing desert (see 6b in figure 1). Some Coconino fills deep mudcracks in the underlying Hermit Shale and the desert that created the Coconino lasted for 5 to 10 million years. Today, the Coconino is a thick golden white to cream-colored cliff-former near the canyon's rim. Cross bedding patterns of the frosted, fine-grained, well-sorted and rounded quartz grains seen in its cliffs is compatible with but does not substantiate conclusively an eolian environment. Also fossilized are tracks from lizard-like creatures and what look like tracks from millipedes and scorpions. An unconformity marks the top of this formation.
Next in the | 13,046 |
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geologic column is the -thick Toroweap Formation (see 6c in figure 1). It consists of red and yellow sandstone and shaly gray limestone interbedded with gypsum. The formation was deposited in a warm, shallow sea as the shoreline transgressed (invaded) and regressed (retreated) over the land. The average age of the rock is about 273 million years. In modern times it is a ledge- and slope-former that contains fossils of brachiopods, corals, and mollusks along with other animals and various terrestrial plants. The Toroweap is divided into the following three members: Seligman is a slope-forming yellowish to reddish sandstone and siltstone. Brady Canyon is a cliff-forming gray limestone with some | 13,047 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
chert. Wood Ranch is a slope-forming pale red and gray siltstone and dolomitic sandstone. An unconformity marks the top of this formation.
One of the highest, and therefore youngest, formations seen in the Grand Canyon area is the Kaibab Limestone (see 6d in figure 1). It erodes into ledgy cliffs that are thick and was laid down in latest early Permian time, about 270 million years ago, by an advancing warm, shallow sea. The formation is typically made of sandy limestone sitting on top of a layer of sandstone. This is the cream to grayish-white rock that park visitors stand on while viewing the canyon from both rims. It is also the surface rock covering much of the Kaibab Plateau just north | 13,048 |
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of the canyon and the Coconino Plateau immediately south. Shark teeth have been found in this formation as well as abundant fossils of marine invertebrates such as brachiopods, corals, mollusks, sea lilies, and worms. An unconformity marks the top of this formation.
## Mesozoic deposition.
Uplift marked the start of the Mesozoic and streams started to incise the newly dry land. Streams flowing through broad low valleys in Triassic time deposited sediment eroded from nearby uplands, creating the once -thick Moenkopi Formation. The formation is made from sandstone and shale with gypsum layers in between. Moenkopi outcrops are found along the Colorado River in Marble Canyon, on Cedar Mountain | 13,049 |
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(a mesa near the southeastern park border), and in Red Butte (located south of Grand Canyon Village). Remnants of the Shinarump Conglomerate, itself a member of the Chinle Formation, are above the Moenkopi Formation near the top of Red Butte but below a much younger lava flow.
Formations totaling over in thickness were deposited in the region in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic but were almost entirely removed from the Grand Canyon sequence by subsequent erosion. The geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area and the geology of the Bryce Canyon area records some of these formations. All these rock units together form a super sequence of rock known as the Grand Staircase.
# Cenozoic regional uplift | 13,050 |
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and erosion of the canyon.
## Uplift and nearby extension.
The Laramide orogeny affected all of western North America by helping to build the American cordillera. The Kaibab Uplift, Monument Upwarp, the Uinta Mountains, San Rafael Swell, and the Rocky Mountains were uplifted, at least in part, by the Laramide orogeny. This major mountain-building event started near the end of the Mesozoic, around 75 million years ago, and continued into the Eocene period of the Cenozoic. It was caused by subduction off the western coast of North America. Major faults that trend north–south and cross the canyon area were reactivated by this uplift. Many of these faults are Precambrian in age and are still active | 13,051 |
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today. Streams draining the Rocky Mountains in early Miocene time terminated in landlocked basins in Utah, Arizona and Nevada but there is no evidence for a major river.
Around 18 million years ago, tensional forces started to thin and drop the region to the west, creating the Basin and Range Province. Basins (grabens) dropped down and mountain ranges (horsts) rose up between old and new north–south–trending faults. However, for reasons poorly understood, the beds of the Colorado Plateaus remained mostly horizontal through both events even as they were uplifted about in two pulses. The extreme western part of the canyon ends at one of the Basin and Range faults, the Grand Wash, which also marks | 13,052 |
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the boundary between the two provinces.
Uplift from the Laramide orogeny and the creation of the Basin and Range province worked together to steepen the gradient of streams flowing west on the Colorado Plateau. These streams cut deep, eastward-growing, channels into the western edge of the Colorado Plateau and deposited their sediment in the widening Basin and Range region.
According to a 2012 study, there is evidence that the western Grand Canyon could be as old as 70 million years.
### origin and development.
Rifting started to create the Gulf of California far to the south 6 to 10 million years ago. Around the same time, the western edge of the Colorado Plateau may have sagged slightly. | 13,053 |
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Both events changed the direction of many streams toward the sagging region and the increased gradient caused them to downcut much faster. From 5.5 million to 5 million years ago, headward erosion to the north and east consolidated these streams into one major river and associated tributary channels. This river, the ancestral Lower Colorado River, started to fill the northern arm of the gulf, which extended nearly to the site of Hoover Dam, with estuary deposits.
At the same time, streams flowed from highlands in central Arizona north and across what is today the western Grand Canyon, possibly feeding a larger river. The mechanism by which the ancestral Lower Colorado River captured this drainage | 13,054 |
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and the drainage from much of the rest of the Colorado Plateau is not known. Possible explanations include headward erosion or a broken natural dam of a lake or river. Whatever the cause, the Lower Colorado probably captured the landlocked Upper Colorado somewhere west of the Kaibab Uplift. The much larger drainage area and yet steeper stream gradient helped to further accelerate downcutting.
Ice ages during the Pleistocene brought a cooler and wetter pluvial climate to the region starting 2 to 3 million years ago. The added precipitation increased runoff and the erosive ability of streams (especially from spring melt water and flash floods in summer). With a greatly increased flow volume the | 13,055 |
621004 | Geology of the Grand Canyon area | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology%20of%20the%20Grand%20Canyon%20area | Geology of the Grand Canyon area
Colorado cut faster than ever before and started to quickly excavate the Grand Canyon 2 million years before present, almost reaching the modern depth by 1.2 million years ago.
The resulting Grand Canyon of the Colorado River trends roughly east to west for between Lake Powell and Lake Mead. In that distance, the Colorado River drops and has excavated an estimated of sediment to form the canyon. This part of the river bisects the -high Kaibab Uplift and passes seven plateaus (the Kaibab, Kanab, and Shivwits plateaus bound the northern part of the canyon and the Coconino bounds the southern part). Each of these plateaus are bounded by north–south-trending faults and monoclines created or reactivated | 13,056 |
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during the Laramide orogeny. Streams flowing into the Colorado River have since exploited these faults to excavate their own tributary canyons, such as Bright Angel Canyon.
## Volcanic activity in the western canyon.
Volcanic activity started in Uinkaret volcanic field (in the western Grand Canyon) about 3 million years ago. Over 150 flows of basaltic lava dammed the Colorado River at least 13 times from 725,000 to 100,000 years ago. The dams typically formed in weeks, were long, high (thicker upstream and thinner downstream) and had volumes of .
The longevity of the dams and their ability to hold Colorado River water in large lakes has been debated. In one hypothesis water from the Colorado | 13,057 |
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River backed up behind the dams in large lakes that extended as far as Moab, Utah. Dams were overtopped in short time; those that were high were overtopped by their lakes in 2 to 17 days. At the same time, sediment filled the lakes behind the dams. Sediment would fill a lake behind a -high dam in 10.33 months, filled a lake behind an -high dam in 345 years, and filled the lake behind the tallest dam in 3000 years. Cascades of water flowed over a dam while waterfalls migrated up-river along it. Most lava dams lasted for around 10,000 to 20,000 years. However others have proposed that the lava dams were much more ephemeral and failed catastrophically before overtopping. In this model dams would | 13,058 |
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fail due to fluid flow through fractures in the dams and around dam abutments, through permeable river deposits and alluvium.
Since the demise of these dams the Colorado River has carved a maximum of about into the rocks of the Colorado Plateau
# Ongoing geology and human impact.
The end of the Pleistocene ice ages and the start of the Holocene began to change the area's climate from a cool, wet pluvial one to dryer semi-arid conditions similar to that of today. With less water to cut, the erosive ability of the Colorado was greatly reduced. Mass wasting processes thus began to become relatively more important than they were before. Steeper cliffs and further widening the Grand Canyon and | 13,059 |
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its tributary canyon system occurred. An average of two debris flows per year reach the Colorado River from tributary canyons to form or expand rapids. This type of mass wasting is the main way the smaller and steeper side canyons transport sediment but it also plays a major role in excavating the larger canyons.
In 1963 Glen Canyon Dam and other dams farther upstream started to regulate the flow of the Colorado River through Grand Canyon. Pre-dam but still historic flows of the Colorado through Grand Canyon ranged from per second with at least one late 19th century flood of per second. Discharge from Glen Canyon Dam exceeds per second only when there is danger of overtopping the dam or when | 13,060 |
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the level of Lake Powell otherwise needs to be lowered. An interim conservation measure since 1991 has held maximum flows at per second even though the dam's power plant can handle per second more flow.
Controlling river flow by use of dams has diminished the river's ability to scour rocks by substantially reducing the amount of sediment it carries. Dams on the Colorado River have also changed the character of the river water. Once both muddy and warm, the river is now clear and averages a temperature year-round. Experimental floods approaching the per second level mentioned above have been carried out in 1996 and 2004 to study the effects on sediment erosion and deposition.
Grand Canyon lies | 13,061 |
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on the southern end of the Intermountain West seismic belt. At least 35 earthquakes larger than 3.0 on the Richter Scale occurred in the Grand Canyon region in the 20th century. Of these, five registered over 5.0 on the Richter Scale and the largest was a 6.2 quake that occurred in January 1906. Major roughly north–south-trending faults that cross the canyon are (from west to east), the Grand Wash, Hurricane and Toroweap. Major northeast-trending fracture systems of normal faults that intersect the canyon include the West Kaibab and Bright Angel while northwest-trending systems include the Grandview—Phantom. Most earthquakes in the region occur in a narrow northwest-trending band between the | 13,062 |
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Mesa Butte and West Kaibab fracture systems. These events are probably the result of eastward-migrating crustal stretching that may eventually move past the Grand Canyon area.
# Trail of Time and Yavapai Geology Museum.
The Trail of Time is an outdoor geology exhibit and nature trail on the South Rim of Grand Canyon National Park. Each meter walked on the trail represents one million years of Grand Canyon's geologic history. Bronze markers on the trail mark your location in time. The trail begins at Yavapai Geology Museum at 2 billion years ago, and ends at Verkamp's Visitor Center. Along the way are samples of the Canyon's rocks, as you would encounter them going from the river up to the | 13,063 |
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rim, and displays explaining the geologic history of the Canyon. The trail opened in late 2010.
The Yavapai Geology Museum include three-dimensional models, photographs, and exhibits which allow park visitors to see and understand the complicated geologic story of the area. The museum building, the historic Yavapai Observation Station (built 1928), located one mile (1.6 km) east of Market Plaza, features expansive canyon views. A bookstore offers a variety of materials about the area.
# See also.
- Geology of the Colorado Plateau
- Grand Staircase, for regional stratigraphy
# External links.
- U.S. National Park Service (Department of the Interior) – Grand Canyon National Park:
- Geologic | 13,064 |
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hree-dimensional models, photographs, and exhibits which allow park visitors to see and understand the complicated geologic story of the area. The museum building, the historic Yavapai Observation Station (built 1928), located one mile (1.6 km) east of Market Plaza, features expansive canyon views. A bookstore offers a variety of materials about the area.
# See also.
- Geology of the Colorado Plateau
- Grand Staircase, for regional stratigraphy
# External links.
- U.S. National Park Service (Department of the Interior) – Grand Canyon National Park:
- Geologic timeline for the Grand Canyon at PBS.org
- Interactive Hypermedia – Correlation of the canyon's geology to a Bach fugue [Flash] | 13,065 |
621061 | Spider mite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spider%20mite | Spider mite
Spider mite
Spider mites are members of the Acari (mite) family Tetranychidae, which includes about 1,200 species. They generally live on the undersides of leaves of plants, where they may spin protective silk webs, and they can cause damage by puncturing the plant cells to feed. Spider mites are known to feed on several hundred species of plants.
# Description.
Spider mites are less than in size and vary in color. They lay small, spherical, initially transparent eggs and many species spin silk webbing to help protect the colony from predators; they get the "spider" part of their common name from this webbing.
# Life cycle.
Hot, dry conditions are often associated with population build-up | 13,066 |
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of spider mites. Under optimal conditions (approximately 27 °C), the two-spotted spider mite can hatch in as little as 3 days, and become sexually mature in as little as 5 days. One female can lay up to 20 eggs per day and can live for 2 to 4 weeks, laying hundreds of eggs. This accelerated reproductive rate allows spider mite populations to adapt quickly to resist pesticides, so chemical control methods can become somewhat ineffectual when the same pesticide is used over a prolonged period.
Spider mites, like hymenopterans and some scale insects, are arrhenotochous: females are diploid and males are haploid. When mated, females avoid the fecundation of some eggs to produce males. Fertilized | 13,067 |
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eggs produce diploid females. Unmated, unfertilized females still lay eggs that originate exclusively haploid males.
# Genera.
The best known member of the group is "Tetranychus urticae", which has a cosmopolitan distribution, and attacks a wide range of plants, including peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, beans, corn, cannabis, and strawberries. Other species which can be important pests of commercial plants include "Panonychus ulmi" (fruit tree red spider mite) and "Panonychus citri" (citrus red mite).
The family is divided into these subfamilies, tribes and genera:
- Bryobinae
- Bryobini
- Hystrichonychini
- Petrobiini
- Tetranychinae
- Eurytetranychini
- Tenuipalpoidini
- Tetranychini
# | 13,068 |
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Countermeasures.
## Neem oil.
Neem oil may provide control, when combined with a suitable surfactant and diluted with water. As with chemical control, repeated applications are required.
## Predatory mites.
Predatory mites of the Phytoseiidae family, including "Phytoseiulus persimilis", eat adult mites, their eggs, and all developmental stages between. Predatory mites can consume as many as 5 adult spider mites per day, or 20 eggs per day.
## Insecticidal soap.
Insecticidal soap spray is effective against spider mites. It is commercially available or can be made of certain types of household soap. However, since it will also kill predatory mites, its use is not recommended if the latter | 13,069 |
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are present.
## Harpin Alpha Beta.
In some cases, the application of Harpin Alpha Beta protein may help in the treatment and prevention of infestation by stimulating the plant's natural defenses, restoring sap sugar levels and encouraging replacement of damaged tissues. This affects the spider mites' ability to down-regulate the immune response of a plant.
## Acaricides.
Acaricides are applied to crops to control spider mites. They can be either systemic or non-systemic in nature and can be persistent by providing residual activity for over a month. Drawbacks include high potential for development of resistance in mite populations, as has been observed in previous generations of miticides, | 13,070 |
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and toxicity of some miticides towards fish. Thus proper selection, precautions and application are required to minimize risks.
## Environmental conditions.
Temporarily modifying environmental conditions has proven an effective method for insect pest control including spider mites. Generally dramatically decreased oxygen and increased carbon dioxide concentrations at elevated temperatures can lead to mortality at all developmental stages. However mild CO enrichment has been shown to in fact increase mite reproduction. One study determined a concentration of 0.4% O and 20% CO gave a LT (time to 99% mortality) of 113h at 20 °C and 15.5h at 40 °C. Another study reported 100% mortality of various | 13,071 |
621061 | Spider mite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spider%20mite | Spider mite
elevated temperatures can lead to mortality at all developmental stages. However mild CO enrichment has been shown to in fact increase mite reproduction. One study determined a concentration of 0.4% O and 20% CO gave a LT (time to 99% mortality) of 113h at 20 °C and 15.5h at 40 °C. Another study reported 100% mortality of various stages of the two spotted spidermite using 60% CO and 20% O at 30 °C for 16h.
Advantages would include decreased ability for resistance development compared to miticides and potential ease of application while drawbacks might include sensitivity of the plant to the conditions, feasibility of application, and human safety.
# See also.
- Pests and diseases of roses | 13,072 |
621086 | Huxley | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huxley | Huxley
Huxley
Huxley may refer to:
# People.
- Huxley (surname)
- The British Huxley family
- Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895), British biologist known as "Darwin's Bulldog"
- Aldous Huxley (1894–1963), British writer, author of "Brave New World", grandson of Thomas Huxley
- Julian Huxley (1887–1975), British biologist, brother of Aldous Huxley
- Andrew Huxley (1917–2012), British biologist, brother of Aldous Huxley
- Anthony Huxley (1920–1992), British botanist, son of Julian Huxley
- Francis Huxley (1923–2016), British botanist, anthropologist and author, son of Julian Huxley
# Geography.
- Huxley, Alberta, Canada
- Huxley, Cheshire, England
- Huxley, Iowa, United States
- Huxley, Texas, | 13,073 |
621086 | Huxley | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huxley | Huxley
and author, son of Julian Huxley
# Geography.
- Huxley, Alberta, Canada
- Huxley, Cheshire, England
- Huxley, Iowa, United States
- Huxley, Texas, United States
- Huxley River, New Zealand
- Mount Huxley (disambiguation)
# Education.
- Huxley College of the Environment, a college of Western Washington University
# Other.
- Huxley (lunar crater)
- Huxley (Martian crater)
- "Huxley" (video game), an MMOFPS by Webzen Games Inc.
- "Huxley Pig", an animated television series
- Huxley, the third generation of 3D printers from the RepRap Project
- Huxley, the main antagonist in "The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland"
# See also.
- Huxley Stakes, a horse race run at Chester, England | 13,074 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
Charles Tomlinson Griffes
Charles Tomlinson Griffes (pron. "GRIFF-iss") (September 17, 1884 – April 8, 1920) was an American composer for piano, chamber ensembles and voice.
# Musical career.
Griffes was born in Elmira, New York. He had early piano lessons with his sister Katherine and later studied piano with Mary Selena Broughton, who taught at Elmira College. Mary had a profound impact on his personal and musical development. After early studies on piano and organ in his home town, on recommendation of Broughton, he went to Berlin to study with pianist Ernst Jedliczka and Gottfried Galston at the Stern Conservatory. Although recognised as a performer, Griffes grew more interested in composition. | 13,075 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
Despite being advised against it by Broughton, he left the conversatory and was briefly taught by composer Engelbert Humperdinck.. During his time in Berlin he composed several German songs and the Symphonische Phantasie for orchestra.
On returning to the U.S. in 1907, he became director of music studies at the Hackley School for boys in Tarrytown, New York, a post which he held until his early death thirteen years later. His post has been described as "grim and unrewarding", though it gave him financial stability. He continued to compose at Hackley in his free time and promoted his music during the summer.
Griffes' initial works are influenced by German Romanticism, but after he relinquished | 13,076 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
the German style, his later works make him the most famous American representative of musical Impressionism. He was fascinated by the exotic, mysterious sound of the French Impressionists, and was compositionally much influenced by them while he was in Europe. He also studied the work of contemporary Russian composers (for example Scriabin), whose influence is also apparent in his work, for example in his use of synthetic scales.
His most famous works are the "White Peacock", for piano (1915, orchestrated in 1919); his "Piano Sonata" (1917–18, revised 1919); a tone poem, "The Pleasure Dome of Kubla Khan", after the fragment by Coleridge (1912, revised in 1916), and "Poem for Flute and Orchestra" | 13,077 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
(1918). He also wrote numerous programmatic pieces for piano, chamber ensembles, and for voice. The amount and quality of his music is impressive considering his short life and his full-time teaching job, and much of his music is still performed. His unpublished "Sho-jo" (1917), a one-act pantomimic drama based on Japanese themes, is one of the earliest works by an American composer to show direct inspiration from the music of Japan.
# Personal life.
Griffes died of influenza in New York City during the worldwide pandemic at the age of 35 and is buried in Bloomfield Cemetery in Bloomfield, New Jersey. His papers passed to his younger sister Marguerite, who chose to destroy many that explicitly | 13,078 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
related to his life as a homosexual. Donna Anderson (see below) is his current literary executor.
Griffes kept meticulous diaries, some in German, which chronicled his musical accomplishments from 1907 to 1919, and also dealt honestly with his homosexuality, including his regular patronage of the Lafayette Place Baths and the Produce Exchange Baths.
During his time as a student in Berlin he was devoted to his "special friend" Emil Joèl (aka "Konrad Wölcke"). In later life, he had a long term relationship with John Meyer (biographer Edward Maisel used the pseudonym Dan C. Martin), a married New York policeman.
# Musical compositions.
## Stage works.
- "The Kairn of Koridwen" (dance drama | 13,079 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
in two scenes, after E. Schuré), fl, 2 cl, 2 hn, hp, cel, pf, 1916, New York, 10 Feb 1917; arr. pf, 1916
- "Sho-jo" (Japanese pantomime in one scene), fl, ob, cl, hp, Chin. drum, tam-tam, timp, 4 str, 1917, rev. ?1919, Atlantic City, NJ, 5 Aug 1917
- "Sakura-sakura" (Japanese folkdance arrangement), fl, cl, hp, 2 vn, vc, db, ?1917, Atlantic City, NJ, 5 Aug 1917
- "The White Peacock" (solo ballet, arrangement of piano work), orchestra, ?1919, New York, 22 June 1919
- "Salut au monde" (festival drama in three acts, after Walt Whitman), fl, cl, 2 hn, tpt, 2 trombones, timp, drums, 2 hp, pf, 1919, incomplete, New York, 22 April 1922
## Orchestral works.
- Overture, c1905
- "Symphonische Phantasie", | 13,080 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
1907, arranged for 2 pianos, ?1910
- "The Pleasure-Dome of Kubla Khan", Op. 8, 1917, Boston Symphony Orch., cond. P. Monteux, Boston, 28 November 1919 [version of piano piece, 1912]
- "Notturno für Orchester", ?1918, Philadelphia Orch. cond. L. Stokowski, Philadelphia, 19 December 1919; arr. piano and string orch.
- "Poem", flute and orchestra, 1918, G. Barrère, New York Symphony Orch., cond. W. Damrosch, 16 November 1919
- "Bacchanale", ?1919, Philadelphia Orch., cond. Stokowski, Philadelphia, 19 December 1919 [version of Scherzo for piano, 1913]
- "Clouds", ?1919, Philadelphia Orch., cond. Stokowski, Philadelphia, 19 December 1919 [version of piano piece, 1916]
- "The White Peacock", | 13,081 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
?1919, Philadelphia Orch., cond. Stokowski, Philadelphia, 19 Dec 1919 [version of piano piece, 1915]
- "Nocturne", 1919 [version of 2nd movement of Piano Sonata, 1917–18]
- "Notturno", strings [version of orchestral piece, ?1918]
## Chamber music.
- "Three Tone-Pictures", woodwinds and harp, 1915, nos. 1–2 Barrère Ensemble, New York, 19 Dec 1916; arr. wind quintet, str qnt, pf, ?1919, New York Chamber Music Society, Greenwich, CT, 4 June 1920 [versions of piano pieces, 1910–12]
- 1. The Lake at Evening
- 2. The Vale of Dreams
- 3. The Night Winds
- "Komori uta, Noge no yama", fl, ob, cl, hp, 2 vn, vc, db, ?Chin. drum, ?1917 [Japanese melodies]
- "Two Sketches based on Indian Themes": | 13,082 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
Lento e mesto, Allegro giocoso, str quartet, 1918–19; ?première, Flonzaley Quartet, New York, 24 Nov 1920
## Piano.
- "Six Variations", Op. 2, 1898
- "Four Preludes", Op. 4, 1899–1900
- "Three Tone-Pictures", Op. 5: The Lake at Evening, 1910, L. Hodgson, New York, 3 April 1914; The Vale of Dreams, 1912; The Night Winds, 1911; arr. ens, 1915, arr. orch. 1919
- "Fantasy Pieces", Op. 6: Barcarolle, 1912, Griffes, Lowell, MA, 3 Nov 1914; Notturno, 1915; Scherzo, 1913, orchestrated as "Bacchanale", ?1919
- "Roman Sketches", Op. 7: The White Peacock, 1915, W. Christie, New York, 23 Feb 1916, orchd ?1919; Nightfall, 1916; The Fountain of the Acqua Paola, 1916; Clouds, 1916, orchd ?1919
- Children's | 13,083 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
pieces, first published under name of Arthur Tomlinson: 6 Short Pieces, 1918; 6 Patriotic Songs, 1918; 6 Bugle-Call Pieces, 1918; 6 Familiar Songs (1919); 6 Pieces for Treble Clef (1919)
- Mazurka, 1898–1900
- Sonata, f, ?1904, Griffes, Berlin, 22 June 1905
- Sonata, D, 1 movement, ?1910
- Symphonische Phantasie, 2 pf, ?1910 [version of orchestra piece, 1907]
- Sonata, D, 2 movements, ?1911
- The Pleasure-Dome of Kubla Khan, 1912, rev. 1915, orchestrated 1917
- Sonata, f, ?1912
- Rhapsody, b, 1914
- Piece, B, ?1915
- De profundis, 1915
- Legend, 1915
- Piece, d, 1915
- Winter Landscape, c1912
- Piece, E, 1916
- Dance, a, ?1916
- Sonata, 1917–18, Griffes, New York, 26 Feb 1918, | 13,084 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
2nd movement orchestrated as "Nocturne", 1919
- Three Preludes, 1919
- Notturno [arr. of orchestral piece, ?1918]
- Arrangement of J. Offenbach: Barcarolle, Belle nuit, o nuit d'amour, piano solo, perf. 1910
- Arrangement of E. Humperdinck: Hänsel und Gretel, overture, 2 pianos, 1910
## Organ.
- Chorale on ""Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr", 1910
## Songs.
- "Tone-Images", Op. 3
- 1. La fuite de la lune (Oscar Wilde), 1912
- 2. Symphony in Yellow (Wilde), 1912
- 3. We'll to the Woods, and Gather May (W. E. Henley), 1914
- "Two Rondels", Op. 4, c1914
- 1. This Book of Hours (W. Crane)
- 2. Come, Love, across the Sunlit Land (C. Scollard)
- "Four Impressions" (Wilde)
- 1. Le jardin, | 13,085 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
1915
- 2. Impression du matin, 1915
- 3. La mer, 1912, new setting 1916
- 4. Le réveillon, 1914
- "Three Poems", Op. 9, 1916
- 1. In a Myrtle Shade (William Blake)
- 2. Waikiki (R. Brooke), E. Gauthier, M. Hansotte, New York, 22 April 1918
- 3. Phantoms (A. Giovannitti)
- "Five Poems of Ancient China and Japan", Op. 10; E. Gauthier, Griffes, New York, 1 Nov 1917
- 1. So-fei Gathering Flowers (Wang Chang-Ling), 1917
- 2. Landscape (Sada-ihe), 1916
- 3. The Old Temple among the Mountains (Chang Wen-Chang), 1916
- 4. Tears (Wang Seng-Ju), 1916
- 5. A Feast of Lanterns (Yuan Mei), 1917
- "Two Poems" (J. Masefield); E. Gauthier, M. Hansotte, New York, 22 April 1918
- 1. An Old Song | 13,086 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
Re-Sung, 1918
- 2. Sorrow of Mydath, 1917
- "Three Poems of Fiona MacLeod", Op. 11, 1918; V. Janacopulos, Griffes, New York, 22 March 1919; orchestrated 1918, M. Dresser, Philadelphia Orch, cond. T. Rich, Wilmington, DE, 24 March 1919
- 1. The Lament of Ian the Proud
- 2. Thy Dark Eyes to Mine
- 3. The Rose of the Night
- Si mes vers avaient des ailes (V. Hugo), 1901
- Sur ma lyre l'autre fois (C.A. Sainte-Beuve), ?1901
- German Songs, c1903–1909
- 1. Am Kreuzweg wird begraben (Heinrich Heine)
- 2. An den Wind (Nikolaus Lenau)
- 3. Auf ihrem Grab (Heine)
- 4. Auf dem Teich, dem Regungslosen (Lenau)
- 5. Auf geheimen Waldespfade (Lenau)
- 6. Das ist ein Brausen und Heulen (Heine)
- | 13,087 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
7. Das sterbende Kind (Emanuel Geibel)
- 8. Der träumende See (Julius Mosen)
- 9. Des müden Abendlied (Geibel)
- 10. Elfe (J. von Eichendorff)
- 11. Entflieh mit mir (Heine)
- 12. Es fiel ein Reif (Heine)
- 13. Frühe (Eichendorff)
- 14. Gedicht von Heine (Mit schwarzen Segeln)
- 15. Ich weiss nicht, wie's geschieht (Geibel)
- 16. Könnt’ ich mit dir dort oben gehn (Mosen)
- 17. Meeres Stille (J. W. von Goethe)
- 18. Mein Herz ist wie die dunkle Nacht (Geibel)
- 19. Mir war, als müsst’ ich graben (Das Grab) (Christian Friedrich Hebbel)
- 20. Nacht liegt auf den fremden Wegen (Heine)
- 21. So halt’ ich endlich dich umfangen (Geibel)
- 22. Winternacht (Lenau)
- 23. Wo ich bin, mich | 13,088 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
rings umdunkelt (Heine), c1903–11
- 24. Wohl lag ich einst in Gram und Schmerz (Geibel)
- 25. Zwei Könige sassen auf Orkadal (Geibel), before 1910
- The Water-Lily (J.B. Tabb), 1911
- The Half-Ring Moon (Tabb), 1912
- Nachtlied (Geibel), 1912
- Pierrot (S. Teasdale), 1912
- Les ballons (Wilde), ?1912, rev. 1915
- Cleopatra to the Asp (Tabb)
- Evening Song (S. Lanier)
- The First Snowfall (Tabb)
- Phantoms (Tabb), c1912
- The War-Song of the Vikings (F. MacLeod), 1914
- Two Birds flew into the Sunset Glow (Rom. trad.), 1914
- Song of the Dagger (Rom. trad.), 1916
- In the Harem (Chu Ch′ing-yü), ?1917
- Hampelas, Kinanti, Djakoan (Javanese trad.), c1917
## Choral works.
- Passionlied | 13,089 |
621065 | Charles Tomlinson Griffes | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles%20Tomlinson%20Griffes | Charles Tomlinson Griffes
aupt voll Blut und Wunden") (P. Gerhardt), SSATB, 1906
- Lobe den Herren (J. Neander), SSATB, 1906
- Dies ist der Tag (I. Watts), SSATB, 1906
- These things shall be (J.A. Symonds), unison chorus, 1916
# Further reading.
- The definitive biography of the composer and is widely available secondhand
- "Griffes, Charles Tomlinson", in "The Biographical Dictionary of Musicians" (1939), Garden City, New York: Doubleday.
# External links.
- Edward Maisel research files on Charles T. Griffes, 1904–1985 Music Division, The New York Public Library.
- Thomas Hampson: I Hear America Singing - Composer profile
- Charles Griffes. American Musicological Society Newsletter Essay by Howard Pollack | 13,090 |
621090 | Photophore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photophore | Photophore
Photophore
A photophore is a glandular organ that appears as luminous spots on various marine animals, including fish and cephalopods. The organ can be simple, or as complex as the human eye; equipped with lenses, shutters, color filters and reflectors. The bioluminescence can variously be produced from compounds during the digestion of prey, from specialized mitochondrial cells in the organism, called photocytes ("light producing" cells), or, similarly, associated with symbiotic bacteria in the organism that is cultured.
The character of photophores is important in the identification of deep sea fishes. Photophores on fish are used for attracting food or for camouflage from predators by counter-illumination.
Photophores | 13,091 |
621090 | Photophore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photophore | Photophore
and reflectors. The bioluminescence can variously be produced from compounds during the digestion of prey, from specialized mitochondrial cells in the organism, called photocytes ("light producing" cells), or, similarly, associated with symbiotic bacteria in the organism that is cultured.
The character of photophores is important in the identification of deep sea fishes. Photophores on fish are used for attracting food or for camouflage from predators by counter-illumination.
Photophores are found on some cephalopods, including "firefly squid", the sparkling enope or firefly squid, which can create impressive light displays.
# See also.
- Chromatophore
- Chromophore, part of a molecule | 13,092 |
621072 | Black-hooded oriole | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black-hooded%20oriole | Black-hooded oriole
Black-hooded oriole
The black-hooded oriole ("Oriolus xanthornus") is a member of the oriole family of passerine birds and is a resident breeder in tropical southern Asia from India and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia.
It is a bird of open woodland and cultivation. The nest is built in a tree, and contains two eggs. Its food is insects and fruit, especially figs, found in the tree canopies where they spend much of their time.
# Taxonomy and systematics.
The black-hooded oriole was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae" under the binomial name "Coracias xanthornus". Linnaeus was confused by the similar appearance of the | 13,093 |
621072 | Black-hooded oriole | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black-hooded%20oriole | Black-hooded oriole
unrelated New World orioles and the Old World orioles. In his entry for "Coracias xanthornus" he cited a descriptions of birds occurring in Jamaica by Mark Catesby and Patrick Browne as well as an illustration by George Edwards of a bird occurring in Bengal. Linnaeus specified the habitat as "America" but Bengal is now the recognised type location. Also in the 10th edition Linnaeus listed "Sturnus luteolus" among the starlings and cited another illustration by Edwards. He renamed this species as "Oriolus melanocephalus" in the 12th edition of 1766. All three binomial names are now believed to refer to the black-hooded oriole.
The current genus "Oriolus" was erected by Linnaeus in 1766 in the | 13,094 |
621072 | Black-hooded oriole | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black-hooded%20oriole | Black-hooded oriole
twelfth edition of his "Systema Naturae". The name is from Medieval Latin "oryolus" for the Eurasian golden oriole which in turm comes from the Latin word "aureolus" for "golden". The specific epithet "xanthornus" is from the Ancient Greek "xanthos" "yellow" and "ornis" "bird".
Alternate names for the black-hooded oriole include the Asian black-headed oriole, black-headed oriole, Indian black-headed oriole and Oriental black-headed oriole.
## Subspecies.
Five subspecies are recognized:
- "O. x. xanthornus" - : Found from northern India to northern Malay Peninsula and Indochina
- "O. x. maderaspatanus" - : Originally described as a separate species. Found in central and southern India
- | 13,095 |
621072 | Black-hooded oriole | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black-hooded%20oriole | Black-hooded oriole
"O. x. ceylonensis" - : Originally described as a separate species. Found in Sri Lanka
- "O. x. reubeni" - : Found on the Andaman Islands
- "O. x. tanakae" - : Found on north-eastern Borneo
# Description.
The male is striking, with the typical oriole black and yellow colouration. The plumage is predominantly yellow, with a solid black hood, and black also in the wings and tail centre.
The female black-hooded oriole is a drabber bird with greenish underparts, but still has the black hood. Young birds are like the female, but have dark streaking on the underparts, and their hood is not solidly black, especially on the throat.
The black head of this species is an obvious distinction from | 13,096 |
621072 | Black-hooded oriole | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black-hooded%20oriole | Black-hooded oriole
the Indian golden oriole, which is a summer visitor to northern India. Orioles can be shy, and even the male may be difficult to see in the dappled yellow and green leaves of the canopy.
The black-hooded oriole's flight is somewhat like a thrush, strong and direct with some shallow dips over longer distances.
While foraging the species uses foliage-gleening, wood-gleening, or sallying methods.
# Relationship to humans.
The black hooded oriole lives in common contact with humans in rural and urban India.
A folk tale from Bengal has it that an unfortunate girl of a merchant family was tortured by her mother-in-law. Troubled by various incidents she smeared herself with turmeric paste and | 13,097 |
621072 | Black-hooded oriole | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black-hooded%20oriole | Black-hooded oriole
ces.
While foraging the species uses foliage-gleening, wood-gleening, or sallying methods.
# Relationship to humans.
The black hooded oriole lives in common contact with humans in rural and urban India.
A folk tale from Bengal has it that an unfortunate girl of a merchant family was tortured by her mother-in-law. Troubled by various incidents she smeared herself with turmeric paste and covered herself with a sooty earthen pot and killed herself. A goddess resurrected her as a black hooded oriole and a Bengali name for the bird is "benebou" or merchant's wife while another name is "haldi pakhi" or turmeric bird.
# External links.
- Xeno-canto: audio recordings of the black-hooded oriole | 13,098 |
621105 | Chestnut-backed sparrow-lark | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chestnut-backed%20sparrow-lark | Chestnut-backed sparrow-lark
Chestnut-backed sparrow-lark
The chestnut-backed sparrow-lark ("Eremopterix leucotis") is a passerine bird which is a resident breeder in Africa south of the Sahara Desert.
# Taxonomy and systematics.
The chestnut-backed sparrow-lark was originally placed in the genus "Loxia". Alternate names for this species include: chestnut-backed finch-lark and white-cheeked sparrow-lark.
## Subspecies.
Five subspecies are recognized:
- Senegal chestnut-backed finch-lark ("E. l. melanocephalus") - : Originally described as a separate species in the genus "Alauda". Found from Senegal and Gambia to central Sudan
- "E. l. leucotis" - : Found in southern and eastern Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia and north-western | 13,099 |
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