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A scale model is a physical model that is geometrically similar to an object (known as the prototype). Scale models are generally smaller than large prototypes such as vehicles, buildings, or people; but may be larger than small prototypes such as anatomical structures or subatomic particles. Models built to the same scale as the prototype are called mockups. Scale models are used as tools in engineering design and testing, promotion and sales, filmmaking special effects, military strategy, and hobbies such as rail transport modeling, wargaming and racing; and as toys. Model building is also pursued as a hobby for the sake of artisanship. Scale models are constructed of plastic, wood, or metal. They are usually painted with enamel, lacquer, or acrylics. Model prototypes include all types of vehicles (railroad trains, cars, trucks, military vehicles, aircraft, and spacecraft), buildings, people, and science fiction themes (spaceships and robots). == Methods == Models are built to scale, defined as the ratio of any linear dimension of the model to the equivalent dimension on the full-size subject (called the "prototype"), expressed either as a ratio with a colon (ex. 1:8 scale), or as a fraction with a slash (1/8 scale). This designates that 1 length unit on the model represents 8 such units on the prototype. In English-speaking countries, the scale is sometimes expressed as the number of feet on the prototype corresponding to one inch on the model, e.g. 1:48 scale = "1 inch to 4 feet", 1:96 = "1 inch to 8 feet", etc. Models are obtained by three different means: kit assembly, scratch building, and collecting pre-assembled models. Scratch building is the only option available to structural engineers, and among hobbyists requires the highest level of skill, craftsmanship, and time; scratch builders tend to be the most concerned with accuracy and detail. Kit assembly is done either "out of the box", or with modifications (known as "kitbashing"). Many kit manufacturers, for various reasons leave something to be desired in terms of accuracy, but using the kit parts as a baseline and adding after-market conversion kits, alternative decal sets, and some scratch building can correct this without the master craftsmanship or time expenditure required by scratch building. == Purposes == Scale models are generally of two types: static and animated. They are used for several purposes in many fields, including: === Hobby === Most hobbyist's models are built for static display, but some have operational features, such as railroad trains that roll, and airplanes and rockets that fly. Flying airplane models may be simple unpowered gliders, or have sophisticated features such as radio control powered by miniature methanol/nitromethane engines. ==== Slot car racing ==== Cars in 1:24, 1:32, or HO scale are fitted with externally powered electric motors which run on plastic road track fitted with metal rails on slots. The track may or may not be augmented with miniature buildings, trees, and people. ==== Wood car racing ==== Children can build and race their own gravity-powered, uncontrolled cars carved out of a wood such as pine, with plastic wheels on metal axles, which run on inclined tracks. The most famous wood racing event is the Boy Scouts of America's annual Pinewood Derby which debuted in 1953. Entry is open to Cub Scouts. Entrants are supplied with a kit containing a wooden block out of which to carve the body, four plastic wheels, and four axle nails; or they may purchase their own commercially available kit. Regulations generally limit the car's weight to 5 ounces (141.7 g), width to 2.75 inches (7.0 cm), and length to 7 inches (17.8 cm). The rules permit the cars to be augmented with tungsten carbide weights up to the limit, and graphite axle lubricant. ==== Wargaming ==== Miniature wargames are played using miniature soldiers, artillery, vehicles, and scenery built by the players. === Television and film production === Before the advent of computer-generated imagery (CGI), visual effects of vehicles such as marine ships and spaceships were created by filming "miniature" models. These were considerably larger scale than hobby versions to allow inclusion of a high degree of surface detail, and electrical features such as interior lighting and animation. For Star Trek: The Original Series, a 33-inch (0.84 m) pre-production model of the Starship Enterprise was created in December 1964, mostly of pine, with Plexiglass and brass details, at a cost of $600. This was followed by a 135.5-inch (3.44 m) production model constructed from plaster, sheet metal, and wood, at ten times the cost of the first. As the Enterprise was originally reckoned to be 947 feet (289 m) long, this put the models at 1:344 and 1:83.9 scale respectively. The Polar Lights company sells a large plastic Enterprise model kit essentially the same size as the first TV model, in 1:350 scale (32 inches long). It can be purchased with an optional electronic lighting and animation (rotating engine domes) kit. === Engineering === ==== Structural ==== Although structural engineering has been a field of study for thousands of years and many of the great problems have been solved using analytical and numerical techniques, many problems are still too complicated to understand in an analytical manner or the current numerical techniques lack real world confirmation. When this is the case, for example a complicated reinforced concrete beam-column-slab interaction problem, scale models can be constructed observing the requirements of similitude to study the problem. Many structural labs exist to test these structural scale models such as the Newmark Civil Engineering Laboratory at the University of Illinois, UC. For structural engineering scale models, it is important for several specific quantities to be scaled according to the theory of similitude. These quantities can be broadly grouped into three categories: loading, geometry, and material properties. A good reference for considering scales for a structural scale model under static loading conditions in the elastic regime is presented in Table 2.2 of the book Structural Modeling and Experimental Techniques. Structural engineering scale models can use different approaches to satisfy the similitude requirements of scale model fabrication and testing. A practical introduction to scale model design and testing is discussed in the paper "Pseudodynamic Testing of Scaled Models". ==== Aerodynamic ==== Aerodynamic models may be used for testing new aircraft designs in a wind tunnel or in free flight. Models of scale large enough to permit piloting may be used for testing of a proposed design. ==== Architectural ==== Architecture firms usually employ model makers or contract model making firms to make models of projects to sell their designs to builders and investors. These models are traditionally hand-made, but advances in technology have turned the industry into a very high tech process than can involve Class IV laser cutters, five-axis CNC machines as well as rapid prototyping or 3D printing. Typical scales are 1:12, 1:24, 1:48, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, etc. === Advertising and sales === === Military === With elements similar to miniature wargaming, building models and architectural models, a plan-relief is a means of geographical representation in relief as a scale model for military use, to visualize building projects on fortifications or campaigns involving fortifications. In the first half of the 20th century, navies used hand-made models of warships for identification and instruction in a variety of scales. That of 1:500 was called "teacher scale." Besides models made in 1:1200 and 1:2400 scales, there were also ones made to 1:2000 and 1:5000. Some, made in Britain, were labelled "1 inch to 110 feet", which would be 1:1320 scale, but are not necessarily accurate. ==== Manned ships ==== Many research workers, hydraulics specialists and engineers have used scale models for over a century, in particular in towing tanks. Manned models are small scale models that can carry and be handled by at least one person on an open expanse of water. They must behave just like real ships, giving the shiphandler the same sensations. Physical conditions such as wind, currents, waves, water depths, channels, and berths must be reproduced realistically. Manned models are used for research (e.g. ship behaviour), engineering (e.g. port layout) and for training in shiphandling (e.g. maritime pilots, masters and officers). They are usually at 1:25 scale. == Materials == Models, and their constituent parts, can be built out of a variety of materials, such as: === Plastic === This includes injection molded or extruded plastics such as polystyrene, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), butyrate, and clear acrylic and copolyester (PETG). Parts can also be cast from synthetic resins. === Wood === Pine wood is sometimes used; balsa wood, a light wood, is good for flying airplane models. === Metal === Aluminum or brass can be used in tubing form, or can be used in flat sheets with photo-etched surface detail. Model figures used in wargaming can be made of white metal. === Glue === Styrene parts are welded together using plastic cement, which comes both in a thick form to be carefully applied to a bonding surface, or in a thin liquid which is applied into a joint by capillary action using a brush or syringe needle. Ethyl cyanoacrylate (ECA) aka "super-glue", or fast-setting epoxy, must be used to bond styrene to other materials. === Paint === Glossy colors are generally used for car and commercial truck exteriors. Flat colors are generally desirable for military vehicles, aircraft, and spacecraft. Metallic colors simulate the various metals (silver, gold, aluminum, steel, copper, brass, etc.) Enamel paint has classically been used for model making and is generally considered the most durable paint for plastics. It is available in small bottles for brushing and airbrushing, and aerosol spray cans. Disadvantages include toxicity and a strong chemical smell of the paint and its mineral spirit thinner/brush cleaner. Modern enamels are made of alkyd resin to limit toxicity. Popular brands include Testor's in the US and Humbrol (now Hornby) in the UK. Lacquer paint produces a hard, durable finish, and requires its own lacquer thinner. Enamels have been generally replaced in popularity by acrylic paint, which is water-based. Advantages include decreased toxicity and chemical smell, and brushes clean with soap and water. Disadvantages include possibly limited durability on plastic, requiring priming coats, at least two color coats, and allowing adequate cure time. Popular brands include the Japanese import Tamiya. Some beginner's level kits avoid the necessity to paint the model by adding pigments and chrome plating to the plastic. === Decals === Decals are generally applied to models after painting and assembly, to add details such as lettering, flags, insignia, or other decorations too small to paint. Water transfer (slide-on) decals are generally used, but beginner's kits may use dry transfer stickers instead. == Subjects == === Vehicles === ==== Trains ==== Model railroading (US and Canada; known as railway modelling in UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland) is done in a variety of scales from 1:4 to 1:450 (T scale). Each scale has its own strengths and weaknesses, and fills a different niche in the hobby: The largest scales are used outdoors, for "Live steam" railroads with trains large enough for people to ride on, as much as 3 meters (9.8 ft) longs are built in several scales such as 1-1/2", 1", and 3/4 inches to the foot. Common gauges are 7-1/2" (Western US) and 7-1/4" (Eastern US & rest of the world), 5", and 4-3/4". Smaller live steam gauges do exist, but as the scale gets smaller, pulling power decreases. One of the smallest gauges on which a live steam engine can pull a passenger is the now almost defunct 2+1⁄2-inch gauge. The next largest scale range, G scale (1:22.5) in the US and 16 mm scale (1:19.05) in the UK, and as large as 1:12 scale, is too small for riding but is used for outdoor garden railways, which allow use of natural landscaping. G scale is also sometimes used indoors, with the track mounted adjacent to walls at eye level of standing adults. A franchise chain of restaurants and coffeehouses named Výtopna in the Czech Republic acquired a trademark for the use of G-scale trains mounted on the countertops to serve customers beverages, and pick up their orders and empty glasses. Smaller scales are used indoors. O scale (1:48) sets were introduced as early "toy trains" by companies such as Lionel Corporation, but has developed a following among serious adult hobbyists. American Flyer purchased by A. C. Gilbert Company popularized S scale (1:64) trains starting in 1946. Even smaller scales have become the most popular, allowing larger, more complex layouts to be built in smaller spaces. Dedicated model railroaders often mount indoor layouts on homemade plywood tables, at a height in the range of 30 to 42 inches (76 to 107 cm), putting the track optimally close to eye level for children or adults. As of 2022, the two most popular sizes are HO scale (1:87) and N scale (1:160). ===== Gauge vs scale ===== Model railroads originally used the term gauge, which refers to the distance between the rails, just as full-size railroads continue to do. Although model railroads were also built to different gauges, standard gauge in full-size railroads is 4' 8.5". Therefore, a model railroad reduces that standard to scale. An HO scale model railroad runs on track that is 1/87 of 4' 8.5", or 0.649" from rail to rail. Today model railroads are more typically referred to using the term scale instead of "gauge" in most usages. Confusion arises from indiscriminate use of "scale" and "gauge" synonymously. The word "scale" strictly refers to the proportional size of the model, while "gauge" strictly applies to the measurement between the inside faces of the rails. It is completely incorrect to refer to the mainstream scales as "HO gauge", "N gauge, "Z gauge", etc. This is further complicated by the fact some scales use several different gauges; for example, HO scale uses 16.5 mm as the standard gauge of 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm), 12 mm to represent 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) gauge (HOm), and 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) (HOn3-1/2), and 9 mm to represent a prototype gauge of 2 ft (610 mm). The most popular scale to go with a given gauge was often arrived at through the following roundabout process: German artisans would take strips of metal of standard metric size to construct their products from blueprints dimensioned in inches. "Four mm to the foot" yielded the 1:76.2 size of the British "OO scale", which is anomalously used on the standard HO/OO scale (16.5 mm gauge from 3.5 mm/foot scale) tracks, because early electric motors weren't available commercially in smaller sizes. Today, most scale sizes are internationally standardized, with the notable exceptions of O scale and N scale. There are three different versions of the "O" scale, each of which uses tracks of 32 mm for the standard gauge. The American version follows a dollhouse scale of 1:48, sometimes called "quarter-gauge" as in "one-quarter-inch to the foot". The British version continued the pattern of sub-contracting to Germans, so, at 7 mm to the foot, it works out to a scale of 1:43.5. Later, the European authority of model railroad firms MOROP declared that the "O" gauge (still 32 mm) must use the scale of 1:45, to allow wheel, tire, and splasher clearance for smaller than realistic curved sections. N scale trains were first commercially produced at 1:160 scale in 1962 by the Arnold company of Nuremberg. This standard size was imported to the US by firms such as the Aurora Plastics Corporation. However, the early N-scale motors would not fit in the smaller models of British locomotives, so the British N gauge was standardized to allow a slightly larger body size. Similar sizing problems with Japanese prototypes led to adoption of a 1:150 scale standard there. Since space is more limited in Japanese houses, N scale has become more popular there than HO scale. ==== Aircraft ==== Static model aircraft are commonly built using plastic, but wood, metal, card and paper can also be used. Models are sold painted and assembled, painted but not assembled (snap-fit), or unpainted and not assembled. The most popular types of aircraft to model are commercial airliners and military aircraft. Popular aircraft scales are, in order of increasing size: 1:144, 1:87 (also known as HO, or "half-O scale"), 1:72 (the most numerous), 1:48 (known as "O scale"), 1:32, 1:24, 1:16, 1:6, and 1:4. Some European models are available at more metric scales such as 1:50. The highest quality models are made from injection molded plastic or cast resin. Models made from Vacuum formed plastic are generally for the more skilled builder. More inexpensive models are made from heavy paper or card stock. Ready-made die-cast metal models are also very popular. As well as the traditional scales, die-cast models are available in 1:200, 1:250, 1:350, 1:400, 1:500 and 1:600 scale. The majority of aircraft modelers concern themselves with depiction of real-life aircraft, but there are some modelers who 'bend' history by modeling aircraft that either never actually flew or existed, or by painting them in a color scheme that did not actually exist. This is commonly referred to as 'What-if' or 'Alternative' modeling, and the most common theme is 'Luftwaffe 1946' or 'Luftwaffe '46'. This theme stems from the idea of modeling German secret projects that never saw the light of day due to the close of World War II. This concept has been extended to include British, Russian, and US experimental projects that never made it into production. Flying model aircraft are built for aerodynamic research and for recreation (aeromodeling). Recreational models are often made to resemble some real type. However the aerodynamic requirements of a small model are different from those of a full-size craft, so flying models are seldom fully accurate to scale. Flying model aircraft are one of three types: free flight, control line, and radio controlled. Some flying model kits take many hours to put together, and some kits are almost ready to fly or ready to fly. ==== Rockets and spacecraft ==== Model rocketry dates back to the Space Race of the 1950s. The first model rocket engine was designed in 1954 by Orville Carlisle, a licensed pyrotechnics expert, and his brother Robert, a model airplane enthusiast. Static model rocket kits began as a development of model aircraft kits, yet the scale of 1:72 [V.close to 4 mm.::1foot] never caught on. Scales 1:48 and 1:96 are most frequently used. There are some rockets of scales 1:128, 1:144, and 1:200, but Russian firms put their large rockets in 1:288. Heller SA offers some models in the scale of 1:125. Science fiction space ships are heavily popular in the modeling community. In 1966, with the release of the television show Star Trek: The Original Series, AMT corporation released an 18-inch (46 cm) model of the Starship Enterprise. This has been followed over the decades by a complete array of various starships, shuttlecraft, and space stations from the Star Trek franchise. The 1977 release of the first Star Wars film and the 1978 TV series Battlestar Galactica also spawned lines of licensed model kits in scales ranging from 1:24 for fighters and smaller ships, to 1:1000, 1:1400, and 1:2500 for most main franchise ships, and up to 1:10000 for the larger Star Wars ships (for especially objects like the Death Stars and Super Star Destroyers, even smaller scales are used). Finemolds in Japan have recently released a series of high quality injection molded Star Wars kits in 1:72, and this range is supplemented by resin kits from Fantastic Plastic. ==== Cars ==== Although the British scale for 0 gauge was first used for model cars made of rectilinear and circular parts, it was the origin of the European scale for cast or injection molded model cars. MOROP's specification of 1:45 scale for European 0 does not alter the series of cars in 1:43 scale, as it has the widest distribution in the world. In America, a series of cars was developed from at first cast metal and later styrene models ("promos") offered at new-car dealerships to drum up interest. The firm Monogram, and later Tamiya, first produced them in a scale derived from the Architect's scale: 1:24 scale, while the firms AMT, Jo-Han, and Revell chose the scale of 1:25. Monogram later switched to this scale after the firm was purchased by Revell. Some cars are also made in 1:32 scale, and rolling toys are often made on the scale 1:64 scale. Chinese die-cast manufacturers have introduced 1/72 scale into their range. The smaller scales are usually die-cast cars and not the in the class as model cars. Except in rare occasions, Johnny Lightning and Ertl-made die-cast cars were sold as kits for buyers to assemble. Model cars are also used in car design. ==== Buses and trucks ==== Typically found in 1:50 scale, most manufacturers of commercial vehicles and heavy equipment commission scale models made of die-cast metal as promotional items to give to prospective customers. These are also popular children's toys and collectibles. The major manufacturers of these items are Conrad and NZG in Germany. Corgi also makes some 1:50 models, as well as Dutch maker Tekno. Trucks are also found as diecast models in 1:43 scale and injection molded kits (and children's toys) in 1:24 scale. Recently some manufacturers have appeared in 1:64 scale like Code 3. ==== Construction vehicles ==== A model construction vehicle (or engineering vehicle) is a scale model or die-cast toy that represents a construction vehicle such as a bulldozer, excavator, crane, concrete pump, backhoe, etc. Construction vehicle models are almost always made in 1:50 scale, particularly because the cranes at this scale are often three to four feet tall when extended and larger scales would be unsuited for display on a desk or table. These models are popular as children's toys in Germany. In the US they are commonly sold as promotional models for new construction equipment, commissioned by the manufacturer of the prototype real-world equipment. The major manufacturers in Germany are Conrad and NZG, with some competition from Chinese firms that have been entering the market. === Robots === Japanese firms have marketed toys and models of what are often called mecha, nimble humanoid fighting robots. The robots, which appear in animated shows (anime), are often depicted at a size between 15-20m in height, and so scales of 1:100 and 1:144 are common for these subjects, though other scales such as 1:72 are commonly used for robots and related subjects of different size. The most prolific manufacturer of mecha models is Bandai, whose Gundam kit lines were a strong influence in the genre in the 1980s. Even today, Gundam kits are the most numerous in the mecha modeling genre, usually with dozens of new releases every year. The features of modern Gundam kits, such as color molding and snap-fit construction, have become the standard expectations for other mecha model kits. Due to the fantasy nature of most anime robots, and the necessary simplicity of cel-animated designs, mecha models lend themselves well to stylized work, improvisations, and simple scratchbuilds. One of Gundam's contributions to the genre was the use of a gritty wartime backstory as a part of the fantasy, and so it is almost equally fashionable to build the robots in a weathered, beaten style, as would often be expected for AFV kits as to build them in a more stylish, pristine manner. === Live action figures === Scale models of people and animals are found in a wide variety of venues, and may be either single-piece objects or kits that must be assembled, usually depending on the purpose of the model. For instance, models of people as well as both domestic and wild animals are often produced for display in model cities or railroads to provide a measure of detail or realism, and scaled relative to the trains, buildings, and other accessories of a certain line of models. If a line of trains or buildings does not feature models of living creatures, those who build the models often buy these items separately from another line so they can feature people or animals. In other cases, scale model lines feature living creatures exclusively, often focusing on educational interests. Model kits of superheroes and super-villains from popular franchises such as DC Entertainment and Marvel Entertainment are also sold, as are models of real-world celebrities, such as Marilyn Monroe and Elvis Presley. One type of assembly kit sold as educational features skeletons and anatomical structure of humans and animals. Such kits may have unique features such as glow-in-the-dark pieces. Dinosaurs are a popular subject for such models. There are also garage kits, which are often figures of anime characters in multiple parts that require assembly. === Ships and naval war-gaming === Michele Morciano says small scale ship models were produced in about 1905 linked to the wargaming rules and other publications of Fred T. Jane. The company that standardized on 1:1200 was Bassett-Lowke in 1908. The British Admiralty subsequently contracted with Bassett-Lowke and other companies and individual craftsmen to produce large numbers of recognition models, to this scale, in 1914–18. Just before the Second World War, the American naval historian (and science fiction author) Fletcher Pratt published a book on naval wargaming as could be done by civilians using ship models cut off at the waterline to be moved on the floors of basketball courts and similar locales. The scale he used was non-standard (reported as 1:666), and may have been influenced by toy ships then available, but as the hobby progressed, and other rule sets came into use, it was progressively supplemented by the series 1:600, 1:1200, and 1:2400. In Britain, 1:3000 became popular and these models also have come into use in the USA. These had the advantage of approximating the nautical mile as 120 inches, 60 inches, and 30 inches, respectively. As the knot is based on this mile and a 60-minute hour, this was quite handy. After the war, firms emerged to produce models from the same white metal used to make toy soldiers. Lines Bros. Ltd, a British firm, offered a tremendously wide range of waterline merchant and naval ships as well as dockyard equipment in the scale 1:1200 which were die-cast in Zamak. In the US, at least one manufacturer, of the wartime 1:1200 recognition models, Comet, made them available for the civilian market postwar, which also drove the change to this scale. In addition, continental European manufacturers and European ship book publishers had adopted the 1:1250 drawing scale because of its similar convenience in size for both models and comparison drawings in books. A prestige scale for boats, comparable to that of 1:32 for fighter planes, is 1:72, producing huge models, but there are very few kits marketed in this scale. There are now several clubs around the world for those who choose to scratch-build radio-controlled model ships and submarines in 1:72, which is often done because of the compatibility with naval aircraft kits. For the smaller ships, plank-on-frame or other wood construction kits are offered in the traditional shipyard scales of 1:96, 1:108, or 1:192 (half of 1:96). In injection-molded plastic kits, Airfix makes full-hull models in the scale the Royal Navy has used to compare the relative sizes of ships: 1:600. Revell makes some kits to half the scale of the US Army standard: 1:570. Some American and foreign firms have made models in a proportion from the Engineer's scale: "one-sixtieth-of-an-inch-to-the-foot", or 1:720. === Tanks and wargaming === Early in the 20th century, the British historian and science fiction author H. G. Wells published a book, Little Wars, on how to play at battles in miniature. His books use 2" lead figures, particularly those manufactured by Britains. His fighting system employed spring-loaded model guns that shot matchsticks. This use of physical mechanisms was echoed in the later games of Fred Jane, whose rules required throwing darts at ship silhouettes; his collection of data on the world's fleets was later published and became renowned. Dice have largely replaced this toy mayhem for consumers. For over a century, toy soldiers were made of white metal, a lead-based alloy, often in architect's scale-based ratios in the English-speaking countries, and called tin soldiers. After the Second World War, such toys were on the market for children but now made of a safe plastic softer than styrene. American children called these "army men". Many sets were made in the new scale of 1:40. A few styrene model kits of land equipment were offered in this and in 1:48 and 1:32 scales. However, these were swept away by the number of kits in the scale of 1:35. Those who continued to develop miniature wargaming preferred smaller scale models, the soldiers still made of soft plastic. Airfix particularly wanted people to buy 1:76 scale soldiers and tanks to go with "00" gauge train equipment. Roco offered 1:87 scale styrene military vehicles to go with "HO" gauge model houses. However, although there is no 1:72 scale model railroad, more toy soldiers are now offered in this scale because it is the same as the popular aircraft scale. The number of fighting vehicles in this scale is also increasing, although the number of auxiliary vehicles available is far fewer than in 1:87 scale. A more recent development, especially in wargaming of land battles, is 15 mm white metal miniatures, often referred to as 1:100. The use of 15 mm scale metals has grown quickly since the early 1990s as they allow a more affordable option over 28 mm if large battles are to be refought, or a large number of vehicles represented. The rapid rise in the detail and quality of castings at 15 mm scale has also helped to fuel their uptake by the wargaming community. Armies use smaller scales still. The US Army specifies models of the scale 1:285 for its sand table wargaming. There are metal ground vehicles and helicopters in this scale, which is a near "one-quarter-inch-to-six-feet" scale. The continental powers of NATO have developed the similar scale of 1:300, even though metric standardizers really don't like any divisors other than factors of 10, 5, and 2, so maps are not commonly offered in Europe in scales with a "3" in the denominator. Consumer wargaming has since expanded into fantasy realms, employing scales large enough to be painted in imaginative detail - so called "heroic" 28 mm figures, (roughly 1:64 scale). Firms that produce these make small production lots of white metal. Alternatively to the commercial models, some modelers also tend to use scraps to achieve home-made warfare models. While it doesn't always involve wargaming, some modelers insert realistic procedures, enabling a certain realism such as firing guns or shell deflection on small scale models. === Engines === Kits for building an engine model are available, especially for kids. The most popular are the internal combustion, steam, jet, and Stirling model engine. Usually they move using an electric motor or a hand crank, and many of them have a transparent case to show the internal process in action. === Buildings === Most hobbyists who build models of buildings do so as part of a diorama to enhance their other models, such as a model railroad or model war machines. As a stand-alone hobby, building models are probably most popular among enthusiasts of construction toys such as Erector, Lego and K'Nex. Famous landmarks such as the Empire State Building, Big Ben and the White House are common subjects. Standard scales have not emerged in this hobby. Model railroaders use railroad scales for their buildings: HO scale (1:87), OO scale (1:76), N scale (1:160), and O scale (1:43). Lego builders use miniland scale (1:20), minifig scale (1:48), and micro scale (1:192) Generally, the larger the building, the smaller the scale. Model buildings are commonly made from plastic, foam, balsa wood or paper. Card models are published in the form of a book, and some models are manufactured like 3-D puzzles. Professionally, building models are used by architects and salesmen. ==== House portrait ==== Typically found in 1:50 scale and also called model house, model home or display house, this type of model is usually found in stately homes or specially designed houses. Sometimes this kind of model is commissioned to mark a special date like an anniversary or the completion of the architecture, or these models might be used by salesmen selling homes in a new neighborhood. === Miniatures in contemporary art === Miniatures and model kits are used in contemporary art whereby artists use both scratch built miniaturizations or commercially manufactured model kits to construct a dialogue between object and viewer. The role of the artist in this type of miniature is not necessarily to re-create an historical event or achieve naturalist realism, but rather to use scale as a mode of articulation in generating conceptual or theoretical exploration. Political, conceptual, and architectural examples are provided by noted artists such as Bodys Isek Kingelez, Jake and Dinos Chapman (otherwise known as the Chapman Brothers), Ricky Swallow, Shaun Wilson, Sven Christoffersen, or the Psikhelekedana artists from Mozambique, James Casebere, Oliver Boberg, and Daniel Dorall. == See also == Autofest City Computer-aided design Cutaway drawing International Plastic Modellers' Society Maquette Miniature faking Miniature figure (disambiguation) Miniature park Miniature pioneering Rail transport modelling scale standards Solar System model Standard gauge in model railways Similitude Terrain model List of scale model sizes List of scale-model industry people List of scale model kit manufacturers == References and notes == === References === === Notes === == References == Crowe, Clayton t.; Elger, Donald F.; Williams, Barbara C.; Roberson, John A. (2010). Engineering Fluid Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-470-40943-5. Eaglemoss (2013), U.S.S. Enterprise NCC-1701 Refit, Eaglemoss Productions Ltd. Harris, Harry G.; Sagnis, Gajanan M. (1999). Structural Modeling and Experimental Techniques. CRC Press LLC. ISBN 9780849324697. Kumar; et al. (1997). "Pseudodynamic Testing of Scaled Models". J. Struct. Eng. 123 (4): 524–526. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1997)123:4(524). Weitekamp, Margaret A. (2016), "Two Enterprises: Star Trek's Iconic Starship As Studio Model and Celebrity", Journal of Popular Film and Television, 44: 2–13, doi:10.1080/01956051.2015.1075955, S2CID 191380605 "Progress in Scale Modeling, an International Journal (PSMIJ)". Retrieved 19 September 2020. == Further reading == Crowe, Clayton t.; Elger, Donald F.; Williams, Barbara C.; Roberson, John A. (2010). Engineering Fluid Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-470-40943-5. Harris, Harry G.; Sagnis, Gajanan M. (1999). Structural Modeling and Experimental Techniques. CRC Press LLC. ISBN 9780849324697. Lune, Peter van. "FROG Penguin plastic scale model kits 1936 - 1950". Zwolle, The Netherlands, 2017, published by author ISBN 978-90-9030180-8 Saito, Kozo, ed. (2008). Progress in Scale Modeling. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-8681-6. Saito, Kozo; et al. (2015). Progress in Scale Modeling Vol. II. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-10308-2. == External links ==	Wikipedia/Model_construction_vehicle
Model horses are scale replicas of real horses. They originated simultaneously – but independently – in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, followed later by Sweden (UK-influenced), Germany (US-influenced), and Australia. They encompass a wide variety of fanbase activities, from those who simply like to collect, to those who show their models at model horse shows. Unlike model cars or trains, model horse collectibles do not need to be assembled from kits, although they can be altered to the collector's liking. == Brief history == In the late 1960s, UK collectors came together through PONY magazine, and several clubs and newsletters were born, the most important being The Postal Pony Club. From this was created the Lindfield Model Showing Association and later Model Horse News (MHN), a bi-monthly magazine which ran until 1989. In 1979, The International Arabist magazine appeared, which though restricted to Arab horses and their descendants, was the first magazine to actively seek to unite hobbyists from around the world. While MHN remained largely in the original tradition of Julips, etc., TIA promoted realism through custom Breyers. TIA changed its name to Model Horse International (MHI) to reflect its move away from purely Arabian interest, but the magazine folded around 1989. MHN also folded around this time, but was replaced by Model Horses Unlimited (MHU) catering for both realistic and more traditional models, and which is still in existence today. During the 1960s, hobbyists such as Ellen Hitchins, Simone Smiljanic, and Marney Walerius began to organize photo shows. One of the earliest known clubs was the IMHA, or International Model Horse Association, which was run by Hitchins and Smiljanic. Many young hobbyists got their start after reading a short article about model horse collecting, which was published in the March 1969 issue of Western Horseman magazine. In the 1970s, US model horse collectors decided that their horses should be doing something else than just sitting on a shelf. They began to seek each other out, and early model horse magazines such as Breyer's Just About Horses and Model Horse Showers Journal were the means for collectors to socialize. Realism became the goal and the hobby grew a larger fanbase. With more techniques being shared, the shift in realism became more apparent. For example, an early bridle might have been made out of string. Today it would be made from leather, and include actual miniature bits. Clubs also formed as an outlet for collectors. Most clubs are devoted to particular breeds, performance activities (such as racing, eventing etc.) or regions, and just like real horse clubs, there are year-end awards, club events, point programs and newsletters for members. == Brand history == The earliest popular brands of mass-produced model horses in the UK and the US strongly influenced the collecting and showing trends in these two countries - the latex-bodied and haired Julips in the UK, and the injection moulded, hard plastic Breyers in the United States. === UK brands === Model horses have long been popular toys, mainly as mounts for soldiers or figures for model farms - essentially accessories for action figures. In 1920, Britains Ltd became one of the first companies to mass-produce these types of figures. Over the years their range of equine figures expanded though they remained generic action figures; Roy Selwyn-Smith created some very detailed 54 mm ('mini') horses for Britains Ltd. Julip Horses Ltd, in 1947, created the first mass-produced, stand-alone equine figures. Originally, Julips were stuffed soft toys in the tradition of companies such as Edith Reynolds, but later switched to hand-casting in latex (Julip Originals). Other companies such as Isis, Pegasus, and Otway, soon released their own lines of latex composition (the forerunner of resin) equines. Pamela du Boulay took the latex models to the next level with the creation of Rydal models in 1969 - highly accurate, airbrushed sculptures, each an artist original. In 2008, Helen and Alice Moore launched a line of detailed latex models, the Equorum Model Horse Stud. Hobby artist Donna Chaney, known for her porcelain figures, introduced a small number of latex equine molds known as RubberNedz in 2015. Many toy companies produce plastic equine figures as companions or accessories and a few of these have dedicated equine lines. One of these earlier companies was Dream Ponies, a product of Swallow Horsetoys. In 1971, they released a small range of injection moulded plastic equine models and accessories; Dream Ponies was later sold and re-launched as Magpie Models. Other brands with a significant following includes My Beautiful Horses by Vivid Imaginations; Plastech, manufactures of Thelwell Pony figures; and Sindy, a British version of Barbie which included a variety of horses in their product line. In 2015, Utterly Horses, the largest model horse distributor in the UK, announced the creation of a new model horse company, CopperFox Model Horses. The mission of this new enterprise is to produce accurate and high quality examples of British breeds which are underrepresented in the plastic arena dominated by USA-based companies. Ceramic horses are also popular, though more fragile collectibles. Companies such as Beswick, Border Fine Arts (ceramic and resin), Alchemy Ceramics – later purchased by Animal Artistry, Melba Ware and many others offer a variety of equine figures. === US brands === In the late 1940s - early 1950s, Hartland Collectibles and Breyer Animal Creations (now a division of Reeves International) began producing realistic injection moulded plastic model horses. Both companies' first models were standing western horses next to or over a clock. Most of Breyer's original horses, dogs and cattle were sculpted by Chris Hess, though many artists have contributed to create a wide variety of breeds and poses. Breyer Animal Creations hosts BreyerFest, a weekend-long celebration of the product every year at the Kentucky Horse Park in Lexington, Kentucky. Breyer Horses traditionally come in five scales, from largest to smallest: Traditional (1:9), Classic (1:12), Little Bit/Paddock Pal (1:24), Stablemate (1:32), and Mini Whinny (1:64). A 1:6 scale model was added in 2014, though it is unknown whether this scale group will be expanded and given a name. In addition to their fully hard plastic line, Breyer also produces haired 'toy' models, soft toys, ceramic and resin models, books, ornaments, and craft kits. Hartland Collectibles changed ownership many times throughout their history and suffered devastating flooding in 1986 and 1994 which damaged product and machinery. The latest purchase took place in 2001 and production ceased again around 2008. In the mid-1990s, Peter Stone, son of Sam Stone who originally helped create Breyer Animal Creations, worked for Breyer most of his life but eventually parted ways and started his own company. Stone Horses are known for a handful of molds released in a wide range of special, limited edition runs and collectible decorator colors, as well as turning a popular Quarter Horse resin by Carol Williams into plastic. Today Stone and Breyer horses are the top two popular plastic model horse brands. Companies such Grand Champion, Blue Ribbon, Creata, and many others produce some form of model horse, but these are generally considered too toy-like to be of major interest to collectors. Hagen-Renaker is a California-based company which produces model horse figures. These figures are highly collectible and a number of the molds were leased by Breyer for production in plastic. === Artist resins === Limited edition artist resins (usually original sculptures rather than customs), first began to appear in the 1980s. The very first were castings taken from customized Breyers, issued by Black Horse Ranch owned by the late Karen Grimm. Carol William's famous "Quarter Horse 1" or "RRQH1" ("RR" for "Rio Rondo", the name of Williams' modeling enterprise) was one of the first to be cast from an original sculpture. Resin models - high-quality castings of an original artist's sculpture - are typically sold unpainted, ready to finish by the customer. They took the hobby by storm in the 1990s, and are very popular and much-sought after today. A resin can be an affordable way to own a favorite artist's work, with the price dependent on the rarity of the piece. Some resins are released in highly limited editions of 50 pieces or less. Such models sell out rapidly, and might be resold with higher secondary-market prices. == Model horse activities == === Collecting === Due to the vast amount of model horses available, some hobbyists collect only one kind of breed, scale or particular mold. Most model horses are in the 1:9 scale, while others are no bigger than mice. Usually a model is released in a particular color for a number of years or a limited run. The model horse company may decide to make portrait models of famous horses as well, such as Secretariat and Man o' War. Having a collection of several color versions of one mold is referred to as a "conga line". Hobbyists simply collect what they like, and others may collect in hopes of selling at a profit later on. There is no guarantee that models will increase in value over time. Since the advent of eBay, comparing prices has become much easier, so prices have fallen. Buyers can now purchase a horse for much less than what it was originally bought. While the original scope of collecting may have focused on plastic horses, they may now be made of resin or ceramic. Common brands are: Breyer Horses, Paradise Horses, Stone Horses, Hagen-Renaker, Royal Doulton, North Light, Grand Champion and Schleich. While most model horses are sold as toys, some, like resins, are delicate, much more expensive and are not made for children. Common plastic model horses may be bought from toy stores, tack shops, authorized dealers or other collectors. Prices range from a few dollars to many thousands for an artist resin. Some hobbyists also collect Model Horse catalogs, magazines and promotional items. === Customizing === Not content with factory produced models, hobbyists took to remaking factory-made models by adding hair, removing tails or altering the position or color. Many of these early customs are considered crude by today's standards. These early models often had fake fur manes and tails, or were painted with spray paint and even permanent markers. Legs were moved by heating plastic with hair dryers or candles. However, in the late 1970s, British artists finally gained access to Breyers (which were not then commercially available in the UK), and began to rework them using more sophisticated techniques in a deliberate attempt to replicate the realism of the du Boulay Rydals. This comprised the use of airbrushes, fine mohair tops and epoxy putty for re-sculpting. Today these techniques and the term "customizing" have been adopted worldwide to become effectively hobby standard. Acrylics (brushed or air-brushed), oil paints, brushed-on pastel dust, and etching away the original finish paint with an x-acto knife are all common materials and methods for altering the appearance of a model. Coloured pencils, watercolour (pencil and paint), and even ink are sometimes used as well. The preference for sculpted or hair manes and tails goes in and out of vogue and can vary by region as well. Mohair is generally used, though some artists use glue-coated embroidery thread to great effect creating something between a sculpted and haired appearance. Many sculpting pastes have been used over the years with varying levels of success and durability. Wood putty and plumber's epoxy was most commonly used in the beginning, but now new epoxy-type products are available which have been designed for artistic use. Products such as Apoxie Sculpt and Gapoxio have longer drying times, a finer texture, and more flexibility than the earlier sculpting materials. Customized models can range from simple repaints of an otherwise unaltered model to those which have been so thoroughly manipulated and re-sculpted as to make the original form totally unrecognizable. Many artists make their living from customizing models, with certain artists widely sought after. === Showing the model horse === Model horse showing has two ways in which to participate - photo showing (online or postal) and live showing. Photo showing is convenient for people who aren't able to travel or don't live near other collectors. Showholders publish a classlist and invite people to enter for a nominal fee. The shower then takes photos of their horse, usually against a background. On the back of the photo, the horse's vitals are recorded along with the shower's address. A piece of tape is also placed on the back, on which the shower writes down the numbers of the classes in which the horse will be entered. Once the showholder receives all the entries, They are sorted by class numbers and begin judging. A showholder may place a horse based on quality of photo, accuracy of breed depiction, and condition. Usually championships and reserves are offered as well. Sometimes ribbons or small prizes are sent to the show entrants along with the returned photographs and show results. More recently, photo shows posted on the Internet have eliminated the cost of postage and long wait for returns. Live showing is much different. Here again the showholder publishes a classlist and invites other showers to attend. The show is usually held in a large space such as a hotel or arena, and entrants travel in person to attend. Each shower usually gets a table to use as a "home base" in the show hall. The "rings" are tables with ring numbers, where showers place their horses as classes are called. Live shows classlists are usually divided between original finish and customized models, and some also have separate divisions for china figurines, artist resins, and very-rare original finish. Live shows frequently have multiple judges and judge several classes at once to accommodate the long classlists. As in photo showing, judges consider condition and breed correctness. Live shows may also include collectibility classes, or may judge breed classes simultaneously for collectibility as well, in which models are thereby evaluated on the basis of rarity and condition, verses breed correctness. Any profits from the shows are often donated to animal-related charities. If a shower belongs to a club, they may record points earned from their horses' placings for year-end awards. There are many clubs that hold periodic—often monthly—photo or online shows that allow members the opportunity to earn points for their horses that may be applied to end-of-the-year and cumulative awards. NAN cards are also sought after. These pink and green cards allow a particular horse to enter the North American Nationals (NAN), a yearly show organized by the North American Model Horse Show Association (NAMHSA). The show and the qualification cards carry a lot of prestige in the hobby world - a model which is "NAN qualified" goes up in value. In the UK the Model Equine Championships (MECs) have a similar concept to NAN and have been running since 1998. Postal showing was the original method of showing, where a horse's details were sent to a judge and places were awarded by rolling dice. Now postal showing is more usually the preserve of performance disciplines such as racing or dressage, and the model events often mirror real events. Places may be awarded by pairing a model with a real participant whose luck it shares, or in the case of racing, with reference to a sophisticated handicapping system. === Props and tack === Hobbyists also use props, tack and riders. It is important that props and tack are in scale to the model for added realism. Props are anything which might enhance a scene, such as dogs, jumps, trees, trail elements, backgrounds and fences. Some classes such as jumping, roping, and trail require the use of props. Dolls range from pre-packaged jointed dolls, to one-of-a-kind creations by skilled dollmakers. They currently are optional for performance showing in the United States, elsewhere, however, they are required. Hobby tack covers the entire range of real horse tack, from numnahs to full saddle sets; from simple barn halters to extravagant multiple horse harness hitches; and from stable blankets to hand-stitched Arabian horse costumes. They are made out of a variety of materials such as leather hide, leather lace, satin and grosgrain ribbon, jewelry chain, and various fabrics. Hardware can be made by hand out of wire, or cast metal such as pewter and white bronze. Much research goes into making high-quality tack, with some tack makers accumulating reference libraries of online image folders and books. Tack can be made from scratch, or using kits. Knowledge of leather stamping, carving, dying, and sewing are all skills the model horse tackmaker uses in his or her craft. === Pedigreeing === In the pursuit of realism, many hobbyists also research and give their models pedigrees and names. Pedigree assignment—commonly abbreviated "PA"—is a way to learn about different breeds and creating progeny. Some pedigrees are researched from real horses or other models. Model horse breeders may offer their horse's parentage for a nominal fee and usually issue a certificate to the foal's owner. Some clubs keep records of real mares and their open years for members who want to make sure that the model they PA from living parents does not have the same dam and foaling year as a model belonging to another member. In keeping with the hobby's attempt to maintain realism, collectors assigning pedigrees to models usually try to use only years that a real mare did not have a foal, or, in the case of scarce breeds, a year that she had a foal that was gelded (and thus could not reproduce). == See also == Animal figurine Fashion Star Fillies My Little Pony == References == == External links ==	Wikipedia/Model_horse
Railway modelling (UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland) or model railroading (US and Canada) is a hobby in which rail transport systems are modelled at a reduced scale. The scale models include locomotives, rolling stock, streetcars, tracks, signalling, cranes, and landscapes including: countryside, roads, bridges, buildings, vehicles, harbors, urban landscape, model figures, lights, and features such as rivers, hills, tunnels, and canyons. The earliest model railways were the 'carpet railways' in the 1840s. The first documented model railway was the Railway of the Prince Imperial (French: Chemin de fer du Prince Impérial) built in 1859 by Emperor Napoleon III for his then 3-year-old son, also Napoleon, in the grounds of the Château de Saint-Cloud in Paris. It was powered by clockwork and ran in a figure-of-eight. Electric trains appeared around the start of the 20th century, but these were crude likenesses. Model trains today are more realistic, in addition to being much more technologically advanced. Today modellers create model railway layouts, often recreating real locations and periods throughout history. The world's oldest working model railway is a model designed to train signalmen on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. It is located in the National Railway Museum, York, England and dates back to 1912. It remained in use until 1995. The model was built as a training exercise by apprentices of the company's Horwich Works and supplied with rolling stock by Bassett-Lowke. == General description == Involvement ranges from possession of a train set to spending hours and large sums of money on a large and exacting model of a railroad and the scenery through which it passes, called a "layout". Hobbyists, called "railway modellers" or "model railroaders", may maintain models large enough to ride (see Live steam, Ridable miniature railway and Backyard railroad). Modellers may collect model trains, building a landscape for the trains to pass through. They may also operate their own railroad in miniature. For some modellers, the goal of building a layout is to eventually run it as if it were a real railroad (if the layout is based on the fancy of the builder) or as the real railroad did (if the layout is based on a prototype). If modellers choose to model a prototype, they may reproduce track-by-track reproductions of the real railroad in miniature, often using prototype track diagrams and historic maps. Layouts vary from a circle or oval of track to realistic reproductions of real places modelled to scale. Probably the largest model landscape in the UK is in the Pendon Museum in Oxfordshire, UK, where an EM gauge (same 1:76.2 scale as 00 but with more accurate track gauge) model of the Vale of White Horse in the 1930s is under construction. The museum also houses one of the earliest scenic models – the Madder Valley layout built by John Ahern. This was built in the late 1930s to late 1950s and brought in realistic modelling, receiving coverage on both sides of the Atlantic in the magazines Model Railway News and Model Railroader. Bekonscot in Buckinghamshire is the oldest model village and includes a model railway, dating from the 1930s. The world's largest model railroad in H0 scale is the Miniatur Wunderland in Hamburg, Germany. The largest live steam layout, with 25 miles (40 km) of track is Train Mountain in Chiloquin, Oregon, U.S. Operations form an important aspect of rail transport modelling with many layouts being dedicated to emulating the operational aspects of a working railway. These layouts can become extremely complex with multiple routes, movement patterns and timetabled operation. The British outline model railway of Banbury Connections in New South Wales, Australia, is one of the world's most complicated model railways. Model railroad clubs exist where enthusiasts meet. Clubs often display models for the public. One specialist branch concentrates on larger scales and gauges, commonly using track gauges from 3.5 to 7.5 inches (89 to 191 mm). Models in these scales are usually hand-built and powered by live steam, or diesel-hydraulic, and the engines are often powerful enough to haul dozens of human passengers. The Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) at MIT in the 1950s pioneered automatic control of track-switching by using telephone relays. The oldest society is 'The Model Railway Club' (established 1910), near Kings Cross, London, UK. As well as building model railways, it has 5,000 books and periodicals. Similarly, 'The Historical Model Railway Society' at Butterley, near Ripley, Derbyshire specialises in historical matters and has archives available to members and non-members. == Scales and gauges == The words scale and gauge seem at first interchangeable but their meanings are different. Scale is the model's measurement as a proportion to the original, while gauge is the measurement between the rails. The size of engines depends on the scale and can vary from 700 mm (27.6 in) tall for the largest rideable live steam scales such as 1:4, down to matchbox size for the smallest: Z-scale (1:220) or T scale (1:450). A typical HO (1:87) engine is 50 mm (1.97 in) tall, and 100 to 300 mm (3.94 to 11.81 in) long. The most popular scales are: G scale, Gauge 1, O scale, S scale, HO scale (in Britain, the similar OO), TT scale, and N scale (1:160 in the United States, but 1:148 in the UK). HO and OO are the most popular. Popular narrow-gauge scales include Sn3, HOn3 and Nn3, which are the same in scale as S, HO and N except with a narrower spacing between the tracks (in these examples, a scale 3 ft (914 mm) instead of the 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge). The largest common scale is 1:8, with 1:4 sometimes used for park rides. G scale (Garden, 1:24 scale) is most popular for backyard modelling. It is easier to fit a G scale model into a garden and keep scenery proportional to the trains. Gauge 1 and Gauge 3 are also popular for gardens. O, S, HO, and N scale are more often used indoors. At first, model railways were not to scale. Aided by trade associations such as the National Model Railroad Association (NMRA) and Normen Europäischer Modellbahnen (NEM), manufacturers and hobbyists soon arrived at de facto standards for interchangeability, such as gauge, but trains were only a rough approximation to the real thing. Official scales for the gauges were drawn up but not at first rigidly followed and not necessarily correctly proportioned for the gauge chosen. 0 (zero) gauge trains, for instance, operate on track too widely spaced in the United States as the scale is accepted as 1:48 whereas in Britain 0 gauge uses a ratio of 43.5:1 or 7 mm/1 foot and the gauge is near to correct. British OO standards operate on track significantly too narrow. The 4 mm/1 foot scale on a 16.5 mm (0.65 in) gauge corresponds to a track gauge of 4 ft 1+1⁄2 in (1,257 mm), 7 inches or 178 millimetres (undersized). 16.5 mm (0.65 in) gauge corresponds to 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge in H0 (half-0) 3.5 mm/1 foot or 1:87.1. This arose due to British locomotives and rolling stock being smaller than those found elsewhere, leading to an increase in scale to enable H0 scale mechanisms to be used. Most commercial scales have standards that include wheel flanges that are too deep, wheel treads that are too wide, and rail tracks that are too large. In H0 scale, the rail heights are codes 100, 87, 83, 70, 55, 53, and 40 -- the height in thousandths of an inch from base to railhead (so code 100 is a tenth of an inch and represents 156-pound rail). Later, modellers became dissatisfied with inaccuracies and developed standards in which everything is correctly scaled. These are used by modellers but have not spread to mass-production because the inaccuracies and overscale properties of the commercial scales ensure reliable operation and allow for shortcuts necessary for cost control. The finescale standards include the UK's P4, and the even finer S4, which uses track dimensions scaled from the prototype. This 4 mm:1 ft modelling uses wheels 2 mm (0.079 in) or less wide running on track with a gauge of 18.83 mm (0.741 in). Check-rail and wing-rail clearances are similarly accurate. A compromise of P4 and OO is "EM" which uses a gauge of 18.2 mm (0.717 in) with more generous tolerances than P4 for check clearances. It gives a better appearance than OO though pointwork is not as close to reality as P4. It suits many where time and improved appearance are important. There is a small following of finescale OO which uses the same 16.5mm gauge as OO, but with the finer scale wheels and smaller clearances as used with EM- it is essentially 'EM-minus-1.7mm.' == Modules == Many groups build modules, which are sections of layouts, and can be joined together to form a larger layout, for meetings or for special occasions. For each kind of module system, there is an interface standard, so that modules made by different participants may be connected, even if they have never been connected before. Many of these module types are listed in the Layout standards organizations section of this article. == Couplers and connectors == In addition to different scales, there are also different types of couplers for connecting cars, which are not compatible with each other. In HO, the Americans standardized on horn-hook, or X2F couplers. Horn hook couplers have largely given way to a design known as a working knuckle coupler which was popularized by the Kadee Quality Products Co., and which has subsequently been emulated by a number of other manufactures in recent years. Working knuckle couplers are a closer approximation to the "automatic" couplers used on the prototype there and elsewhere. Also in HO, the European manufacturers have standardized, but on a coupler mount, not a coupler: many varieties of coupler can be plugged in (and out) of the NEM coupler box. None of the popular couplers has any resemblance to the prototype three-link chains generally used on the continent. For British modellers, whose most popular scale is OO, the normal coupler is a tension-lock coupler, which, again has no pretence of replicating the usual prototype three-link chain couplers. Bachmann and more recently Hornby have begun to offer models fitted with NEM coupler pockets. This theoretically enables modellers of British railways to substitute any other NEM362 coupler, though many Bachmann models place the coupler pocket at the wrong height. A fairly common alternative is to use representations of chain couplings as found on the prototype, though these require large radius curves to be used to avoid derailments. Other scales have similar ranges of non-compatible couplers available. In all scales couplers can be exchanged, with varying degrees of difficulty. == Landscaping == Some modellers pay attention to landscaping their layout, creating a fantasy world or modelling an actual location, often historic. Landscaping is termed "scenery building" or "scenicking". Constructing scenery involves preparing a sub-terrain using a wide variety of building materials, including (but not limited to) screen wire, a lattice of cardboard strips, or carved stacks of expanded polystyrene (styrofoam) sheets. A scenery base is applied over the sub-terrain; typical base include casting plaster, plaster of Paris, hybrid paper-pulp (papier-mâché) or a lightweight foam/fiberglass/bubblewrap composite as in Geodesic Foam Scenery. The scenery base is covered with substitutes for ground cover, which may be Static Grass or scatter. Scatter or flock is a substance used in the building of dioramas and model railways to simulate the effect of grass, poppies, fireweed, track ballast and other scenic ground cover. Scatter used to simulate track ballast is usually fine-grained ground granite. Scatter which simulates coloured grass is usually tinted sawdust, wood chips or ground foam. Foam or natural lichen or commercial scatter materials can be used to simulate shrubbery. An alternative to scatter, for grass, is static grass which uses static electricity to make its simulated grass actually stand up. Buildings and structures can be purchased as kits, or built from cardboard, balsa wood, basswood, other soft woods, paper, or polystyrene or other plastic. Trees can be fabricated from materials such as Western sagebrush, candytuft, and caspia, to which adhesive and model foliage are applied; or they can be bought ready-made from specialist manufacturers. Water can be simulated using polyester casting resin, polyurethane, or rippled glass. Rocks can be cast in plaster or in plastic with a foam backing. Castings can be painted with stains to give colouring and shadows. == Weathering == Weathering refers to making a model look used and exposed to weather by simulating dirt and wear on real vehicles, structures and equipment. Most models come out of the box looking new, because unweathered finishes are easier to produce. Also, the wear a freight car or building undergoes depends not only on age but where it is used. Rail cars in cities accumulate grime from building and automobile exhaust and graffiti, while cars in deserts may be subjected to sandstorms which etch or strip paint. A model that is weathered would not fit as many layouts as a pristine model which can be weathered by its purchaser. There are many weather techniques that include, but are not limited to, painting (by either drybrushing or an airbrush), sanding, breaking, and even the use of chemicals to cause corrosion. Some processes become very creative depending on the skill of the modeller. For instance several steps may be taken to create a rusting effect to ensure not only proper colouring, but also proper texture and lustre. Weathering purchased models is common, at the least, weathering aims to reduce the plastic-like finish of scale models. The simulation of grime, rust, dirt, and wear adds realism. Some modellers simulate fuel stains on tanks, or corrosion on battery boxes. In some cases, evidence of accidents or repairs may be added, such as dents or freshly painted replacement parts, and weathered models can be nearly indistinguishable from their prototypes when photographed appropriately. == Methods of power == Static diorama models or "push along" scale models are a branch of model railways for unpowered locomotives, examples are Lone Star and Airfix models. Powered model railways are now generally operated by low voltage direct current (DC) electricity supplied via the tracks, but there are exceptions, such as Märklin and Lionel Corporation, which use alternating current (AC). Modern Digital Command Control (DCC) systems use alternating current. Other locomotives, particularly large models, can use steam. Steam and clockwork-driven engines are still sought by collectors. === Clockwork === Most early models for the toy market were powered by clockwork and controlled by levers on the locomotive. Although this made control crude the models were large and robust enough that handling the controls was practical. Various manufacturers introduced slowing and stopping tracks that could trigger levers on the locomotive and allow station stops. === Electricity === Three-rail The first miniature electric trains used a three-rail track, with non-insulated wheels resting on the two outer rails that were in contact with the metal sleepers. The insulated central rail supplied the current to a skid under the locomotive. The outer rails ensured the return of the current. The current was alternating, supplied by the domestic network, lowered by various means (transformer or serial resistances). This kind of track made sense at the time as models were metal and conductive. Modern plastics were not available and insulation was a problem. In addition the notion of accurate models had yet to evolve and toy trains and track were crude tinplate. In 1938, Hornby, a manufacturer of ‘O’ scale model trains in the UK, launched a range of ‘OO’ scale electric trains (Hornby Dublo) with 1/76 scale rolling stock using 1/87 scale 16.5 mm wide track with a third centre rail. The power supply was 12 V DC and the track was equipped with an electrically insulated central rail and two non-insulated running rails. In 1959 Hornby abandoned its three-rail track in favour of a two-rail track for its ‘OO’ scale electric trains. Other systems such as Märklin instead used, since 1953, fine metal studs to replace the central rail, allowing existing three-rail models to use more realistic track. A variation on the three-rail system, early introduced by Trix in 1935, used a track with three insulated rails that allowed two trains to be independently controlled on the same track. The use of a catenary made it possible for three trains to be independently controlled. The center rail ensured the common return of the current. That system, known as Trix Express or Trix Twin in the UK, which first used alternative current and then direct current after 1953, was abandoned in 1997 when Märklin took over Trix. This three-rail system enabled DC and AC locomotives to run on the same track. Two-rail When DC motors with more powerful magnets began to be used for model trains in the 1950s, the two-rail track was generally preferred because at the same time accuracy became important. The two insulated rails from each other are to be used with insulated wheels on the same axle. In the direction of travel, the right-hand rail carries the positive potential and the left-hand rail the negative. This system excludes certain track layouts such as the reversing loop, the reversing triangle and the diagonal in a circle without insulated sections and suitable cabling. Overhead line Where the model is of an electric locomotive, it may be supplied by overhead lines, like the full-size locomotive. Before Digital Command Control became available, this was one way of controlling two trains separately on the same track. The electric-outline model would be supplied by the overhead wire and the other model could be supplied by one of the running rails. The other running rail would act as a common return. Battery Early electric trains ran on trackside batteries because few homes in the late 19th century and early 20th century had electricity. Today, inexpensive train sets running on batteries are again common but regarded as toys and seldom used by hobbyists. Batteries located in the model often power garden railway and larger scale systems because of the difficulty in obtaining reliable power supply through the outdoor rails. The high-power consumption and current draw of large-scale garden models is more easily and safely met with internal rechargeable batteries. Most large-scale battery-powered models use radio control. === Live steam === Engines powered by live steam are often built in large outdoor gauges of 5 inches (130 mm) and 7+1⁄2 inches (190 mm), are also available in Gauge 1, G scale, 16 mm scale and can be found in O and OO/HO. Hornby Railways produce live steam locomotives in OO, based on designs first arrived at by an amateur modeller. Other modellers have built live steam models in HO/OO, OO9 and N, and there is one in Z in Australia. === Internal combustion === Occasionally gasoline-electric models, patterned after real diesel-electric locomotives, come up among hobbyists and companies like Pilgrim Locomotive Works have sold such locomotives. Large-scale petrol-mechanical and petrol-hydraulic models are available but unusual and pricier than the electrically powered versions. == Scratch building == Modern manufacturing techniques can allow mass-produced models to cost-effectively achieve a high degree of precision and realism. In the past this was not the case and scratch building was very common. Simple models are made using cardboard engineering techniques. More sophisticated models can be made using a combination of etched sheets of brass and low temperature castings. Parts that need machining, such as wheels and couplings are purchased. Etched kits are still popular, still accompanied by low temperature castings. These kits produce models that are not covered by the major manufacturers or in scales that are not in mass production. Laser machining techniques have extended this ability to thicker materials for scale steam and other locomotive types. Scratch builders may also make silicone rubber moulds of the parts they create, and cast them in various plastic resins (see Resin casting), or plasters. This may be done to save duplication of effort, or to sell to others. Resin "craftsman kits" are also available for a wide range of prototypes. == Control == The first clockwork (spring-drive) and live steam locomotives ran until out of power, with no way for the operator to stop and restart the locomotive or vary its speed. The advent of electric trains, which appeared commercially in the 1890s, allowed control of the speed by varying the current or voltage. As trains began to be powered by transformers and rectifiers more sophisticated throttles appeared, and soon trains powered by AC contained mechanisms to change direction or go into neutral gear when the operator cycled the power. Trains powered by DC can change direction by reversing polarity. Electricity permits control by dividing the layout into isolated blocks, where trains can be slowed or stopped by lowering or cutting power to a block. Dividing a layout into blocks permits operators to run more than one train with less risk of a fast train catching and hitting a slow train. Blocks can also trigger signals or other accessories, adding realism or whimsy. Three-rail systems often insulate one of the common rails on a section of track, and use a passing train to complete the circuit and activate an accessory. Many layout builders are choosing digital operation of their layouts rather than the more traditional DC design. Of the several competing systems, the command system offered by the majority of manufacturers in 2020 was a variant of Digital Command Control (DCC). The advantages of DCC are that track voltage is constant (usually in the range of 20 volts AC) and the command throttle sends a signal to small circuit cards, or decoders, hidden inside the piece of equipment which control several functions of an individual locomotive, including speed, direction of travel, lights, smoke and various sound effects. This allows more realistic operation in that the modeller can operate independently several locomotives on the same stretch of track. Several manufacturers also offer software that can provide computer-control of DCC layouts. In large scales, particularly for garden railways, radio control and DCC in the garden have become popular. == Model railway manufacturers == Model railways == Magazines == == Layout standards organizations == Several organizations exist to set standardizations for connectibility between individual layout sections (commonly called "modules"). This is so several (or hundreds, given enough space and power) people or groups can bring together their own modules, connect them together with as little trouble as possible, and operate their trains. Despite different design and operation philosophies, different organizations have similar goals; standardized ends to facilitate connection with other modules built to the same specifications, standardized electricals, equipment, curve radii. ausTRAK, N Scale, two-track main with hidden third track (can be used as NTRAK's third main, as a return/continuous loop, or hidden yard/siding/on-line storage). Australian scenery and rolling stock modelled in Standard Gauge. FREMO a European-based organisation focusing on a single-track line, HO Scale. Also sets standards for N Scale modules. Standards are considerably more flexible in module shape than NTRAK, and has expanded over the years to accommodate several scenery variations. Free-mo Originally developed by the San Luis Obispo Model Railroad Club in 1995 (California), it has grown across North America and is expanding across the world. The objective of the Free-mo Standard is to provide a platform for prototype modelling in a flexible, modular environment. Free-mo modules not only provide track to operate realistic models, but also emphasize realistic, plausible scenery; realistic, reliable trackwork; and operations. Free-Mo was designed to go beyond the traditional closed-loop set-up in creating a truly universal "free-form" modular design that is operations-oriented and heavily influenced by prototype railroading. This is emphasized in the Free-mo motto, "More than Just a Standard". MOROP, European Union of Model Railroad and Railroad Fans, the European standardization organisation. NEM, The German modelling standards organisation. NMRA, National Model Railroad Association, the largest organization devoted to the development, promotion, and enjoyment of the hobby of model railroading. N-orma, Polish N-scale (1:160) modules organization. NTRAK, standardized three-track (heavy operation) mainline with several optional branchlines. Focuses on standard gauge, but also has specifications for narrow gauge. Due to its popularity, it can be found in regional variations, most notably the imperial-to-metric measurement conversions. Tends to be used more for "unattended display" than "operation". oNeTRAK, operationally similar to FREMO, standardises around a single-track mainline, with modules of varying sizes and shapes. Designed with the existing NTRAK spec in mind, is fully compatible with such modules. Sipping and Switching Society of NC is a society/association of individuals which has developed a system of HO modules, which feature lightweight waffle construction using 5 mm lauan plywood underlayment and an interface which depends on using a metal template to locate 1-inch (25 mm) pegs to mate to 1-inch holes in the adjoining module. The rails of the tracks are positioned in an exact relationship with the pegs. The rails come up to the end of the modules, so that the rails on adjacent modules do not need joiner track, but depend on the accuracy of the placement of the rails to allow trains to pass from one section to another. This style of module allows for very quick set-up, compared with module systems that use joiner tracks. sTTandard, Polish TT-scale (1:120) modules organization. T-TRAK, is a modular system that uses table-top modules, 2+3⁄4 inches (70 mm) high, which set on tables, that are not part of the modules, but are often found at sites which members meet. It uses a specific track interface, which has joiners which hold the modules together, which enables quick setting up and taking down. Z-Bend Track, uses a double-track mainline running down both sides of a module. Modules can be of any length or width in the middle and any overall shape. The "standard" called Z-Bend Track applies only to the last 5 inches (130 mm) of the module's interface to other modules, the electrical interface and the module height. == In popular culture == In the 1990 film Back to the Future III, Doc brown builds a "crude" electrified model rail "not to scale" to demonstrate his time travel experiment to Marty in 1885. In Hinterland Season 1, Episode 4 ("The Girl in the Water"), a semi-recluse who lives and works at Borth railway station maintains a model train set with custom made components; the set and certain components contribute to a death as well as provide important clues to a murder investigation. During the investigation, DCI Tom Mathias reveals that his late brother was a model train aficionado. In The Sopranos, Bobby Baccalieri is a model train aficionado. He is shown wearing an engineer's cap while playing with model trains in his garage. In The Simpsons, Reverend Lovejoy is often depicted playing with his model trains when not on ecumenical duty, often while wearing a conductor's uniform and hat. His character may be a nod to the real life Reverend W. Awdry. In Trailer Park Boys, Season 7 Episode 4, "Friends of the Dead", heavy metal singer Sebastian Bach is a featured guest at the Bangor model train convention and is introduced as "our Competitive Model Train World Champion". He expresses a dislike of alleged rival model train competitor Patrick Swayze. Attendees at the family event are shocked by Sebastian's use of obscenities as he attempts to work the crowd in a rock concert fashion shouting, "I know, I just know, that there are some great f**king trains here in Bangor!" In That '90s Show, Red Forman runs a model railway in the garage after he retired. == See also == Displays and famous layouts Groups dedicated to railway modelling == References == == External links == The National Model Railroad Association, USA – the largest model railroad organization in the world The Model Railway Club, UK – the oldest known society in the world – established 1910 Associazione Ferrovie Siciliane – AFS (Messina – IT) – One of the most important group of rail enthusiasts end railways modellers active in Sicily and all over Italy founded in 2006	Wikipedia/Rail_transport_modeling
A radio-controlled aircraft (often called RC aircraft or RC plane) is a small flying machine that is radio controlled by an operator on the ground using a hand-held radio transmitter. The transmitter continuously communicates with a receiver within the craft that sends signals to servomechanisms (servos) which move the control surfaces based on the position of joysticks on the transmitter. The control surfaces, in turn, directly affect the orientation of the plane. Flying RC aircraft as a hobby grew substantially from the 2000s with improvements in the cost, weight, performance, and capabilities of motors, batteries and electronics. Scientific, government, and military organizations are also using RC aircraft for experiments, gathering weather readings, aerodynamic modeling, and testing. A wide variety of models, parts, and styles is available for the DIY market. Nowadays, distinct from recreational civilian aeromodelling activities, unmanned aerial vehicle (drones) or spy planes add a video, GPS or autonomous feature, enabling instrumental RLOS or BLOS capabilities, which are used for public service (firefighting, disaster recovery, etc.) or commercial purposes, and if in the service of a military or paramilitary, may be armed. == History == The earliest examples of electronically guided model aircraft were hydrogen-filled model airships of the late 19th century. They were flown as a music hall act around theater auditoriums using a basic form of spark-emitted radio signal. The British drone weapons in 1917 and 1918 evolved and their development continued through the work of the Royal Aircraft Establishment resulting in the fleet of over 400 Queen Bee UAV Target Aircraft in the 1930s. During World War II, the U.S. Army and Navy used radio controlled planes called Radioplanes as artillery target drones. The National Model Aviation Museum located in Muncie, Indiana hosts the world's largest collection of RC aviation history. They display models from every era of RC donated by the RC community around the world. They also have kit plans (aircraft blueprints) that RC pilots can purchase to build models from every era. The museum is located on the same grounds that the Academy of Model Aeronautics main office is located. == Types == There are many types of radio-controlled aircraft. For beginning hobbyists, there are park flyers and trainers. For more experienced pilots there are glow plug engine, electric powered and sailplane aircraft. For expert flyers, jets, pylon racers, VTOL planes, helicopters, autogyros, 3D aircraft, and other high-end competition aircraft provide adequate challenge. Some models are made to look and operate like a bird instead. Replicating historic and little known types and makes of full-size aircraft as "flying scale" models, which are also possible with control line and free flight types of model aircraft, actually reach their maximum realism and behavior when built for radio-control flying. === Radio-control scale aircraft modeling === Perhaps the most realistic form of aeromodeling, in its main purpose to replicate full-scale aircraft designs from aviation history, for testing of future aviation designs, or even to realize never-built "proposed" aircraft, is that of radio-control scale aeromodeling, as the most practical way to re-create "vintage" full-scale aircraft designs for flight once more, from long ago. RC Scale model aircraft can be of any type of steerable airship lighter-than-air (LTA) aviation craft, or more normally, of the heavier-than-air fixed wing glider/sailplane, fixed-wing single or multi-engine aircraft, or rotary-wing aircraft such as autogyros or helicopters. Full-scale aircraft designs from every era of aviation, from the "Pioneer Era" and World War I's start, through to the 21st century, have been modeled as radio-control scale model aircraft. Builders of RC Scale aircraft can enjoy the challenge of creating a controllable, miniature aircraft that merely "looks" like the full scale original in the air with no "fine details", such as a detailed cockpit, or seriously replicate many operable features of a selected full scale aircraft design, even down to having operable cable-connected flight control surfaces, illuminated navigation lighting on the aircraft's exterior, realistically retracting landing gear, etc. if the full-sized aircraft possessed such features as part of its design. Various scale sizes of RC scale aircraft have been built in the decades since modern digital-proportional, miniaturized RC gear came on the market in the 1960s, and everything from indoor-flyable electric powered RC Scale models, to "giant scale" RC Scale models, in scale size ranges that usually run from 20% to 25%, and upwards to 30 to 50% size of some smaller full scale aircraft designs, that can replicate some of the actual flight characteristics of the full scale aircraft they are based on, have been enjoyed, and continue to be built and flown, in sanctioned competition and for personal pleasure, as part of the RC scale aeromodelling hobby. === Sailplanes and gliders === Gliders are planes that do not typically have any type of propulsion. They can be towed into the air by use of another aircraft with an engine, and once at a high altitude, the glider can release from the tow rope. Unpowered glider flight must be sustained through exploitation of the natural lift produced from thermals or wind hitting a slope. Dynamic soaring is another popular way of providing energy to gliders that is becoming more and more common. However, even conventional slope soaring gliders are capable of achieving speeds comparable with similar sized powered craft. Gliders are typically partial to slow flying and have high aspect ratio, as well as very low wing loading (weight to wing area ratio). Two and three-channel gliders which use only rudder control for steering and dihedral or polyhedral wing shape to automatically counteract rolling are popular as training craft, due to their ability to fly very slowly and high tolerance to error. Powered gliders have recently seen an increase in popularity. By combining the efficient wing size and wide speed envelope of a glider airframe with an electric motor, it is possible to achieve long flight times and high carrying capacity, as well as glide in any suitable location regardless of thermals or lift. A common method of maximising flight duration is to quickly fly a powered glider upwards to a chosen altitude and descending in an unpowered glide. Folding propellers which reduce drag (as well as the risk of breaking the propeller) are standard. Powered gliders built with stability in mind and capable of aerobatics, high speed flight and sustained vertical flight are classified as 'Hot-liners'. 'Warm-liners' are powered craft with similar abilities but less extreme thrust capability. === Jets === Jets commonly use a micro turbine or ducted fan to power them. Most airframes are constructed from fiber glass and carbon fiber. For electric powered flight which are usually powered by electric ducted fans, may be made of styrofoam. Inside the aircraft, wooden spars reinforce the body to make a rigid airframe. They also have kevlar fuel tanks for the Jet A fuel that they run on. Most micro turbines start with propane, burn for a few seconds before introducing the jet fuel by solenoid. These aircraft can often reach speeds in excess of 320 km/h (200 mph). The high speed requires greater skill to operate. In the U.S.A. the FAA restricts flying of such aircraft to approved AMA Academy of Model Aeronautics sites, where only certified turbine pilots may fly. Also, the AMA requires model aviation enthusiasts who wish to operate miniature gas turbine powered RC model aircraft, to be certified in the operation of the type of gas turbine engine, and all aspects of safety in operating such a turbine-powered model aircraft, that they need to know in flying their model. Some military bases allow such high tech aircraft to fly within limited airspace such as Kaneohe Marine base in Hawaii, and Whidbey Island NAS in Washington State. An average turbine aircraft will cost between US$150–US$10,000 with more than US$20,000 all-up becoming more common. Many manufactures sell airframes such as Yellow Aircraft and Skymaster. Turbines are produced from The Netherlands (AMT) to Mexico (Artes Jets). The average microturbine will cost between US$2500 and US$5000 depending on engine output. Smaller turbines put out about 12 lbf (53 N) of thrust, while larger microturbines can put out as much as 45 lbf (200 N) of thrust. Radio-control jets require an onboard FADEC (full authority digital engine control) controller; this controls the turbine, as on a full-size aircraft. RC jets also require electrical power. Most have a lithium polymer (LiPo) battery pack at 8–12 volts that controls the FADEC. There is also a LiPo for the onboard servos that control ailerons, elevator, rudder, flaps and landing gear. Of much less complexity are the types of RC jet aircraft that actually use an electric motor-driven ducted fan instead to power the aircraft. So called "EDF" models can be of much smaller size, and only need the same electronic speed controller and rechargeable battery technology as propeller-driven RC electric powered aircraft use. Radio-controlled jet aircraft are produced in the colors of various airlines. Among the most popular airline liveries used by modelers are those of American, Singapore, Pan Am, Etihad and Delta Airlines. === Sports planes === Sports planes are planes capable of performing aerobatic maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in normal flight. Typical aerobatic maneuvers include inside loop, outside loop, Immelmann turn, inverted flight, stall turn, slow roll and Cuban 8. === 3D planes === 3D flight is a type of flying in which model aircraft have a thrust-to-weight ratio of more than 1:1 (typically 1.5:1 or more), large control surfaces with extreme throws, low weight compared to other models of same size and relatively low wing loadings. Simply put, 3D flight is the art of flying a plane below its stall speed (the speed at which the wings of the plane can no longer generate enough lift to keep the plane in the air). These elements allow for spectacular aerobatics such as hovering, 'harriers', torque rolling, blenders, rolling circles, flat spins, and more; maneuvers that are performed below the stall speed of the model. The type of flying could be referred to as 'on the prop' as opposed to 'on the wing', which would describe more conventional flight patterns that make more use of the lifting surfaces of the plane. 3D has created a huge market for electric indoor 'profile' types similar to the Ikarus 'Shockflyers' designed to be able to fly inside a gym or outside in little wind. These generally make use of small brushless motors (often outrunners, but also geared inrunners) and lithium polymer batteries (Li-Po). There are also many larger 3D designs designed for two and four stroke glow engines, two stroke gas engines and large electric power systems. === Pylon racers === Racers are small propeller-driven aircraft that race around a 2, 3, or 4 pylon track. They tend to be hard to see and can often go over 240 km/h (150 mph), though some people do pylon races with much slower aircraft. Several different types of aircraft are raced across the world, those flown primarily in the US are; Q500 (424 or ARPRA, and 428), and Q40. 424 is designed as a starting point into the world of pylon racing. Inexpensive (under US$200 for the airframe) kits with wing areas of 3,200 square centimetres (500 sq in) are flown with 0.40" size engines that can be purchased for less than US$100. The goal is for the planes to be not only inexpensive, but closely matched in performance. This places the emphasis on good piloting. APRA is a version of 424 with specific rules designed for consistency. 428 aircraft are similar to 424 in appearance. The difference is in engine performance and construction. The planes are primarily made of fiberglass with composites used at high load points. Wings are often hollow to save weight. (All aircraft must meet a minimum weight. A lighter wing moves more of the weight closer to the center of gravity. This requires less control deflection and its resulting drag to change the planes attitude.) They also use .40 cu in size engines but unlike 424 they are much more expensive. They have been designed to put out the maximum amount of power at a specific RPM using a specific fuel. Nelson manufactures the most predominantly used engine. Speeds are very fast in this class with planes capable of reaching 265 km/h (165 mph). Q40 is the highpoint of pylon racing, as their aircraft resemble full-size race planes. They are not limited to the simple shapes that Q500 planes are, which have much cleaner aerodynamics and less wing area. They use the same basic Nelson engine used in 428, but the engine is tuned to turn a much smaller prop at a much higher rpm. These planes can fly in excess of 320 km/h (200 mph) on the course. Because of their limited wing area however, Q40 planes must fly a larger arc around the pylons to conserve energy. Although faster, they ultimately fly a larger course. The best times for a 10 lap 3 pylon Q40 race are very close to the same in 428. F3D is the fastest class in "glow-powered" pylon racing. These planes reach speeds of over 100 m/s (225 mph) on the race course. The race course is the same as in AMA 424 or AMA 428, but there are few limits on the airframe and engine. The maximum engine displacement is .40ci, ignition must be a glowplug, fuel must be 80% methanol/20% castor oil, all else is free. There are airframe limits on wing thickness, fuselage dimensions, and weight for safety reasons. All this results in an extreme racing class, where R&D, trial and error, science, and piloting skills meet to create a very fast and exciting sport. === Park flyers and micro planes === Park flyers are small, primarily electric-powered planes, so named because their size enables some of them to be operated within the confines of a large public park. The smallest park flyers are called micro planes, and are slow and docile enough to fly within an enclosed area such as a gymnasium or even a living room. Because of their size and relative ease of setup, ready-to-fly park flyers are among the most popular class of RC aircraft for beginners and advanced pilots alike. Advanced electronic and material technologies have even brought forth high-performance, park flyer sized "3D-flyers", or fully aerobatic aircraft capable of extreme high g maneuvers and even nose-up hovering. Once the exclusive realm of giant scale, 3D flight is now possible both indoors and out with certain park flyer aircraft. Park flyers have created an inexpensive and convenient way for beginners to get involved in the hobby of RC flight. The modern materials used in the simple construction of these aircraft make field repairs possible even after significant crash damage. Their small size and quiet operation make it possible to fly them in residential areas. === Helicopters === Radio-controlled helicopters, although often grouped with RC aircraft, are in a class of their own due to the vast differences in construction, aerodynamics and flight training. Hobbyists will often venture from planes, to jets and to helicopters as they enjoy the challenges, excitement and satisfaction of flying different types of aircraft. Some radio-controlled helicopters have photo or video cameras installed and are used for aerial imaging or surveillance. Newer "3d" radio-control helicopters can fly inverted with the advent of advanced swash heads, and servo linkage that enables the pilot to immediately reverse the pitch of the blades, creating a reverse in thrust. === Flying bird models, or ornithopters === Some RC models take their inspiration from nature. These may be gliders made to look like a real bird, but more often they actually fly by flapping wings. Spectators are often surprised to see that such a model can really fly. These factors as well as the added building challenge add to the enjoyment of flying bird models, though some ARF (almost-ready-to-fly) models are available. Flapping-wing models are also known as ornithopters, the technical name for an aircraft whose driving airfoils oscillate instead of rotate. === Toy-class RC === Since about 2004, new, more sophisticated toy RC airplanes, helicopters, and ornithopters have been appearing on toy store shelves. This new category of toy RC distinguishes itself by: Proportional (vs. "on-off") throttle control which is critical for preventing the excitation of phugoid oscillation ("porpoising") whenever a throttle change is made. It also allows for manageable and steady altitude control and reduction of altitude loss in turns. LiPo batteries for light weight and long flight time. EPP (Expanded Polypropylene) foam construction making them virtually indestructible in normal use. Low flying speed and typically rear-mounted propeller(s) make them less harmful when crashing into people and property. Stable spiral mode resulting in simple turning control where "rudder" input results in a steady bank angle rather than a steady roll rate. As of 2013, the toy class RC airplane typically has no elevator control. This is to manage costs, but it also allows for simplicity of control by unsophisticated users of all ages. The downside of lack of elevator control is a tendency for the airplane to phugoid. To damp the phugoid oscillation naturally, the planes are designed with high drag which reduces flight performance and flying time. The lack of elevator control also prevents the ability to "pull back" during turns to prevent altitude loss and speed increase. Costs range from 20 to US$40. Crashes are common and inconsequential. Throttle control and turning reversal (when flying toward the pilot) rapidly become second-nature, giving a significant advantage when learning to fly a more costly hobby class RC aircraft. == Video piloting (first-person view or FPV) == First-person view (FPV) flight is a type of remote-control flying and a distinguishing feature of a drone. It involves mounting a small video camera and television transmitter on an RC aircraft and flying by means of a live video down-link, commonly displayed on video goggles or a portable LCD screen. When flying FPV, the pilot sees from the aircraft's perspective, and does not even have to look at the model. As a result, FPV aircraft can be flown well beyond visual range, limited only by the range of the remote control, video transmitter and endurance of the aircraft. Video transmitters typically operate at a power level between 200 mW and 2500 mW. The most common frequencies used for video transmission are 900 MHz, 1.2 GHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.8 GHz. Specialized long-range UHF control systems operating at 433 MHz (for amateur radio licensees only) or 869 MHz are commonly used to achieve greater control range, while the use of directional, high-gain antennas increases video range. Sophisticated setups are capable of achieving a range of 20–30 miles or more. FPV aircraft are frequently used for aerial photography and videography, and many videos of FPV flights can be found on video sites such as YouTube and Vimeo. A basic FPV system consists of a camera, video transmitter, video receiver, and a display. More advanced setups commonly add a flight controller, including an on-screen display (OSD), auto-stabilizer and return-to-home (RTL) functions. An RTL function is usually applied with a failsafe in order to allow the aircraft to fly back to its home point on its own if the signal is lost. Some advanced controllers can also navigate the drone using GPS. On-board cameras can be equipped with a pan and tilt mount, which when coupled with video goggles and "head tracking" devices, creates a first-person experience, as if the pilot was actually sitting in the cockpit of the RC aircraft. Both helicopter, multiple rotors and fixed-wing RC aircraft are used for FPV flight. The most commonly chosen airframes for FPV planes are models with sufficient payload space for a larger battery and large wings for excellent gliding ability. Suitable brushless motors are installed as the most common pushers to provide better flight performance and longer flight time. Pusher-propeller planes are preferred so that the propeller is not in view of the camera. Flying wing designs are also popular for FPV, as they provide a good combination of large wing surface area, speed, maneuverability, and gliding ability. In the United States, the Academy of Model Aeronautics' (AMA) Safety Code (which governs flying at AMA affiliated fields) allows FPV flight under the parameters of AMA Document #550, which requires that FPV aircraft be kept within visual line of sight with a spotter maintaining unaided visual contact with the model at all times. Similarly, in the United Kingdom, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) Air Navigation Order 2009 under General Exemption E 4185 requires small unmanned aircraft (SUA) be kept within visual line of sight with a competent observer maintaining direct unaided visual contact with the model at all times for the purpose of collision avoidance. Because these restrictions prohibit flying beyond the visual range of the pilot (an ability which many view as the most attractive aspect of FPV), most hobbyists that fly FPV do so outside of regular RC clubs and flying fields. == Types of kits and construction == There are various ways to construct and assemble an RC aeroplane. Various kits are available, requiring different amounts of assembly, different costs and varying levels of skill and experience. Some kits can be mostly foam or plastic, or may be all balsa and ply wood. Construction of wood kits typically consists of using formers and longerons for the fuselage and spars and ribs for the wing and tail surfaces. Many designs use solid sheets of balsa wood instead of longerons to form the fuselage sides and may also use expanded polystyrene for the wing core covered in a wood veneer, often balsa or obeche. Such designs tend to be slightly heavier but are typically easier to build. The lightest models are suitable for indoor flight, in a windless environment. Some of these are made by bringing frames of balsa wood and carbon fiber up through water to pick up thin plastic films, similar to rainbow colored oil films. The advent of "foamies," or craft injection-molded from lightweight foam and sometimes reinforced with carbon fiber, have made indoor flight more readily accessible to hobbyists. EPP (Expanded Polypropylene) foam planes are actually even bendable and usually sustain very little or no damage in the event of an accident, even after a nose dive. Some companies have developed similar material with different names, such as AeroCell or Elapor. Amateur hobbyists have more recently developed a range of new model designs utilizing corrugated plastic, also sold as Coroplast. These models are collectively called "SPADs" which stands for Simple Plastic Airplane Design. Fans of the SPAD concept tout increased durability, ease of building, and lower priced materials as opposed to balsa models, sometimes (though not always) at the expense of greater weight and crude appearance. Flying models have to be designed according to the same principles as full-sized aircraft, and therefore their construction can be very different from most static models. RC planes often borrow construction techniques from vintage full-sized aircraft (although they rarely use metal structures). === Ready-to-Fly (RTF) === Ready to fly (RTF) airplanes come pre-assembled and usually only require wing attachment or other basic assembly. Typically, everything that is needed is provided, including the transmitter, receiver and battery. RTF airplanes can be up in the air in just a few minutes and have all but eliminated assembly time (at the expense of the model's configuration options.) === Almost Ready-to-Fly (ARF) === Almost ready to fly (ARF or ARTF) airplanes require final assembly typically including engine and fuel tank installation (or electric motor, speed controller, and battery), servo and pushrod installation, control surface attachment, landing gear attachment, and sometimes require gluing the left and right wing halves together. The average ARF airplane can be built with less than 10 to 20 hours of labor, versus 50 to 100+ hours (depending on detail and desired results) for a typical wood kit. The fuselage, wing halves, tail surfaces and control surfaces are already constructed. ARF airplanes typically only include the airframe and some accessories such as pushrods, fuel tank, etc. Therefore, the power system (glow engine, gas engine, or electric motor and any required accessories) and radio system (servos, transmitter, receiver, and battery) must be purchased separately. Hobby Companies like Motion RC and Horizon Hobby have also began to sell ARF+ Models or ARF Plus which are models that are between a full ARF and PNP where they will have some electronics like control surface servos and retracts for the landing gear but will not include a power system (ESC and Motor) === Bind-N-Fly (BNF) === Bind-N-Fly (BNF) aircraft are similar to Ready to fly aircraft, except they do not come with a transmitter. Because they do not come with a transmitter, they must be bound to one instead. This is desirable for flyers that already own a transmitter. Like RTF aircraft, Bind-N-Fly models require minimal assembly. There are several incompatible radio standards often found with Bind-N-Fly models. Most commonly seen are the BNF and Tx-R designations. BNF models work with transmitters using the DSM2/DSMX standard, and Tx-R models use the Tactic/AnyLink standard. A programmable transmitter which can store custom parameters for multiple models is desirable so that trim and other advanced functions do not need to be altered when switching models. Receiver Ready (Rx-R) models are similar to BNF models in that they are mostly assembled but let the user add their own receiver and battery, avoiding the need to deal with transmitter incompatibilities. === Plug-N-Play (PNP) === A Plug-N-Play (PNP) electric RC airplane has the motor, ESC and servos installed but is missing the transmitter, receiver, and motor battery pack (& charger). In other words, the airplane comes 99% assembled just like an RTF one does, but you need to supply your own transmitter, receiver, and battery pack. Plug-N-Play radio control planes are the perfect answer for aeromodellers who want to buy and fly more than one RTF RC plane, but don't want to have a separate transmitter for each one. === Wood Kit === Wood kits come in many sizes and skill levels. The wood, typically balsa and light ply, may either be cut with a die-cut or laser. Laser cut kits have a much more precise construction and much tighter tolerances, but tend to cost more than die-cut kits. Wood kits include the raw material needed to assemble the airframe, a construction manual, and full-size plans. Assembling a model from plans or a kit can be very labor-intensive. In order to complete the construction of a model, the builder typically spends many hours assembling the airframe, installing the engine and radio equipment, covering it, sometimes painting it, installing the control surfaces and pushrods, and adjusting the control surfaces travels. The kit does not include necessary tools, so they must be purchased separately. Care must be taken when building models from wood kits since construction flaws may affect the model's flying characteristics or even result in structural failure. Smaller balsa kits will often come complete with the necessary parts for the primary purpose of non-flying modeling or rubber band flight. These kits will usually also come with conversion instructions to fly as glow (gas powered) or electric and can be flown free-flight or radio-controlled. Converting a kit requires additional and substitution parts to get it to fly properly such as the addition of servos, hinges, speed controls, control rods and better landing gear mechanisms and wheels. Many small kits will come with a tissue paper covering that then gets covered with multiple layers of plane dope which coats and strengthens the fuselage and wings in a plastic-like covering. It has become more common to cover planes with heat-shrinking plastic films backed with heat-sensitive adhesive. These films are generally known as 'iron-on covering' since a hand-held iron allows the film to be attached to the frame; a higher temperature then causes the film to tighten. This plastic covering is more durable and makes for a quick repair. Other varieties of heat shrinkable coverings are also available, that have fibrous reinforcements within the plastic film, or are actual woven heat shrinkable fabrics. It is common to leave landing gear off smaller planes (roughly 36" or smaller) in order to save on weight, drag and construction costs. The planes can then be launched by hand-launching, as with smaller free-flight models, and can then land in soft grass. Flute board or Coroplast can be used in place of balsa wood. === From plans or scratch === Planes can be built from published plans, often supplied as full-sized drawings with included instructions. Parts normally need to be cut out from sheet wood or foam using supplied templates. Once all of the parts have been made, the project builds up just like a wood kit. A model plane built from scratch ends up with more value because you created the project from the plans. There is more choice of plans and materials than with kits, and the latest and more specialized designs are usually not available in kit form. The plans can be scaled to any desired size with a computer or copy machine, usually with little or no loss in aerodynamic efficiency. Hobbyists that have gained some experience in constructing and flying from kits and plans will often venture into building custom planes from scratch. This involves finding drawings of full-sized aircraft and scaling these down, or even designing the entire airframe from scratch. It requires a solid knowledge of aerodynamics and a plane's control surfaces. Plans can be drawn up on paper or using CAD software. == Airframe materials == Several materials are commonly used for construction of the airframe of model radio-controlled aircraft. The earliest model radio-controlled aircraft were constructed of wood covered with paper. Later, plastic film such as Monokote came to be widely used as a covering material. Wood has relatively low cost, high specific Young's modulus (stiffness per unit weight), good workability and strength, and can be assembled with adhesives of various types. Light-weight strong varieties such as balsa wood are preferred; basswood, pine and spruce are also used. Carbon fiber, in rod or strip form, supplements wood in more recent models to reinforce the structure, and replaces it entirely in some cases (such as high performance turbine engine powered models and helicopters). The disadvantage of using carbon fiber is its high cost. Expanded polystyrene and extruded polystyrene foam (Styrofoam) came to be used more recently for the construction of the entire airframe. Depron (the type of foam used for meat trays) blends rigidity with flexibility, allowing aircraft to absorb the stress of flying. Expanded polypropylene (EPP) is an extremely resilient variety of foam, often used in basic trainers, which take considerable abuse from beginners. Foam is used either in an injection mold to make a molded airframe or is cut out of sheet to make a built up airframe similar to some wood airframes. Airplanes of foam construction are frequently referred to as "Foamies". Twinwall extruded polypropylene sheet has been used from the mid nineties. Commonly known as Correx in the United Kingdom, it is mentioned in the sections above. Currently the Mugi group based in West Yorkshire still promote and use this material in 2mm thickness sheet form. Very tough and lightweight it has only two disadvantages. Firstly it needs particular two-part contact glues. Secondly the material is difficult to paint due to low surface adhesion. Self-adhesive coloured tapes were the answer. Components are often laminated, taking advantage of differing flute directions for strength and forming. Models tend to exceed 900mm wingspan with carbon fibre tubing used for local reinforcement. The thickness used among modellers is from 2mm to 4 mm thickness. Models made out of this material are commonly known among modellers as "Spad" types (simple plastic aeroplane design). PLA and ABS are used as material to print models using 3D printers. == Plane characteristics == === Number of channels === The number of channels (technically, servo channels) a plane has is normally determined by the number of mechanical servos that have been installed, with a few exceptions, such as the aileron servos, where two servos can operate via a single channel using a Y harness (with one of the two servos rotating in the opposite direction). On smaller models, usually one servo per control surface (or set of surfaces in the case of ailerons or a split elevator surface) is sufficient. Generally, for a plane to be considered fully functional, it must have four channels (elevator, rudder, throttle, and ailerons). ==== Basic flight controls ==== A four-channel RC system gives the aeromodeler the same basic degree of control that a full-sized aircraft's primary flight controls do: Elevator (or horizontal stabilizer) – controls pitch (up and down). Rudder (or vertical stabilizer) – controls yaw (left and right). Throttle – controls engine rpm (or thrust for jets and ducted fans, or motor speed for electric RC Aircraft). Ailerons – control roll. ==== Extra flight control functionality ==== Gear/retracts – controls retractable landing gear (usually in conjunction with gear doors). Flaps – Increase lift, but also increase drag. Using flaps, an aircraft can fly slower before stalling. Flaps are often used to steepen the landing approach angle and let the plane land at a slower touchdown speed (as well as letting the aircraft lift off at a slower takeoff speed). In both cases, flaps reduce the wear and tear on the airplane landing gear system, and enable an aircraft to use a shorter runway than would otherwise be required. Auxiliary control – Additional channels can control additional servos for propeller pitch (such as on 3D planes), or control surfaces such as slats, spoilers, flaps, spoilerons, flaperons, or elevons. Misc – bomb bay doors, lights, remote camera shutter can be assigned to extra channels. Additionally, if there is a flight assist or autopilot module on the craft (more common on the multi-rotor copters), features such as gyro-based stabilization, GPS location hold, height hold, return home, etc., can be controlled. Three channels (controlling rudder or (rarely) ailerons, along with the elevator and throttle) are common on trainer aircraft. Four channel aircraft, as mentioned above, have controls for elevator, rudder, throttle, and ailerons. For complex models and larger scale planes, multiple servos may be used on control surfaces. In such cases, more channels may be required to perform various functions such as deploying retractable landing gear, opening cargo doors, dropping bombs, operating remote cameras, lights, etc. Transmitters are available with as few as 2 channels to as many as 28 channels. The right and left ailerons move in opposite directions. However, aileron control will often use two channels to enable mixing of other functions on the transmitter. For example, when they both move downward they can be used as flaps (flaperons), or when they both move upward, as spoilers (spoilerons). Delta winged aircraft designs commonly lack a separate elevator, its function being mixed with the ailerons and the combined control surfaces being known as elevons. V-tail mixing, needed for such full-scale aircraft designs as the Beechcraft Bonanza, when modeled as RC scale miniatures, is also done in a similar manner as elevons and flaperons. Very small ready to fly RC indoor or indoor/outdoor toy aircraft often have two speed controllers and no servos, in order to cut production costs and lower sale price. There can be one motor for propulsion and one for steering or twin motors with the sum controlling the speed and the difference controlling the turn (yaw). Some .049 glow models use two controls: elevator and rudder with no throttle control. The plane is flown until it runs out of fuel then lands in the fashion of a glider. === Turning === Turning is generally accomplished by rolling the plane left or right and applying the correct amount of up-elevator ("back pressure"). A three channel RC plane will typically have an elevator and a throttle control, and either an aileron or rudder control but not both. If the plane has ailerons, rolling the wings left or right is accomplished directly by them. If the plane has a rudder instead, it will be designed with a greater amount of dihedral effect, which is the tendency for the airplane to roll in response to sideslip angle created by the rudder deflection. Dihedral effect in model airplane design is usually increased by increasing the dihedral angle of the wing (V-bend in the wing). The rudder will yaw the plane so that it has a left or right sideslip, dihedral effect will then cause the plane to roll in the same direction. Many trainers, electric park fliers, and gliders use this technique. A more complex four channel model can have both rudder and ailerons and is usually turned like a full-sized aircraft. That is, the ailerons are used primarily to directly roll the wings, and the rudder is used to "coordinate" (to keep the sideslip angle near-zero during the rolling motion). Sideslip otherwise builds up during an aileron-driven roll because of adverse yaw. Often, the transmitter is programmed to automatically apply rudder in proportion to aileron deflection to coordinate the roll. When an airplane is in a small to moderate bank (roll angle) a small amount of 'back pressure' is required to maintain height. This is required because the lift vector, which would be pointing vertically upwards in level flight, is now angled inwards so some of the lift is turning the aircraft. A higher overall amount of lift is required so that the vertical component remains sufficient for a level turn. Many radio-controlled aircraft, especially the toy class models, are designed to be flown with no movable control surfaces at all. Some model planes are designed this way because it is often cheaper and lighter to control the speed of a motor than it is to provide a moving control surface. Instead, "rudder" control (control over sideslip angle) is provided by differing thrust on two motors, one on each wing. Total power is controlled by increasing or decreasing the power on each motor equally. Usually, the planes only have only these two control channels (total throttle and differential throttle) with no elevator control. Turning a model with differential thrust is equivalent to and just as effective as turning a model with rudder. Lack of elevator control is sometimes problematic if the phugoid oscillation isn't well-damped leading to unmanageable "porpoising". See "Toy class RC" section. === V-tail systems === A V-Tail is a way of combining the control surfaces of the standard "+" configuration of rudder and elevator into a V shape. These ruddervators are controlled with two channels and mechanical or electronic mixing. An important part of the V-Tail configuration is the exact angle of the two surfaces relative to each other and the wing, otherwise the ratio of elevator and rudder outputs will be incorrect. The mixing works as follows: When receiving rudder input, the two servos work together, moving both control surfaces to the left or right, inducing yaw. On elevator input, the servos work opposite, one surface moves to the "left" and the other to the "right" which gives the effect of both moving up and down, causing pitch changes in the aircraft. V-Tails are very popular in Europe, especially for gliders. In the US, the T-Tail is more common. V-Tails have the advantage of being lighter and creating less drag. They also are less likely to break at landing or take-off due to the tail striking something on the ground like an ant mound or a rock. == Powerplants == Most planes need a powerplant to drive them, the exception being gliders. The most popular types for radio-controlled aircraft are internal combustion engines, electric motors, jet engines, and rocket engines. Three types of internal combustion engines are available being small 2 and 4 stroke engines. Glowplug engines use methanol and oil as fuel, compressive ignition ('diesel') burn paraffin with ether as an ignition agent. Larger engines can be glowplug but increasingly common gasoline is the fuel of choice. These engines are spark ignited. In recent years electric powered models have increased in popularity due to the reducing cost and weight of components and improvements in technology, especially lithium polymer (LiPo) batteries and the choice of brushed motors and brushless motors. Electric systems are quieter and as they do not require fuel/exhaust, are cleaner. The advantage of electric power is the ease of starting the motor as compared to the starting of engines; electric motors that are comparable to engines are cheaper. Any form of lithium-chemistry battery cell technology packs have to be charged with "smart" chargers that have connections to every electrical connection in the pack to "balance-charge" the cells in the pack, and even with proper use of such chargers lithium-polymer battery packs can have the serious risk of fire or explosion, which has led to the increasing acceptance of cobalt-free, lithium iron phosphate battery technology in their place as a much more rugged and durable lithium-chemistry power source. == Transmitting and Receiving Frequencies == === Frequency === A transmitter and receiver of a radio control aircraft must both be on the same frequency so the aircraft can be controlled in flight. Traditionally, this transmitting and receiving frequency were referred to as a channel (technically, a frequency channel). This is not the same as number of servo channels that a plane can have, and can be confusing, as both are casually referred to as channels. It is less common now for radio control pilots to refer to frequency channels, as modern computer receivers in the gigahertz bands are equipped with synthesiser technology and are 'locked' to the computer transmitter being used. ==== Reserved frequencies ==== Many countries reserve specific frequency bands (ranges) for radio-control use. Due to the longer range and potentially worse consequences of radio interference, model aircraft have exclusive use of their own frequency allocation in some countries. ===== USA and Canada reserved VHF frequency bands ===== 72 MHz: aircraft only (France also uses US/Canada channels 21 through 35). 75 MHz: surface vehicles. 53 MHz: all vehicles, only for older equipment on 100 kHz spacing, with the operator holding a valid amateur radio (FCC in the USA) license. The 53 MHz band began to become vulnerable to amateur radio repeater stations operating on the 53 MHz area of the 6-meter band during the early 1980s. The 53 MHz bands can still be used with relative safety for ground-based (cars, boats/ships) powered modeling activities. 50.8 to 51 MHz: on the 6-meter band for all vehicles at 20 kHz spacing, with the operator holding a valid amateur radio (FCC in the USA) license. Added in the 1980s as the amateur radio repeater interference problem on the earlier 53 MHz bands in the United States began to manifest itself. 27 MHz: first band opened for RC use in the United States and shared with CB radio users: as with 53 MHz for Hams, nowadays preferable for use on ground-based RC models only — also used for older RC toys before 1991. ===== USA and Canada reserved UHF frequency bands ===== 2.400-2.485 GHz: 13-cm UHF Spread Spectrum band for general use (amateur radio license holders have 2.39-2.45 GHz licensed for their general use in the USA) and using both frequency-hopping spread spectrum and direct-sequence spread spectrum RF technology to maximize the number of available frequencies on this band, especially at organized events in North America. US frequency chart available at [1], Canadian frequency chart available at [2] ===== European reserved VHF & UHF frequency bands ===== 35 MHz: aircraft only. 40 MHz: surface vehicles or aircraft. 27 MHz: general use, toys, citizens band radio. 2.4 GHz 13-cm UHF band spread spectrum: surface vehicles, boats and aircraft. Within the 35 MHz range, there are designated A and B bands. Some European countries allow use only in the A band, whereas others allow use in both bands. ===== United Kingdom reserved frequency bands ===== 458.5–459.5 MHz: low-UHF band for surface vehicles or aircraft. (Non-Ham-frequencies – 70-cm amateur band in the UK covers 430-440 MHz) ===== Singapore reserved frequency bands ===== 72 MHz: aircraft only 2.4 GHz: 13-cm UHF band aircraft only ===== China reserved frequency bands ===== 1.4 GHz: general use 2.4 GHz: 13-cm UHF band general use 5.8 GHz: general use 433 MHz: for amateur radio licensees only ===== Australian reserved frequency bands ===== 36 MHz: aircraft and water-craft (odd channels for aircraft only) 29 MHz: general use 27 MHz: light electric aircraft, general use 2.400-2.485 GHz: 13-cm UHF band Spread Spectrum band for general use (ACMA references available at [3]) ===== New Zealand reserved frequency bands ===== 35 MHz: aircraft only 40 MHz: aircraft only 27 MHz: general use 29 MHz: general use 36 MHz: general use 72 MHz: general use (US 72 MHz "even-numbered" channels 12 through 56, at 40 kHz spacing) 2.400-2.4835 GHz: 13-cm UHF band The frequencies are permitted under legislation, provided equipment meets the appropriate standards, bears the New Zealand supplier's Supplier Code Number and has the correct compliance documentation. Detailed information, including cautions for transmitting on some of the 'general use' frequencies, can be found on the NZMAA website. ===== Amateur radio license reserved frequency bands ===== 50 and 53 MHz in the US and Canada (American amateurs allowed up to one watt [30 dBm] of output power) 433–434 MHz Formerly used low-UHF band in Germany until the end of 2008, but is still permitted in Switzerland; and is also usable within both the US and Canada, most often implemented nowadays in North America with spread spectrum RF hardware (as on 2.4 GHz). === Channels and frequency control === Traditionally (since 1967) most RC aircraft in the United States utilized a 72 MHz frequency band for communication – six of these were actually on the 72 MHz band at 80 kHz separation from each other, with one additional isolated frequency at 75.640 MHz. These remained legal to use until the 1983 FCC reform that introduced "narrowband" RC frequencies – at 40 kHz separation from 1983 to 1991, and finally at 20 kHz separation from 1991 onwards, to the present day with fifty frequencies on 72 MHz solely for flying models. The 75 MHz band became usable only for ground-based RC modeling (cars, boats, etc.) in the same timeframe, with the transition also occurring through to 1991, having 30 frequencies available at the same 20 kHz channel separation. Canadian modelers today flying on VHF-band RC gear use the same 72 and 75 MHz frequencies as American hobbyists do, for the same types of models. The transmitter radio broadcasts using AM or FM using PPM or PCM. Each aircraft needs a way to determine which transmitter to receive communications from, so a specific channel within the frequency band is used for each aircraft (except for 2.4 GHz band, and amateur radio-only 70 cm systems; which use spread spectrum modulation, described below). Most radio control systems – traditionally on low-VHF-band frequencies before the 21st century – have traditionally used crystals to set the operating channel in the receiver and transmitter. It is important that each aircraft uses a different channel, otherwise interference could result. For example, if a person is flying an aircraft on channel 35 (used for 72.490 MHz in North America), and someone else turns their radio on the same channel, the aircraft's control will be compromised and the result is almost always a crash. Since multiple RC frequency use began in the RC hobbies in the mid-20th century, so-called "frequency pins" have been used to ensure that only one modeler was using a particular frequency at any one time, for "traditional" style, crystal-controlled RC system use. The common, spring-loaded two-piece wood clothespin – marked in some manner with text and/or color-coding for the designated frequency it references, usually with an added piece of thin plywood or plastic on the clothespin to place the text or color-code upon for greater visibility – is the usual basis for these. Usually, the model club itself will possess some sort of "transmitter impound" facility at their modeling site for secure storage of the modelers' transmitters when not in active use while visiting the facility, and usually provides some sort of fixed "frequency control board" nearby to the impound area. The "frequency control board" at a modeling club's facility is used in one of two ways: either the club provides sets of frequency pins itself, already clipped onto the control board for the modeler to take the appropriate pin for their modeling activity (clipped onto their transmitter's antenna, in a so-called "subtractive" method) while their transmitter is in use away from the impound area, or with the modeler required to provide them for their own transmitter(s), and places them on a club facility's existing frequency board (the "additive" method) whenever they are using their RC transmitter. A modern computer radio transmitter and receiver can be equipped with synthesizer technology, using a phase-locked loop (PLL), with the advantage of giving the pilot the opportunity to select any of the available channels with no need of changing a crystal. This is very popular in flying clubs where a lot of pilots have to share a limited number of channels. Latest receivers now available use synthesiser technology and are 'locked' to the transmitter being used. Dual-conversion radio receivers have been in existence since the 1980s and commonly in use since that time, which add security for the proper reception of the control signal, and can offer the advantage of a built-in 'failsafe' mode. Using synthesised receivers saves on crystal costs and enables full use of the VHF bandwidth available, for example the 35 MHz band. Newer Transmitters use spread spectrum technology in the 2.4 GHz, upper-UHF frequency band for communication. Spread spectrum technology allows many pilots to transmit in the same band (2.4 GHz) in proximity to each other with little fear of conflicts. Receivers in this band are virtually immune to most sources of electrical interference. Amateur radio licensees in the United States also have general use of an overlapping band in this same area, which exists from 2.39 to 2.45 GHz, with newer aftermarket transmitter RF module/receiver combinations on the 70 cm band also offering user-programmable, spread-spectrum versatility of varying degrees for Ham RC modelers in both the US and Canada, only as secondary users without "exclusive" use provisions. == Military usage == Radio-controlled aircraft are also used for military purposes, with their primary task being intelligence-gathering reconnaissance. An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), also known as a drone, is usually not designed to contain a human pilot. Remotely controlled target drone aircraft were used to train gun crews. == Regulations on use == Various countries have regulations and restrictions on model aircraft operations, even for non-commercial purposes, typically imposed by the national civil aviation authority. === United States === In the United States, radio-controlled model aircraft and unmanned aircraft generally may be subject to regulation by the following entities: ==== Federal Aviation Administration ==== The legal status of radio-controlled model aircraft under federal aviation law is currently unclear. In March 2014 in the case Huerta v. Pirker, an administrative law judge with the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) dismissed an FAA enforcement action against a model aircraft operator under 14 CFR 91.13 (prohibiting careless and reckless operation of an aircraft), ruling that model aircraft are not legally classified as "aircraft" and that they are not subject to any current Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs). This decision was appealed to the full NTSB. In November 2014 the NTSB issued a ruling reversing the administrative law judge's decision and holding that model aircraft are legally considered "aircraft" at least for the purposes of 14 CFR 91.13, and remanded the case to the administrative judge to determine whether Pirker's actions constituted reckless operation. It remains unclear what other provisions of the Federal Aviation Regulations are applicable to model aircraft, but it is likely that every regulation applicable to "aircraft" generally would potentially apply under this standard. In June 2014 the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued a notice of interpretation regarding the Special Rule for Model Aircraft in Section 336 of the FAA Modernization and Reform Act passed by Congress in February 2012, which exempted model aircraft meeting certain criteria from future FAA rulemaking. In this document, the FAA stated its position that, "Model aircraft that do not meet these statutory requirements are nonetheless unmanned aircraft, and as such, are subject to all existing FAA regulations, as well as future rulemaking action, and the FAA intends to apply its regulations to such unmanned aircraft." The notice of interpretation further stated that even model aircraft that do qualify for the Sec. 336 exemption are legally considered aircraft, and the FAA has authority to pursue enforcement actions against model aircraft operators who do not comply with certain provisions of Part 91 of the Federal Aviation Regulations, including the prohibition against careless and reckless operation of an aircraft in 14 CFR 91.13 and 14 CFR 91.113, which requires that "vigilance shall be maintained by each person operating an aircraft so as to see and avoid other aircraft." Because the FAA has not yet sought to enforce this regulation against unmanned aircraft operators, whether it applies to model aircraft and what actions are necessary for compliance are currently unknown. FAA pilot registration for both camera-bearing "small unmanned aircraft system" (sUAS) multirotor "drones" and recreationally-flown traditional radio-controlled aircraft was reinstated by the FAA as part of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2018, requiring RC aeromodelers to register with the FAA for a $5.00 fee for a three-year registration period: the modeler is assigned a ten-character alphanumeric personal FAA registration code to be placed on their models' exterior surfaces no later than February 25, 2019 as part of the registration requirements, to be placed on the model on any "exterior-viewable" part of the model that requires nothing to be opened – the modeler's registration code is personal for their use, and any number of model aircraft that they own and operate can bear the same registration code. ==== Federal Communications Commission ==== Licensed amateur radio operators in the United States are expressly allowed to use amateur radio frequencies for telecommand of model aircraft, per FCC Part 97's rule 97.215. However, the Federal Communications Commission prohibits using amateur radio frequencies for commercial activity (generally any form of economic gain or for-profit activity, Part 97's rule 97.113). The FCC has not yet addressed the issue of creating designated command and control frequencies for commercial unmanned aircraft, and many civilian unmanned aircraft continue to use amateur radio frequencies, even when used for commercial purposes. Though it has not so far pursued any enforcement actions related to use of amateur radio frequencies for commercial unmanned aircraft (with the FCC, as early as 1997, commencing the authorization of specific "industrial/business" frequency bands, potentially usable for such needs), the FCC has the authority to levy civil forfeitures and fines into the tens of thousands of dollars for violations of its regulations. There is no similar "displayed registration code" requirement as yet from the FCC, to that of the FAA as mentioned above (the FAA's "pilot registration code" must be on the model already), for FCC-licensed amateur radio operators flying RC aircraft under part 97.215. Since mid-July 2000, FCC Amateur Radio Service licensees have already been assigned a ten-digit "FCC registration number" or "FRN" directly linked to their callsign which could additionally be placed on their models along with any already-assigned FAA registration code, if desired. The July 2000 announcement of the "FRN" code system was partly worded: ..."The use of the registration number is voluntary, although the Commission will consider making it mandatory in the future.", leaving its use open for any future FCC-administered Amateur Radio Service needs in the United States. ==== National Park Service ==== Under a 2014 edict from the National Park Service, model aircraft and other unmanned aircraft operations are prohibited on all land administered by the National Park Service, with some exceptions for preexisting model aircraft fields that were established prior to the adoption of this rule. Because the National Park Service does not have jurisdiction over airspace, which is exclusively governed by the FAA, this rule only applies to unmanned aircraft flown from National Park Service land. It does not apply to overflight of National Park Service land by unmanned aircraft operated elsewhere. ==== State and Local Governments ==== There are a wide variety of state and local laws and ordinances affecting model aircraft. Many state and local governments restrict or prohibit model aircraft from being flown at local parks. Some state laws purport to restrict or prohibit aerial photography using unmanned aircraft, though such laws would likely be found invalid if challenged in court due to federal preemption, as the FAA has exclusive regulatory jurisdiction over all aircraft and airspace from the surface up. Any laws restricting aerial photography of areas where no reasonable expectation of privacy exists would also likely be vulnerable to challenges under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. ==== Academy of Model Aeronautics ==== The Academy of Model Aeronautics' (AMA) Safety Code governs model aircraft operations at all model aircraft clubs and flying fields affiliated with the organization, which includes the majority of designated model aircraft flying fields in the United States. === Australia === In Australia the operation of model aircraft is subject to laws and regulations regarding radio spectrum use which is enforced by the ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) and the use of airspace as enforced by CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority). All unmanned aeronautical activities in Australia are ruled by CASR (Civil Aviation Safety Regulations) Part 101 which includes sections for UAV's and model aircraft among other operations. It is currently under review and new regulations specifically relating to UAV's and model aircraft are anticipated. Any commercial use (i.e. any form of payment or benefit) of an unmanned aircraft results in the operations falling under the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Operations Section, CASR 101-1. This section requires formal licensing, training and documentation procedures to be approved and followed. These requirements will typically require an outlay in the order of thousands of dollars which places commercial operations beyond the reach of most hobbyists. This is one area currently under review by CASA with initial reports indicating a potential option of simpler registration for light-weight UAV's without requiring formal certification. Non-commercial use is governed by section 101-3 which includes requirements that: No commercial benefit is to be obtained from operating the model – to be flown only for sport or recreational purposes Maximum weight of 150 kg (models over 25 kg must be operated within a club setting under additional conditions) Models under 100 grams are exempt from regulation Only to be flown in daylight unless under written procedures of an authorised organisation (such as the MAAA) The model must remain within continuous direct sight of the operator When within 3 nautical miles of an aerodrome or when within controlled airspace, flight is limited to 400 ft above ground level === India === There are certain conditions for using the frequency band in which the aircraft will operate. The operator is required to be eligible for that grade. The only requirement in that is the operator's name will be scripted. For self built aircraft a license is required. == See also == 3D Aerobatics Academy of Model Aeronautics British Model Flying Association Bruce Simpson who used RC flight control systems in the construction of a homemade cruise missile Discus Launch Glider Hotliner International Miniature Aerobatic Club List of radio-controlled model aircraft kit manufacturers Model Aeronautics Association of Canada Radio-controlled model RC flight simulator == References == == External links == FAI Competition Class F Radio Control Frequency Listing Dedicated Wiki For Electric RC Flight Official FAA "DroneZone" Pilot Registration Page for United States Aeromodelers	Wikipedia/Ready_to_Fly_(radio_control)
Free flight is the segment of model aviation involving aircraft with no active external control after launch. Free flight is the original form of hobby aeromodeling, with the competitive objective being to build and launch a self controlling aircraft that will consistently achieve the longest flight duration over multiple competition rounds, within various class parameters. == Description == The essence of free-flight is that the aircraft have no need for external control, for instance by radio. Aircraft of this type have been flown for over two centuries. They are designed to be inherently stable in flight; if disturbed by a gust of wind or a thermal current they will return automatically to stable flight. Their stability is achieved by a combination of design and trim, - the relationship between centre of gravity, wing and tailplane incidence and rudder setting. With their much lower wing loading, free-flight aircraft fly much more slowly than the engine-powered radio-controlled aircraft that many people first think of when ‘model aircraft’ is mentioned. Most of them glide at little more than walking pace and few weigh more than 500 grams. Usually the sole objective of free-flight competition is flight duration, and one of the sport's fascinations and challenges is to design the most efficient aircraft within the various competition limits on parameters such as minimum weight, maximum wing area, and motive power. == Types == Free flight models may be broadly divided into four categories: Gliders (towline and hand-launched) Rubber-powered (pure duration, and scale with duration) Power (CO2, methanol-fueled glow engine, or electric) Indoor (pure duration, and scale with duration) When flown competitively, the usual aim is maximum flight duration. In the case of models flown outdoors, the modeler attempts to launch the model into a rising column of air, a thermal. These outdoor free flight models tend to be designed for two very different flying modes: climbing rapidly under power or tow, and gliding slowly while circling with minimum fall rate. Much of the challenge in designing and flying these models is to maintain aerodynamic stability in both modes and to make a smooth transition between them. Modern models use mechanical or electronic timers to move control surfaces at preset times. Detecting the thermal into which to launch is vital and can involve several methods, ranging from radio telemetered temperature and wind speed measurements plotted on a chart recorder to Mylar streamers or soap bubbles to visualize the rising air. Competitions normally involve up to seven rounds during the day, each flown to a maximum flight time hard to achieve without thermal assistance. An automatic on-board time switch upsets the trim of the aircraft when the "max" is achieved, to bring the aircraft down safely and quickly. Locating and recovering the aircraft for further flights is an important part of free-flight. Many aircraft carry radio location beacons, and flyers will use GPS, binoculars, a compass, and a directionally sensitive radio tracking receiver to assist them. A day's flying and retrieval may well involve 20 miles (32 km) or so on foot or on bike, depending on wind strength. Models flown indoors do not depend on rising air currents, but they must be designed for maximum flight efficiency because of the limited energy stored in the rubber or electric power source. Within each category, there are different classes. Typically, there is a Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) world-championship class, a so-called mini class, an open class, and possibly any number of national or unofficial classes, for which regional or national competitions may be held. Within the competition classification codes specified by the FAI, free flight aeromodeling gets the generic code of F1, where the "F" stands for flying model aircraft in general, with the "1" standing specifically for free flight models. == Gliders == Gliders have no onboard motive power. The only energy inputs are the launch, and rising air encountered during the flight. During launch, many gliders withstand 60G or more (far more than the stress on any crewed aircraft) and have launch speeds of sometimes over 140 km/h, where this energy converts to altitude ; this has only become possible since the advent of composite materials such as carbon (graphite), fiberglass, and Kevlar, which are used extensively in many of their structures. The FAI glider class is F1A, also known as A/2 or Nordic glider. The model must have a projected area (wing and stabilizer) of between 32-34 dm2, and a minimum weight of 410 g. Launch is by hand tow, using a tow line of 50 m length, similar to towing a kite. During the tow phase, the glider can be controlled by letting it glide in tight circles followed by towing it up against the wind. Once the decision is taken to launch the model, the sportsman runs to make the model gain speed. When the model is at maximum speed overhead, the tow line is released and a mechanism frees the tow line from the model which then starts a pre-programmed pattern to convert speed into altitude. Modern F1A gliders can gain sometimes as much as 80 meters of additional altitude. The mini glider class is A/1 (F1H). A/1 gliders must have less than 18 dm2 total area, and weigh at least 220 g. Open glider contests are rarely flown, and most competitors in such contests use F1A gliders. Other glider classes include magnet-steered (F1E) gliders - essentially a free flight slope soaring class, and hand-launched glider (usually abbreviated HLG, and also widely known as simply chuck glider). HLGs are small models which are launched from level ground simply by being thrown hard. This is one of the more athletic of the free flight disciplines. == Rubber powered == Rubber-powered models are powered by the stored energy of a twisted elastic material. These range from the simple rubber-band powered toys available in many toy stores, up to the open rubber class, examples of which often use 200 g of rubber in their "motor". Rubber does not produce a constant power output; when fully wound a rubber motor produces its maximum torque, but this drops rapidly at first before 'plateauing', finally declining again, after which the propeller stops. Using this initial burst efficiently is vital, and automatic variable-pitch propellers help here, together with timer-operated changes of wing and tailplane incidence and of rudder setting. At the end of the power run the blades fold back alongside the fuselage to minimise drag during the glide. The FAI rubber class is F1B, also known as Wakefield. Charles Dennis Rushing has written on the history of the Wakefield Cup. F1B models may have a maximum of 30 g of rubber motor, and the empty weight of the airframe must be at least 200 g. The maximum total area of the model must be less than 19 dm2. The mini rubber class is Coupe d'Hiver (also known as F1G). "Coupe" models have no area restrictions. The maximum weight of rubber allowed is 10 g, and the minimum empty weight of the airframe is 70g. . Open rubber is a popular event, featuring large models with enormous amounts of rubber crammed into them. Open models often have 50% of their flying weight composed of rubber. The F1D (see #Indoor below) is a class of delicate, lightweight, slow-flying, long-duration (over 30 minutes) rubber-powered aircraft designed to be flown in a large indoor space. P-30 is a common beginner's event. A P-30 must use an unmodified commercially available plastic propeller. P-30 has a maximum wingspan and overall length of 30 inches (76.2 cm), and uses maximum 10 g of rubber. The empty airframe must weigh at least 40 g. The Wright Stuff competition in Science OIympiad is also very popular. The rules and dimension restrictions vary every year, but many notable fliers such as Brett Sanborn started in Science Olympiad. Planes for this competition usually consist of a balsa frame with a mylar-covered wing and a commercially available fixed-pitch propeller. The rubber motor is typically wound with a 15:1 winder. The most well known beginner rubber powered models are the AMA Cub (also known in the USA as the "AMA Delta Dart"), Denny Dart, Canarsie Canarie and Squirrel. They are commonly used in workshops or for beginners to learn about construction and flying. The Squirrel, designed by Darcy Whyte is the easiest to build. Free plans are available for download for a Squirrel. The smallest rubber powered model aircraft was built in 1931 by a Philadelphia high school student, called the Flying Flea and was one and a quarter inches long and could remain airborne for approximately one minute. == Power == Power models are those with an onboard power source which is not a rubber motor. Frequently this is an internal combustion engine, and the engine run is limited, typically to just five seconds. Designing an aircraft which climbs as high as possible, with minimum drag at a low lift coefficient, but then must convert to a slow flying glider, is a challenge unique in aviation. However, the category also includes compressed gas motors and electric power. The FAI power class is F1C. F1C models are equipped with an internal combustion engine of up to 2.5cc and need to weight at least 300 g per 1cc (i.e. minimum weight of a 2.5cc equipped model is 750 g). These engines are usually custom made for optimal power output and often yield 1 hp (0.75 kW) at more than 30,000 RPM. Many F1C models feature folding wings, to minimize the aerodynamic drag during the climb phase. Another type of powered free flight models is CO2 (its FAI category is F1K ). These models fly using a small engine powered by carbon dioxide. These models are very light. The amount of CO2 is limited to 2 cm3, which is enough for cca. 2 minutes of flight. Another popular free flight Class is FAI category F1J which is similar to F1C however the engines are 1cc displacement or less. These models use engines like the Profi, and other specialized manufactured engines from Russia and Europe. Sport free flight fliers also use small internal combustion engines, and increasingly; electric motor-powered free flight scale models. == Indoor == As the name suggests, indoor models are designed to fly indoors. These models are typically very light in weight because they do not have to withstand external weather conditions. There are a number of classes of indoor free flight models. Some are scale reproductions but others are designed purely to fly for as long as possible. These models are timed with a stopwatch. The FAI is the international organising body for all air sports worldwide, including aeromodelling. The FAI sanctions World and European Championships for the ultimate indoor duration class designated F1D. F1D models must have a minimum weight of 1.4 grams and a maximum wing span of 55 cm. These models are constructed from light balsa sheet and strip, boron filament, carbon fibre, and a transparent covering of plastic film less than 0.5 micrometres thick. The models are powered by 0.4 grams of rubber in a single loop about 9.0 inches long that can be wound to take around 1500 turns. The average propeller RPM during a flight is less than 50 and these models fly at less than walking pace. F1D models require a large space, such as a sports hall, aircraft or dirigible hangar, with the famous atrium of the West Baden Springs Hotel having been previously used for indoor free flight competitions in the United States, and there is even a salt mine in Romania 400 feet (120 m) underground that has hosted the FAI world F1D championships several times. Single flight times approach forty minutes. Although most other indoor model aircraft are also rubber-powered, gliders and aircraft powered by compressed gas or electric batteries are also flown indoors. Some classes concentrate on scale or semi-scale replicas of man-carrying aircraft. Others feature unusual flight configurations, such as ornithopters, helicopters or autogiros. Indoor modelling is now about a century old. A history of indoor models may be found here. == Old Timers == Sanctioned in the United States by the Society of Antique Modelers [1], and by a growing number of "SAM" organization chapters around the world (as well as similar national clubs in some nations) so-called "Old Timer" free flight model aircraft, which can be gliders, rubber powered or engine powered models, are flyable reproductions of free flight model aircraft designs that generally originated from anywhere in the world, any time before the US involvement in World War II began in 1941-42. Scaling of the size (enlargement or reduction) of these designs are permitted for most of the event types in SAM competition, with a few specialized categories existing for reproduction models that mandate the models be built in their original size only. In the United Kingdom, models built to plans or kits published before January 1951 are categorised as vintage and those subsequently but prior to 1960 are categorised as classic. Jim Arnott holds Winding Boy, a classic rubber model designed by Urlan Wannop. Low-pressure, enjoyable competitions for these models generally follow the modern competition formats, with special categories for these early-design models that re-create the model aircraft events actually held before WWII, and even the "old-timer" movement has seriously begun to embrace electric-powered versions of designs originally built for the two-stroke gasoline-fueled engines of pre-WWII free flight aeromodelling. Actual pre-WW II vintage gasoline-fueled model engines, or authentically operational reproductions of them, are even used on some of the engine-powered designs, and a substantial interest exists in so-called "RC Assist" old timer free flight models within the SAM organization, which takes the engine powered designs of that era, powers them with more modern two and four stroke glow engines or brushless electric motors instead, and adds rudder, elevator and engine control from a radio control transmitter, just as would be done in the regular RC hobby. Old Timer free flight aircraft specifications, competition rules and guidelines are available from the SAM organization online. [2] == Scale rubber == Rubber scale models replicate full-scale aircraft. Scale documentation is used at contests to check the accuracy and compliance of the model to the full-scale aircraft modeled. Most rubber scale models are in the 20” to 30” wingspan range. Exceptions are for "Peanut Scale" class models, with a maximum 13” wingspan and "Jumbo Scale" class models, with 36” or greater wingspan. The models are powered with loops of rubber matched to the weight of the model and the diameter and pitch of the propeller. The length of the loops often exceed twice the length of the fuselage of the model. The flying duration of the scale model is greatly increased because of the number of windings that can be made on such a long loop of rubber with multiple strands. A mechanical winder is used and the rubber is stretched up to fives times original length to pack in maximum winds on the motor. In flight, these models look just like the real thing. All that is missing is the noise of the engine in the original airplane. Experts can achieve spectacular flights from obscure designs such as the Wright brothers original and Bleriot's channel crosser, to one-of-a-kind Depression era homebuilts and modern day experimental aircraft. == References == == External links == The USA's National Free Flight Society aeromodeling specialty group Easy to build rubber powered free flight plane Article on building model planes - from 1934 and scanned vintage plans Instructions on building a rubber powered scale Free Flight model Information about Free Flight competitions (Ukrainian) Model Flying Forum Archived 2012-04-25 at the Wayback Machine Free flight Ontario British Model Flying Association	Wikipedia/Free_flight_(model_aircraft)
Gundam Plastic models, Gundam Plamo, or Gunpla (ガンプラ, Ganpura) are model kits depicting the mecha machinery and characters of the fictional Gundam multiverse by Bandai Spirits. These kits became popular among mecha anime fans and model enthusiasts in Japan and nearby Asian countries beginning in the 1980s. Gundam modeling spread in the 1990s with North America and Europe being exposed to Gundam through anime and manga. The name Gunpla derives from an abbreviation of "Gundam plastic model" phrase, since most kits are made of plastic. Bandai sold over 100 million Gundam plastic model units between 1980 and 1984, and over 300 million units by May 1999. Recently, Bandai had sold an estimated 450 million units worldwide across nearly 2,000 different Gundam models. As of March 2021, Bandai Namco has sold 714.84 million Gundam plastic model units, including 538.24 million standard Gundam units (since 1980) and 176.6 million SD Gundam units (since 1987). == History == Late 1970s–1980s Gundam models are based on the Mobile Suit Gundam franchise, which debuted in 1979 as a television show. The show was not highly successful, and the toys produced by Clover did not sell well. In 1980, Bandai obtained the rights to produce models based on the Gundam franchise. While Clover's models were produced in the style of most children's toys - fully assembled and ready for play - Bandai designed theirs as plastic kits to be assembled, similar to military vehicle models. While Clover's products targeted children, Bandai's approach was more appealing to the teenage and adult consumers that were more typical of Mobile Suit Gundam's audience, and was received extremely well. Nearly every mecha in the series was made into a model kit, from mobile suits to support aircraft and space battleships. Parts came in up to three different cast-in colors. These early kits are distinguished by their lack of articulation and low detail and, unlike later generations, require glue to assemble. A later development was System Injection, a technique which permitted a single "part" to be cast in multiple colors of plastic simultaneously, minimizing the need to paint the finished model. Mid 1980s–1990s In 1985, Bandai introduced use of poly-caps (soft plastic, typically Polyethylene) as connectors for better articulation of joints. The 1987 model line for Gundam Sentinel introduced snap-fit models, which needed little or no glue to assemble. This would become standard in 1988, after which all kits use snap-fit assembly and no glue is needed. In 1990, Bandai introduced the High Grade (HG) line, which began an ongoing process of increasing model quality, and the creation of a grade system to describe the detail and quality of each kit. HG kits had much higher detail and articulation, as well as features normally found in larger-scale models, despite being 1:144 scale. One example is the 'Gundam Core Block System', in which the pilot sits in a "Core" which can be removed from the Gundam to become a distinct vehicle, and the Zeta Gundam's transformation feature. In 1993, a unified set of poly-cap joints was created for smaller scale models that allowed easy mass production of models that all shared the same basic skeletal frame. This standardization allowed Bandai to release more models over a shorter period. As a result, the Gundam shows of the 1990s usually received sizable 1:144 model lines. In 1995, the 1:100 scale Master Grade (MG) line was introduced. This line featured more parts, better detail and improved articulation than past kits of the same scale. In 1998, Bandai introduced the 1:60 Perfect Grade (PG) line. This line features extensive detail and articulation, light-up features, and a "body on frame" skeletal system in which the exterior panels of the model are separate components attached to a completely functional, articulated internal frame. This design element would later appear (sometimes in a limited form) in lower-grade models. The PG line is typically the most expensive among all Gunpla kits, and only a select few mobile suits have been released in this line. In 1999, to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the franchise, Bandai released 1:144 First Grade (FG) kits of mobile suits from the original series. Marketed as budget models, these snap-fit kits featured the simplicity of the original kits, but with more modern designs based upon the corresponding Perfect Grade kits. 2000s For the Mobile Suit Gundam SEED models a new type of non-graded (NG) 1:144 model was introduced, with a completely different design plan. While these still feature snap-fit and color molding, they omit major joints, opting instead to only allow critical pieces to move—typically the neck, hips, shoulders, and feet. These are budget models, usually retailing much lower than other models; and this line was extensive, covering nearly every machine to be featured in that TV series. Gundam SEED also featured non graded 1:100 models, identical in quality to Bandai's High Grade offerings. It was also during this decade that the term "Gunpla" was coined by Bandai. 2010s In 2010, Bandai released the 1:48 Mega Size Model RX-78-2 Gundam kit as part of the franchise's 30th anniversary campaign. This kit features many innovations that make it easy to assemble for first-time Gunpla collectors. For example, the parts are attached to sprue gates thin enough to break without the need to use of plastic cutters, and excess gate plastic can be removed from the parts without using a hobby knife. Some sprues have been designed to snap together for easy and quick removal of assembled parts. In the same year, Bandai introduced the 1:144 Real Grade (RG) line, which takes design elements from the MG line such as an inner skeletal frame to improve upon the HG line. Both Mega Size Model and RG variants of the RX-78-2 Gundam were patterned after the 1/1 scale Gundam statue on display in Odaiba. Bandai also released Ecopla, a series of High Grade Universal Century (HGUC) and super deformed (SD) kits molded in black and made entirely out of recycled sprues. In 2011, Bandai released the Entry Grade (EG) line, a low-cost model series similar to the 1:144 NG and FG lines, sold only in parts of Asia. Unlike other kits of the same scale, the first line of EG kits were made in China and the series was initially discontinued until the line was rebooted in 2020 with kits from non-Gundam franchises. Also in 2011, Bandai introduced the Advanced Grade (AG) line, a budget line that focuses more on the arrangement of colored parts, thus sacrificing more articulation than the previous budget lines. The AG line incorporates a microchip that enables collectors to use the kit in the Gage-ing arcade game. In 2014, as part of the 35th anniversary celebration of Gundam, Bandai released the MG RX-78-2 Gundam ver. 3.0, which incorporates the engineering techniques used in the MG 2.0 and RG kits. In 2015, Bandai introduced a sub-line of the HG called "HG Revive", which consists of re-engineered 1:144 scale kits of the RX-78-2 Gundam and other classic mobile suit designs. From late 2016 onwards, every Bandai produced model kit, including Gunpla, were made with Japanese and English text on the box and manuals. In 2017, Bandai began the Gundam Evolution Project, which sought to improve Gunpla technology with various groundbreaking kits, such as the adoption of a new joint system or a new LED system for large-scale kits. This was in preparation for the 40th anniversary of Gunpla in 2020. == Assembly == Gundam model kits come in many varieties, but the majority made from the late 80s on - standard "plastic" kits - are manufactured and assembled similarly. Kits come as a collection of plastic parts, decals, and sometimes other decorative accessories which the purchaser assembles by hand into the finished model. The plastic parts are delivered in the exact form they exit the injection molding machine, on a "sprue tree" - a grid of interconnecting plastic rods, called runners, created by the channels in the mold that carried the molten plastic into the cavities that create each part. Each part is connected to the runners by a small plastic nub called a "gate" where the runner connected to the cavity. The kit builder must cut away this excess plastic - e.g. with a pair of side cutting pliers - to free each part, then (optionally, but usually) clip, carve or sand away the remaining plastic tip where the gates attached to leave a clean surface. Once the parts have been freed, the builder must then snap them together to assemble the model. Early kits required glue, but from the late 80s onward all kits assemble without special tools or materials. Some kits use an internal frame - a complete "skeleton," fully articulated and able to stand on its own - to which panels are then attached to finish the appearance of the mecha. === Customization === When it comes time to assemble the panels making up the external appearance of the model, the builder may choose to customize the model in a wide variety of ways. The most basic is simply to paint the model, which allows for a large amount of personal creativity. Applying decals is also a common technique - decals are included with most models, but are also available as separate products for customization. Every conceivable modification is possible, with some more common options including: Panel lining: Many models have grooves where "panels" meet. Applying paint or ink with a fine tipped brush or pen can make these lines "pop" Panel line scribing: If the panel lines on a model are not as deep as the builder would like, they can use a knife to deepen them, or create new ones, using a ruler or custom stencil. Weathering: A variety of paint and plastic etching and carving techniques can make the model appear worn or battle-damaged, exposing simulated metal beneath the surface of an actual mobile suit's paint. Kitbashing: Kitbashes combine parts from multiple kits to create a unique new model. This technique has been used by employees at Hasbro to create prototypes of planned releases. Conversion kits: Conversion kits are (often) third-party products, usually made of thermoset resin, which can be attached (usually glued) to an official Bandai model to convert it into another model using the original as a base. Bandai used to release official conversion kits under their B-Club brand name. Custom parts: At the extreme end, a skilled builder can create additional parts completely from scratch to add detail to the model. these can be purely aesthetic, enhance the articulation of a model, or introduce new gimmicks to a kit. All of these are optional, and the model can be assembled and displayed using nothing more than a side-cutter. Most models, once assembled, are poseable to some degree. Many are "fully poseable," with a wide latitude of motion. To help hold models in "dynamic" poses, Gunpla can be mounted on a stand, with some recent models having a dedicated attachment point for this purpose. Gunpla kit assembly == Design == Over the decades, Gundam plastic models have been available in many forms, with many levels of intricacy and functionality, from immobile display units that are static once assembled, to fully poseable, highly articulated models with interchangeable parts (weapons, shields, etc.) and complex mechanical engineering. All parts fit together with a variety of glueless, toolless joints, such as ball-and-socket pivots, or posts on one component that fit tightly into holes on another. While models are designed to be posed for display, these joints are not intended to hold up to action figure-style play; even during gentle pose adjustments, it is possible for parts to come loose and need to be pushed back together. Components are made of plastic materials selected to fit the needs of each part. A given unit, like a foot or leg, may use parts made of multiple different materials. Bandai casts colored pigment into each part to provide a basic color scheme for the finished model, so the builder does not need to paint it if undesired. The picture above illustrates the detail level of a higher end (Real Grade, 2011) model. This is one part of the model's "foot", less than an inch across, which not only has many details in a very small component, but is built around a very small doubly-articulated hinge. The fully assembled leg unit uses many more parts which allow it to bend at two major joints, and also has trim panels which slide apart as the leg is bent to allow the motion. == Materials == Gundam model kits can be made of several materials. === Plastic === The typical mass-market kit is made from thermoplastics, such as ABS, polypropylene or polystyrene. These are referred to in the community simply as "plastic" models, and use the snap-fit assembly method described in this article. Plastic Gundam model kits are manufactured in Japan or China by Bandai, which has an exclusive license in manufacturing and marketing them around the world. === Resin === A less common type, known as a garage kit or resin kit, is made from a thermoset resin, typically polyurethane, often simply referred to as "resin." These are not assembled with the snap-fit approach, and the builder must assemble them with glue. Many other assertions of this article will also not apply to resin kits, since they make up a very small minority of the product line. Garage kits were originally made by amateur or small-scale manufacturers (hence the name,) a cottage industry that predates Gunpla, but Bandai has released some first-party Gundam resin kits under a separate marque, B-Club. These models are made of unpainted resin with no decals provided and often require touch-up work by the builder due to the inherent limitations of the manufacturing process. While comparably more expensive (some surpassing $400) and more complex to assemble compared to plastic kits, they offer higher detail for the dedicated and experienced model builder. === Non-plastic === A few select kits have also been manufactured from metal. These kits are offered by several different manufacturers and most commonly will result in a finished model of about MG level. These types of models usually take days to build. == Scale == As with hobby models based on real-world military equipment, Gundam models are intended to be "scaled down" replicas of realistic designs, based on the dimensions given in the fiction. These scales are given in terms of the ratio of actual model size to the size the machine would have if it were actually built. 1:60, for instance, means that every inch of the models height is equivalent to 60 inches of the machines height if it was real. Generally, finished model heights range from 4~5 inches for small-scale models, 6~8 inches for mid-scale models, and 12 inches for large-scale models. Common scales, and the grades typically associated with them, include: == Grades == Bandai uses a naming convention called grade to denote its scale and detail, with 4 main model lines and several spinoff lines. Each line evolves with improved modelmaking technology over time, so a High Grade kit released in the 2020s will trounce the 2000s releases. In addition, singular Mobile Suits will be released in multiple lines several times with new designs. For example, the RX-78-2 Gundam has releases in almost every model line, commemorating the anniversary of the series and to display new technology. With minor exceptions such as plastic mold damage, Gunpla kits are almost never officially discontinued. === Original / No Grade / First Grade (FG) (various scales) === The original 1980 line of Gundam models does not have an associated grade, since this terminology was not introduced until 1990. These kits are limited in articulation, some require glue to assemble, and they must be painted for a correct appearance. Model Kits released to coincide with a show or movie usually that did not have a grade associated with them are generally referred to as No Grade kits. These were released in 1/144, 1/100, or 1/60 scale (some 1/100 models used the High Grade name on their boxes). After the adoption of the grade nomenclature, Bandai rereleased the designs of the RX-78-2 and Zaku II with minimal updates as First Grade (FG) starting in 1999. Four mobile suits from Gundam 00 were also given First Grade Models, with limited color separation. Reissues of the original 1980 line are sometimes referred to as the Best Mecha Collection (BMC). For the 45th Anniversary of Gundam in 2024, a modern remake of the original RX-78-2 kit was released in October, called the BMC Revival version, which now features modern Gunpla techniques such as color separation and snap-fit parts while retaining its limited articulation. === High Grade / HG (1/144) === HG models were introduced in 1990. The original kits featured full snap-fit assembly, an articulated internal frame (for the first two kits, which provides better range of motion and is more poseable), and utilized the molding technique known as System Injection, wherein multiple colors would be cast on the same part. In 1999, the High Grade Universal Century Line was introduced, which collected mobile suits from the Universal Century Timeline. In 2010, the line was expanded to include mobile suits from Future Century, After Colony, After War, Correct Century, and Cosmic Era, and Gundam series that did not fit in those timeline (Like Gundam AGE or Iron Blooded Orphans) received their own HG lines. In 2015, HG Revive, a subline within the HGUC line was introduced, which gave older HGUC kits redesigns that adhered to modern HG standards in terms of detail and articulation. The High Grade line is not exclusive to Gundam, as other mecha series, such as Mazinger, Kyoukai Senki, and Evangelion receiving HG kits of their own. HG Amplified IMGN was a subline introduced in 2022, which redesigned smaller robots (namely those from the Wataru series) with more humanoid proportions. A vast majority of HGs use polycaps, but Bandai has started to abandon the technology with the release of Witch From Mercury and Gundam SEED Freedom kits for better stability. === Real Grade / RG (1/144) === In 2010, Real Grade (RG) was released to celebrate the 30th anniversary of Gunpla. Real Grade kits are differentiated from HG kits by a number of features previously found only in larger scale kits, including near perfect color accuracy without the use of color-correcting stickers, a full inner frame, high part counts, advanced articulation, and extensive decals. These kits have also been redesigned to appear more "realistic" by adding additional surface detail, color separation and mechanical detail. Most RG kits use a technology called the Advanced MS Joint, where the inner frame for the chest, arms, legs, and feet are prebuilt and fully articulated, requiring the other parts to be attached to it. The rubbery nature of the prebuilt parts leads to the model deteriorating in stability if too much weight is put on the prebuilt parts. Later RG kits use the more stable Advanced MS Framework that combines limited use of prebuilt parts alongside traditional inner frame technology, or use the MS Joints exclusively in lightweight areas such as accessories or weapons. For the 45th Anniversary of Gundam in 2024, the RX-78-2 Gundam Ver.2.0 was announced for August 2024, with a focus on realistic inner frame detailing and high articulation. It is also the first kit to abandon the MS Joint technology altogether. The Real Grade line has also hosted mechas from Neon Genesis Evangelion and The King of Braves Gaogaigar. These do not use MS joints and emphasize other aspects of their design (The Evangelions use a universal inner frame and high color separation and the Gaogaigar features a complex combining design) === Master Grade / MG (1/100) === MG models were first introduced in the summer of 1995, designed and made to higher standards than most other models. These kits take longer to construct and are often more expensive than their lower-grade counterparts. More recent Master Grade plastic models typically feature a movable inner frame system which enables extensive movement and bending of joints, as well as including standing and seating miniature figures of the pilots of each Gundam model. Beginning in 2005 with the Zeta Gundam and Gundam Mk-II, Older MG Kits would be redesigned under the Ver.2.0 moniker with features such as improved articulation and a full inner frame. The RX-78-2 Gundam has had multiple MG iterations, including a Ver.1.5 that uses a mix of old and new parts, a Ver.2.0 that is more faithful to the original anime, a Ver.3.0 that is modeled after the life size statue similar to the Real Grade version, a version based on its appearance in Gundam The Origin, as well as a Ver.Ka and Ver.OYW (One Year War) version released to coincide with the video game of the same name. The Master Grade line is not Gundam exclusive as a few Master Grade offerings have come from mechas in Patlabor and Dunbine. Bandai also released a line featuring a series of character figures from Dragon Ball Z, Kamen Rider, and Tiger & Bunny under the name of MG Figure-rise. ==== Ver. Ka ==== In 2002, a new line of Master Grade kits subtitled "Ver. Ka" was released, which are Master Grades (re)designed by mecha designer Hajime Katoki. Mobile suits chosen to become Ver. Ka kits are chosen by annual fan votes. Ver. Ka kits are known for their highly realistic and complex gimmicks and designs, as well as an abundance of decals. ==== Extreme ==== In 2020 a new line, Master Grade Extreme (abbreviated as MGEX), released as luxury-grade redesigns of Master Grades that contained additional gimmicks, called "Extreme Points", that exaggerate and amplify key appeals of the featured mobile suit. The first model kit of this line, the Unicorn Gundam Ver. Ka, contained an LED light strip that ran across the mobile suit, changing colors between the normal Unicorn and Destroy Mode. The second, Strike Freedom Gundam, released in November 2022 and uses metallic coated and plated parts for the inner frame, as well as the highest amount of joint part interactivity. === Perfect Grade / PG (1/60) === PG is the highest grade line of Bandai kits. The first PG Gunpla kit was a RX 78-2 Gundam model released in 1998, but an Evangelion Unit-01 kit labeled as Perfect Grade released the year prior. Only 19 kits have been released as 1/60 Perfect Grade since then. A Perfect Grade Millennium Falcon kit released in 2017 and was 1/72 scale instead of 1/60 scale. The first PG Unleashed kit was a RX 78-2 Gundam model released in December 2020. As the name suggests, Perfect Grade Gunpla kits attempt to represent the Gundam as perfectly as possible within real world and design limitations. These limitations result in the Perfect Grade line sometimes taking several years between releases to wait for advances in model making technology. Perfect Grade Unleashed is an updated version of Perfect Grade that uses more advanced technology and concepts, such as the return of Advanced MS Joints, the use of LEDs, hard plastic stickers and metallic etched parts, multiple points of articulation in the same limb, and the Evolution Link System, where the construction is separated into multiple phases (starts with the bare inner frame, then the extra detail within the frame with metallic parts, then the armor attached to the frame) to simulate building a real mecha, with the final phase displaying the detail of the inner frame using multiple hatches. Features like metal joints, increased detail in plastic molding and plastic quality, opening hatch gimmicks, as well as LED lighting kits are signatures of the PG line. === Other lines === ==== Super Deformed / SD ==== Not based on any particular scale, the super-deformed style features comically proportioned models, the most noticeable features of which are their very large heads. Super Deformed Gundam kits are often very easy to construct and contain original gimmicks but offer very limited articulation and require paint and detailing. The most famous line is BB Senshi (BB Warriors in English), which ran from 1987 to 2018. Various other SD gundam lines have run alongside and replaced it, including: SD G Generation (1999–2002), based on the game series of the same name. Early SDGG kits were rereleases of old SDBB kits with new parts. SD EX-Standard (2015–2017, 2020-), which feature simplistic assembly and contain a gimmick where weapons can be combined and used with most HG kits. SD Cross Silhouette (2018–2020, 2023-), which uses a simple inner frame for better articulation and contains mecha from Mazinger and Gaogaigar. SD Gundam Force, SD Gundam Sangokuden Brave Battle Warriors, SD Gundam World Sangoku Soketsuden and SD Gundam World Heroes (2004, 2010–2011, 2019–2020, 2021-), based on their corresponding series. Master Grade SD (2023-), a line that is similar to a Master Grade in terms of detail and articulation, while still keeping the Super Deformed designs. ==== Entry Grade (EG) ==== In 2011, Bandai released the Entry Grade (EG) line in Southeast Asia. Originally manufactured in China, the EG line contained fewer parts than the FG kits, thus having very limited articulation. Only four Gundams were released in the line. Bandai later rebooted the Entry Grade line in 2020 to be released worldwide. While most releases were static figurines from other franchises, the RX-78-2 Gundam was the starting Gundam model, with the kit having articulation and proportions similar to the High Grade kits and advanced color separated parts without the need of stickers or tools (for example, the silhouette in the eye that would normally be a sticker is done through shadow). ==== Gunpla-Kun ==== A smaller line beginning in 2023 as part of the Fun to Build GUNPLA campaign. The models can be assembled as a figure or on a faux runner for display. Gunpla-kun demonstrated the use of Limestone-based LIMEX plastic while the event-exclusive Zakupla-kun used plastic made from green tea leaves. The latter was released later using standard plastic in 2025. ==== 1/100 Full Mechanics ==== A 1/100 scale model line focusing on replicating surface detail and complex "gimmick points" without the use of an inner frame like Master Grades. The line debuted in 2016 to coincide with the second season of Iron-Blooded Orphans before relaunching in 2021 with suits from Mobile Suit Gundam SEED and The Witch From Mercury. ==== Figure Rise Standard ==== A line of character figure model kits primarily focused on various anime, manga, and tokusatsu hero franchises like Dragon Ball, Ultraman, and Kamen Rider. The line also features characters owned by Bandai Namco, including human characters from the Gundam franchise. ==== Option Parts Set ==== A 1/144 scale accessory line consisting primarily of rereleases of older accessories under a new label, with new releases being designed to attach to most modern 1/144 scale kits. ==== Minipla ==== Bandai's Shokugan division of candy toys releases Minipla models for combining mecha in the Super Sentai series. Each part of the mecha is sold in an individual box, or a full set can be purchased by individuals and vendors. Super Minipla (later renamed Shokugan Modeling Project and abbreviated as SMP) is a line containing higher-quality redesigns of older Super Sentai Models as well as combining mecha from other series. ==== Action Bases ==== A line of display bases that allow a Gundam model to be displayed in mid-air poses. 8 variations of the Action Base, meant for 1/144 scale, 1/100 scale, and SD kits have been released since 2006, and some models will have an action base included, although it is uncommon. With the exception of weight considerations, there is no strict rule as to what base can be used as long as it fits within the included adapter or x-millimeter peg on the bottom of most models. === Inactive Model Lines === Mega Size Model was a line released in 2010 to commemorate the franchises' 30th anniversary. The line was released in 1/48 scale, 3 times the size of their High Grade counterparts, and included simplified building techniques such as a parts separator and joint parts that can be connected without removing them from the runner. They also come with water decals and guides on customizing finished models. 5 suits were released throughout 2010 and 2011, with a Unicorn Gundam model being released in 2017. Iropla was released in 1983 as a budget line. 4 kits were released in 1/250 scale and it was the first to use multi-colored runners for better color separation. Haropla is a line of model kits based on Haro, a robot helper that appears in various Gundam timelines. Speed Grade uses a scale of 1:200 and had parts prepainted on the runners. Advanced Grade, released to coincide with Gundam AGE, had limited articulation (restricted to the head and shoulders) and came with microchips and trading cards for use with a Gundam AGE arcade game. Gundam Collection is a line of 1/400 scale battleships and mobile armors released between 2003 and 2007 alongside a blind box figure line, utilizing painted parts instead of color molding. High Grade Mechanics was a 1/550 scale line depicting 3 mobile armors from Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory. EX Model is a line depicting support units in 1/144 and 1/100 scale and battleships in 1/1700 scale. These are similar to traditional vehicle models, requiring paint and glue for a complete appearance. This series is not Gundam-exclusive, having models from other series including Sentō Yōsei Yukikaze, Patlabor, and Batman. HI-Resolution Models are 1/100 scale and, in addition to redesigning the mobile suit, included a pre-built inner frame similar to an action figure. Hyper Hybrid Models (HY2Ms) include 1/100 scale Gundam heads modified to incorporate LED units or 1/60 scale models that have LED units across the body and require knowledge on electronics to make. Reborn 1/100 kits are 1/100 scale and cover more obscure mobile suits and those that would be too large to make into a standard MG model. As such, these kits are less complicated than a typical MG kit. Universal Century HardGraph (UCHG) was a 1/35 scale line focusing on military vehicles and dioramas that would be seen during the One Year War. Some releases include to-scale mecha parts, such as a Zaku head or a severed GM arm. The High Grade UC Hardgraph subline features 1/144 scale mobile suits and vehicle models. === 30 Minutes Label === A non-Gundam line that began in 2019, the 30 Minutes Label focuses on easy-to-build, highly customizable model kits. The line gets its name from its assembly system that enables modelers to complete the kit in as fast as 30 minutes. In addition to simplified joint structure allowing for the combination of multiple kits, the armor includes various 3mm holes to allow the use of multiple different weapon and armor sets. The 30 Minutes Label consists of four lines: 30 Minutes Missions (2019), focusing on original mecha called ExAMACS, as well as mecha from Armored Core VI: Fires of Rubicon 30 Minutes Sisters (2021), focusing on customizable mecha girls 30 Minutes Fantasy (2024), focusing on medieval and knight-themed figures 30 Minutes Preference (2025), focusing on licensed anime not owned by Bandai, with the first releases featuring characters from Bocchi the Rock! == Hobby == Gundam model building as a hobby is a worldwide phenomenon. Participation ranges from simply assembling kits as sold, to mild personalization with paint and decals, to creating nearly original works with parts from multiple kits, additional custom-made components and in-depth, highly detailed multi-layer paint jobs. Like any hobby, Gunpla building can be extremely involved and expensive, but with model kits starting at less than US$20 and requiring no special tools or materials, barrier to entry is low. Some hobbyists build dioramas around finished models using techniques shared with other miniature model-based hobbies such as model railroading and wargaming. A diorama could depict a mecha in combat, undergoing maintenance or even destroyed on the battlefield. Bandai holds an annual international contest, Gunpla Builders World Cup, in at least 16 countries. Winners are awarded trophies and model kits. == Model series == Gundam models are divided into series according to the media they are derived from. Since 1999, the High Grade series uses various names to separate them from line to line. High Grade Universal Century (HGUC) refers to units that appear from Mobile Suit Gundam to Mobile Suit Victory Gundam and the series that are released in between. In 2010, this was expanded to include other series, under the lines: High Grade After Colony (HGAC) High Grade After War (HGAW) High Grade Future Century (HGFC) High Grade Correct Century (HGCC) High Grade Cosmic Era (HGCE) Models from Mobile Suit Gundam SEED/Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny, Mobile Suit Gundam 00, as well as from any Gundam series that released after 2010 released under these sublines: High Grade Gundam SEED (HG Gundam SEED) High Grade Gundam 00 (HG Gundam 00) High Grade Gundam AGE (HG Gundam AGE) High Grade Reconguista in G (HG Reconguista in G) High Grade Gundam Thunderbolt (HGGT) High Grade Gundam The Origin (HG The Origin or HGGTO) High Grade Iron Blooded Orphans (HGIBO) High Grade The Witch From Mercury (HGTWFM) High Grade GQuuuuuuX (HGGQ) Four sub lines were also introduced to celebrate the release of Gundam Build Fighters, Gundam Build Fighters Try, Gundam Build Divers and Gundam Build Divers Re:Rise: High Grade Build Fighters (HGBF) High Grade Build Custom (HGBC) High Grade Build Divers (HGBD) High Grade Build Divers Re:RISE (HGBD:R) == Gundam FIX Figuration == The Gundam FIX Figuration (aka G.F.F.) series of collectible figures was started based on the Gundam mechanical designs of Hajime Katoki and his 'Gundam FIX' illustration artbook and are released by Tamashii Nations, a Bandai's characters based toys line. These figures share similar features as those found in the MSiA series, but are considerably more detailed and often include more accessories. Changeable parts and variant models are often utilized throughout the line, offering the collector a wide variety of display abilities. The collectible figures use PVC (with some ABS plastic) for construction materials, and a recently introduced expansion to the line use metal in the skeleton of the figure. Gundam FIX figures are designed to be true to Hajime Katoki's vision, and as such often adopt design elements and styling found throughout his artwork. The Fix series caters to Gundam fans who enjoy the scale, possibility and durability of the MSiA line, but seek the extensive details and variations that can often only be found in the Master Grade Gundam model-kits. The G.F.F. line does carry a higher price than the MSIA and MSIA Extended lines, which can represent a concern for some collectors. However, overall the G.F.F. represent a more "high-end" line of collectibles, which often contain better detail, more accessories, and the option to build multiple variations in the same box. As the series has progressed, G.F.F. collectibles have been improved. Changes include sharper-more precise part casting resulting in better detail, improved articulation, and improved durability. === G.F.F.N. === The G.F.F.N. line up is a significantly better than the old G.F.F. series, though usually sporting a considerably higher price due to materials, production and shipping. The quality has improved thanks to a new durable plastic that is distinctively reminiscent to the Gundam Model plastic (HG, HGUC, MG, PG) thus replacing the resin that shrank while curing. There is also little, or no casting lines, professionally cast heads, and considerably less of the brittle gray-ish plastic that plagued the G.F.F. series. Rubber is now being used sparsely, often to be used for the hands to allow ease of swapping weapons or spare hands without breaking or warping the joint socket. There are very few toys in the line-up, with some costing between $70–$150 or more (the price of a Perfect Grade, or large Master Grade.) Bandai also created similar toy lines: G.F.F. Metal Composite - a spin-off of the G.F.F series utilizing injection-molded ABS plastic and die-cast metal. Zeonography - a spin-off of the G.F.F series that showcases mobile suits from the Zeon forces. Cosmic Region - high-quality line of mobile suits, similar to G.F.F., that appear in Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny. 00 (Double O) Region - high-quality line of mobile suits, similar to G.F.F., that appear in Mobile Suit Gundam 00. G.F.F.N - Gundam Fix Figuration Next, '004X' Series utilizing metallic parts, slightly larger scale, better quality paint job and markings. The first figure is a re-release of the #0030 MSZ-008 Zeta II, released March 2009. K.F.F (Keroro Fix Figuration) - a spinoff lines features characters in Sgt. Frog (which the series itself plays much parody towards Gundam series) with original mechas designed by Hajime Katoki. As being a parody, the boxart sticks as much what as the original G.F.F. is. == Special editions == Over the years, Bandai releases special limited editions of various kits, usually as competition (such as the yearly Bandai Action Kits Asia (now Universal) Cup held in Hong Kong) prizes, or as an event-limited (such as Japanese toy expos, movie launch premieres) item, although sometimes these kits are sold as limited web-shop items or discreetly sold by Bandai. These kits usually come in clear plastic, metal-plated (certain kits are in so-called 24-k gold finish), "gloss-finish", "pearl-finish", "titanium-finish", or any combination of these. Their prices are usually much higher than their regular-release counterparts. == Display-only models == For trade shows and toy fairs, Bandai displays some extremely large models in 1:6 or 1:12 scale. True to the scaling, some of these models are well over 5 feet (1.50 m) tall. Although most of these are one off promotional models used for display purposes, Bandai has produced a few of these for commercial purposes under their HY2M line. Notably, these are MS-06S "Zaku II Commander Type" (Char Aznable custom), which is now out of production, and the RX-78-2 "Gundam". These generally retail for approximately $2,000 and are intended to be sold primarily to store owners as display fronts. As part of the 30th Anniversary of the Gundam series, the company officially announced a project on March 11, 2009, called Real-G planning to build a 1:1 real size scale Gundam in Japan, it was completed on June 9, 2009, and displayed in a Tokyo park. The 18-meter tall statue was later moved and reconstructed in Shizuoka City, where it stayed from July 2010 to March 2011 when in August it was dismantled only to reopen in Odaiba, Tokyo on April 19, 2012. It stood in front of a gift shop, "Gundam Front Tokyo", until 2017 when it was replaced by the titular mobile suit of Mobile Suit Gundam Unicorn. == Chinese copy controversy == In April 2010, Bandai sued two Chinese toy manufacturers for manufacturing and selling counterfeit Gunpla kits. The lawsuit states that Bandai demands 3.69 million RMB (roughly US$540,000) compensation from the companies. Bootleg Gunpla companies include Daban, TT Hongli, Model GD, Elyn Hobby, and Dragon Momoko. == In popular culture == Four Gundam Media series titles focus primarily on Gunpla kits: Plamo-Kyoshiro (1982), Model Suit Gunpla Builders Beginning G (2010), and Gundam Build Fighters (2013) and its sequel Gundam Build Fighters Try (2014) and later the spiritual successor Gundam Build Divers (2018) as well as its sequel series, Gundam Build Divers Re:Rise (2019–2020). In the manga/anime series Sgt. Frog, an addiction to Gundam models is the only thing stopping Keroro from invading Earth, since he reasons that if the Keronians invade Earth, all of the Gundam models will be destroyed, and there will be no one to make new ones. He loves the models so much, if any harm comes to them, he will react violently (such as going Super Saiyan). He is prepared for such events, though, since he keeps spare kits in the Hinata family's attic. Because the anime is made by Sunrise (the makers of the Gundam anime), and because Bandai is the show's primary sponsor, the show is able to refer to Gundam models directly without legal issues. In the manga/anime series Genshiken, Soichiro Tanaka teaches Kanako Ohno and Kanji Sasahara how to build Gundam models in Chapter 13 (adapted as episode 8 of the anime, where the pseudonym "Gungal" is used). Saki Kasukabe accidentally breaks Ohno's model and has to make it up to her by doing cosplay. == See also == Gundam Mobile Suit Gundam Gundam (fictional robot) == Notes == == References == == External links == Bandai Hobby Site (in Japanese) Bandai Hobby Site (in English) Bandai Action Kits Universal Cup (BAKUC) Online Competition (in English) Tamashii Web (in Japanese) - Official Gundam fix figuration series website.	Wikipedia/Gundam_model
Model military vehicles are miniature versions of military vehicles. They range in size and complexity; from simplified small-scale models for wargaming, to large, super-detailed renditions of specific real-life vehicles. == Scales == The 'scale' is the proportion of actual size the replica or model represents. Scale is usually expressed as a ratio (e.g. '1:35') or as a fraction (e.g. '1/35'). In either case it conveys the notion that the replica or model is accurately scaled in all visible proportions from a full-size prototype object. Thus a 1:35 scale model tank is 1/35 the size of the actual vehicle upon which the model is based. Models generally make no attempt to replicate scale weight, only size. The most popular scales, by far, are 1:35 and 1:72. Other less-commonly used scales for commercially produced kits include: 1:1, 1:6, 1:9 ("Traditional" scale), 1:12, 1:16 (RC tanks, scale model kits), 1:24, 1:25, 1:30, 1:32, 1:48, 1:50, 1:64, 1:87 (railroad HO scale), 1:144, 1:250, 1:285, 1:300, and 1:350. A relatively recent trend led by Tamiya is military vehicle kits in 1:48 scale – a popular scale for military aircraft models. The scale was formerly introduced by companies such as Aurora, and Bandai in the 1970s. However, the scale did not gain popularity mostly because of the accuracy and detail of the scale. Scratchbuilt models may be in any scale but tend to follow the most popular kit scales due to the ease of finding kit components which may be used in the scratchbuilt model. Larger-scale models tend to incorporate higher levels of detail, but even smaller-scale models may be quite intricate. == Subjects == Military vehicle modelers build a wide variety of models. Tanks and other armored fighting vehicles are the most popular subjects at model contests. Modelers also build ordnance, military trucks, tractors, half-tracks, artillery, and lighter vehicles such as jeeps and motorcycles. Models may be displayed in stand-alone mode, that is, with no base, or on a decorative base, often with a label of some kind. More elaborate bases may include scale scenery, intended to depict the setting in which the vehicle served. This trends towards the closely related hobby of diorama building. Modelers tend to focus on vehicles from three eras: World War I, World War II, and the modern era. The first denotes armored vehicles from their inception into combat during the first World War until approximately 1939. Many vehicles of this time period may be considered to be experimental and few made major contributions to the few battles in which they took part. Models depicting vehicles from the World War I era and the following interwar years are not as numerous as their later world war counterparts, but this is beginning to change in recent years. As of the centenary of the start of World War I, more manufacturers have begun to release kits World War I and interwar subjects: Takom releasing a range of British tanks such as the Mark I and Whippet; Meng providing two variants of the FT-17 and the German A7V and Hobbyboss releasing an interwar Vickers Medium Mark II are all examples of this. Vehicles used between 1939 and 1945 fall into the World War II category. Even though this era spans the shortest number of years, it is by far the most popular for armor modelers due to the enormous range of vehicles used and the vast improvements in armor technology. During the early part of the war, most armored vehicles were smaller, less heavily armored, and lightly armed. Major tank engagements early on convinced governments on all sides of the need for more survivable and deadlier vehicles. This means that there is a large variety of different subjects which were designed to fulfil different roles under different doctrines. Any vehicle serving in a setting after 1945 is considered "modern." This encompasses a longer time span and very large number of armor designs from many countries. Models may also be categorized by place of service, for example, US or Soviet. They may also be categorized by function, for example, combat engineering vehicles, recovery vehicles, etc. In all cases, the national and unit markings on the replica determine the era and user nationality. For example, a model of a Sherman tank, a World War II design, would be considered a 'modern' model if the tank were shown in Israeli markings from the Six-Day War. The same vehicle in World War II US Army markings would be considered a World War II Allied subject. Models are generally built with historical accuracy in mind, and each model may represent many hours of research effort on the part of the modeler. Frequently, modelers display some of their research work alongside their model. There is generally some crossover of modelers between the eras, though some focus solely on a specific era, country of origin or operation, or even on a specific vehicle and its variants. == Models and model kits == === Kits === Models are usually assembled from commercial kits (for exceptions see below). Typically, a model kit consists of a set of parts, instructions for their assembly, and a small sheet of markings in decal form. Parts are produced by injection of liquid styrene plastic under very high pressure into complex steel molds. These molds are generally composed of two-halves that sandwich the parts; however, 'slide molds' may consist of many steel components to allow greater levels of detail to be incorporated into a single sprue. Once the plastic cools, it is removed from the mold. In the 1960s and 1970s, typical vehicle kits might contain 50 to 200 individual parts. Today it is common for a single vehicle kit to contain from 300 to 1200 parts. Each part must be carefully cut from the 'sprue' (the plastic channels that allow the plastic to flow into the mold and which hold the parts in place), cleaned of any flaws or mold marks, and then assembled. Instructions consist of paper booklets or sheets supplied with each kit. Usually, instructions show drawings of the parts. A recent trend has been the use of photographs rather than drawings, but these types of instructions have not proven popular and may be declining in use. For a kit with hundreds of parts, good instructions are vital. Flaws in instructions are not uncommon. Markings for the model usually are provided as decals. Several companies produce armor model kits, the most famous of which are Airfix, Dragon Models Limited, Tamiya, Trumpeter, Academy, Hobby Fan, Italeri, Revell-Germany/Monogram and AFV Club. The focus of many manufacturers of late has been to increase the accuracy of their kits and provide alternative types of material such as photo etch details and turned metal barrels. === Models === Completed models can be categorized generally into three classes: kits built 'out of the box', customized kits, and scratchbuilt models. ==== "Out of the box" models ==== Models built 'out of the box' are built according to kit instructions, using no materials except those provided in the kit itself. In the past, there was some tendency to view 'out of the box' builds as simpler or of a lower standard of detail than modified kits (see below). However, recent trends in which kits contain over 1,000 individual pieces including parts from plastic, etched brass, and aluminum have given new meaning to the 'out of the box' build. Today, a stock kit can be very highly detailed. ==== Customized models ==== Customized kits are typically built by more experienced modelers who take a kit and add components, either scratchbuilt or commercial conversion or aftermarket accessories. Such models may be more highly detailed than a straight build 'out of the box' though the trend to more detailed kits is decreasing the difference. The term 'kitbashing' denotes models built using parts from more than one kit to make a single, more accurate or different model. Many armor modelers engage in the use of aftermarket sets and built from scratch (scratchbuilt) parts to make their models more accurate or simply unique. In extreme, master-level cases, a model with hundreds of kit components may be detailed with several hundred additional commercial and home-fabricated parts to reach a very high level of realism. ==== Scratchbuilt models ==== Scratchbuilt models are those for which no kit exists; highly skilled modelers create their vehicle from sheet plastic and components they fabricate themselves. Some scratchbuilt models may contain a few commercial components, but typically it is a small proportion of all the model's parts. Scratchbuilt models may also be made from brass and aluminum, cast in pewter (a low temp metal) and cast with 2-part resins in molds made of RTV rubber material. A scratchbuilding modeler should possess talents in the following areas: soldering, gluing, drilling, taping, grinding, sanding, cutting & shaping in metals and plastics, creating RTV molds (1,2 & 3 part types), painting & weathering, research of prototype material, casting in low temp metals, creating sketches and diagrams of what is being made, measuring in inches or millimeters, use of calipers and other specialized tools. === Aftermarket === "Aftermarket" denotes any kit or detail set that is sold to replace existing kit parts in order to reproduce a more accurate model or simply a different version not otherwise available. The media used by aftermarket companies range from turned aluminum and brass, photo-etched steel or brass sheets, pre-bent brass wire, cast metals, and resin. Notable aftermarket companies include Formations, The Tank Workshop, Tank, Azimut, Eduard, Verlinden, Friulmodel, Legend, and Modelkasten. Aftermarket markings are also available. Firms such as Archer Dry Transfers or Decalomaniacs produce stand-alone sheets of wet or dry transfer markings to allow the modeler to complete a different or more accurate variant. Enthusiasts may pursue military vehicle modeling in its own right or as an adjunct to other military modeling. There is also some crossover with wargaming, diorama building, and re-enacting. == Displays == Models may be displayed on their own, on a base or as part of a diorama. Many models are displayed with no base or other setting. Their wheels or track rest upon the shelf or table on which they are displayed. This display method is the easiest and cheapest, but has the disadvantage that the fragile model may be damaged when handled. A simple wooden base adds an element of protection to the model because the model itself does not need to be handled, it can be moved by handling the base. Bases may also hold a plate with some information about the model, such as its title or designation, or some historical background. This kind of bases typically consist of a frame of wood or other material. Finishes on bases range from painted plastic to stained wood to simple landscaping. The disadvantage is that the base adds expense and time to the project. A diorama is a more elaborate base with landscaping to provide a setting for the model, and often includes a story with figures. Dioramas have the same advantages and disadvantages of plain bases, but to a greater degree. Models are often displayed in competition such as the AMPS annual show, or in club displays at hobby shops and other events. == Organizations and publications == Several organizations and publications exist to support and promote the hobby of modeling military vehicles. The Armor Modeling and Preservation Society or AMPS is an 800-plus member organization devoted to the hobby. The International Plastic Modellers' Society (or IPMS) supports modelers of all types including military vehicle modelers. The Miniature Armoured Fighting Vehicle Association (MAFVA, http://www.mafva.org/) is a UK-based association. Commercial publications devoted to or including military vehicle modeling include AFVModeller, Military Miniatures in Review (MMiR), Armour Modelling, and Military Modelling. == External links == AMPS AFV modeling society Armorama.com Armor/AFV scale modeling Diecast 72 Information on 1/72 prebuilt & prepainted AFV's Missing-Lynx AFV model making, all scales ModelArmour Modeler Site Armor/AFV, cars, aircraft scale modeling Model Kits Review Focusing on builds, kit reviews, and op-ed type material related to modelling On The Way AFV model making focused on 1/72 scale planetArmor planetArmor forum ScaleModel.NET Searchable web directory of military scale model related websites around the world Scale Plastic & Rail Reviews, builds and news site. Focussed on quality reviews Small Scale AFV AFV model making focused on 1/72 and 1/76 scales Track-Link AFV model making, all scales Track 48 AFV model making focused on 1/48 scale Twenot Military model making, all scales, 1900 and after (Dutch)	Wikipedia/Model_military_vehicle
Matchstick models are scale models made from matches as a hobby. Regular matches are not used, however, but a special modeling type which do not have the combustible heads, and can be bought from art and craft shops. Though before the serial production of these, actual matches were used with heads trimmed off, or kept on to add coloured detail. == History == Originally, matchstick models were a pastime of prisoners (especially naval prisoners of war) during the 18th century. At the time, better funded modelers preferred to use more replicated parts for their models, like professionals today, and the poor couldn't afford to use up so many matches. An early pioneer in matchstick models as an art form was Australian artist Len Hughes, whose first large-scale piece was a recreation of the Battle of the Spanish Armada that included 331 replica ships. Hughes went on to open the World of Matchcraft Museum in Caloundra, Queensland, which later closed. == Construction == The matches are cut by means of a sharp knife and fixed together using glue, often being held in place by paperboard "formers" until the glue is dry. While the smallest gaps can be filled with glue, larger ones can be filled with specially carved matches. A number of hobbyists prefer to build their models from scratch. Many kits are available, consisting of instructions, pre-cut card formers and sufficient modeling matches for the project. An exceptionally large and impressive matchstick model was a scratch-built replica of Notre Dame Cathedral which included electric lights and measured over six feet in length. == Exhibitions == Gladbrook, Iowa is home to the Matchstick Marvels Museum that includes numerous models by matchstick model artist Patrick Acton. His work includes a 13-foot scale model of the USS Iowa. == Religious art from matches == Religious art from natches is a unique form of folk art practiced by several artists who specialize in crafting intricate models from matchsticks, often with a focus on Jewish religious themes. One of the notable pioneers of this art form was Hanan Weissman, a Holocaust survivor born near the border of Russia and Poland. Weissman immigrated to Israel at the age of 49 and, upon his retirement, began methodically constructing models of synagogues that were destroyed during the Holocaust—entirely out of matchsticks. Until his passing at the age of 89, Weissman built over 50 detailed models of synagogues that had been lost during the Holocaust in Europe. These include the synagogue of the town of Wadowice near Kraków; a model of the synagogue in Vileyka, near Kaunas (burned down in 1942); the synagogue in Gąbin, west of Warsaw (burned down in 1939); and the synagogue of Kopychyntsi, his birthplace near the Poland–Ukraine border, among others. Some of his works are on display at the Testimony House (Beit HaEdut) in Nir Galim, Israel. Another prominent matchstick artist is Shachar Puni, born in Israel in 1971. Puni began building matchstick models during his military service in the early 1990s. Much of his work consists of replicas of ritual Judaica objects, such as an etrog (citron) used during the festival of Sukkot, representations of the Seven Species, a Havdalah set for the conclusion of Shabbat, a scribe’s inkwell used for writing Torah scrolls. and more. == References == == External links == Video (7:07) – Matchstick Art by Patrick Acton on YouTube	Wikipedia/Matchstick_model
Roco, based in Salzburg, Austria, is a manufacturer of model railway equipment. == History == The company was founded in 1960 by Ing. Heinz Rössler and started with a plastic Minitanks series of military vehicles. After export to the USA became successful, the model line was expanded with model trains in HO scale and the smaller N scale. TT scale was also subsequently added to the product line. The model rail product line covers many European countries including Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Spain, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, Sweden and the Netherlands, and also the USA. In 1974 and 1975, Lionel HO trains were produced by Roco before starting to move production to the Far East in 1976, completing the move by 1978. Some of Lionel HO trains between 1974 and 1978 were made by Athearn. On July 15, 2005 Roco Modellspielwaren GmbH was declared bankrupt and taken over by the creditor Raiffeisenbank. After restructuring, a new company Modelleisenbahn GmbH was formed to consolidate the model railroad market. The Roco brand and associated logo continued to be used. To sharpen the focus on model railways, on October 1, 2007, the 'Minitank' product series was divested to the German model car manufacturer Herpa. In February 2008 Modelleisenbahn acquired Fleischmann from the owner family. Moving some production to lower cost factories like Slovakia and later Vietnam, the companies saw profitability again. Roco and Fleischmann continue as separate brands under Modelleisenbahn GmbH, while benefiting from economies of scale through joint development projects, marketing and procurement. == Products == From 2019 Roco is focused on HO gauge railroads, while Fleischmann is focused on N gauge railroads. Roco has also focused on innovation in digital train control for multiple gauges under the Z21 brand, where users can use iPhone/iPad/Android devices to operate railway models. With these strategies Roco/Fleischmann is the number one company in the DC railroad market segment in Europe, and number two company in the overall railroad company after Märklin which is focused on AC railroad models. Below are some examples of Roco train models. == References == == External links == Company website USA Distributor Early Roco models for the American market (in German) foto - list of famous trams made by Roco Maintaining and repairing ROCO (Model Power) E7 and E9 locomotives	Wikipedia/Roco_(model_railroads)
A die-cast toy (also spelled diecast, or die cast) is a toy or a collectible model produced by using the die-casting method of putting molten lead, zinc alloy or plastic in a mold to produce a particular shape. Such toys are made of metal, with plastic, rubber, glass, or other machined metal parts. Wholly plastic toys are made by a similar process of injection molding, but the two methods are distinct because of the properties of the materials. == Process == The metal used in die-casting is either a lead alloy (used early on), or more commonly, zamak (called Mazak in the UK), an alloy of zinc with small quantities of aluminium and copper. Lead or iron are impurities that must be carefully avoided in zamak, as they give rise to a deterioration of the metal most commonly called zinc pest. The terms white metal or pot metal are also used when applied to alloys based more on lead or iron. The most common die-cast vehicles are scale models of automobiles, aircraft, military vehicles, construction equipment, and trains, although almost anything can be produced by this method, like Monopoly game pieces, furniture handles, or metal garden sprinklers. == Industry leaders == Die-cast toys were first produced early in the 20th century by manufacturers such as Meccano (Dinky Toys) in the United Kingdom, Dowst Brothers (TootsieToys) in the United States and Fonderie de précision de Nanterre (Solido) in France. The first models on the market were basic, consisting of a small vehicle body with no interior. In the early days, as mentioned, it was common for impurities in the alloy to result in zinc pest, and the casting would distort, crack, or crumble. As a result, die-cast toys made before World War II are difficult to find in good condition. The later high-purity Zamak alloy avoided this problem. Lesney began making die-cast toys in 1947. Their popular Matchbox 1–75 series was so named because there were always 75 different vehicles in the line, each packaged in a small box designed to look like those used for matches. These toys became so popular that the "Matchbox" became widely used as a generic term for any die-cast toy car, regardless of manufacturer. The popularity of die-cast toys developed through the 1950s as their detail and quality increased. More companies entered the field, including successful brands like Corgi brand, produced by Mettoy, Italian Mercury, Danish Tekno, or German Schuco and Gama Toys. Corgi Toys appeared in 1956 and pioneered the use of interiors and windows in their models. In 1968, Hot Wheels were introduced in the United States by Mattel to address the complaint that they had no line of toys for boys to balance their line of Barbie dolls for girls. Because they looked fast and were fast (they were equipped with a low-friction wheels/axles), Hot Wheels quickly became the most popular die-cast cars in the toy market, becoming one of the world's top sellers, challenging the popularity of Matchbox. Since 2009, the Diecast Hall of Fame inducts designers, industry executives and others that have made major contributions to the industry. == Promotionals == Although advertising had been used by Meccano (Dinky Toys) since 1934, during the 1960s new companies began to use die-cast vehicles exclusively as promotional items. The idea that children play a large role in a family's purchasing decisions was key. There is also the fact that children grown up to buy products that they were exposed to when young. Matchbox vehicles mildly advertised a variety of mainly British products like Singer sewing machines, Tetley tea, Pickford's movers, or Coca-Cola. As time passed, companies such as McDonald's, Sears Roebuck, Kodak and Texaco commissioned toymakers to produce promotional models featuring their names and logos or licensed their use. One early example was an American Airlines London bus produced by Matchbox, an idea some other airlines quickly copied. Beginning in the mid-1970s, trucks and other commercial vehicles grew greatly in popularity. Matchbox started the trend when they re-launched their Models of Yesteryear range. They made a score of different versions of their Y-12 Ford Model T van, along with other trucks in colorful liveries such as Coca-Cola, Colman's Mustard, and Cerebos Salt. They also made promotional versions for Smith's Crisps (potato chips) and Harrods department store. Some models were made exclusively for certain markets and immediately became quite expensive elsewhere: Arnott's Biscuits (Australia) and Sunlight Seife (soap, Germany) are examples. Corgi copied this idea when they expanded the Corgi Classics line in the mid-1980s, producing more than 50 versions of a 1920s era Thornycroft van. Corgi also produced hundreds of versions of their 1/64 scale Routemaster bus in the 1980s and 1990s. Multitudes of versions were made to be sold exclusively in the stores advertised on the bus flanks. Harrods, Selfridges, Gamley's, Hamley's, Army & Navy, Underwood's, and Beatties were among the British stores employing this idea. A South African chain called Dion was one of the few overseas firms to follow suit. Many collectors took pleasure in the variety, but some disparaged the development as "collecting paint" as the castings were identical; only the decorations were different. In any event, it was a great cost saving measure as companies put less money into expensive casting tooling. So, by the 1980s a new trend had solidified as many die-cast vehicles were now being purchased by adults as collectibles, and not just as toys for children. Aluminium die-cast is playing a big role in automobile sectors. == Industry changes == Despite their popularity, many die-cast manufacturers went out of business in the 1980s. Meccano (Dinky), Matchbox, and Corgi all went bankrupt within a three-year span which essentially reflected the economic climate in the UK at that time. It had become virtually impossible to manufacture in England and compete on the world market. Mattel had long since shifted most of their production from the US to the Far East. Matchbox was purchased by a Hong Kong conglomerate named Universal Holdings which moved production from England to Macau. Mattel bought Matchbox in 1997, essentially making Hot Wheels and the Matchbox 1-75 line sister brands. The two brands continue to sell under their own separate names. Meanwhile, Corgi had been acquired by Mattel which moved the office from Swansea, Wales to Leicester, England and moved manufacturing to China. A new company called Oxford Diecast acquired the former Corgi factory in Swansea and commenced manufacture for themselves and Corgi. Matchbox also bought the Dinky Toys name, long after the Liverpool factory was closed. Manufacturing resumed in China. In a series of subsequent shifts, a group of Corgi executives bought back the Corgi Classics line from Mattel and portions of the Matchbox line were sold to an Australian company named Tyco (no relation to the Tyco line of HO scale trains, originally made by Mantua Metalworking in New Jersey, US). Effectively from the ashes of Matchbox's bankruptcy arose Lledo, a company created by former Matchbox partner Jack Odell. Odell believed that British collectibles for British collectors could still be profitably produced in England. Lledo took over part of the Matchbox factory in Enfield and introduced their "Models of Days Gone" line of die-cast vehicles in 1983. The first series of Days Gone models included re-makes of some of the most popular and respected first and second-generation Matchbox Models of Yesteryear. Lledo models were very popular collectibles in the 1980s, leading to a period of diversification (incl. the Vanguards line of classic post-war British vehicles), but by the 1990s they were eclipsed by other brands and in 2002 Lledo went out of business. Parts of their line were purchased by Corgi which moved production to China. Oxford Diecast developed a range of promotional stylised vehicles and maintained its manufacturing base in Swansea until 2000 when it relocated its production to a plant it owned in China. As such it was the last large scale producer of die-cast models to manufacture in the UK, although it choose to own and build its own Chinese factory rather than outsource production entirely. == A variety of different themes == In the 1970s, Japanese toymaker Popy (owned by the larger Bandai) created a line of die-cast toys based on the popular Super Robot anime series of the period. The line was named Chogokin, meaning "Super Alloy", that futuristic metal robot Mazinger Z was said to be made of. The weighty toys were meant to give kids a sense of heftiness of robots in the cartoons. In a similar manner, Popy's other line was Jumbo Machinder (known in the West as Shogun Warriors) whose metal make-up gave children the idea that their toys were made of the same stuff as the "real" robots. The line proved popular, with some figures imported to the west. In the late nineties, Bandai created the Soul of Chogokin line of adult collector figures featuring metal parts, as a callback to the original Chogokin toys, and then the smaller but similar Super Robot Chogokin line. One-seventy-sixth scale buses became very popular in Britain in the late 1980s and early 1990s, with competing lines from Corgi (the Original Omnibus Company) and Gilbow Holdings (Exclusive First Editions, or EFE) fighting for the market. The 1/76 scale fits in with British 'OO' scale model trains. By the 1990s, 1:18 scale die-cast cars became very popular in the United States, but the popularity of that scale waned approaching the millennium. By 1990 also, NASCAR stock car racing enjoyed increasing popularity in the US, and a large number of racing-related NASCAR die-cast cars and trucks, painted in the colors of the racing teams, appeared from various manufacturers. Racing Champions was a leading brand, but there were many others. Die-cast aircraft and military models also became popular. While Dinky had made aircraft decades earlier, new companies entered the field in the 1980s and 1990s. One producer was Dyna-Flytes, which went bankrupt in the 1990s, but their market share was quickly taken up by their competitors, including Schabak, GeminiJets, Herpa, and Dragon Wings. In 2005 Oxford Diecast entered the scale accurate market with range of vehicles in popular British railway scales of 1:76 and 1:148. This and a radically enhanced product in its 1:43 scale range meant the company rapidly grew sales and UK market share, becoming the dominant player within five years. Licensing agreements with BBC TV for the Top Gear programme and UK Haulier Eddie Stobart followed as they expanded into licensed product. == Model scales == Die-cast toys and models come in various scales, the most popular ones being: 1:8 scale: Extremely large and super detailed models; usually 24 in (61 cm) long; most of them are model kits, metal, and some are resin's. Companies like Pocher and Amalgam Models are produced these scales. The most of collectors who have this scale usually do not remove it from its base. 1:12 scale: Very large, also highly detailed models; usually about 14 or 15 in (36 or 38 cm) long; mainly targeted at adult collectors. These models are generally much more expensive than the 1:18 models. Many die-cast motorcycles are also produced in this scale. 1:18 scale: Large, detailed models, usually about 7 or 8 in (18 or 20 cm) long; mostly targeted at adults. Europe is the main market for these, although Asian, American and Australian companies also produce at this scale. 14+ age limit is typically written on the boxes. This scale is generally for collectors. 1:24 scale: This size became a standard among international die-cast model makers like Mebetoys and Bburago of Italy during the 1980s. Companies like Maisto and Jada Toys today also focus on this scale. Franklin Mint, Trax, and many others also use this scale. An 8+ age limit is often written on the boxes, although there are some exceptions, like Welly, which have 14+ age limit on some models. 1:25 scale: Numerically, there is little difference between 1:24 and 1:25 scale, but historically, they represent very different approaches to modelling. Plastic promotional models and kits made in the United States as early as the post-war 1940s were traditionally in 1:25 scale. 1:32 scale: Intermediate size, most common for model tractors and other agricultural vehicles; Britains has used this scale for decades, and it is also used by Ertl and Siku. Vintage car brands like Signature Models are common in 1:32 scale. 1:36 scale: Popularized by Corgi in the 1970s, a common scale for toy vehicles seen as more properly sized for youngsters – such as models from Maisto, Kinsmart and Welly. 1:34 scale: Used almost exclusively by First Gear Models of the US for their large scale die-cast trucks. 1:43 scale: The most popular scale for model cars worldwide and dating from as early as the 1930s. This scale was made popular by Dinky as compatible with O gauge model railways. This scale is the most commonly used in Britain, Europe, Japan and Australia, but less so in the US. In the 1950s and 1960s 1:43 scale models were sold more as toys while later In the US, Canada, Europe, Japan, and even South Africa, 1:43 became favored for handbuilt models in resin and white metal. It was common also for trucks, but these are often found in the more manageable 1:50 scale. 1:48 scale: Several companies produce die-cast model aircraft in 1:48 scale, which is a popular scale for plastic construction kits. Some die-cast military vehicles and model train accessories are also made in this scale. 1:50 scale: The most widely used scale for construction vehicles and for other trucks and buses. 1:55 scale: used mostly by Siku of Germany for its toy range of cars and trucks. The Disney-Pixar Cars Die-Cast Line by Mattel are nominally in this scale. 1:60 scale: the scale of the immensely popular pre- and post-war military vehicles series by Dinky Toys (including military Dinky Supertoys), and still used by many military modelers. Some Tomica products are also on this scale, mostly in Kei & Compact cars. 1:64 scale: popular for cars, farm models and American model trucks. Matchbox, Tomica (toy line), Hot Wheels, Johnny Lightning, Greenlight and model NASCAR racers are nominally this size. However, in recent years, especially companies like Kyosho, INNO Models (Inno64), TrueScale Miniatures (Mini GT), Paragon Models (Para64), POP RACE, GainCorp Products and CM's Corp have been producing ranges of highly detailed 1:64 models, including racing cars and road cars, with CM's Corp mainly producing 1:64 rally model cars. Australian models are available in this size from Biante Model Cars and some other brands. This scale is compatible with S scale model trains. French brand Spark which focus on 1:43 and 1:18 motorsport resin models, have a sister brand Sparky which has been producing highly detailed diecast 1:64 models. From day to day, this scale was most popular in Asia due to its small size and low price. 1:66 scale: Roughly a 'Matchbox' size, used most commonly by Schuco. It should be remembered though that most producers of smaller die-cast did not stick regularly to one scale – they stuck to one size – approximately 2.5 to 3 inches long, meaning trucks and sports cars were made the same size to fit in similar packaging and small hands – and not to a strict scale. 1:72 scale: usually used for military die-cast armored fighting vehicles due to compatibility with 1:72 plastic construction kits. Detailed cars produced by Real-X, Hongwell, Yat Ming, Kyosho, Epoch Co. and others. Details include glazed lights, rubber tires real paint schemes. 1:76 scale: scale popular mainly in Britain, Australia and Hong Kong for highly detailed buses and lorries such as those by EFE and Corgi OOC, and Trax Models in Australia. A major growth in this scale was caused when Oxford Diecast entered the market with a range of over 90 different cars and commercial vehicles. These models were originally intended as OO scale model railway accessories, but became collectibles in their own right. 1:87 scale: These are compatible with H0 scale model trains, and tend to be more popular in the United States and continental Europe. They are more commonly made of plastic, and German companies such as Herpa and Wiking produce wide ranges of highly detailed models in this scale. 1:148 scale: compatible with British N scale model trains, this scale has recently gained popularity in the UK due to its compact size and low-priced models from Oxford Diecast. 1:400 scale: A common scale for aircraft. 1:1200 scale: A common scale for ship models and accessories. Lines Bros. Ltd. produced an extensive range of ship models in this scale from 1959 - 1965 under the name Tri-ang Minic Ships. Meccano (Dinky Toys) aircraft were made at scales ranging from 1/122 to 1/265 and their ships from 1/1200 to 1/1985. == Accessories == Items such as toy restaurants and filling stations are sometimes sold separately from the cars, to be used as playsets. Toy raceways are also sold for use with die-cast cars, which have become more complicated in recent years, usually involving loops and complicated curves. Also produced are carry cases made specifically for children to be able to travel with their cars. == See also == Chogokin, a style of action figure made from die-cast metal that was invented in Japan Diecast Collector Magazine Diecast Hall of Fame Model car Scale model == References == Ramsay, John (1993). Catalogue of British Diecast Model Toys (5th ed.). Swapmeet Toys and Models. ISBN 0-9509319-6-9. Dujardin, Jacques (2014). Dinky Toys Encyclopædia. ISBN 978-2-7466-3115-1. == External links ==	Wikipedia/Die-cast_model
Model building is a hobby and career that involves the creation of physical models either from kits or from materials and components acquired by the builder. The kits contain several pieces that need to be assembled in order to make a final model. Most model-building categories have a range of common scales that make them manageable for the average person both to complete and display. A model is generally considered physical representations of an object and maintains accurate relationships between all of its aspects. The model building kits can be classified according to skill levels that represent the degree of difficulty for the hobbyist. These include skill level 1 with snap-together pieces that do not require glue or paint; skill level 2, which requires glue and paint; and, skill level 3 kits that include smaller and more detailed parts. Advanced skill levels 4 and 5 kits ship with components that have extra-fine details. Particularly, level 5 requires expert-level skills. == Model building as career == Model building is not exclusively a hobbyist pursuit. The complexity of assembling representations of actual objects has become a career for several people, and is heavily applicable in film making. There are, for instance, those who build models/props to commemorate historic events, employed to construct models using past events as a basis to predict future events of high commercial interest. == The categories of modelling include == Scale model building Live steam models Model engineering Matchstick models Military models Model aircraft Model cars Model construction vehicles Building models Architectural models Model figures Model military vehicles Rail transport modelling Model rockets Ship models Freelance model Cardboard engineering Firearm models (such as Airsoft guns) Gundam models == References == == External links == All the models presented at the exhibition “War on the Table” at the Museum of Fine Arts located in Yekaterinburg Russia (Foto)	Wikipedia/Model_building
Static model airplanes are non-flying representations of aircraft that are designed primarily for display and educational purposes. These models are used in wind tunnel testing to gather data for the design of full-scale aircraft. They are made in a wide array of sizes, ranging from miniature versions to those exceeding five feet in length. Some model aircraft are scaled to size. For example, a 1:40 scale that is 1/40th the size of the real aircraft. Static model aircraft are exhibited in places such as homes, offices, and museums. Diverse materials are utilized to make models, including plastic, wood, canvas, and metal. Models may also be made out of a combination of materials. Additionally, they might require assembly or come pre-built, be painted, or left bare. Furthermore, modelers may use weathering techniques on their models to achieve a more realistic representation of how the aircraft would look in actual operational conditions. == Plastic Static Model Aircraft == Many modelers construct models by assembling plastic model kits, which are produced through the injection molding process. Also, there are model kits made from plastic resin. Some modelers advance from building plastic kits to kitbashing, where they combine parts from various kits, and a few eventually move on to scratch building, which involves creating models from raw materials. The tools that modelers commonly use include fine-tipped tweezers, hobby knives, paintbrushes, airbrushes, side cutters, liquid cement, and sanding sticks. The first plastic aircraft models were manufactured in 1936. The demand for these models experienced a substantial increase during the 1940s, primarily driven by public interest in military aircraft during World War II. The 1950s is regarded as the golden era of plastic modeling, a period marked by the greater economic accessibility of model kits, which allowed a broader segment of the population to engage in this hobby. Furthermore, significant advancements were made in the detailing and accuracy of the models. In the 1960s, the field of aircraft plastic modeling underwent considerable expansion, achieving a larger mainstream acceptance. This era was characterized by enhancements in realism and detail, as well as innovations in painting and decal application techniques, which further increased the authenticity of the models. In contemporary times, plastic model-making continues to evolve, with many modelers integrating technologies such as three-dimensional printing and digital modeling into their practices. == Metal Static Model Aircraft == Materials used to make static metal aircraft include die-cast and aluminum. Aluminum static models vary in the amount of detail. A detailed aluminum model aircraft might include a detailed fuselage and cockpit, retractable landing gear, and markings that closely mirror the original aircraft. Additionally, models may be designed with functional features such as hinged access panels, folding wings, retractable landing gears, and activated control surfaces. Moreover, they could potentially include operational navigation lights and electrically powered propellers. Other details such as the paint finish and surface textures, contribute to a realistic appearance in these types of models. Die-cast aircraft models are made out of metal alloys, plastic, or other materials. The most common scales are 1:400 and 1:200 scales. Dinky Toys, TootsieToy company, and Hubley Manufacturing Company were three of the earliest companies to produce die-cast airplane models. Numerous die-cast aircraft models where manufactured from the 1930s to the 1970s. Although initially targeted toward children, these models gained popularity among adults. These included commercial airliners and military aircraft. In the 1980s, die-cast airplane models gained greater popularity due to the 1:400 scale by GeminiJets, which allowed for the production and sale of inexpensive detailed models. Current companies that manufacture die-cast airplane models include Inflight200, Herpa, and Gemini Jets. Iconic airline liveries have grown in popularity in recent years. == Wooden Static Model Aircraft == Wooden static models are hand-carved by individual artisans and model making companies. The most popular types of wood used in creating these wooden static models are balsa and mahogany. Balsa wood is favored for its lightweight properties, making it easier to carve and shape, while mahogany is chosen for its durability and attractive finish. Many of the early aircraft static models were made from wood. After Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic, there was a great surge in demand in everything related to aircraft, and that led to wooden models, including Guillow's balsa kits, becoming very popular in the United States. Today, although plastic models have become the dominant field within aircraft modeling, many model makers continue the craft of making static wooden models out of kits or from scratch. == Paper Model Aircraft == There are various types of paper models (also known as cardboard models), ranging from three-dimensional models to simple-folded paper darts. They have been distributed in multiple formats, including books, boxed sets, and newspapers. During WW2, paper models gained appeal due to material shortages. However, interest in paper models slowed down after WW2. In recent years, there has been a noteworthy resurgence in the popularity of making paper model planes. Although there are limitations, some paper modelers are able to create models with a scale-like look. One key advantage is that the material is less expensive. == See also == List of model aircraft manufacturers Model aircraft Scale model Model Airplane News Model engine Model building Die-cast toy History of aviation International Plastic Modellers' Society (IPMS) == References ==	Wikipedia/Static_model_aircraft
Paper models, also called card models or papercraft, are models constructed mainly from sheets of heavy paper, paperboard, card stock, or foam. == Details == This may be considered a broad category that contains origami and card modeling. Origami is the process of making a paper model by folding a single piece of paper without using glue or cutting while the variation kirigami does. Card modeling is making scale models from sheets of cardstock on which the parts were printed, usually in full color. These pieces would be cut out, folded, scored, and glued together. Papercraft is the art of combining these model types to build complex creations such as wearable suits of armor, life-size characters, and accurate weapon models. Sometimes the model pieces can be punched out. More frequently the printed parts must be cut out. Edges may be scored to aid folding. The parts are usually glued together with polyvinyl acetate glue ("white glue", "PVA"). In this kind of modeling, the sections are usually pre-painted, so there is no need to paint the model after completion. Some enthusiasts may enhance the model by painting and detailing. Due to the nature of the paper medium, the model may be sealed with varnish or filled with spray foam to last longer. Some enthusiasts also use papercrafts or perdurable to do life-sized props starting by making the craft, covering it with resin and painting them. Some also use photo paper and laminate them by heat, thus preventing the printed side from color wearing out, beyond the improved realistic effect on certain kinds of models (ships, cars, buses, trains, etc.). Paper crafts can be used as references to do props with other materials too. == History == The first paper models appeared in Europe in the 17th century with the earliest commercial models were appearing in French toy catalogs in 1800. Printed card became common in magazines in the early part of the 20th century. The popularity of card modeling boomed during World War II when the paper was one of the few items whose use and production was not heavily regulated. Micromodels, designed and published in England from 1941 were very popular with 100 different models, including architecture, ships, and aircraft. But as plastic model kits became more commonly available, interest in paper decreased. == Availability == The Robert Freidus Collection, held at the V&A Museum of Childhood has over 14000 card models exclusively in the category Architectural Paper Models. Since paper model patterns can be easily printed and assembled, the Internet has become a popular means of exchanging them. Commercial corporations have recently begun using downloadable paper models for their marketing (examples are Yamaha and Canon). The availability of numerous models on the Internet at little or no cost, which can then be downloaded and printed on inexpensive inkjet printers has caused its popularity again to increase worldwide. Home printing also allows models to be scaled up or down easily (for example, in order to make two models from different authors, in different scales, match each other in size), although the paper weight might need to be adjusted in the same ratio. Inexpensive kits are available from dedicated publishers (mostly based in Eastern Europe; examples include Halinski, JSC Models, and Maly Modelarz), a portion of the catalog of which date back to 1950. Experienced hobbyists often scratchbuild models, either by first hand drawing or using software such as Adobe Illustrator and Inkscape. An historical example of highly specialized software is Designer Castles for BBC Micro and Acorn Archimedes platforms, which was developed as a tool for creation of card model castles. CAD and CG software, such as Rhino 3D, 3DS Max, Blender, and specialist software, like Pepakura Designer from Tama Software, Dunreeb Cutout or Ultimate Papercraft 3D, may be employed to convert 3D computer models into two-dimensional printable templates for assembly. === 3D models to paper === The use of 3D models greatly assists in the construction of paper models, with video game models being the most prevalent source. The video game or source in question will have to be loaded into the computer. Various methods of extracting the model exist, including using a model viewer and exporting it into a workable file type, or capturing the model from the emulation directly. The methods of capturing the model are often unique to the subject and the tools available. Readability of file-formats including proprietary ones could mean that a model viewer and exporter is unavailable outside of the developer. Using other tools that capture rendered 3D models and textures is often the only way to obtain them. In this case, the designer may have to arrange the textures and the wireframe model on a 3D program, such as SketchUp, 3DS MAX, Metasequoia, or Blender before exporting it to a papercraft creating program, such as Dunreeb Cutout or Pepakura Designer by Tama Software. From there the model is typically refined to give a proper layout and construction tabs that will affect the overall appearance and difficulty in constructing the model. == Subjects == Because people can create their own patterns, paper models are limited only by their designers' imaginations and ability to manipulate paper into forms. Vehicles of all forms, from cars and cargo trucks to space shuttles, are a frequent subject of paper models, some using photo-realistic textures from their real-life counterparts for extremely fine details. Architecture models can be very simple and crude forms to very detailed models with thousands of pieces to assemble. The most prevalent designs are from video games, due to their popularity and ease of producing paper models. On the Web, enthusiasts can find hundreds of models from different designers across a wide range of subjects. The models include very difficult and ambitious paper projects, such as life-sized and complex creations. Architectural paper models are popular with model railway enthusiasts. Various models are used in tabletop gaming, primarily wargaming. Scale paper models allow for easy production of armies and buildings for use in gaming and that can be scaled up or down readily or produced as desired. Whether they be three-dimensional models or two-dimensional icons, players are able to personalize and modify the models to bear unique unit designations and insignias for gaming. == See also == Net Cardboard modeling Paper Aeroplane Origamic architecture Superquick Leo Monahan Toy theater – Small stage for imitating or testing full-scale productions Omocha-e == References == == External links == === Software for creating paper models === Pepakura Designer Dunreeb Cutout Ultimate Papercraft 3D PaperMaker	Wikipedia/Card_model
Founded in 1906 by Karl Arnold in Nürnberg, K. Arnold & Co. began its life producing tin toys and related items. They produced an extensive line of model ships, doll house items and other toys. In 1935, K. Arnold & Co. hired Max Ernst as their managing director. Ernst, not to be confused with the German realist artist of the same name, was a significant factor in the future of Arnold. == History == Nürnberg was badly damaged by allied bombers during World War II, and, at the end of the war, all of the Arnold facilities were in ruins. Postwar production continued at a facility in the Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalz), with the company beginning its slow recovery with the manufacture of window hardware. The postwar operation of the company was under the direction of Max Ernst and Ernst Arnold, son of Karl Arnold. The factory buildings in Nürnberg were rebuilt and the Arnold Company continued to grow. In the postwar period, smaller model train sizes became the order of the day. In earlier times, model trains had been largely the plaything of the well to do who had enough money to live in houses large enough to support the display of the larger scales of model trains. The growth toward smaller scales had begun in the early 1900s, with O scale being the first "small" scale. In the 1930s, HO/OO scale became the "small" scale. In the late 1940s and 1950s, TT scale was the "small" scale, allowing for realistic model railroad displays being situated in relatively small areas. Three companies led the TT revolution, H.P. Products of Indiana, United States, Tri-ang of the United Kingdom, and Rokal of West Germany. But TT-Scale was not to be the smallest scale in model railroading. Led initially by Lone Star Toys of Great Britain and Trix of Nürnberg, there was a movement toward an even smaller scale. Both companies experimented earlier with "floor toys", unpowered model trains designed to be moved about by child power. Lone Star dropped by the wayside after a period of time, but Trix continued experimentation and development of what would be their electric powered Minitrix product line. Arnold was to come up with a workable solution, also. The introduction of Arnold rapido was from scratch because nothing like this had been done before. Arnold was literally establishing what would become N scale. This is not to say that it was the sole developer of N, but Arnold Rapido was there first. Although Karl Arnold's son, Ernst, was involved with the company, several sources cite the presence of Max Ernst (who remained as Managing Director for over forty years until 1976), as the prime mover behind this new product line. Ernst has been described as a dynamic businessman, the person most responsible for the introduction of the Arnold Rapido product line. Karl Arnold passed on in October, 1946, leaving his son and Herr Ernst as principals in the Company. Much later, an Arnold Sales Manager, Ferdinand Graef, would marry Max Ernst's daughter, Sonja, keeping the Arnold company as a family operation. It would continue to be so until 1995. == Production phases == There are several distinct phases of Arnold's model train production. In the period of 1960 - 1962, Arnold marketed the Arnold Rapido 200 product line; this line was very crude yet it also was a sensation because of its much smaller size than TT. The next phase was from 1963–1967, when the rapido product line begins to swing toward scale representations of the trains. It is during this period that the "Rapido Coupler" comes into production, beginning its widespread use by all model train manufacturers in N-Scale. It was in 1964 that the term "N-Scale" came into use. Between 1968 and 1970, rapido line of trains reached maturity, notably with its turntable and roundhouse. Arnold entered into a business relationship with the U.S. company Revell around 1968, beginning the marketing of Revell Rapido model trains. This relationship was marked by the beginning of production of more accurate North American prototype models by Arnold. This relationship continued for several years, ending in the late 1960s or early 1970s. Arnold continued their expanded production, with new models until the early 1990s. == Transfer of assets == On Max Ernst's 1976 retirement, Arnold employed perhaps 200 to 250 people, using three facilities in the Nürnberg area. The Company continued under family control until 1995, when Arnold went into bankruptcy and was sold to Rivarossi of Italy. Rivarossi, in turn, also went bankrupt, leading to the sale of all assets to Hornby of the United Kingdom. Production is carried out in China. == External links == English language page on Arnold Rapido	Wikipedia/Arnold_(models)
Railway modelling (UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland) or model railroading (US and Canada) is a hobby in which rail transport systems are modelled at a reduced scale. The scale models include locomotives, rolling stock, streetcars, tracks, signalling, cranes, and landscapes including: countryside, roads, bridges, buildings, vehicles, harbors, urban landscape, model figures, lights, and features such as rivers, hills, tunnels, and canyons. The earliest model railways were the 'carpet railways' in the 1840s. The first documented model railway was the Railway of the Prince Imperial (French: Chemin de fer du Prince Impérial) built in 1859 by Emperor Napoleon III for his then 3-year-old son, also Napoleon, in the grounds of the Château de Saint-Cloud in Paris. It was powered by clockwork and ran in a figure-of-eight. Electric trains appeared around the start of the 20th century, but these were crude likenesses. Model trains today are more realistic, in addition to being much more technologically advanced. Today modellers create model railway layouts, often recreating real locations and periods throughout history. The world's oldest working model railway is a model designed to train signalmen on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. It is located in the National Railway Museum, York, England and dates back to 1912. It remained in use until 1995. The model was built as a training exercise by apprentices of the company's Horwich Works and supplied with rolling stock by Bassett-Lowke. == General description == Involvement ranges from possession of a train set to spending hours and large sums of money on a large and exacting model of a railroad and the scenery through which it passes, called a "layout". Hobbyists, called "railway modellers" or "model railroaders", may maintain models large enough to ride (see Live steam, Ridable miniature railway and Backyard railroad). Modellers may collect model trains, building a landscape for the trains to pass through. They may also operate their own railroad in miniature. For some modellers, the goal of building a layout is to eventually run it as if it were a real railroad (if the layout is based on the fancy of the builder) or as the real railroad did (if the layout is based on a prototype). If modellers choose to model a prototype, they may reproduce track-by-track reproductions of the real railroad in miniature, often using prototype track diagrams and historic maps. Layouts vary from a circle or oval of track to realistic reproductions of real places modelled to scale. Probably the largest model landscape in the UK is in the Pendon Museum in Oxfordshire, UK, where an EM gauge (same 1:76.2 scale as 00 but with more accurate track gauge) model of the Vale of White Horse in the 1930s is under construction. The museum also houses one of the earliest scenic models – the Madder Valley layout built by John Ahern. This was built in the late 1930s to late 1950s and brought in realistic modelling, receiving coverage on both sides of the Atlantic in the magazines Model Railway News and Model Railroader. Bekonscot in Buckinghamshire is the oldest model village and includes a model railway, dating from the 1930s. The world's largest model railroad in H0 scale is the Miniatur Wunderland in Hamburg, Germany. The largest live steam layout, with 25 miles (40 km) of track is Train Mountain in Chiloquin, Oregon, U.S. Operations form an important aspect of rail transport modelling with many layouts being dedicated to emulating the operational aspects of a working railway. These layouts can become extremely complex with multiple routes, movement patterns and timetabled operation. The British outline model railway of Banbury Connections in New South Wales, Australia, is one of the world's most complicated model railways. Model railroad clubs exist where enthusiasts meet. Clubs often display models for the public. One specialist branch concentrates on larger scales and gauges, commonly using track gauges from 3.5 to 7.5 inches (89 to 191 mm). Models in these scales are usually hand-built and powered by live steam, or diesel-hydraulic, and the engines are often powerful enough to haul dozens of human passengers. The Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) at MIT in the 1950s pioneered automatic control of track-switching by using telephone relays. The oldest society is 'The Model Railway Club' (established 1910), near Kings Cross, London, UK. As well as building model railways, it has 5,000 books and periodicals. Similarly, 'The Historical Model Railway Society' at Butterley, near Ripley, Derbyshire specialises in historical matters and has archives available to members and non-members. == Scales and gauges == The words scale and gauge seem at first interchangeable but their meanings are different. Scale is the model's measurement as a proportion to the original, while gauge is the measurement between the rails. The size of engines depends on the scale and can vary from 700 mm (27.6 in) tall for the largest rideable live steam scales such as 1:4, down to matchbox size for the smallest: Z-scale (1:220) or T scale (1:450). A typical HO (1:87) engine is 50 mm (1.97 in) tall, and 100 to 300 mm (3.94 to 11.81 in) long. The most popular scales are: G scale, Gauge 1, O scale, S scale, HO scale (in Britain, the similar OO), TT scale, and N scale (1:160 in the United States, but 1:148 in the UK). HO and OO are the most popular. Popular narrow-gauge scales include Sn3, HOn3 and Nn3, which are the same in scale as S, HO and N except with a narrower spacing between the tracks (in these examples, a scale 3 ft (914 mm) instead of the 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge). The largest common scale is 1:8, with 1:4 sometimes used for park rides. G scale (Garden, 1:24 scale) is most popular for backyard modelling. It is easier to fit a G scale model into a garden and keep scenery proportional to the trains. Gauge 1 and Gauge 3 are also popular for gardens. O, S, HO, and N scale are more often used indoors. At first, model railways were not to scale. Aided by trade associations such as the National Model Railroad Association (NMRA) and Normen Europäischer Modellbahnen (NEM), manufacturers and hobbyists soon arrived at de facto standards for interchangeability, such as gauge, but trains were only a rough approximation to the real thing. Official scales for the gauges were drawn up but not at first rigidly followed and not necessarily correctly proportioned for the gauge chosen. 0 (zero) gauge trains, for instance, operate on track too widely spaced in the United States as the scale is accepted as 1:48 whereas in Britain 0 gauge uses a ratio of 43.5:1 or 7 mm/1 foot and the gauge is near to correct. British OO standards operate on track significantly too narrow. The 4 mm/1 foot scale on a 16.5 mm (0.65 in) gauge corresponds to a track gauge of 4 ft 1+1⁄2 in (1,257 mm), 7 inches or 178 millimetres (undersized). 16.5 mm (0.65 in) gauge corresponds to 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge in H0 (half-0) 3.5 mm/1 foot or 1:87.1. This arose due to British locomotives and rolling stock being smaller than those found elsewhere, leading to an increase in scale to enable H0 scale mechanisms to be used. Most commercial scales have standards that include wheel flanges that are too deep, wheel treads that are too wide, and rail tracks that are too large. In H0 scale, the rail heights are codes 100, 87, 83, 70, 55, 53, and 40 -- the height in thousandths of an inch from base to railhead (so code 100 is a tenth of an inch and represents 156-pound rail). Later, modellers became dissatisfied with inaccuracies and developed standards in which everything is correctly scaled. These are used by modellers but have not spread to mass-production because the inaccuracies and overscale properties of the commercial scales ensure reliable operation and allow for shortcuts necessary for cost control. The finescale standards include the UK's P4, and the even finer S4, which uses track dimensions scaled from the prototype. This 4 mm:1 ft modelling uses wheels 2 mm (0.079 in) or less wide running on track with a gauge of 18.83 mm (0.741 in). Check-rail and wing-rail clearances are similarly accurate. A compromise of P4 and OO is "EM" which uses a gauge of 18.2 mm (0.717 in) with more generous tolerances than P4 for check clearances. It gives a better appearance than OO though pointwork is not as close to reality as P4. It suits many where time and improved appearance are important. There is a small following of finescale OO which uses the same 16.5mm gauge as OO, but with the finer scale wheels and smaller clearances as used with EM- it is essentially 'EM-minus-1.7mm.' == Modules == Many groups build modules, which are sections of layouts, and can be joined together to form a larger layout, for meetings or for special occasions. For each kind of module system, there is an interface standard, so that modules made by different participants may be connected, even if they have never been connected before. Many of these module types are listed in the Layout standards organizations section of this article. == Couplers and connectors == In addition to different scales, there are also different types of couplers for connecting cars, which are not compatible with each other. In HO, the Americans standardized on horn-hook, or X2F couplers. Horn hook couplers have largely given way to a design known as a working knuckle coupler which was popularized by the Kadee Quality Products Co., and which has subsequently been emulated by a number of other manufactures in recent years. Working knuckle couplers are a closer approximation to the "automatic" couplers used on the prototype there and elsewhere. Also in HO, the European manufacturers have standardized, but on a coupler mount, not a coupler: many varieties of coupler can be plugged in (and out) of the NEM coupler box. None of the popular couplers has any resemblance to the prototype three-link chains generally used on the continent. For British modellers, whose most popular scale is OO, the normal coupler is a tension-lock coupler, which, again has no pretence of replicating the usual prototype three-link chain couplers. Bachmann and more recently Hornby have begun to offer models fitted with NEM coupler pockets. This theoretically enables modellers of British railways to substitute any other NEM362 coupler, though many Bachmann models place the coupler pocket at the wrong height. A fairly common alternative is to use representations of chain couplings as found on the prototype, though these require large radius curves to be used to avoid derailments. Other scales have similar ranges of non-compatible couplers available. In all scales couplers can be exchanged, with varying degrees of difficulty. == Landscaping == Some modellers pay attention to landscaping their layout, creating a fantasy world or modelling an actual location, often historic. Landscaping is termed "scenery building" or "scenicking". Constructing scenery involves preparing a sub-terrain using a wide variety of building materials, including (but not limited to) screen wire, a lattice of cardboard strips, or carved stacks of expanded polystyrene (styrofoam) sheets. A scenery base is applied over the sub-terrain; typical base include casting plaster, plaster of Paris, hybrid paper-pulp (papier-mâché) or a lightweight foam/fiberglass/bubblewrap composite as in Geodesic Foam Scenery. The scenery base is covered with substitutes for ground cover, which may be Static Grass or scatter. Scatter or flock is a substance used in the building of dioramas and model railways to simulate the effect of grass, poppies, fireweed, track ballast and other scenic ground cover. Scatter used to simulate track ballast is usually fine-grained ground granite. Scatter which simulates coloured grass is usually tinted sawdust, wood chips or ground foam. Foam or natural lichen or commercial scatter materials can be used to simulate shrubbery. An alternative to scatter, for grass, is static grass which uses static electricity to make its simulated grass actually stand up. Buildings and structures can be purchased as kits, or built from cardboard, balsa wood, basswood, other soft woods, paper, or polystyrene or other plastic. Trees can be fabricated from materials such as Western sagebrush, candytuft, and caspia, to which adhesive and model foliage are applied; or they can be bought ready-made from specialist manufacturers. Water can be simulated using polyester casting resin, polyurethane, or rippled glass. Rocks can be cast in plaster or in plastic with a foam backing. Castings can be painted with stains to give colouring and shadows. == Weathering == Weathering refers to making a model look used and exposed to weather by simulating dirt and wear on real vehicles, structures and equipment. Most models come out of the box looking new, because unweathered finishes are easier to produce. Also, the wear a freight car or building undergoes depends not only on age but where it is used. Rail cars in cities accumulate grime from building and automobile exhaust and graffiti, while cars in deserts may be subjected to sandstorms which etch or strip paint. A model that is weathered would not fit as many layouts as a pristine model which can be weathered by its purchaser. There are many weather techniques that include, but are not limited to, painting (by either drybrushing or an airbrush), sanding, breaking, and even the use of chemicals to cause corrosion. Some processes become very creative depending on the skill of the modeller. For instance several steps may be taken to create a rusting effect to ensure not only proper colouring, but also proper texture and lustre. Weathering purchased models is common, at the least, weathering aims to reduce the plastic-like finish of scale models. The simulation of grime, rust, dirt, and wear adds realism. Some modellers simulate fuel stains on tanks, or corrosion on battery boxes. In some cases, evidence of accidents or repairs may be added, such as dents or freshly painted replacement parts, and weathered models can be nearly indistinguishable from their prototypes when photographed appropriately. == Methods of power == Static diorama models or "push along" scale models are a branch of model railways for unpowered locomotives, examples are Lone Star and Airfix models. Powered model railways are now generally operated by low voltage direct current (DC) electricity supplied via the tracks, but there are exceptions, such as Märklin and Lionel Corporation, which use alternating current (AC). Modern Digital Command Control (DCC) systems use alternating current. Other locomotives, particularly large models, can use steam. Steam and clockwork-driven engines are still sought by collectors. === Clockwork === Most early models for the toy market were powered by clockwork and controlled by levers on the locomotive. Although this made control crude the models were large and robust enough that handling the controls was practical. Various manufacturers introduced slowing and stopping tracks that could trigger levers on the locomotive and allow station stops. === Electricity === Three-rail The first miniature electric trains used a three-rail track, with non-insulated wheels resting on the two outer rails that were in contact with the metal sleepers. The insulated central rail supplied the current to a skid under the locomotive. The outer rails ensured the return of the current. The current was alternating, supplied by the domestic network, lowered by various means (transformer or serial resistances). This kind of track made sense at the time as models were metal and conductive. Modern plastics were not available and insulation was a problem. In addition the notion of accurate models had yet to evolve and toy trains and track were crude tinplate. In 1938, Hornby, a manufacturer of ‘O’ scale model trains in the UK, launched a range of ‘OO’ scale electric trains (Hornby Dublo) with 1/76 scale rolling stock using 1/87 scale 16.5 mm wide track with a third centre rail. The power supply was 12 V DC and the track was equipped with an electrically insulated central rail and two non-insulated running rails. In 1959 Hornby abandoned its three-rail track in favour of a two-rail track for its ‘OO’ scale electric trains. Other systems such as Märklin instead used, since 1953, fine metal studs to replace the central rail, allowing existing three-rail models to use more realistic track. A variation on the three-rail system, early introduced by Trix in 1935, used a track with three insulated rails that allowed two trains to be independently controlled on the same track. The use of a catenary made it possible for three trains to be independently controlled. The center rail ensured the common return of the current. That system, known as Trix Express or Trix Twin in the UK, which first used alternative current and then direct current after 1953, was abandoned in 1997 when Märklin took over Trix. This three-rail system enabled DC and AC locomotives to run on the same track. Two-rail When DC motors with more powerful magnets began to be used for model trains in the 1950s, the two-rail track was generally preferred because at the same time accuracy became important. The two insulated rails from each other are to be used with insulated wheels on the same axle. In the direction of travel, the right-hand rail carries the positive potential and the left-hand rail the negative. This system excludes certain track layouts such as the reversing loop, the reversing triangle and the diagonal in a circle without insulated sections and suitable cabling. Overhead line Where the model is of an electric locomotive, it may be supplied by overhead lines, like the full-size locomotive. Before Digital Command Control became available, this was one way of controlling two trains separately on the same track. The electric-outline model would be supplied by the overhead wire and the other model could be supplied by one of the running rails. The other running rail would act as a common return. Battery Early electric trains ran on trackside batteries because few homes in the late 19th century and early 20th century had electricity. Today, inexpensive train sets running on batteries are again common but regarded as toys and seldom used by hobbyists. Batteries located in the model often power garden railway and larger scale systems because of the difficulty in obtaining reliable power supply through the outdoor rails. The high-power consumption and current draw of large-scale garden models is more easily and safely met with internal rechargeable batteries. Most large-scale battery-powered models use radio control. === Live steam === Engines powered by live steam are often built in large outdoor gauges of 5 inches (130 mm) and 7+1⁄2 inches (190 mm), are also available in Gauge 1, G scale, 16 mm scale and can be found in O and OO/HO. Hornby Railways produce live steam locomotives in OO, based on designs first arrived at by an amateur modeller. Other modellers have built live steam models in HO/OO, OO9 and N, and there is one in Z in Australia. === Internal combustion === Occasionally gasoline-electric models, patterned after real diesel-electric locomotives, come up among hobbyists and companies like Pilgrim Locomotive Works have sold such locomotives. Large-scale petrol-mechanical and petrol-hydraulic models are available but unusual and pricier than the electrically powered versions. == Scratch building == Modern manufacturing techniques can allow mass-produced models to cost-effectively achieve a high degree of precision and realism. In the past this was not the case and scratch building was very common. Simple models are made using cardboard engineering techniques. More sophisticated models can be made using a combination of etched sheets of brass and low temperature castings. Parts that need machining, such as wheels and couplings are purchased. Etched kits are still popular, still accompanied by low temperature castings. These kits produce models that are not covered by the major manufacturers or in scales that are not in mass production. Laser machining techniques have extended this ability to thicker materials for scale steam and other locomotive types. Scratch builders may also make silicone rubber moulds of the parts they create, and cast them in various plastic resins (see Resin casting), or plasters. This may be done to save duplication of effort, or to sell to others. Resin "craftsman kits" are also available for a wide range of prototypes. == Control == The first clockwork (spring-drive) and live steam locomotives ran until out of power, with no way for the operator to stop and restart the locomotive or vary its speed. The advent of electric trains, which appeared commercially in the 1890s, allowed control of the speed by varying the current or voltage. As trains began to be powered by transformers and rectifiers more sophisticated throttles appeared, and soon trains powered by AC contained mechanisms to change direction or go into neutral gear when the operator cycled the power. Trains powered by DC can change direction by reversing polarity. Electricity permits control by dividing the layout into isolated blocks, where trains can be slowed or stopped by lowering or cutting power to a block. Dividing a layout into blocks permits operators to run more than one train with less risk of a fast train catching and hitting a slow train. Blocks can also trigger signals or other accessories, adding realism or whimsy. Three-rail systems often insulate one of the common rails on a section of track, and use a passing train to complete the circuit and activate an accessory. Many layout builders are choosing digital operation of their layouts rather than the more traditional DC design. Of the several competing systems, the command system offered by the majority of manufacturers in 2020 was a variant of Digital Command Control (DCC). The advantages of DCC are that track voltage is constant (usually in the range of 20 volts AC) and the command throttle sends a signal to small circuit cards, or decoders, hidden inside the piece of equipment which control several functions of an individual locomotive, including speed, direction of travel, lights, smoke and various sound effects. This allows more realistic operation in that the modeller can operate independently several locomotives on the same stretch of track. Several manufacturers also offer software that can provide computer-control of DCC layouts. In large scales, particularly for garden railways, radio control and DCC in the garden have become popular. == Model railway manufacturers == Model railways == Magazines == == Layout standards organizations == Several organizations exist to set standardizations for connectibility between individual layout sections (commonly called "modules"). This is so several (or hundreds, given enough space and power) people or groups can bring together their own modules, connect them together with as little trouble as possible, and operate their trains. Despite different design and operation philosophies, different organizations have similar goals; standardized ends to facilitate connection with other modules built to the same specifications, standardized electricals, equipment, curve radii. ausTRAK, N Scale, two-track main with hidden third track (can be used as NTRAK's third main, as a return/continuous loop, or hidden yard/siding/on-line storage). Australian scenery and rolling stock modelled in Standard Gauge. FREMO a European-based organisation focusing on a single-track line, HO Scale. Also sets standards for N Scale modules. Standards are considerably more flexible in module shape than NTRAK, and has expanded over the years to accommodate several scenery variations. Free-mo Originally developed by the San Luis Obispo Model Railroad Club in 1995 (California), it has grown across North America and is expanding across the world. The objective of the Free-mo Standard is to provide a platform for prototype modelling in a flexible, modular environment. Free-mo modules not only provide track to operate realistic models, but also emphasize realistic, plausible scenery; realistic, reliable trackwork; and operations. Free-Mo was designed to go beyond the traditional closed-loop set-up in creating a truly universal "free-form" modular design that is operations-oriented and heavily influenced by prototype railroading. This is emphasized in the Free-mo motto, "More than Just a Standard". MOROP, European Union of Model Railroad and Railroad Fans, the European standardization organisation. NEM, The German modelling standards organisation. NMRA, National Model Railroad Association, the largest organization devoted to the development, promotion, and enjoyment of the hobby of model railroading. N-orma, Polish N-scale (1:160) modules organization. NTRAK, standardized three-track (heavy operation) mainline with several optional branchlines. Focuses on standard gauge, but also has specifications for narrow gauge. Due to its popularity, it can be found in regional variations, most notably the imperial-to-metric measurement conversions. Tends to be used more for "unattended display" than "operation". oNeTRAK, operationally similar to FREMO, standardises around a single-track mainline, with modules of varying sizes and shapes. Designed with the existing NTRAK spec in mind, is fully compatible with such modules. Sipping and Switching Society of NC is a society/association of individuals which has developed a system of HO modules, which feature lightweight waffle construction using 5 mm lauan plywood underlayment and an interface which depends on using a metal template to locate 1-inch (25 mm) pegs to mate to 1-inch holes in the adjoining module. The rails of the tracks are positioned in an exact relationship with the pegs. The rails come up to the end of the modules, so that the rails on adjacent modules do not need joiner track, but depend on the accuracy of the placement of the rails to allow trains to pass from one section to another. This style of module allows for very quick set-up, compared with module systems that use joiner tracks. sTTandard, Polish TT-scale (1:120) modules organization. T-TRAK, is a modular system that uses table-top modules, 2+3⁄4 inches (70 mm) high, which set on tables, that are not part of the modules, but are often found at sites which members meet. It uses a specific track interface, which has joiners which hold the modules together, which enables quick setting up and taking down. Z-Bend Track, uses a double-track mainline running down both sides of a module. Modules can be of any length or width in the middle and any overall shape. The "standard" called Z-Bend Track applies only to the last 5 inches (130 mm) of the module's interface to other modules, the electrical interface and the module height. == In popular culture == In the 1990 film Back to the Future III, Doc brown builds a "crude" electrified model rail "not to scale" to demonstrate his time travel experiment to Marty in 1885. In Hinterland Season 1, Episode 4 ("The Girl in the Water"), a semi-recluse who lives and works at Borth railway station maintains a model train set with custom made components; the set and certain components contribute to a death as well as provide important clues to a murder investigation. During the investigation, DCI Tom Mathias reveals that his late brother was a model train aficionado. In The Sopranos, Bobby Baccalieri is a model train aficionado. He is shown wearing an engineer's cap while playing with model trains in his garage. In The Simpsons, Reverend Lovejoy is often depicted playing with his model trains when not on ecumenical duty, often while wearing a conductor's uniform and hat. His character may be a nod to the real life Reverend W. Awdry. In Trailer Park Boys, Season 7 Episode 4, "Friends of the Dead", heavy metal singer Sebastian Bach is a featured guest at the Bangor model train convention and is introduced as "our Competitive Model Train World Champion". He expresses a dislike of alleged rival model train competitor Patrick Swayze. Attendees at the family event are shocked by Sebastian's use of obscenities as he attempts to work the crowd in a rock concert fashion shouting, "I know, I just know, that there are some great f**king trains here in Bangor!" In That '90s Show, Red Forman runs a model railway in the garage after he retired. == See also == Displays and famous layouts Groups dedicated to railway modelling == References == == External links == The National Model Railroad Association, USA – the largest model railroad organization in the world The Model Railway Club, UK – the oldest known society in the world – established 1910 Associazione Ferrovie Siciliane – AFS (Messina – IT) – One of the most important group of rail enthusiasts end railways modellers active in Sicily and all over Italy founded in 2006	Wikipedia/Model_railroad
V-scale, Vscale, or V scale (with V standing for virtual reality) is a scale of model railroading utilizing self-defining three-dimensional models and a compatible graphics engine to create an alternative modeled world. Though it has not been classified or recognized by either the NMRA or MOROP, the term Vscale has gradually taken on widescale de facto use in railfan and model railroading circles. V-scale model railroading was created when Japanese game developer Artdink released A-Train in 1985, but it was not widely popularized until Microsoft released Microsoft Train Simulator (sometimes referred to as MSTS) and Australia's Auran/N3V Games released the successful family of Trainz railroad simulators, both in 2001. With the ability to enter into the cab of a modeled train consist in a modeled landscape and track system, the 'play' modes of the two simulators gradually established a following among rail enthusiasts. == Scale and scope == Unlike other scales, it is not a real world scale in the physical sense, but rather a representation of railroading in the virtual computing world, wherein dimensional constraints are mapped one-to-one with a virtual representation of the real world object. A centimeter is a centimeter, a meter maps to a metre, and a mile is a mile, unless the world builder decides to add an arbitrary scaling of his own. Because there are no physical aspects to this scale, there are no limits (apart from those set by the program) as to the content that can be created. A V-scale railroad can literally be hundreds (and, in some cases, thousands) of simulated miles. Individual graphics objects (Track segment, a building, tree, fence, etc.) in such schemes are self-defining collections of source files grouped into a data-set interpretable by the graphics engine. Assigned an 'attachment' point in a virtual surface, graphics software enables three dimensional interaction such as walking around, climbing over top, and animation effects such as driving and watching passing virtual terrain. The computer operator becomes immersed in a virtual world modeled by the creator. == Software == Currently, there are a number of programs that are used for 3-D model railroading. Among them are the aforementioned MSTS, Open Rails (which currently uses the routes and rolling stock from MSTS), Auran's Trainz, Rail Simulator, published by Electronic Arts in partnership with Kuju Entertainment, and its successor Railworks, published by Rail Simulator Developments Ltd. With these programs, virtually any type of locomotive (whether it is powered by diesel, steam, or electric) or piece of rolling stock can be created to run in any combination of train-cars (consists) (unless limited by the software). Likewise, routes (or layouts) can be created allowing the virtual consists to be run as closely as possible to real world train operations. One such program, Train Player, allows one to build virtual track layouts as though they were built in real life. == Operating systems == V-scale railroading is not limited to Windows based platforms. N3V Games has released versions for smartphones and tablets, and Trainz Simulator: Mac for the Macintosh. A second Macintosh computer program, TrainPlayer-TrackLayer, allows one to build a virtual modem layout in conjunction with RailModeller. However, virtual model railroading is not embraced by all in a story covered by PRWEB which focuses on a mega-spender who has dedicated thousands of man-hours to first building and then touring a large model railroad as an exhibit. Many users of V-scale railroading run virtual railroading organizations as if it were a real world corporation, complete with timeslips and engineer applications. Examples of such are sites like the Pacific & American Railroad and the North Eastern Railroad. == See also == Category:Train simulation video games List of rail transport modelling scale standards Model railroading Rail transport modelling scales == Further reading == Barten, Alfred (2006). This is V-scale. ISBN 1-4276-0738-8. == References == == External links == At The Railyard a virtual railroading review site Train Sim forum and downloads	Wikipedia/V_scale_(model_railroading)
An architectural model is a type of scale model made to study aspects of an architectural design or to communicate design intent. They are made using a variety of materials including paper, plaster, plastic, resin, wood, glass, and metal. Models are built either with traditional handcraft techniques or via 3D printing technologies such as stereolithography, fused filament fabrication, and selective laser sintering. == History == The use of architectural models dates to pre-history. Some of the oldest standing models were found in Malta at Tarxien Temples. Those models are now stored at the National Museum of Archaeology in Malta. == Purpose == Architectural models are used by architects for a range of purposes, including: Ad hoc or "sketch" models are sometimes made to study the interaction of volumes, different viewpoints, or concepts during the design process. They're useful in explaining a complicated or unusual design to builders. They also serve as a focus for discussion between architects, engineers, and town planners. Presentation models can be used to exhibit, visualize, or sell a final design. A model also serves as a show piece. Once a building is finished, the model is sometimes featured in a common area of the building. Types of models include: Exterior models are models of buildings that usually include some landscaping or civic spaces around the building. Interior models are models showing interior space planning, finishes, colors, furniture, and beautification. Landscaping design models are models of landscape design and development, representing features such as walkways, small bridges, pergolas, vegetation patterns, and beautification. Landscape design models usually represent public spaces and, in some cases, include buildings as well. Urban models are typically built at a much smaller scale (starting from 1:500 and less, 1:700, 1:1000, 1:1200, 1:2000, and 1:20,000), representing several city blocks, even a town or village, a large resort, a campus, an industrial facility, a military base, and so on. Urban models are a tool for town and city planning and development. Urban models of large urban areas are displayed at museums such as the Shanghai Urban Planning Exhibition Center, the Queens Museum in New York, the Beijing Planning Exhibition Hall, and the Singapore City Gallery. Engineering and construction models show isolated building or structure elements and components and their interactions. == Virtual modeling == Buildings are increasingly designed in software with CAD (computer-aided design) systems. Early virtual modeling involved the fixing of arbitrary lines and points in virtual space, mainly to produce technical drawings. Modern packages include advanced features such as databases of components, automated engineering calculations, visual fly-throughs, dynamic reflections, and accurate textures and colors. As an extension to CAD (computer-aided design) and BIM (building information modeling), virtual reality architectural sessions are also being adopted. This technology enables participants to be immersed in a 1:1 scale model, essentially experiencing the building before it is built. === List of CAD and BIM software === Autodesk Revit AutoCAD Rhinoceros 3D SketchUp ARCHICAD Vectorworks Autodesk 3ds Max == Materials == Rough study models can be made quickly using cardboard, wooden blocks, polystyrene, foam, foam boards, and other materials. Such models are an efficient design tool for the three-dimensional understanding of a structure, space, or form, and are used by architects, interior designers, and exhibit designers. Common materials used for centuries in the construction of architectural models were card stock, balsa wood, basswood, and other woods. Modern professional architectural model builders use 21st-century materials, such as Taskboard (a flexible and lightweight wood/fiberboard), plastics, wooden and wooden-plastic composites, foams, foam board, and urethane compounds. Several companies produce ready-made pieces for structural components (e.g., girders, beams), siding, furniture, figures (people), vehicles, trees, bushes, and other features that are found in the models. Features such as vehicles, people figurines, trees, streetlights, and others are called "scenery elements" and serve not only to beautify the model but also to help the observer obtain a correct feel of the scale and proportions represented by the model. Increasingly, rapid prototyping techniques such as 3D printing and CNC routing are used to automatically construct models directly from CAD plans. === Cork models === A cork model is an architectural model made predominantly of cork. The art of cork modeling is also called phelloplasty (Greek φελλός phellos, cork). In Napoli in the sixteenth century, cork was being used to create Christmas cribs. The 18th and early 19th centuries saw an increase in the popularity of crib-making there. The invention of architectural models made of cork was self-attributed to Augusto Rosa (1738–1784), but Giovanni Altieri (documented 1766–1790) and Antonio Chichi (1743–1816) were already active in Rome as manufacturers of cork models. Chichi's models were copied by Carl May (1747–1822) and his son Georg Heinrich May (1790–1853). Other artists include Luigi Carotti (Rome), Carlo Lucangeli (1747–1812, Rome, Naples), Domenico Padiglione and his sons Agostino and Felice (Naples), and Auguste Pelet (1785–1865, Nîmes). In Marseille, several scale models were made representing archaeological digs by Hippolyte Augier (1830–1889) (Marseille History Museum/Musée d’Histoire de Marseille) or Stanislas Clastrier (1857–1925). Dieter Cöllen is an example of a contemporary phelloplast that continues the art. ==== Collections ==== Many cork models of classical monuments in Italy were made and sold to tourists during their Grand Tour. Cork, especially when carefully painted, was ideal to reproduce the weathered look of wall surfaces. As a rule, they were produced on a large scale (the Colosseum in Aschaffenburg is three meters long and one meter high) and with high precision. Cork models were esteemed in the princely courts of the 18th century. They were also acquired for their scientific value by schools of architecture in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, or by institutions like the Society of Antiquaries of London and the British Museum, as a way of introducing the general public to ancient architecture. Despite their fragility, cork models have often survived better than wooden models threatened by wood-destroying insects. Apart from kings and princes, cork models were collected by people such as Filippo Farsetti (1703–1744) in Venice, Pierre Gaspard Marie Grimod d'Orsay (1748–1809), and the architect Louis-François Cassas in France, Charles Townley, or Sir J. Soane in London, who turned his home into a museum, and Sir John Soane's Museum, housing a collection of 14 models in cork of Roman and Greek buildings. Chichi's cork models can be found at the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg, Russia (34 models made around 1774); Schloss Wilhelmshöhe, Kassel (33 models made 1777–1782); Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt (26 models acquired 1790–91); and the Herzogliches Museum Gotha (12 models acquired after 1777–1778; see Wikipedia in German). The largest collection of cork models by Carl May, with 54 pieces (after war losses), is in Aschaffenburg (Schloss Johannisburg); another large collection of his models is in the Staatliches Museum Schwerin. In France, the Musée des Antiquités Nationales à Saint-Germain-en-Laye has works by Rosa, Lucandeli and Pelet. The Musée archéologique de Nîmes (Musée archéologique de Nîmes) and the Marseille History Museum also have cork models. Modern cork models of antique buildings by Dieter Cöllen are exhibited in the Praetorium in Cologne. == Scales == Architectural models are being constructed at a much smaller scale than their 1:1 counterpart. The scales and their architectural use are broadly as follows: 1:1 full (or real) size for details 1:2 Details 1:5 Details 1:10 Interior spaces and furniture 1:20 Interior spaces and furniture 1:50 Interior spaces, detailed floor plans, and different floor levels 1:100 Building plans and layouts 1:200 Building plans and layouts 1:500 Building layouts or site plans 1:1000 Urban scale for site or location plans 1:1250 Site plans 1:2500 Site plans and city maps 1:5000 City maps/Island Sometimes model railroad scales such as 1:160 and 1:87 are used due to the ready availability of commercial figures, vehicles, and trees in those scales, and models of large buildings are most often built in approximately that range of scales due to size considerations. == See also == Architectural rendering Maquette Mockup Origamic architecture (OA) Scale model Superquick Cardboard modeling == References == == Further reading == Fankhänel, Teresa. The Architectural Models of Theodore Conrad: The “Miniature Boom” of Mid-Century Modernism. London: Bloomsbury, 2021. Lepik, Andres. Das Architekturmodell in Italien, 1335-1550. Römische Studien Der Bibliotheca Hertziana, Bd. 9. Worms: Wernersche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1994. Liptau, Ralf. Architekturen Bilden: Das Modell in Entwurfsprozessen Der Nachkriegsmoderne. Bielefeld: Transcript, 2019. Lund, David. A History of Architectural Modelmaking in Britain: The Unseen Masters of Scale and Vision. London ; New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis , 2023. Mindrup, Matthew. The Architectural Model: Histories of the Miniature and the Prototype, the Exemplar and the Muse. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2019. Smith, Albert C. Architectural Model as Machine: A New View of Models from Antiquity to the Present Day. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2004. Wells, Matthew. Modelling the Metropolis: The Architectural Model in Victorian London. Architectural Knowledge. Zürich: gta Verlag, 2023.	Wikipedia/Building_model
A business magnate, also known as an industrialist or tycoon, is a person who is a powerful entrepreneur and investor who controls, through personal enterprise ownership or a dominant shareholding position, a firm or industry whose goods or services are widely consumed. == Etymology and history == The term magnate derives from the Latin word magnates (plural of magnas), meaning 'great man' or 'great nobleman'. The term mogul is an English corruption of mughal, Persian or Arabic for 'Mongol'. It alludes to emperors of the Mughal Empire in Early Modern India, who possessed great power and storied riches capable of producing wonders of opulence, such as the Taj Mahal. The term tycoon derives from the Japanese word taikun (大君), which means 'great lord', used as a title for the shōgun. The word entered the English language in 1857 with the return of Commodore Perry to the United States. US President Abraham Lincoln was humorously referred to as the Tycoon by his aides John Nicolay and John Hay. The term spread to the business community, where it has been used ever since. == Usage == Modern business magnates are entrepreneurs that amass on their own or wield substantial family fortunes in the process of building or running their own businesses. Some are widely known in connection with these entrepreneurial activities, others through highly-visible secondary pursuits such as philanthropy, political fundraising and campaign financing, and sports team ownership or sponsorship. The terms mogul, tycoon, and baron were often applied to late-19th- and early-20th-century North American business magnates in extractive industries such as mining, logging and petroleum, transportation fields such as shipping and railroads, manufacturing such as automaking and steelmaking, in banking, as well as newspaper publishing. Their dominance was known as the Second Industrial Revolution, the Gilded Age, or the Robber Baron Era. Examples of business magnates in the western world include historical figures such as pottery entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood, oilmen John D. Rockefeller and Fred C. Koch, automobile pioneer Henry Ford, aviation pioneer Howard Hughes, shipping and railroad veterans Aristotle Onassis, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Leland Stanford, Jay Gould and James J. Hill, steel innovator Andrew Carnegie, newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst, poultry entrepreneur Arthur Perdue, retail merchant Sam Walton, and bankers J. P. Morgan and Mayer Amschel Rothschild. Contemporary industrial tycoons include e-commerce entrepreneur Jeff Bezos, investor Warren Buffett, computer programmers Bill Gates and Paul Allen, technology innovator Steve Jobs, vacuum cleaner retailer Sir James Dyson, media proprietors Sumner Redstone, Ted Turner and Rupert Murdoch, industrial entrepreneur Elon Musk, steel investor Lakshmi Mittal, telecommunications investor Carlos Slim, Virgin Group founder Sir Richard Branson, Formula 1 executive Bernie Ecclestone, and internet entrepreneurs Larry Page and Sergey Brin. == Business magnates == == See also == Bloomberg Billionaires Index Bourgeoisie Business oligarch Businessperson Chaebol Media proprietor Real estate investing Robber baron Software industry The World's Billionaires Russian oligarchs, the term for Russian business magnates == References == == External links == Lewis, Mark (December 13, 2001). "The Famous 15: America's Most Fascinating Tycoons". Forbes. "25 Tycoons Who Run the World". Business Pundit. October 6, 2010. "Finlayson juhlii klassikkokuosien merkeissä". MTV3.fi - Koti (in Finnish). Bonnier AB. January 18, 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-01-23.	Wikipedia/Industrialist
Approved Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluations, commonly known as the Orange Book, is a publication produced by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), as required by the Drug Price and Competition Act (Hatch-Waxman Act). The Hatch-Waxman Act was created to '"strike a balance between two competing policy interests: inducing pioneering research and development of new drugs and enabling competitors to bring low-cost, generic copies of those drugs to market'". The Orange Book identifies drug products approved on the basis of safety and effectiveness by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. The publication does not include drugs on the market approved only on the basis of safety (covered by the ongoing Drug Efficacy Study Implementation [DESI] review [e.g., Donnatal Tablets and Librax Capsules] or pre-1938 drugs [e.g., Phenobarbital Tablets]). The main criterion for the inclusion of any product is that the product is the subject of an application with an effective approval that has not been withdrawn for safety or efficacy reasons. Inclusion of products on the List is independent of any current regulatory action through administrative or judicial means against a drug product. In addition, the Orange Book contains therapeutic equivalence evaluations (2 character rating codes) for approved multisource prescription drug products (generic drugs). These evaluations have been prepared to serve as public information and advice to state health agencies, prescribers, and pharmacists to promote public education in the area of drug product selection and to foster containment of health care costs. Therapeutic equivalence evaluations in this publication are not official FDA actions affecting the legal status of products under the Act. Finally, the Orange Book lists patents that are purported to protect each drug. Patent listings and use codes are provided by the drug application owner, and the FDA is obliged to list them. In order for a generic drug manufacturer to win approval of a drug under the Hatch-Waxman Act, the generic manufacturer must certify that they will not launch their generic until after the expiration of the Orange Book-listed patent, or that the patent is invalid, unenforceable, or that the generic product will not infringe the listed patent. The Orange Book does not list biological products such as vaccines. These are listed in later-enacted Lists of Licensed Biological Products with Reference Product Exclusivity and Biosimilarity or Interchangeability Evaluations, commonly known as the Purple Book. The DrugPatentWatch website offers a "Free DrugPatentWatch Orange Book PDF Library" from which the public can download digital copies of every FDA Orange Book, from the 1st Edition in 1980 to the most recent (as of 2020). == References == == Further reading == Hare, Don; Foster, Thomas (July 1990). "The Orange Book: The Food and Drug Administration's Advice on Therapeutic Equivalence". American Pharmacy. 30 (7): 35–37. doi:10.1016/S0160-3450(16)33557-7. PMID 2363391. Parker, Roger E.; Martinez, Domingo R.; Covington, Timothy R. (September 1991). "Drug Product Selection-Part 3: The Orange Book". American Pharmacy. 31 (9): 47–57. doi:10.1016/s0160-3450(16)33841-7. PMID 1822971. == External links == Orange book Orange book archives	Wikipedia/Approved_Drug_Products_with_Therapeutic_Equivalence_Evaluations
The bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels can be accomplished using the MixAlco process. Through bioconversion of biomass to a mixed alcohol fuel, more energy from the biomass will end up as liquid fuels than in converting biomass to ethanol by yeast fermentation. The process involves a biological/chemical method for converting any biodegradable material (e.g., urban wastes, such as municipal solid waste, biodegradable waste, and sewage sludge, agricultural residues such as corn stover, sugarcane bagasse, cotton gin trash, manure) into useful chemicals, such as carboxylic acids (e.g., acetic, propionic, butyric acid), ketones (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, diethyl ketone) and biofuels, such as a mixture of primary alcohols (e.g., ethanol, propanol, n-butanol) and/or a mixture of secondary alcohols (e.g., isopropanol, 2-butanol, 3-pentanol). Because of the many products that can be economically produced, this process is a true biorefinery. The process uses a mixed culture of naturally occurring microorganisms found in natural habitats such as the rumen of cattle, termite guts, and marine and terrestrial swamps to anaerobically digest biomass into a mixture of carboxylic acids produced during the acidogenic and acetogenic stages of anaerobic digestion, however with the inhibition of the methanogenic final stage. The more popular methods for production of ethanol and cellulosic ethanol use enzymes that must be isolated first to be added to the biomass and thus convert the starch or cellulose into simple sugars, followed then by yeast fermentation into ethanol. This process does not need the addition of such enzymes as these microorganisms make their own. As the microorganisms anaerobically digest the biomass and convert it into a mixture of carboxylic acids, the pH must be controlled. This is done by the addition of a buffering agent (e.g., ammonium bicarbonate, calcium carbonate), thus yielding a mixture of carboxylate salts. Methanogenesis, being the natural final stage of anaerobic digestion, is inhibited by the presence of the ammonium ions or by the addition of an inhibitor (e.g., iodoform). The resulting fermentation broth contains the produced carboxylate salts that must be dewatered. This is achieved efficiently by vapor-compression evaporation. Further chemical refining of the dewatered fermentation broth may then take place depending on the final chemical or biofuel product desired. The condensed distilled water from the vapor-compression evaporation system is recycled back to the fermentation. On the other hand, if raw sewage or other waste water with high BOD in need of treatment is used as the water for the fermentation, the condensed distilled water from the evaporation can be recycled back to the city or to the original source of the high-BOD waste water. Thus, this process can also serve as a water treatment facility, while producing valuable chemicals or biofuels. Because the system uses a mixed culture of microorganisms, besides not needing any enzyme addition, the fermentation requires no sterility or aseptic conditions, making this front step in the process more economical than in more popular methods for the production of cellulosic ethanol. These savings in the front end of the process, where volumes are large, allows flexibility for further chemical transformations after dewatering, where volumes are small. == Carboxylic acids == Carboxylic acids can be regenerated from the carboxylate salts using a process known as "acid springing". This process makes use of a high-molecular-weight tertiary amine (e.g., trioctylamine), which is switched with the cation (e.g., ammonium or calcium). The resulting amine carboxylate can then be thermally decomposed into the amine itself, which is recycled, and the corresponding carboxylic acid. In this way, theoretically, no chemicals are consumed or wastes produced during this step. == Ketones == There are two methods for making ketones. The first one consists on thermally converting calcium carboxylate salts into the corresponding ketones. This was a common method for making acetone from calcium acetate during World War I. The other method for making ketones consists on converting the vaporized carboxylic acids on a catalytic bed of zirconium oxide. == Alcohols == === Primary alcohols === The undigested residue from the fermentation may be used in gasification to make hydrogen (H2). This H2 can then be used to hydrogenolyze the esters over a catalyst (e.g., copper chromite), which are produced by esterifying either the ammonium carboxylate salts (e.g., ammonium acetate, propionate, butyrate) or the carboxylic acids (e.g., acetic, propionic, butyric acid) with a high-molecular-weight alcohol (e.g., hexanol, heptanol). From the hydrogenolysis, the final products are the high-molecular-weight alcohol, which is recycled back to the esterification, and the corresponding primary alcohols (e.g., ethanol, propanol, butanol). === Secondary alcohols === The secondary alcohols (e.g., isopropanol, 2-butanol, 3-pentanol) are obtained by hydrogenating over a catalyst (e.g., Raney nickel) the corresponding ketones (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, diethyl ketone). == Drop-in biofuels == The primary or secondary alcohols obtained as described above may undergo conversion to drop-in biofuels, fuels which are compatible with current fossil fuel infrastructure such as biogasoline, green diesel and bio-jet fuel. Such is done by subjecting the alcohols to dehydration followed by oligomerization using zeolite catalysts in a manner similar to the methanex process, which used to produce gasoline from methanol in New Zealand. == Acetic acid versus ethanol == Cellulosic-ethanol manufacturing plants are bound to be net exporters of electricity because a large portion of the lignocellulosic biomass, namely lignin, remains undigested and it must be burned, thus producing electricity for the plant and excess electricity for the grid. As the market grows and this technology becomes more widespread, coupling the liquid fuel and the electricity markets will become more and more difficult. Acetic acid, unlike ethanol, is biologically produced from simple sugars without the production of carbon dioxide: Because of this, on a mass basis, the yields will be higher than in ethanol fermentation. If then, the undigested residue (mostly lignin) is used to produce hydrogen by gasification, it is ensured that more energy from the biomass will end up as liquid fuels rather than excess heat/electricity. A more comprehensive description of the economics of each of the fuels is given on the pages alcohol fuel and ethanol fuel, more information about the economics of various systems can be found on the central page biofuel. == Stage of development == The system has been in development since 1991, moving from the laboratory scale (10 g/day) to the pilot scale (200 lb/day) in 2001. A small demonstration-scale plant (5 ton/day) has been constructed and is under operation and a 220 ton/day demonstration plant is expected in 2012. == See also == Anaerobic digestion Bioreactor Mechanical biological treatment == References ==	Wikipedia/Bioconversion_of_biomass_to_mixed_alcohol_fuels
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are photovoltaic materials that are used to replace conventional building materials in parts of the building envelope such as the roof, skylights, or façades. They are increasingly being incorporated into the construction of new buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power, although existing buildings may be retrofitted with similar technology. The advantage of integrated photovoltaics over more common non-integrated systems is that the initial cost can be offset by reducing the amount spent on building materials and labor that would normally be used to construct the part of the building that the BIPV modules replace. In addition, BIPV allows for more widespread solar adoption when the building's aesthetics matter and traditional rack-mounted solar panels would disrupt the intended look of the building. The term building-applied photovoltaics (BAPV) is sometimes used to refer to photovoltaics that are retrofit – integrated into the building after construction is complete. Most building-integrated installations are actually BAPV. Some manufacturers and builders differentiate new construction BIPV from BAPV. == History == PV applications for buildings began appearing in the 1970s. Aluminum-framed photovoltaic modules were connected to, or mounted on, buildings that were usually in remote areas without access to an electric power grid. In the 1980s photovoltaic module add-ons to roofs began being demonstrated. These PV systems were usually installed on utility-grid-connected buildings in areas with centralized power stations. In the 1990s BIPV construction products specially designed to be integrated into a building envelope became commercially available. A 1998 doctoral thesis by Patrina Eiffert, entitled An Economic Assessment of BIPV, hypothesized that one day there would an economic value for trading Renewable Energy Credits (RECs). A 2011 economic assessment and brief overview of the history of BIPV by the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory suggests that there may be significant technical challenges to overcome before the installed cost of BIPV is competitive with photovoltaic panels. However, there is a growing consensus that through their widespread commercialization, BIPV systems will become the backbone of the zero energy building (ZEB) European target for 2020. Despite the technical promise, social barriers to widespread use have also been identified, such as the conservative culture of the building industry and integration with high-density urban design. These authors suggest enabling long-term use likely depends on effective public policy decisions as much as the technological development. == Forms == The majority of BIPV products use one of two technologies: Crystalline Solar Cells (c-SI) or Thin-Film Solar Cells. C-SI technologies comprise wafers of single-cell crystalline silicon which generally operate at a higher efficiency that Thin-Film cells but are more expensive to produce. The applications of these two technologies can be categorized by five main types of BIPV products: Standard in-roof systems. These generally take the form of applicable strips of photovoltaic cells. Semi-transparent systems. These products are typically used in greenhouse or cold-weather applications where solar energy must simultaneously be captured and allowed into the building. Cladding systems. There are a broad range of these systems; their commonality being their vertical application on a building façade. Solar Tiles and Shingles. These are the most common BIPV systems as they can easily be swapped out for conventional shingle roof finishes. Flexible Laminates. Commonly procured in thin-sheet form, these products can be adhered to a variety of forms, primarily roof forms. With the exception of flexible laminates, each of the above categories can utilize either c-SI or Thin-Film technologies, with Thin-Film technologies only being applicable to flexible laminates – this renders Thin-Film BIPV products ideal for advanced design applications that have a kinetic aspect. Between the five categories, BIPV products can be applied in a variety of scenarios: pitched roofs, flat roofs, curved roofs, semi-transparent façades, skylights, shading systems, external walls, and curtain walls, with flat roofs and pitched roofs being the most ideal for solar energy capture. The ranges of roofing and shading system BIPV products are most commonly used in residential applications whereas the wall and cladding systems are most commonly used in commercial settings. Overall, roofing BIPV systems currently have more of the market share and are generally more efficient than façade and cladding BIPV systems due to their orientation to the sun. Building-integrated photovoltaic modules are available in several forms: Flat roofs The most widely installed to date is an amorphous thin film solar cell integrated to a flexible polymer module which has been attached to the roofing membrane using an adhesive sheet between the solar module backsheet and the roofing membrane. Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) technology is now able to deliver cell efficiency of 17% as produced by a US-based company and comparable building-integrated module efficiencies in TPO single ply membranes by the fusion of these cells by a UK-based company. Pitched roofs Solar roof tiles are (ceramic) roof tiles with integrated solar modules. The ceramic solar roof tile is developed and patented by a Dutch company in 2013. Modules shaped like multiple roof tiles. Solar shingles are modules designed to look and act like regular shingles, while incorporating a flexible thin film cell. It extends normal roof life by protecting insulation and membranes from ultraviolet rays and water degradation. It does this by eliminating condensation because the dew point is kept above the roofing membrane. Metal pitched roofs (both structural and architectural) are now being integrated with PV functionality either by bonding a free-standing flexible module or by heat and vacuum sealing of the CIGS cells directly onto the substrate Façade Façades can be installed on existing buildings, giving old buildings a whole new look. These modules are mounted on the façade of the building, over the existing structure, which can increase the appeal of the building and its resale value. Glazing Photovoltaic windows are (semi)transparent modules that can be used to replace a number of architectural elements commonly made with glass or similar materials, such as windows and skylights. In addition to producing electric energy, these can create further energy savings due to superior thermal insulation properties and solar radiation control. Photovoltaic Stained Glass: The integration of energy harvesting technologies into homes and commercial buildings has opened up additional areas of research which place greater considerations on the end product's overall aesthetics. While the goal is still to maintain high levels of efficiency, new developments in photovoltaic windows also aim to offer consumers optimal levels of glass transparency and/or the opportunity to select from a range of colors. Different colored 'stained glass' solar panels can be optimally designed to absorb specific ranges of wavelengths from the broader spectrum. Colored photovoltaic glass has been successfully developed using semi transparent, perovskite, and dye sensitized solar cells. Plasmonic solar cells that absorb and reflect colored light have been created with Fabry-Pérot etalon technology. These cells are composed of "two parallel reflecting metal films and a dielectric cavity film between them." The two electrodes are made from Ag and the cavity between them is Sb2O3 based. Modifying the thickness and refractance of the dielectric cavity changes which wavelength will be most optimally absorbed. Matching the color of the absorption layer glass to the specific portion of the spectrum that the cell's thickness and refractance index is best tuned to transmit both enhances the aesthetic of the cell by intensifying its color and helps to minimize photocurrent losses. 34.7% and 24.6% transmittance was achieved in red and blue light devices respectively. Blue devices can convert 13.3% of light absorbed into power, making it the most efficient across all colored devices developed and tested. Perovskite solar cell technology can be tuned to red, green and blue by changing the metallic nanowire thickness to 8, 20 and 45 nm respectively. Maximum power efficiencies of 10.12%, 8.17% and 7.72% were achieved by matching glass reflectance to the wavelength that the specific cell is designed to most optimally transmit. Dye-sensitized solar cells employ liquid electrolytes to capture light and convert it into usable energy; this is achieved in a similar way to how natural pigments facilitate photosynthesis in plants. While chlorophyll is the specific pigment responsible for producing the green color in leaves, other dyes found in nature such as, carotenoid and anthocyanin, produce variations of orange and purples dyes. Researchers from the University of Concepcion have proved the viability of dye sensitized colored solar cells that both appear and selectively absorb specific wavelengths of light. This low cost solution uses extracting natural pigments from maqui fruit, black myrtle and spinach as sensitizers. These natural sensitizers are then placed between two layers of transparent glass. While the efficiency levels of these particularly low cost cells remains unclear, past research in organic dye cells have been able to achieve a "high power conversion efficiency of 9.8%." == Transparent and translucent photovoltaics == Transparent solar panels use a tin oxide coating on the inner surface of the glass panes to conduct current out of the cell. The cell contains titanium oxide that is coated with a photoelectric dye. Most conventional solar cells use visible and infrared light to generate electricity. In contrast, the innovative new solar cell also uses ultraviolet radiation. Used to replace conventional window glass, or placed over the glass, the installation surface area could be large, leading to potential uses that take advantage of the combined functions of power generation, lighting and temperature control. Another name for transparent photovoltaics is "translucent photovoltaics" (they transmit half the light that falls on them). Similar to inorganic photovoltaics, organic photovoltaics are also capable of being translucent. === Types of transparent and translucent photovoltaics === ==== Non-wavelength-selective ==== Some non-wavelength-selective photovoltaics achieve semi-transparency by spatial segmentation of opaque solar cells. This method uses any type of opaque photovoltaic cell and spaces several small cells out on a transparent substrate. Spacing them out in this way reduces power conversion efficiencies dramatically while increasing transmission. Another branch of non-wavelength-selective photovoltaics utilize visibly absorbing thin-film semi-conductors with small thicknesses or large enough band gaps that allow light to pass through. This results in semi-transparent photovoltaics with a similar direct trade off between efficiency and transmission as spatially segmented opaque solar cells. ==== Wavelength-selective ==== Wavelength-selective photovoltaics achieve transparency by utilizing materials that only absorb UV and/or NIR light and were first demonstrated in 2011. Despite their higher transmissions, lower power conversion efficiencies have resulted due to a variety of challenges. These include small exciton diffusion lengths, scaling of transparent electrodes without jeopardizing efficiency, and general lifetime due to the volatility of organic materials used in TPVs in general. === Innovations in transparent and translucent photovoltaics === Early attempts at developing non-wavelength-selective semi-transparent organic photovoltaics using very thin active layers that absorbed in the visible spectrum were only able to achieve efficiencies below 1%. However in 2011, transparent organic photovoltaics that utilized an organic chloroaluminum phthalocyanine (ClAlPc) donor and a fullerene acceptor exhibited absorption in the ultraviolet and near-infrared (NIR) spectrum with efficiencies around 1.3% and visible light transmission of over 65%. In 2017, MIT researchers developed a process to successfully deposit transparent graphene electrodes onto organic solar cells resulting in a 61% transmission of visible light and improved efficiencies ranging from 2.8%-4.1%. Perovskite solar cells, popular due to their promise as next-generation photovoltaics with efficiencies over 25%, have also shown promise as translucent photovoltaics. In 2015, a semitransparent perovskite solar cell using a methylammonium lead triiodide perovskite and a silver nanowire mesh top electrode demonstrated 79% transmission at an 800 nm wavelength and efficiencies at around 12.7%. == Government subsidies == In some countries, additional incentives, or subsidies, are offered for building-integrated photovoltaics in addition to the existing feed-in tariffs for stand-alone solar systems. Since July 2006 France offered the highest incentive for BIPV, equal to an extra premium of EUR 0.25/kWh paid in addition to the 30 Euro cents for PV systems. These incentives are offered in the form of a rate paid for electricity fed to the grid. === Europe === France €0.25/kWh Germany €0.05/kWh façade bonus expired in 2009 Italy €0.04–€0.09/kWh United Kingdom 4.18 p/kWh Spain, compared with a non- building installation that receives €0.28/kWh (RD 1578/2008): ≤20 kW: €0.34/kWh >20 kW: €0.31/kWh === United States === United States – Varies by state. Check Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency for more details. === China === Further to the announcement of a subsidy program for BIPV projects in March 2009 offering RMB20 per watt for BIPV systems and RMB15/watt for rooftop systems, the Chinese government recently unveiled a photovoltaic energy subsidy program "the Golden Sun Demonstration Project". The subsidy program aims at supporting the development of photovoltaic electricity generation ventures and the commercialization of PV technology. The Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Science and Technology and the National Energy Bureau have jointly announced the details of the program in July 2009. Qualified on-grid photovoltaic electricity generation projects including rooftop, BIPV, and ground mounted systems are entitled to receive a subsidy equal to 50% of the total investment of each project, including associated transmission infrastructure. Qualified off-grid independent projects in remote areas will be eligible for subsidies of up to 70% of the total investment. In mid November, China's finance ministry has selected 294 projects totaling 642 megawatts that come to roughly RMB 20 billion ($3 billion) in costs for its subsidy plan to dramatically boost the country's solar energy production. == Other integrated photovoltaics == Vehicle-integrated photovoltaics (ViPV) are similar for vehicles. Solar cells could be embedded into panels exposed to sunlight such as the hood, roof and possibly the trunk depending on a car's design. == Challenges == === Performance === Because BIPV systems generate on-site power and are integrated into the building envelope, the system’s output power and thermal properties are the two primary performance indicators. Conventional BIPV systems have a lower heat dissipation capability than rack-mounted PV, which results in BIPV modules experiencing higher operating temperatures. Higher temperatures may degrade the module's semiconducting material, decreasing the output efficiency and precipitating early failure. In addition, the efficiency of BIPV systems is sensitive to weather conditions, and the use of inappropriate BIPV systems may also reduce their energy output efficiency. In terms of thermal performance, BIPV windows can reduce the cooling load compared to conventional clear glass windows, but may increase the heating load of the building. === Cost === The high upfront investment in BIPV systems is one of the biggest barriers to implementation. In addition to the upfront cost of purchasing BIPV components, the highly integrated nature of BIPV systems increases the complexity of the building design, which in turn leads to increased design and construction costs. Also, insufficient and inexperienced practitioners lead to higher employment costs incurred in the development of BIPV projects. === Policy and regulation === Although many countries have support policies for PV, most do not have additional benefits for BIPV systems. And typically, BIPV systems need to comply with building and PV industry standards, which places higher demands on implementing BIPV systems. In addition, government policies of lower conventional energy prices will lead to lower BIPV system benefits, which is particularly evident in countries where the price of conventional electricity is very low or subsidized by governments, such as in GCC countries. === Public understanding === Studies show that public awareness of BIPV is limited and the cost is generally considered too high. Deepening public understanding of BIPV through various public channels (e.g., policy, community engagement, and demonstration buildings) is likely to be beneficial to its long-term development. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Agrawal, Basant; Tiwari, G N (2011). Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-84973-090-7. Warrick, Joby (March 2015). "Utilities, sensing threat, put squeeze on booming solar roof industry". The Washington Post. == External links == Building integrated photovoltaics an overview of the existing products and their fields of application Canadian Solar Buildings Research Network Building Integrated Photovoltaics EURAC Research Building Integrated Photovoltaic on-line platform PV UP-SCALE, a European founded project (contract EIE/05/171/SI2.420208) related to the large-scale implementation of photovoltaics (PV) in European cities.	Wikipedia/Building-integrated_photovoltaics
Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is a concentrated solar power plant in California, United States. With the combined capacity from three separate locations at 354 megawatt (MW), it was for thirty years the world's largest solar thermal energy generating facility, until the commissioning of the even larger Ivanpah facility in 2014. It was also for thirty years the world's largest solar generating facility of any type of technology, until the commissioning of the photovoltaic Topaz Solar Farm in 2014. It consisted of nine solar power plants in California's Mojave Desert, where insolation is among the best available in the United States. SEGS I–II (44 MW) were located at Daggett (34°51′45″N 116°49′45″W); they have been replaced with a solar photovoltaic farm. SEGS III–VII (150 MW) were installed at Kramer Junction (35°00′43″N 117°33′32″W); all five SEGS have undergone demolition. SEGS VIII–IX (160 MW) are located at Harper Lake (35°01′55″N 117°20′50″W). NextEra Energy Resources operates and partially owns the plants located at Kramer Junction. On January 26, 2018, the SEGS VIII and IX at Harper Lake were sold to renewable energy company Terra-Gen, LLC. A tenth plant (SEGS X, 80 MW) had been in construction and SEGS XI and SEGS XII had been planned by Luz Industries, but the developer filed for bankruptcy in 1992, because it was unable to secure construction financing. The site of SEGS X was later licensed for a solar photovoltaic farm, Lockhart Solar PV II. Most of the thermal facilities were retired by 2021, and photovoltaics were built on the same sites. == Plants' scale and operations == Before retirement and replacement of SEGS I-VII with solar photovoltaics, the plants had a 354 MW net (394 MW gross) installed capacity. The nameplate capacity, which operating continuously, would dеliver the samе net power output, coming only from the solar source was around 75 MWe —, representing a 21% capacity factor. In addition, the turbines could be utilized at night by burning natural gas. NextEra claimed in 2009 that the solar plants could power 232,500 homеs (during the day, at peak power) and displace 3,800 tons of pollution pеr year that would have been produced if the electricity had been providеd by fossil fuels, such as oil. The facilities had a total of 936,384 mirrors and cover more than 1,600 acres (647.5 ha). Lined up, the parabolic mirrors would have extended over 229 miles (369 km). As an example of cost, in 2002, one of the 30 MW Kramer Junction sites required $90 million to construct, and its operation and maintenance cost was about $3 million per year (4.6 cents per kilowatt hour). == Principle of operation == The installation uses parabolic trough, solar thermal technology along with natural gas to generate electricity. About 90% of the electricity is produced by the sunlight. Natural gas is only used when the solar power is insufficient to meet the demand from Southern California Edison, the distributor of power in southern California. === Mirrors === The parabolic mirrors are shaped like quarter-pipes. The sun shines on glass panels, which are 94% reflective, unlike a typical mirror, which is only 70% reflective. The mirrors automatically track the sun throughout the day. The greatest source of mirror breakage is wind, with 3,000 mirrors typically replaced each year. Operators can turn the mirrors to protect them during intense wind storms. An automated washing mechanism is used to periodically clean the parabolic reflective panels. The term "field area" is assessed as the actual collector area. === Heat transfer === The sunlight bounces off the mirrors and is directed to a central tube filled with synthetic oil, which heats to over 400 °C (750 °F). The reflected light focused at the central tube is 71 to 80 times more intense than the ordinary sunlight. The synthetic oil transfers its heat to water, which boils and drives the Rankine cycle steam turbine, thereby generating electricity. Synthetic oil is used to carry the heat (instead of water) to keep the pressure within manageable parameters. == Individual locations == The SEGS power plants were built by Luz Industries, and commissioned between December 20, 1984 and October 1, 1990. After Luz Industries' bankruptcy in 1991 plants were sold to various investor groups as individual projects, and expansion including three more plants was halted. Kramer Junction employs about 95 people and 45 people work at Harper Lake. === Harper Lake === Until Ivanpah Solar Power Facility was commissioned in 2014, SEGS VIII and SEGS IX, located at 35°01′55″N 117°20′50″W were the largest solar thermal power plants individually and collectively in the world. They were the last, the largest, and the most advanced of the nine plants at SEGS, designed to take advantage of the economies of scale. Construction of the tenth plant in the same locality was halted because of the bankruptcy of Luz Industries. Construction of the approved eleventh and twelfth plants never started. Each of the three planned plants would have had 80 MW of installed capacity. Abengoa Solar recently constructed the 280MW Mojave Solar Project (MSP) adjacent to the SEGS VIII and SEGS IX plants. The MSP also uses concentrating solar thermal trough technology. Starting in February 2020, SEGS VIII no longer burned natural gas. The last production month was October 2021. SEGS IX stopped burning natural gas starting October 2020, except for January 2021. === Kramer Junction === This location (35°00′48″N 117°33′38″W) receives an average of 340 days of sunshine per year, which makes it an ideal place for solar power generation. The average direct normal radiation (DNR) is 7.44 kWh/m2/day (310 W/m2), one of the best in the nation. This was the location of SEGS II - VII, which were retired in 2019. As of 2021, they were going to be replaced with a new solar photovoltaic array called Resurgence I. === Daggett === SEGS I and II were located at 34°51′47″N 116°49′37″W and owned by Cogentrix Energy (Carlyle Group). SEGS II was shut down in 2014 and was replaced by Sunray 3 (EIA plant code 10438), a 13,8 MW photovoltaic system. SEGS I was shut down one year later and replaced by 20 MW PV system Sunray 2 (EIA plant code 10437). Sunray 2 and Sunray 3 started production in 2017 as per EIA data. == Accidents and incidents == In February 1999, a 900,000-US-gallon (3,400 m3) mineral oil storage tank exploded at the SEGS I (Daggett) solar power plant, sending flames and smoke into the sky. Authorities were trying to keep flames away from two adjacent containers that held sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide. The immediate area of 0.5 square miles (1.3 km2) was evacuated. == See also == == References ==	Wikipedia/Solar_Energy_Generating_Systems
The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (Pub. L. 109–58 (text) (PDF)) is a federal law signed by President George W. Bush on August 8, 2005, at Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The act, described by proponents as an attempt to combat growing energy problems, changed US energy policy by providing tax incentives and loan guarantees for energy production of various types. The most consequential aspect of the law was to greatly increase ethanol production to be blended with gasoline. The law also repealed the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, effective February 2006. == Provisions == === General provisions === The Act increases the amount of biofuel (usually ethanol) that must be mixed with gasoline sold in the United States to 4 billion US gallons (15,000,000 m3) by 2006, 6.1 billion US gallons (23,000,000 m3) by 2009 and 7.5 billion US gallons (28,000,000 m3) by 2012; two years later, the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 extended the target to 36 billion US gallons (140,000,000 m3) by 2022. Under an amendment in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, Section 406, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorizes loan guarantees for innovative technologies that avoid greenhouse gases, which might include advanced nuclear reactor designs, such as pebble bed modular reactors (PBMRs) as well as carbon capture and storage and renewable energy; It seeks to increase coal as an energy source while also reducing air pollution, through authorizing $200 million annually for clean coal initiatives, repealing the current 160-acre (0.65 km2) cap on coal leases, allowing the advanced payment of royalties from coal mines and requiring an assessment of coal resources on federal lands that are not national parks; It authorizes tax credits for wind and other alternative energy producers; It adds ocean energy sources, including wave and tidal power for the first time as separately identified, renewable technologies; It authorizes $50 million annually over the life of the law for biomass grants; It includes provisions aimed at making geothermal energy more competitive with fossil fuels in generating electricity; It requires the Department of Energy to: Study and report on existing natural energy resources including wind, solar, waves and tides; Study and report on national benefits of demand response and make a recommendation on achieving specific levels of benefits and encourages time-based pricing and other forms of demand response as a policy decision; Designate National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors where there are significant transmission limitations adversely affecting the public (the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission may authorize federal permits for transmission projects in these regions); Report in one year on how to dispose of high-level nuclear waste; It authorizes the Department of the Interior to grant leases for activity that involves the production, transportation or transmission of energy on the Outer Continental Shelf lands from sources other than gas and oil (Section 388); It requires all public electric utilities to offer net metering on request to their customers; It prohibits the manufacture and importation of mercury-vapor lamp ballasts after January 1, 2008; It provides tax breaks for those making energy conservation improvements to their homes; It provides incentives to companies to drill for oil in the Gulf of Mexico; It exempts oil and gas producers from certain requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act; It extends the daylight saving time by four to five weeks, depending upon the year (see below); It requires that no drilling for gas or oil may be done in or underneath the Great Lakes; It requires that the Federal Fleet vehicles capable of operating on alternative fuels be operated on these fuels exclusively (Section 701); It sets federal reliability standards regulating the electrical grid (done in response to the 2003 North America blackout); It includes nuclear-specific provisions; It extends the Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act through 2025; It authorizes cost-overrun support of up to $2 billion total for up to six new nuclear power plants; It authorizes production tax credit of up to $125 million total a year, estimated at 1.8 US¢/kWh during the first eight years of operation for the first 6.000 MW of capacity, consistent with renewables; It authorizes loan guarantees of up to 80% of project cost to be repaid within 30 years or 90% of the project's life; It authorizes $2.95 billion for R&D and the building of an advanced hydrogen cogeneration reactor at Idaho National Laboratory; It authorizes 'standby support' for new reactor delays that offset the financial impact of delays beyond the industry's control for the first six reactors, including 100% coverage of the first two plants with up to $500 million each and 50% of the cost of delays for plants three through six with up to $350 million each for; It allows nuclear plant employees and certain contractors to carry firearms; It prohibits the sale, export or transfer of nuclear materials and "sensitive nuclear technology" to any state sponsor of terrorist activities; It updates tax treatment of decommissioning funds; The law exempted fluids used in the natural gas extraction process of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) from protections under the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, and CERCLA ("Superfund"). It directs the Secretary of the Interior to complete a programmatic environmental impact statement for a commercial leasing program for oil shale and tar sands resources on public lands with an emphasis on the most geologically prospective lands within each of the states of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. === Tax reductions by subject area === $4.3 billion for nuclear power $2.8 billion for fossil fuel production $2.7 billion to extend the renewable electricity production credit $1.6 billion in tax incentives for investments in "clean coal" facilities $1.3 billion for energy conservation and efficiency $1.3 billion for alternative fuel vehicles and fuels (bioethanol, biomethane, liquified natural gas, propane) $500 million Clean Renewable Energy Bonds (CREBS) for government agencies for renewable energy projects. === Change to daylight saving time === The law amended the Uniform Time Act of 1966 by changing the start and end dates of daylight saving time, beginning in 2007. Clocks were set ahead one hour on the second Sunday of March (March 11, 2007) instead of on the first Sunday of April (April 1, 2007). Clocks were set back one hour on the first Sunday of November (November 4, 2007), rather than on the last Sunday of October (October 28, 2007). This had the net effect of slightly lengthening the duration of daylight saving time. Lobbyists for this provision included the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association, the National Association of Convenience Stores, and the National Retinitis Pigmentosa Foundation Fighting Blindness. Lobbyists against this provision included the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops, the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, the National Parent-Teacher Association, the Calendaring and Scheduling Consortium, the Edison Electric Institute, and the Air Transport Association. This section of the act is controversial; some have questioned whether daylight saving results in net energy savings. === Commercial building deduction === The Act created the Energy Efficient Commercial Buildings Tax Deduction, a special financial incentive designed to reduce the initial cost of investing in energy-efficient building systems via an accelerated tax deduction under section §179D of the Internal Revenue Code (IRC)[1] Many building owners are unaware that the [Policy Act of 2005] includes a tax deduction (§179D) for investments in "energy efficient commercial building property" designed to significantly reduce the heating, cooling, water heating and interior lighting cost of new or existing commercial buildings placed into service between January 1, 2006 and December 31, 2013. §179D includes full and partial tax deductions for investments in energy efficient commercial building that are designed to increase the efficiency of energy-consuming functions. Up to $.60 for lighting, $.60 for HVAC and $.60 for building envelope, creating a potential deduction of $1.80 per sq/ft. Interior lighting may also be improved using the Interim Lighting Rule, which provides a simplified process to earn the Deduction, capped at $0.30-$0.60/square foot. Improvements are compared to a baseline of ASHRAE 2001 standards. To obtain these benefits the facilities/energy division of a business, its tax department, and a firm specializing in EPAct 179D deductions needed to cooperate. IRS mandated software had to be used and an independent 3rd party had to certify the qualification. For municipal buildings, benefits were passed through to the primary designers/architects in an attempt to encourage innovative municipal design. The Commercial Buildings Tax Deduction expiration date had been extended twice, last by the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008. With this extension, the CBTD could be claimed for qualifying projects completed before January 1, 2014. === Energy management === The commercial building tax deductions could be used to improve the payback period of a prospective energy improvement investment. The deductions could be combined by participating in demand response programs where building owners agree to curtail usage at peak times for a premium. The most common qualifying projects were in the area of lighting. === Energy savings === Summary of Energy Savings Percentages Provided by IRS Guidance Percentages permitted under Notice 2006-52 (Effective for property placed in service January 1, 2006 – December 31, 2008) Interior Lighting Systems 16+2⁄3%, Heating, Cooling, Ventilation, and Hot Water Systems 16+2⁄3%, Building Envelope 16+2⁄3%. Percentages permitted under Notice 2008-40 (Effective for property placed in service January 1, 2006 – December 31, 2013) Interior Lighting Systems 20%, Heating, Cooling, Ventilation, and Hot Water Systems 20%, Building Envelope 10%. Percentages permitted under Notice 2012-22 Interior Lighting Systems 25%, Heating, Cooling, Ventilation, and Hot Water Systems 15%, Building Envelope 10%. Effective date of Notice 2012-22 – December 31, 2013; if §179D is extended beyond December 31, 2013, is also effective (except as otherwise provided in an amendment of §179D or the guidance thereunder) during the period of the extension. == Cost estimate == The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) review of the conference version of the bill estimated the Act would increase direct spending by $2.2 billion over the 2006–2010 period, and by $1.6 billion over the 2006–2015 period. The CBO did not attempt to estimate additional effects on discretionary spending. The CBO and the Joint Committee on Taxation estimated that the legislation would reduce revenues by $7.9 billion over the 2005–2010 period and by $12.3 billion over the 2005–2015 period. == Support == The collective reduction in national consumption of energy (gas and electricity) is significant for home heating. The Act provided gible financial incentives (tax credits) for average homeowners to make environmentally positive changes to their homes. It made improvements to home energy use more affordable for walls, doors, windows, roofs, water heaters, etc. Consumer spending, and hence the national economy, was abetted. Industry grew for manufacture of these environmentally positive improvements. These positive improvements have been near and long-term in effect. The collective reduction in national consumption of oil is significant for automotive vehicles. The Act provided tangible financial incentives (tax credits) for operators of hybrid vehicles. It helped fuel competition among auto makers to meet rising demands for fuel-efficient vehicles. Consumer spending, and hence the national economy, was abetted. Dependence on imported oil was reduced. The national trade deficit was improved. Industry grew for manufacture of these environmentally positive improvements. These positive improvements have been near and long-term in effect. == Criticism == The Washington Post contended that the spending bill was a broad collection of subsidies for United States energy companies; in particular, the nuclear and oil industries. Speaking for the National Republicans for Environmental Protection Association, President Martha Marks said that the organization was disappointed in the law because it did not support conservation enough, and continued to subsidize the well-established oil and gas industries that didn't require subsidizing. The law did not include provisions for drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR); some Republicans claimed "access to the abundant oil reserves in ANWR would strengthen America's energy independence without harming the environment." Senator Hillary Clinton criticized Senator Barack Obama's vote for the bill in the 2008 Democratic Primary. == Legislative history == The Act was voted on and passed twice by the United States Senate, once prior to conference committee, and once after. In both cases, there were numerous senators who voted against the bill. John McCain, the Republican Party nominee for President of the United States in the 2008 election voted against the bill. Democrat Barack Obama, President of the United States from January 2009 to January 2017, voted in favor of the bill. === Provisions in the original bill that were not in the act === Limited liability for producers of MTBE. Drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). Increasing vehicle efficiency standards (CAFE). Requiring increased reliance on non-greenhouse gas-emitting energy sources similar to the Kyoto Protocol. To remove from 18 CFR Part 366.1 the definitions of "electric utility company" and exempt wholesale generator (EWG), that an EWG is not an electric utility company. === Preliminary Senate vote === June 28, 2005, 10:00 a.m. Yeas - 85, Nays - 12 === Conference committee === The bill's conference committee included 14 Senators and 51 House members. The senators on the committee were: Republicans Domenici, Craig, Thomas, Alexander, Murkowski, Burr, Grassley and Democrats Bingaman, Akaka, Dorgan, Wyden, Johnson, and Baucus. === Final Senate vote === July 29, 2005, 12:50 p.m. Yeas - 74, Nays - 26 === Legislative history === == See also == == References == == External links == === Government === Energy Policy Act of 2005 as amended (PDF/details) in the GPO Statute Compilations collection Energy Policy Act of 2005 as enacted (details) in the US Statutes at Large H.R. 6 on Congress.gov Department of Energy spotlight on the bill Archived July 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine - listing consumer savings (tax breaks). Official News release and Allocution Bush / Albuquerque / 2005-08-08 Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate for the bill conference agreement, July 27, 2005 Research Service summary === Events === GovEnergy Workshop and Trade Show === News === Christian Science Monitor: How Much New Oil? Not a Lot Boston Herald: Editorial Reuters: brief summary MSNBC: news story TaxPayer.net: How the Bill Passed – a view of the reasons for the bills passage and its costs to taxpayers. See also: TaxPayer.net on Subsidies Yahoo! News: bill signing CNN: Bush: Energy bill effects will be long-term WashingtonWatch.com page on P.L. 109-58: The Energy Policy Act of 2005 InfoWorld.com Sustainable IT blog: New daylight saving time not so bright an idea – a criticism of the change to daylight saving time === Non-profit === Clean Fuels Ohio - This site focuses on alternative fuels as well as alt-fuels incentives created by the Energy Policy Act of 2005.	Wikipedia/Energy_Policy_Act_of_2005
Reinventing Fire: Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era is a 2011 book, by Amory B. Lovins and the Rocky Mountain Institute, that explores converting the United States to almost total reliance on renewable energy sources, such as solar energy and wind power. Lovins says that renewable energy is already cheaper than fossil fuels and his analysis predicts further reductions in renewable energy prices. Reinventing Fire was launched at the Washington National Geographic Society, in October 2011. Bill Clinton says the book is a “wise, detailed and comprehensive blueprint.” The book has forewords by Marvin Odum, from Shell Oil, and John W. Rowe, CEO of Exelon. The first paragraph of the preface says: Imagine fuel without fear. No climate change. No oil spills, dead coal miners, dirty air, devastated lands, lost wildlife. No energy poverty. No oil-fed wars, tyrannies, or terrorists. Nothing to run out. Nothing to cut off. Nothing to worry about. Just energy abundance, benign and affordable, for all, for ever. Fen Montaigne in The Guardian has said that the book is impressive in both its scope and detail: Lovins discusses everything from how to redesign heavy trucks to make them more fuel efficient to ways to change factory pipes to conserve energy — the book lays out a plan for the U.S. to achieve the following by 2050: cars completely powered by hydrogen fuel cells, electricity, and biofuels; 84 percent of trucks and airplanes running on biomass fuels; 80 percent of the nation's electricity produced by renewable power; $5 trillion in savings; and an economy that has grown by 158 percent. By combining reduced energy use with energy efficiency gains, Lovins says that there will be a $5 trillion saving over the next 40 years and a faster-growing economy. This can all be done, the book jacket says, without "new federal taxes, subsidies, mandates, or laws. The policy innovations needed to unlock and speed it need no act of Congress." The profitable commercialization of existing energy-saving technologies, through market forces, can be led by business. == See also == Our Choice Climate Capitalism Clean Tech Nation Renewable energy commercialization List of books about renewable energy == References == == External links == Reinventing Fire at Google Books What is Reinventing Fire?	Wikipedia/Reinventing_Fire:_Bold_Business_Solutions_for_the_New_Energy_Era
Clean Energy Trends is a series of reports by Clean Edge which examine markets for solar, wind, geothermal, fuel cells, biofuels, and other clean energy technologies. Since the publication of the first Clean Energy Trends report in 2002, Clean Edge has provided an annual snapshot of both the global and U.S. clean energy sector markets. == 2006 trends == In 2006 most climate change deniers began to change their views. Scientists, investors, business leaders, and politicians moved the agenda from whether climate change was occurring to what should be done about it. The acceptance of climate change as “real” helped to unlock latent interest in clean energy technologies on the part of corporate and political leaders. In Washington and other capitals, clean energy became a bipartisan issue. In corporate boardrooms, it is said to be fast becoming an imperative. And clean energy markets are growing: "We have reached the point where the steady and rapid growth of clean energy has become an old story. Each year, it seems, brings an ever-higher plateau of success. This appears to be the future of clean energy: a rolling series of technology breakthroughs, landmark corporate investments, industry consolidation, and the not-infrequent emergence of new and sometimes surprising players entering the field." == 2007 trends == Clean Energy Trends 2007 shows markets for four benchmark technologies — solar photovoltaics, wind power, biofuels, and fuel cells — continuing their steady climb. Annual revenue for these four technologies increased nearly 39% in one year — to $55 billion in 2006 up from $40 billion in 2005. Clean Edge forecasts that this trajectory will continue to become a $226 billion market by 2016. Several developments have helped to strengthen clean energy markets in 2007: "a near tripling in venture investments in energy technologies in the U.S. to more than $2.4 billion" "a new level of commitment by U.S. politicians at the regional, state, and federal levels" "significant corporate investments in clean energy acquisitions and expansion initiatives" == 2008 Trends == == 2009 Trends == == See also == List of energy storage projects Renewable energy industry == References == == External links == Climate for clean energy Clean Energy Development Drives Job Creation Moving Renewable Energy from the 'Green Ghetto' to Mainstream America The Future Ain't What Is Used to Be	Wikipedia/Clean_Energy_Trends
The DeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center is a photovoltaic power station in Arcadia, DeSoto County, in the U.S. state of Florida, owned by Florida Power & Light (FPL). President Barack Obama attended the plant's commissioning on October 27, 2009. It has a nameplate capacity of 25 megawatts (MW), and produces an estimated 42,000 megawatt hours (MW·h) of electricity per year (an average output of about 4.8 MW). The plant cost $150 million to construct. The plant consists of over 90,000 SunPower solar panels with single-axis trackers on 235 acres (95 ha). FPL has to get a permit for construction of the second stage and had filed for the permit to build the third stage of the plant. At the second stage, 49 MW of capacity will be added. At the third stage, 226 MW of capacity is planned to be added bringing the total capacity of the plant up to 300 MW. == Production == == See also == Solar power in the United States Space Coast Next Generation Solar Energy Center == References == == External links == Official website	Wikipedia/DeSoto_Next_Generation_Solar_Energy_Center
Energy crops are low-cost and low-maintenance crops grown solely for renewable bioenergy production (not for food). The crops are processed into solid, liquid or gaseous fuels, such as pellets, bioethanol or biogas. The fuels are burned to generate electrical power or heat. The plants are generally categorized as woody or herbaceous. Woody plants include willow and poplar, herbaceous plants include Miscanthus x giganteus and Pennisetum purpureum (both known as elephant grass). Herbaceous crops, while physically smaller than trees, store roughly twice the amount of CO2 (in the form of carbon) below ground compared to woody crops. Through biotechnological procedures such as genetic modification, plants can be manipulated to create higher yields. Relatively high yields can also be realized with existing cultivars.: 250 However, some additional advantages such as reduced associated costs (i.e. costs during the manufacturing process) and less water use can only be accomplished by using genetically modified crops. == Types == === Solid biomass === Solid biomass, often pelletized, is used for combustion in thermal power stations, either alone or co-fired with other fuels. Alternatively it may be used for heat or combined heat and power (CHP) production. In short rotation coppice (SRC) agriculture, fast growing tree species like willow and poplar are grown and harvested in short cycles of three to five years. These trees grow best in wet soil conditions. An influence on local water conditions can not be excluded. Establishment close to vulnerable wetland should be avoided. === Gas biomass (methane) === Whole crops such as maize, Sudan grass, millet, white sweet clover, and many others can be made into silage and then converted into biogas. Anaerobic digesters or biogas plants can be directly supplemented with energy crops once they have been ensiled into silage. The fastest-growing sector of German biofarming has been in the area of "Renewable Energy Crops" on nearly 500,000 ha (1,200,000 acres) of land (2006). Energy crops can also be grown to boost gas yields where feedstocks have a low energy content, such as manures and spoiled grain. It is estimated that the energy yield presently of bioenergy crops converted via silage to methane is about 2 GWh/km2 (1.8×1010 BTU/sq mi) annually. Small mixed cropping enterprises with animals can use a portion of their acreage to grow and convert energy crops and sustain the entire farm's energy requirements with about one-fifth of the acreage. In Europe and especially Germany, however, this rapid growth has occurred only with substantial government support, as in the German bonus system for renewable energy. Similar developments of integrating crop farming and bioenergy production via silage-methane have been almost entirely overlooked in North America, where political and structural issues and a huge continued push to centralize energy production has overshadowed positive developments. === Liquid biomass === ==== Biodiesel ==== European production of biodiesel from energy crops has grown steadily in the last decade, principally focused on rapeseed used for oil and energy. Production of oil/biodiesel from rape covers more than 12,000 km2 in Germany alone, and has doubled in the past 15 years. Typical yield of oil as pure biodiesel is 100,000 L/km2 (68,000 US gal/sq mi; 57,000 imp gal/sq mi) or higher, making biodiesel crops economically attractive, provided sustainable crop rotations are used that are nutrient-balanced and prevent the spread of disease such as clubroot. Biodiesel yield of soybeans is significantly lower than that of rape. ==== Bioethanol ==== Two leading non-food crops for the production of cellulosic bioethanol are switchgrass and giant miscanthus. There has been a preoccupation with cellulosic bioethanol in America as the agricultural structure supporting biomethane is absent in many regions, with no credits or bonus system in place. Consequently, a lot of private money and investor hopes are being pinned on marketable and patentable innovations in enzyme hydrolysis and similar processes. Grasses are also energy crops for biobutanol. Bioethanol also refers to the technology of using principally corn (maize seed) to make ethanol directly through fermentation. However, under certain field and process conditions this process can consume as much energy as is the energy value of the ethanol it produces, therefore being non-sustainable. New developments in converting grain stillage (referred to as distillers grain stillage or DGS) into biogas looks promising as a means to improve the poor energy ratio of this type of bioethanol process. == Energy crop use in various countries == In Sweden, willow and hemp are often used. In Finland, reed canary grass is a popular energy crop. Switchgrass (panicum virgatum) is another energy crop. It requires from 0.97 to 1.34 GJ fossil energy to produce 1 tonne of switchgrass, compared with 1.99 to 2.66 GJ to produce 1 tonne of corn. Given that switchgrass contains approximately 18.8 GJ/ODT of biomass, the energy output-to-input ratio for the crop can be up to 20:1. == Energy crop use in thermal power stations == Several methods exist to reduce pollution and reduce or eliminate carbon emissions of fossil fuel power plants. A frequently used and cost-efficient method is to convert a plant to run on a different fuel (such as energy crops/biomass). In some instances, torrefaction of biomass may benefit the power plant if energy crops/biomass is the material the converted fossil fuel power plant will be using. Also, when using energy crops as the fuel, and if implementing biochar production, the thermal power plant can even become carbon negative rather than just carbon neutral. Improving the energy efficiency of a coal-fired power plant can also reduce emissions. == Sustainability aspects == In recent years, biofuels have become more attractive to many countries as possible replacements for fossil fuels. Therefore, understanding the sustainability of this renewable resource is very important. There are many benefits associated with the use of biofuels such as reduced greenhouse gas emissions, lower cost than fossil fuels, renewability, etc. These energy crops can be used to generate electricity. Wood cellulose and biofuel in conjunction with stationary electricity generation has been shown to be very efficient. From 2008 to 2013, there has been a 109% increase in global biofuel production and this is expected to increase an additional 60% to meet our demands (according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)/Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)). The projected increase in use/need of energy crops prompts the question of whether this resource is sustainable. Increased biofuel production draws on issues relating to changes in land use, impacts on ecosystem (soil and water resources), and adds to competition of land space for use to grow energy crops, food, or feed crops. Plants best suited for future bioenergy feedstocks should be fast growing, high yielding, and require very little energy inputs for growth and harvest etc. The use of energy crops for energy production can be beneficial because of its carbon neutrality. It represents a cheaper alternative to fossil fuels while being extremely diverse in the species of plants that can be used for energy production. But issues regarding cost (more expensive than other renewable energy sources), efficiency and space required to maintain production need to be considered and improved upon to allow for the use of biofuels to be commonly adopted. === Carbon neutrality === During plant growth, CO2 is absorbed by the plants. While regular forest stands have carbon rotation times spanning many decades, short rotation forestry (SRF) stands have a rotation time of 8–20 years, and short rotation coppicing (SRC) stands 2–4 years. Perennial grasses like miscanthus or napier grass have a rotation time of 4–12 months. In addition to absorbing CO2 in its above-ground tissue, biomass crops also sequester carbon below ground, in roots and soil. Typically, perennial crops sequester more carbon than annual crops because the root buildup is allowed to continue undisturbed over many years. Also, perennial crops avoid the yearly tillage procedures (plowing, digging) associated with growing annual crops. Tilling helps the soil microbe populations to decompose the available carbon, producing CO2. Soil organic carbon has been observed to be greater below switchgrass crops than under cultivated cropland, especially at depths below 30 cm (12 in). The amount of carbon sequestrated and the amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted will determine if the total GHG life cycle cost of a bioenergy project is positive, neutral, or negative. Specifically, a GHG/carbon-negative life cycle is possible if the total below-ground carbon accumulation more than compensates for the above-ground total life-cycle GHG emissions. For example, for Miscanthus × giganteus, carbon neutrality and even negativity is within reach. This means that the yield and related carbon sequestration is so great that it accounts for more than the total of farm operations emissions, fuel conversion emissions, and transport emissions. Successful sequestration is dependent on planting sites, as the best soils for sequestration are those that are currently deficient in carbon. For the UK, successful sequestration is expected for arable land over most of England and Wales, with unsuccessful sequestration expected in parts of Scotland, due to already carbon-rich soils (existing woodland). Also, for Scotland, the relatively lower yields in this colder climate make CO2 negativity harder to achieve. Soils already rich in carbon includes peatland and mature forest. Grassland can also be carbon-rich, and it has been found that the most successful carbon sequestration in the UK takes place below improved grasslands. == See also == == References == == External links == GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016), Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State, World Sci. Pub. Co., ISBN 978-981-4704-00-7 Energy Crops for Fuel Energy crops at Biomass Energy Centre Center for Sustainable Energy Farming	Wikipedia/Energy_crop
Marine energy, also known as ocean energy, ocean power, or marine and hydrokinetic energy, refers to energy harnessed from waves, tides, salinity gradients, and temperature differences in the ocean. The movement of water in the world's oceans stores vast amounts of kinetic energy, which can be converted into electricity to power homes, transportation, and industries. Marine energy includes wave power, which is derived from surface waves, and tidal power, which is obtained from the kinetic energy of moving water. Offshore wind power, however, is not considered marine energy because it is generated from wind, even if the wind turbines are located over water. The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world. While marine energy is a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, its development can impact marine ecosystems, wildlife, and the physical environment. Potential effects include habitat disruption, noise pollution, and electromagnetic fields from subsea cables, which may require mitigation strategies such as fish-friendly turbine designs and environmental impact assessments. Government policies, economic incentives, and regulatory frameworks contribute significantly to advancing marine energy, with countries like the UK, Canada, and South Korea leading in tidal and wave energy projects. == Global potential == The global potential for marine energy is significant, with estimates suggesting that 20,000 to 80,000 terawatt-hours per year (TWh/y) of electricity could be generated from ocean temperature differences, salinity gradients, tides, currents, waves, and swells. Indonesia, as an archipelagic country that is three quarters ocean, has 49 GW recognized potential ocean energy and has 727 GW theoretical potential ocean energy. == Forms of ocean energy == The oceans are a vast, largely untapped source of energy, including surface waves, fluid flow, salinity gradients, and thermal differences. Marine and Hydrokinetic (MHK) or marine energy development in U.S. and international waters includes projects using the following devices: Wave power converters in open coastal areas with significant waves; Tidal turbines placed in coastal and estuarine areas; In-stream turbines in fast-moving rivers; Ocean current turbines in areas of strong marine currents; Ocean thermal energy converters in deep tropical waters. === Marine current power === Strong ocean currents are driven by temperature, wind, salinity, bathymetry, and the rotation of the Earth. The Sun acts as the primary driving force, causing winds and temperature differences. Because there are only small fluctuations in current speed and stream location with no changes in direction, ocean currents may be suitable locations for deploying energy extraction devices such as turbines. Ocean currents are instrumental in determining the climate in many regions around the world. While little is known about the effects of removing ocean current energy, the impacts of removing current energy on the farfield environment may be a significant environmental concern. The typical turbine issues with blade strike, entanglement of marine organisms, and acoustic effects still exists; however, these may be magnified due to the presence of more diverse populations of marine organisms using ocean currents for migration purposes. Locations can be further offshore and therefore require longer power cables that could affect the marine environment with electromagnetic output. === Osmotic power === At the mouth of rivers where fresh water mixes with salt water, energy associated with the salinity gradient can be harnessed using pressure-retarded reverse osmosis process and associated conversion technologies. Another system is based on using freshwater upwelling through a turbine immersed in seawater, and one involving electrochemical reactions is also in development. Significant research took place from 1975 to 1985 and gave various results regarding the economy of PRO and RED plants. Small-scale investigations into salinity power production take place in other countries like Japan, Israel, and the United States. In Europe the research is concentrated in Norway and the Netherlands, in both places small pilots are tested. Salinity gradient energy is the energy available from the difference in salt concentration between freshwater with saltwater. This energy source is not easy to understand, as it is not directly occurring in nature in the form of heat, waterfalls, wind, waves, or radiation. === Ocean thermal energy === Water typically varies in temperature from the surface warmed by direct sunlight to greater depths where sunlight cannot penetrate. This differential is greatest in tropical waters, making this technology most applicable in water locations. A fluid is often vaporized to drive a turbine that may generate electricity or produce desalinized water. Systems may be either open-cycle, closed-cycle, or hybrid. === Tidal power === The energy from moving masses of water – a popular form of hydroelectric power generation. Tidal power generation comprises three main forms, namely tidal stream power, tidal barrage power, and dynamic tidal power. === Wave power === Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind. The interaction between wind and the surface of water creates waves, which are larger when there is a greater distance for them to build up. Wave energy potential is greatest between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres on the west coast because of the global direction of wind. When evaluating wave energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most common approaches: point absorber buoys, surface attenuators, oscillating water columns, and overtopping devices. The wave energy sector is reaching a significant milestone in the development of the industry, with positive steps towards commercial viability being taken. The more advanced device developers are now progressing beyond single unit demonstration devices and are proceeding to array development and multi-megawatt projects. The backing of major utility companies is now manifesting itself through partnerships within the development process, unlocking further investment and, in some cases, international co-operation. At a simplified level, wave energy technology can be located near-shore and offshore. Wave energy converters can also be designed for operation in specific water depth conditions: deep water, intermediate water or shallow water. The fundamental device design will be dependent on the location of the device and the intended resource characteristics. == Environmental effects == Marine energy, harnessed from renewable sources such as waves, tides, and ocean currents, is widely regarded as a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. However, similar to other energy technologies, marine energy may have environmental impacts that need to be carefully assessed. These effects can be broadly categorized into impacts on marine ecosystems, wildlife, and the physical environment. Impacts on Marine Ecosystems The deployment of marine energy infrastructure can alter local ecosystems by modifying water flow, sediment transport, and habitat structures. For instance, tidal barrages, which block the natural flow of water, can lead to changes in salinity levels and sediment deposition in estuaries. Such alterations can disrupt benthic habitats, affecting species that rely on these environments for survival. Research has shown that tidal energy projects can result in localized habitat loss, particularly for species sensitive to changes in sediment composition and water flow. Wave energy converters (WECs) can also influence marine ecosystems. While they may create artificial reefs that attract certain species, they can simultaneously displace others, leading to competition for resources. In some cases, these structures have been observed to enhance biodiversity, but the overall impact depends on the specific design and location of the devices. The ecological trade-offs associated with WECs highlight the importance of careful planning and monitoring to balance energy production with environmental conservation. Effects on Marine Wildlife Marine energy technologies pose risks to marine wildlife, particularly through collisions with underwater turbines, noise pollution, and electromagnetic fields (EMFs) generated by subsea cables. For example, tidal turbines, which operate in high-flow environments, can pose a threat to fish and marine mammals that may collide with rotating blades. While the risk of collision is generally considered low, it can be significant for slow-moving or migratory species, necessitating the development of fish-friendly turbine designs. Noise pollution is another concern associated with marine energy installations. The construction and operation of devices can generate underwater noise, which may disrupt marine life. Cetaceans, such as whales and dolphins, rely heavily on sound for communication, navigation, and foraging. Prolonged exposure to noise can lead to behavioral changes, increased stress levels, and even habitat abandonment. Mitigation measures, such as noise-reduction technologies and strategic placement of devices, are required to minimize these impacts. Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) from subsea power cables can also affect marine species, particularly those sensitive to electromagnetic stimuli, such as sharks and rays. Physical and Chemical Changes The installation of marine energy infrastructure can lead to physical changes in the marine environment, such as altered wave patterns and coastal erosion. For example, large-scale wave energy farms can reduce the amount of wave energy reaching the shore, which may impact coastal processes like sediment transport. In some cases, this could exacerbate coastal erosion, particularly in areas already vulnerable to such changes. Chemical impacts, such as the release of antifouling agents or other pollutants from marine energy devices, are another potential concern. While these impacts are generally minor compared to those associated with fossil fuel extraction, they still require careful management to minimize harm to marine ecosystems. Regular maintenance and the use of environmentally friendly materials can help mitigate these risks. Mitigation and Best Practices Governments and organizations have developed regulatory frameworks and best practices to address these environmental effects. Regulatory bodies typically require environmental impact assessments (EIAs) before deploying marine energy projects. These assessments help identify potential risks and guide mitigation strategies, such as the use of fish-friendly turbine designs, noise-reduction technologies, and strategic placement of devices to minimize ecological disruption. International organizations, such as the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), have published guidelines for sustainable marine energy development. These guidelines emphasize the importance of stakeholder engagement, adaptive management, and long-term monitoring to ensure that marine energy projects are environmentally responsible. By adhering to these principles, the marine energy industry can balance the need for renewable energy with the protection of marine ecosystems and wildlife. == Policies, Economics, and Government Initiatives == The development of marine energy is heavily influenced by government policies, economic incentives, and regulatory frameworks. These factors play a critical role in fostering innovation, attracting investment, and ensuring the sustainable deployment of marine energy technologies. Economic Considerations Marine energy is still in the early stages of commercialization, and its economic viability depends on reducing costs and improving efficiency. The high capital expenditure (CapEx) and operational expenditure (OpEx) associated with marine energy projects have historically been barriers to widespread adoption. However, technological advancements, economies of scale, and government support are helping to drive down costs. For example, the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for tidal and wave energy has decreased significantly in recent years, though it remains higher than that of more established renewable energy sources like wind and solar. Government subsidies, grants, and tax incentives are often used to offset the high initial costs of marine energy projects. These financial mechanisms are designed to encourage private sector investment and accelerate the deployment of marine energy technologies. Government Policies and Regulatory Frameworks Government policies significantly influence the development of marine energy. Many countries have implemented renewable energy targets, feed-in tariffs, and renewable portfolio standards (RPS) to promote the development of marine energy. For instance, the European Union has set ambitious renewable energy targets as part of its Green Deal, with marine energy identified as a key component of its strategy to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. In the United Kingdom, the Marine Energy Programme has been instrumental in supporting the development of tidal and wave energy. The program provides funding for research and development (R&D), as well as demonstration projects. The UK government has also established the Contracts for Difference (CfD) scheme, which guarantees a fixed price for electricity generated from marine energy, providing long-term revenue certainty for developers. United States has implemented policies to support marine energy through the Department of Energy’s Water Power Technologies Office (WPTO). The WPTO funds R&D initiatives and provides grants for pilot projects. The Marine Renewable Energy Act has also been proposed to create a regulatory framework for the development of marine energy resources in U.S. waters. Case Studies United Kingdom: The UK is a global leader in marine energy, particularly tidal energy. The MeyGen tidal energy project in Scotland is one of the largest tidal stream projects in the world. Supported by government funding and private investment, the project has demonstrated the potential for large-scale tidal energy generation. The UK’s supportive policy environment, including the CfD scheme, has played a key role in the project’s success. Canada: Canada has significant marine energy resources, particularly in the Bay of Fundy, which has some of the highest tidal ranges in the world. The Fundy Ocean Research Center for Energy (FORCE) in Nova Scotia serves as a test site for tidal energy technologies. The Canadian government has provided funding for FORCE and established regulatory frameworks to facilitate the deployment of marine energy projects. South Korea: South Korea has made substantial investments in marine energy as part of its renewable energy strategy. The Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station is the world’s largest tidal power plant, with a capacity of 254 MW. The project was developed with significant government support and is a representative example of large-scale tidal energy deployment. France: France has a long history of tidal energy development, dating back to the Rance Tidal Power Station, which was commissioned in 1966 and remains one of the oldest and most successful tidal power plants in the world. The French government continues to support marine energy through R&D funding and policy initiatives aimed at expanding renewable energy capacity. == See also == Energy harvesting Marine current power Tidal power Wave power Ocean thermal energy conversion Osmotic power Renewable energy Renewable energy commercialization == References == == Further reading == Omar Ellabban, Haitham Abu-Rub, Frede Blaabjerg: Renewable energy resources: Current status, future prospects and their enabling technology. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 39, (2014), 748–764, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.113. == External links == The Ocean Energy Systems European Ocean Energy Association The European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) Ocean Energy Council SuperGen UK Centre for Marine Energy Research Portal and Repository for Information on Marine Renewable Energy Marine Energy Projects Database Tethys - Environmental Effects of Wind and Marine Renewable Energy Tethys Engineering - Technical information on marine energy Marine and Hydrokinetic Data Repository	Wikipedia/Ocean_energy
Energy forestry is a form of forestry in which a fast-growing species of tree or woody shrub is grown specifically to provide biomass or biofuel for heating or power generation. The two forms of energy forestry are short rotation coppice and short rotation forestry: Short rotation coppice may include tree crops of poplar, willow or eucalyptus, grown for two to five years before harvest. Short rotation forestry are crops of alder, ash, birch, eucalyptus, poplar, and sycamore, grown for eight to twenty years before harvest. == Benefits == The main advantage of using "grown fuels", as opposed to fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas and oil, is that while they are growing they absorb the near-equivalent of carbon dioxide (an important greenhouse gas) to that which is later released in their burning. In comparison, burning fossil fuels increases atmospheric carbon unsustainably, by using carbon that was added to the Earth's carbon sink millions of years ago. This is a prime contributor to climate change. According to the FAO, compared to other energy crops, wood is among the most efficient sources of bioenergy in terms of the quantity of energy released by unit of carbon emitted. Other advantages of generating energy from trees, as opposed to agricultural crops, are that trees do not have to be harvested each year, the harvest can be delayed when market prices are down, and the products can fulfil a variety of end-uses. Yields of some varieties can be as high as 11 oven dry tonnes per hectare every year. However, commercial experience on plantations in Scandinavia have shown lower yield rates. These crops can also be used in bank stabilisation and phytoremediation. In fact, experiments in Sweden with willow plantations have proved to have many beneficial effects on the soil and water quality when compared to conventional agricultural crops (such as cereal). This beneficial effects have been the basis for the designed of multifunctional production systems to meet emerging bioenergy demands and at the same time, increase the local biodiversity, reduce soil erosion and nutrient emissions to water, increase soil carbon, enhance pollination, and avoid or mitigate flooding events. == Problems == Although in many areas of the world government funding is still required to support large scale development of energy forestry as an industry, it is seen as a valuable component of the renewable energy network and will be increasingly important in the future. Growing trees is relatively water intensive. The system of energy forestry has faced criticism over food vs. fuel, whereby it has become financially profitable to replace food crops with energy crops. However, such energy forests do not necessarily compete with food crops for highly productive land as they can be grown on slopes, marginal, or degraded land as well – sometimes even with long-term restoration purposes in mind. == See also == == References ==	Wikipedia/Energy_forestry
The Third Industrial Revolution; How Lateral Power is Transforming Energy, the Economy, and the World is a book by Jeremy Rifkin published in 2011. The premise of the book is that fundamental economic change occurs when new communication technologies converge with new energy regimes, mainly, renewable electricity. The sharing economy is also explored as a crucial element of the Third Industrial Revolution. == Reception == The book has been on the New York Times Best Seller List. Rifkin has been interviewed on NPR. == Documentary == In 2017 a documentary based on the book was released by Vice Media starring Jeremy Rifkin. == See also == Lateral thinking 100% renewable energy Digital revolution Sharing economy Other books by Jeremy Rifkin: The End of Work (1995) The European Dream (2004) The Empathic Civilization (2010) == References == == External links == Official website The Economist: The Third Industrial Revolution - The digitisation of manufacturing will transform the way goods are made, and change the politics of jobs	Wikipedia/The_Third_Industrial_Revolution_(book)
The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generator over its lifetime. It is used for investment planning and to compare different methods of electricity generation on a consistent basis. The more general term levelized cost of energy may include the costs of either electricity or heat. The latter is also referred to as levelized cost of heat or levelized cost of heating (LCOH), or levelized cost of thermal energy. == Definition == The cost of electricity production depends on costs during the expected lifetime of the generator and the amount of electricity the generator is expected to produce over its lifetime. The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) is the average cost in currency per energy unit, for example, EUR per kilowatt-hour or AUD per megawatt-hour. LCOE is defined by the formula: L C O E = sum of costs over lifetime sum of electrical energy produced over lifetime = ∑ t = 1 n I t + M t + F t ( 1 + r ) t ∑ t = 1 n E t ( 1 + r ) t {\displaystyle \mathrm {LCOE} ={\frac {\text{sum of costs over lifetime}}{\text{sum of electrical energy produced over lifetime}}}={\frac {\sum _{t=1}^{n}{\frac {I_{t}+M_{t}+F_{t}}{\left({1+r}\right)^{t}}}}{\sum _{t=1}^{n}{\frac {E_{t}}{\left({1+r}\right)^{t}}}}}} Input values are: == Applicability == LCOE is an estimation of the cost of production of electricity and not the price of electricity. The price of electricity may be influenced by additional factors including markup and price controls. LCOE is commonly used for: Feasibility study decisions for new electricity generation projects. Investment strategy decisions made by businesses and governments. Energy policy decisions made by governments. Significant caution needs to be applied to use of LCOE as outputs are highly sensitive to the selection of input values. The ability to interpret and compare LCOE model outputs is dependent upon the level of detailed justification provided for input values and the results of sensitivity analysis against the selection of input values. For any given electricity generation technology, LCOE can vary significantly from region to region depending on factors such as the cost of fuel or availability of renewable energy resources. For LCOE to be usable for rank-ordering energy-generation alternatives, caution must be taken to calculate it in "real" terms, i.e. including adjustment for expected inflation. An energy efficiency gap phenomenon exists due to observed lack of consideration of and implementation of demand-side energy conservation. LCOE is typically used in support of supply-side generation capacity replacement and expansion decision making. The energy efficiency gap phenomenon suggests demand-side energy conservation should also be considered in investment strategies and energy policy. === Limitations === LCOE is often cited as a convenient summary measure of the overall competitiveness of different generating technologies, however, it has potential limitations. One of the most important potential limitations of LCOE is that it may not control for time effects associated with matching electricity production to demand. This can happen at two levels: Dispatchability, the ability of a generating system to come online, go offline, or ramp up or down, quickly as demand swings. The extent to which the availability profile matches or conflicts with the market demand profile. In particular, if the costs of matching grid energy storage are not included in projects for variable renewable energy sources such as solar and wind, they may produce electricity when it is not needed in the grid without storage. The value of this electricity may be lower than if it was produced at another time, or even negative. At the same time, variable sources can be competitive if they are available to produce when demand and prices are highest, such as solar during summertime mid-day peaks seen in hot countries where air conditioning is a major consumer. To ensure enough electricity is always available to meet demand, storage or backup generation may be required, which adds costs that are not included in some instances of LCOE. Excess generation when not needed may force curtailments, thus reducing the revenue of an energy provider. Decisions about investments in energy generation technologies may be guided by other measures such as the levelized cost of storage (LCOS) and the levelized avoided cost of energy (LACE), in addition to the LCOE. Another potential limitation of LCOE is that some analyses may not adequately consider the indirect costs of generation. These can include the social cost of greenhouse gas emissions, other environmental externalities such as air pollution, or grid upgrade requirements. The LCOE for a given generator tends to be inversely proportional to its capacity. For instance, larger power plants have a lower LCOE than smaller power plants. Therefore, making investment decisions based on insufficiently comprehensive LCOE can lead to a bias towards larger installations while overlooking opportunities for energy efficiency and conservation unless their costs and effects are calculated, and included alongside LCOE numbers for other options such as generation infrastructure for comparison. If this is omitted or incomplete, LCOE may not give a comprehensive picture of potential options available for meeting energy needs. == Selection of input values == === Electrical energy generated === The amount of electrical energy generated E t {\displaystyle E_{t}} or estimated to be generated is dependent upon a large number of factors including: Natural resource economics and the availability of economically viable resources required for generator operation is variable per generation technology. For variable renewable energy generators, wind resource assessment and solar potential assessment are examples of methods used to assess the availability of resources required for wind turbines and solar panels to generate energy. For non-renewable generators, fuel availability over the lifespan of a generator may be temporarily impacted by geopolitical factors (an example being the 1970s energy crisis) or impacted by gradual depletion of and discovery of new non-renewable resource reserves. Oil and gas reserves and resource quantification is an example of a method used to assess long term availability of economically viable fuel resources for non-renewable generators. Electricity market effects of grid balancing may require a load-following power plant to curtail generation of energy if the grid does not demand energy (negative spot prices) or allow a generator with high variable costs to be brought online to dispatch into a grid with significant unmet demand and high spot prices. Battery, run-of-the-river hydroelectricity with pondage, variable renewable energy and natural gas turbine generators are examples of dispatchable generators. Seasonal diurnal cycles and climatology, as well as short term meteorological events have significant impacts to grid balancing from both supply and demand perspectives. The geographical region within which LCOE is being assessed, the mix of generators in a grid, the proportion of demand flexibility (or conversely firm power demand) within a grid and transmission capacity limits within a grid also significantly influence required generation curtailment. The cost of operational availability A o {\textstyle A_{o}} (known as availability factor for electricity generators) is variable per generation technology. Different generator technologies require differing levels of planned and unplanned maintenance preventing nameplate capacity output being achieved continuously for the lifespan of the generator. As an additional external influence, governments differ in their willingness to accept risks of power outages and lack of resilience against natural disasters and military attack on electricity grids. Examples of historical events impacting grid resilience are the 1991 Gulf War air campaign against civilian infrastructure, 2015 Ukraine power grid hack, 2021 Texas power crisis and Russian strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure (2022–present). Low risk tolerance may require electricity grids to be more significantly overbuilt to mitigate the potential costs of electricity grid interruptions and outages, impacting on a technology-by-technology basis the amount of generation curtailment necessary under normal grid conditions. For a proposed generator with only the proposed nameplate capacity known, observed capacity factor data available for similar existing generators can be used to estimate the electrical energy generated for the proposed new generator. === Expenditures === Investment expenditures I t {\displaystyle I_{t}} , operations and maintenance expenditures M t {\displaystyle M_{t}} and fuel expenditures F t {\displaystyle F_{t}} are influenced by a variety of taxes commonly imposed by governments including tariffs impacting the cost of importing generation equipment and fuels, excises impacting the cost of production of fuels, carbon taxes for offsetting the social cost of carbon and other taxes for recouping shared industry costs of electric power transmission and research and development of energy technologies. Expenditures can also be influenced by a variety of energy subsidies. Assumptions are required to be made due to the subjective nature of prediction of future levels of taxation and subsidies and influence of the politics of climate change. === Discount rate === Cost of capital expressed as the discount rate r {\displaystyle r} is one of the most controversial inputs into the LCOE equation, as it significantly impacts the outcome and a number of comparisons assume arbitrary discount rate values with little transparency of why a specific value was selected. Comparisons that assume public funding, subsidies, and social cost of capital tend to choose low discount rates (3%), while comparisons prepared by private investment banks tend to assume high discount rates (7–15%) associated with commercial for-profit funding. Assuming a low discount rate favours nuclear and sustainable energy projects, which require a high initial investment but then have low operational costs. In a 2020 analysis by Lazard, sensitivity to discount factor changes in the range of 6–16% results in different LCOE values but the identical ordering of different types of power plants if the discount rates are the same for all technologies. == See also == Cost of electricity by source Levelized cost of water == References ==	Wikipedia/Levelized_cost_of_energy
EKOenergy is a globally active nonprofit ecolabel for renewable energy (electricity, gas, and heat and cold). It is owned by the Finnish Association for Nature Conservation and managed in cooperation with other environmental NGOs. EKOenergy started in 2013 in Europe. Nowadays, EKOenergy-labelled energy is available worldwide. In 2022, the label was used in more than 70 countries. Its materials are available in more than 20 languages. == Awards and recognition == European Citizen's Prize 2020, awarded by the European Parliament in 2021. Mentioned as a good SDG (Sustainable Development Goal) Practice by UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs in 2020. Nordic Council Environment Award 2019 nomination. EU Sustainable Energy Awards, nomination in the Young Energy Leaders category. Mentioned as a good way to create additional impact in various publications of CDP and the RE100. == Label == Other language version of the label can be found in various countries. E.g. EKOénergie in France, EKOenergie in Germany or EKOenergia in Finland. === Criteria of the ecolabel === EKOenergy's criteria are approved and updated following the rules of the ISEAL Standard Setting Code. All criteria texts are publicly available on EKOenergy's website. The criteria take following aspects into account. Reliable tracking and avoidance of double counting. Sustainability: EKOenergy takes into account the impacts of electricity production on ecosystem services, habitats and the biodiversity of species. Additional impact: Consumers of EKOenergy contribute to the additional promotion of renewable energy in various ways. For every MWh sold, 0.10€ goes to EKOenergy's Climate Fund. These resources are used to finance renewable energy projects in developing countries. Consumers also pay 0.08€ per MWh to support EKOenergy's work to promote renewable energy worldwide and set up renewable energy campaigns. EKOenergy's work to promote renewable energy is recognised as an Energy Compact under the UN-Energy Programme. Auditing and verification. === Logo === The EKOenergy logo depicts a green plug sprouting from a plant flanked by two leaves. The logo can only be used by authorised sellers, when they are selling EKOenergy-labelled energy, and by consumers of EKOenergy-labelled energy. The conditions are explained in EKOenergy's brand book. The logo can be found on products made using EKOenergy-labelled electricity/energy. === Users of EKOenergy === Well-known users of EKOenergy-ecolabelled electricity include the European telecom operator Iliad Group, Microsoft, the German glass manufacturer SCHOTT, SAP and Pampers (Procter & Gamble). == Concrete results == === Climate Fund === For each MWh of EKOenergy sold, a contribution of 0.10€ goes to EKOenergy's Climate Fund. This money is used to finance renewable energy projects that would not have happened without the contributions. These projects are managed by experienced organisations. All projects are selected in an open process, with sellers, buyers and independent experts actively involved. Examples of funded projects include: Solar power for off-grid villages in Pakistan Solar power for a health post in Nepal Solar-powered sewing machines for 40 seamstresses in Cameroon. === EKOenergy's Environmental Fund and nature conservation === Whenever hydropower is sold with the EKOenergy label, €0.10/ MWh go to the Environmental Fund, to finance river restoration projects. Examples of earlier funded projects: Murronjoki river restoration (Finland) Norina river restoration (Latvia) == EKOenergy mentioned by other environmental standards == === LEED === The LEED Standard explicitly recommends the use of EKOenergy labelled electricity. Buildings aiming at LEED certification can get extra points if the electricity used in that building is EKOenergy certified. The text “LEED 2009 BD+C Supplemental Reference Guide with Alternative Compliance Paths for Europe” gives EKOenergy the same status as Green-e certified RECs in the US. They write: "The EKOenergy electricity certification scheme represents the best available pan-European option for the sustainable and additional consumption of renewable electricity within Europe. EKOenergy certifies renewable electricity that goes beyond the regulations of European directives and national governments of Europe." === Greenhouse Gas Protocol === The Greenhouse Gas Protocol is a worldwide standard for carbon accounting. It is a joint product of the World Resources Institute and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. In January 2015, the Secretariat of the Greenhouse Gas Protocol published the Scope 2 Guidance, which gave advice about carbon accounting. The Guidance refers to EKOenergy several times. Chapter 11, which encourages companies to go one step further, refers to EKOenergy’s Climate Fund. === Nordic Ecolabel === The Nordic swan covers 59 product groups, including more than 200 product types. Several of criteria give extra points for the use of EKOenergy-labelled electricity, such as the criteria for Printing Companies and Printed Matter and the criteria for Food Services and Conference Facilities. === UN Report 2024 === The EKOenergy brand is mentioned in the United Nations Environment Programme's (UNEP) , where the importance of concrete tools, such as environmental certifications, is emphasised to ensure that the expansion of renewable energy takes place without compromising natural ecosystems or exacerbating social inequalities. EKOenergy's work is considered in line with international standards for sustainability, contributing in particular to the achievement of the targets on clean and affordable energy (SDG 7) and climate action (SDG 13). == References == == External links == EKOenergy organization website	Wikipedia/EKOenergy
The energy content of biofuel is the chemical energy contained in a given biofuel, measured per unit mass of that fuel, as specific energy, or per unit of volume of the fuel, as energy density. A biofuel is a fuel produced from recently living organisms. Biofuels include bioethanol, an alcohol made by fermentation—often used as a gasoline additive, and biodiesel, which is usually used as a diesel additive. Specific energy is energy per unit mass, which is used to describe the chemical energy content of a fuel, expressed in SI units as joule per kilogram (J/kg) or equivalent units. Energy density is the amount of chemical energy per unit volume of the fuel, expressed in SI units as joule per litre (J/L) or equivalent units. == Energy and CO2 output of common biofuels == The table below includes entries for popular substances already used for their energy, or being discussed for such use. The second column shows specific energy, the energy content in megajoules per unit of mass in kilograms, useful in understanding the energy that can be extracted from the fuel. The third column in the table lists energy density, the energy content per liter of volume, which is useful for understanding the space needed for storing the fuel. The final two columns deal with the carbon footprint of the fuel. The fourth column contains the proportion of CO2 released when the fuel is converted for energy, with respect to its starting mass, and the fifth column lists the energy produced per kilogram of CO2 produced. As a guideline, a higher number in this column is better for the environment. But these numbers do not account for other green house gases released during burning, production, storage, or shipping. For example, methane may have hidden environmental costs that are not reflected in the table. [1] === Notes === == Yields of common crops associated with biofuels production == === Notes === == See also == Eichhornia crassipes#Bioenergy Syngas Conversion of units Energy density Heat of combustion == References ==	Wikipedia/Energy_content_of_biofuel
A solar controller is an electronic device that controls the circulating pump in a solar hot water system to harvest as much heat as possible from the solar panels and protect the system from overheating. The basic job of the controller is to turn the circulating pump on when there is heat available in the panels, moving the working fluid through the panels to the heat exchanger at the thermal store. Heat is available whenever the temperature of the solar panel is greater than the temperature of the water in the heat exchanger. Overheat protection is achieved by turning the pump off when the store reaches its maximum temperature and sometimes cooling the store by turning the pump on when the store is hotter than the panels. Most commercial controllers display the temperature of the hot water in the store and provide general status information about the system, including overall energy production. == Components == The simplest solar controller circuit uses a comparator with two temperature inputs, one at the solar panel and one at the thermal store's heat exchanger, and an output to control the pump. Commercial controllers use a microprocessor usually with a LCD display and simple user interface with a few pushbuttons. Power for the controller and the pump can come from a mains electric supply or from a photovoltaic (PV) module. == Function == The controller's main function is to switch the circulating pump on or off. The pump is usually switched on when the solar panel is hotter than the water in the store's heat exchanger and off when the panel is colder. Switching the pump on transfers the heat in the panel to the store. Switching it off when the panels cool prevents a reversal of the process and loss of heat from the store. The controller measures and compares the temperatures in the panel and the heat exchanger every few seconds. Commercial controllers do not turn on the pump until the difference in temperature between the panels and the water in the heat exchanger is sufficient to provide significantly more energy than is consumed by the pump. This temperature difference is called the on differential (usually 4–15 °C. They turn off the pump when the panels no longer are hot enough to provide significant heat to the store (the off differential). The wider the difference between these differentials, the fewer pump on-off cycles will take place. These factors are usually set by the solar installer in relation to the particular installation, especially dependent on the efficiency of the heat exhchanger and production capacity of the panels. Controllers provide an overrun time to extract some of the heat energy left in interconnecting pipes after the panels cool off. They may also implement certain safety features such as cooling the store when it exceeds a preset temperature such as 65 °C, by sending excess heat back to the panels to be given off to the environment. == Photovoltaic powered solar controller == A photovoltaic (PV) powered solar controller uses solar electricity produced on-site to run the pump that delivers the solar-heated transfer fluid to the hot water store. One claimed advantage of PV power is that it reduces the overall carbon emissions associated with operating the system since it avoids the need to supply this energy from fossil sources. However, the energy required to operate the system is very small in comparison to the energy produced by the system and the carbon emissions reduction of adding PV power fractional. The most practical benefit of a PV powered controller is the resultant simplicity of the overall system. Rather than using complex algorithms based on store and panel temperatures, the pump is driven directly by the PV panel: when the sun shines, the pump runs. In practice this is nearly (90-99%) as efficient a practical control algorithm as most others achieve and has obvious advantages for reduced system complexity. A disadvantage to the PV powered approach is that the pump stops immediately after the sun is occluded. With vacuum tube and heat pipe solar panels, these can have an appreciable amount of energy stored in each tube at the moment the sun goes in. To avoid overheating the tubes it is necessary to either pump the circuit for a short time after the sun, or else to provide a large reservoir of fluid in the header above the tubes. Neither of these options is really compatible with the simple direct-PV pump approach and so such systems are limited to using the less efficient flat panel collectors. A PV powered controller may contain a small electricity store to allow the controller to remain powered and display temperatures at night when there is no sunlight. This electricity store is usually in the form of supercapacitors, since these have a much longer life than batteries. The benefits of a PV powered solar controller comes at a cost in reduced system performance in the range of 1-10%. This is due to heat losses at times when the panel may be hotter than the water store but there is insufficient sunlight to power the pump. This happens mainly on hot days when hot water is likely to be in excess so the potential reduction is less significant than it would be at times when the store was cooler. == References == == Further reading == Martin C, Watson M (2002). "Further Testing of Solar Water Heating Systems" (PDF). United Kingdom Department of Trade and Industry. Retrieved on 2007-08-04. == External links == The Solar Trade Association	Wikipedia/Solar_controller
Yingli (Chinese: 英利), formally Yingli Green Energy Holding Company Limited (Chinese: 英利绿色能源控股有限公司; pinyin: Yīnglì Lǜsè Néngyuán Kònggǔ Yǒuxiàn Gōngsī) - . Yingli Green Energy Holding Company Limited, known as "Yingli Solar," is a solar panel manufacturer. Yingli Green Energy's manufacturing covers the photovoltaic value chain from ingot casting and wafering through solar cell production and solar panel assembly. Yingli expanded production capacity at a time module prices slumped. Yingli recovered slowly and since early 2015 has faced financial difficulties and has been going through a debt restructuring out of court. In 2015 signed a contract with LONGi to cooperate on monocrystalline products. In the first quarter of 2016 Yingli posted a profit first time since 2011. Yingli has cut workforce and decreased R&D spending. Yingli's cost per watt is 41 cents. The company was a sponsor of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, U.S. men's and women's national soccer teams, and FC Bayern Munich. Yingli is a member of the ‘Silicon Module Super League’ (SMSL), a group of big-six c-Si module suppliers in the solar PV industry today. The other five members of the group are Canadian Solar, Hanwha Q CELLS, JA Solar, Trina Solar and Jinko Solar. == History == In 2009, the company acquired Cyber Power, a development stage enterprise with plans to begin production of solar-grade polysilicon. Yingli Solar is expected to start trial polysilicon by the end of 2010. Growing at a fast rate, 2010 first quarter reports indicated that it was Yingli Solar's most profitable quarter to date. In 2010, Yingli Green Energy became the first Chinese company and the first renewable energy company to sponsor the FIFA World Cup. Yingli was also a sponsor of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. It supplied modules to 2014 FIFA World Cup stadiums, including the Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro. Building on its partnership with FIFA, Yingli is also a sponsor of FC Bayern München and the U.S. Soccer Women's and Men's National Teams. == Products == In 2012, Yingli Green Energy reached a production capacity of 2,450 MW per year, making it the largest solar module manufacturer in the world in terms of module production capacity. It also became the world's leading solar module supplier by sales revenue and shipments in Q1 2012. Also in 2012, Ray Lian predicted that Yingli Green Energy was likely to become the world's largest supplier in terms of full-year module shipments in 2012. Yingli manufactures crystalline silicon solar PV modules, including both, monocrystalline and multicrystalline. Its two primary solar module product lines are the monocrystalline PANDA Series and the multicrystalline YGE Series. Yingli Solar's YGE Series is its primary product line. The company claims that these multicrystalline modules have efficiencies of up to 15.4%, for use in commercial, residential, and utility-scale projects. Yingli Solar's manufacturing facilities are located in Baoding, Haikou, Tianjin, and Hengshui. Yingli Americas, a regional subsidiary of Yingli Green Energy, operates a regional research and development lab, the PV Testing Lab (PVTL), in South San Francisco, California. The PVTL conducts product characterization and quality control testing, and provides customers with system modeling support. == See also == Solar power in China == References == == External links == Official website	Wikipedia/Yingli_Green_Energy
Energy is sustainable if it "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Definitions of sustainable energy usually look at its effects on the environment, the economy, and society. These impacts range from greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution to energy poverty and toxic waste. Renewable energy sources such as wind, hydro, solar, and geothermal energy can cause environmental damage but are generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel sources. The role of non-renewable energy sources in sustainable energy is controversial. Nuclear power does not produce carbon pollution or air pollution, but has drawbacks that include radioactive waste, the risk of nuclear proliferation, and the risk of accidents. Switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but may lead to a delay in switching to more sustainable options. Carbon capture and storage can be built into power plants to remove their carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented. Fossil fuels provide 85% of the world's energy consumption, and the energy system is responsible for 76% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Around 790 million people in developing countries lack access to electricity, and 2.6 billion rely on polluting fuels such as wood or charcoal to cook. Cooking with biomass plus fossil fuel pollution causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year. Limiting global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F) will require transforming energy production, distribution, storage, and consumption. Universal access to clean electricity can have major benefits to the climate, human health, and the economies of developing countries. Climate change mitigation pathways have been proposed to limit global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F). These include phasing out coal-fired power plants, conserving energy, producing more electricity from clean sources such as wind and solar, and switching from fossil fuels to electricity for transport and heating buildings. Power output from some renewable energy sources varies depending on when the wind blows and the sun shines. Switching to renewable energy can therefore require electrical grid upgrades, such as the addition of energy storage. Some processes that are difficult to electrify can use hydrogen fuel produced from low-emission energy sources. In the International Energy Agency's proposal for achieving net zero emissions by 2050, about 35% of the reduction in emissions depends on technologies that are still in development as of 2023. Wind and solar market share grew to 8.5% of worldwide electricity in 2019, and costs continue to fall. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that 2.5% of world gross domestic product (GDP) would need to be invested in the energy system each year between 2016 and 2035 to limit global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). Governments can fund the research, development, and demonstration of new clean energy technologies. They can also build infrastructure for electrification and sustainable transport. Finally, governments can encourage clean energy deployment with policies such as carbon pricing, renewable portfolio standards, and phase-outs of fossil fuel subsidies. These policies may also increase energy security. == Definitions and background == === Definitions === The United Nations Brundtland Commission described the concept of sustainable development, for which energy is a key component, in its 1987 report Our Common Future. It defined sustainable development as meeting "the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". This description of sustainable development has since been referenced in many definitions and explanations of sustainable energy. There is no universally accepted interpretation of how the concept of sustainability applies to energy on a global scale. Working definitions of sustainable energy encompass multiple dimensions of sustainability such as environmental, economic, and social dimensions. Historically, the concept of sustainable energy development has focused on emissions and on energy security. Since the early 1990s, the concept has broadened to encompass wider social and economic issues. The environmental dimension of sustainability includes greenhouse gas emissions, impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, hazardous waste and toxic emissions, water consumption, and depletion of non-renewable resources. Energy sources with low environmental impact are sometimes called green energy or clean energy. The economic dimension of sustainability covers economic development, efficient use of energy, and energy security to ensure that each country has constant access to sufficient energy. Social issues include access to affordable and reliable energy for all people, workers' rights, and land rights. === Environmental impacts === The current energy system contributes to many environmental problems, including climate change, air pollution, biodiversity loss, the release of toxins into the environment, and water scarcity. As of 2019, 85% of the world's energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels. Energy production and consumption are responsible for 76% of annual human-caused greenhouse gas emissions as of 2018. The 2015 international Paris Agreement on climate change aims to limit global warming to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) and preferably to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F); achieving this goal will require that emissions be reduced as soon as possible and reach net-zero by mid-century. The burning of fossil fuels and biomass is a major source of air pollution, which causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year, with the greatest attributable disease burden seen in low and middle-income countries. Fossil-fuel burning in power plants, vehicles, and factories is the main source of emissions that combine with oxygen in the atmosphere to cause acid rain. Air pollution is the second-leading cause of death from non-infectious disease. An estimated 99% of the world's population lives with levels of air pollution that exceed the World Health Organization recommended limits. Cooking with polluting fuels such as wood, animal dung, coal, or kerosene is responsible for nearly all indoor air pollution, which causes an estimated 1.6 to 3.8 million deaths annually, and also contributes significantly to outdoor air pollution. Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children. Environmental impacts extend beyond the by-products of combustion. Oil spills at sea harm marine life and may cause fires which release toxic emissions. Around 10% of global water use goes to energy production, mainly for cooling in thermal energy plants. In dry regions, this contributes to water scarcity. Bioenergy production, coal mining and processing, and oil extraction also require large amounts of water. Excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material for burning can cause serious local environmental damage, including desertification. === Sustainable development goals === Meeting existing and future energy demands in a sustainable way is a critical challenge for the global goal of limiting climate change while maintaining economic growth and enabling living standards to rise. Reliable and affordable energy, particularly electricity, is essential for health care, education, and economic development. As of 2020, 790 million people in developing countries do not have access to electricity, and around 2.6 billion rely on burning polluting fuels for cooking. Improving energy access in the least-developed countries and making energy cleaner are key to achieving most of the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, which cover issues ranging from climate action to gender equality. Sustainable Development Goal 7 calls for "access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all", including universal access to electricity and to clean cooking facilities by 2030. == Energy conservation == Energy efficiency—using less energy to deliver the same goods or services, or delivering comparable services with less goods—is a cornerstone of many sustainable energy strategies. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has estimated that increasing energy efficiency could achieve 40% of greenhouse gas emission reductions needed to fulfil the Paris Agreement's goals. Energy can be conserved by increasing the technical efficiency of appliances, vehicles, industrial processes, and buildings. Another approach is to use fewer materials whose production requires a lot of energy, for example through better building design and recycling. Behavioural changes such as using videoconferencing rather than business flights, or making urban trips by cycling, walking or public transport rather than by car, are another way to conserve energy. Government policies to improve efficiency can include building codes, performance standards, carbon pricing, and the development of energy-efficient infrastructure to encourage changes in transport modes. The energy intensity of the global economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of gross domestic product (GDP)) is a rough indicator of the energy efficiency of economic production. In 2010, global energy intensity was 5.6 megajoules (1.6 kWh) per US dollar of GDP. United Nations goals call for energy intensity to decrease by 2.6% each year between 2010 and 2030. In recent years this target has not been met. For instance, between 2017 and 2018, energy intensity decreased by only 1.1%. Efficiency improvements often lead to a rebound effect in which consumers use the money they save to buy more energy-intensive goods and services. For example, recent technical efficiency improvements in transport and buildings have been largely offset by trends in consumer behaviour, such as selecting larger vehicles and homes. == Sustainable energy sources == === Renewable energy sources === Renewable energy sources are essential to sustainable energy, as they generally strengthen energy security and emit far fewer greenhouse gases than fossil fuels. Renewable energy projects sometimes raise significant sustainability concerns, such as risks to biodiversity when areas of high ecological value are converted to bioenergy production or wind or solar farms. Hydropower is the largest source of renewable electricity while solar and wind energy are growing rapidly. Photovoltaic solar and onshore wind are the cheapest forms of new power generation capacity in most countries. For more than half of the 770 million people who currently lack access to electricity, decentralised renewable energy such as solar-powered mini-grids is likely the cheapest method of providing it by 2030. United Nations targets for 2030 include substantially increasing the proportion of renewable energy in the world's energy supply. According to the International Energy Agency, renewable energy sources like wind and solar power are now a commonplace source of electricity, making up 70% of all new investments made in the world's power generation. The Agency expects renewables to become the primary energy source for electricity generation globally in the next three years, overtaking coal. ==== Solar ==== The Sun is Earth's primary source of energy, a clean and abundantly available resource in many regions. In 2019, solar power provided around 3% of global electricity, mostly through solar panels based on photovoltaic cells (PV). Solar PV is expected to be the electricity source with the largest installed capacity worldwide by 2027. The panels are mounted on top of buildings or installed in utility-scale solar parks. Costs of solar photovoltaic cells have dropped rapidly, driving strong growth in worldwide capacity. The cost of electricity from new solar farms is competitive with, or in many places, cheaper than electricity from existing coal plants. Various projections of future energy use identify solar PV as one of the main sources of energy generation in a sustainable mix. Most components of solar panels can be easily recycled, but this is not always done in the absence of regulation. Panels typically contain heavy metals, so they pose environmental risks if put in landfills. It takes fewer than two years for a solar panel to produce as much energy as was used for its production. Less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined. In concentrated solar power, solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. Electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a heat engine. Concentrated solar power can support dispatchable power generation, as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed. In addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly; solar thermal heating systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination. ==== Wind power ==== Wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships. Modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6% of global electricity in 2019. Electricity from onshore wind farms is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear. Wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher. Onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape. While collisions with wind turbines kill both bats and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and transmission lines. The noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. Wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water. Little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself. Turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier-to-recycle blades is ongoing. ==== Hydropower ==== Hydroelectric plants convert the energy of moving water into electricity. In 2020, hydropower supplied 17% of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20% in the mid-to-late 20th century. In conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. Conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, dispatchable electricity supply. They can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available. Compared to reservoir-based facilities, run-of-the-river hydroelectricity generally has less environmental impact. However, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. Reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and flexible electricity output while also providing security during drought for drinking water supply and irrigation. Hydropower ranks among the energy sources with the lowest levels of greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy produced, but levels of emissions vary enormously between projects. The highest emissions tend to occur with large dams in tropical regions. These emissions are produced when the biological matter that becomes submerged in the reservoir's flooding decomposes and releases carbon dioxide and methane. Deforestation and climate change can reduce energy generation from hydroelectric dams. Depending on location, large dams can displace residents and cause significant local environmental damage; potential dam failure could place the surrounding population at risk. ==== Geothermal ==== Geothermal energy is produced by tapping into deep underground heat and harnessing it to generate electricity or to heat water and buildings. The use of geothermal energy is concentrated in regions where heat extraction is economical: a combination is needed of high temperatures, heat flow, and permeability (the ability of the rock to allow fluids to pass through). Power is produced from the steam created in underground reservoirs. Geothermal energy provided less than 1% of global energy consumption in 2020. Geothermal energy is a renewable resource because thermal energy is constantly replenished from neighbouring hotter regions and the radioactive decay of naturally occurring isotopes. On average, the greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal-based electricity are less than 5% that of coal-based electricity. Geothermal energy carries a risk of inducing earthquakes, needs effective protection to avoid water pollution, and releases toxic emissions which can be captured. ==== Bioenergy ==== Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. It can either be burned to produce heat and electricity or be converted into biofuels such as biodiesel and ethanol, which can be used to power vehicles. The climate impact of bioenergy varies considerably depending on where biomass feedstocks come from and how they are grown. For example, burning wood for energy releases carbon dioxide; those emissions can be significantly offset if the trees that were harvested are replaced by new trees in a well-managed forest, as the new trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow. However, the establishment and cultivation of bioenergy crops can displace natural ecosystems, degrade soils, and consume water resources and synthetic fertilisers. Approximately one-third of all wood used for traditional heating and cooking in tropical areas is harvested unsustainably. Bioenergy feedstocks typically require significant amounts of energy to harvest, dry, and transport; the energy usage for these processes may emit greenhouse gases. In some cases, the impacts of land-use change, cultivation, and processing can result in higher overall carbon emissions for bioenergy compared to using fossil fuels. Use of farmland for growing biomass can result in less land being available for growing food. In the United States, around 10% of motor gasoline has been replaced by corn-based ethanol, which requires a significant proportion of the harvest. In Malaysia and Indonesia, clearing forests to produce palm oil for biodiesel has led to serious social and environmental effects, as these forests are critical carbon sinks and habitats for diverse species. Since photosynthesis captures only a small fraction of the energy in sunlight, producing a given amount of bioenergy requires a large amount of land compared to other renewable energy sources. Second-generation biofuels which are produced from non-food plants or waste reduce competition with food production, but may have other negative effects including trade-offs with conservation areas and local air pollution. Relatively sustainable sources of biomass include algae, waste, and crops grown on soil unsuitable for food production. Carbon capture and storage technology can be used to capture emissions from bioenergy power plants. This process is known as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and can result in net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere. However, BECCS can also result in net positive emissions depending on how the biomass material is grown, harvested, and transported. Deployment of BECCS at scales described in some climate change mitigation pathways would require converting large amounts of cropland. ==== Marine energy ==== Marine energy has the smallest share of the energy market. It includes OTEC, tidal power, which is approaching maturity, and wave power, which is earlier in its development. Two tidal barrage systems in France and in South Korea make up 90% of global production. While single marine energy devices pose little risk to the environment, the impacts of larger devices are less well known. === Non-renewable energy sources === ==== Fossil fuel switching and mitigation ==== Switching from coal to natural gas has advantages in terms of sustainability. For a given unit of energy produced, the life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of natural gas are around 40 times the emissions of wind or nuclear energy but are much less than coal. Burning natural gas produces around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity and around two-thirds the emissions of coal when used to produce heat. Natural gas combustion also produces less air pollution than coal. However, natural gas is a potent greenhouse gas in itself, and leaks during extraction and transportation can negate the advantages of switching away from coal. The technology to curb methane leaks is widely available but it is not always used. Switching from coal to natural gas reduces emissions in the short term and thus contributes to climate change mitigation. However, in the long term it does not provide a path to net-zero emissions. Developing natural gas infrastructure risks carbon lock-in and stranded assets, where new fossil infrastructure either commits to decades of carbon emissions, or has to be written off before it makes a profit. The greenhouse gas emissions of fossil fuel and biomass power plants can be significantly reduced through carbon capture and storage (CCS). Most studies use a working assumption that CCS can capture 85–90% of the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from a power plant. Even if 90% of emitted CO2 is captured from a coal-fired power plant, its uncaptured emissions are still many times greater than the emissions of nuclear, solar or wind energy per unit of electricity produced. Since coal plants using CCS are less efficient, they require more coal and thus increase the pollution associated with mining and transporting coal. CCS is one of the most expensive ways of reducing emissions in the energy sector. Deployment of this technology is very limited. As of 2024, CCS is used in only 5 power plants and in 39 other facilities. ==== Nuclear power ==== Nuclear power has been used since the 1950s as a low-carbon source of baseload electricity. Nuclear power plants in over 30 countries generate about 10% of global electricity. As of 2019, nuclear generated over a quarter of all low-carbon energy, making it the second largest source after hydropower. Nuclear power's lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions—including the mining and processing of uranium—are similar to the emissions from renewable energy sources. Nuclear power uses little land per unit of energy produced, compared to the major renewables. Additionally, Nuclear power does not create local air pollution. Although the uranium ore used to fuel nuclear fission plants is a non-renewable resource, enough exists to provide a supply for hundreds to thousands of years. However, uranium resources that can be accessed in an economically feasible manner, at the present state, are limited and uranium production could hardly keep up during the expansion phase. Climate change mitigation pathways consistent with ambitious goals typically see an increase in power supply from nuclear. There is controversy over whether nuclear power is sustainable, in part due to concerns around nuclear waste, nuclear weapon proliferation, and accidents. Radioactive nuclear waste must be managed for thousands of years. For each unit of energy produced, nuclear energy has caused far fewer accidental and pollution-related deaths than fossil fuels, and the historic fatality rate of nuclear is comparable to renewable sources. Public opposition to nuclear energy often makes nuclear plants politically difficult to implement. Reducing the time and the cost of building new nuclear plants have been goals for decades but costs remain high and timescales long. Various new forms of nuclear energy are in development, hoping to address the drawbacks of conventional plants. Fast breeder reactors are capable of recycling nuclear waste and therefore can significantly reduce the amount of waste that requires geological disposal, but have not yet been deployed on a large-scale commercial basis. Nuclear power based on thorium (rather than uranium) may be able to provide higher energy security for countries that do not have a large supply of uranium. Small modular reactors may have several advantages over current large reactors: It should be possible to build them faster and their modularization would allow for cost reductions via learning-by-doing. They are also considered safer to use than traditional power plants. Several countries are attempting to develop nuclear fusion reactors, which would generate small amounts of waste and no risk of explosions. Although fusion power has taken steps forward in the lab, the multi-decade timescale needed to bring it to commercialization and then scale means it will not contribute to a 2050 net zero goal for climate change mitigation. == Energy system transformation == === Decarbonisation of the global energy system === The emissions reductions necessary to keep global warming below 2 °C will require a system-wide transformation of the way energy is produced, distributed, stored, and consumed. For a society to replace one form of energy with another, multiple technologies and behaviours in the energy system must change. For example, transitioning from oil to solar power as the energy source for cars requires the generation of solar electricity, modifications to the electrical grid to accommodate fluctuations in solar panel output or the introduction of variable battery chargers and higher overall demand, adoption of electric cars, and networks of electric vehicle charging facilities and repair shops. Many climate change mitigation pathways envision three main aspects of a low-carbon energy system: The use of low-emission energy sources to produce electricity Electrification – that is increased use of electricity instead of directly burning fossil fuels Accelerated adoption of energy efficiency measures Some energy-intensive technologies and processes are difficult to electrify, including aviation, shipping, and steelmaking. There are several options for reducing the emissions from these sectors: biofuels and synthetic carbon-neutral fuels can power many vehicles that are designed to burn fossil fuels, however biofuels cannot be sustainably produced in the quantities needed and synthetic fuels are currently very expensive. For some applications, the most prominent alternative to electrification is to develop a system based on sustainably-produced hydrogen fuel. Full decarbonisation of the global energy system is expected to take several decades and can mostly be achieved with existing technologies. In the IEA's proposal for achieving net zero emissions by 2050, about 35% of the reduction in emissions depends on technologies that are still in development as of 2023. Technologies that are relatively immature include batteries and processes to create carbon-neutral fuels. Developing new technologies requires research and development, demonstration, and cost reductions via deployment. The transition to a zero-carbon energy system will bring strong co-benefits for human health: The World Health Organization estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 1.5 °C could save millions of lives each year from reductions to air pollution alone. With good planning and management, pathways exist to provide universal access to electricity and clean cooking by 2030 in ways that are consistent with climate goals. Historically, several countries have made rapid economic gains through coal usage. However, there remains a window of opportunity for many poor countries and regions to "leapfrog" fossil fuel dependency by developing their energy systems based on renewables, given adequate international investment and knowledge transfer. === Integrating variable energy sources === To deliver reliable electricity from variable renewable energy sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems require flexibility. Most electrical grids were constructed for non-intermittent energy sources such as coal-fired power plants. As larger amounts of solar and wind energy are integrated into the grid, changes have to be made to the energy system to ensure that the supply of electricity is matched to demand. In 2019, these sources generated 8.5% of worldwide electricity, a share that has grown rapidly. There are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. In many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale: there is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low. Linking different geographical regions through long-distance transmission lines allows for further cancelling out of variability. Energy demand can be shifted in time through energy demand management and the use of smart grids, matching the times when variable energy production is highest. With grid energy storage, energy produced in excess can be released when needed. Further flexibility could be provided from sector coupling, that is coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via power-to-heat-systems and electric vehicles. Building overcapacity for wind and solar generation can help ensure that enough electricity is produced even during poor weather. In optimal weather, energy generation may have to be curtailed if excess electricity cannot be used or stored. The final demand-supply mismatch may be covered by using dispatchable energy sources such as hydropower, bioenergy, or natural gas. ==== Energy storage ==== Energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy and is an important aspect of a sustainable energy system. The most commonly used and available storage method is pumped-storage hydroelectricity, which requires locations with large differences in height and access to water. Batteries, especially lithium-ion batteries, are also deployed widely. Batteries typically store electricity for short periods; research is ongoing into technology with sufficient capacity to last through seasons. Costs of utility-scale batteries in the US have fallen by around 70% since 2015, however the cost and low energy density of batteries makes them impractical for the very large energy storage needed to balance inter-seasonal variations in energy production. Pumped hydro storage and power-to-gas (converting electricity to gas and back) with capacity for multi-month usage has been implemented in some locations. === Electrification === Compared to the rest of the energy system, emissions can be reduced much faster in the electricity sector. As of 2019, 37% of global electricity is produced from low-carbon sources (renewables and nuclear energy). Fossil fuels, primarily coal, produce the rest of the electricity supply. One of the easiest and fastest ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is to phase out coal-fired power plants and increase renewable electricity generation. Climate change mitigation pathways envision extensive electrification—the use of electricity as a substitute for the direct burning of fossil fuels for heating buildings and for transport. Ambitious climate policy would see a doubling of energy share consumed as electricity by 2050, from 20% in 2020. One of the challenges in providing universal access to electricity is distributing power to rural areas. Off-grid and mini-grid systems based on renewable energy, such as small solar PV installations that generate and store enough electricity for a village, are important solutions. Wider access to reliable electricity would lead to less use of kerosene lighting and diesel generators, which are currently common in the developing world. Infrastructure for generating and storing renewable electricity requires minerals and metals, such as cobalt and lithium for batteries and copper for solar panels. Recycling can meet some of this demand if product lifecycles are well-designed, however achieving net zero emissions would still require major increases in mining for 17 types of metals and minerals. A small group of countries or companies sometimes dominate the markets for these commodities, raising geopolitical concerns. Most of the world's cobalt, for instance, is mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a politically unstable region where mining is often associated with human rights risks. More diverse geographical sourcing may ensure a more flexible and less brittle supply chain. === Hydrogen === Hydrogen gas is widely discussed as a fuel with potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This requires hydrogen to be produced cleanly, in quantities to supply in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient mitigation alternatives are limited. These applications include heavy industry and long-distance transport. Hydrogen can be deployed as an energy source in fuel cells to produce electricity, or via combustion to generate heat. When hydrogen is consumed in fuel cells, the only emission at the point of use is water vapour. Combustion of hydrogen can lead to the thermal formation of harmful nitrogen oxides. The overall lifecycle emissions of hydrogen depend on how it is produced. Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels. The main method of producing hydrogen is steam methane reforming, in which hydrogen is produced from a chemical reaction between steam and methane, the main component of natural gas. Producing one tonne of hydrogen through this process emits 6.6–9.3 tonnes of carbon dioxide. While carbon capture and storage (CCS) could remove a large fraction of these emissions, the overall carbon footprint of hydrogen from natural gas is difficult to assess as of 2021, in part because of emissions (including vented and fugitive methane) created in the production of the natural gas itself. Electricity can be used to split water molecules, producing sustainable hydrogen provided the electricity was generated sustainably. However, this electrolysis process is currently more expensive than creating hydrogen from methane without CCS and the efficiency of energy conversion is inherently low. Hydrogen can be produced when there is a surplus of variable renewable electricity, then stored and used to generate heat or to re-generate electricity. It can be further transformed into liquid fuels such as green ammonia and green methanol. Innovation in hydrogen electrolysers could make large-scale production of hydrogen from electricity more cost-competitive. Hydrogen fuel can produce the intense heat required for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals, thus contributing to the decarbonisation of industry alongside other technologies, such as electric arc furnaces for steelmaking. For steelmaking, hydrogen can function as a clean fuel and simultaneously as a low-carbon catalyst replacing coal-derived coke. Hydrogen used to decarbonise transportation is likely to find its largest applications in shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles. For light duty vehicles including passenger cars, hydrogen is far behind other alternative fuel vehicles, especially compared with the rate of adoption of battery electric vehicles, and may not play a significant role in future. Disadvantages of hydrogen as a fuel include high costs of storage and distribution due to hydrogen's explosivity, its large volume compared to other fuels, and its tendency to make pipes brittle. === Energy usage technologies === ==== Transport ==== Transport accounts for 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions, but there are multiple ways to make transport more sustainable. Public transport typically emits fewer greenhouse gases per passenger than personal vehicles, since trains and buses can carry many more passengers at once. Short-distance flights can be replaced by high-speed rail, which is more efficient, especially when electrified. Promoting non-motorised transport such as walking and cycling, particularly in cities, can make transport cleaner and healthier. The energy efficiency of cars has increased over time, but shifting to electric vehicles is an important further step towards decarbonising transport and reducing air pollution. A large proportion of traffic-related air pollution consists of particulate matter from road dust and the wearing-down of tyres and brake pads. Substantially reducing pollution from these non-tailpipe sources cannot be achieved by electrification; it requires measures such as making vehicles lighter and driving them less. Light-duty cars in particular are a prime candidate for decarbonization using battery technology. 25% of the world's CO2 emissions still originate from the transportation sector. Long-distance freight transport and aviation are difficult sectors to electrify with current technologies, mostly because of the weight of batteries needed for long-distance travel, battery recharging times, and limited battery lifespans. Where available, freight transport by ship and rail is generally more sustainable than by air and by road. Hydrogen vehicles may be an option for larger vehicles such as lorries. Many of the techniques needed to lower emissions from shipping and aviation are still early in their development, with ammonia (produced from hydrogen) a promising candidate for shipping fuel. Aviation biofuel may be one of the better uses of bioenergy if emissions are captured and stored during manufacture of the fuel. ==== Buildings ==== Over one-third of energy use is in buildings and their construction. To heat buildings, alternatives to burning fossil fuels and biomass include electrification through heat pumps or electric heaters, geothermal energy, central solar heating, reuse of waste heat, and seasonal thermal energy storage. Heat pumps provide both heat and air conditioning through a single appliance. The IEA estimates heat pumps could provide over 90% of space and water heating requirements globally. A highly efficient way to heat buildings is through district heating, in which heat is generated in a centralised location and then distributed to multiple buildings through insulated pipes. Traditionally, most district heating systems have used fossil fuels, but modern and cold district heating systems are designed to use high shares of renewable energy.Cooling of buildings can be made more efficient through passive building design, planning that minimises the urban heat island effect, and district cooling systems that cool multiple buildings with piped cold water. Air conditioning requires large amounts of electricity and is not always affordable for poorer households. Some air conditioning units still use refrigerants that are greenhouse gases, as some countries have not ratified the Kigali Amendment to only use climate-friendly refrigerants. ==== Cooking ==== In developing countries where populations suffer from energy poverty, polluting fuels such as wood or animal dung are often used for cooking. Cooking with these fuels is generally unsustainable, because they release harmful smoke and because harvesting wood can lead to forest degradation. The universal adoption of clean cooking facilities, which are already ubiquitous in rich countries, would dramatically improve health and have minimal negative effects on climate. Clean cooking facilities, e.g. cooking facilities that produce less indoor soot, typically use natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (both of which consume oxygen and produce carbon-dioxide) or electricity as the energy source; biogas systems are a promising alternative in some contexts. Improved cookstoves that burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves are an interim solution where transitioning to clean cooking systems is difficult. ==== Industry ==== Over one-third of energy use is by industry. Most of that energy is deployed in thermal processes: generating heat, drying, and refrigeration. The share of renewable energy in industry was 14.5% in 2017—mostly low-temperature heat supplied by bioenergy and electricity. The most energy-intensive activities in industry have the lowest shares of renewable energy, as they face limitations in generating heat at temperatures over 200 °C (390 °F). For some industrial processes, commercialisation of technologies that have not yet been built or operated at full scale will be needed to eliminate greenhouse gas emissions. Steelmaking, for instance, is difficult to electrify because it traditionally uses coke, which is derived from coal, both to create very high-temperature heat and as an ingredient in the steel itself. The production of plastic, cement, and fertilisers also requires significant amounts of energy, with limited possibilities available to decarbonise. A switch to a circular economy would make industry more sustainable as it involves recycling more and thereby using less energy compared to investing energy to mine and refine new raw materials. == Government policies == Well-designed government policies that promote energy system transformation can lower greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality simultaneously, and in many cases can also increase energy security and lessen the financial burden of using energy. === Regulations === Environmental regulations have been used since the 1970s to promote more sustainable use of energy. Some governments have committed to dates for phasing out coal-fired power plants and ending new fossil fuel exploration. Governments can require that new cars produce zero emissions, or new buildings are heated by electricity instead of gas. Renewable portfolio standards in several countries require utilities to increase the percentage of electricity they generate from renewable sources. Governments can accelerate energy system transformation by leading the development of infrastructure such as long-distance electrical transmission lines, smart grids, and hydrogen pipelines. In transport, appropriate infrastructure and incentives can make travel more efficient and less car-dependent. Urban planning that discourages sprawl can reduce energy use in local transport and buildings while enhancing quality of life. Government-funded research, procurement, and incentive policies have historically been critical to the development and maturation of clean energy technologies, such as solar and lithium batteries. In the IEA's scenario for a net zero-emission energy system by 2050, public funding is rapidly mobilised to bring a range of newer technologies to the demonstration phase and to encourage deployment. === Carbon pricing === Carbon pricing (such as a tax on CO2 emissions) gives industries and consumers an incentive to reduce emissions while letting them choose how to do so. For example, they can shift to low-emission energy sources, improve energy efficiency, or reduce their use of energy-intensive products and services. Carbon pricing has encountered strong political pushback in some jurisdictions, whereas energy-specific policies tend to be politically safer. Most studies indicate that to limit global warming to 1.5 °C, carbon pricing would need to be complemented by stringent energy-specific policies. As of 2019, the price of carbon in most regions is too low to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement. Carbon taxes provide a source of revenue that can be used to lower other taxes or help lower-income households afford higher energy costs. Some governments, such as the EU and the UK, are exploring the use of carbon border adjustments. These place tariffs on imports from countries with less stringent climate policies, to ensure that industries subject to internal carbon prices remain competitive. === Pace === The scale and pace of policy reforms that have been initiated as of 2020 are far less than needed to fulfil the climate goals of the Paris Agreement. In addition to domestic policies, greater international cooperation is required to accelerate innovation and to assist poorer countries in establishing a sustainable path to full energy access. Countries may support renewables to create jobs. The International Labour Organization estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 2 °C would result in net job creation in most sectors of the economy. It predicts that 24 million new jobs would be created by 2030 in areas such as renewable electricity generation, improving energy-efficiency in buildings, and the transition to electric vehicles. Six million jobs would be lost, in sectors such as mining and fossil fuels. Governments can make the transition to sustainable energy more politically and socially feasible by ensuring a just transition for workers and regions that depend on the fossil fuel industry, to ensure they have alternative economic opportunities. == Finance == Raising enough money for innovation and investment is a prerequisite for the energy transition. The IPCC estimates that to limit global warming to 1.5 °C, US$2.4 trillion would need to be invested in the energy system each year between 2016 and 2035. Most studies project that these costs, equivalent to 2.5% of world GDP, would be small compared to the economic and health benefits. Average annual investment in low-carbon energy technologies and energy efficiency would need to be six times more by 2050 compared to 2015. Underfunding is particularly acute in the least developed countries, which are not attractive to the private sector. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change estimates that climate financing totalled $681 billion in 2016. Most of this is private-sector investment in renewable energy deployment, public-sector investment in sustainable transport, and private-sector investment in energy efficiency. The Paris Agreement includes a pledge of an extra $100 billion per year from developed countries to poor countries, to do climate change mitigation and adaptation. This goal has not been met and measurement of progress has been hampered by unclear accounting rules. If energy-intensive businesses like chemicals, fertilizers, ceramics, steel, and non-ferrous metals invest significantly in R&D, its usage in industry might amount to between 5% and 20% of all energy used. Fossil fuel funding and subsidies are a significant barrier to the energy transition. Direct global fossil fuel subsidies were $319 billion in 2017. This rises to $5.2 trillion when indirect costs are priced in, like the effects of air pollution. Ending these could lead to a 28% reduction in global carbon emissions and a 46% reduction in air pollution deaths. Funding for clean energy has been largely unaffected by the COVID-19 pandemic, and pandemic-related economic stimulus packages offer possibilities for a green recovery. == References == === Sources === == External links ==	Wikipedia/Clean_energy
Solar Energy Perspectives is a 2011 book by the International Energy Agency. Solar energy technologies come in various forms – solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity – and can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces: The development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared. Solar Energy Perspectives builds upon past analyses of solar energy deployment contained in the World Energy Outlook, Energy Technology Perspectives and several IEA Technology Roadmaps. It aims at "offering an updated picture of current technology trends and markets, as well as new analyses on how solar energy technologies for electricity, heat and fuels can be used in the various energy consuming sectors, now and in the future". == See also == Deploying Renewables 2011 The Third Industrial Revolution The Clean Tech Revolution List of books about renewable energy Mark Z. Jacobson == References ==	Wikipedia/Solar_Energy_Perspectives
The energy mix is a group of different primary energy sources from which secondary energy for direct use - such as electricity - is produced. Energy mix refers to all direct uses of energy, such as transportation and housing, and should not be confused with power generation mix, which refers only to generation of electricity, as electricity only accounts for 20 % of the world's final energy consumption. == Energy Mixes == === World === Overall primary energy consumption in the United States in 2015 relied most on petroleum (35 quadrillion British thermal units (3.7×1016 kJ)), natural gas (29×10^15 BTU (3.1×1016 kJ)) and coal (16×10^15 BTU (1.7×1016 kJ)). Renewables contributed 9×10^15 BTU (9.5×1015 kJ) and nuclear power 8×10^15 BTU (8.4×1015 kJ). In the same year, about 4 million GWh of electricity were generated in the United States, 67% of which was generated from fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and <1% petroleum), 20% from nuclear power, 6% hydropower and 7% other renewables. In 2018, the global primary energy source was about 80% fossil fuels: (33.6% oil, 27.2% coal, 23.9% natural gas), 6.8% hydro, 4.4% nuclear, and 4% other renewables, such as wind, thermal, bioenergies, solar, and waste. Energy consumption worldwide rose 2.9%, which is the largest increase since 2010. Europe used less oil than the global percentage, and more nuclear and renewable resources, with France using less gas and more nuclear. North America had the highest consumption per resident, with Russia in second, and Europe and the Middle East following. While North America used 240 gigajoules per capita, Africa used only 15 gigajoules per capita. == Sustainability == As energy consumption rises, attention has turned to more environmentally sustainable practices. 2018 saw the largest increase in worldwide energy consumption since 2010, with 27.2% of that energy coming from coal. The carbon dioxide released when coal is burned to produce energy accounts for 44% of the world's carbon emissions. Petroleum use accounts for nearly 1/3 of the world's carbon emissions. These factors contribute to the global temperature increase. Many countries, such as Pakistan and Malaysia have begun developing options for more sustainable energy practices. Some of these options include wind, for small to medium-sized projects; solar power; and biomass, which is energy produced from waste products such as rice husks, animal waste, and crop residue. The IEA has developed a plan, called the Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS), which would lead to an 800 Mtoe decrease in global energy consumption by utilizing changes in the sectors of residential and transport energy. Following this scenario, fossil fuel usage would drop significantly, but it would require a dramatic increase of use of renewable resources, particularly in Asia. == Economic Aspects == Even in the energy mix, there can be monostructures. While renewable energy is almost exclusively produced in Germany (99.2%), there is a high and risky dependence on imports for fossil energy in some instances. To reduce or avoid these monostructures, diversification must change the energy mix so that one-sided import and export dependencies with individual countries are entirely or partially eliminated. Furthermore, the range of fossil energy sources must be taken into account. The continuous monitoring of dependencies and ranges are the essential tasks of energy policy. For example, if a country primarily exports its goods or services to a single other country, a maximum monostructure exists. This carries the risk that economic crises (for instance, the other country suffers from a lack of foreign currency and can no longer afford the imports) or political conflicts (boycotts, embargoes) could lead to the importing country defaulting. Conversely, the same risk exists with monostructural imports, and it must be minimized by the importing state. The risk to the importing state can be classified as performance risk, and for the exporting state as payment risk. From this perspective, the Nord Stream 2 project contradicts the rules of a diversified energy mix. The Russian invasion of Ukraine has brought the risks of the German energy mix into focus. The high dependence on imports of energy sources from Russia carries the risk that a conceivable Russian economic sanctions could affect German energy security. As reported by Economics Minister Robert Habeck in March 2022, short-term contracts are intended to reduce dependence on Russian natural gas (from 55% to 30%), crude oil (from 35% to 25%), and coal (from 50% to 25%). The international energy transition, like the energy transition in Germany, is expected to have huge impacts on the energy mix. Since such energy transitions are carried out through state regulatory intervention, divestments in the extensive fixed assets of operators (closure of mines, decommissioning of nuclear facilities) and investments in future markets (renewable energies) are associated with long-term adjustment measures in the energy industry. Very long service lives could therefore not be realized. For many technical installations that are to be shut down prematurely, the payback period (amortization) had not yet been completed, so that a premature closure subsequently represents a Malinvestment. == See also == World energy supply and consumption – Global production and usage of energy Energy development – Methods bringing energy into production Energy consumption – Consumption of energy by animals and societies Energy independence – Independence or autarky regarding energy resources, energy supply and/or energy generation Efficient energy use – Methods for higher energy efficiency Energy transition – Significant structural change in an energy system Fossil fuel phase-out – Gradual reduction of the use and production of fossil fuels Fossil fuels lobby – Lobbying supporting the fossil fuels industry Fuel mix disclosure Policy mix – Combination of a country's monetary and fiscal policy == References ==	Wikipedia/Energy_mix
The environmental benefits of renewable energy technologies are widely recognised, but the contribution that they can make to energy security is less well known. Renewable technologies can enhance energy security in electricity generation, heat supply, and transportation. Since renewable energy is more evenly distributed than fossil fuels at the global level, the use of renewable energy technologies can also lead to decentralized and self-sufficient energy systems and reduce energy dependencies among countries. == Energy security == Access to cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. However, the uneven distribution of fossil fuel supplies among countries, and the critical need to widely access energy resources, has led to significant vulnerabilities. Threats to global energy security include political instability of energy producing countries, manipulation of energy supplies, competition over energy sources, attacks on supply infrastructure, as well as accidents and natural disasters. Energy security, therefore, has become fundamental from many perspectives, and is being therefore increasingly at the centre of legal and policy issues linked to social, economic, and development matters. The Fukushima I nuclear accidents in Japan have brought new attention to how national energy systems are vulnerable to natural disasters, with climate change already bringing more weather and climate extremes. These threats to our old energy systems provide a rationale for investing in renewable energy. Shifting to renewable energy "can help us to meet the dual goals of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, thereby limiting future extreme weather and climate impacts, and ensuring reliable, timely, and cost-efficient delivery of energy". Investing in renewable energy can have significant dividends for our energy security. == Transportation == The International Energy Agency's World Energy Outlook 2006 concludes that rising petroleum demand, if left unchecked, would accentuate vulnerability to a severe supply disruption and resulting sudden price increases, in consuming countries. Renewable biofuels for transport represent a key source of diversification from petroleum products. Biofuels from grain and beet in temperate regions have a role, but they are relatively expensive and their energy efficiency and carbon dioxide savings, vary. Biofuels from sugar cane and other highly productive tropical crops are much more competitive and beneficial. But all first generation biofuels ultimately compete with the production of food for land, water, and other resources. More effort is required to develop and commercialize second generation biofuel technologies, such as biorefineries and cellulosic ethanol, enabling the flexible production of biofuels and related products from non-edible parts of the plant. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), cellulosic ethanol commercialization could allow ethanol fuels to play a much larger role in the future than previously thought. Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter composed primarily of inedible cellulose fibers that form the stems and branches of most plants. Dedicated energy crops, such as switchgrass, are also promising cellulose sources that can be produced in many regions of the United States. == Heating == In those countries where growing dependence on imported gas is a pressing energy security issue, renewable energy technologies can provide alternative sources of electric power production as well as displacing electricity demand through production of direct heat. The IEA suggests that the direct contribution that renewable energy can make to domestic or commercial space heating and industrial process heat should be examined more closely. Heat from solar, geothermal sources, and heat pumps, is increasingly economic but is often overlooked in government programmes that promote public acceptance and provide incentives for renewable electricity and energy efficiency. Solar heating systems are a well known technology and generally consist of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage. The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pools, or homes and businesses. The heat can also be used for industrial process applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment. In many warmer climates, a solar heating system can provide a very high percentage (50 to 75%) of domestic hot water energy. == Electricity generation == As the electricity grid becomes increasingly vulnerable to faults from equipment failure, willful attack or even sunspot activity, the risk of a major national scale grid failure is rising. The deployment of renewable technologies usually increases the diversity of electricity sources and, through local generation, contributes to the flexibility of the system and its resistance to central shocks. The IEA suggests that attention in this area has focused too much on the issue of the variability of renewable electricity production. However, this only applies to certain renewable technologies, mainly wind power and solar photovoltaics, and its significance depends on a range of factors which include the market penetration of the renewables concerned, the balance of plant and the wider connectivity of the system, as well as the demand side flexibility. Variability will rarely be a barrier to increased renewable energy deployment. But at high levels of market penetration it requires careful analysis and management, and additional costs may be required for back-up or system modification. Renewable electricity supply in the 20-50+% penetration range has already been implemented in several European systems, albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system: In 2010, four German states, totaling 10 million people, relied on wind power for 43–52% of their annual electricity needs. Denmark isn't far behind, supplying 22% of its power from wind in 2010 (26% in an average wind year). The Extremadura region of Spain is getting up to 25% of its electricity from solar, while the whole country meets 16% of its demand from wind. Just during 2005–2010, Portugal vaulted from 17% to 45% renewable electricity. Minnkota Power Cooperative, the leading U.S. wind utility in 2009, supplied 38% of its retail sales from the wind. Physicist Amory Lovins has said that following hundreds of blackouts in 2005, Cuba reorganized its electricity transmission system into networked microgrids and cut the occurrence of blackouts to zero within two years, limiting damage even after two hurricanes. Networked island-able microgrids describes Lovins’ vision where energy is generated locally from solar power, wind power and other resources and used by super-efficient buildings. When each building, or neighborhood, is generating its own power, with links to other “islands” of power, the security of the entire network is greatly enhanced. == Combined Power Plant == The Combined Power Plant, a project linking 36 wind, solar, biomass, and hydroelectric installations throughout Germany, has demonstrated that a combination of renewable sources and more-effective control can balance out short-term power fluctuations and provide reliable electricity with 100 percent renewable energy. == Impact of foreign investor dispute rights == It has been argued that investor-state dispute settlement rights may grant investors in carbon-intensive industries a mechanism to inhibit government policies promoting renewable energy technologies. The impact of dispute settlement through international arbitration or negotiation, however, is also deemed to be a useful tool to foster investment in sustainable energy and tackle connected issues linked to security, environmental threats, and sustainable development. == See also == Battery storage power station Brittle Power Energy Autonomy Energy independence Energy storage Environmental technology European super grid Grid energy storage Renewable Electricity and the Grid == References == == External links == Empowering Variable Renewables: Options for Flexible Electricity Systems Getting a (Firm) Grip on Renewables Herberg, Mikkal (2014). Energy Security and the Asia-Pacific: Course Reader. United States: The National Bureau of Asian Research.	Wikipedia/Energy_security_and_renewable_technology
The Solar Shade Control Act was passed by the California state legislature and signed by Governor Jerry Brown in 1978 to give solar collectors access to sunlight. The act limits blocking access to solar collectors by trees on an adjacent property, and formerly provided criminal penalties for violation. The solar collectors may be used for water heating, space heating or cooling, or electricity generation. The law was amended in 2009, allowing trees to remain, if they were planted before the solar collector was installed. The amendment also changed violations from criminal to a civil matter. == Application == The law attracted little attention until 2008, when a dispute in Sunnyvale, California ended up in court. The tree owners spent $37,000 on attorney fees, before trimming their trees. In Culver City, California, a furniture and cabinet maker spent $80,000 in May 2006 on solar panels to reduce his electric bill. The system worked well for two years, until his neighbor spent $60,000 to plant palm trees along the property line. The city became involved in trying to negotiate a compromise. In a 1986 dispute in involving two Stanford professors, the Court of Appeals of California, Sixth District ruled in Sher v. Leiderman that the law only applied to solar collectors, and not to homes designed to be passively heated by sunlight. The court reasoned that applying the act to passively heated homes would have given protection to all homes with windows facing south. == References == == External links == California’s Solar Shade Control Act, A Review of the Statutes and Relevant Cases	Wikipedia/Solar_Shade_Control_Act
Soft energy technologies may be seen as appropriate renewable technologies. Soft energy technologies are not simply renewable energy technologies, as there are many renewable energy technologies which are not regarded as "soft". The character string including "Soft Energy" is a registered trademark of Soft Energy Controls Inc. in Japan (JP (Japan), 28.12.2018, 6110341.). == Definition == More specifically, soft energy technologies have five defining characteristics. They rely on renewable energy resources, are diverse and designed for maximum effectiveness in particular circumstances, are flexible and relatively simple to understand, are matched to end-use needs in terms of scale, and are matched to end-use needs in terms of quality. An energy technology must satisfy all five of these criteria to be soft. Residential solar energy technologies are prime examples of soft energy technologies and rapid deployment of simple, energy conserving, residential solar energy technologies is fundamental to a soft energy strategy. Active residential solar technologies use special devices to collect and convert the sun's rays to useful energy and are located near the users they supply. Passive residential solar technologies involve the natural transfer (by radiation, convection and conduction) of solar energy without the use of mechanical (active) devices. == Sociological definition == The term soft is not meant to be vague, speculative, or ephemeral, but rather sustainable, flexible, resilient, and benign. Soft technology impacts are generally seen to be more "gentle, pleasant and manageable" than high technology impacts. These impacts range from the individual and household level to those affecting the very fabric of society at the national and international level. More specifically, favourable socio-political impacts include: reduction in social conflicts and inequalities; reduction in population concentration; increase in employment, especially for the lower social classes; increase in the satisfaction of basic human needs; increase in consumer self-sufficiency; and increase in social participation and democratic processes. The use of soft energy technologies, in conjunction with energy efficiency, and the transitional use of fossil fuel technology, comprise the soft energy path. == Traditional technologies == Badgirs or Windcatcher Ksars Jaali Patio Riad == See also == Community wind energy Energy conservation Renewable energy Renewable energy commercialization Efficient energy use == References == == Bibliography == Lovins, Amory B., (1977). Soft Energy Paths: Toward a Durable Peace, Penguin Books. Morrison, D.E., and Lodwick D.G. (1981). "The social impacts of soft and hard energy systems", Annual Review of Energy, 6, 357–378. == External links == Amory Lovins on the Soft Energy Path American energy: The renewable path to energy security Distributed Energy -- The Journal for Onsite Power Solutions Renewable Energy Courses	Wikipedia/Soft_energy_technology
BrightSource Energy, Inc. is an Oakland, California based, corporation that designs, builds, finances, and operates utility-scale solar power plants. Greentech Media ranked BrightSource as one of the top 10 greentech startups in the world in 2008. == History == BrightSource was formed with seed capital from VantagePoint Venture Partners. It secured $115 million in additional corporate funding from its Series C round of financing in May 2008, bringing the total the company has raised at that time to over $160 million. Investors include Google.org, BP Alternative Energy, Morgan Stanley, DBL Investors, Draper Fisher Jurvetson, Chevron Technology Ventures, Statoil Venture, and Black River. By May 2010, the total amount raised was $337 million. BrightSource Industries (Israel) Ltd., formerly named Luz II Ltd., is a wholly owned subsidiary of BrightSource Energy, Inc. Based in Israel, BrightSource Industries is responsible for solar technology development, plant design and engineering. In March 2008, BrightSource entered into a series of power purchase agreements with Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) for up to 900 MW of electricity. In February 2009, BrightSource contracted to sell power from seven solar power towers in the Mojave Desert to Southern California Edison (SCE). The plants were to have a combined capacity of 1,300 MW, producing 3.7 billion kilowatt-hours per year. The Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, BrightSource's 377 MW, 3,900-acre (16 km2) plant opened on February 13, 2014. The total cost of the Ivanpah project was $2.2 billion. The largest investor in the project was NRG Energy, a power generating company based in Princeton, New Jersey, that contributed $300 million. Siemens supplied instrumentation and control systems as well as steam-turbine generators. In 2009, BrightSource Energy announced plans to build a 960 MW (1,290,000 hp) solar thermal power plant in Coyote Springs that would be on line by 2012. In 2010, BrightSource hired Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs to begin preparations for a public offering in 2011. Its fourth round of equity financing in May netted $150 million, bringing total equity financing to $330 million to date. In November 2011, Google announced that they would stop investing in CSP projects due to the rapid price decline of photovoltaics. Google spent $168 million on BrightSource. In December 2011, Google and KKR & Co. announced an agreement to invest in four California solar power PV plants with total capacity of 88 megawatts. In December 2011, The California Energy Commission (CEC) began to review a proposed 750 MW Rio Mesa Solar Project in Riverside County, California. BrightSource Energy Inc. is the developer for this project. The project was cancelled in 2013. In 2012, BrightSource Energy proposed to build the Hidden Hills Solar Electric Generating System Project near Charleston View, California. The project was withdrawn in 2015 due to concerns over the effects on wildlife, groundwater, cultural and historical resources in the area along with "lackluster updates" by BrightSource. In addition, then recent Inyo County planning policy changes would prevent large solar thermal plants being built in the county. === Shift to overseas projects === In September 2014, BrightSource ended its upcoming California projects, withdrawing its application for a solar thermal power plant at Palen, near Riverside. Biologists, Native American groups, and advocates for Joshua Tree National Park were concerned that the bright light and heat of the Palen project's heliostats would prove fatal for birds. The company shifted its focus to overseas projects. In November 2014, Bright Source announced a joint venture with Shanghai Electric to build "utility scale solar thermal projects," and proposed the "construction of two 135 megawatt (MW) CSP plants as part of the Qinghai Delingha Solar Thermal Power Generation Project." In March 2016, it was confirmed that BrightSource is supplying technology to Ashalim Power Station in the Negev Desert of Israel. In September 2016, BrightSource signed a deal to sell its Ivanpah solar farm technology to a Chinese project owned by a state-run energy company. Arnold Goldman, the founder of BrightSource, died in 2017. In 2020 it was reported that the main telephone number of BrightSource was directed to voicemail and that the most recent announcement on the website was from 2017. == See also == Concentrating solar power Solar power tower Solar thermal energy List of concentrating solar thermal power companies List of energy storage projects List of solar thermal power stations == References == BrightSource Rises from Luz == External links == Official website	Wikipedia/BrightSource_Energy
Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) is the process of extracting bioenergy from biomass and capturing and storing the carbon dioxide (CO2) that is produced. Greenhouse gas emissions from bioenergy can be low because when vegetation is harvested for bioenergy, new vegetation can grow that will absorb CO2 from the air through photosynthesis. After the biomass is harvested, energy ("bioenergy") is extracted in useful forms (electricity, heat, biofuels, etc.) as the biomass is utilized through combustion, fermentation, pyrolysis or other conversion methods. Using bioenergy releases CO2. In BECCS, some of the CO2 is captured before it enters the atmosphere, and stored underground using carbon capture and storage technology. Under some conditions, BECCS can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The potential range of negative emissions from BECCS was estimated to be zero to 22 gigatonnes per year. As of 2024, there are large-scale 3 BECCS projects operating in the world. Wide deployment of BECCS is constrained by cost and availability of biomass.: 10 Since biomass production is land-intensive, deployment of BECCS can pose major risks to food production, human rights, and biodiversity. == Negative emission == The main appeal of BECCS is in its ability to result in negative emissions of CO2. The capture of carbon dioxide from bioenergy sources effectively removes CO2 from the atmosphere. Bioenergy is derived from biomass which is a renewable energy source and serves as a carbon sink during its growth. During industrial processes, the biomass combusted or processed re-releases the CO2 into the atmosphere. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology serves to intercept the release of CO2 into the atmosphere and redirect it into geological storage locations, or concrete. The process thus results in a net zero emission of CO2, though this may be positively or negatively altered depending on the carbon emissions associated with biomass growth, transport and processing, see below under environmental considerations. CO2 with a biomass origin is not only released from biomass fuelled power plants, but also during the production of pulp used to make paper and in the production of biofuels such as biogas and bioethanol. The BECCS technology can also be employed on industrial processes such as these and making cement. BECCS technologies trap carbon dioxide in geologic formations in a semi-permanent way, whereas a tree stores its carbon only during its lifetime. In 2005 it was estimated that more than 99% of carbon dioxide stored through geologic sequestration is likely to stay in place for more than 1000 years. In 2005, the IPCC estimated that BECCS technology would provide a "better permanence" by storing CO2 in geological formations underground, relative to other types of carbon sinks. Carbon sinks such as the ocean, trees, and soil involve a risk of adverse climate change feedback at increased temperatures. Industrial processes have released too much CO2 to be absorbed by conventional sinks such as trees and soil to reach low emission targets. In addition to the presently accumulated emissions, there will be significant additional emissions during this century, even in the most ambitious low-emission scenarios. BECCS has therefore been suggested as a technology to reverse the emission trend and create a global system of net negative emissions. This implies that the emissions would not only be zero, but negative, so that not only the emissions, but the absolute amount of CO2 in the atmosphere would be reduced. == Cost == Cost estimates for BECCS range from $60-$250 per ton of CO2. It was estimated that electrogeochemical methods of combining saline water electrolysis with mineral weathering powered by non-fossil fuel-derived electricity could, on average, increase both energy generation and CO2 removal by more than 50 times relative to BECCS, at equivalent or even lower cost, but further research is needed to develop such methods. == Technology == The main technology for CO2 capture from biotic sources generally employs the same technology as carbon dioxide capture from conventional fossil fuel sources. Broadly, three different types of technologies exist: post-combustion, pre-combustion, and oxy-fuel combustion. === Oxy-combustion === Oxy-fuel combustion has been a common process in the glass, cement and steel industries. It is also a promising technological approach for CCS. In oxy-fuel combustion, the main difference from conventional air firing is that the fuel is burned in a mixture of O2 and recycled flue gas. The O2 is produced by an air separation unit (ASU), which removes the atmospheric N2 from the oxidizer stream. By removing the N2 upstream of the process, a flue gas with a high concentration of CO2 and water vapor is produced, which eliminates the need for a post-combustion capture plant. The water vapor can be removed by condensation, leaving a product stream of relatively high-purity CO2 which, after subsequent purification and dehydration, can be pumped to a geological storage site. Key challenges of BECCS implementation using oxy-combustion are associated with the combustion process. For the high volatile content biomass, the mill temperature has to be kept at a low temperature to reduce the risk of fire and explosion. In addition, the flame temperature is lower. Therefore, the concentration of oxygen needs to be increased up to 27-30%. === Pre-combustion === "Pre-combustion carbon capture" describes processes that capture CO2 before generating energy. This is often accomplished in five operating stages: oxygen generation, syngas generation, CO2 separation, CO2 compression, and power generation. The fuel first goes through a gasification process by reacting with oxygen to form a stream of CO and H2, which is syngas. The products will then go through a water-gas shift reactor to form CO2 and H2. The CO2 that is produced will then be captured, and the H2, which is a clean source, will be used for combustion to generate energy. The process of gasification combined with syngas production is called Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC). An Air Separation Unit (ASU) can serve as the oxygen source, but some research has found that with the same flue gas, oxygen gasification is only slightly better than air gasification. Both have a thermal efficiency of roughly 70% using coal as the fuel source. Thus, the use of an ASU is not really necessary in pre-combustion. Biomass is considered "sulfur-free" as a fuel for the pre-combustion capture. However, there are other trace elements in biomass combustion such as K and Na that could accumulate in the system and finally cause the degradation of the mechanical parts. Thus, further developments of the separation techniques for those trace elements are needed. And also, after the gasification process, CO2 takes up to 13% - 15.3% by mass in the syngas stream for biomass sources, while it is only 1.7% - 4.4% for coal. This limit the conversion of CO to CO2 in the water gas shift, and the production rate for H2 will decrease accordingly. However, the thermal efficiency of the pre-combustion capture using biomass resembles that of coal which is around 62% - 100%. Some research found that using a dry system instead of a biomass/water slurry fuel feed was more thermally efficient and practical for biomass. === Post-combustion === In addition to pre-combustion and oxy-fuel combustion technologies, post-combustion is a promising technology which can be used to extract CO2 emission from biomass fuel resources. During the process, CO2 is separated from the other gases in the flue gas stream after the biomass fuel is burnt and undergo separation process. Because it has the ability to be retrofitted to some existing power plants such as steam boilers or other newly built power stations, post-combustion technology is considered as a better option than pre-combustion technology. According to the fact sheets U.S. CONSUMPTION OF BIO-ENERGY WITH CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE released in March 2018, the efficiency of post-combustion technology is expected to be 95% while pre-combustion and oxy-combustion capture CO2 at an efficient rate of 85% and 87.5% respectively. Development for current post-combustion technologies has not been entirely done due to several problems. One of the major concerns using this technology to capture carbon dioxide is the parasitic energy consumption. If the capacity of the unit is designed to be small, the heat loss to the surrounding is great enough to cause too many negative consequences. Another challenge of post-combustion carbon capture is how to deal with the mixture's components in the flue gases from initial biomass materials after combustion. The mixture consists of a high amount of alkali metals, halogens, acidic elements, and transition metals which might have negative impacts on the efficiency of the process. Thus, the choice of specific solvents and how to manage the solvent process should be carefully designed and operated. == Biomass feedstocks == Biomass sources used in BECCS include agricultural residues & waste, forestry residue & waste, industrial & municipal wastes, and energy crops specifically grown for use as fuel. A variety of challenges must be faced to ensure that biomass-based carbon capture is feasible and carbon neutral. Biomass stocks require availability of water and fertilizer inputs, which themselves exist at a nexus of environmental challenges in terms of resource disruption, conflict, and fertilizer runoff. A second major challenge is logistical: bulky biomass products require transportation to geographical features that enable sequestration. == Projects and commercial plants == As of 2024, there are 3 large-scale BECCS projects operating in the world. All of these are ethanol plants. Between 1972 and 2017, plans were announced to sequester a total of 2.2 million tonnes of CO2 per year using CCS in biomass and waste power plants. None of these plans had come to fruition by 2022. === At ethanol plants === The Illinois Industrial Carbon Capture and Storage (IL-CCS) project, initiated in the early 21st century, is the first industrial-scale Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) project. Located in Decatur, Illinois, USA, IL-CCS captures carbon dioxide (CO2) from the Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) ethanol plant and injects it into the Mount Simon Sandstone, a deep saline formation. The IL-CCS project is divided into two phases. The pilot phase, running from November 2011 to November 2014, had a capital cost of approximately $84 million. During this period, the project successfully captured and sequestered 1 million tonnes of CO2 without any detected leakage from the injection zone. Monitoring continues for future reference. Phase 2 began in November 2017, utilizing the same injection zone with a capital cost of about $208 million, including $141 million in funding from the Department of Energy. This phase has a capture capacity three times larger than the pilot project, allowing IL-CCS to capture over 1 million tonnes of CO2 annually. As of 2019, IL-CCS was the largest BECCS project in the world. In addition to IL-CCS, several other projects capture CO2 from ethanol plants on a smaller scale. Examples include: Arkalon in Kansas, USA: 0.18-0.29 MtCO2/year OCAP in the Netherlands: 0.1-0.3 MtCO2/year Husky Energy in Canada: 0.09-0.1 MtCO2/year == Challenges == === Environmental considerations === Some of the environmental considerations and other concerns about the widespread implementation of BECCS are similar to those of CCS. However, much of the critique towards CCS is that it may strengthen the dependency on depletable fossil fuels and environmentally invasive coal mining. This is not the case with BECCS, as it relies on renewable biomass. There are however other considerations which involve BECCS and these concerns are related to the possible increased use of biofuels. Biomass production is subject to a range of sustainability constraints, such as: scarcity of arable land and fresh water, loss of biodiversity, competition with food production and deforestation. It is important to make sure that biomass is used in a way that maximizes both energy and climate benefits. There has been criticism to some suggested BECCS deployment scenarios, where there would be a very heavy reliance on increased biomass input. Large areas of land would be required to operate BECCS on an industrial scale. To remove 10 billion tonnes of CO2, upwards of 300 million hectares of land area (larger than India) would be required. As a result, BECCS risks using land that could be better suited to agriculture and food production, especially in developing countries. These systems may have other negative side effects. There is however presently no need to expand the use of biofuels in energy or industry applications to allow for BECCS deployment. There is already today considerable emissions from point sources of biomass derived CO2, which could be utilized for BECCS. Though, in possible future bioenergy system upscaling scenarios, this may be an important consideration. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report says: “Extensive deployment of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and afforestation would require larger amounts of freshwater resources than used by the previous vegetation, altering the water cycle at regional scales (high confidence) with potential consequences for downstream uses, biodiversity, and regional climate, depending on prior land cover, background climate conditions, and scale of deployment (high confidence).” === Technical challenges === A challenge for applying BECCS technology, as with other carbon capture and storage technologies, is to find suitable geographic locations to build combustion plant and to sequester captured CO2. If biomass sources are not close by the combustion unit, transporting biomass emits CO2 offsetting the amount of CO2 captured by BECCS. BECCS also face technical concerns about efficiency of burning biomass. While each type of biomass has a different heating value, biomass in general is a low-quality fuel. Thermal conversion of biomass typically has an efficiency of 20-27%. For comparison, coal-fired plants have an efficiency of about 37%. BECCS also faces a question whether the process is actually energy positive. Low energy conversion efficiency, energy-intensive biomass supply, combined with the energy required to power the CO2 capture and storage unit impose energy penalty on the system. This might lead to a low power generation efficiency. == Alternative biomass sources == === Agricultural and forestry residues === Globally, 14 Gt of forestry residue and 4.4 Gt residues from crop production (mainly barley, wheat, corn, sugarcane and rice) are generated every year. This is a significant amount of biomass which can be combusted to generate 26 EJ/year and achieve a 2.8 Gt of negative CO2 emission through BECCS. Utilizing residues for carbon capture will provide social and economic benefits to rural communities. Using waste from crops and forestry is a way to avoid the ecological and social challenges of BECCS. Among the forest bioenergy strategies being promoted, forest residue gasification for electricity production has gained policy traction in many developing countries because of the abundance of forest biomass, and their affordability, given that they are a by-products of conventional forestry functioning. Additionally, unlike the sporadic nature of wind and solar, forest residue gasification for electricity can be uninterrupted, and modified to meet switch in energy demand. Forest industries are well positioned to play a prominent role in facilitating the adoption and upscale of forest bioenergy strategies in response to energy security and climate change challenges. However, the economic costs of forest residue utilization for bioelectricity production and its potential financial impact on conventional forestry operations are poorly represented in forest bioenergy studies. Exploring these opportunities, particularly in developing country contexts can be buttressed by investigations that assess the financial feasibility of joint production for timber and bioelectricity. Despite the growing policy directives and mandates to produce electricity from woody biomass, the uncertainty around the financial feasibility and risks to investors continue to impede the transition to this renewable energy pathway, particularly in developing countries where the demand are the highest. This is because investments in forest bioenergy projects are exposed to high levels of financial risks. The high capital costs, operation costs, and maintenance costs of harvest residue-based gasification plant and their associated risks can keep the potential investor from investing in a forest-based bioelectricity project. === Municipal solid waste === Since municipal solid waste contains some biogenic substances like food, wood and paper, waste incineration can to a degree considered a source of bioenergy. Around 44% of waste globally is estimated to consist of food and green waste; a further 17% is paper and cardboard. It has been estimated that carbon capture would reduce the carbon emissions associated with waste incinerators by 700 kg CO2 per kg of waste, assuming an 85% capture rate. The specific waste composition does not greatly affect this. === Co-firing coal with biomass === As of 2017 there were roughly 250 cofiring plants in the world, including 40 in the US. Biomass cofiring with coal has efficiency near those of coal combustion. Instead of co-firing, full conversion from coal to biomass of one or more generating units in a plant may be preferred. == Policy == Based on the Kyoto Protocol agreement, carbon capture and storage projects were not applicable as an emission reduction tool to be used for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) or for Joint Implementation (JI) projects. As of 2006, there had been growing support to have fossil CCS and BECCS included in the protocol and the Paris Agreement. Accounting studies on how this could be implemented, including BECCS, have also been done. === European Union === There were policies to incentivice to use bioenergy such as Renewable Energy Directive (RED) and Fuel Quality Directive (FQD), which require 20% of total energy consumption to be based on biomass, bioliquids and biogas by 2020. Sweden The Swedish Energy Agency was commissioned by the Swedish government to design a Swedish support system for BECCS to be implemented by 2022. === United Kingdom === In 2018 the Committee on Climate Change recommended that aviation biofuels should provide up to 10% of total aviation fuel demand by 2050, and that all aviation biofuels should be produced with CCS as soon as the technology is available.: 159 === United States === In 2018, the US congress increased and extended the section 45Q tax credit for sequestration of carbon oxides, a top priority of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) supporters for several years. It increased $25.70 to $50 tax credit per tonnes of CO2 for secure geological storage and $15.30 to $35 tax credit per tonne of CO2 used in enhanced oil recovery. == Public perception == Limited studies have investigated public perceptions of BECCS. Of those studies, most originate from developed countries in the northern hemisphere and therefore may not represent a worldwide view. In a 2018 study involving online panel respondents from the United Kingdom, United States, Australia, and New Zealand, respondents showed little prior awareness of BECCS technologies. Measures of respondents perceptions suggest that the public associate BECCS with a balance of both positive and negative attributes. Across the four countries, 45% of the respondents indicated they would support small scale trials of BECCS, whereas only 21% were opposed. BECCS was moderately preferred among other methods of carbon dioxide removal like direct air capture or enhanced weathering, and greatly preferred over methods of solar radiation management. A 2019 study in Oxfordshire, UK found that public perception of BECCS was significantly influenced by the policies used to support the practice. Participants generally approved of taxes and standards, but they had mixed feelings about the government providing funding support. == See also == Biosequestration Carbon dioxide removal Carbon negative Carbon tech Climate change mitigation scenarios Climate engineering List of emerging technologies Low-carbon economy United Nations Environment Programme Virgin Earth Challenge == References ==	Wikipedia/Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage
In the context of energy production, biomass is matter from recently living (but now dead) organisms which is used for bioenergy production. Examples include wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues including straw, and organic waste from industry and households. Wood and wood residues is the largest biomass energy source today. Wood can be used as a fuel directly or processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. Other plants can also be used as fuel, for instance maize, switchgrass, miscanthus and bamboo. The main waste feedstocks are wood waste, agricultural waste, municipal solid waste, and manufacturing waste. Upgrading raw biomass to higher grade fuels can be achieved by different methods, broadly classified as thermal, chemical, or biochemical. The climate impact of bioenergy varies considerably depending on where biomass feedstocks come from and how they are grown. For example, burning wood for energy releases carbon dioxide. Those emissions can be significantly offset if the trees that were harvested are replaced by new trees in a well-managed forest, as the new trees will remove carbon dioxide from the air as they grow. However, the farming of biomass feedstocks can reduce biodiversity, degrade soils and take land out of food production. It may also consume water for irrigation and fertilisers. == Terminology == Biomass (in the context of energy generation) is matter from recently living (but now dead) organisms which is used for bioenergy production. There are variations in how such biomass for energy is defined, e.g. only from plants, or from plants and algae, or from plants and animals. The vast majority of biomass used for bioenergy does come from plants. Bioenergy is a type of renewable energy with potential to assist with climate change mitigation. Some people use the terms biomass and biofuel interchangeably, but it is now more common to consider biofuel to be a liquid or gaseous fuel used for transportation, as defined by government authorities in the US and EU. From that perspective, biofuel is a subset of biomass. The European Union's Joint Research Centre defines solid biofuel as raw or processed organic matter of biological origin used for energy, such as firewood, wood chips, and wood pellets. == Types and uses == Different types of biomass are used for different purposes: Primary biomass sources that are appropriate for heat or electricity generation but not for transport include: wood, wood residues, wood pellets, agricultural residues, organic waste. Biomass that is processed into transport fuels can come from corn, sugar cane, and soy. Biomass is categorized either as biomass harvested directly for energy (primary biomass), or as residues and waste: (secondary biomass). === Biomass harvested directly for energy === The main biomass types harvested directly for energy is wood, some food crops and all perennial energy crops. One third of the global forest area of 4 billion hectares is used for wood production or other commercial purposes, and forests provide 85% of all biomass used for energy globally.: 3 In the EU, forests provide 60% of all biomass used for energy, with wood residues and waste being the largest source. Woody biomass used for energy often consists of trees and bushes harvested for traditional cooking and heating purposes, particularly in developing countries, with 25 EJ per year used globally for these purposes. This practice is highly polluting. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual deaths. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 7 aims for the traditional use of biomass for cooking to be phased out by 2030. Short-rotation coppices and short-rotation forests are also harvested directly for energy, providing 4 EJ of energy, and are considered sustainable. The potential for these crops and perennial energy crops to provide at least 25 EJ annually by 2050 is estimated. Food crops harvested for energy include sugar-producing crops (such as sugarcane), starch-producing crops (such as maize), and oil-producing crops (such as rapeseed). Sugarcane is a perennial crop, while corn and rapeseed are annual crops. Sugar- and starch-producing crops are used to make bioethanol, and oil-producing crops are used to make biodiesel. The United States is the largest producer of bioethanol, while the European Union is the largest producer of biodiesel. The global production of bioethanol and biodiesel provides 2.2 and 1.5 EJ of energy per year, respectively. Biofuel made from food crops harvested for energy is also known as "first-generation" or "traditional" biofuel and has relatively low emission savings. The IPCC estimates that between 0.32 and 1.4 billion hectares of marginal land are suitable for bioenergy worldwide. === Biomass in the form of residues and waste === Residues and waste are by-products from biological material harvested mainly for non-energy purposes. The most important by-products are wood residues, agricultural residues and municipal/industrial waste: Wood residues are by-products from forestry operations or from the wood processing industry. Had the residues not been collected and used for bioenergy, they would have decayed (and therefore produced emissions) on the forest floor or in landfills, or been burnt (and produced emissions) at the side of the road in forests or outside wood processing facilities. The by-products from forestry operations are called logging residues or forest residues, and consist of tree tops, branches, stumps, damaged or dying or dead trees, irregular or bent stem sections, thinnings (small trees that are cleared away in order to help the bigger trees grow large), and trees removed to reduce wildfire risk. The extraction level of logging residues differ from region to region, but there is an increasing interest in using this feedstock, since the sustainable potential is large (15 EJ annually). 68% of the total forest biomass in the EU consists of wood stems, and 32% consists of stumps, branches and tops. The by-products from the wood processing industry are called wood processing residues and consist of cut offs, shavings, sawdust, bark, and black liquor. Wood processing residues have a total energy content of 5.5 EJ annually. Wood pellets are mainly made from wood processing residues, and have a total energy content of 0.7 EJ. Wood chips are made from a combination of feedstocks, and have a total energy content of 0.8 EJ. The energy content in agricultural residues used for energy is approximately 2 EJ. However, agricultural residues has a large untapped potential. The energy content in the global production of agricultural residues has been estimated to 78 EJ annually, with the largest share from straw (51 EJ). Others have estimated between 18 and 82 EJ. The use of agricultural residues and waste that is both sustainable and economically feasible: 9 is expected to increase to between 37 and 66 EJ in 2030. Municipal waste produced 1.4 EJ and industrial waste 1.1 EJ. Wood waste from cities and industry also produced 1.1 EJ. The sustainable potential for wood waste has been estimated to 2–10 EJ. IEA recommends a dramatic increase in waste utilization to 45 EJ annually in 2050. == Biomass conversion == Raw biomass can be upgraded into better and more practical fuel simply by compacting it (e.g. wood pellets), or by different conversions broadly classified as thermal, chemical, and biochemical. Biomass conversion reduces the transport costs as it is cheaper to transport high density commodities.: 53 === Thermal conversion === Thermal upgrading produces solid, liquid or gaseous fuels, with heat as the dominant conversion driver. The basic alternatives are torrefaction, pyrolysis, and gasification, these are separated principally by how far the chemical reactions involved are allowed to proceed. The advancement of the chemical reactions is mainly controlled by how much oxygen is available, and the conversion temperature. Torrefaction is a mild form of pyrolysis where organic materials are heated to 400–600 °F (200–300 °C) in a no–to–low oxygen environment. The heating process removes (via gasification) the parts of the biomass that has the lowest energy content, while the parts with the highest energy content remain. Approximately 30% of the biomass is converted to gas during the torrefaction process, while 70% remains, usually in the form of compacted pellets or briquettes. This solid product is water resistant, easy to grind, non-corrosive, and contains approximately 85% of the original biomass energy. Basically the mass part has shrunk more than the energy part, and the consequence is that the calorific value of torrefied biomass increases significantly, to the extent that it can compete with coals used for electricity generation (steam/thermal coals). The energy density of the most common steam coals today is 22–26 GJ/t. There are other less common, more experimental or proprietary thermal processes that may offer benefits, such as hydrothermal upgrading (sometimes called "wet" torrefaction.) The hydrothermal upgrade path can be used for both low and high moisture content biomass, e.g. aqueous slurries. Pyrolysis entails heating organic materials to 800–900 °F (400–500 °C) in the near complete absence of oxygen. Biomass pyrolysis produces fuels such as bio-oil, charcoal, methane, and hydrogen. Hydrotreating is used to process bio-oil (produced by fast pyrolysis) with hydrogen under elevated temperatures and pressures in the presence of a catalyst to produce renewable diesel, renewable gasoline, and renewable jet fuel. Gasification entails heating organic materials to 1,400–1700 °F (800–900 °C) with injections of controlled amounts of oxygen and/or steam into the vessel to produce a carbon monoxide and hydrogen rich gas called synthesis gas or syngas. Syngas can be used as a fuel for diesel engines, for heating, and for generating electricity in gas turbines. It can also be treated to separate the hydrogen from the gas, and the hydrogen can be burned or used in fuel cells. The syngas can be further processed to produce liquid fuels using the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis process. === Chemical conversion === Biomass may be converted to other forms through a range of chemical processes, either to produce a fuel that is easier to store, transport, and use, or to exploit some property inherent in the conversion process. Many of these processes are based in large part on similar coal-based processes, such as the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. A chemical conversion process known as transesterification is used for converting vegetable oils, animal fats, and greases into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), which are used to produce biodiesel. === Biochemical conversion === Biochemical processes have developed in nature to break down the molecules of which biomass is composed, and many of these can be harnessed. In most cases, microorganisms are used to perform the conversion. The processes are called anaerobic digestion, fermentation, and composting. Fermentation converts biomass into bioethanol, and anaerobic digestion converts biomass into renewable natural gas (biogas). Bioethanol is used as a vehicle fuel. Renewable natural gas—also called biogas or biomethane—is produced in anaerobic digesters at sewage treatment plants and at dairy and livestock operations. It also forms in and may be captured from solid waste landfills. Properly treated renewable natural gas has the same uses as fossil fuel natural gas. == Climate impacts == === Short-term vs long-term climate benefits === Regarding the issue of climate consequences for modern bioenergy, IPCC states: "Life-cycle GHG emissions of modern bioenergy alternatives are usually lower than those for fossil fuels." Consequently, most of IPCC's GHG mitigation pathways include substantial deployment of bioenergy technologies. Some research groups state that even if the European and North American forest carbon stock is increasing, it simply takes too long for harvested trees to grow back. Bioenergy from sources with high payback and parity times take a long time to have an impact on climate change mitigation. They therefore suggest that the EU should adjust its sustainability criteria so that only renewable energy with carbon payback times of less than 10 years is defined as sustainable, for instance wind, solar, biomass from wood residues and tree thinnings that would otherwise be burnt or decompose relatively fast, and biomass from short rotation coppicing (SRC). The IPCC states: "While individual stands in a forest may be either sources or sinks, the forest carbon balance is determined by the sum of the net balance of all stands." IPCC also state that the only universally applicable approach to carbon accounting is the one that accounts for both carbon emissions and carbon removals (absorption) for managed lands (e.g. forest landscapes.): 2.67 When the total is calculated, natural disturbances like fires and insect infestations are subtracted, and what remains is the human influence. IEA Bioenergy state that an exclusive focus on the short-term make it harder to achieve efficient carbon mitigation in the long term, and compare investments in new bioenergy technologies with investments in other renewable energy technologies that only provide emission reductions after 2030, for instance the scaling-up of battery manufacturing or the development of rail infrastructure. Forest carbon emission avoidance strategies give a short-term mitigation benefit, but the long-term benefits from sustainable forestry activities provide ongoing forest product and energy resources. Most of IPCC's GHG mitigation pathways include substantial deployment of bioenergy technologies. Limited or no bioenergy pathways leads to increased climate change or shifting bioenergy's mitigation load to other sectors. In addition, mitigation cost increases. === Carbon accounting system boundaries === Carbon positive scenarios are likely to be net emitters of CO2, carbon negative projects are net absorbers of CO2, while carbon neutral projects balance emissions and absorption equally. It is common to include alternative scenarios (also called "reference scenarios" or "counterfactuals") for comparison. The alternative scenarios range from scenarios with only modest changes compared to the existing project, all the way to radically different ones (i.e. forest protection or "no-bioenergy" counterfactuals.) Generally, the difference between scenarios is seen as the actual carbon mitigation potential of the scenarios. In addition to the choice of alternative scenario, other choices has to be made as well. The so-called "system boundaries" determine which carbon emissions/absorptions that will be included in the actual calculation, and which that will be excluded. System boundaries include temporal, spatial, efficiency-related and economic boundaries. For example, the actual carbon intensity of bioenergy varies with biomass production techniques and transportation lengths. ==== Temporal system boundaries ==== The temporal boundaries define when to start and end carbon counting. Sometimes "early" events are included in the calculation, for instance carbon absorption going on in the forest before the initial harvest. Sometimes "late" events are included as well, for instance emissions caused by end-of-life activities for the infrastructure involved, e.g. demolition of factories. Since the emission and absorption of carbon related to a project or scenario changes with time, the net carbon emission can either be presented as time-dependent (for instance a curve which moves along a time axis), or as a static value; this shows average emissions calculated over a defined time period. The time-dependent net emission curve will typically show high emissions at the beginning (if the counting starts when the biomass is harvested.) Alternatively, the starting point can be moved back to the planting event; in this case the curve can potentially move below zero (into carbon negative territory) if there is no carbon debt from land use change to pay back, and in addition more and more carbon is absorbed by the planted trees. The emission curve then spikes upward at harvest. The harvested carbon is then being distributed into other carbon pools, and the curve moves in tandem with the amount of carbon that is moved into these new pools (Y axis), and the time it takes for the carbon to move out of the pools and return to the forest via the atmosphere (X axis). As described above, the carbon payback time is the time it takes for the harvested carbon to be returned to the forest, and the carbon parity time is the time it takes for the carbon stored in two competing scenarios to reach the same level. The static carbon emission value is produced by calculating the average annual net emission for a specific time period. The specific time period can be the expected lifetime of the infrastructure involved (typical for life cycle assessments; LCA's), policy relevant time horizons inspired by the Paris agreement (for instance remaining time until 2030, 2050 or 2100), time spans based on different global warming potentials (GWP; typically 20 or 100 years), or other time spans. In the EU, a time span of 20 years is used when quantifying the net carbon effects of a land use change. Generally in legislation, the static number approach is preferred over the dynamic, time-dependent curve approach. The number is expressed as a so-called "emission factor" (net emission per produced energy unit, for instance kg CO2e per GJ), or even simpler as an average greenhouse gas savings percentage for specific bioenergy pathways. The EU's published greenhouse gas savings percentages for specific bioenergy pathways used in the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) and other legal documents are based on life cycle assessments (LCA's). ==== Spatial system boundaries ==== The spatial boundaries define "geographical" borders for carbon emission/absorption calculations. The two most common spatial boundaries for CO2 absorption and emission in forests are 1.) along the edges of a particular forest stand and 2.) along the edges of a whole forest landscape, which include many forest stands of increasing age (the forest stands are harvested and replanted, one after the other, over as many years as there are stands.) A third option is the so-called increasing stand level carbon accounting method. The researcher has to decide whether to focus on the individual stand, an increasing number of stands, or the whole forest landscape. The IPCC recommends landscape-level carbon accounting. Further, the researcher has to decide whether emissions from direct/indirect land use change should be included in the calculation. Most researchers include emissions from direct land use change, for instance the emissions caused by cutting down a forest in order to start some agricultural project there instead. The inclusion of indirect land use change effects is more controversial, as they are difficult to quantify accurately. Other choices involve defining the likely spatial boundaries of forests in the future. ==== Efficiency-related system boundaries ==== The efficiency-related boundaries define a range of fuel substitution efficiencies for different biomass-combustion pathways. Different supply chains emit different amounts of carbon per supplied energy unit, and different combustion facilities convert the chemical energy stored in different fuels to heat or electrical energy with different efficiencies. The researcher has to know about this and choose a realistic efficiency range for the different biomass-combustion paths under consideration. The chosen efficiencies are used to calculate so-called "displacement factors" – single numbers that shows how efficient fossil carbon is substituted by biogenic carbon. If for instance 10 tonnes of carbon are combusted with an efficiency half that of a modern coal plant, only 5 tonnes of coal would actually be counted as displaced (displacement factor 0.5). Generally, fuel burned in inefficient (old or small) combustion facilities gets assigned lower displacement factors than fuel burned in efficient (new or large) facilities, since more fuel has to be burned (and therefore more CO2 released) in order to produce the same amount of energy. The displacement factor varies with the carbon intensity of both the biomass fuel and the displaced fossil fuel. If or when bioenergy can achieve negative emissions (e.g. from afforestation, energy grass plantations and/or bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), or if fossil fuel energy sources with higher emissions in the supply chain start to come online (e.g. because of fracking, or increased use of shale gas), the displacement factor will start to rise. On the other hand, if or when new baseload energy sources with lower emissions than fossil fuels start to come online, the displacement factor will start to drop. Whether a displacement factor change is included in the calculation or not, depends on whether or not it is expected to take place within the time period covered by the relevant scenario's temporal system boundaries. ==== Economic system boundaries ==== The economic boundaries define which market effects to include in the calculation, if any. Changed market conditions can lead to small or large changes in carbon emissions and absorptions from supply chains and forests, for instance changes in forest area as a response to changes in demand. Macroeconomic events/policy changes can have impacts on forest carbon stock. Like with indirect land use changes, economic changes can be difficult to quantify however, so some researchers prefer to leave them out of the calculation. ==== System boundary impacts ==== The chosen system boundaries are very important for the calculated results. Shorter payback/parity times are calculated when fossil carbon intensity, forest growth rate and biomass conversion efficiency increases, or when the initial forest carbon stock and/or harvest level decreases. Shorter payback/parity times are also calculated when the researcher choose landscape level over stand level carbon accounting (if carbon accounting starts at the harvest rather than at the planting event.) Conversely, longer payback/parity times are calculated when carbon intensity, growth rate and conversion efficiency decreases, or when the initial carbon stock and/or harvest level increases, or the researcher choose stand level over landscape level carbon accounting. Critics argue that unrealistic system boundary choices are made, or that narrow system boundaries lead to misleading conclusions. Others argue that the wide range of results shows that there is too much leeway available and that the calculations therefore are useless for policy development. EU's Join Research Center agrees that different methodologies produce different results, but also argue that this is to be expected, since different researchers consciously or unconsciously choose different alternative scenarios/methodologies as a result of their ethical ideals regarding man's optimal relationship with nature. The ethical core of the sustainability debate should be made explicit by researchers, rather than hidden away. === Comparisons of GHG emissions at the point of combustion === GHG emissions per produced energy unit at the point of combustion depend on moisture content in the fuel, chemical differences between fuels and conversion efficiencies. For example, raw biomass can have higher moisture content compared to some common coal types. When this is the case, more of the wood's inherent energy must be spent solely on evaporating moisture, compared to the drier coal, which means that the amount of CO2 emitted per unit of produced heat will be higher. Many biomass-only combustion facilities are relatively small and inefficient, compared to the typically much larger coal plants. Further, raw biomass (for instance wood chips) can have higher moisture content than coal (especially if the coal has been dried). When this is the case, more of the wood's inherent energy must be spent solely on evaporating moisture, compared to the drier coal, which means that the amount of CO2 emitted per unit produced heat will be higher. This moisture problem can be mitigated by modern combustion facilities. Forest biomass on average produces 10-16% more CO2 than coal.: 3 However, focusing on gross emissions misses the point, what counts is the net climate effect from emissions and absorption, taken together.: 386 : 3–4 IEA Bioenergy concludes that the additional CO2 from biomass "[...] is irrelevant if the biomass is derived from sustainably managed forests.": 3 === Climate impacts expressed as varying with time === The use of boreal stemwood harvested exclusively for bioenergy have a positive climate impact only in the long term, while the use of wood residues have a positive climate impact also in the short to medium term. Short carbon payback/parity times are produced when the most realistic no-bioenergy scenario is a traditional forestry scenario where "good" wood stems are harvested for lumber production, and residues are burned or left behind in the forest or in landfills. The collection of such residues provides material which "[...] would have released its carbon (via decay or burning) back to the atmosphere anyway (over time spans defined by the biome's decay rate) [...]." In other words, payback and parity times depend on the decay speed. The decay speed depends on a.) location (because decay speed is "[...] roughly proportional to temperature and rainfall [...]"), and b.) the thickness of the residues. Residues decay faster in warm and wet areas, and thin residues decay faster than thick residues. Thin residues in warm and wet temperate forests therefore have the fastest decay, while thick residues in cold and dry boreal forests have the slowest decay. If the residues instead are burned in the no-bioenergy scenario, e.g. outside the factories or at roadside in the forests, emissions are instant. In this case, parity times approach zero. Like other scientists, the JRC staff note the high variability in carbon accounting results, and attribute this to different methodologies. In the studies examined, the JRC found carbon parity times of 0 to 400 years for stemwood harvested exclusively for bioenergy, depending on different characteristics and assumptions for both the forest/bioenergy system and the alternative fossil system, with the emission intensity of the displaced fossil fuels seen as the most important factor, followed by conversion efficiency and biomass growth rate/rotation time. Other factors relevant for the carbon parity time are the initial carbon stock and the existing harvest level; both higher initial carbon stock and higher harvest level means longer parity times. Liquid biofuels have high parity times because about half of the energy content of the biomass is lost in the processing. === Climate impacts expressed as static numbers === EU's Joint Research Centre has examined a number of bioenergy emission estimates found in literature, and calculated greenhouse gas savings percentages for bioenergy pathways in heat production, transportation fuel production and electricity production, based on those studies. The calculations are based on the attributional LCA accounting principle. It includes all supply chain emissions, from raw material extraction, through energy and material production and manufacturing, to end-of-life treatment and final disposal. It also includes emissions related to the production of the fossil fuels used in the supply chain. It excludes emission/absorption effects that takes place outside its system boundaries, for instance market related, biogeophysical (e.g. albedo), and time-dependent effects. The authors conclude that "[m]ost bio-based commodities release less GHG than fossil products along their supply chain; but the magnitude of GHG emissions vary greatly with logistics, type of feedstocks, land and ecosystem management, resource efficiency, and technology." Because of the varied climate mitigation potential for different biofuel pathways, governments and organizations set up different certification schemes to ensure that biomass use is sustainable, for instance the RED (Renewable Energy Directive) in the EU and the ISO standard 13065 by the International Organization for Standardization. In the US, the RFS (Renewables Fuel Standard) limit the use of traditional biofuels and defines the minimum life-cycle GHG emissions that are acceptable. Biofuels are considered traditional if they achieve up to 20% GHG emission reduction compared to the petrochemical equivalent, advanced if they save at least 50%, and cellulosic if the save more than 60%. The EU's Renewable Energy Directive (RED) states that the typical greenhouse gas emissions savings when replacing fossil fuels with wood pellets from forest residues for heat production varies between 69% and 77%, depending on transport distance: When the distance is between 0 and 2500 km, emission savings is 77%. Emission savings drop to 75% when the distance is between 2500 and 10 000 km, and to 69% when the distance is above 10 000 km. When stemwood is used, emission savings varies between 70% and 77%, depending on transport distance. When wood industry residues are used, savings varies between 79% and 87%. Since the long payback and parity times calculated for some forestry projects is seen as a non-issue for energy crops (except in the cases mentioned above), researchers instead calculate static climate mitigation potentials for these crops, using LCA-based carbon accounting methods. A particular energy crop-based bioenergy project is considered carbon positive, carbon neutral or carbon negative based on the total amount of CO2 equivalent emissions and absorptions accumulated throughout its entire lifetime: If emissions during agriculture, processing, transport and combustion are higher than what is absorbed (and stored) by the plants, both above and below ground, during the project's lifetime, the project is carbon positive. Likewise, if total absorption is higher than total emissions, the project is carbon negative. In other words, carbon negativity is possible when net carbon accumulation more than compensates for net lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions. Typically, perennial crops sequester more carbon than annual crops because the root buildup is allowed to continue undisturbed over many years. Also, perennial crops avoid the yearly tillage procedures (plowing, digging) associated with growing annual crops. Tilling helps the soil microbe populations to decompose the available carbon, producing CO2.: 393 There is now (2018) consensus in the scientific community that "[...] the GHG [greenhouse gas] balance of perennial bioenergy crop cultivation will often be favourable [...]", also when considering the implicit direct and indirect land use changes.: 150 === Albedo and evapotranspiration === == Environmental impacts == The environmental impacts of biomass production need to be taken into account. For instance, in 2022, IEA stated that "bioenergy is an important pillar of decarbonisation in the energy transition as a near zero-emission fuel", and that "more efforts are needed to accelerate modern bioenergy deployment to get on track with the Net Zero Scenario [....] while simultaneously ensuring that bioenergy production does not incur negative social and environmental consequences." === Sustainable forestry and forest protection === IPCC states that there is disagreement about whether the global forest is shrinking or not, and quote research indicating that tree cover has increased 7.1% between 1982 and 2016.: 367 The IPCC writes: "While above-ground biomass carbon stocks are estimated to be declining in the tropics, they are increasing globally due to increasing stocks in temperate and boreal forests [...].": 385 Old trees have a very high carbon absorption rate, and felling old trees means that this large potential for future carbon absorption is lost.: 3 There is also a loss of soil carbon due to the harvest operations.: 3 Old trees absorb more CO2 than young trees because of the larger leaf area in full-grown trees. However, the old forest (as a whole) will eventually stop absorbing CO2 because CO2 emissions from dead trees cancel out the remaining living trees' CO2 absorption. The old forest (or forest stands) are also vulnerable for natural disturbances that produces CO2. The IPCC found that "[...] landscapes with older forests have accumulated more carbon but their sink strength is diminishing, while landscapes with younger forests contain less carbon but they are removing CO2 from the atmosphere at a much higher rate [...].": 386 The IPCC states that the net climate effect from conversion of unmanaged to managed forest can be positive or negative, depending on circumstances. The carbon stock is reduced, but since managed forests grow faster than unmanaged forests, more carbon is absorbed. Positive climate effects are produced if the harvested biomass is used efficiently.: 351 There is a tradeoff between the benefits of having a maximized forest carbon stock, not absorbing any more carbon, and the benefits of having a portion of that carbon stock "unlocked", and instead working as a renewable fossil fuel replacement tool, for instance in sectors which are difficult or expensive to decarbonize. The "competition" between locked-away and unlocked forest carbon might be won by the unlocked carbon: "In the long term, using sustainably produced forest biomass as a substitute for carbon-intensive products and fossil fuels provides greater permanent reductions in atmospheric CO2 than preservation does.": 39 IEA Bioenergy writes: "forests managed for producing sawn timber, bioenergy and other wood products can make a greater contribution to climate change mitigation than forests managed for conservation alone." Three reasons are given: reducing ability to act as a carbon sink when the forest matures. Wood products can replace other materials that emitted more GHGs during production. "Carbon in forests is vulnerable to loss through natural events such as insect infestations or wildfires" Data from FAO show that most wood pellets are produced in regions dominated by sustainably managed forests, such as Europe and North America. Europe (including Russia) produced 54% of the world's wood pellets in 2019, and the forest carbon stock in this area increased from 158.7 to 172.4 Gt between 1990 and 2020. In the EU, above-ground forest biomass increases with 1.3% per year on average, however the increase is slowing down because the forests are maturing. United Kingdom Emissions Trading System allows operators of CO2 generating installations to apply zero emissions factor for the fraction used for non-energy purposes, while energy purposes (electricity generation, heating) require additional sustainability certification on the biomass used. === Biodiversity === Biomass production for bioenergy can have negative impacts on biodiversity. Oil palm and sugar cane are examples of crops that have been linked to reduced biodiversity. In addition, changes in biodiversity also impacts primary production which naturally effects decomposition and soil heterotrophic organisms. Win-win scenarios (good for climate, good for biodiversity) include: Increased use of whole trees from coppice forests, increased use of thin forest residues from boreal forests with slow decay rates, and increased use of all kinds of residues from temperate forests with faster decay rates; Multi-functional bioenergy landscapes, instead of expansion of monoculture plantations; Afforestation of former agricultural land with mixed or naturally regenerating forests. Win-lose scenarios (good for the climate, bad for biodiversity) include afforestation on ancient, biodiversity-rich grassland ecosystems which were never forests, and afforestation of former agricultural land with monoculture plantations. Lose-win scenarios (bad for the climate, good for biodiversity) include natural forest expansion on former agricultural land. Lose-lose scenarios include increased use of thick forest residues like stumps from some boreal forests with slow decay rates, and conversion of natural forests into forest plantations. === Pollution === Other problems are pollution of soil and water from fertiliser/pesticide use, and emission of ambient air pollutants, mainly from open field burning of residues. The traditional use of wood in cook stoves and open fires produces pollutants, which can lead to severe health and environmental consequences. However, a shift to modern bioenergy contribute to improved livelihoods and can reduce land degradation and impacts on ecosystem services.: 375 According to the IPCC, there is strong evidence that modern bioenergy have "large positive impacts" on air quality. Traditional bioenergy is inefficient and the phasing out of this energy source has both large health benefits and large economic benefits. When combusted in industrial facilities, most of the pollutants originating from woody biomass reduce by 97-99%, compared to open burning. Combustion of woody biomass produces lower amounts of particulate matter than coal for the same amount of electricity generated. == See also == == References == === Sources === IPCC reports IEA reports Other sources === Quotes and comments === == External links == Biomass explained (U.S. Energy Information Administration) Biomass Energy (National Geographic)	Wikipedia/Biomass_(energy)
An enhanced geothermal system (EGS) generates geothermal electricity without natural convective hydrothermal resources. Traditionally, geothermal power systems operated only where naturally occurring heat, water, and rock permeability are sufficient to allow energy extraction. However, most geothermal energy within reach of conventional techniques is in dry and impermeable rock. EGS technologies expand the availability of geothermal resources through stimulation methods, such as 'hydraulic stimulation'. == Overview == In many rock formations natural cracks and pores do not allow water to flow at economic rates. Permeability can be enhanced by hydro-shearing, pumping high-pressure water down an injection well into naturally-fractured rock. The injection increases the fluid pressure in the rock, triggering shear events that expand pre-existing cracks and enhance the site's permeability. As long as the injection pressure is maintained, high permeability is not required, nor are hydraulic fracturing proppants required to maintain the fractures in an open state. Hydro-shearing is different from hydraulic tensile fracturing, used in the oil and gas industry, which can create new fractures in addition to expanding existing fractures. Water passes through the fractures, absorbing heat until forced to the surface as hot water. The water's heat is converted into electricity using either a steam turbine or a binary power plant system, which cools the water. The water is cycled back into the ground to repeat the process. EGS plants are baseload resources that produce power at a constant rate. Unlike hydrothermal, EGS is apparently feasible anywhere in the world, depending on the resource depth. Good locations are typically over deep granite covered by a 3–5 kilometres (1.9–3.1 mi) layer of insulating sediments that slow heat loss. Advanced drilling techniques penetrate hard crystalline rock at depths of up to or exceeding 15 km, which give access to higher-temperature rock (400 °C and above), as temperature increases with depth. EGS plants are expected to have an economic lifetime of 20–30 years. EGS systems are under development in Australia, France, Germany, Japan, Switzerland, and the United States. The world's largest EGS project is a 25-megawatt demonstration plant in Cooper Basin, Australia. Cooper Basin has the potential to generate 5,000–10,000 MW. == Research and development == EGS technologies use a variety of methods to create additional flow paths. EGS projects have combined hydraulic, chemical, thermal, and explosive stimulation methods. Some EGS projects operate at the edges of hydrothermal sites where drilled wells intersect hot, yet impermeable, reservoir rocks. Stimulation methods enhance that permeability. The table below shows EGS projects around the world. === Australia === The Australian government has provided research funding for the development of Hot Dry Rock technology. Projects include Hunter Valley (1999), Cooper Basin: Habanero (2002), Cooper Basin: Jolokia 1 (2002), and Olympic Dam (2005). === European Union === The EU's EGS R&D project at Soultz-sous-Forêts, France, connects a 1.5 MW demonstration plant to the grid. The Soultz project explored the connection of multiple stimulated zones and the performance of triplet well configurations (1 injector/2 producers). Soultz is in the Alsace. Induced seismicity in Basel led to the cancellation of the EGS project there. The Portuguese government awarded, in December 2008, an exclusive license to Geovita Ltd to prospect and explore geothermal energy in one of the best areas in continental Portugal. Geovita is studying an area of about 500 square kilometers together with the Earth Sciences department of the University of Coimbra's Science and Technology faculty. === South Korea === The Pohang EGS project started in December 2010, with the goal of producing 1 MW. The 2017 Pohang earthquake may have been linked to the activity of the Pohang EGS project. All research activities were stopped in 2018. === United Kingdom === === United States === ==== Early days — Fenton Hill ==== The first EGS effort — then termed Hot Dry Rock — took place at Fenton Hill, New Mexico with a project run by the federal Los Alamos Laboratory. It was the first attempt to make a deep, full-scale EGS reservoir. The EGS reservoir at Fenton Hill was completed in 1977 at a depth of about 2.6 km, exploiting rock temperatures of 185 °C. In 1979 the reservoir was enlarged with additional hydraulic stimulation and was operated for about 1 year. The results demonstrated that heat could be extracted at reasonable rates from a hydraulically stimulated region of low-permeability hot crystalline rock. In 1986, a second reservoir was prepared for initial hydraulic circulation and heat extraction testing. In a 30-day flow test with a constant reinjection temperature of 20 °C, the production temperature steadily increased to about 190 °C, corresponding to a thermal power level of about 10 MW. Budget cuts ended the study. ==== 2000-2010 ==== In 2009, The US Department of Energy (USDOE) issued two Funding Opportunity Announcements (FOAs) related to enhanced geothermal systems. Together, the two FOAs offered up to $84 million over six years. The DOE opened another FOA in 2009 using stimulus funding from the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act for $350 million, including $80 million aimed specifically at EGS projects, ==== FORGE ==== ==== Cornell University — Ithaca, NY ==== Developing EGS in conjunction with a district heating system is a part in Cornell University's Climate Action Plan for their Ithaca campus. The project began in 2018 to determine feasibility, gain funding and monitor baseline seismicity. The project received $7.2 million in USDOE funding. A test well was to be drilled in spring of 2021, at a depth of 2.5 –5 km targeting rock with a temperature > 85 °C. The site is planned to supply 20% of the campus' annual heating load. Promising geological locations for reservoir were proposed in the Trenton-Black River formation (2.2 km) or in basement crystalline rock (3.5 km). The 2 mile deep borehole was completed in 2022. ==== EGS "earthshot" ==== In September 2022, the Geothermal Technologies Office within the Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy announced an "Enhanced Geothermal Shot" as part of their Energy Earthshots campaign. The goal of the Earthshot is to reduce the cost of EGS by 90%, to $45/megawatt hour by 2035. ==== Other federal funding and support ==== The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act authorized $84 million to support EGS development through four demonstration projects. The Inflation Reduction Act extended the production tax credit (PTC) for renewable energy sources (including geothermal) until 2024 and included geothermal energy in the new Clean Electricity PTC to begin in 2024. == Induced seismicity == Induced seismicity is earth tremors caused by human activity. Seismicity is common in EGS, because of the high pressures involved. Seismicity events at the Geysers geothermal field in California are correlated with injection activity. Induced seismicity in Basel led the city to suspend its project and later cancel the project. According to the Australian government, risks associated with "hydrofracturing induced seismicity are low compared to that of natural earthquakes, and can be reduced by careful management and monitoring" and "should not be regarded as an impediment to further development". Induced seismicity varies from site to site and should be assessed before large scale fluid injection. == EGS potential == === United States === A 2006 report by MIT, funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, conducted the most comprehensive analysis to date on EGS. The report offered several significant conclusions: Resource size: The report calculated United States total EGS resources at 3–10 km of depth to be over 13,000 zettajoules, of which over 200 ZJ were extractable, with the potential to increase this to over 2,000 ZJ with better technology. It reported that geothermal resources, including hydrothermal and geo-pressured resources, to equal 14,000 ZJ — or roughly 140,000 times U.S. primary energy use in 2005. Development potential: With an R&D investment of $1 billion over 15 years, the report estimated that 100 GWe (gigawatts of electricity) or more could be available by 2050 in the United States. The report further found that "recoverable" resources (accessible with today's technology) were between 1.2 and 12.2 TW for the conservative and moderate scenarios respectively. Cost: The report claimed that EGS could produce electricity for as low as 3.9 cents/kWh. EGS costs were found to be sensitive to four main factors: Temperature of the resource Fluid flow through the system Drilling costs Power conversion efficiency == See also == Caprock Drilling Drilling rig Geothermal energy exploration in Central Australia Geothermal energy in the United States Geothermal exploration Hot dry rock geothermal energy Iceland Deep Drilling Project Laser drilling Rosemanowes Quarry == References == == External links == EERE: Geothermal basics Hot Dry Rock (HDR) How an Enhanced Geothermal System Works NREL: Interactive Data Map - Geothermal Prospector Tool (see Geothermal - Deep Enhanced Geothermal Potential) Geothermal investment rocks says DLA Phillips Fox Archived 2011-10-06 at the Wayback Machine MEGSorg EGS	Wikipedia/Enhanced_geothermal_systems
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are photovoltaic materials that are used to replace conventional building materials in parts of the building envelope such as the roof, skylights, or façades. They are increasingly being incorporated into the construction of new buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power, although existing buildings may be retrofitted with similar technology. The advantage of integrated photovoltaics over more common non-integrated systems is that the initial cost can be offset by reducing the amount spent on building materials and labor that would normally be used to construct the part of the building that the BIPV modules replace. In addition, BIPV allows for more widespread solar adoption when the building's aesthetics matter and traditional rack-mounted solar panels would disrupt the intended look of the building. The term building-applied photovoltaics (BAPV) is sometimes used to refer to photovoltaics that are retrofit – integrated into the building after construction is complete. Most building-integrated installations are actually BAPV. Some manufacturers and builders differentiate new construction BIPV from BAPV. == History == PV applications for buildings began appearing in the 1970s. Aluminum-framed photovoltaic modules were connected to, or mounted on, buildings that were usually in remote areas without access to an electric power grid. In the 1980s photovoltaic module add-ons to roofs began being demonstrated. These PV systems were usually installed on utility-grid-connected buildings in areas with centralized power stations. In the 1990s BIPV construction products specially designed to be integrated into a building envelope became commercially available. A 1998 doctoral thesis by Patrina Eiffert, entitled An Economic Assessment of BIPV, hypothesized that one day there would an economic value for trading Renewable Energy Credits (RECs). A 2011 economic assessment and brief overview of the history of BIPV by the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory suggests that there may be significant technical challenges to overcome before the installed cost of BIPV is competitive with photovoltaic panels. However, there is a growing consensus that through their widespread commercialization, BIPV systems will become the backbone of the zero energy building (ZEB) European target for 2020. Despite the technical promise, social barriers to widespread use have also been identified, such as the conservative culture of the building industry and integration with high-density urban design. These authors suggest enabling long-term use likely depends on effective public policy decisions as much as the technological development. == Forms == The majority of BIPV products use one of two technologies: Crystalline Solar Cells (c-SI) or Thin-Film Solar Cells. C-SI technologies comprise wafers of single-cell crystalline silicon which generally operate at a higher efficiency that Thin-Film cells but are more expensive to produce. The applications of these two technologies can be categorized by five main types of BIPV products: Standard in-roof systems. These generally take the form of applicable strips of photovoltaic cells. Semi-transparent systems. These products are typically used in greenhouse or cold-weather applications where solar energy must simultaneously be captured and allowed into the building. Cladding systems. There are a broad range of these systems; their commonality being their vertical application on a building façade. Solar Tiles and Shingles. These are the most common BIPV systems as they can easily be swapped out for conventional shingle roof finishes. Flexible Laminates. Commonly procured in thin-sheet form, these products can be adhered to a variety of forms, primarily roof forms. With the exception of flexible laminates, each of the above categories can utilize either c-SI or Thin-Film technologies, with Thin-Film technologies only being applicable to flexible laminates – this renders Thin-Film BIPV products ideal for advanced design applications that have a kinetic aspect. Between the five categories, BIPV products can be applied in a variety of scenarios: pitched roofs, flat roofs, curved roofs, semi-transparent façades, skylights, shading systems, external walls, and curtain walls, with flat roofs and pitched roofs being the most ideal for solar energy capture. The ranges of roofing and shading system BIPV products are most commonly used in residential applications whereas the wall and cladding systems are most commonly used in commercial settings. Overall, roofing BIPV systems currently have more of the market share and are generally more efficient than façade and cladding BIPV systems due to their orientation to the sun. Building-integrated photovoltaic modules are available in several forms: Flat roofs The most widely installed to date is an amorphous thin film solar cell integrated to a flexible polymer module which has been attached to the roofing membrane using an adhesive sheet between the solar module backsheet and the roofing membrane. Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) technology is now able to deliver cell efficiency of 17% as produced by a US-based company and comparable building-integrated module efficiencies in TPO single ply membranes by the fusion of these cells by a UK-based company. Pitched roofs Solar roof tiles are (ceramic) roof tiles with integrated solar modules. The ceramic solar roof tile is developed and patented by a Dutch company in 2013. Modules shaped like multiple roof tiles. Solar shingles are modules designed to look and act like regular shingles, while incorporating a flexible thin film cell. It extends normal roof life by protecting insulation and membranes from ultraviolet rays and water degradation. It does this by eliminating condensation because the dew point is kept above the roofing membrane. Metal pitched roofs (both structural and architectural) are now being integrated with PV functionality either by bonding a free-standing flexible module or by heat and vacuum sealing of the CIGS cells directly onto the substrate Façade Façades can be installed on existing buildings, giving old buildings a whole new look. These modules are mounted on the façade of the building, over the existing structure, which can increase the appeal of the building and its resale value. Glazing Photovoltaic windows are (semi)transparent modules that can be used to replace a number of architectural elements commonly made with glass or similar materials, such as windows and skylights. In addition to producing electric energy, these can create further energy savings due to superior thermal insulation properties and solar radiation control. Photovoltaic Stained Glass: The integration of energy harvesting technologies into homes and commercial buildings has opened up additional areas of research which place greater considerations on the end product's overall aesthetics. While the goal is still to maintain high levels of efficiency, new developments in photovoltaic windows also aim to offer consumers optimal levels of glass transparency and/or the opportunity to select from a range of colors. Different colored 'stained glass' solar panels can be optimally designed to absorb specific ranges of wavelengths from the broader spectrum. Colored photovoltaic glass has been successfully developed using semi transparent, perovskite, and dye sensitized solar cells. Plasmonic solar cells that absorb and reflect colored light have been created with Fabry-Pérot etalon technology. These cells are composed of "two parallel reflecting metal films and a dielectric cavity film between them." The two electrodes are made from Ag and the cavity between them is Sb2O3 based. Modifying the thickness and refractance of the dielectric cavity changes which wavelength will be most optimally absorbed. Matching the color of the absorption layer glass to the specific portion of the spectrum that the cell's thickness and refractance index is best tuned to transmit both enhances the aesthetic of the cell by intensifying its color and helps to minimize photocurrent losses. 34.7% and 24.6% transmittance was achieved in red and blue light devices respectively. Blue devices can convert 13.3% of light absorbed into power, making it the most efficient across all colored devices developed and tested. Perovskite solar cell technology can be tuned to red, green and blue by changing the metallic nanowire thickness to 8, 20 and 45 nm respectively. Maximum power efficiencies of 10.12%, 8.17% and 7.72% were achieved by matching glass reflectance to the wavelength that the specific cell is designed to most optimally transmit. Dye-sensitized solar cells employ liquid electrolytes to capture light and convert it into usable energy; this is achieved in a similar way to how natural pigments facilitate photosynthesis in plants. While chlorophyll is the specific pigment responsible for producing the green color in leaves, other dyes found in nature such as, carotenoid and anthocyanin, produce variations of orange and purples dyes. Researchers from the University of Concepcion have proved the viability of dye sensitized colored solar cells that both appear and selectively absorb specific wavelengths of light. This low cost solution uses extracting natural pigments from maqui fruit, black myrtle and spinach as sensitizers. These natural sensitizers are then placed between two layers of transparent glass. While the efficiency levels of these particularly low cost cells remains unclear, past research in organic dye cells have been able to achieve a "high power conversion efficiency of 9.8%." == Transparent and translucent photovoltaics == Transparent solar panels use a tin oxide coating on the inner surface of the glass panes to conduct current out of the cell. The cell contains titanium oxide that is coated with a photoelectric dye. Most conventional solar cells use visible and infrared light to generate electricity. In contrast, the innovative new solar cell also uses ultraviolet radiation. Used to replace conventional window glass, or placed over the glass, the installation surface area could be large, leading to potential uses that take advantage of the combined functions of power generation, lighting and temperature control. Another name for transparent photovoltaics is "translucent photovoltaics" (they transmit half the light that falls on them). Similar to inorganic photovoltaics, organic photovoltaics are also capable of being translucent. === Types of transparent and translucent photovoltaics === ==== Non-wavelength-selective ==== Some non-wavelength-selective photovoltaics achieve semi-transparency by spatial segmentation of opaque solar cells. This method uses any type of opaque photovoltaic cell and spaces several small cells out on a transparent substrate. Spacing them out in this way reduces power conversion efficiencies dramatically while increasing transmission. Another branch of non-wavelength-selective photovoltaics utilize visibly absorbing thin-film semi-conductors with small thicknesses or large enough band gaps that allow light to pass through. This results in semi-transparent photovoltaics with a similar direct trade off between efficiency and transmission as spatially segmented opaque solar cells. ==== Wavelength-selective ==== Wavelength-selective photovoltaics achieve transparency by utilizing materials that only absorb UV and/or NIR light and were first demonstrated in 2011. Despite their higher transmissions, lower power conversion efficiencies have resulted due to a variety of challenges. These include small exciton diffusion lengths, scaling of transparent electrodes without jeopardizing efficiency, and general lifetime due to the volatility of organic materials used in TPVs in general. === Innovations in transparent and translucent photovoltaics === Early attempts at developing non-wavelength-selective semi-transparent organic photovoltaics using very thin active layers that absorbed in the visible spectrum were only able to achieve efficiencies below 1%. However in 2011, transparent organic photovoltaics that utilized an organic chloroaluminum phthalocyanine (ClAlPc) donor and a fullerene acceptor exhibited absorption in the ultraviolet and near-infrared (NIR) spectrum with efficiencies around 1.3% and visible light transmission of over 65%. In 2017, MIT researchers developed a process to successfully deposit transparent graphene electrodes onto organic solar cells resulting in a 61% transmission of visible light and improved efficiencies ranging from 2.8%-4.1%. Perovskite solar cells, popular due to their promise as next-generation photovoltaics with efficiencies over 25%, have also shown promise as translucent photovoltaics. In 2015, a semitransparent perovskite solar cell using a methylammonium lead triiodide perovskite and a silver nanowire mesh top electrode demonstrated 79% transmission at an 800 nm wavelength and efficiencies at around 12.7%. == Government subsidies == In some countries, additional incentives, or subsidies, are offered for building-integrated photovoltaics in addition to the existing feed-in tariffs for stand-alone solar systems. Since July 2006 France offered the highest incentive for BIPV, equal to an extra premium of EUR 0.25/kWh paid in addition to the 30 Euro cents for PV systems. These incentives are offered in the form of a rate paid for electricity fed to the grid. === Europe === France €0.25/kWh Germany €0.05/kWh façade bonus expired in 2009 Italy €0.04–€0.09/kWh United Kingdom 4.18 p/kWh Spain, compared with a non- building installation that receives €0.28/kWh (RD 1578/2008): ≤20 kW: €0.34/kWh >20 kW: €0.31/kWh === United States === United States – Varies by state. Check Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency for more details. === China === Further to the announcement of a subsidy program for BIPV projects in March 2009 offering RMB20 per watt for BIPV systems and RMB15/watt for rooftop systems, the Chinese government recently unveiled a photovoltaic energy subsidy program "the Golden Sun Demonstration Project". The subsidy program aims at supporting the development of photovoltaic electricity generation ventures and the commercialization of PV technology. The Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Science and Technology and the National Energy Bureau have jointly announced the details of the program in July 2009. Qualified on-grid photovoltaic electricity generation projects including rooftop, BIPV, and ground mounted systems are entitled to receive a subsidy equal to 50% of the total investment of each project, including associated transmission infrastructure. Qualified off-grid independent projects in remote areas will be eligible for subsidies of up to 70% of the total investment. In mid November, China's finance ministry has selected 294 projects totaling 642 megawatts that come to roughly RMB 20 billion ($3 billion) in costs for its subsidy plan to dramatically boost the country's solar energy production. == Other integrated photovoltaics == Vehicle-integrated photovoltaics (ViPV) are similar for vehicles. Solar cells could be embedded into panels exposed to sunlight such as the hood, roof and possibly the trunk depending on a car's design. == Challenges == === Performance === Because BIPV systems generate on-site power and are integrated into the building envelope, the system’s output power and thermal properties are the two primary performance indicators. Conventional BIPV systems have a lower heat dissipation capability than rack-mounted PV, which results in BIPV modules experiencing higher operating temperatures. Higher temperatures may degrade the module's semiconducting material, decreasing the output efficiency and precipitating early failure. In addition, the efficiency of BIPV systems is sensitive to weather conditions, and the use of inappropriate BIPV systems may also reduce their energy output efficiency. In terms of thermal performance, BIPV windows can reduce the cooling load compared to conventional clear glass windows, but may increase the heating load of the building. === Cost === The high upfront investment in BIPV systems is one of the biggest barriers to implementation. In addition to the upfront cost of purchasing BIPV components, the highly integrated nature of BIPV systems increases the complexity of the building design, which in turn leads to increased design and construction costs. Also, insufficient and inexperienced practitioners lead to higher employment costs incurred in the development of BIPV projects. === Policy and regulation === Although many countries have support policies for PV, most do not have additional benefits for BIPV systems. And typically, BIPV systems need to comply with building and PV industry standards, which places higher demands on implementing BIPV systems. In addition, government policies of lower conventional energy prices will lead to lower BIPV system benefits, which is particularly evident in countries where the price of conventional electricity is very low or subsidized by governments, such as in GCC countries. === Public understanding === Studies show that public awareness of BIPV is limited and the cost is generally considered too high. Deepening public understanding of BIPV through various public channels (e.g., policy, community engagement, and demonstration buildings) is likely to be beneficial to its long-term development. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Agrawal, Basant; Tiwari, G N (2011). Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-84973-090-7. Warrick, Joby (March 2015). "Utilities, sensing threat, put squeeze on booming solar roof industry". The Washington Post. == External links == Building integrated photovoltaics an overview of the existing products and their fields of application Canadian Solar Buildings Research Network Building Integrated Photovoltaics EURAC Research Building Integrated Photovoltaic on-line platform PV UP-SCALE, a European founded project (contract EIE/05/171/SI2.420208) related to the large-scale implementation of photovoltaics (PV) in European cities.	Wikipedia/Building_integrated_photovoltaics
Corporate liability, also referred to as liability of legal persons, determines the extent to which a company as a legal person can be held liable for the acts and omissions of the natural persons it employs and, in some legal systems, for those of other associates and business partners. Since corporations and other business entities are a major part of the economic landscape, corporate liability is a key element in effective law enforcement for economic crimes. A 2016 mapping of 41 countries’ corporate liability systems shows wide variations in approaches to liability, and that corporate liability is a dynamic area of legal innovation and evolution. The term legal person refers to a business entity (often a corporation, but possibly other legal entities, as specified by law) that has both legal rights (e.g. the right to sue) and legal obligations. Because, at a public policy level, the growth and prosperity of society depends to a large extent on the business community, governments must carefully tailor the extent and ways that each permitted form of business entity can be held liable. Important design elements of corporate liability systems include jurisdiction, successor liability, related and unrelated entities as sources of liability, sanctions and mitigating factors. Poorly designed or non-existent corporate liability systems can make it impossible to enforce laws effectively and can lead to profound injustices for individuals or entities seeking accountability and redress for wrongdoing. == Nature of corporate liability == Countries can base their corporate liability systems in criminal or non-criminal law (that is, administrative or civil law) or in both. They can also enact legislation that creates liability for legal persons in specific areas of law (e.g. covering health and safety, and product safety issues). Under this approach, the wording of a statutory offence specifically attaches liability to the corporation as the principal or joint principal with a human agent. Generally, countries’ approaches to this issue reflect long-standing and diverse legal traditions. For example, Australia and Canada anchor their corporate liability systems in criminal law, while the German and Italian systems are based in administrative law. Some jurisdictions use criminal and civil systems in parallel, thereby expanding options for pursuing legal accountability for legal persons and for making political judgments on when to use the criminal law in order to maximise the impact of those cases that are prosecuted. The United States’ system of corporate liability is an example of one that incorporates both criminal and civil law elements. == Standards of liability == Standards of liability for legal persons help clarify when a legal person can be held liable for an unlawful act. This raises subtle questions: since business entities can only commit crime through the agency of the people (natural persons) they employ or otherwise contract with, under what conditions should culpability be attached to the business entity? Indeed, what does culpability mean for such entities? Can the concepts of knowledge and intent required for mens rea (guilty mind) even be applied to business entities? Typically, companies are held liable when the acts and omissions, and the knowledge and intent of its employees or business partners can be attributed to the corporation. But again, countries adopt a wide variety of approaches to this attribution. These vary from the all-encompassing approach of strict liability to those that look at the entity’s corporate culture and management systems in order to determine whether these ignored, tolerated or even encouraged criminal activity. === Strict liability === Strict liability is a standard of liability under which a person (legal or natural) is legally responsible for the consequences flowing from an activity, even in the absence of fault or criminal intent on the part of the defendant. The difficulty of proving a mens rea is avoided by imposing absolute, strict liability, or vicarious liability which does not require proof that the accused knew or could reasonably have known that its act was wrong, and which does not recognise any excuse of honest and reasonable mistake. When applied to corporate liability, strict liability eases the task of attaching liability to business entities. === Identification or ‘controlling mind’ test === Under this standard, only the “acts of a senior person representing the company’s ‘controlling mind and will’ can be attributed to the company. This approach has its roots in English law. In a seminal case, Tesco Supermarkets Ltd v Nattrass [1972] AC 153, the House of Lords found that a store manager was not a part of the "directing mind" of the corporation and therefore that his conduct was not attributable to the corporation. This approach has been criticised because it restricts corporate liability to the acts of directors and a few high-level managers. It may therefore unfairly favour larger corporations because they may be able to escape criminal liability for the acts of employees who manage their day-to-day activities. A 2016 study of 41 countries’ corporate liability systems shows that meeting the ‘controlling minds’ test is not usually required for liability, though it is almost always sufficient to attribute liability to a company. === Aggregation tests and collective knowledge === This standard, termed the Doctrine of Collective Knowledge, originated in US law. It holds that the individual knowledge of a legal person’s agents can be aggregated into ‘collective knowledge’ in order to establish corporate liability. In effect, this doctrine is relevant to establishing the knowledge (but not the intent) aspect of mens rea for legal persons. In United States v Bank of New England (1987) 821 F2d 844, the Supreme Court sanctioned the use of the doctrine to uphold the conviction of the Bank of New England for wilfully failing to file reports relating to currency transactions. The Court confirmed the collective knowledge doctrine, arguing that, in the absence of such a principle, business entities could divide the duties of their employees so as to compartmentalise their knowledge, thereby avoiding liability. Aggregation has been applied in Australian courts, but is rejected in England. === Corporate culture and compliance systems === Many legal analysts (e.g. Gobert) argue that if a corporation fails to take precautions or to show due diligence to avoid committing a criminal offence, this will arise from its culture where attitudes and beliefs are demonstrated through its structures, policies, practices, and procedures. This approach rejects the notion that corporations should be treated in the same way as natural persons (i.e. looking for a "guilty" mind), and advocates that different legal concepts should underpin the liability of fictitious legal persons. These concepts reflect the structures of modern corporations which are more often decentralised and where crime is less to do with the misconduct by or incompetence of individuals, and more to do with management and compliance systems that fail to address problems of monitoring and controlling risk. Many corporate liability systems consider that corporate culture and the management and compliance systems adopted by companies are relevant to understanding culpability. Such considerations may enter as an element of the offense (so that prosecutors must prove that management and compliance systems were inadequate) or as an element of defence for the company (wherein the company must show that its systems were adequate). Some countries do not permit management and compliance systems to preclude liability, but nevertheless allow them to be considered as mitigating factors when imposing sanctions. === Benefit test === Before they will impose liability on a legal person, some countries require that the natural person who commits the offence does so with the intent to benefit the legal person. Across countries, numerous variations on the benefit test exist — notably, some require that the legal person actually does benefit from the illegal act. A benefit test has been applied in the Federal Court of Australia, the House of Lords (now the Supreme Court of England) and the Supreme Court of Canada. Put simply, the test proposes that where a company gains the benefit of an act, it is considered to be attributed with that act. The test is applied differently when an act is performed by a "mind and will", which usually prompts the use of the organic theory, as opposed to an agent which usually prompts the use of the agency theory. == Specific issues == === Successor liability === The problem of successor liability arises when a company does something that alters its organisation or identity, such as a name change or a merger or acquisition. Rules on successor liability determine when and how corporate liability is affected by various changes in a company’s organisation or identity. For example, is a company’s liability for bribery extinguished when it is acquired by another company? In the absence of successor rules, companies may be able to avoid liability through reorganisation or by otherwise altering corporate identity. The 2016 study of comparative corporate liability systems shows that successor liability is, in quite a few countries, an under-scrutinised area of law — in some jurisdictions, it may be the case that even cosmetic organisational changes can, from a corporate liability perspective, ‘wipe the slate clean.’ === Sanctions === Sanctions for corporate crime can take a number of forms. First, there are fines, which, in many jurisdictions, are subject to maximum and (in fewer cases) minimum thresholds. Second, confiscation is designed to deprive the sanctioned companies of the proceeds of their crimes. Third, other, punitive actions may be taken that deprive the company of certain rights or privileges or that impose certain obligations. Loss of rights may include ineligibility for public subsidies or to participate in public procurement processes. Sanctions may also impose monitoring of the company’s legal compliance policies, either by a court or by a court-appointed corporate monitor.’ The combined impact of these sanctions, taken together, is supposed to be deterrence — they should dissuade the sanctioned companies and others from engaging in crime. There is some doubt in many jurisdictions that sanctions are actually set in such a manner as to make them dissuasive.” === Fraud === In some instances of fraud, the court may pierce the veil of incorporation. Most fraud is also a breach of the criminal law and any evidence obtained for the purposes of a criminal trial is usually admissible in civil proceedings. But criminal prosecutions take priority, so if civil proceedings uncover evidence of criminality, the civil action may be stayed pending the outcome of any criminal investigation. === Secondary liability === Some crimes are considered inchoate because, like a conspiracy or attempt, they anticipate the commission of the actus reus (the Latin for "guilty act") of the full offence. One option for prosecution would be to treat a corporation as an accomplice or co-conspirator with the employees. In general terms, most states permit companies to incur liability for such offences in the same way as natural persons so long as there are at least two natural persons involved in the conspiracy and one other accomplice to aid the commission of the offence by a principal. == Footnotes == == References == Geraghty, Corporate Criminal Liability, (2002) Vol. 39 American Criminal Law Review, 327. Gobert, J. Corporate Criminality: New Crimes for the Times (1994) Criminal Law Review 722. Gobert, J. Corporate Criminality: Four Models of Fault (1994) 14 Legal Studies 393. Gobert, J & Mugnai, E. Coping with Corporate Criminality – Some Lessons from Italy” (2002) Criminal Law Review 619. Lederman, E. Models for imposing corporate criminal liability: from adaptation and imitation toward aggregation and the search for self-identity (2000) 4 Buffalo Criminal Law Review 641 Leigh, L. The Criminal Liability of Corporations and Other Groups (1977) 9 Ottawa Law Review 247. OECD, The Liability of Legal Persons for Foreign Bribery: A Stocktaking Report (2016) 162. Wells, Celia. Corporations and Criminal Responsibility (2nd edition), Oxford University Press, Oxford (2001). ISBN 0-19-826793-2 Wells, Celia. "Corporate Criminal Liability in Europe and Beyond. New South Wales Law Society Journal, 39 (2001) 62-66. Wells, Celia. Corporations: Culture, Risk and Criminal Liability (1993) Criminal Law Review 551.	Wikipedia/Corporate_liability
Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to consumers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables, or in more recent systems, light pulses through fibre-optic cables. This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over-the-air by radio waves and received by a television antenna, or satellite television, in which the television signal is transmitted over-the-air by radio waves from a communications satellite and received by a satellite dish on the roof. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables. Analog television was standard in the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable operation. A cable channel (sometimes known as a cable network) is a television network available via cable television. Many of the same channels are distributed through satellite television. Alternative terms include non-broadcast channel or programming service, the latter being mainly used in legal contexts. The abbreviation CATV is used in the US for cable television and originally stood for community antenna television, from cable television's origins in 1948; in areas where over-the-air TV reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large community antennas were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. In 1968, 6.4% of Americans had cable television. The number increased to 7.5% in 1978. By 1988, 52.8% of all households were using cable. The number further increased to 62.4% in 1994. == Distribution == To receive cable television at a given location, cable distribution lines must be available on the local utility poles or underground utility lines. Coaxial cable brings the signal to the customer's building through a service drop, an overhead or underground cable. If the subscriber's building does not have a cable service drop, the cable company will install one. The standard cable used in the U.S. is RG-6, which has a 75 ohm impedance, and connects with a type F connector. The cable company's portion of the wiring usually ends at a distribution box on the building exterior, and built-in cable wiring in the walls usually distributes the signal to jacks in different rooms to which televisions are connected. Multiple cables to different rooms are split off the incoming cable with a small device called a splitter. There are two standards for cable television; older analog cable, and newer digital cable which can carry data signals used by digital television receivers such as high-definition television (HDTV) equipment. All cable companies in the United States have switched to or are in the course of switching to digital cable television since it was first introduced in the late 1990s. Most cable companies require a set-top box (cable converter box) or a slot on one's TV set for conditional access module cards to view their cable channels, even on newer televisions with digital cable QAM tuners, because most digital cable channels are now encrypted, or scrambled, to reduce cable service theft. A cable from the jack in the wall is attached to the input of the box, and an output cable from the box is attached to the television, usually the RF-IN or composite input on older TVs. Since the set-top box only decodes the single channel that is being watched, each television in the house requires a separate box. Some unencrypted channels, usually traditional over-the-air broadcast networks, can be displayed without a receiver box. The cable company will provide set-top boxes based on the level of service a customer purchases, from basic set-top boxes with a standard-definition picture connected through the standard coaxial connection on the TV, to high-definition wireless digital video recorder (DVR) receivers connected via HDMI or component. Older analog television sets are cable ready and can receive the old analog cable without a set-top box. To receive digital cable channels on an analog television set, even unencrypted ones, requires a different type of box, a digital television adapter supplied by the cable company or purchased by the subscriber. Another new distribution method that takes advantage of the low cost high quality DVB distribution to residential areas, uses TV gateways to convert the DVB-C, DVB-C2 stream to IP for distribution of TV over IP network in the home. Many cable companies offer internet access through DOCSIS. == Principle of operation == In the most common system, multiple television channels (as many as 500, although this varies depending on the provider's available channel capacity) are distributed to subscriber residences through a coaxial cable, which comes from a trunkline supported on utility poles originating at the cable company's local distribution facility, called the headend. Many channels can be transmitted through one coaxial cable by a technique called frequency division multiplexing. At the headend, each television channel is translated to a different frequency. By giving each channel a different frequency slot on the cable, the separate television signals do not interfere with each other. At an outdoor cable box on the subscriber's residence, the company's service drop cable is connected to cables distributing the signal to different rooms in the building. At each television, the subscriber's television or a set-top box provided by the cable company translates the desired channel back to its original frequency (baseband), and it is displayed onscreen. Due to widespread cable theft in earlier analog systems, the signals are typically encrypted on modern digital cable systems, and the set-top box must be activated by an activation code sent by the cable company before it will function, which is only sent after the subscriber signs up. If the subscriber fails to pay their bill, the cable company can send a signal to deactivate the subscriber's box, preventing reception. There are also usually upstream channels on the cable to send data from the customer box to the cable headend, for advanced features such as requesting pay-per-view shows or movies, cable internet access, and cable telephone service. The downstream channels occupy a band of frequencies from approximately 50 MHz to 1 GHz, while the upstream channels occupy frequencies of 5 to 42 MHz. Subscribers pay with a monthly fee. Subscribers can choose from several levels of service, with premium packages including more channels but costing a higher rate. At the local headend, the feed signals from the individual television channels are received by dish antennas from communication satellites. Additional local channels, such as local broadcast television stations, educational channels from local colleges, and community access channels devoted to local governments (PEG channels) are usually included on the cable service. Commercial advertisements for local business are also inserted in the programming at the headend (the individual channels, which are distributed nationally, also have their own nationally oriented commercials). === Hybrid fiber-coaxial === Modern cable systems are large, with a single network and headend often serving an entire metropolitan area. Most systems use hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) distribution; this means the trunklines that carry the signal from the headend to local neighborhoods are optical fiber to provide greater bandwidth and also extra capacity for future expansion. At the headend, the electrical signal is translated into an optical signal and sent through the fiber. The fiber trunkline goes to several distribution hubs, from which multiple fibers fan out to carry the signal to boxes called optical nodes in local communities. At the optical node, the optical signal is translated back into an electrical signal and carried by coaxial cable distribution lines on utility poles, from which cables branch out to a series of signal amplifiers and line extenders. These devices carry the signal to customers via passive RF devices called taps. == History == The very first cable networks were operated locally, notably in 1936 by Rediffusion in London in the United Kingdom and the same year in Berlin in Germany, notably for the Olympic Games, and from 1948 onwards in the United States and Switzerland. This type of local cable network was mainly used to relay terrestrial channels in geographical areas poorly served by terrestrial television signals. === In the United States === Cable television began in the United States as a commercial business in 1950s. The early systems simply received weak (broadcast) channels, amplified them, and sent them over unshielded wires to the subscribers, limited to a community or to adjacent communities. The receiving antenna would be taller than any individual subscriber could afford, thus bringing in stronger signals; in hilly or mountainous terrain it would be placed at a high elevation. At the outset, cable systems only served smaller communities without television stations of their own, and which could not easily receive signals from stations in cities because of distance or hilly terrain. In Canada, however, communities with their own signals were fertile cable markets, as viewers wanted to receive American signals. Rarely, as in the college town of Alfred, New York, U.S. cable systems retransmitted Canadian channels. Although early (VHF) television receivers could receive 12 channels (2–13), the maximum number of channels that could be broadcast in one city was 7: channels 2, 4, either 5 or 6, 7, 9, 11 and 13, as receivers at the time were unable to receive strong (local) signals on adjacent channels without distortion. (There were frequency gaps between 4 and 5, and between 6 and 7, which allowed both to be used in the same city). As equipment improved, all twelve channels could be utilized, except where a local VHF television station broadcast. Local broadcast channels were not usable for signals deemed to be a priority, but technology allowed low-priority signals to be placed on such channels by synchronizing their blanking intervals. TVs were unable to reconcile these blanking intervals and the slight changes due to travel through a medium, causing ghosting. The bandwidth of the amplifiers also was limited, meaning frequencies over 250 MHz were difficult to transmit to distant portions of the coaxial network, and UHF channels could not be used at all. To expand beyond 12 channels, non-standard midband channels had to be used, located between the FM band and Channel 7, or superband beyond Channel 13 up to about 300 MHz; these channels initially were only accessible using separate tuner boxes that sent the chosen channel into the TV set on Channel 2, 3 or 4. Initially, UHF broadcast stations were at a disadvantage because the standard TV sets in use at the time were unable to receive their channels. With the passage of the All-Channel Receiver Act in 1964, all new television sets were required to include a UHF tuner, nonetheless, it would still take a few years for UHF stations to become competitive. Before being added to the cable box itself, these midband channels were used for early incarnations of pay TV, e.g. The Z Channel (Los Angeles) and HBO but transmitted in the clear i.e. not scrambled as standard TV sets of the period could not pick up the signal nor could the average consumer de-tune the normal stations to be able to receive it. Once tuners that could receive select mid-band and super-band channels began to be incorporated into standard television sets, broadcasters were forced to either install scrambling circuitry or move these signals further out of the range of reception for early cable-ready TVs and VCRs. However, once consumer sets had the ability to receive all 181 FCC allocated channels, premium broadcasters were left with no choice but to scramble. The descrambling circuitry was often published in electronics hobby magazines such as Popular Science and Popular Electronics allowing anybody with anything more than a rudimentary knowledge of broadcast electronics to be able to build their own and receive the programming without cost. Later, the cable operators began to carry FM radio stations, and encouraged subscribers to connect their FM stereo sets to cable. Before stereo and bilingual TV sound became common, Pay-TV channel sound was added to the FM stereo cable line-ups. About this time, operators expanded beyond the 12-channel dial to use the midband and superband VHF channels adjacent to the high band 7–13 of North American television frequencies. Some operators as in Cornwall, Ontario, used a dual distribution network with Channels 2–13 on each of the two cables. During the 1980s, United States regulations not unlike public, educational, and government access (PEG) created the beginning of cable-originated live television programming. As cable penetration increased, numerous cable-only TV stations were launched, many with their own news bureaus that could provide more immediate and more localized content than that provided by the nearest network newscast. Such stations may use similar on-air branding as that used by the nearby broadcast network affiliate, but the fact that these stations do not broadcast over the air and are not regulated by the FCC, their call signs are meaningless. These stations evolved partially into today's over-the-air digital subchannels, where a main broadcast TV station e.g. NBC 37* would – in the case of no local CBS or ABC station being available – rebroadcast the programming from a nearby affiliate but fill in with its own news and other community programming to suit its own locale. Many live local programs with local interests were subsequently created all over the United States in most major television markets in the early 1980s. This evolved into today's many cable-only broadcasts of diverse programming, including cable-only produced television movies and miniseries. Cable specialty channels, starting with channels oriented to show movies and large sporting or performance events, diversified further, and narrowcasting became common. By the late 1980s, cable-only signals outnumbered broadcast signals on cable systems, some of which by this time had expanded beyond 35 channels. By the mid-1980s in Canada, cable operators were allowed by the regulators to enter into distribution contracts with cable networks on their own. By the 1990s, tiers became common, with customers able to subscribe to different tiers to obtain different selections of additional channels above the basic selection. By subscribing to additional tiers, customers could get specialty channels, movie channels, and foreign channels. Large cable companies used addressable descramblers to limit access to premium channels for customers not subscribing to higher tiers, however the above magazines often published workarounds for that technology as well. During the 1990s, the pressure to accommodate the growing array of offerings resulted in digital transmission that made more efficient use of the VHF signal capacity; fibre optics was common to carry signals into areas near the home, where coax could carry higher frequencies over the short remaining distance. Although for a time in the 1980s and 1990s, television receivers and VCRs were equipped to receive the mid-band and super-band channels. Because the descrambling circuitry was for a time present in these tuners, depriving the cable operator of much of their revenue, such cable-ready tuners are rarely used now – requiring a return to the set-top boxes used from the 1970s onward. The digital television transition in the United States has put all signals, broadcast and cable, into digital form, rendering analog cable television service a rarity, found in an ever-dwindling number of markets. Analog television sets are accommodated, their tuners mostly obsolete and dependent entirely on the set-top box. == Deployments by continent == Cable television is mostly available in North America, Europe, Australia, Asia and South America. Cable television has had little success in Africa, as it is not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated areas. Multichannel multipoint distribution service, a microwave-based system, may be used instead. == Other cable-based services == Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of large amounts of data. Cable television signals use only a portion of the bandwidth available over coaxial lines. This leaves plenty of space available for other digital services such as cable internet, cable telephony and wireless services, using both unlicensed and licensed spectra. Broadband internet access is achieved over coaxial cable by using cable modems to convert the network data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog telephone modem to provide for the upstream connection. This limited the upstream speed to 31.2 Kbp/s and prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically provides. Many large cable systems have upgraded or are upgrading their equipment to allow for bi-directional signals, thus allowing for greater upload speed and always-on convenience, though these upgrades are expensive. In North America, Australia and Europe, many cable operators have already introduced cable telephone service, which operates just like existing fixed line operators. This service involves installing a special telephone interface at the customer's premises that converts the analog signals from the customer's in-home wiring into a digital signal, which is then sent on the local loop (replacing the analog last mile, or plain old telephone service (POTS) to the company's switching center, where it is connected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The biggest obstacle to cable telephone service is the need for nearly 100% reliable service for emergency calls. One of the standards available for digital cable telephony, PacketCable, seems to be the most promising and able to work with the quality of service (QOS) demands of traditional analog plain old telephone service (POTS) service. The biggest advantage to digital cable telephone service is similar to the advantage of digital cable, namely that data can be compressed, resulting in much less bandwidth used than a dedicated analog circuit-switched service. Other advantages include better voice quality and integration to a Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) network providing cheap or unlimited nationwide and international calling. In many cases, digital cable telephone service is separate from cable modem service being offered by many cable companies and does not rely on Internet Protocol (IP) traffic or the Internet. Traditional cable television providers and traditional telecommunication companies increasingly compete in providing voice, video and data services to residences. The combination of television, telephone and Internet access is commonly called triple play, regardless of whether CATV or telcos offer it. == See also == == References == == Further reading == The history of Rediffusion by Gerald K Clode Eisenmann, Thomas R., "Cable TV: From Community Antennas to Wired Cities", Harvard Business School Weekly Newsletter, July 10, 2000 Moss, Mitchell L.; Payne, Frances, "Can Cable Keep Its Promise?", New York Affairs, Volume 6, Number 4. New York University. 1981 Smith, Ralph Lee, "The Wired Nation", The Nation magazine, May 18, 1970 Smith, Ralph Lee, The Wired Nation; Cable TV: the electronic communications highway. New York, Harper & Row, 1972. ISBN 0-06-090243-4 Herrick, Dennis F. (2012). Media Management in the Age of Giants: Business Dynamics of Journalism. UNM Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-5163-0. == External links ==	Wikipedia/Cable_network
A charitable incorporated organisation (CIO) is a corporate form of business designed for (and only available to) charitable organisations in England and Wales. A similar form, with minor differences, exists for Scottish charities. == Overview == A CIO comes into being (is "constituted") once it is registered as such by the Charity Commission for England and Wales (the Charity Commission). The application is by the proposed members of the CIO. Usually these are also the proposed trustees, but this is not a requirement. The main benefits of the CIO form are that the charity is a corporation with legal personality (the ability to enter contracts, sue and be sued, and to hold property in its own name – rather than in the name of its trustees), and its members have limited liability (their liability in the event the charity becomes insolvent is limited or nil). Historically these benefits were only available to limited companies, and thus many charities chose to incorporate as charitable companies limited by guarantee. However, this requires registration and filing with both Companies House and the Charity Commission, each of which has its own regulations and requirements. In contrast, a CIO only needs to register and file accounts and returns with the Charity Commission. This aims to reduce bureaucracy for the charity. In addition, (and uniquely among limited liability corporations in the UK), smaller CIOs in England and Wales can opt to file receipts and payments accounts, rather than the accruals accounts usually required. But one disadvantage of the form for larger charities is that, unlike for charitable companies, there is no public register of lenders' charges over the corporation's assets, and this can make it harder to arrange finance. A CIO is also unable to grant a floating charge over its assets. Almost any existing charity, including charitable companies, can apply to "convert" to a CIO. Strictly speaking the CIO is a new entity, and there is no continuity of legal personality with the former charity. (Despite a natural reading of Chapter Four of the Charities Act 2011, this is true even where the precursor charity is a charitable company.) This can have profound effects on the continuity of business, and can be a disincentive to conversion. There is currently no means of converting a CIO to any other legal form – although it could be wound up and its assets transferred. == History == The CIO status became available to charities in England and Wales on 4 March 2013, based on The Charities Act 2011. In Scotland, the Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator began registering Scottish charitable incorporated organisations (SCIOs) in April 2011. The idea originated in 1992 with the Chief Executive of the National Council for Voluntary Organisations (NCVO), Judy Weleminsky, and was taken forward by Lindsay Driscoll who was the Head of Legal and Governance at NCVO. A Charity Commission advisory group was set up in 2000 to look at the incorporation of charities, and recommended a new form of legal entity. In 2001 the Department of Trade and Industry's company law review steering group likewise recommended a charitable incorporated organisation with a separate legal regime, as company law is aimed at the commercial sector, with corporate governance structured around the assumption that members of a company have a financial interest in it. Primary legislation to introduce the CIO as a new legal form of incorporation was included in the Charities Bill in 2004, and this aspect of the bill was particularly welcomed by charities. It was finally enacted in the Charities Act 2006. The Charity Commission opened a consultation on draft documentation and regulations in 2008, raising a large number of difficulties and suggested improvements. Implementation in England and Wales has been phased, starting in 2013 with brand new charities, followed by conversions of existing unincorporated charities according to income, and then followed by charitable companies. The Charity Commission in England and Wales began publishing guidance in May 2011. On 4 March 2013, for the first time, the Commission enabled an existing charity, Challenge to Change, to convert from a charitable trust to a CIO. The charity later reported some difficulties in transferring assets and long-term grant agreements to the new legal entity and subsequently closed due to reduced levels of funding. Another charity converted but then reverted to its old status because of the cost and inconvenience of changing its registration number. As of May 2019, there were over 17,000 CIOs registered with the Charity Commission for England and Wales. == See also == Community interest company (CIC) Community benefit society (BenComm) == References == == External links == Charity types: how to choose a structure, Government guidance for England and Wales, The Charity Commission Change your charity structure: Checklist, Charity Commission for England and Wales Guidance from the Scottish Charity Regulator on setting up a SCIO in Scotland Archived 11 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine	Wikipedia/Charitable_incorporated_organisation
A business network is a complex, enduring, and interdependent web of business relationships among market and non-market actors that allow firms to co-create value in their business environment. Firms influence their markets by managing and signalling their network positions, facilitating entry of new actors, or removing other actors, for instance, through disintermediation, which means elimitating the middleman. When some actors within a business network have joint strategic intents and work together to achieve certain objectives, then the network is called a strategic business net. These objectives, which are strategic and operational, are adopted by business networks based on their role in the market. == Definition == Several descriptions of business networks stipulate different types of characteristics: A business network is a form of inter-firm cooperation that allows companies, located in different regions or countries, to collaborate on a basis of common development objectives expressed in a cooperation agreement. The companies decide to join their strengths, share information and create synergies to become more innovative and competitive in domestic and international markets, while keeping their autonomy, not creating a separate legal entity. This cooperation model is suitable for any kind of business activity or sector. A business network is greater than the sum of the individual businesses. It incorporates suppliers, customers, third-party developers, distributors, and others. These third parties generally have a strong reason to support the network and remain active in it. A business network is generic and includes both smart and not-so-smart business networks. A smart business network is defined as a group of participating companies (nodes) that are linked together by one or many communication networks (links). The companies have compatible goals and interact in innovative ways. A smart business network is perceived by each company as increasing its own value and is sustainable as a network over time. A business network is owned by the business enterprise, where the scope of the network is to support the informational and operational requirements of the business, such as marketing, sales, accounting, and manufacturing departments. == Study == In the late 20th century, the study of business networks emerged in the field of industrial markets. Researchers analyzed the transactions and communications beneath the visible flows of products, inquiries, sales visits and negotiations, and beyond the visible growth and prosperity of some companies and the failure of others. Snehota and Hakansson (1995) explain: For more than twenty years, we have analyzed business networks for answers to the many questions about industrial markets. Unlike consumer markets, industrial markets are not generally known to the public, nor to many management scholars. We have been surprised by the complexity of industrial markets and at the same time by the apparent smoothness of their working. Gradually, we have acquired respect for their importance and complexity and learned how they work. Another study on business networks was carried out by Ecorys between 2013 and 2014. This study was specific to EU-level business networks and was financed by the European Commission. The main objective of the study was to investigate and highlight the new forms of inter-firm collaboration and to propose possible measures to support and coordinate them in Europe where and if appropriate. This study included the objectives and categorization of business networks. == Objectives == Business networks have two types of objectives — strategic and operational — that are adopted depending on the role of the business network in the market. === Strategic objectives === Strategic objectives are focused on long term activities, such as: Innovation Internationalization Foreign matchmaking === Operational objectives === Operational objectives are diverse and include: Provision of legal and financial services Collaboration in regional, national, and international projects Increased buying power through joint purchasing Optimization of HR-marketing for recruitment of highly specialized talent Provision of intellectual property protection == Categorization == Business networks can be divided into two main categories: business associations and company aggregations. === Business associations === Business associations — also called business networks as business associations — provide member companies with a platform and conditions for cooperation to meet an objective. The companies decide if they want to cooperate to achieve that objective. Business associations create a level playing field for cooperation among companies. They have a stable and well-functioning governance structure. The members may pay a fee to the association. In return, the business association monitors and meets the needs of their members and proactively develops and provides new services. This is the key task of business associations. Business associations provide services that are generally more professional, extensive, and cost effective compared to services offered by individual members. In a business association, there is a direct link between the business association (central body) and each of its constituent members. This is displayed with solid bidirectional arrows (refer to Figure 1). The members may or may not choose to cooperate with each other, displayed with dashed lines between companies. Business associations are further categorized by sector or by location and scope. === Company aggregations === Company aggregations — also called business networks as company aggregations — are formed by companies, which decide to cooperate and aggregate. Unlike business associations, these companies have already taken the decision to work together on a joint set of objectives. In a company aggregation, companies collaborate directly with each other without a representative and/or a servicing association. The aggregation of the companies can be formalized through a business contract. Company aggregations have two forms of cooperation: horizontal and vertical. (refer to Figure 2) In a vertical aggregation, there is a collaboration between companies that are involved in different stages of the value chain. For example, cooperation between a supplier of cotton, a manufacturer of cotton clothes, a wholesale distributor, and a retailer of cotton clothes. In a horizontal aggregation, the collaboration is among companies of the same industry and in the same stage of the production process. For example, many small producers of cotton clothes cooperate and produce together the required number of cotton clothes to fulfill the order of a large marketing company. == Business network model == The characteristics of a business network model are: The collaborating companies in a business network are not bound by location, size, sector, or number. They are open to new partnerships that help them to stay competitive. The companies focus on a joint objective and agree on the activities and the procedure to achieve the objectives. The collaborating companies formalize their agreement through a contract that includes the jointly agreed objectives, activities, procedures, duration, decision process, definition of the parties’ rights, and provisions to enter and exit the contract. The structured collaboration resulting from the contract gives the companies the required skills to become more competitive, innovative and global, and gain better economic productivity and performance. It also gives the companies the advantage of free riding. Business network companies — that is, platform and network-based companies — outperform traditional companies. Some of the advantages of business network companies are: More profit Faster growth Higher valuations (two to four times) Higher return on investment Lower marginal costs Some companies that follow a business network model include Trepup, eBay, Red Hat, Visa, Uber, TripAdvisor, Alibaba. == Difference between business networks, clusters, and joint ventures == === Difference between clusters and business networks === Clusters are a network of connected businesses, suppliers, and associates in a specific field that are all located in the same geographical area. Conversely, companies in a business network are not bound by geographical locations or sectors, and can be focused around any specific objective. === Difference between joint ventures and business networks === A joint venture is a new legal entity created by two or more companies, generally characterized by shared ownership, shared returns and risks, and shared governance. The companies come together to accomplish a specific task, such as a project or a business activity. In a business network, on the other hand, the autonomy of each of the companies is preserved and no new legal entity is formed. The companies capitalize on the network to create opportunities and expand their individual business interests. == See also == Business networking Conglomerate (company) Network marketing == References ==	Wikipedia/Business_network
Diversification is a corporate strategy to enter into or start new products or product lines, new services or new markets, involving substantially different skills, technology and knowledge. Diversification is one of the four main growth strategies defined by Igor Ansoff in the Ansoff Matrix: Ansoff pointed out that a diversification strategy stands apart from the other three strategies. Whereas, the first three strategies are usually pursued with the same technical, financial, and merchandising resources used for the original product line, the diversification usually requires a company to acquire new skills and knowledge in product development as well as new insights into market behavior simultaneously. This not only requires the acquisition of new skills and knowledge, but also requires the company to acquire new resources including new technologies and new facilities, which exposes the organisation to higher levels of risk. Note: The notion of diversification depends on the subjective interpretation of “new” market and “new” product, which should reflect the perceptions of customers rather than managers. Indeed, products tend to create or stimulate new markets; new markets promote product innovation. Product diversification involves addition of new products to existing products either being manufactured or being marketed. Expansion of the existing product line with related products is one such method adopted by many businesses. Adding tooth brushes to tooth paste or tooth powders or mouthwash under the same brand or under different brands aimed at different segments is one way of diversification. These are either brand extensions or product extensions to increase the volume of sales and the number of customers. == A typology of diversification strategies == The strategies of diversification can include internal development of new products or markets, acquisition of a firm, alliance with a complementary company, licensing of new technologies, and distributing or importing a products line manufactured by another firm. Generally, the final strategy involves a combination of these options. This combination is determined in function of available opportunities and consistency with the objectives and the resources of the company. There are three types of diversification: concentric, horizontal, and conglomerate. === Concentric diversification === This means that there is a technological similarity between the industries, which means that the firm is able to leverage its technical know-how to gain some advantage. For example, a company that manufactures industrial adhesives might decide to diversify into adhesives to be sold via retailers. The technology would be the same but the marketing effort would need to change. It also seems to increase its market share to launch a new product that helps the particular company to earn profit. For instance, the addition of tomato ketchup and sauce to the existing "Maggi" brand processed items of Food Specialities Ltd. is an example of technological-related concentric diversification. The company could seek new products that have technological or marketing synergies with existing product lines appealing to a new group of customers. This also helps the company to tap that part of the market which remains untapped, and which presents an opportunity to earn profits. === Horizontal diversification === The company adds new products or services that are often technologically or commercially unrelated to current products but that may appeal to current customers. This strategy tends to increase the firm's dependence on certain market segments. For example, a company that was making notebooks earlier may also enter the pen market with its new product. ==== When is horizontal diversification desirable? ==== Horizontal diversification is desirable if the present customers are loyal to the current products and if the new products have a good quality and are well promoted and priced. Moreover, the new products are marketed to the same economic environment as the existing products, which may lead to rigidity or instability. ===== Another interpretation ===== Horizontal integration occurs when a firm enters a new business (either related or unrelated) at the same stage of production as its current operations. For example, Avon's move to market jewellery through its door-to-door sales force involved marketing new products through existing channels of distribution. An alternative form of that Avon has also undertaken is selling its products by mail order (e.g., clothing, plastic products) and through retail stores (e.g.,Tiffany's). In both cases, Avon is still at the retail stage of the production process. === Conglomerate diversification (or lateral diversification) === Conglomerate diversification involves adding new products or services that are significantly unrelated and with no technological or commercial similarities. For example, if a computer company decides to produce stationery items, the company is pursuing a conglomerate diversification strategy. == Goal of diversification == According to Calori and Harvatopoulos (1988), there are two dimensions of rationale for diversification. The first one relates to the nature of the strategic objective: Diversification may be defensive or offensive. Defensive reasons may be spreading the risk of market contraction, or being forced to diversify when current product or current market orientation seems to provide no further opportunities for growth. Offensive reasons may be conquering new positions, taking opportunities that promise greater profitability than expansion opportunities, or using retained cash that exceeds total expansion needs. The second dimension involves the expected outcomes of diversification: Management may expect great economic value (growth, profitability) or first and foremost great coherence with their current activities (exploitation of know-how, more efficient use of available resources and capacities). In addition, companies may also explore diversification just to get a valuable comparison between this strategy and expansion. == Risks == Of the four strategies presented in the Ansoff matrix, Diversification has the highest level of risk and requires the most careful investigation. Going into an unknown market with an unfamiliar product offering means a lack of experience in the new skills and techniques required. Therefore, the company puts itself in a great uncertainty. Moreover, diversification might necessitate significant expanding of human and financial resources, which may detract focus, commitment, and sustained investments in the core industries. Therefore, a firm should choose this option only when the current product or current market orientation does not offer further opportunities for growth. In order to measure the chances of success, different tests can be done: The attractiveness test: the industry that has been chosen has to be either attractive or capable of being made attractive. The cost-of-entry test: the cost of entry must not capitalize all future profits. The better-off test: the new unit must either gain competitive advantage from its link with the corporation or vice versa. Because of the high risks explained above, many companies attempting to diversify have led to failure. However, there are a few good examples of successful diversification: Apple moved from PCs to mobile devices Virgin Group moved from music production to travel and mobile phones Walt Disney moved from producing animated movies to theme parks and vacation properties Canon diversified from a camera-making company into producing an entirely new range of office equipment. == See also == Harry Igor Ansoff Market development Market penetration Product development Product proliferation Pure play == References == == Further reading == Chisnall, Peter, Strategic Business Marketing, 1995 Day, George, Strategic Marketing Planning, Donia, Benhura, Strategies to Improve Sales Volume, 2016 Jain, Subhash C, International Marketing Management, 1993 Jain, Subhash C., Marketing Planning & Strategy, 1997 Lambin, Jean-Jacques, Strategic Marketing Management, 1996 Murray, Johan & O'Driscoll, Aidan, Strategy and Process in Marketing, 1996 Weitz, Barton A. & Wensley, Robin, Readings in Strategic Marketing, Wilson, Richard & Gilligan, Colin, Strategic Marketing Management, 1992 Yücel E., Önal Y.B., "Industrial Diversification and Risk in an Emerging Market: Evidence from Turkey", Emerging Markets: Finance and Trade, vol.51, pp. 1292-1306, 2015 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1540496X.2015.1011544?journalCode=mree20#.VoGSI_mLTIU	Wikipedia/Diversification_(marketing_strategy)
Business networking is the practice of building relationships with individuals and businesses for professional purposes. It involves the strategic exchange of information and resources to create connections that can be mutually beneficial. Business networking can be conducted in person, online, or through a combination of both. Through repeated interactions, companies create deeper connections. This encourages knowledge exchange, mutual adaptation, and a commitment of resources, which can be both financial and social, to one another. Business networking helps individuals achieve effective networking which can result in career advancement, building mutually beneficial relationships and knowledge sharing. There are two main approaches of networking: in-person events like conferences and online platforms like LinkedIn. Setting clear goals beforehand and following up with connections after the event are two methods used to maximize the value of the interactions. == Goals == Business networking offers a variety of advantages for professionals at all stages of their careers. Some goals individuals can achieve through effective networking include career advancement opportunities, gaining access to valuable knowledge and expertise, and building mutually beneficial relationships. Networks can be a powerful tool for identifying new job openings, particularly positions that are not advertised. Connections can provide valuable recommendations and introductions to hiring managers. Networking allows individuals to showcase their skills and experience to potential employers. By building relationships with potential clients and partners at networking events, one can significantly increase awareness of their brand or business. A strong network can act as a referral source, bringing in new business opportunities through trusted recommendations. These connections can become a source of valuable knowledge and expertise. Through conversations and potential mentorship opportunities with experienced professionals, valuable insights can be gained into industry trends and best practices. Business networking fosters the development of mutually beneficial relationships. By connecting with like-minded professionals, organizations can build long-term, trusted bonds that offer support, advice, and collaboration opportunities. Many businesses utilize networking as a key element in their marketing plans. It helps to develop trust between those involved and plays a big part in raising the profile of a company. Suppliers and businesses can be seen as networked businesses, and will tend to source the business and their suppliers through their existing relationships, as well as with the companies they work closely with. Penny Power states that networked businesses tend to be open, random, and supportive, whereas those relying on hierarchical, traditional managed approaches are closed, selective, and controlling. == History == Historically, there have been multiple forms of business networks, such as those among religious or ethnic groups, among small businesses, or between large companies and their subcontractors. Business networks have existed between firms as well as between individuals. Guilds, associations of merchants and craftspeople, were the main form of business network in North America and Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution. Beginning in the 1700s, chambers of commerce began to be founded. In the early twentieth century, service clubs such as the Rotary Club, Lions Club, and Kiwanis Club were founded as social organizations for business networking. In the second half of the twentieth century, networking was promoted to help business people to build their social capital. Business networking by members of marginalized groups (e.g., women, African Americans, etc.) has been encouraged to identify and address the challenges barring them from professional success. Mainstream business literature subsequently adopted the terms and concepts, and promoted them as pathways to success for all career climbers. Before online business networking, in-person networking was the only option for business people. This was achieved through a number of techniques such as trade show marketing and loyalty programs. Though these techniques have been proven to still be an effective source of making connections and growing a business, many companies now focus more on online marketing due to the ability to track every detail of a campaign and justify the expenditure involved in setting up a campaign. == Types == Business networking can be broadly categorized into two main approaches: in-person networking and online networking. In-person networking allows organizations and entrepreneurs to connect with professionals face-to-face. Industry conferences and trade shows are a resource to meet potential clients, partners, and colleagues while also learning about current trends. Online networking provides another resource to connect with professionals virtually. Platforms like LinkedIn are designed specifically for professional networking, allowing individuals to build their network, share their expertise, and participate in industry discussions. Online forums and communities focused on specific industries can be a valuable resource for connecting with like-minded individuals and asking questions about the industry. Industry-specific discussion boards offer another avenue for online networking, where individuals can showcase their knowledge, learn from others, and potentially find new collaborators or clients. == Strategies == Successful business networking relies on a well-defined strategy implemented before, during, and after networking events. By planning a proactive approach, professionals can maximize the value gained from these interactions and connect to a network that promotes career growth and business development. It is beneficial for organizations to establish clear goals for their interactions and to tailor the approach according to each connection one is trying to form. Researching event attendees beforehand, if possible, is beneficial. Identifying individuals whose work aligns with interests or professional goals allows for unique conversation starters. This demonstrates genuine interest in connecting and establishing rapport which can in turn increase an organization's or individual's reputation. Once the initial connection is made, following up after a networking event with a professional email that shows gratitude for the interaction and knowledge gained can continue the conversation and can begin the foundation for a strong business network connection. == Benefits == One of the most significant advantages is the potential for increased career opportunities. A strong network can provide opportunities such as unadvertised job openings through connections who might be aware of potential fits within their companies. These connections can also provide valuable recommendations and introductions to hiring managers or other individuals who are interested in forming business connections. Additionally, networking events and online platforms offer opportunities to show one's skills or an organization's capabilities and knowledge to a wider audience of potential employers, increasing overall visibility in the job market and business community. Beyond career advancement, business networking builds brand awareness. By building strong relationships with potential clients and partners at networking events and through online interactions, organizations can significantly increase awareness of their brand or business. These connections can then develop into paying customers or business connections that can help expand an organization. A strong network acts as a referral source, bringing in new business opportunities through trusted recommendations from one's network members. The larger the network an organization or individual has, the more access to knowledge and experience they have. This type of access proves to be valuable when attempting to expand the business into unknown territory or beginning one's business career. Learning from those who have been in a certain industry for a long time can improve chances of recognition from other brands and businesses who would want to form connections and builds reputation for the organization or individual. == Challenges == Networking can be an effective way for job-seekers to gain a competitive edge over others in the job market. The skilled networker cultivates personal relationships with prospective employers and selection panelists in the hope that these personal affections will influence future hiring decisions. This form of networking has raised ethical concerns. The objection is that it constitutes an attempt to corrupt formal selection processes. The networker is accused of seeking non-meritocratic advantage over other candidates, advantage that is based on personal fondness rather than on any objective appraisal of which candidate is most qualified for the position. While social media offers a powerful platform for business networking, it still has its downsides. Social media interactions can sometimes feel superficial or inauthentic. Building genuine relationships takes time and effort, which can be difficult in the fast-paced online world. It can be difficult to maintain a balance of showcasing one's expertise and oversharing personal or confidential information and this type of oversharing can cause damage to an organization's reputation. Social media can be overwhelming, since it is filled with a constant stream of content. This can make it difficult for an organization or an individual to stand out and put their name out online. Social media can also be cruel to new content or those who post controversial topics, as these can also damage an organization's reputation. == See also == Brown Skin Brunchin' Guanxi Personal network Professional network service == References ==	Wikipedia/Business_networking
Piercing the corporate veil or lifting the corporate veil is a legal decision to treat the rights or duties of a corporation as the rights or liabilities of its shareholders. Usually a corporation is treated as a separate legal person, which is solely responsible for the debts it incurs and the sole beneficiary of the credit it is owed. Common law countries usually uphold this principle of separate personhood, but in exceptional situations may "pierce" or "lift" the corporate veil. A simple example would be where a businessperson has left their job as a director and has signed a contract to not compete with the company they have just left for a period of time. If they set up a company which competed with their former company, technically it would be the company and not the person competing. But it is likely a court would say that the new company was just a "sham" or a "cover" and that, as the new company is completely owned and controlled by one person, the former employee is deliberately choosing to compete, placing them in breach of that non-competing contract. Despite the terminology used which makes it appear as though a shareholder's limited liability emanates from the view that a corporation is a separate legal entity, the reality is that the entity status of corporations has almost nothing to do with shareholder limited liability. For example, English law conferred entity status on corporations long before shareholders were afforded limited liability. Similarly, the United States' Revised Uniform Partnership Act confers entity status on partnerships, but also provides that partners are individually liable for all partnership obligations. Therefore, this shareholder limited liability emanates mainly from statute. == Basis for limited liability == Corporations exist in part to shield the personal assets of shareholders from personal liability for the debts or actions of a corporation. Unlike a general partnership or sole proprietorship in which the owner could be held responsible for all the debts of the company, a corporation traditionally limited the personal liability of the shareholders. Piercing the corporate veil typically is most effective with smaller privately held business entities (close corporations) in which the corporation has a small number of shareholders, limited assets, and recognition of separateness of the corporation from its shareholders would promote fraud or an inequitable result. There is no record of a successful piercing of the corporate veil for a publicly traded corporation because of the large number of shareholders and the extensive mandatory filings entailed in qualifying for listing on an exchange. == Germany == German corporate law developed a number of theories in the early 1920s for lifting the corporate veil on the basis of "domination" by a parent company over a subsidiary. These cases have led to an encompassing codification of group law provisions in the AktG 1965 (§§ 291 - 319 AktG). By contrast, a general doctrine of piercing the veil for abuse of the legal personality of the company has never really taken hold in Germany. It was advocated in the fundamental work of Rolf Serick, but rejected by the prevailing "Normanwendungslehre". After a few early cases, the German judiciary did not go down the route of establishing shareholder liability via piercing the veil. In particular, it rejected piercing the veil on grounds of material undercapitalization several times. Today, the only remaining case of shareholder liability via piercing of the corporate veil is the inextricable commingling of the assets of the company and the shareholder ("Vermögensvermischung"). But shareholders can be held liable in tort (§ 826 BGB) in the case of an interference destroying the corporation ("existenzvernichtender Eingriff"). The corporation must not be stripped, without compensation, of funds that are required to meet its foreseeable future obligations. If these are taken away by the shareholder the corporation may claim compensation, even in an insolvency proceeding. The concept adds a solvency test element to the balance-sheet based rules of capital maintenance under §§ 30, 31 GmbHG and §§ 57, 62 AktG. == United Kingdom == The corporate veil in UK company law is pierced very rarely. After a series of attempts by the Court of Appeal during the late 1960s and early 1970s to establish a theory of economic reality, and a doctrine of control for lifting the veil, the House of Lords reasserted an orthodox approach. According to a 1990 case at the Court of Appeal, Adams v Cape Industries plc, the only true "veil piercing" may take place when a company is set up for fraudulent purposes, or where it is established to avoid an existing obligation. However, cases were rare and their justification in light of the Salomon principle remained doubtful. In VTB Capital, Lord Neuberger sympathised with rejecting the doctrine altogether, but left the issue undecided because it did not matter for the outcome. Soon afterwards, in Prest v Petrodel, a divorce case where the matrimonial home was not held by the husband but by his company, the Supreme Court confirmed the existence of the doctrine in English law, but narrowed it down to practical irrelevance. The "fraud exception" was dismissed. According to the leading judgement by Lord Sumption, piercing the veil is a subsidiary remedy of last resort that only covers the avoidance of existing obligations ("evasion principle", as opposed to the cases of the "concealment principle" that does not give rise to a claim). On closer analysis, this was said obiter because the Court reached the desired outcome (attribution of the family home to the assets of the husband) by applying trust law. Nevertheless, Prest v Petrodel is generally assumed to state the current law in the UK, even though the restriction of "abuse" to evasion only can be questioned and there were statements in Prest v Petrodel that supported a broader approach. It is noteworthy that under English law, piercing the veil can never be used to make shareholders pay for contractual debts of the company because they have not been party to that contract. In the past, the veil was sometimes ignored in the process of interpreting a statute, and as a matter of tort law it is open as a matter of authority that a direct duty of care may be owed by the managers of a parent company to accident victims of a subsidiary. === Tort victims and employees === Tort victims and employees, who did not contract with a company or have very unequal bargaining power, have been held to be exempted from the rules of limited liability in Chandler v Cape plc. In this case, the claimant was an employee of Cape plc's wholly owned subsidiary, which had gone insolvent. He successfully brought a claim in tort against Cape plc for causing him an asbestos disease, asbestosis. Arden LJ in the Court of Appeal held that if the parent had interfered in the operations of the subsidiary in any way, such as over trading issues, then it would be attached with responsibility for health and safety issues. Arden LJ emphasised that piercing the corporate veil was not necessary. There would be direct liability in tort for the parent company if it had interfered in the subsidiary's affairs. The High Court before it had held that liability would exist if the parent exercised control, all applying ordinary principles of tort law about liability of a third party for the actions of a tortfeasor. The restrictions on lifting the veil, found in contractual cases made no difference. This jurisdiction has been settled to play an important role in the human rights cases and. === "Single economic unit" theory === Within the context of competition law, "undertakings" (which may encompass one or more legal persons) might be held liable for relevant infringements. By contrast, it is an axiomatic principle of English company law that a company is an entity separate and distinct from its members, who are liable only to the extent that they have contributed to the company's capital: Salomon v Salomon [1897]. The effect of this rule is that the individual subsidiaries within a conglomerate will be treated as separate entities and the parent cannot be made liable for the subsidiaries' debts on insolvency. Furthermore, it can create subsidiaries with inadequate capitalisation and secure loans to the subsidiaries with fixed charges over their assets, despite the fact that this is "not necessarily the most honest way of trading". The rule also applies in Scotland. While the secondary literature refers to different means of "lifting" or "piercing" the veil (see Ottolenghi (1959)), judicial dicta supporting the view that the rule in Salomon is subject to exceptions are thin on the ground. Lord Denning MR outlined the theory of the "single economic unit" - wherein the court examined the overall business operation as an economic unit, rather than strict legal form - in DHN Food Distributors v Tower Hamlets. However this has largely been repudiated and has been treated with caution in subsequent judgments. In Woolfson v Strathclyde BC, the House of Lords held that it was a decision to be confined to its facts (the question in DHN had been whether the subsidiary of the plaintiff, the former owning the premises on which the parent carried out its business, could receive compensation for loss of business under a compulsory purchase order notwithstanding that under the rule in Salomon, it was the parent and not the subsidiary that had lost the business). Likewise, in Bank of Tokyo v Karoon, Lord Goff, who had concurred in the result in DHN, held that the legal conception of the corporate structure was entirely distinct from the economic realities. The "single economic unit" theory was likewise rejected by the CA in Adams v Cape Industries, where Slade LJ held that cases where the rule in Salomon had been circumvented were merely instances where they did not know what to do. The view expressed at first instance by HHJ Southwell QC in Creasey v Breachwood, that English law "definitely" recognised the principle that the corporate veil could be lifted, was described as a heresy by Hobhouse LJ in Ord v Bellhaven, and these doubts were shared by Moritt V-C in Trustor v Smallbone (No 2): the corporate veil cannot be lifted merely because justice requires it. Despite the rejection of the "justice of the case" test, it is observed from judicial reasoning in veil piercing cases that the courts employ "equitable discretion" guided by general principles such as mala fides to test whether the corporate structure has been used as a mere device. === Perfect obligation === The cases of Tan v Lim, where a company was used as a "façade" (per Russell J.) to defraud the creditors of the defendant and Gilford Motor Co Ltd v Horne, where an injunction was granted against a trader setting up a business which was merely as a vehicle allowing him to circumvent a covenant in restraint of trade are often said to create a "fraud" exception to the separate corporate personality. Similarly, in Gencor v Dalby, the tentative suggestion was made that the corporate veil was being lifted where the company was the "alter ego" of the defendant. In truth, as Lord Cooke (1997) has noted extrajudicially, it is because of the separate identity of the company concerned and not despite it that equity intervened in all of these cases. They are not instances of the corporate veil being pierced but instead involve the application of other rules of law. Finally, the "fraud exception" was rejected in Prest v Petrodel Resources Ltd. === Reverse piercing === There have been cases in which it is to the advantage of the shareholder to have the corporate structure ignored. Courts have been reluctant to agree to this. The often cited case Macaura v Northern Assurance Co Ltd is an example of that. Mr Macaura was the sole owner of a company he had set up to grow timber. The trees were destroyed by fire but the insurer refused to pay since the policy was with Macaura (not the company) and he was not the owner of the trees. The House of Lords upheld that refusal based on the separate legal personality of the company. === Criminal law === In English criminal law there have been cases in which the courts have been prepared to pierce the veil of incorporation. For example, in confiscation proceedings under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 monies received by a company can, depending upon the particular facts of the case as found by the court, be regarded as having been 'obtained' by an individual (who is usually, but not always, a director of the company). In consequence those monies may become an element in the individual's 'benefit' obtained from criminal conduct (and hence subject to confiscation from him). The position regarding 'piercing the veil' in English criminal law was given in the Court of Appeal judgment in the case of R v Seager in which the court said (at para 76): There was no major disagreement between counsel on the legal principles by reference to which a court is entitled to "pierce" or "rend" or "remove" the corporate veil. As a matter of law, a duly formed and registered company is a separate legal entity from those who are its shareholders and it has rights and liabilities that are separate from its shareholders. A court can pierce the limited liability of the corporate entity and look at what lies behind it only in certain circumstances. It cannot do so simply because it considers it might be just to do so. Each of these circumstances involves impropriety and dishonesty. The court will then be entitled to look for the legal substance, not the just the form. In the context of criminal cases the courts have identified at least three situations when the corporate veil can be pierced. First if an offender attempts to shelter behind a corporate façade, or veil to hide his crime and his benefits from it. Secondly, where an offender does acts in the name of a company which (with the necessary mens rea) constitute a criminal offence which leads to the offender's conviction, then "the veil of incorporation is not so much pierced as rudely torn away": per Lord Bingham in Jennings v CPS, paragraph 16. Thirdly, where the transaction or business structures constitute a "device", "cloak" or "sham", i.e. an attempt to disguise the true nature of the transaction or structure so as to deceive third parties or the courts. == United States == In the United States, corporate veil piercing is the most litigated issue in corporate law. Although courts are reluctant to hold an active shareholder liable for actions that are legally the responsibility of the corporation, even if the corporation has a single shareholder, they will often do so if the corporation was markedly noncompliant with corporate formalities, to prevent fraud, or to achieve equity in certain cases of undercapitalization. In most jurisdictions, no bright-line rule exists and the ruling is based on common law precedents. In the United States, different theories, most important "alter ego" or "instrumentality rule", attempted to create a piercing standard. Mostly, they rest upon three basic prongs—namely: "unity of interest and ownership": the separate personalities of the shareholder and corporation cease to exist, "wrongful conduct": wrongful action taken by the corporation, and "proximate cause": as a reasonably foreseeable result of the wrongful action, harm was caused to the party that is seeking to pierce the corporate veil. However, the theories failed to articulate a real-world approach which courts could directly apply to their cases. Thus, courts struggle with the proof of each prong and rather analyze all given factors. This is known as "totality of circumstances". Generally, the plaintiff has to prove that the incorporation was merely a formality and that the corporation neglected corporate formalities and protocols, such as voting to approve major corporate actions in the context of a duly authorized corporate meeting. This is quite often the case when a corporation facing legal liability transfers its assets and business to another corporation with the same management and shareholders. It also happens with single person corporations that are managed in a haphazard manner. As such, the veil can be pierced in both civil cases and where regulatory proceedings are taken against a shell corporation. === Factors for courts to consider === Factors that a court may consider when determining whether or not to pierce the corporate veil include the following: Absence or inaccuracy of corporate records; Concealment or misrepresentation of members; Failure to maintain arm's length relationships with related entities; Failure to observe corporate formalities in terms of behavior and documentation; Intermingling of assets of the corporation and of the shareholder; Manipulation of assets or liabilities to concentrate the assets or liabilities; Non-functioning corporate officers and/or directors; Significant undercapitalization of the business entity (capitalization requirements vary based on industry, location, and specific company circumstances); Siphoning of corporate funds by the dominant shareholder(s); Treatment by an individual of the assets of corporation as his/her own; Use of the corporation as a façade for personal dealings (alter ego theory) Not all of these factors need to be met in order for the court to pierce the corporate veil. Further, some courts might find that one factor is so compelling in a particular case that it will find the shareholders personally liable. For example, many large corporations do not pay dividends, without any suggestion of corporate impropriety, but particularly for a small or close corporation the failure to pay dividends may suggest financial impropriety. ==== Examples ==== Berkey v. Third Avenue Railway, 244 N.Y. 602, 155 N.E. 914 (1927). Benjamin Cardozo decided there was no right to pierce the veil for a personal injury victim. Perpetual Real Estate Services, Inc. v. Michaelson Properties, Inc. 974 F.2d 545 (4th Cir. 1992). The Fourth Circuit held that no piercing could take place merely to prevent "unfairness" or "injustice", where a corporation in a real estate building partnership could not pay its share of a lawsuit bill Fletcher v. Atex, Inc., 68 F.3d 1451 (2d Cir. 1995), finding insufficient that a parent company so dominated the operations of a subsidiary that the corporate veil should be disregarded. Minton v. Cavaney, 56 Cal.2d 576 (1961). Mr. Minton's daughter drowned in the public swimming pool owned by Mr. Cavaney. Then-Associate Justice Roger J. Traynor (later Chief Justice) of the Supreme Court of California held: "The equitable owners of a corporation, for example, are personally liable...when they provide inadequate capitalization and actively participate in the conduct of corporate affairs." Kinney Shoe Corp. v. Polan, 939 F.2d 209 (4th Cir. 1991). The veil was pierced where its enforcement would not have matched the purpose of limited liability. Here a corporation was undercapitalized and was only used to shield a shareholder's other company from debts. === Internal Revenue Service === In recent years, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) in the United States has made use of corporate veil piercing arguments and logic as a means of recapturing income, estate, or gift tax revenue, particularly from business entities created primarily for estate planning purposes. A number of U.S. Tax Court cases involving Family Limited Partnerships (FLPs) illustrate the IRS's use of veil-piercing arguments. Since owners of U.S. business entities created for asset protection and estate purposes often fail to maintain proper corporate compliance, the IRS has achieved multiple high-profile court victories. === Reverse piercing === Reverse veil piercing is when the debt of a shareholder is imputed onto the corporation. Throughout the United States, the general rule is that reverse veil piercing is not allowed. However the California Court of Appeals has allowed reverse veil piercing against a limited liability company (LLC) based largely on the difference in remedies available to creditors when it comes to attaching assets of a debtors' LLC as compared to attaching assets of a corporation. == See also == US corporate law UK company law == Notes == == References == Books Hazen, T. L.; Markham, J. W. (2003). Corporations and Other Business Enterprises. Thomson/West. pp. 124–144. ISBN 0-314-26476-0. Articles Alting, C. (1994–1995). "Piercing the corporate veil in German and American law - Liability of individuals and entities: a comparative view". Tulsa Journal Comparative & International Law. 2: 187. Berle, Adolf A., Jr. (1947). "The Theory of Enterprise Entity". Columbia Law Review. 47 (3): 343–358. doi:10.2307/1118398. JSTOR 1118398.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cohn, E. J.; Simitis, C. (1963). "'Lifting the Veil' in the Company Laws of the European Continent". The International and Comparative Law Quarterly. 12 (1): 189–225. doi:10.1093/iclqaj/12.1.189. Dewey, John (1926). "The Historic Background of Corporate Legal Personality". Yale Law Journal. 35 (6): 655–673. doi:10.2307/788782. JSTOR 788782. Hansmann, Henry; Kraakman, Reinier (1991). "Toward unlimited shareholder liability for corporate torts". Yale Law Journal. 100 (7): 1879–1934. doi:10.2307/796812. JSTOR 796812. Hansmann, Henry; Kraakman, Reinier; Squire, Richard (2006). "Law and the Rise of the Firm". Harvard Law Review. 119 (5): 1333–1403. JSTOR 4093574. Machen, Arthur W., Jr. (1910). "Corporate Personality". Harvard Law Review. 24 (4): 253–267. doi:10.2307/1324056. JSTOR 1324056.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)	Wikipedia/Piercing_the_corporate_veil
In management accounting, the Cash conversion cycle (CCC) measures how long a firm will be deprived of cash if it increases its investment in inventory in order to expand customer sales. It is thus a measure of the liquidity risk entailed by growth. However, shortening the CCC creates its own risks: while a firm could even achieve a negative CCC by collecting from customers before paying suppliers, a policy of strict collections and lax payments is not always sustainable. == Definition == CCC is days between disbursing cash and collecting cash in connection with undertaking a discrete unit of operations. == Derivation == Cashflows insufficient. The term "Cash Conversion Cycle" refers to the timespan between a firm's disbursing and collecting cash. However, the CCC cannot be directly observed in cashflows, because these are also influenced by investment and financing activities; it must be derived from Statement of Financial Position data associated with the firm's operations. Equation describes retailer. Although the term "cash conversion cycle" technically applies to a firm in any industry, the equation is generically formulated to apply specifically to a retailer. Since a retailer's operations consist of buying and selling inventory, the equation models the time between (1) disbursing cash to satisfy the accounts payable created by purchase of inventory, and (2) collecting cash to satisfy the accounts receivable generated by that sale. Equation describes a firm that buys and sells on account. Also, the equation is written to accommodate a firm that buys and sells on account. For a cash-only firm, the equation would only need data from sales operations (e.g. changes in inventory), because disbursing cash would be directly measurable as purchase of inventory, and collecting cash would be directly measurable as sale of inventory. However, no such 1:1 correspondence exists for a firm that buys and sells on account: Increases and decreases in inventory do not occasion cashflows but accounting vehicles (payables and receivables, respectively); increases and decreases in cash will remove these accounting vehicles (receivables and payables, respectively) from the books. Thus, the CCC must be calculated by tracing a change in cash through its effect upon receivables, inventory, payables, and finally back to cash—thus, the term cash conversion cycle, and the observation that these four accounts "articulate" with one another. Taking these four transactions in pairs, analysts draw attention to five important intervals, referred to as conversion cycles (or conversion periods): the Cash conversion cycle emerges as interval C→D (i.e. disbursing cash→collecting cash). the Payables conversion period (or "Days payables outstanding") emerges as interval A→C (i.e. owing cash→disbursing cash) the Operating cycle emerges as interval A→D (i.e. owing cash→collecting cash) the Inventory conversion period or "Days inventory outstanding" emerges as interval A→B (i.e. owing cash→being owed cash) the Receivables conversion period (or "Days sales outstanding") emerges as interval B→D (i.e.being owed cash→collecting cash) Knowledge of any three of these conversion cycles permits derivation of the fourth (leaving aside the operating cycle, which is just the sum of the inventory conversion period and the receivables conversion period.) Hence, In calculating each of these three constituent conversion cycles, the equation Time = Level/Rate is used (since each interval roughly equals the Time needed for its Level to be achieved at its corresponding Rate). Its LEVEL "during the period in question" is estimated as the average of its levels in the two balance-sheets that surround the period: (Lt1+Lt2)/2. To estimate its Rate, note that Accounts Receivable grows only when revenue is accrued; and Inventory shrinks and Accounts Payable grows by an amount equal to the COGS expense (in the long run, since COGS actually accrues sometime after the inventory delivery, when the customers acquire it). Payables conversion period: Rate = [inventory increase + COGS], since these are the items for the period that can increase "trade accounts payables," i.e. the ones that grew its inventory. An exception is made when calculating this interval: although a period average for the Level of inventory is used, any increase in inventory contributes to its Rate of change. This is because the purpose of the CCC is to measure the effects of inventory growth on cash outlays. If inventory grew during the period, this would be important to know. Inventory conversion period: Rate = COGS, since this is the item that (eventually) shrinks inventory. Receivables conversion period: Rate = revenue, since this is the item that can grow receivables (sales). == Aims == The aim of studying cash conversion cycle and its calculation is to change the policies relating to credit purchase and credit sales. The standard of payment of credit purchase or getting cash from debtors can be changed on the basis of reports of cash conversion cycle. If it tells good cash liquidity position, past credit policies can be maintained. Its aim is also to study cash flow of business. Cash flow statement and cash conversion cycle study will be helpful for cash flow analysis. The CCC readings can be compared among different companies in the same industry segment to evaluate the quality of cash management. == See also == Days in inventory Days payable outstanding Days sales outstanding Working capital == References == == External links == AFP Payments Guide to Unlocking the Cash Conversion Cycle Measuring the Cash Conversion Cycle in an International Supply Chain The Cash Conversion Cycle (Walmart, Target, Costco, and Amazon.com) Net Trade Cycle	Wikipedia/Cash_conversion_cycle
In criminology, corporate crime refers to crimes committed either by a corporation (i.e., a business entity having a separate legal personality from the natural persons that manage its activities), or by individuals acting on behalf of a corporation or other business entity (see vicarious liability and corporate liability). For the worst corporate crimes, corporations may face judicial dissolution, sometimes called the "corporate death penalty", which is a legal procedure in which a corporation is forced to dissolve or cease to exist. Some negative behaviours by corporations may not actually be criminal; laws vary between jurisdictions. For example, some jurisdictions allow insider trading. Corporate crime overlaps with: white-collar crime, because the majority of individuals who may act as or represent the interests of the corporation are white-collar professionals; organized crime, because criminals may set up corporations either for the purposes of crime or as vehicles for laundering the proceeds of crime. The world's gross criminal product has been estimated at 20 percent of world trade. (de Brie 2000); and state-corporate crime because, in many contexts, the opportunity to commit crime emerges from the relationship between the corporation and the state. == Definitional issues == === Legal person === An 1886 decision of the United States Supreme Court, in Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad 118 U.S. 394 (1886), has been cited by various courts in the US as precedent to maintaining that a corporation can be defined legally as a "person", as described in the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The Fourteenth Amendment stipulates that, No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. In English law, this was matched by the decision in Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd [1897] AC 22. In Australian law, under the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth), a corporation is legally a "person". === Criminal capacity === The concepts of crime and punishment, as they apply to individuals, cannot be easily transferred to the corporate domain. International treaties governing corporate malfeasance thus tend to permit but not require corporate criminal liability. Recently a number of countries and the European Union have been working to establish corporate criminal liability for certain offences."Liability of Legal Persons for Corruption Offences". 2021-05-13. United States law currently recognizes corporate criminal capacity, although it is extremely rare for corporations to be litigated in criminal proceedings. French law currently recognizes corporate criminal capacity. German law does not recognize corporate criminal capacity: German corporations are however subject to fining for administrative violations (Ordnungswidrigkeiten) === Enforcement policy === Corporate crime has become politically sensitive in some countries. In the United Kingdom, for example, following wider publicity of fatal accidents on the rail network and at sea, the term is commonly used in reference to corporate manslaughter and to involve a more general discussion about the technological hazards posed by business enterprises (see Wells: 2001). In the United States, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was passed to reform business practices, including enhanced corporate responsibility, financial disclosures, and combat fraud, following the highly publicized and extremely harmful (to victims) scandals of Enron, WorldCom, Freddie Mac, Lehman Brothers, and Bernie Madoff. Company chief executive officer (CEO) and company chief financial officer (CFO) are required to personally certify financial reports to be accurate and compliant with applicable laws, with criminal penalties for willful misconduct including monetary fines up to $5,000,000 and prison sentence up to 20 years. The Law Reform Commission of New South Wales offers an explanation of such criminal activities:Corporate crime poses a significant threat to the welfare of the community. Given the pervasive presence of corporations in a wide range of activities in our society, and the impact of their actions on a much wider group of people than are affected by individual action, the potential for both economic and physical harm caused by a corporation is great (Law Reform Commission of New South Wales: 2001). Similarly, Russell Mokhiber and Robert Weissman (1999) assert: At one level, corporations develop new technologies and economies of scale. These may serve the economic interests of mass consumers by introducing new products and more efficient methods of mass production. On another level, given the absence of political control today, corporations serve to destroy the foundations of the civic community and the lives of the people who reside in them. == Criminalization == Behavior can be regulated by the civil law (including administrative law) or the criminal law. In deciding to criminalize particular behavior, the legislature is making the political judgment that this behavior is sufficiently culpable to deserve the stigma of being labelled as a crime. In law, corporations can commit the same offences as natural persons. Simpson (2002) avers that this process should be straightforward because a state should simply engage in victimology to identify which behavior causes the most loss and damage to its citizens, and then represent the majority view that justice requires the intervention of the criminal law. But states depend on the business sector to deliver a functioning economy, so the politics of regulating the individuals and corporations that supply that stability become more complex. For the views of Marxist criminology, see Snider (1993) and Snider & Pearce (1995), for Left realism, see Pearce & Tombs (1992) and Schulte-Bockholt (2001), and for Right Realism, see Reed & Yeager (1996). More specifically, the historical tradition of sovereign state control of prisons is ending through the process of privatisation. Corporate profitability in these areas therefore depends on building more prison facilities, managing their operations, and selling inmate labor. In turn, this requires a steady stream of prisoners able to work. (Kicenski: 2002) Bribery and corruption are problems in the developed world, and the corruption of public officials is thought to be a serious problem in developing countries, and an obstacle to development. Edwin Sutherland's definition of white-collar crime also is related to notions of corporate crime. In his landmark definition of white collar crime he offered these categories of crime: Misrepresentation in financial statements of corporations Manipulation in the stock market Commercial bribery Bribery of public officials directly or indirectly Misrepresentation in advertisement and salesmanship Embezzlement and misappropriation of funds Misapplication of funds in receiverships and bankruptcies (O'Grady: 2011). == Corruption and the private sector review == One paper discusses some of the issues that arise in the relationship between the private sector and corruption. The findings can be summarized as follows: They present evidence that corruption induces informality by acting as a barrier to entry into the formal sector. Firms that are forced to go underground operate at a smaller scale and are less productive. Corruption also affects the growth of firms in the private sector. This result seems to be independent of the size of the firm. A channel through which corruption may affect the growth prospects of firms is through its negative impact on product innovation. SMEs pay higher bribes as percentage of revenue compared with large companies and bribery seems to be the main form of corruption affecting SMEs. Bribery is not the only form of corruption affecting large firms. Embezzlement by a company's own employees, corporate fraud, and insider trading can be very damaging to enterprises too. There is evidence that the private sector has as much responsibility for generating corruption as the public sector. Particular situations such as state capture can be very damaging for the economy. Corruption is a symptom of poor governance. Governance can only be improved via coordinated efforts among governments, businesses, civil society. == Organi-cultural deviance == Organi-cultural deviance is a recent philosophical model used in academia and corporate criminology that views corporate crime as a body of social, behavioral, and environmental processes leading to deviant acts. This view of corporate crime differs from that of Edwin Sutherland (1949), who referred to corporate crime as white-collar crime, in that Sutherland viewed corporate crime as something done by an individual as an isolated end unto itself. With the Organi-cultural deviance view, corporate crime can be engaged in by individuals, groups, organizations, and groups of organizations, all within an organizational context. This view also takes into account micro and macro social, environmental, and personality factors, using a holistic systems approach to understanding the causation of corporate crime.: 4 The term derives its meaning from the words organization (a structured unit) and culture (the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices). This reflects the view that corporate cultures may encourage or accept deviant behaviors that differ from what is normal or accepted in the broader society.: 140 Organi-cultural deviance explains the deviant behaviors (defined by societal norms) engaged in by individuals or groups of individuals. Because corporate crime has often been seen as an understudy of common crime and criminology, it is only recently that the study of corporate crime has been included in coursework and degree programs directly related to criminal justice, business management, and organizational psychology. This is partly due to a lack of an official definition for crimes committed in the context of organizations and corporations. The social philosophical study of common crime gained recognition through Cesare Beccaria during the 18th century, when Beccaria was heralded as the Father of the Classical School of Criminology. However, corporate crime was not officially recognized as an independent area of study until Edwin Sutherland provided a definition of white-collar crime in 1949. Sutherland in 1949, argued to the American Sociological Society the need to expand the boundaries of the study of crime to include the criminal act of respectable individuals in the course of their occupation.: 3 In 2008, Christie Husted found corporate crime to be a complex dynamic of system-level processes, personality traits, macro-environmental, and social influences, requiring a holistic approach to studying corporate crime. Husted, in her 2008 doctoral thesis, Systematic Differentiation Between Dark and Light Leaders: Is a Corporate Criminal Profile Possible?, coined the term organi-cultural deviance to explain these social, situational and environmental factors giving rise to corporate crime.: 178 === Application === Renée Gendron and Christie Husted, through their research conducted in 2008-2012, expanded the concept of organi-cultural deviance, in papers presented at the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences conference Toronto, Canada, the American Association of Behavioral and Social Sciences Annual Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada, the General Meeting of the Administrative Sciences Association of Canada, in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and The Humanities conference in Montréal, Canada. The term organi-cultural deviance incorporated the terms group think, and yes-men, to explain decision-related cognitive impairments inherent of corporations engaging in corporate crime. The researchers have found several interconnected dynamics that increase the likelihood of white-collar crime. The researchers have found specific group dynamics involved in white-collar crime are similar to the group dynamics present in gangs, organized crime organizations as well as cults. Moreover, the researchers have found that there are systems-level forces influencing the behaviors and cognitions of individuals. The subject of organi-cultural deviance was first taught in business management, leadership classes, and in a class titled Corporate Misconduct in America, at Casper College during 2008-2009. Organi-cultural deviance was introduced to students as a social philosophical term used to help describe, explain, and understand the complex social, behavioral, and environmental forces, that lead organizations to engage in corporate crime. === Social dynamics === The term organi-cultural deviance was later expanded and published in a 2011 paper titled Socialization of Individuals into Deviant Corporate Culture. Organi-cultural deviance was used to describe how processes of individual and group socialization, within deviant corporate cultures, serve to invert Abraham Maslow's (1954) Hierarchy of Needs into a theoretical "Hierarchical Funnel of Individual Needs". Organi-cultural deviance was further explored by Gendron and Husted, using a micro-environmental approach, identifying social dynamics within deviant organizations believed to lure and capture individuals. However, through the social processes inherent of organi-cultural deviance, social pressures and influences force the individual to vacate aspirations to reach self-actualization and become complacent on satisfying lower needs, such as belongingness. In organi-cultural deviance, social dynamics and micro-environmental forces are believed, by Gendron and Husted, to result in the individual's dependence upon the organization for their basic needs. Organizations engaging in organi-cultural deviance use manipulation and a façade of honesty, with promises of meeting the individual's needs of self-actualization. The social forces such as the use of physical and psychological violence to maintain compliance with organizational goals within deviant organizations secure the individual's dependence upon the organization for satisfaction of their basic needs. As the process of organi-cultural deviance escalates, the complacency to meet mid-level needs becomes a dependency on the organization to satisfy the lower needs of the pyramid, the individual's basic needs. In the paper Using Gang and Cult Typologies to Understand Corporate Crimes, Gendron and Husted found organizations engaging in organi-cultural deviance used coercive power, monetary, physical and/or psychological threats, to maintain their gravitational hold on the individual. In the 2011 paper, Using Gang and Cult Typologies to Understand Corporate Crimes, organi-cultural deviance was used to compare the cultures of: mafias, cults, gangs and deviant corporations, each of which was assumed to be a type of deviant organization. In these types of organizations, organi-cultural deviance was found to be present. In engaging in organi-cultural deviance, these organizations leverage four resources: information, violence, reputation and publicity. These types of organizations engaging in organi-cultural deviance were found to contain toxic leadership. Deviant organizations, engaging in organi-cultural deviance, were found to leverage their reputation through publicity to attract members. The combination of adverse psychological forces, combined with the real need for its employees to survive (earn a living, avoid bullying) act as a type of organizational gravitational pull. The concept of organi-cultural deviance includes both micro (personal, psychological or otherwise internal forces exercising influence over an individual's behavior) and macro influences (group dynamics, organizational culture, inter-organizational forces as well as system pressures and constraints, such as a legal system or overall economic environment). === Environmental influences === In a 2012 paper titled Organi-cultural Deviance: Economic Cycles Predicting Corporate Misconduct?, Gendron and Husted found economic cycles result in strain, seen as a precipitating factor in organi-cultural deviance. Organi-cultural deviance is based on the premise social pressure and economic forces exert strain on organizations to engage in corporate crime. Strain creates motivating tension in organi-cultural deviance. Robert Merton championed strain theorists in the field of criminology, believing there to be "a universal set of goals toward which all Americans, regardless of background and position, strive, chief among these is monetary success". Economic cycles result in observable patterns which are indicative of organi-cultural deviance. Organi-cultural deviance is likely to occur at different points in an economic cycle and system. The specific location of an economy in the economic cycle tends to generate specific kinds of leaders. Entrepreneurial leaders tend to be most visible at the bottom of an economic cycle, during a depression or recession. Entrepreneurial leaders are able to motivate their employees to innovate and develop new products. As the economy strengthens, there is a marked increase of bureaucratic leaders who standardise and operationalise the successes of entrepreneurial leaders. As the economy reaches the apex of the economic cycle, pseudo-transformational leaders are likely to emerge, promising the same, if not higher, rates of return in a booming or peaking economy. Often, these pseudo-transformational leaders engage in deviant practices to maintain the illusion of rising rates of return. == See also == == References == Braithwaite, John. (1984). Corporate Crime in the Pharmaceutical Industry. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Books. ISBN 0-7102-0049-8 Castells, Manuel. (1996). The Rise of the Network Society (The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Volume I.) Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22140-9 Clinard, Marshall B. & Yeager, Peter Cleary. (2005). Corporate Crime. Somerset, NJ: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-4128-0493-0 de Brie, Christian (2000) ‘Thick as thieves’ Le Monde Diplomatique (April)[1] Ermann, M. David & Lundman, Richard J. (eds.) (2002). Corporate and Governmental Deviance: Problems of Organizational Behavior in Contemporary Society. (6th edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513529-6 Friedrichs, David O. (2010). Trusted Criminals: White-collar Crime in Contemporary Society. Friedrichs, David O. (2002). "Occupational crime, occupational deviance, and workplace crime: Sorting out the difference". Criminal Justice, 2, pp243–256. Garland, David (1996), "The Limits of the Sovereign State: Strategies of Crime Control in Contemporary Society", British Journal of Criminology Vol 36 pp445–471. Gobert, J & Punch, M. (2003). Rethinking Corporate Crime, London: Butterworths. ISBN 0-406-95006-7 Kicenski, Karyl K. (2002). The Corporate Prison: The Production of Crime & the Sale of Discipline. [2] Law Reform Commission for New South Wales. Issues Paper 20 (2001) - Sentencing: Corporate Offenders. [3] Lea, John. (2001). Crime as Governance: Reorienting Criminology. [4] Mokhiber, Russell & Weissmann, Robert. (1999). Corporate Predators : The Hunt for Mega-Profits and the Attack on Democracy. Common Courage Press. ISBN 1-56751-158-9 O'Grady, William. Crime in Canadian Context. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 175. Pearce, Frank & Tombs, Steven. (1992). "Realism and Corporate Crime", in Issues in Realist Criminology. (R. Matthews & J. Young eds.). London: Sage. Pearce, Frank & Tombs, Steven. (1993). "US Capital versus the Third World: Union Carbide and Bhopal" in Global Crime Connections: Dynamics and Control. (Frank Pearce & Michael Woodiwiss eds.). Peèar, Janez (1996). "Corporate Wrongdoing Policing" College of Police and Security Studies, Slovenia. [5] Reed, Gary E. & Yeager, Peter Cleary. (1996). "Organizational offending and neoclassical criminology: Challenging the reach of a general theory of crime". Criminology, 34, pp357–382. Schulte-Bockholt, A. (2001). "A Neo-Marxist Explanation of Organized Crime". Critical Criminology, 10 Simpson, Sally S. (2002). Corporate Crime, Law, and Social Control. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Snider, Laureen. (1993). Bad Business: Corporate Crime in Canada, Toronto: Nelson. Snider, Laureen & Pearce, Frank (eds.). (1995). Corporate Crime: Contemporary Debates, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Vaughan, Diane. (1998). "Rational choice, situated action, and the social control of organizations". Law & Society Review, 32, pp23–61. Wells, Celia. (2001). Corporations and Criminal Responsibility (Second Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826793-2 == Further reading == Sutherland, E. (1934). Principles of criminology. Chicago, IL: Yale University Press. == External links == WhiteHouse.gov - 'Corporate Responsibility: The President's Leadership in Combating Corporate Fraud', The White House Farum: Rafter	Wikipedia/Corporate_crime
TV5 Network Inc. Commonly referred to as TV5, is a Philippine media company headquartered in Mandaluyong, Metro Manila. It primarily operates in radio and television broadcasting as well as managing several subsidiaries and affiliates in various media-related ventures. TV5 is owned by MediaQuest Holdings, a subsidiary of PLDT managed through its Beneficial Trust Fund. The company is led by business tycoon Manuel V. Pangilinan. TV5 owns and operates a range of media assets. These include three broadcast television networks: TV5, One Sports, and RPTV; the national radio station 105.9 True FM; and the regional radio network True FM. The company runs two international television channels, Kapatid Channel, and AksyonTV International, and it manages subsidiaries such as the digital terrestrial television provider Sulit TV. Other managed areas include the exclusively sales and marketing agent Media5 and the talent development and management agency MQ Artists Agency. Additionally, TV5 oversees digital and online platforms including MQ Digital, TV5.com.ph, News5 Digital, OneSports.ph, and Kapatid Livestream. == History == === 1960-1972: The birth of ABC === Joaquin "Chino" Roces, owner of The Manila Times, was granted a radio-TV franchise from Congress under Republic Act No. 2945 on June 19, 1960. He then founded the Associated Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), which became the seventh television network in the Philippines when it launched Channel 5 with the call sign DZTM-TV, and established its first studios along Pasong Tamo in Makati in July 1962. ABC operated radio and television services from July 1962 until September 23, 1972, when President Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law. Both ABC and The Manila Times were shut down as a result. === 1990–2003: Revival after the revolution === Led by businessman Edward Tan and Roces’ son Edgardo, a group of new stockholders initiated efforts to restore the network's operations. The Securities and Exchange Commission approved their application to increase capitalization and amend the Articles of Incorporation and bylaws of the Associated Broadcasting Company (ABC). The National Telecommunications Commission (NTC) later granted the group a permit to operate. ABC established its studio complex and transmitter tower in San Bartolome, Novaliches, Quezon City in 1990 and began test broadcasts at the end of 1991. On February 21, 1992, it officially returned to air under the new corporate name, ABC Development Corporation. Its radio counterpart, Kool 106, was launched at the same time. It acquired a new franchise to operate on December 9, 1994 under Republic Act 7831 signed by then-President Fidel V. Ramos. === 2003–2009: The rebranding as TV5 === In October 2003, ABC was acquired by a group led by businessman Antonio "Tonyboy" O. Cojuangco Jr. In 2005, ABC received the Outstanding TV Station award at the KBP Golden Dove Awards, with several other programs on the network also earning honors in their respective categories. In early 2007, ABC implemented a series of budget cuts, primarily directed toward its news department, resulting in the layoff of most of its employees. In 2008, ABC-5 was rebranded as TV5 as it entered a partnership with MPB Primedia Inc, a local company backed by Media Prima Berhad of Malaysia as part of a long-term strategy to make the station more competitive. This caused a large increase in its ratings from 1.9% in July 2008 (before the re-branding) to 11.1% in September 2009. In September 2009, TV5 partnered with Singaporean broadcaster Mediacorp to air a drama series the latter produced, which was dubbed in the Filipino language. === 2009–2016: Acquisition === On October 20, 2009, Media Prima announced that it would be divesting its 70% share in TV5/MPB Primedia and selling it to the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company's broadcasting arm, MediaQuest Holdings, Inc. as the company had incurred losses during the 2008 financial crisis. MediaQuest also acquired Cojuangco-owned ABC Development Corporation and its television stations by the end of the year. The two acquisitions were completed on March 2, 2010, as announced by PLDT chairman Manuel V. Pangilinan who had previously intended to acquire ABC as early as 1999. TV5 was reformatted on April 4, 2010, with a new lineup of programming and branding as the "Kapatid" ("sibling") network. ABC's radio arm Dream FM was retained under Cojuangco management after the latter had transferred its ownership to Interactive Broadcast Media. By July 2011, Dream FM Network was closed, and its Manila station was sold to Ultrasonic Broadcasting System and relaunched as 106.7 Energy FM. Upon acquisition, TV5 expressed interest in acquiring the 27.24% controlling share of Indosiar Karya Media, which operates Indosiar, owned by PLDT affiliate Salim Group to transform the network as the pan-regional multimedia leader in Southeast Asia. The agreement was to be reached by 2011, but it was never completed because Indosiar merged to Surya Citra Media, a subsidiary of Emtek, in 2013. On October 1, 2010, TV5 took over the management of MediaQuest's Nation Broadcasting Corporation stations. DWFM was relaunched as a TV5-branded news radio station on November 8, 2010, and Radyo5 92.3 NewsFM and DWNB-TV were relaunched on February 21, 2011 as AksyonTV a news channel based on TV5's newscast Aksyon. In June 2011, Sports5 began a deal with the state-run Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation to produce sports programming for the network under the brand AKTV. TV5 continued to use IBC-13's Broadcast City facilities for sports events after the block-time deal ended on May 31, 2023, as MediaQuest Holdings was a potential bidder for IBC-13's privatization. In co-ownership with Pilipinas Global Network Ltd. International channels Kapatid TV5 and AksyonTV International were launched in April 2011. The channels were available in Europe, the Middle East, North Africa, Guam, and the United States. TV5 also entered the social media space with an online lifestyle site Kristn.com, a Pinoy online music portal called "Balut Radio", and a news video content site News5 Everywhere. Kristn.com and Balut Radio have been inactive since December 2014. Rey Espinosa stepped down as ABC Development Corporation President and CEO on June 1, 2013, to pursue his new post as associate director of the First Pacific Company Ltd. PLDT's majority owner. He was replaced by Noel C. Lorenzana, the Head of the Individual Business for the PLDT Group. By December 23, 2013, the network had relocated and begun broadcasting from new headquarters, a 6,000 square meter TV5 Media Center located in Reliance, Mandaluyong. This vacated Novaliches complex, which had been in use since 1992, as well as its studios in Delta Theater (Quezon City), Broadway Centrum (New Manila), Marajo Tower (Bonifacio Global City) and the PLDT Locsin Building (Makati). The transmitter and corporate offices of TV5 remained in Novaliches, Quezon City. Phase 1 (News5 Center) was completed on the same day, while Phase 2 of the building (Entertainment Building, now the Launchpad Center) was completed in 2017, it houses TV5, and their sister companies Cignal Digital TV, Voyager Innovations, and Philex Mining. After failure to acquire a stake in GMA Network, TV5's ultimate parent, PLDT increased funding for TV5. PLDT's subsidiary, ePLDT, Inc., invested P6 billion in the form of Philippine Depositary Receipts (PDRs) in MediaQuest to sustain the growth of TV5 as well as affiliate Cignal TV. PLDT also looked to install new platforms and technology that would suit consumers' preferences. TV5 Chairman Manny Pangilinan predicted that TV5 would "break-even" by 2017. In response to the process of shifting to digital terrestrial television, TV5 invested P500-700 million in the next four years in preparation for its shift to digital TV. Currently, TV5 and AksyonTV conduct digital test broadcasts on channels 42 and 51, operated by TV5 affiliates Nation Broadcasting Corporation and Mediascape, respectively. It also plans to convert its UHF stations that operate TV5 and AksyonTV, to DTV transmitters. In December 2014, ABC Development Corporation partnered with Singapore-based studio Brand New Media to launch a multi-channel datacasting service 4ME Philippines. 4ME will feature original content, produced both in the Philippines and internationally, for a network of lifestyle channels covering food, health, fashion, tech, comedy, travel, home, entertainment, celebrity, sport, outdoor adventure, and music. With the domain name TV4ME.ph, 4ME was targeted to launch in 2015, even though Brand New Media had already launched a similar service in Australia, which shut down the following year. In 2015, the company rebranded from ABC Development Corporation to TV5 Network, Inc. TV5 Network, Inc. also launched its digital library of original online content called Digital5, using the company's online portals to produce exclusive programs that compass different audiences on different platforms. On August 3, 2015, TV5 Network, Inc. and Cignal TV tied up with Viva Communications to form an entertainment network called the Sari-Sari Channel (or Sari-Sari Network; SSN) that would air programs and films from both the Viva portfolio and TV5. By October, TV5 partnered with SSN by agreeing to let the latter handle the production of all the entertainment programs of TV5, with Viva's Vic del Rosario Jr. appointed as the network's chief entertainment strategist. The partnership ended in June 2016 due to a lack of success. After President Rodrigo Duterte came into office on June 30, 2016, many news anchors such as Cherie Mercado and Martin Andanar left the network to work for his administration. === 2016–present === On October 1, 2016, Media5 president and former Gilas Pilipinas and PBA head coach Chot Reyes became the network's officer-in-charge, replacing the network's president for four years, Noel Lorenzana, who retired from his position on September 30. In the same year, the network halted production on entertainment programs after it shifted its strategy toward broadcasting American television shows and films dubbed in Filipino, while a deal was made with filmmaker Brillante Mendoza to produce television films and series for the network. Sebastian Duterte, son of Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte, was recruited in January 2017 to star in the unscripted travel show Lakbai for his appeal to the millennial market. By February 2017, more than 100 employees were laid off on short notice, most of whom were members of the ABC Employees Union. On February 17, 2018, TV5 launched its new slogan called "Get It on 5!". Along with the said launch, the network also started its five-brand strategy which consists of News5 (News), ESPN5 (Sports), On5 (Entertainment and other content), D5 Studio (Digital), and the newly revived Studio5 (Films and Originals). By March, the network made a deal with Netflix to stream its new action series Amo, directed by Mendoza, becoming the first Philippine-produced series on the platform. In October 2018, TV5 was acquired by MediaQuest Holdings and discontinued the use of the TV5 Novaliches facilities. On April 22, 2019, TV5 Network was granted a 25-year legislative franchise extension under Republic Act No. 11320, which lapsed into law after 30 days of inaction by President Duterte. The law grants TV5 Network a franchise to construct, install, operate, and maintain, for commercial purposes, radio broadcasting stations and television stations, including digital television systems, with the corresponding facilities such as relay stations, throughout the Philippines. After the retirement of Chot Reyes as TV5's president and CEO, he was replaced by Media5 President (TV5's sales and marketing arm) Jane Basas. On February 4, 2020, Robert P. Galang was appointed as the new president and CEO of TV5 Network and Cignal TV, replacing Basas, who was appointed as the new Chief Marketing Officer of Smart Communications. On August 15, 2020, TV5 Network announced a partnership with its sister company, Cignal TV, to become TV5's main content provider. This focus on the network's programming efforts signaled the willingness of TV5 to compete again with the GMA Network, TV5's longtime rival among other TV networks in the Philippines after the expiration of the congressional franchise of ABS-CBN in May 2020. In 2021, TV5 and rival network ABS-CBN signed a deal that lets ABS-CBN programs to be broadcast in TV5 along with its own shows and also released a new cable channel named BuKo that airs comedy shows which is only available in Cignal. TV5 also released a new digital TV set-top box called Sulit TV which transmits TV5's digital frequencies as well as other available digital channels, competing with ABS-CBN TV Plus and GMA Affordabox. In September of the same year, the University Athletic Association of the Philippines, commonly known as UAAP, inked a deal with Cignal to launch the UAAP Varsity Channel to air UAAP basketball and volleyball events simulcast on TV5 and One Sports. In January 2021, TV5 started broadcasting selected programming produced by ABS-CBN to expand its nationwide reach following the shutdown of the latter's free-to-air network on May 5, 2020. On January 24, the Kapatid network began to simulcast ABS-CBN's Sunday noontime programming block, followed by the addition of the latter's prime time block on March 5, 2021, the noontime show It's Showtime on July 16, 2022, and afternoon block on July 25, 2023. In June 2022, ABS-CBN engaged in advanced talks with TV5's parent company, MediaQuest Holdings to allow its resources combined after Villar Group-backed Advanced Media Broadcasting System acquired ABS-CBN's former frequency, and slated to begin operations in October 2022 as ALLTV-2 and become the flagship station of ALLTV. On August 10, 2022, ABS-CBN and MediaQuest Holdings signed a "convertible note agreement" as announced on the following day for the ABS-CBN's investment into TV5 Network by acquiring 34.99% of the company's common shares, with an option to increase its stake to 49.92% within the next eight years with MediaQuest remained as the TV5's controlling shareholder with 64.79% of TV5's common shares. Meanwhile, MediaQuest Holdings executed a "debt instruments agreement" they will acquire a 38.88% minority stake of ABS-CBN's cable TV arm Sky Cable Corporation through Cignal TV, with an option to acquire an additional 61.12% of Sky Cable shares within the next eight years. After ABS-CBN and TV5 had a partnership deal, the House of Representatives set a briefing and SAGIP Representative Rodante Marcoleta commented that TV5 violated the broadcasting franchise with the ABS-CBN deal. The scheduled briefing scheduled was canceled at the last minute. On August 24, the two broadcasting companies agreed to pause their closing preparations for the deal, following concerns from politicians and some government agencies. On September 1, 2022, both parties announced the termination of the proposed investment. On February 1, 2023, Guido R. Zaballero was appointed president and chief executive officer of TV5 Network. Zaballero, who was previously the product manager of Smart Communications' Talk 'N Text cellular service and the vice president and head of marketing for Cignal TV, assumed the position following the retirement of Robert P. Galang, who headed Cignal TV and TV5 since 2020. Basas has assumed the post of president and CEO of Cignal TV, concurrently with her role as the president and CEO of MediaQuest, the holding company of TV5 and Cignal TV. On April 1, 2023, the high-definition feed of TV5 was launched on Cignal Channel 15 (HD), as announced on March 21, 2023. On April 16, 2023, the main channel switched its airing of aspect ratio quality on the channel feed and its programming to widescreen format (16:9) as opposed to full-screen format (4:3). In June 2023, the comedy trio of Tito Sotto, Vic Sotto, and Joey de Leon (TVJ) signed a "long-term" agreement with TV5's parent company MediaQuest to produce content for TV5 and other MediaQuest properties. On July 1, 2023, TVJ's noontime variety show entitled E.A.T. premiered on TV5 and then eventually returned to its original name of Eat Bulaga! In October 2023, TV5 President Guido Zaballero announced that the broadcast of the PBA games would be transferred to A2Z, with the change in TV5's programming to focus more on entertainment and news programs. That same year, TV5 entered into an acquired agreement with Nine Media Corporation (NMC) to broadcast Eat Bulaga! on Saturdays and select PBA games on Saturday and Sunday, both on CNN Philippines, starting January 6, 2024. On February 1, 2024, following the closure of CNN Philippines, TV5 launched a new free-to-air channel RPTV in partnership with NMC and RPN. On November 4, 2024, TV5 entered an airtime lease with Bright Star Broadcasting Network Corporation for the transfer of its radio division, True FM (formerly Radyo 5) to 105.9 FM. Prior to this, Radyo 5 was on NBC's 92.3 FM from November 8, 2010, to November 3, 2024, until Philippine Collective Media Corporation took over the operations of this frequency and rebranded as Favorite Music Radio. == Broadcast assets == TV5 or simply 5 (formerly known as ABC) is one of the major television networks in the Philippines. Founded on June 19, 1960, it is branded as the Kapatid (Sibling) Network in reference to the company's logo. Its headquarters are at the TV5 Media Center in Mandaluyong and alternative studios at the TV5 Broadcasting Complex in Novaliches, Quezon City. One Sports is a TV5 Network Inc.'s sports channel with Nation Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) as its primary content provider, which aired on its flagship station, UHF channel 41, and was launched on March 8, 2020. One Sports serves as a sports channel for TV5 with its programs primarily produced by its sports division of the same name. It was formerly called 5 Plus, when it was launched on January 13, 2019, and AksyonTV, a Filipino-language news channel launched by TV5 in 2011–2019. It is also available in most satellite and cable TV systems. RPTV is a free-to-air television channel operated by TV5 Network, Inc., a wholly-owned subsidiary of MediaQuest Holdings, Inc. media arm of PLDT Beneficial Trust Fund; on behalf of Nine Media Corporation, the controlling owner of Radio Philippines Network (RPN). True FM (formerly Radyo5) is a collective name for the news/talk FM radio stations of the Nation Broadcasting Corporation. The stations' all-news format is co-branded with News5, the news department of the television channel TV5. The first one to adopt the format is DWFM 92.3 FM on October 1, 2010 (only to be moved to Bright Star-owned DWLA 105.9 MHz in Metro Manila on November 4, 2024, after the former's acquisition by PCMC), followed by DYNC (now DYFM) 101.9 FM Cebu on November 12, 2012, and DXFM 101.9 FM Davao (only to be moved to Interactive Broadcast Media-owned DXET 106.7 MHz in Davao on November 4, 2024, after the former's acquisition by PCMC) on December 3, 2012, with other relay and affiliate stations serving Cagayan de Oro, Tacloban, and Ormoc. Most of the assets containing cable channels and their related content are handled by Cignal TV, TV5 Network's sister company. == Internet and social media == === News5 Digital === News5 Digital (News5.com.ph) (formerly known as News5 Everywhere) is the official news portal, online video and audio content management platform, and Social TV of TV5. It also serves as online and on-demand streaming portal for TV5 and AksyonTV as well as an online citizen journalism portal of News5. === One Sports === One Sports (OneSports.ph) is the official sports webpage of TV5 Network, Inc. in the Philippines, in conjunction with One Sports. Its content draws upon the resources of both local and international sports news. === MQ Digital === MQ Digital, an online programming division of TV5, provides an array of online-exclusive content with various genres that can be viewed on all platforms through the online portals of TV5, One Sports, News5 Digital, and GG Network. === Kapatid Livestream === Kapatid Livestream (formerly known as Kapatid Online) is a web-based channel owned and operated by D5 Studio, a division of TV5 Network Inc., which is owned by MediaQuest Holdings and live streams on Facebook and YouTube. It airs original programming from TV5, One Sports, RPTV, One News, One PH, Sari-Sari Channel, and BuKo and it airs of TV5's classic shows. Live streaming of shows on both platforms is available worldwide. Kapatid Online competed with ABS-CBN's Kapamilya Online Live and GMA Network's Kapuso Stream. Online streaming on TV5's official website and Kapatid Livestream, does not include acquired programming, Viu original, and movie blocks as the live-streaming is only focused on local programming due to copyright restrictions. == International presence == TV5's international presence is overseen by Pilipinas Global Network Ltd. (PGN), a joint subsidiary of TV5 Network Inc. (40%) and its parent the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company (60%), Founded on March 16, 2011, at the British Virgin Islands, it has two subsidiaries of its own, PGN (Canada) Ltd., based in British Columbia, and the PGN (US) LLC., incorporated through the Delaware General Corporation Law and currently based on California. Through these subsidiaries, PGN acts as the sole and exclusive distributor and licensee of the programs, shows, films and channels of TV5 through international syndication and its owned-and-operated channels, the Kapatid TV5 and AksyonTV International. Prior to this, TV5 (formerly ABC-5) aired its programs through an international channel, The Mabuhay Channel, and its counterpart in Canada. The Mabuhay Channel features a wide array of programming from movies, music, sports, entertainment, and current affairs to children's and lifestyle programming from ABC-5 as well as PTV-4, IBC-13, the CCI Asia Group, and Viva Entertainment. It was founded on July 22, 2004, by Philippine Multimedia Systems, Inc. (PMSI), the current operator of Dream Satellite TV and then-sister company of ABC-5(PMSI and ABC-5 are owned by Antonio "Tonyboy" Cojuangco Jr.). It was closed on August 18, 2008, 9 days after ABC-5's rebrand to TV5 and due to the channel's pullout from Dish Network. Kapatid Channel AksyonTV International PBA Rush 105.9 True FM (International) == Defunct services == === AKTV === AKTV was a primetime sports programming block produced by the Sports5 division of TV5 and was aired on the state-run Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation (IBC). Formed by a block time agreement on February 28, 2011, it was launched on June 5, 2011, by an AKTV Run at the SM Mall of Asia in Pasay. Due to high airtime cost and low ratings caused by the impending privatization of IBC, AKTV ceased airing in May 2013 although TV5 continues to use IBC's Broadcast City facilities for its sports programming as TV5's parent, MediaQuest Holdings, has a potential bid for its privatization that was aimed to happen by 2016. MediaQuest could not join the privatization bid due to ownership rules and regulations that MediaQuest owns TV5 and AksyonTV. === Dream FM Network === Dream FM Network was the original radio network of ABC Development Corporation when it was reopened in 1992. With its flagship station DWET 106.7 FM Manila (now airing as Energy FM which is owned by Ultrasonic Broadcasting System), DYET 106.7 FM Cebu (now DYQC 106.7 FM, airing as DWIZ News FM 106.7 under the auspices of Aliw Broadcasting Corporation), and DXET 106.7 FM Davao (now owned by Interactive Broadcast Media and later returned to TV5 as operator lease, currently airing as True FM since November 2024), it undergoes multiple format, including Hot AC, Top 40 hits, Original Pilipino Music and sometimes, Latin music. Upon acquisition of the conglomerate by Antonio "Tonyboy" O. Cojuangco Jr., the radio network flipped its format into a smooth jazz format added up with R&B, Soul, Bossa Nova and House, which remained unchanged after its TV counterpart ABC-5 reformatted in 2008. The radio network was not part of the acquisition of ABC Development Corporation by MediaQuest Holdings in 2010 since the latter has Nation Broadcasting Corporation's FM stations, which later branded to News5 as Radyo5 NewsFM. Dream FM was retained under the Cojuangco management and operated by former ABC stockholder Anton Lagdameo, with Cojuangco already transferred ABC's entire FM stations to Interactive Broadcast Media (IBMI). The majority of Dream FM stations closed in June 2011 as Ultrasonic Broadcasting System acquired the operations of DWET 106.7 FM Manila and reformat on July 1 as Energy FM Manila (Energy FM was formerly on DWKY 91.5 FM, now 91.5 Win Radio). Only DYKP retained its operations as Boracay Beach Radio. === Balut Radio === Balut Radio was an Internet radio service of TV5 Network Inc. Founded on April 1, 2013, it featured OPM and international music channels, as well as news and sports channels powered by News5 as well as radio channels that can be customized by users. In September 2014, Balut Radio ceased operations. === Kristn === Kristn, (kristn.com) also known as Hitlist by Kristn, was an online lifestyle hub of TV5. It featured exclusive content on food & dining, movies, tech & gaming, music & events, men's lifestyle and celebrity features. Active from December 2012 to January 2015, the website was dissolved after the launch of a similar service, TV4ME Philippines. === TV4ME Philippines === TV4ME Philippines was a digital advertorial datacasting service operated under the joint venture of TV5 and Brand New Media, a Singapore-based online content provider. It offered original programs that range from food, health, travel, shopping, motoring, property, business, finance, careers, sports, hobbies, and technology. This service is currently inactive due to financial constraints. === Catsup === Catsup (pronounced as Catch-Up) was a digital-exclusive subchannel of TV5 Network available only in Manila, where its digital signal is being tested. Under test broadcast, it airs re-runs of top-rated programs from TV5 and selected Sports5 coverages. It also aired replays of selected News5 documentaries and classic Filipino movies on weekends. Catsup ceased broadcasting on February 1, 2017, for unknown reasons. === InterAksyon === InterAksyon (interaksyon.com) is an online news portal of TV5 launched in 2011. It features articles and editorials from respected journalists and News5 reporters. The website also developed the TNAV (Traffic Navigator) which features real-time traffic updates from the MMDA. The service was under the management of News5 from its launch until March 31, 2018. Currently, the PhilStar Media Group, another company under MediaQuest, handles the site under its own digital group. === AksyonTV === AksyonTV (Action TV) was a news and sports television network co-owned by TV5 Network and Nation Broadcasting Corporation. Founded on February 21, 2011, AksyonTV's programs comprised a combination of live news reports, documentaries, sports, and current affairs programming. Its existing lineup of programming draws upon TV5's own resources and its news partners. It also aired simulcasts programs of Radyo5 92.3 News FM and news programs of TV5. The channel was shut down on January 12, 2019, and it was replaced by 5 Plus. AksyonTV's sports programs were carried by 5 Plus, while Radyo5 simulcast programs moved to the new stand-alone satellite channel under the Radyo5 brand prior to the launch of One PH, exclusively on Cignal. === 5 Plus === 5 Plus was a commercial sports terrestrial television network co-owned by TV5 Network and Nation Broadcasting Corporation. Named after its parent station, it served as a complementary channel for 5 with its programs primarily produced by ESPN5. 5 Plus was launched on January 13, 2019, replacing AksyonTV, until it ceased its broadcast on March 7, 2020, to give way for One Sports. === ESPN5 === ESPN5 (ESPN5.com) is the official sports webpage of ESPN in the Philippines, in conjunction with One Sports. Its content draws upon the resources of both ESPN (for global articles) and One Sports (for Philippines-originating articles). As early as March 2020, ESPN International did not renew its content partnership agreement with TV5/Cignal, prompting the latter to rebrand its sports channel to One Sports and drop ESPN5-branded programming on its lineup. == Other assets == === Divisions === Cignal Entertainment News5 One News One PH MQ Artists Agency Sports5 MQ Digital ==== MQ Studios ==== Studio5, Inc., doing business as MQ Studios (formerly Studio5) is a Philippine film, television production and distribution company headquartered in Mandaluyong, Philippines It is one of the largest film studios in the Philippines, along with Star Cinema, GMA Pictures, Viva Films and Regal Entertainment. Its films include Lasponggols, Pepot Artista, and Room Boy (2005), Tulad ng Dati (2006), Rosario (2010), Penduko and GomBurZa (2023) and The Kingdom (2024). === Subsidiaries and affiliates === BusinessWorld Cignal TV (Mediascape Inc.) Cignal CignalPlay SatLite Cinegear, Inc. (65.7%) Epik Studios Inc. (35%) Media5 Marketing Corporation (Media5) MQuest Ventures TVJ Productions (51%) WinQuest Productions (51%) Nation Broadcasting Corporation (51%) Straight Shooters The Philippine Star Sari-Sari Network, Inc. (50%) Sulit TV UXS, Inc. (formerly Unitel Productions) (30%) === Corporate social responsibility === Alagang Kapatid Foundation PLDT-Smart Foundation One Meralco Foundation == References == == External links == Media related to TV5 Network Inc. at Wikimedia Commons Official website	Wikipedia/TV5_Network
The Bamboo network (simplified Chinese: 竹网; traditional Chinese: 竹網; pinyin: zhú wǎng) or the Chinese Commonwealth (simplified Chinese: 中文联邦; traditional Chinese: 中文聯邦; pinyin: Zhōngwén liánbāng) is used to conceptualize the links between businesses run by Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia (in a narrower sense with the Min Chinese speaking community). It links the Overseas Chinese business community of Southeast Asia, namely Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, and Myanmar with the economies of Greater China (mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan). Overseas Chinese companies in Southeast Asia are usually managed as family businesses in a centralized bureaucratic manner. In an article in The New York Review of Books, Indian critic Pankaj Mishra called it the "largest economic force in Asia outside of Japan". == Structure == Overseas Chinese businesses in Southeast Asia are usually family owned and managed through a centralized bureaucracy. The businesses are usually managed as family businesses to lower front office transaction costs as they are passed down from one generation to the next. The bulk of these firms typically operate as small and medium-sized businesses. Bamboo networks are also transnational, which means channeling the movement of capital, information, and goods and services can promote the relative flexibility and efficiency between the formal agreements and transactions made by family-run firms. Business relationships are based on the Confucian paradigm of guanxi, the Chinese term for the cultivation of personal relationships as an ingredient for business success. Some Overseas Chinese businessmen include Malaysian dealmaker Robert Kuok, Indonesian banker and retail proprietor Liem Sioe Liong, and his son, financier and money manager Liem Hong Sien in addition to fellow Fuqing native and Salim Group co-founder and investor Liem Oen Kian, Filipino billionaire Henry Sy, and Hong Kong business tycoon Li Ka-shing. Much of the business activity of the bamboo network is centered in the major cities of the region, such as Mandalay, Jakarta, Singapore, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Ho Chi Minh City, Phnom Penh, Vientiane, and Manila. == History == Commercial influence of Chinese traders and merchants in Southeast Asia dates back at least to the third century AD, when official missions by the Han government were dispatched to countries in the Southern Seas. Distinct and stable Overseas Chinese communities became a feature of Southeast Asia by the mid-seventeenth century across major port cities of Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam. More than 1500 years ago, Chinese merchants began to sail southwards towards Southeast Asia in search of trading opportunities and wealth. These areas were known as Nanyang or the Southern Seas. Many of those who left China were Southern Han Chinese comprising the Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hakka and Hainanese who trace their ancestry from the southern Chinese coastal provinces, principally known as Guangdong, Fujian and Hainan. Periods of heavy emigration would send waves of Chinese into Southeast Asia. Unrest and periodic upheaval throughout succeeding Chinese dynasties encouraged further emigration throughout the centuries. By the 12th century, Chinese began permanently settling in Thailand, and by the 13th century, in Cambodia and in Indonesia. In the early 1400s, the Ming dynasty Chinese admiral Zheng He under the Yongle Emperor led a fleet of three hundred vessels around Southeast Asia during the Ming treasure voyages. Since 1500, Southeast Asia has been a magnet for Chinese emigrants where they have strategically developed a bamboo network encompassing an elaborately diverse spectrum of economic activities spread across numerous industries. The Chinese were one commercial minority among many including Indian Gujaratis, Chettiars, Portuguese and Japanese until the middle of the seventeenth century. Subsequently, damage to the rival trade networks the English and Dutch in the Indian Ocean allowed the enterprising Chinese to take over the roles once held by the Japanese in the 1630s. Overseas Chinese populations in Southeast Asia saw a rapid increase following the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 which forced many refugees to emigrate outside of China causing a rapid expansion of the Overseas Chinese bamboo network. === 1997 Asian financial crisis === Governments affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis introduced laws regulating insider trading led to the loss of many monopolistic positions long held by the ethnic Chinese business elite and weakening the influence of the bamboo network. After the crisis, business relationships were more frequently based on contracts, rather than the trust and family ties of the traditional bamboo network. === 21st century === Following the Chinese economic reforms initiated by Deng Xiaoping started in 1978, businesses owned by the Chinese diaspora began to develop ties with companies based in mainland China. With China's entry into the global marketplace and its concurrent global economic expansion since the dawn of the 21st century, the Overseas Chinese community in Southeast Asia have served as a conduit for China's businesses. == References == == Further reading == Chua, Amy (2003). World On Fire. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. ISBN 978-0385721868. Folk, Brian C.; Jomo, K. S. (2003). Ethnic Business: Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia (1st ed.). Routledge (published September 1, 2003). ISBN 978-0415310116. Gambe, Annabelle (2000). Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0312234966. Gomez, Terence (2003). Chinese Business in Southeast Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415326223. Gomez, Terence (2001). Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship. Routledge. ISBN 978-0700714155. Haley, George (1998). New Asian Emperors. Routledge. ISBN 978-0750641302. Hemrit, Maetinee (2010). Beyond the Bamboo Network: The Internationalization Process of Thai Family Business Groups. Stockholm School of Economics. ISBN 978-9172588431. Landa, Janet Tai (2016). Economic Success of Chinese Merchants in Southeast Asia. Springer. ISBN 978-3642540189. Paul Dana, Leo (1999). Entrepreneurship in Pacific Asia: Past, Present & Future. World Scientific Publishing. ISBN 978-9810239299. Rae, Ian (2008). The Overseas Chinese of Southeast Asia: History, Culture, Business. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1403991652. Richter, Frank (1999). Business Networks in Asia: Promises, Doubts, and Perspectives. Praeger. ISBN 978-1567203028. Santasombat, Yos (2017). Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-9811046957. Suryadinata, Leo (1997). Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 981-3055-58-8. Suryadinata, Leo (2012). Southeast Asian Personalities of Chinese Descent: A Biographical Dictionary. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 9789814345217. Tagliacozzo, Eric; Chang, Wen-Chin (2011). Chinese Circulations: Capital, Commodities, and Networks in Southeast Asia. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-9357-3. Tong, Chee-Kiong (2014). Chinese Business: Rethinking Guanxi and Trust in Chinese Business Networks. Springer. ISBN 978-9814451840. Wang, Gungwu (2002). The Chinese Overseas: From Earthbound China to the Quest for Autonomy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674009868. Willmott, William E. (1967). The Chinese in Cambodia. Publications Centre: University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0774844413. Weidenbaum, Murray L.; Hughes, Samuel (1996). The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs Are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia. Free Press. ISBN 978-0684822891. == External links == The Bamboo Network: Asia's Family-run Conglomerates – Strategy + Business January 1, 1998]	Wikipedia/Bamboo_network
GMA Network Inc., commonly known as GMA, is a Philippine media company based in Diliman, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines. GMA is primarily involved in radio and television broadcasting, with subsidiaries dealing in various media-related businesses. The majority of its profits are derived from publicity and marketing incomes associated with television distribution. GMA is formed by the legal name of Global Media Arts. GMA Network was founded on March 1, 1950 by American entrepreneur Robert "Uncle Bob" Stewart as Loreto F. de Hemedes Inc. The company launched its first radio station, DZBB on June 14, 1950. Its first broadcast on television was launched on October 29, 1961, and the television station was known as DZBB Channel 7. In 1974, the company became known as Republic Broadcasting System (RBS) after the triumvirate of Gilberto Duavit Sr., Menardo Jimenez and Felipe Gozon due to the changes in media ownership laws. It then changed its corporate name to GMA Network Inc. on May 16, 1996, when the network identity became GMA Network. The common shares of GMA is a publicly traded company on the Philippine Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol GMA7. == History == The company's roots can be traced back to then Loreto F. de Hemedes Inc., founded by Robert "Uncle Bob" Stewart, an American war correspondent. The company started with the launching of its first AM radio station in Manila through DZBB. It went on air on March 1, 1950, using the frequency of 580 kHz of the AM band, broadcasting from the Calvo Building in Escolta, Manila. Its early radio coverage highlights were the crash of President Ramon Magsaysay's plane in Mount Manunggal; the eruption of Mount Hibok-Hibok and various local elections in the Philippines. DZBB became the first radio station in the Philippines to use telephones for live interviews. Within years since its first broadcasts, the huge triumph of the station and its growing number of listeners made clear the move to modern facilities in EDSA, Quezon City, with the work done in 1959. On October 29, 1961, the company launched its first television station, RBS TV Channel 7 using local VHF channel 7. In 1963, DYSS Television was launched in Cebu. On May 28, 1974, the company was renamed as Republic Broadcasting System Inc. A triumvirate composed of Gilberto Duavit Sr., Menardo Jimenez and Felipe Gozon took over the company from Stewart at the same year. In 1987, GMA became the first Philippine network to broadcast in StereoVision while opening their high-end live studio at Broadway Centrum. In 1988, the network greatly improved its signal by switching to its 777-ft transmitter known as the Tower of Power. In 1992, the Philippine Congress passed a law granting the network to operate for another 25 years. The network launched the Rainbow Satellite, making their programs available nationwide and across Southeast Asia. In 1996, the company changed its corporate identity to GMA Network Inc. On April 21, 2017, Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Republic Act No. 10925, renewing GMA Network's license for another 25 years. The law granted GMA Network Inc. a franchise to construct, install, operate, and maintain radio broadcasting stations and television stations for commercial purposes, including a digital television system. This franchise encompasses the establishment of corresponding facilities such as relay stations throughout the Philippines. == Television == === GMA Network === GMA Network, or simply GMA (Global Media Arts), is a major Philippine commercial television network. Launched on October 29, 1961, GMA Network is also referred to as the "Kapuso Network" in reference to the company's logo. Its headquarters can be found at the GMA Network Center in Quezon City. === GTV === GTV (Good Television) is a Philippine general entertainment channel that aired on its flagship station, UHF channel 27 and was launched on February 22, 2021, replacing GMA News TV. The channel carries news, entertainment and sports programs and it is available in most satellite and cable TV systems. === Heart of Asia === Heart of Asia is a Philippine digital television channel owned by GMA Network Inc. Its programming consisting of Filipino-dubbed Asian films and television series. The channel was initially launched on June 12, 2020, and officially launched on June 29, 2020. === I Heart Movies === I Heart Movies is a movie channel owned by GMA Network Inc. Its programming consisting of films produced and distributed by GMA Pictures. The channel was initially launched on March 25, 2021, and officially launched on April 5, 2021. == International broadcasts == === GMA Pinoy TV === On March 14, 2005, GMA Network Inc. launched its first international channel, GMA Pinoy TV. The channel is targeted toward Filipino communities worldwide. Flagship programs from GMA Network are shown aside from in-house programming. It also syndicates shows. GMA Pinoy TV is available in cities in the United States, Canada, the Middle East, Australia, New Zealand and some parts of Asia and Europe. === GMA Life TV === On February 16, 2008, GMA International launched its second international channel, GMA Life TV. It carries programming from GMA Network and its former lifestyle channel in the Philippines, Q. It also carries new programs broadcast by the news channel, GMA News TV. GMA Life TV is available through cable and satellite television providers worldwide. === GMA News TV === On July 1, 2011, GMA International launched its third international channel, GMA News TV (formerly GMA News TV International). Its programming consisting of news and public affairs programs produced by GMA Integrated News and GMA Public Affairs. The channel is available through cable and satellite television providers worldwide. It is the third international channel of GMA Network Inc. after GMA Pinoy TV and GMA Life TV. == Radio == === DZBB === DZBB, also known as Super Radyo DZBB 594 is the AM radio station of RGMA in Metropolitan Manila, one of GMA Network's subsidiaries. Radio studios are located at 3rd floor of GMA Network Studio Annex, EDSA corner GMA Network Drive, Diliman, Quezon City while its radio transmitter is at Camia St., Brgy. Panghulo, Obando, Bulacan. The station operates 24 hours a day, except on Sundays in where it goes off air from midnight to 03:00 am. Some of the programs of GMA and GTV's Dobol B TV block are simultaneously simulcast on the station. === DWLS === DWLS-FM, also known as Barangay LS 97.1, is the FM radio station of RGMA in Metropolitan Manila, a subsidiary of GMA Network. Its main radio studios are located at the 3rd floor of GMA Network Studio Annex, EDSA corner GMA Network Drive, Diliman, Quezon City and its transmitter is at Tandang Sora Avenue, Barangay Culiat, Quezon City. DWLS is the assigned call letters for the radio station and it was derived from the name of Loreto Stewart, the wife of its founder, Robert La Rue "Uncle Bob" Stewart. == Broadcast facilities == === Tower of Power === In order to strengthen its broadcast signal in Metropolitan Manila and its suburbs, GMA Network Inc. constructed the Tower of Power in the third quarter of 1987. GMA Network, Inc. spent more than PhP168 million to the upgrade its broadcast transmitters and facilities in various key cities in the Philippines. It plans to augment its existing studio facilities in Cebu, Iloilo and Davao. It also plans to upgrade construction of its existing broadcast facilities in Dagupan to further improve its coverage in the northern part of the Philippines. These upgrades include new transmitting equipment, from transmitters to antenna systems and buildings/tower rehabilitation/construction. GMA Network Inc. expects completion of these projects by end 2009. Presented to the Philippine Stock Exchange on January 15, 2009, GMA Network, Inc. discloses that it already disbursed almost PhP1.3 billion from the proceeds of its initial public offering to support various expansion programs in key cities in the Philippines. Expansion includes construction of broadcast facility, tower and transmitter upgrade for its Naga station; broadcast facility and transmitter tower for its Legazpi station; construction of transmitter tower and upgrading its General Santos station; and upgrading broadcast facilities, equipment and transmitter tower in Davao, Cebu, Guimaras, Bacolod, Iloilo, Batangas, Dagupan, Cagayan de Oro and Benguet. === GMA Network Center === GMA Network, Inc. inaugurated its state-of-the-art GMA Network Center on June 14, 2000, as part of the year-round celebration to commemorate its 50th anniversary. GMA Network Center supports GMA Network, Inc.'s thrusts towards digitization and media convergence. While the first phase of the project has already been completed with the construction of the 17-storey corporate complex, the center has an option to upgrade the older, existing facilities in the GMA compound, as originally planned. === GMA Kapuso Center === GMA Kapuso Center is a 3-storey building located on Samar Avenue cor. GMA Network Drive in Quezon City, inside the GMA Complex. It is the main office of GMA Kapuso Foundation, as well as Kapuso Action Center. === GMA Network Studios === The GMA Network Studios consist of seven studios and are named Studios 1-7 (except German Moreno Studio) based on their size. Studio 1 and Studio 4 (formerly known as Studio A and Studio B, respectively) were the first two old studios of GMA Network which is located in the old compound (formerly known as the RBS compound), which is being demolished as of April 2023 to make way for the construction of a new studio building. Studio 2, 3, and 5 are located in GMA Network Center building. The German Moreno Studio (formerly Studio 6) and Studio 7, the largest studios of GMA Network, are located in the GMA Network Studio Annex. Studio 1 was the network's oldest studio which housed the programs of GMA News TV (formerly QTV/Q, now GTV), along with Radio-Television Arts-era programs such as Student Canteen and Weekend with Velez. Studio 2 is their second smallest studio, which houses the GTV noontime newscast, Balitanghali; the defunct afternoon news and magazine show, Dapat Alam Mo!; and State of the Nation. The green screen used on weather reports of GMA Integrated News' programs is also located here. In 2022, the studio was renovated for the Eleksyon 2022, the 2022 Philippine national and local elections coverage of GMA News and Public Affairs. The newly renovated studio was designed by the Emmy award-winning US firm, FX Design Group and uses the latest technology from Vizrt and Red Spy. It features LED video walls, color-changing panels, and an open-floor space. Studio 3 houses is the third smallest studio in the complex. It is the home studio of the Philippines' longest-running morning show, Unang Hirit. On October 2, 2023, the program unveiled its renovated studio set designed by FX Design Group. The current studio set resembles to that of studios 2 and 5, as well as The Today Show's Studio 1A in Rockefeller Center in New York City. Studio 4 was the fourth largest studio in the complex. It was located in the old GMA Building and one of the oldest studios in the complex. It was occupied by the Saturday morning talk and lifestyle show, Sarap, 'Di Ba? as well as Radio-Television Arts / Rainbow Satellite-era programs GMA Supershow and Lunch Date before moving to the Broadway Centrum in 1987. The studio, along with the old GMA building and Studio 1 is being demolished as of April 2023 to make way for the construction of a new studio building. Studio 5 is the third largest studio in the complex. It is one of the most technologically advanced studio in the country. It is equipped with state-of-the-art broadcast equipment like HD video systems, audio systems, and cameras. In 2019, the studio was renovated. The renovation makes the studio equipped with augmented reality (AR) technology and immersive graphics by Vizrt. The studio has large video walls, video floors, and a lot of TV screens used by news programs. GMA's flagship newscasts, 24 Oras and its weekend edition, as well as the late night newscast, Saksi are being broadcast live in this studio. The German Moreno Studio (formerly and still known as Studio 6) has an area of 640 square meters and can accommodate 300 to 400 audiences. Its former tenants include Walang Tulugan with the Master Showman, Startalk, Showbiz Central, Pinoy Records, All-Star K!, and Wowowin. It houses the variety noontime show TiktoClock. Studio 7 is home to various shows of GMA like All-Out Sundays (and its predecessors, SOP, Party Pilipinas, Sunday All Stars, and Sunday PinaSaya), The Boobay and Tekla Show, Bubble Gang, iBilib and most of the reality and game shows produced by the network. Studio 7 has an area of 1,020 square meters and can accommodate 600 to 800 audiences. GMA Network, Inc. takes a significant step in the continuous strengthening and improvement of the network's news department with a P154 million (2.9m USD) investment on a Newsroom Automation System (NAS). A signing of agreement between GMA Network and Vizrt was held on March 14, 2018, at the GMA Network Center in Quezon City. == Digital television == The National Telecommunications Commission (NTC) ordered all broadcasting companies in the Philippines to shut off their analog signal by 11:59 p.m. on December 31, 2015, and switch to digital broadcast. The Philippines will be using the Japanese ISDB-T to facilitate the country's transition to digital television, rather than the ATSC system implemented by North American broadcasters devised as a replacement for the NTSC system utilized by North America and the Philippines. GMA Network is presently applying for a digital television license from the NTC to install and maintain transmitting stations that will be attuned with and utilize to offer digital terrestrial television and digital mobile TV broadcast services, using channel 27 (551.143 MHz) frequency. Areas planned for a temporary digital broadcast will cover the cities of Quezon City, Makati, Pasig, Tagaytay, and Angeles City in Pampanga; and areas like Ortigas, Cavite, and Calumpit in Bulacan. GMA Network, Inc. asked the NTC to reconsider its decision to use the Japanese standard and examine the European digital broadcast system instead. In earlier decisions, the National Telecommunications Commission reaffirmed its resolutions to use ISDB-T and conduct public consultations for its implementing rules and regulations which will be ready by April 2011. On March 27, 2011, the local regulator ordered an evaluation of the standard to be used by the Philippines for digital television and reconsidering the second-generation Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB2) from Europe and replacing the Japanese Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting (ISDB) standard. In February 2013, GMA Network, Inc. was able to conduct digital test broadcast with the ISDB-T standard via its UHF channel 27's frequency. GMA Network was the first television network in the Philippines to broadcast GMA-7 and GMA News TV-11 in standard definition (SD) format with a 4:3 aspect ratio, similar to TV channels in European countries, although the content had been stretched horizontally from its original 4:3 ratio. GMA was also transmitting 1seg on mobile and had no errors. However, in a statement, the network has not conceded its stand to prefer the European DVB-T2 over the Japanese ISDB-T. == Online == === GMA News Online === Established on January 1, 2007, GMA News Online (formerly GMANews.TV) is the official site of GMA Integrated News. It features the latest news coverage, including video reports, as well as business, sports, technology, entertainment and special reports, mobile alerts, newsletters, RSS feeds and real time search. A diverse number of presenters and correspondents maintain blogs on its site and has an archiving database for its news content. A live stream of DZBB, an AM radio station of GMA Network is also available on its website. It also features YouScoop, an interactive section, wherein viewers can upload first-hand footage of news events happening in their area and visitors can also view such footage. Aside from GMA Integrated News content and materials produced, GMA News Online publishes articles and features from several news organizations, including The Associated Press and Reuters wire service. In December 2010, GMANews.TV received one million page views per day. On February 7, 2011, GMANews.TV was renamed to GMA News Online and launched a new logo and slogan, “The Go-to Site For Filipinos Everywhere”; and retain its uniform resource locator, www.gmanews.tv to correspond with the launching of its all-news channel, GMA News TV. === myGMA Internet TV === On September 12, 2008, GMA Network, Inc. launched its first video-on-demand service through myGMA Internet TV. Focusing on Filipino communities, it offers high-quality programs from GMA Network. It is an alternative to Filipino communities who does not have the access of cable TV and direct-to-home subscriptions. myGMA Internet TV competed with ABS-CBN’s TFC.tv (now iWantTFC). Currently, myGMA Internet TV is inactive. The service was replaced by Kapuso Stream. === Kapuso Stream === Kapuso Stream is a web-based channel owned and operated by GMA New Media, a subsidiary of GMA Network Inc., that launched on June 20, 2022, and livestreams on Facebook and YouTube. It airs original programming from GMA and GTV, as well as a simulcast of ABS-CBN Studios' It's Showtime along with AMBS' All TV and Pinoy Big Brother: Celebrity Collab Edition. Livestreaming of shows on both platforms are available worldwide. Kapuso Stream primarily competes with ABS-CBN's Kapamilya Online Live and TV5's Kapatid Livestream. Online streaming on GMA Network's official website and Kapuso Stream, does not include acquired programming, Viu original and movie blocks as the live-streaming is only focused on local programming due to copyright restrictions. == Joint ventures == === Philippine Entertainment Portal (PEP) === Philippine Entertainment Portal Inc., a joint venture between GMA New Media Inc. and Summit Media, operates Philippine Entertainment Portal (PEP) and Sports Interactive Network (SPIN). === Kapuso JobMarket === Partnerships of GMA Network Inc., the Philippine Daily Inquirer, INQ7 Interactive Inc. and New Media Inc. The Kapuso JobMarket aims to provide convenience for job seekers by creating another online service that will help them search for employment opportunities using their mobile phones. === Q === Q was a partnership between GMA Network Inc. and ZOE Broadcasting Network. The television channel previously aired foreign dramas, lifestyle shows and public affairs programming. The channel ceased commercial operation on February 20, 2011, to give way to its sister channel, GMA News TV. == Defunct channels == === INQ7.net === GMA Network Inc. partnered with the Philippine Daily Inquirer, one of Philippines' daily broadsheets to venture in an online multimedia news and information delivery company, INQ7 Interactive Inc. Its main business offers text, images, audio, video and online interactive information tools such as discussion boards, polls and searchable news archives. The partnership also paved the way the creation of a joint web site, the inq7.net and in recent reports, its ranks no. 11 in the most read online newspaper worldwide. In January 2007, GMA Network, Inc. and Philippine Daily Inquirer ended their partnership and GMA Network Inc. focused on to its owned consent site, the GMA News Online (formerly known as GMANews.TV). === GMA News TV (Philippines) === The domestic counterpart of GMA News TV was a Philippine news and lifestyle-oriented channel that was launched on February 28, 2011, and was aired on local UHF channel 27 and formerly VHF channel 11 through its blocktime agreement with ZOE Broadcasting Network until June 3, 2019. On February 21, 2021, GMA News TV stopped its broadcast operations to give way for GTV the following day. It was generally watched as a free-to-air news and lifestyle-oriented channel in the Philippines. === Q (Quality Television) === On November 11, 2005, GMA Network, Inc. entered an airtime agreement with ZOE Broadcasting Network to use DZOE-TV channel 11 for its local lifestyle channel, Q (formerly QTV, Quality Television). Most of Q's programming consists of foreign dramas, reality and lifestyle shows. On February 20, 2011, Q ceased commercial operation to give way to GMA News TV. === Channel [V] Philippines === On December 15, 1999, STAR TV Network leased the airtime of Citynet to launch Channel V Philippines through EMC (Entertainment Music Channel). Part of the strategy is to localize Channel V with programs produced locally by STAR TV Network and GMA Network Inc. === EMC (Entertainment Music Channel) === In 1999, Entertainment Music Channel or EMC is the first music channel of GMA Network Inc. after its UHF station, Citynet Television was rebranded due to high programming cost and stiff competition from free-to-air UHF TV channels. The music channel only lasted months after GMA Network Inc. signed a leased broadcast agreement with STAR TV Network to transmit a localize music television station, Channel [V] Philippines. === Citynet Television === On August 27, 1995, GMA Network Inc. inaugurate its first ultra-high-frequency channel through DWDB-TV channel 27 in Metropolitan Manila. It was the first UHF television channel operated by a major broadcast network in the Philippines. GMA Network Inc. launches its new channel under the Citynet Television brand and decided to expand its local programming business. Studios are located at the GMA Network Center in Quezon City. In April 1999, Citynet Television ceased its commercial operation and later on reformatted into a local music channel. === CGMA === On February 1, 1993, GMA Network Inc. ventured into cable television via CGMA, is a 24 hour cable channel available on Home Cable, Sky Cable and Destiny Cable. It broadcast defunct and previously aired shows on GMA Network from 1980–2000. Eventually, CGMA ceased its commercial operation on July 25, 2001 when Home Cable and Destiny Cable entered into a memorandum of agreement to consolidate the operation of its company with Sky Cable's parent company Sky Cable Corporation, a subsidiary of ABS-CBN Corporation, GMA Network Inc.'s main competitor. GMA didn't have its own cable channel until 2005 with the launch of GMA Pinoy TV, but unlike CGMA, GMA Pinoy TV (and its sister channels) only caters to international audiences. === Fox Filipino === Fox Filipino was an archive entertainment cable television channel launched on March 1, 2012. It featured Filipino-produced programming from GMA Network and Filipino movies from GMA Pictures, entries from the Cinemalaya Philippine Independent Film Festival, selected Asian and Hollywood movies, and selected foreign programming dubbed in Filipino language. After 8 years of broadcasting, Fox Networks Group announced that Fox Filipino would cease broadcast on July 7, 2020, as GMA and TV5 archived content were moved to GMA's digital television channels, Heart of Asia, Pinoy Hits and Cignal-run satellite channel, One Screen, respectively. === Hallypop === Hallypop was the Philippine version of the U.S.-based Asian pop culture digital channel, operating under a licensed branding agreement with Jungo TV. The joint venture between both parties was established in 2019, leading to the channel's initial launch on September 6, 2020, and its official launch on September 20, 2020. It ceased operations on September 20, 2024 alongside its sister channel Pinoy Hits. === Pinoy Hits === Pinoy Hits (lit. 'filipino hits') was a Philippine digital television channel owned by GMA Network Inc. Its programming consisting of classic television programs produced by GMA Entertainment Group, GMA Integrated News and GMA Public Affairs, also include simulcasts programming from GMA Network and GTV. The channel was initially launched on January 2, 2023, and officially launched on January 16, 2023. Pinoy Hits competed with ABS-CBN's Jeepney TV. It ceased operations on September 20, 2024 alongside its sister channel Hallypop. == Executive management == Felipe L. Gozon (chairman and adviser of the board; Chairman of the Programming Committee) Gilberto Duavit Jr. (president, chief executive officer, chief operating officer; Vice Chairman of the Programming Committee) Felipe S. Yalong (chief financial officer, EVP for Corporate Services Group, corporate treasurer, director) Jose Marcelo G. Jimenez (Board Member; Chairman of the Executive Committee) Anna Theresa “Annette” M. Gozon-Valdes (Board Secretary, Board Member, Senior Vice President for Talent Management Development, Program Management, Human Resources Department, Legal Department, Worldwide Department and other subsidiaries) Judith Duavit-Vasquez (Board Member) Laura J. Westfall (Board Member) Artemio Panganiban (Board Member and Independent Director) Cheryl Ching-Sy (Officer-in-charge for Entertainment Group and Vice President for Drama) Oliver Victor B. Amoroso (Senior Vice President and Head of GMA Integrated News, Regional TV and Synergy) Nessa S. Valdellon (Senior vice president for Public Affairs, Executive Vice President, GMA Pictures) Joy C. Marcelo (First vice president for Sparkle, GMA Artist Center) Ralph Jasper Jose (First Vice President for Radio Operations Group) Ayahl Ari Augusto P. Chio (vice president for investor relations and compliance) Eduardo P. Santos, CPA (Compliance Officer and Internal Auditor) Roberto O. Parel (corporate secretary) Lizelle G. Maralag (Chief Marketing Officer) Elvis B. Ancheta (Senior Vice President for Engineering) Ronaldo P. Mastrili (Senior Vice President for Finance and ICT) Regie C. Bautista (Senior Vice President for Corporate Strategic Planning and Business Development and Concurrent Chief Risk Officer and Head of Program Support) == Assets == === Divisions === ==== GMA Entertainment Group ==== The entertainment division of the company that produces drama, comedy, reality, variety, game, and talk shows. It is currently headed by its Senior Vice President Lilybeth G. Rasonable. BDD I - Drama Productions BDD II - Comedy/Infotainment/Game & Reality Productions BDD III - Talk/Musical Variety/Specials and Alternative Productions ==== GMA Integrated News ==== The news division of the company that generates news output for GMA Network's television, radio, and digital media platforms. The division is headed by Senior Vice President Oliver Victor B. Amoroso, who also the SVP of GMA Regional TV. Under Amoroso's leadership, GMA News was rebranded as GMA Integrated News, integrating the newsrooms of GMA News Manila, GMA News Online, and GMA Regional TV. GMA News Manila GMA News Online GMA Regional TV GMA Integrated News Sports (GMA Sports PH) GMA Integrated News Research GMA Integrated News Weather Center (formerly IMReady) Balita Ko (formerly YouScoop) === GMA Regional TV === The regional division of the company that operates all GMA Network and GTV stations except GMA Manila and GTV Manila. It also produces local newscasts for 6 areas/regions in the country. The division is also headed by SVP Oliver Victor B. Amoroso. 52 GMA Network stations + DZBB-TV Channel 7 (GMA Manila) 26 GTV stations + DWDB-TV Channel 27(GTV Manila) 24 digital television stations + DZBB-TV Channel 15 (GMA Manila) ==== Synergy: A GMA Collaboration ==== Synergy: A GMA Collaboration, also known as Synergy, is a division under GMA Regional TV that handles sports partnerships and production, concerts, non-ticketed events, and synergy for GMA. It is known for the coverage of NCAA Philippines, Limitless: A Musical Trilogy, and the first virtual reality concert, Alden's Reality. ==== GMA International ==== The international division of GMA Network that operates and distributes international channels in more than 150 countries and territories worldwide. In 2023, GMA Network Inc. and ABS-CBN International (a division of ABS-CBN Corporation) collaborated to air GMA Pinoy TV, GMA Life TV, GMA News TV, and some GMA On Demand programs on IWantTFC. GMA Pinoy TV GMA Life TV GMA News TV GMA On Demand Super Radyo DZBB (international) Barangay LS 97.1 (international) ==== GMA Public Affairs ==== A division of GMA Network that produces primarily public affairs, documentary, lifestyle, news magazine, and travel programs but now expanded in entertainment programs and film production. It is the most-awarded (along with GMA Integrated News) producer in the Philippines earning 4 George Foster Peabody Award and lot of local and international awards. It is currently headed by Nessa S. Valdellon. It is known for I-Witness, Kapuso Mo, Jessica Soho, Unang Hirit, and the 2023 MMFF award-winning film, Firefly. ==== GMA Worldwide ==== A former subsidiary of the company which known as GMA Worldwide (Philippines) Inc. that became a division of the network that is responsible for licensing and distribution of the network's produced programs, as well as acquisition of programs from other countries. It has licensed over 100 titles in more than 26 countries worldwide at present. ==== Sparkle GMA Artist Center ==== The talent management division of the company founded on August 12, 1995. Its artists include Miguel Tanfelix, Barbie Forteza, and Heart Evangelista. === Subsidiaries === GMA New Media Inc. NMI Solutions NMI Studios MediaMerge Corporation GMA News Online GMA Network Portal Kapuso Stream Philippine Entertainment Portal Inc. (50%) PEP.ph SPIN.PH (Sports Interactive Network Philippines) GMA Affordabox GMA Now GMA Network Films Inc. (GMA Pictures) Backyard Productions GMA Productions Inc. (GMA Music) GMA Playlist AltG Records Spotlight Music Sessions Citynet Network Marketing and Productions Inc. Script2010 Inc. DWDB-TV Alta Productions Group Inc. GMA Ventures Inc. === Affiliates === RGMA Network Inc. (GMA Radio) (49%) Super Radyo DZBB 594khz Barangay LS 97.1 Super Radyo Nationwide Barangay FM Mont-Aire Realty and Development Corp. (49%) === Corporate social responsibility === GMA Kapuso Foundation Kapwa Ko Mahal Ko Foundation GMA Action Center == References == == External links == Official website Media Ownership Monitor Philippines – Media Companies: A Duopoly Rules by VERA Files and Reporters Without Borders	Wikipedia/GMA_Network_(company)
Conglomerate discount is an economic concept describing a situation when the market values a diversified group of businesses and assets at less than the sum of its parts. The explanation of this phenomenon comes from a conglomerate's inability to manage various and different businesses as well as do focused companies. Therefore, the market penalizes a multi-division firm and attaches a lower multiple to its earnings and cash flows, thus creating the discount. However, the opposite concept, called conglomerate premium, also exists. == Developed vs emerging markets == In the developed economies, the average value of the discount may be 13–15% relative to single-segment competitors. Because of the discount, conglomerates have become much less common in the developed markets than they once were. Only several star performers, such as Berkshire Hathaway, have managed to escape the market’s critical assessment of overdiversification. However, conglomerates are still common in a number of emerging markets. The conglomerate discount is substantially bigger in the U.S. and Western Europe than is in Asian countries. This situation may be explained by the fact that in Asian countries a big conglomerate with political connections and an understanding of how to operate in a difficult market can spread its expertise across many industries. In fact, there is a conglomerate premium of 10.9% in Latin America, according to Citigroup. This may be the reason why, in some markets, conglomerates are becoming even larger and more diversified. For example, Samsung Electronics is moving into pharmaceuticals. == Calculation == The conglomerate discount is usually calculated by adding estimations of the intrinsic values of each of the subsidiary companies in a conglomerate and subtracting the conglomerate's market capitalization from that sum. See Sum-of-the-parts analysis. == Deconglomeration == Deconglomeration and focusing on one or a few businesses via various corporate restructurings may remove such discount and get better value recognition for each of the parts and may also help each business pursue independent strategies. Therefore, identifying and removing a conglomerate discount may be a profitable investment strategy. Recent examples of Deconglomeration in the US include ITT, Motorola, Fortune Brands, Marathon Oil, Genworth, and Sara Lee Corporation. The results have generally been quite positive. For example, ITT’s shares went up by some 11% on the breakup announcement, creating roughly $1B in value. == See also == == References == == External links == Conglomerate Discount or Premium? Holding structure – from Conglomerate Discount to Management Value Added	Wikipedia/Conglomerate_discount
Corporate titles or business titles are given to corporate officers to show what duties and responsibilities they have in the organization. Such titles are used by publicly and privately held for-profit corporations, cooperatives, non-profit organizations, educational institutions, partnerships, and sole proprietorships that also confer corporate titles. == Variations == There are considerable variations in the composition and responsibilities of corporate titles. Within the corporate office or corporate center of a corporation, some corporations have a chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) as the top-ranking executive, while the number two is the president and chief operating officer (COO); other corporations have a president and CEO but no official deputy. Typically, senior managers are "higher" than vice presidents, although many times a senior officer may also hold a vice president title, such as executive vice president and chief financial officer (CFO). The board of directors is technically not part of management itself, although its chairman may be considered part of the corporate office if he or she is an executive chairman. A corporation often consists of different businesses, whose senior executives report directly to the CEO or COO, but that depends on the form of the business. If organized as a division then the top manager is often known as an executive vice president (EVP). If that business is a subsidiary which has considerably more independence, then the title might be chairman and CEO. In many countries, particularly in Europe and Asia, there is a separate executive board for day-to-day business and supervisory board (elected by shareholders) for control purposes. In these countries, the CEO presides over the executive board and the chairman presides over the supervisory board, and these two roles will always be held by different people. This ensures a distinction between management by the executive board and governance by the supervisory board. This seemingly allows for clear lines of authority. There is a strong parallel here with the structure of government, which tends to separate the political cabinet from the management civil service. In the United States and other countries that follow a single-board corporate structure, the board of directors (elected by the shareholders) is often equivalent to the European or Asian supervisory board, while the functions of the executive board may be vested either in the board of directors or in a separate committee, which may be called an operating committee (J.P. Morgan Chase), management committee (Goldman Sachs), executive committee (Lehman Brothers), executive council (Hewlett-Packard), or executive board (HeiG) composed of the division/subsidiary heads and senior officers that report directly to the CEO. === United States === State laws in the United States traditionally required certain positions to be created within every corporation, such as president, secretary and treasurer. Today, the approach under the Model Business Corporation Act, which is employed in many states, is to grant corporations discretion in determining which titles to have, with the only mandated organ being the board of directors. Some states that do not employ the MBCA continue to require that certain offices be established. Under the law of Delaware, where most large US corporations are established, stock certificates must be signed by two officers with titles specified by law (e.g. a president and secretary or a president and treasurer). Every corporation incorporated in California must have a chairman of the board or a president (or both), as well as a secretary and a chief financial officer. Limited liability company (LLC)-structured companies are generally run directly by their members, but the members can agree to appoint officers such as a CEO or to appoint "managers" to operate the company. American companies are generally led by a CEO. In some companies, the CEO also has the title of "president". In other companies, a president is a different person, and the primary duties of the two positions are defined in the company's bylaws (or the laws of the governing legal jurisdiction). Many companies also have a CFO, a COO and other senior positions such as chief legal officer (CLO), chief strategy officer (CSO), chief marketing officer (CMO), etc. that report to the president and CEO. The next level, which are not executive positions, is middle management and may be called "vice presidents", "directors" or "managers", depending on the size and required managerial depth of the company. === United Kingdom === In British English, the title of managing director is broadly synonymous with that of chief executive officer. Managing directors do not have any particular authority under the Companies Act in the UK, but do have implied authority based on the general understanding of what their position entails, as well as any authority expressly delegated by the board of directors. === Japan and South Korea === In Japan, corporate titles are roughly standardized across companies and organizations; although there is variation from company to company, corporate titles within a company are always consistent, and the large companies in Japan generally follow the same outline. These titles are the formal titles that are used on business cards. Korean corporate titles are similar to those of Japan. Legally, Japanese and Korean companies are only required to have a board of directors with at least one representative director. In Japanese, a company director is called a torishimariyaku (取締役) and a representative director is called a daihyō torishimariyaku (代表取締役). The equivalent Korean titles are isa (이사, 理事) and daepyo-isa (대표이사, 代表理事). These titles are often combined with lower titles, e.g. senmu torishimariyaku or jōmu torishimariyaku for Japanese executives who are also board members. Most Japanese companies also have statutory auditors, who operate alongside the board of directors in supervisory roles. Under the commercial code in Japan, Jugyōin (従業員) meaning the "employee", is different from Kaishain (会社員), meaning the "stockholders". The typical structure of executive titles in large companies includes the following: The top management group, comprising jomu/sangmu and above, is often referred to collectively as "cadre" or "senior management" (幹部 or 重役; kambu or juyaku in Japanese; ganbu or jungyŏk in Korean). Some Japanese and Korean companies have also adopted American-style titles, but these are not yet widespread and their usage varies. For example, although there is a Korean translation for "chief operating officer" (최고운영책임자, choego unyŏng chaegimja), not companies have yet adopted it with the exception of a few multi-nationals such as Samsung and CJ (a spin-off from Samsung), while the CFO title is often used alongside other titles such as bu-sajang (SEVP) or Jŏnmu (EVP). Since the late 1990s, many Japanese companies have introduced the title of shikkō yakuin (執行役員) or 'officer', seeking to emulate the separation of directors and officers found in American companies. In 2002, the statutory title of shikkō yaku (執行役) was introduced for use in companies that introduced a three-committee structure in their board of directors. The titles are frequently given to buchō and higher-level personnel. Although the two titles are very similar in intent and usage, there are several legal distinctions: shikkō yaku make their own decisions in the course of performing work delegated to them by the board of directors, and are considered managers of the company rather than employees, with a legal status similar to that of directors. Shikkō yakuin are considered employees of the company that follow the decisions of the board of directors, although in some cases directors may have the shikkō yakuin title as well. == Senior management == The highest-level executives in senior management usually have titles beginning with "chief" and ending with "officer", forming what is often called the "C-suite", or "CxO", where "x" is a variable that could be any functional area (not to be confused with CXO). The traditional three such officers are CEO, COO, and CFO. Depending on the management structure, titles may exist instead of, or be blended/overlapped with, other traditional executive titles, such as president, various designations of vice presidents (e.g. VP of marketing), and general managers or directors of various divisions (such as director of marketing); the latter may or may not imply membership of the board of directors. Certain other prominent positions have emerged, some of which are sector-specific. For example, chief audit executive (CAE), chief procurement officer (CPO) and chief risk officer (CRO) positions are often found in many types of financial services companies. Technology companies of all sorts now tend to have a chief technology officer (CTO) to manage technology development. A chief information officer (CIO) oversees information technology (IT) matters, either in companies that specialize in IT or in any kind of company that relies on it for supporting infrastructure. Many companies now also have a chief marketing officer (CMO), particularly mature companies in competitive sectors, where brand management is a high priority. A chief value officer (CVO) is introduced in companies where business processes and organizational entities are focused on the creation and maximization of value. Approximately 50% of the S&P 500 companies have created a chief strategy officer (CSO) in their top management team to lead strategic planning and manage inorganic growth, which provides a long range perspective versus the tactical view of the COO or CFO. This function often replaces a COO on the C-Suite team, in cases where the company wants to focus on growth rather than efficiency and cost containment. A chief administrative officer (CAO) may be found in many large complex organizations that have various departments or divisions. Additionally, many companies now call their top diversity leadership position the chief diversity officer (CDO). However, this and many other nontraditional and lower-ranking titles are not universally recognized as corporate officers, and they tend to be specific to particular organizational cultures or the preferences of employees. === Specific corporate officer positions === Chairman of the board – presiding officer of the corporate board of directors. The chairman influences the board of directors, which in turn elects and removes the officers of a corporation and oversees the human, financial, environmental and technical operations of a corporation. The CEO may also hold the title of "chairman", resulting in an executive chairman. In this case, the board frequently names an independent member of the board as a lead director. The C-suite is normally led by the CEO. Executive chairman – the chairman's post may also exist as an office separate from that of CEO, and it is considered an executive chairman if that titleholder wields influence over company operations, such as Vince McMahon of WWE, Steve Case of AOL Time Warner, and Douglas Flint of HSBC. In particular, the group chairmanship of HSBC is considered the top position of that institution, outranking the chief executive, and is responsible for leading the board and representing the company in meetings with government figures. Prior to the creation of the group management board in 2006, HSBC's chairman essentially held the duties of a chief executive at an equivalent institution, while HSBC's chief executive served as the deputy. After the 2006 reorganization, the management cadre ran the business, while the chairman oversaw the controls of the business through compliance and audit and the direction of the business. Non-executive chairman – also a separate post from the CEO, unlike an executive chairman, a non-executive chairman does not interfere in day-to-day company matters. Across the world, many companies have separated the roles of chairman and CEO, often resulting in a non-executive chairman, saying that this move improves corporate governance. Chief business officer is a corporate senior executive who assumes full management responsibility for the company's deal making, provides leadership and executes a deal strategy that will allow the company to fulfill its scientific/technology mission and build shareholder value, provides managerial guidance to the company's product development staff as needed. Chief of staff is a corporate director level manager who has overall responsibility for the staff activity within the company who often would have responsibility of hiring and firing of the highest level managers and sometimes directors. They can work with and report directly to managing directors and the chief executive officer. Commissioner Financial control officer, FCO or FC, also comptroller or controller – supervises accounting and financial reporting within an organization Director or member of a board of directors – high-level official with a fiduciary responsibility of overseeing the operation of a corporation and elects or removes officers of a corporation; nominally, directors, other than the chairman are usually not considered to be employees of the company per se, although they may receive compensation, often including benefits; in publicly held companies. A board of directors is normally made up of members (directors) who are a mixture of corporate officials who are also management employees of the company (inside directors) and persons who are not employed by the company in any capacity (outside directors or non-executive directors). In privately held companies, the board of directors often only consists of the statutory corporate officials, and in sole proprietorship and partnerships, the board is entirely optional, and if it does exist, only operates in an advisory capacity to the owner or partners. Non-profit corporations' governing board members may be called directors like most for-profit corporations, or an alternative like trustees, governors, etc. Director – a manager of managers within an organization who is often responsible for a major business function and who sometimes reports to a vice president (in some financial services companies the title vice president has a different meaning). Often used with name of a functional area; finance director, director of finance, marketing director, and so on. Not to be confused with a member of the board of directors, who is also referred to as a director. This is a middle management and not an executive level position, unless it is in the banking industry. Alternatively, a manager of managers is often referred to as a "senior manager' or as an "associate vice president", depending upon levels of management, and industry type. President – legally recognized highest "titled" corporate officer, and usually a member of the board of directors. There is much variation; often the CEO also holds the title of president, while in other organizations if there is a separate CEO, the president is then second highest-ranking position. In such a case the president is often the COO and is considered to be more focused upon daily operations compared to the CEO, who is supposed to be the visionary. If the corporate president is not the COO (such as Richard Parsons of Time Warner from 1995 to 2001), then many division heads report directly to the CEO themselves, with the president taking on special assignments from the CEO. Secretary or company secretary – legally recognized "titled" corporate officer who reports to the board of directors and is responsible for keeping the records of the board and the company. This title is often concurrently held by the treasurer in a dual position called secretary-treasurer; both positions may be concurrently held by the CFO. Note, however, that the secretary has a reporting line to the board of directors, regardless of any other reporting lines conferred by concurrent titles. Treasurer – legally recognized corporate officer entrusted with the fiduciary responsibility of caring for company funds. Often this title is held concurrently with that of secretary in a dual role called secretary-treasurer. It can also be held concurrently with the title of CFO or fall under the jurisdiction of one, though the CFO tends to oversee the finance department instead, which deals with accounting and audits, while the treasurer deals directly with company funds. Note, however, that the treasurer has a reporting line to the board of directors, regardless of any other reporting lines conferred by concurrent titles. Superintendent Owner (sometimes proprietor or sole proprietor, for sole proprietorships) Partner – Used in many different ways. This may indicate a co-owner as in a legal partnership or may be used in a general way to refer to a broad class of employees or temporary/contract workers who are often assigned field or customer service work. Associate is often used in a similar way. Vice chair or vice chairman – officer of the board of directors who may stand in for the chairman in his or her absence. However, this type of vice chairman title on its own usually has only an advisory role and not an operational one (such as Ted Turner at Time Warner). An unrelated definition of vice chair describes an executive who is higher ranking or has more seniority than executive vice president. Sometimes, EVPs report to the vice chair, who in turn reports directly to the CEO (so vice chairs in effect constitute an additional layer of management), other vice chairs have more responsibilities but are otherwise on an equal tier with EVPs. Executive vice chairman are usually not on the board of directors. Royal Bank of Canada previously used vice chairs in their inner management circle until 2004 but have since renamed them as group heads. == List of chief officer (CO) titles == == Middle management == Supervisor Foreman General manager or GM Manager Of counsel – A lawyer working on a part-time or temporary basis for a company or law firm. Vice president – Middle or upper manager in a corporation. They often appear in various hierarchical layers such as executive vice president, senior vice president, associate vice president, or assistant vice president, with EVP usually considered the highest and usually reporting to the CEO or president. Many times, corporate officers such as the CFO, COO, CSO, CIO, CTO, secretary, or treasurer will concurrently hold vice president titles, commonly EVP or SVP. Vice presidents in small companies are also referred to as chiefs of a certain division, such as vice president for finance, or vice president for administration. In some financial contexts, the title of vice president is actually subordinate to a director. == See also == Corporate liability Identification with corporation International Executive Resources Group List of corporate titles Outline of management == References == == External links == Taking Stock - Corporate Execs Get Scammed, Federal Bureau of Investigation	Wikipedia/Corporate_title
Canadian corporate law concerns the operation of corporations in Canada, which can be established under either federal or provincial authority. Federal incorporation of for-profit corporations is governed by Corporations Canada under the Canada Business Corporations Act. All of the Canadian provinces and territories also have laws permitting (and governing) the incorporation of corporations within their area of jurisdiction. Often, the choice of whether to incorporate federally or provincially will be based on many business considerations, such as scope of business and the desire for application of particular rules which may be available under one corporate statute but not another. == History == Prior to Canadian Confederation, companies were organized through several procedures: through contract as a partnership or unincorporated company through royal charter, as was done for the Hudson's Bay Company through an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, as for the Canada Company by an Act of the local legislature formation as a joint stock company without limited liability under the laws of the applicable colony (first introduced in Lower Canada in 1849 for limited purposes, extended to other types of business in the Province of Canada in 1850) Before 1862, limited liability was the exception, being conferred on specific companies through royal charter or special Act. When it was introduced into UK company law by the Companies Act 1862 as a matter of general application, the Canadian colonies introduced legislation to enable the same locally. Upon Confederation, s. 92(11) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gave provinces jurisdiction over "Incorporation of Companies with Provincial Objects." The judicial construction of this phrase has been the subject of several significant cases in the courts, and most notably at the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council: In 1881, in Citizen's Insurance Co. v. Parsons, it was held that the Parliament of Canada had authority to incorporate companies with objects of greater scope. In 1914, in John Deere, it was held that the provinces could not interfere with a federally incorporated company by requiring them to be registered locally in order to conduct business. In 1916, in Bonanza Creek, it was held that "provincial objects" did not restrict a company's operations to the province of incorporation, so long as it was licensed or registered to operate in another jurisdiction, and its incorporating Act allowed for that to occur. The first Federal and Provincial Acts generally provided for incorporation through letters patent, but the procedure was excluded federally for certain classes of company (such as railways and banks), which still had to be incorporated by special Act of Parliament. It was in this manner that the Canadian Pacific Railway was originally formed. Current Acts (such as the Canada Business Corporations Act) generally provide for formation by articles of incorporation, but Prince Edward Island still retains the letters patent procedure and Nova Scotia provides for incorporation by memorandum of association. == Corporations Canada == Corporations Canada is Canada's federal corporate regulator, operating under Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada. It is responsible for administering laws regarding the incorporation of Canadian businesses as well as "corporate laws governing federal companies, except for financial intermediaries." (Financial institutions are incorporated by the Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions.) It has the authority to dissolve a corporation that has not filed its annual returns. Corporations Canada is responsible for the administering the following laws: Canada Business Corporations Act Canada Cooperatives Act Boards of Trade Act Canada Not-for-Profit Corporations Act == Corporate governance == === Board of directors === The articles of incorporation can provide for different classes of shares (which may carry the right to elect separate directors). Like most of the Commonwealth and Europe, the "one share, one vote" principle prevails in public companies, but cumulative voting can occur where the articles of incorporation so provide. Shareholders must elect directors at each annual meeting, and, where the articles are silent, directors remain in office until the annual meeting after their election. after incorporation (at which time the initial directors are simply registered). There can be staggered boards, but any director's term is limited to three annual meetings. Directors elected by a particular class cannot be removed without consent of that class. All changes in directors have to be filed with the registrar. Where a company's securities are traded publicly on the Toronto Stock Exchange, from 31 December 2012, it is required to: elect its directors individually, as opposed to electing a slate, hold annual elections, as opposed elections for multi-year and/or staggered terms, disclose annually whether it has adopted a majority voting policy for uncontested director elections, and if not, explain why, and after each meeting at which directors have been elected, notify the TSX if a director has received a majority of "withhold" votes (if it has not adopted such a policy), and promptly issue a press release disclosing the voting results. In October 2012, the TSX also issued a proposal to require majority voting at uncontested elections. The larger pension plans and other investment funds have instituted practices relating to the behaviour that is expected of the companies they invest in. Publications in that regard include: Proxy Voting Principles and Guidelines 2013 Best Practices for Proxy Circular Disclosure Proxy Voting by Canadian Mutual Funds 2006–2009 On September 29, 2016 the Financial Post reported that a "Bill introduced in Parliament would vanquish 'zombie' directors who fail to win majority shareholder votes" === Board structure === Directors set their own remuneration. They have a fiduciary duty to not put their own interests first when setting it. Some case law exists where decisions about remuneration were not reached fairly, or where directors' fees are unusually high, thus attracting oppression remedy claims under the various corporate statutes. Otherwise the remuneration committee should be composed of independent directors. There is no say on pay rule in the CBCA. However, a large number of Canadian companies have been having say on pay votes, as a result of shareholder proposals to change company constitutions in order to introduce them. For publicly traded companies, the Canadian Securities Administrators have issued various National Instruments that have been implemented to varying degrees by the provincial and territorial securities regulators in order to assure better-functioning boards. They include: 51-102: Continuous Disclosure Obligations 52-109: Certification of Disclosure in Issuers' Annual and Interim Filings 52-110: Audit Committees 58-101: Disclosure of Corporate Governance Practices, the Canadian implementation of the practices recommended by the UK Cadbury Report, made mandatory by the Toronto Stock Exchange for listed companies. === Shareholder rights === Under s. 140(1) of the CBCA, all shareholders have the right to vote. Shareholders holding the same class of shares must be treated equally, and so, for instance, no voting ceilings are allowed. With 5% of the voting rights, known as a requisition, shareholders may require directors to call a meeting. Uniquely, under s. 137 of the CBCA: a beneficial holder of shares may submit a proposal (which may include nominations to the board of directors), even though she is not a registered owner of shares. This means a broad group of people who sit behind investment dealers or other intermediaries in the investment chain are now enfranchised. any shareholder can make a proposal, a brief statement of which must be included with notices of meetings, but it can be refused if it "does not relate in a significant way to the business or affairs of the corporation," or "the rights conferred by this section are being abused to secure publicity" and under s. 137(8) the only way to challenge this is by application to a court. The proposal also has to not have been submitted within the last 5 years, if the last time it got less than 3%, 6% or 10% of the votes (depending on how often it had previously been submitted). Before 2001 there was a prohibition on proposals for economic, political, racial, religious or social causes, but this has since been repealed. careful preparation is required in order to succeed in getting a proposal approved at a shareholders' meeting, especially where it calls for the replacement of the existing board otherwise, the directors determine what goes on the meeting and proxy solicitation agenda While a starting point of Canadian companies is that directors "manage or supervise the management of, the business and affairs of a corporation", shareholders may unanimously agree to do a corporate act, regardless of what directors think. Shareholders can amend the articles with a three-quarters majority vote. Political donations by corporations (and trade unions) have been prohibited since the Federal Accountability Act repealed s. 404.1 of the Canada Elections Act in 2006. === Directors' duties === The laws in the various jurisdictions governing the duties of directors generally follow that laid out in s. 122 of the CBCA: 122. (1) Every director and officer of a corporation in exercising their powers and discharging their duties shall (a) act honestly and in good faith with a view to the best interests of the corporation; and (b) exercise the care, diligence and skill that a reasonably prudent person would exercise in comparable circumstances. (2) Every director and officer of a corporation shall comply with this Act, the regulations, articles, by-laws and any unanimous shareholder agreement. (3) Subject to subsection 146(5), no provision in a contract, the articles, the by-laws or a resolution relieves a director or officer from the duty to act in accordance with this Act or the regulations or relieves them from liability for a breach thereof. Extensive jurisprudence in the Canadian courts have expanded on the matter: In Peoples Department Stores Inc. (Trustee of) v. Wise it was held that the duty is not merely owed to the corporation itself, but also to corporate stakeholders, namely "shareholders, employees, suppliers, creditors, consumers, governments and the environment.: This duty is not mandatory. The main directors' duties under Canadian corporate law is the duty of care, and then avoiding conflicts of interest, which include primarily of engaging in undisclosed self-dealing, taking unauthorized corporate opportunities, competing with the company, and being enriched in a takeover bid. A director has to meet a minimum standard of care, regardless of how clever or incompetent he is. It has also been implied by the case law, that if directors have special skills or qualifications, this will raise the standard expected further above the minimum. In UPM-Kymmene Corp v UPM-Kymmene Miramichi Inc the board approved a large pay package for the chair and major shareholder, Mr Berg, after a seven-minute meeting of the compensation committee, and a 30-minute discussion on the full board. This was not long enough to consider the issues, properly inform themselves about the package, especially given their own compensation consultants, and the former compensation committee, had expressed serious concerns. Neither was this an issue of "business judgment" because that can logically only apply where some real judgment has in fact been exercised, where the board has "been scrupulous in its deliberations and demonstrated diligence in arriving at decisions." Within the general duty to avoid conflicts of interest there is a duty for directors and officers to disclose self-dealing. A director has to disclose a material interest in any transaction the company enters into. The same strict standard as in the UK applies to this day, so even having a close friendship with someone that benefits from a company contract counts. They must state any conflict of interest that may result from the conclusion of a contract with a third party, and if they do not respect this obligation any shareholder or interested person may ask for the annulment of the decision taken. If a breach of duty has already taken place, the Canadian rules on ex post shareholder approval provide that a shareholder resolution does not affect the invalidity of a transaction and the liability of the director, but it may be taken into account when the court decides whether or not to let a derivative action continue by a minority shareholder. The position on taking corporate opportunities begins with the case of Cook v Deeks, where directors must have authorization by independent directors before they try to make any profit out of their office, when the company itself could possibly have an interest in the same deal. More modern cases show some differences in the strictness of the courts' approach: In Peso Silver Mines Ltd. (N.P.L.) v. Cropper the board, after getting advice, turned down mining claims because it lacked funds. A director, Mr Cropper, formed a company and bought them. Later, the company sued him. The Supreme Court of Canada held that there had been no breach in this case, since the company had positively decided not to take that opportunity, and just because the director found out about the opportunity whilst in his office did not mean the opportunity had to be turned over to the company. Another leading case is Canadian Aero Service Ltd. v. O'Malley where two directors, Mr O'Malley and Mr Zarzacki worked for a mapping and exploring business, and got involved in a project to map Guyana. They resigned, started a new company, Terra Surveys, and bid for a government tender to continue the work. The Supreme Court of Canada held that the proper questions to ask were whether the opportunity was closely connected to the company, and what relationship the directors had to the opportunity. Tripartite Fiduciary Duty and the Principle of Fair Treatment A detailed examination of the Court's language [in BCE Inc. v. 1976 Debentureholders] reveals that the duty of directors in Canada to 'act honestly and in good faith with a view to the best interests of the corporation' is an implied three-part fiduciary duty, which operationalizes the principle of fair treatment. == Corporate litigation == In addition to being initiated by the corporation, litigation can be exercised through either derivative actions or the oppression remedy (the latter available federally and in all provinces other than Prince Edward Island). The two types of action are not mutually exclusive, and the differences between them were noted in 1991: A derivative action is commonly said to arise where it is the corporation that is injured by the alleged wrongdoing. The "corporation" will be injured when all shareholders are affected equally, with none experiencing any special harm. By contrast, in a personal (or "direct") action, the harm has a differential impact on shareholders, whether the difference arises amongst members of different classes of shareholders or as between members of a single class. It has also been said that in a derivative action, the injury to shareholders is only indirect; that is, it arises only because the corporation is injured, and not otherwise. Access to derivative actions and the oppression remedy is available to any complainant, which in the case of the CBCA includes current and former shareholders, current and former directors and officers, the Director, and "any other person who, in the discretion of a court, is a proper person to make an application under this Part." In that regard, it can include a creditor of the corporation, but not every creditor will qualify. The court has discretion to dismiss an action where it is found to be frivolous, vexatious, or bound to be unsuccessful. Shareholders can also bring claims based on breaches for personal rights directly, such as having one's right to vote obstructed. === Derivative actions === Derivative actions may be pursued by a complainant if: fourteen days' notice is given to the directors, the complainant is acting in good faith, and it appears to be in the interests of the corporation or its subsidiary that the action be brought, prosecuted, defended or discontinued. === Oppression remedy === Canadian legislation provides for a broad approach to the oppression remedy. In Peoples Department Stores Inc. (Trustee of) v. Wise, the Supreme Court of Canada noted: 48. ... The oppression remedy of s. 241(2)(c) of the CBCA and the similar provisions of provincial legislation regarding corporations grant the broadest rights to creditors of any common law jurisdiction. One commentator describes the oppression remedy as "the broadest, most comprehensive and most open-ended shareholder remedy in the common law world." In BCE Inc. v. 1976 Debentureholders, the Supreme Court of Canada stated that, in assessing a claim of oppression, a court must answer two questions: Does the evidence support the reasonable expectation asserted by the claimant? and Does the evidence establish that the reasonable expectation was violated by conduct falling within the terms "oppression", "unfair prejudice" or "unfair disregard" of a relevant interest? Where conflicting interests arise, it falls to the directors of the corporation to resolve them in accordance with their fiduciary duty to act in the best interests of the corporation. There are no absolute rules and no principle that one set of interests should prevail over another. This is defined as a "tripartite fiduciary duty", composed of (1) an overarching duty to the corporation, which contains two component duties — (2) a duty to protect shareholder interests from harm, and (3) a procedural duty of "fair treatment" for relevant stakeholder interests. This tripartite structure encapsulates the duty of directors to act in the "best interests of the corporation, viewed as a good corporate citizen". Following BCE, the Court of Appeal of British Columbia noted that "breach of fiduciary duty ... 'may assist in characterizing particular conduct as tending as well to be 'oppressive', 'unfair', or 'prejudicial'". More recently, scholarly literature has clarified the connection between the oppression remedy and the fiduciary duty in Canadian law: 84. Upholding the reasonable expectations of corporate constituents is the cornerstone of the oppression remedy. Establishing a breach of the tripartite fiduciary duty has the effect of raising a presumption of conduct contrary to the reasonable expectations of a complainant. Under the business judgment rule, deference should be accorded to the business decisions of directors acting in good faith in performing the functions they were elected to perform, but such deference is not absolute. The remedy can extend to a wide variety of scenarios: It can be potentially used by any stakeholder to deal with any type of unfair conduct by a corporation It can cover an affiliate not incorporated under the same Act It has been used to enforce unpaid judgments against the corporation's directors, where the corporation had been subject to asset stripping It has also been used in conjunction with other remedies — including the threatened winding up of a company by the court — in order to resolve shareholder disputes in closely held companies. The Crown has employed the oppression remedy in its status as a creditor under the Income Tax Act, in order to set aside dividend payments that rendered a corporation unable to pay its tax liability. Where a company has made excessive salary payments to a controlling shareholder, a judgment creditor has been permitted to be a complainant. A wrongfully dismissed employee can make a claim in order to thwart a corporation from conducting asset stripping in order to make itself judgment proof. The court's discretion is not unlimited, as the Court of Appeal of Newfoundland and Labrador observed in 2003: The result of the exercise of the discretion contained in subsection 371(3) must be the rectification of the oppressive conduct. If it has some other result the remedy would be one which is not authorized by law. Any rectification of a matter complained of can only be made with respect to the person's interest as a shareholder, creditor, director or officer. Persons who are shareholders, officers and directors of companies may have other personal interests which are intimately connected to a transaction. However, it is only their interests as shareholder, officer or director as such which are protected by section 371 of the Act. The provisions of that section cannot be used to protect or to advance directly or indirectly their other personal interests. The law is clear that when determining whether there has been oppression of a minority shareholder, the court must determine what the reasonable expectations of that person were according to the arrangements which existed between the principals. They must be expectations which could be said to have been, or ought to have been, considered as part of the compact of the shareholders. The determination of reasonable expectations will also[...] have an important bearing upon the decision as to what is a just remedy in a particular case. The remedy must not be unjust to the others involved. == Takeover bids == In takeover situations, Canada gives shareholders no straightforward right to extinguish a frustrating measure. However, ordinary directors' duties regarding conflicts of interest apply. Rules governing takeover bids come from various sources: provisions in the incorporating statutes, rules found in the provincial and territorial securities laws (where the corporation's shares are publicly traded), and special requirements of the listing exchange (either the Toronto Stock Exchange or the TSX Venture Exchange). Relatively little litigation has taken place in this matter in the Canadian courts. The current régime (which has been described as being quite lax in comparison to that in the United States) came into effect in 2008. The Canadian Securities Administrators issued proposals in 2013 on tightening early warning requirements in their rules, while in Quebec the Autorité des marchés financiers issued a proposal favouring an alternative approach concerning all take-over bid defensive tactics. == Corporate reorganizations == Canadian corporate law offers a variety of options in which to conduct reorganizations, depending on whether the context concerns mergers and acquisitions or insolvency. === Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act === A unique feature of Canadian law is found in the Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act, which provides a scheme for allowing insolvent corporations, which owe in excess of $5 million to their creditors, a method for restructuring their business and financial affairs. Under the CCAA, the court has broad discretion in administering any issues that may arise. As the Act says, ...the court, on the application of any person interested in the matter, may ... make any order that it considers appropriate in the circumstances. This has allowed for very creative applications for resolving difficult scenarios, including: the packaging and orderly resolution of holdings of asset-backed commercial paper by multiple investors, which can include the release of claims against third parties who are themselves solvent and not creditors of the debtor company dealing with limited partnerships managed by an insolvent general partner arranging for disposal of the company through a stalking horse offer providing a more effective way for arranging merger and acquisition transactions involving distressed companies administering the liquidation of the company declining to approve restructuring plans, either because they are poorly conceived or contrary to the best interests of the parties concerned === Plans of arrangement === The various Canadian statutes also allow for plans of arrangement to be devised for companies that are solvent. In that regard, the CBCA defines arrangements as including: an amendment to the articles of a corporation; an amalgamation of two or more corporations; an amalgamation of a body corporate with a corporation that results in an amalgamated corporation subject to this Act; a division of the business carried on by a corporation; a transfer of all or substantially all the property of a corporation to another body corporate in exchange for property, money or securities of the body corporate; an exchange of securities of a corporation for property, money or other securities of the corporation or property, money or securities of another body corporate; a going-private transaction or a squeeze-out transaction in relation to a corporation; a liquidation and dissolution of a corporation; and any combination of the foregoing. Plans of arrangement have been employed in cross-border mergers to great success. They have also been used for debt restructuring in insolvency situations, which is a recent innovation in Canadian proceedings. The Supreme Court of Canada, in its ruling in BCE Inc. v. 1976 Debentureholders, stated that, in seeking court approval of an arrangement, the onus is on the corporation to establish that the statutory procedures have been met; the application has been put forth in good faith; and the arrangement is "fair and reasonable". To approve a plan of arrangement as fair and reasonable, courts must be satisfied that the arrangement has a valid business purpose, and the objections of those whose legal rights are being arranged are being resolved in a fair and balanced way. Courts should refrain from substituting their views of the "best" arrangement, but should not surrender their duty to scrutinize the arrangement. Only security holders whose legal rights stand to be affected by the proposal are envisioned. It is a fact that the corporation is permitted to alter individual rights that places the matter beyond the power of the directors and creates the need for shareholder and court approval. However, in some circumstances, interests that are not strictly legal could be considered. The fact that a group whose legal rights are left intact faces a reduction in the trading value of its securities generally does not constitute a circumstance where non‑legal interests should be considered on an application for an arrangement. The courts take their duty seriously in assessing such plans, as was evidenced in Ontario in 2014. In determining that a plan of arrangement was fair, no weight was given by the court to the fairness opinion obtained by the directors, as: shareholders considering the fairness opinion did not have disclosure of the fees payable to the advisor to assess how much work was performed, and it did not include any of the underlying financial analysis performed by the advisor, so it could not be considered to comply with procedural requirements for expert evidence. However, such concern may not apply where a transaction is not being contested, in which case the opinion may considered as evidence that the board had "considered the fairness and reasonableness of the proposed transaction on the basis of objective criteria to the extent possible." === Liquidation and dissolution === Liquidation (also known as winding up) can occur in several ways: under provisions of the incorporating statute, where the corporation is solvent, under the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act, where it is insolvent or has committed an act of bankruptcy, or under the Winding-Up and Restructuring Act, where it is an insolvent financial institution or an insolvent corporation incorporated under provincial law (although the latter case is only rarely seen in recent times). Liquidation under the incorporating statute can occur with or without an accompanying court order that provides for the orderly payment of debts and/or the dissolution of the corporation. Under the BIA, an insolvent corporation exits bankruptcy after the court approves its discharge (but it may not apply for discharge until its debts are paid in full). Under the WURA the corporation is required to cease business. Dissolution is a separate process, which may occur: with or without liquidation (although liquidation under court order will extinguish all debts), or where it is not in compliance with the incorporating statute. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Rojas, Claudio R. (2014). "An Indeterminate Theory of Canadian Corporate Law". University of British Columbia Law Review. 47 (1): 59–128. SSRN 2391775. Van Duzer, J. Anthony (2009). The Law of Partnerships and Corporations (3rd ed.). Toronto: Irwin Law. ISBN 978-1-55221177-9. Welling, Bruce (1991). Corporate Law in Canada: The Governing Principles (2nd ed.). Toronto: Butterworths. ISBN 0-40989639-X. Welling, Bruce; Smith, Lionel D.; Rotman, Leonard I. (2010). Canadian Corporate Law : Cases, Notes and Materials (4th ed.). Toronto: LexisNexis. ISBN 978-0-43346033-6. Palmer, Earl E.; Welling, Bruce (1986). Canadian company law : cases, notes and materials (3rd ed.). Toronto: Butterworths. ISBN 0-40980510-6. == External links == === Resources by jurisdiction === The following list provides links relating to general Acts of incorporation, other than those relating to cooperatives, financial institutions and organizations incorporated by special Act:	Wikipedia/Canadian_corporate_law
Corporate finance is an area of finance that deals with the sources of funding, and the capital structure of businesses, the actions that managers take to increase the value of the firm to the shareholders, and the tools and analysis used to allocate financial resources. The primary goal of corporate finance is to maximize or increase shareholder value. Correspondingly, corporate finance comprises two main sub-disciplines. Capital budgeting is concerned with the setting of criteria about which value-adding projects should receive investment funding, and whether to finance that investment with equity or debt capital. Working capital management is the management of the company's monetary funds that deal with the short-term operating balance of current assets and current liabilities; the focus here is on managing cash, inventories, and short-term borrowing and lending (such as the terms on credit extended to customers). The terms corporate finance and corporate financier are also associated with investment banking. The typical role of an investment bank is to evaluate the company's financial needs and raise the appropriate type of capital that best fits those needs. Thus, the terms "corporate finance" and "corporate financier" may be associated with transactions in which capital is raised in order to create, develop, grow or acquire businesses. Although it is in principle different from managerial finance which studies the financial management of all firms, rather than corporations alone, the main concepts in the study of corporate finance are applicable to the financial problems of all kinds of firms. Financial management overlaps with the financial function of the accounting profession. However, financial accounting is the reporting of historical financial information, while financial management is concerned with the deployment of capital resources to increase a firm's value to the shareholders. == History == Corporate finance for the pre-industrial world began to emerge in the Italian city-states and the low countries of Europe from the 15th century. The Dutch East India Company (also known by the abbreviation "VOC" in Dutch) was the first publicly listed company ever to pay regular dividends. The VOC was also the first recorded joint-stock company to get a fixed capital stock. Public markets for investment securities developed in the Dutch Republic during the 17th century. By the early 1800s, London acted as a center of corporate finance for companies around the world, which innovated new forms of lending and investment; see City of London § Economy. The twentieth century brought the rise of managerial capitalism and common stock finance, with share capital raised through listings, in preference to other sources of capital. Modern corporate finance, alongside investment management, developed in the second half of the 20th century, particularly driven by innovations in theory and practice in the United States and Britain. Here, see the later sections of History of banking in the United States and of History of private equity and venture capital. == Outline == The primary goal of financial management is to maximize or to continually increase shareholder value (see Fisher separation theorem). Here, the three main questions that corporate finance addresses are: what long-term investments should we make? What methods should we employ to finance the investment? How do we manage our day-to-day financial activities? These three questions lead to the primary areas of concern in corporate finance: capital budgeting, capital structure, and working capital management. This then requires that managers find an appropriate balance between: investments in "projects" that increase the firm's long term profitability; and paying excess cash in the form of dividends to shareholders; short term considerations, such as paying back creditor-related debt, will also feature. Choosing between investment projects will thus be based upon several inter-related criteria. (1) Corporate management seeks to maximize the value of the firm by investing in projects which yield a positive net present value when valued using an appropriate discount rate - "hurdle rate" - in consideration of risk. (2) These projects must also be financed appropriately. (3) If no growth is possible by the company and excess cash surplus is not needed to the firm, then financial theory suggests that management should return some or all of the excess cash to shareholders (i.e., distribution via dividends). The first two criteria concern "capital budgeting", the planning of value-adding, long-term corporate financial projects relating to investments funded through and affecting the firm's capital structure, and where management must allocate the firm's limited resources between competing opportunities ("projects"). Capital budgeting is thus also concerned with the setting of criteria about which projects should receive investment funding to increase the value of the firm, and whether to finance that investment with equity or debt capital. Investments should be made on the basis of value-added to the future of the corporation. Projects that increase a firm's value may include a wide variety of different types of investments, including but not limited to, expansion policies, or mergers and acquisitions. The third criterion relates to dividend policy. In general, managers of growth companies (i.e. firms that earn high rates of return on invested capital) will use most of the firm's capital resources and surplus cash on investments and projects so the company can continue to expand its business operations into the future. When companies reach maturity levels within their industry (i.e. companies that earn approximately average or lower returns on invested capital), managers of these companies will use surplus cash to payout dividends to shareholders. Thus, when no growth or expansion is likely, and excess cash surplus exists and is not needed, then management is expected to pay out some or all of those surplus earnings in the form of cash dividends or to repurchase the company's stock through a share buyback program. == Capital structure == Achieving the goals of corporate finance requires that any corporate investment be financed appropriately. The sources of financing are, generically, capital self-generated by the firm and capital from external funders, obtained by issuing new debt and equity (and hybrid- or convertible securities). However, as above, since both hurdle rate and cash flows (and hence the riskiness of the firm) will be affected, the financing mix will impact the valuation of the firm, and a considered decision is required here. See Balance sheet, WACC. Finally, there is much theoretical discussion as to other considerations that management might weigh here. === Sources of capital === Corporations, as outlined, may rely on borrowed funds (debt capital or credit) as sources of investment to sustain ongoing business operations or to fund future growth. Debt comes in several forms, such as through bank loans, notes payable, or bonds issued to the public. Bonds require the corporation to make regular interest payments (interest expenses) on the borrowed capital until the debt reaches its maturity date, therein the firm must pay back the obligation in full. (An exception is zero-coupon bonds - or "zeros"). Debt payments can also be made in the form of a sinking fund provision, whereby the corporation pays annual installments of the borrowed debt above regular interest charges. Corporations that issue callable bonds are entitled to pay back the obligation in full whenever the company feels it is in their best interest to pay off the debt payments. If interest expenses cannot be made by the corporation through cash payments, the firm may also use collateral assets as a form of repaying their debt obligations (or through the process of liquidation). Especially re debt funded corporations, see Bankruptcy and Financial distress. Under some treatments (especially for valuation) leases are regarded as debt: the payments are set; they are tax deductible; failing to make them results in the loss of the asset. Corporations can alternatively sell shares of the company to investors to raise capital. Investors, or shareholders, expect that there will be an upward trend in value of the company (or appreciate in value) over time to make their investment a profitable purchase. As outlined: Shareholder value is increased when corporations invest equity capital and other funds into projects (or investments) that earn a positive rate of return for the owners. Investors then prefer to buy shares of stock in companies that will consistently earn a positive rate of return on capital (on equity) in the future, thus increasing the market value of the stock of that corporation. Shareholder value may also be increased when corporations payout excess cash surplus (funds that are not needed for business) in the form of dividends. Internal financing, often, is constituted of retained earnings, i.e. those remaining after dividends; this provides, per some measures, the cheapest form of funding. Preferred stock is a specialized form of financing which combines properties of common stock and debt instruments, and may then be considered a hybrid security. Preferreds are senior (i.e. higher ranking) to common stock, but subordinate to bonds in terms of claim (or rights to their share of the assets of the company). Preferred stock usually carries no voting rights, but may carry a dividend and may have priority over common stock in the payment of dividends and upon liquidation. Terms of the preferred stock are stated in a "Certificate of Designation". Similar to bonds, preferred stocks are rated by the major credit-rating companies. The rating for preferreds is generally lower, since preferred dividends do not carry the same guarantees as interest payments from bonds and they are junior to all creditors. Preferred stock is then a special class of shares which may have any combination of features not possessed by common stock. The following features are usually associated with preferred stock: Preference in dividends Preference in assets, in the event of liquidation Convertibility to common stock. Callability, at the option of the corporation Nonvoting === Capitalization structure === As outlined, the financing "mix" will impact the valuation (as well as the cashflows) of the firm, and must therefore be structured appropriately: there are then two interrelated considerations here: Management must identify the "optimal mix" of financing – the capital structure that results in maximum firm value - but must also take other factors into account (see trade-off theory below). Financing a project through debt results in a liability or obligation that must be serviced, thus entailing cash flow implications independent of the project's degree of success. Equity financing is less risky with respect to cash flow commitments, but results in a dilution of share ownership, control and earnings. The cost of equity (see CAPM and APT) is also typically higher than the cost of debt - which is, additionally, a deductible expense – and so equity financing may result in an increased hurdle rate which may offset any reduction in cash flow risk. Management must attempt to match the long-term financing mix to the assets being financed as closely as possible, in terms of both timing and cash flows. Managing any potential asset liability mismatch or duration gap entails matching the assets and liabilities respectively according to maturity pattern ("cashflow matching") or duration ("immunization"); managing this relationship in the short-term is a major function of working capital management, as discussed below. Other techniques, such as securitization, or hedging using interest rate- or credit derivatives, are also common. See: Asset liability management; Treasury management; Credit risk; Interest rate risk. === Related considerations === The above, are the primary objectives in deciding on the firm's capitalization structure. Parallel considerations, also, will factor into management's thinking. The starting point for discussion here is the Modigliani–Miller theorem. This states, through two connected Propositions, that in a "perfect market" how a firm is financed is irrelevant to its value: (i) the value of a company is independent of its capital structure; (ii) the cost of equity will be the same for a leveraged firm and an unleveraged firm. "Modigliani and Miller", however, is generally viewed as a theoretical result, and in practice, management will here too focus on enhacing firm value and / or reducing the cost of funding. Re value, much of the discussion falls under the umbrella of the Trade-Off Theory in which firms are assumed to trade-off the tax benefits of debt with the bankruptcy costs of debt when choosing how to allocate the company's resources, finding an optimum re firm value. The capital structure substitution theory hypothesizes that management manipulates the capital structure such that earnings per share (EPS) are maximized. Re cost of funds, the Pecking Order Theory (Stewart Myers) suggests that firms avoid external financing while they have internal financing available and avoid new equity financing while they can engage in new debt financing at reasonably low interest rates. One of the more recent innovations in this area from a theoretical point of view is the market timing hypothesis. This hypothesis, inspired by the behavioral finance literature, states that firms look for the cheaper type of financing regardless of their current levels of internal resources, debt and equity. (See also below re corporate governance.) == Capital budgeting == The process of allocating financial resources to major investment- or capital expenditure is known as capital budgeting. Consistent with the overall goal of increasing firm value, the decisioning here focuses on whether the investment in question is worthy of funding through the firm's capitalization structures (debt, equity or retained earnings as above). To be considered acceptable, the investment must be value additive re: (i) improved operating profit and cash flows; as combined with (ii) any new funding commitments and capital implications. Re the latter: if the investment is large in the context of the firm as a whole, so the discount rate applied by outside investors to the (private) firm's equity may be adjusted upwards to reflect the new level of risk, thus impacting future financing activities and overall valuation. More sophisticated treatments will thus produce accompanying sensitivity- and risk metrics, and will incorporate any inherent contingencies. The focus of capital budgeting is on major "projects" - often investments in other firms, or expansion into new markets or geographies - but may extend also to new plants, new / replacement machinery, new products, and research and development programs; day to day operational expenditure is the realm of financial management as below. === Investment and project valuation === In general, each "project's" value will be estimated using a discounted cash flow (DCF) valuation, and the opportunity with the highest value, as measured by the resultant net present value (NPV) will be selected (first applied in a corporate finance setting by Joel Dean in 1951). This requires estimating the size and timing of all of the incremental cash flows resulting from the project. Such future cash flows are then discounted to determine their present value (see Time value of money). These present values are then summed, and this sum net of the initial investment outlay is the NPV. See Financial modeling § Accounting for general discussion, and Valuation using discounted cash flows for the mechanics, with discussion re modifications for corporate finance. The NPV is greatly affected by the discount rate. Thus, identifying the proper discount rate – often termed, the project "hurdle rate" – is critical to choosing appropriate projects and investments for the firm. The hurdle rate is the minimum acceptable return on an investment – i.e., the project appropriate discount rate. The hurdle rate should reflect the riskiness of the investment, typically measured by volatility of cash flows, and must take into account the project-relevant financing mix. Managers use models such as the CAPM or the APT to estimate a discount rate appropriate for a particular project, and use the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) to reflect the financing mix selected. (A common error in choosing a discount rate for a project is to apply a WACC that applies to the entire firm. Such an approach may not be appropriate where the risk of a particular project differs markedly from that of the firm's existing portfolio of assets.) In conjunction with NPV, there are several other measures used as (secondary) selection criteria in corporate finance; see Capital budgeting § Ranked projects. These are visible from the DCF and include discounted payback period, IRR, Modified IRR, equivalent annuity, capital efficiency, and ROI. Alternatives (complements) to the standard DCF, model economic profit as opposed to free cash flow; these include residual income valuation, MVA / EVA (Joel Stern, Stern Stewart & Co) and APV (Stewart Myers). With the cost of capital correctly and correspondingly adjusted, these valuations should yield the same result as the DCF. These may, however, be considered more appropriate for projects with negative free cash flow several years out, but which are expected to generate positive cash flow thereafter (and may also be less sensitive to terminal value). === Sensitivity and scenario analysis === Given the uncertainty inherent in project forecasting and valuation, analysts will wish to assess the sensitivity of project NPV to the various inputs (i.e. assumptions) to the DCF model. In a typical sensitivity analysis the analyst will vary one key factor while holding all other inputs constant, ceteris paribus. The sensitivity of NPV to a change in that factor is then observed, and is calculated as a "slope": ΔNPV / Δfactor. For example, the analyst will determine NPV at various growth rates in annual revenue as specified (usually at set increments, e.g. -10%, -5%, 0%, 5%...), and then determine the sensitivity using this formula. Often, several variables may be of interest, and their various combinations produce a "value-surface" (or even a "value-space"), where NPV is then a function of several variables. See also Stress testing. Using a related technique, analysts also run scenario based forecasts of NPV. Here, a scenario comprises a particular outcome for economy-wide, "global" factors (demand for the product, exchange rates, commodity prices, etc.) as well as for company-specific factors (unit costs, etc.). As an example, the analyst may specify various revenue growth scenarios (e.g. -5% for "Worst Case", +5% for "Likely Case" and +15% for "Best Case"), where all key inputs are adjusted so as to be consistent with the growth assumptions, and calculate the NPV for each. Note that for scenario based analysis, the various combinations of inputs must be internally consistent (see discussion at Financial modeling), whereas for the sensitivity approach these need not be so. An application of this methodology is to determine an "unbiased" NPV, where management determines a (subjective) probability for each scenario – the NPV for the project is then the probability-weighted average of the various scenarios; see First Chicago Method. (See also rNPV, where cash flows, as opposed to scenarios, are probability-weighted.) === Quantifying uncertainty === A further advancement which "overcomes the limitations of sensitivity and scenario analyses by examining the effects of all possible combinations of variables and their realizations" is to construct stochastic or probabilistic financial models – as opposed to the traditional static and deterministic models as above. For this purpose, the most common method is to use Monte Carlo simulation to analyze the project's NPV. This method was introduced to finance by David B. Hertz in 1964, although it has only recently become common: today analysts are even able to run simulations in spreadsheet based DCF models, typically using a risk-analysis add-in, such as @Risk or Crystal Ball. Here, the cash flow components that are (heavily) impacted by uncertainty are simulated, mathematically reflecting their "random characteristics". In contrast to the scenario approach above, the simulation produces several thousand random but possible outcomes, or trials, "covering all conceivable real world contingencies in proportion to their likelihood;" see Monte Carlo Simulation versus "What If" Scenarios. The output is then a histogram of project NPV, and the average NPV of the potential investment – as well as its volatility and other sensitivities – is then observed. This histogram provides information not visible from the static DCF: for example, it allows for an estimate of the probability that a project has a net present value greater than zero (or any other value). Continuing the above example: instead of assigning three discrete values to revenue growth, and to the other relevant variables, the analyst would assign an appropriate probability distribution to each variable (commonly triangular or beta), and, where possible, specify the observed or supposed correlation between the variables. These distributions would then be "sampled" repeatedly – incorporating this correlation – so as to generate several thousand random but possible scenarios, with corresponding valuations, which are then used to generate the NPV histogram. The resultant statistics (average NPV and standard deviation of NPV) will be a more accurate mirror of the project's "randomness" than the variance observed under the scenario based approach. (These are often used as estimates of the underlying "spot price" and volatility for the real option valuation below; see Real options valuation § Valuation inputs.) A more robust Monte Carlo model would include the possible occurrence of risk events - e.g., a credit crunch - that drive variations in one or more of the DCF model inputs. === Valuing flexibility === Often - for example R&D projects - a project may open (or close) various paths of action to the company, but this reality will not (typically) be captured in a strict NPV approach. Some analysts account for this uncertainty by adjusting the discount rate (e.g. by increasing the cost of capital) or the cash flows (using certainty equivalents, or applying (subjective) "haircuts" to the forecast numbers; see Penalized present value). Even when employed, however, these latter methods do not normally properly account for changes in risk over the project's lifecycle and hence fail to appropriately adapt the risk adjustment. Management will therefore (sometimes) employ tools which place an explicit value on these options. So, whereas in a DCF valuation the most likely or average or scenario specific cash flows are discounted, here the "flexible and staged nature" of the investment is modelled, and hence "all" potential payoffs are considered. See further under Real options valuation. The difference between the two valuations is the "value of flexibility" inherent in the project. The two most common tools are Decision Tree Analysis (DTA) and real options valuation (ROV); they may often be used interchangeably: DTA values flexibility by incorporating possible events (or states) and consequent management decisions. (For example, a company would build a factory given that demand for its product exceeded a certain level during the pilot-phase, and outsource production otherwise. In turn, given further demand, it would similarly expand the factory, and maintain it otherwise. In a DCF model, by contrast, there is no "branching" – each scenario must be modelled separately.) In the decision tree, each management decision in response to an "event" generates a "branch" or "path" which the company could follow; the probabilities of each event are determined or specified by management. Once the tree is constructed: (1) "all" possible events and their resultant paths are visible to management; (2) given this "knowledge" of the events that could follow, and assuming rational decision making, management chooses the branches (i.e. actions) corresponding to the highest value path probability weighted; (3) this path is then taken as representative of project value. See Decision theory § Choice under uncertainty. ROV is usually used when the value of a project is contingent on the value of some other asset or underlying variable. (For example, the viability of a mining project is contingent on the price of gold; if the price is too low, management will abandon the mining rights, if sufficiently high, management will develop the ore body. Again, a DCF valuation would capture only one of these outcomes.) Here: (1) using financial option theory as a framework, the decision to be taken is identified as corresponding to either a call option or a put option; (2) an appropriate valuation technique is then employed – usually a variant on the binomial options model or a bespoke simulation model, while Black–Scholes type formulae are used less often; see Contingent claim valuation. (3) The "true" value of the project is then the NPV of the "most likely" scenario plus the option value. (Real options in corporate finance were first discussed by Stewart Myers in 1977; viewing corporate strategy as a series of options was originally per Timothy Luehrman, in the late 1990s.) See also § Option pricing approaches under Business valuation. == Dividend policy == Dividend policy is concerned with financial policies regarding the payment of a cash dividend in the present, or retaining earnings and then paying an increased dividend at a later stage. The policy will be set based upon the type of company and what management determines is the best use of those dividend resources for the firm and its shareholders. Practical and theoretical considerations - interacting with the above funding and investment decisioning, and re overall firm value - will inform this thinking. === Considerations === In general, whether to issue dividends, and what amount, is determined on the basis of the company's unappropriated profit (excess cash) and influenced by the company's long-term earning power. In all instances, as above, the appropriate dividend policy is in parallel directed by that which maximizes long-term shareholder value. When cash surplus exists and is not needed by the firm, then management is expected to pay out some or all of those surplus earnings in the form of cash dividends or to repurchase the company's stock through a share buyback program. Thus, if there are no NPV positive opportunities, i.e. projects where returns exceed the hurdle rate, and excess cash surplus is not needed, then management should return (some or all of) the excess cash to shareholders as dividends. This is the general case, however the "style" of the stock may also impact the decision. Shareholders of a "growth stock", for example, expect that the company will retain (most of) the excess cash surplus so as to fund future projects internally to help increase the value of the firm. Shareholders of value- or secondary stocks, on the other hand, would prefer management to pay surplus earnings in the form of cash dividends, especially when a positive return cannot be earned through the reinvestment of undistributed earnings; a share buyback program may be accepted when the value of the stock is greater than the returns to be realized from the reinvestment of undistributed profits. Management will also choose the form of the dividend distribution, as stated, generally as cash dividends or via a share buyback. Various factors may be taken into consideration: where shareholders must pay tax on dividends, firms may elect to retain earnings or to perform a stock buyback, in both cases increasing the value of shares outstanding. Alternatively, some companies will pay "dividends" from stock rather than in cash or via a share buyback as mentioned; see Corporate action. === Dividend theory === As for capital structure above, there are several schools of thought on dividends, in particular re their impact on firm value. A key consideration will be whether there are any tax disadvantages associated with dividends: i.e. dividends attract a higher tax rate as compared, e.g., to capital gains; see dividend tax and Retained earnings § Tax implications. Here, per the abovementioned Modigliani–Miller theorem: if there are no such disadvantages - and companies can raise equity finance cheaply, i.e. can issue stock at low cost - then dividend policy is value neutral; if dividends suffer a tax disadvantage, then increasing dividends should reduce firm value. Regardless, but particularly in the second (more realistic) case, other considerations apply. The first set of these, relates to investor preferences and behavior (see Clientele effect). Investors are seen to prefer a “bird in the hand” - i.e. cash dividends are certain as compared to income from future capital gains - and in fact, commonly employ some form of dividend valuation model in valuing shares. Relatedly, investors will then prefer a stable or "smooth" dividend payout - as far as is reasonable given earnings prospects and sustainability - which will then positively impact share price; see Lintner model. Cash dividends may also allow management to convey (insider) information about corporate performance; and increasing a company's dividend payout may then predict (or lead to) favorable performance of the company's stock in the future; see Dividend signaling hypothesis The second set relates to management's thinking re capital structure and earnings, overlapping the above. Under a "Residual dividend policy" - i.e. as contrasted with a "smoothed" payout policy - the firm will use retained profits to finance capital investments if cheaper than the same via equity financing; see again Pecking order theory. Similarly, under the Walter model, dividends are paid only if capital retained will earn a higher return than that available to investors (proxied: ROE > Ke). Management may also want to "manipulate" the capital structure - in this context, by paying or not paying dividends - such that earnings per share are maximized; see again, Capital structure substitution theory. == Working capital management == Managing the corporation's working capital position so as to sustain ongoing business operations is referred to as working capital management. This entails, essentially, managing the relationship between a firm's short-term assets and its short-term liabilities, conscious of various considerations. Here, as above, the goal of Corporate Finance is the maximization of firm value. In the context of long term, capital budgeting, firm value is enhanced through appropriately selecting and funding NPV positive investments. These investments, in turn, have implications in terms of cash flow and cost of capital. The goal of Working Capital (i.e. short term) management is therefore to ensure that the firm is able to operate, and that it has sufficient cash flow to service long-term debt, and to satisfy both maturing short-term debt and upcoming operational expenses. In so doing, firm value is enhanced when, and if, the return on capital exceeds the cost of capital; See Economic value added (EVA). Managing short term finance along with long term finance is therefore one task of a modern CFO. === Working capital === Working capital is the amount of funds that are necessary for an organization to continue its ongoing business operations, until the firm is reimbursed through payments for the goods or services it has delivered to its customers. Working capital is measured through the difference between resources in cash or readily convertible into cash (Current Assets), and cash requirements (Current Liabilities). As a result, capital resource allocations relating to working capital are always current, i.e. short-term. In addition to time horizon, working capital management differs from capital budgeting in terms of discounting and profitability considerations; decisions here are also "reversible" to a much larger extent. (Considerations as to risk appetite and return targets remain identical, although some constraints – such as those imposed by loan covenants – may be more relevant here). The (short term) goals of working capital are therefore not approached on the same basis as (long term) profitability, and working capital management applies different criteria in allocating resources: the main considerations are (1) cash flow / liquidity and (2) profitability / return on capital (of which cash flow is probably the most important). The most widely used measure of cash flow is the net operating cycle, or cash conversion cycle. This represents the time difference between cash payment for raw materials and cash collection for sales. The cash conversion cycle indicates the firm's ability to convert its resources into cash. Because this number effectively corresponds to the time that the firm's cash is tied up in operations and unavailable for other activities, management generally aims at a low net count. (Another measure is gross operating cycle which is the same as net operating cycle except that it does not take into account the creditors deferral period.) In this context, the most useful measure of profitability is return on capital (ROC). The result is shown as a percentage, determined by dividing relevant income for the 12 months by capital employed; return on equity (ROE) shows this result for the firm's shareholders. As outlined, firm value is enhanced when, and if, the return on capital exceeds the cost of capital. === Management of working capital === Guided by the above criteria, management will use a combination of policies and techniques for the management of working capital. These policies, as outlined, aim at managing the current assets (generally cash and cash equivalents, inventories and debtors) and the short term financing, such that cash flows and returns are acceptable. Cash management. Identify the cash balance which allows for the business to meet day to day expenses, but reduces cash holding costs. Inventory management. Identify the level of inventory which allows for uninterrupted production but reduces the investment in raw materials – and minimizes reordering costs – and hence increases cash flow. See discussion under Inventory optimization and Supply chain management. Debtors management. There are two inter-related roles here: (1) Identify the appropriate credit policy, i.e. credit terms which will attract customers, such that any impact on cash flows and the cash conversion cycle will be offset by increased revenue and hence Return on Capital (or vice versa); see Discounts and allowances. (2) Implement appropriate credit scoring policies and techniques such that the risk of default on any new business is acceptable given these criteria. Short term financing. Identify the appropriate source of financing, given the cash conversion cycle: the inventory is ideally financed by credit granted by the supplier; however, it may be necessary to utilize a bank loan (or overdraft), or to "convert debtors to cash" through "factoring"; see generally, trade finance. == Other areas == === Investment banking === As discussed, corporate finance comprises the activities, analytical methods, and techniques that deal with the company's long-term investments, finances and capital. Re the latter, when capital must be raised for the corporation or shareholders, the "corporate finance team" will engage its investment bank. The bank will then facilitate the required share listing (IPO or SEO) or bond issuance, as appropriate given the above anaysis. Thereafter the bank will work closely with the corporate re servicing the new securities, and managing its presence in the capital markets more generally (offering advisory, financial advisory, deal advisory, and / or transaction advisory services). Use of the term "corporate finance", correspondingly, varies considerably across the world. In the United States, "Corporate Finance" corresponds to the first usage. A professional here may be referred to as a "corporate finance analyst" and will typically be based in the FP&A area, reporting to the CFO. See Financial analyst § Financial planning and analysis. In the United Kingdom and Commonwealth countries, on the other hand, "corporate finance" and "corporate financier" are associated with investment banking. === Financial risk management === Financial risk management, generally, is focused on measuring and managing market risk, credit risk and operational risk. Within corporates (i.e. as opposed to banks), the scope extends to preserving (and enhancing) the firm's economic value. It will then overlap both corporate finance and enterprise risk management: addressing risks to the firm's overall strategic objectives, by focusing on the financial exposures and opportunities arising from business decisions, and their link to the firm’s appetite for risk, as well as their impact on share price. (In large firms, Risk Management typically exists as an independent function, with the CRO consulted on capital-investment and other strategic decisions.) Re corporate finance, both operational and funding issues are addressed; respectively: Businesses actively manage any impact on profitability, cash flow, and hence firm value, due to credit and operational factors - this, overlapping "working capital management" to a large extent. Firms then devote much time and effort to forecasting, analytics and performance monitoring (the above analyst role). See also "ALM" and treasury management. Firm exposure to market (and business) risk is a direct result of previous capital investments and funding decisions: where applicable here, typically in large corporates and under guidance from their investment bankers, firms actively manage and hedge these exposures using traded financial instruments, usually standard derivatives, creating interest rate-, commodity- and foreign exchange hedges; see Cash flow hedge. === Corporate governance === Broadly, corporate governance considers the mechanisms, processes, practices, and relations by which corporations are controlled and operated by their board of directors, managers, shareholders, and other stakeholders. In the context of corporate finance, a more specific concern will be that executives do not "serve their own vested interests" to the detriment of capital providers. There are several interrelated considerations: As regards investments: acquisitions and takeovers may be driven by management interests (a larger company) rather than stockholder interests; managers may then overpay on investments, reducing firm value. Several issues inhere also in the capital structure and management will be expected to balance these: Stockholders, with "potentially unlimited" upside, have an incentive to take riskier projects than bondholders, who earn a fixed return. Stockholders will also wish to pay more out in dividends than bondholders would like them to. In general, here, debt may be seen as "an internal means of controlling management", which has to work hard to ensure that repayments are met, balancing these interests, and also limiting the possibility of overpaying on investments. Granting Executive stock options, alternatively or in parallel, is seen as a mechanism to align management with stockholder interests. A more formal treatment is offered under agency theory, where these problems and approaches can be seen, and hence analysed, as real options; see Principal–agent problem § Options framework for discussion. == See also == == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Jonathan Berk; Peter DeMarzo (2013). Corporate Finance (3rd ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0132992473. Peter Bossaerts; Bernt Arne Ødegaard (2006). Lectures on Corporate Finance (Second ed.). World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-256-899-1. Richard Brealey; Stewart Myers; Franklin Allen (2013). Principles of Corporate Finance. Mcgraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0078034763. CFA Institute (2022). Corporate Finance: Economic Foundations and Financial Modeling (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-1119743767. Donald H. Chew, ed. (2000). The New Corporate Finance: Where Theory Meets Practice (3rd ed.). Non Basic Stock Line. ISBN 978-0071120432. Thomas E. Copeland; J. Fred Weston; Kuldeep Shastri (2004). Financial Theory and Corporate Policy (4th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0321127211. Julie Dahlquist, Rainford Knight, Alan S. Adams (2022). Principles of Finance. ISBN 9781951693541.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Aswath Damodaran (2001). Corporate Finance: Theory and Practice (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0471283324. Aswath Damodaran (2014). Applied Corporate Finance (4th ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-1118808931. João Amaro de Matos (2001). Theoretical Foundations of Corporate Finance. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691087948. Tim Koller, Marc Goedhart, David Wessels (McKinsey & Company) (2020). Valuation: Measuring and Managing the Value of Companies (7th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1119610885 Joseph Ogden; Frank C. Jen; Philip F. O'Connor (2002). Advanced Corporate Finance. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0130915689. C. Krishnamurti; S. R. Vishwanath (2010). Advanced Corporate Finance. MediaMatics. ISBN 978-8120336117. Pascal Quiry; Yann Le Fur; Antonio Salvi; Maurizio Dallochio; Pierre Vernimmen (2011). Corporate Finance: Theory and Practice (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-1119975588. Stephen Ross, Randolph Westerfield, Jeffrey Jaffe (2012). Corporate Finance (10th ed.). Mcgraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0078034770.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Joel M. Stern, ed. (2003). The Revolution in Corporate Finance (4th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781405107815. Jean Tirole (2006). The Theory of Corporate Finance. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691125562. Ivo Welch (2017). Corporate Finance (4th ed.). ISBN 9780984004928. == Further reading == Jensen, Michael C.; Smith. Clifford W. (29 September 2000). The Theory of Corporate Finance: A Historical Overview. SSRN 244161. In The Modern Theory of Corporate Finance, edited by Michael C. Jensen and Clifford H. Smith Jr., pp. 2–20. McGraw-Hill, 1990. ISBN 0070591091 Graham, John R.; Harvey, Campbell R. (1999). "The Theory and Practice of Corporate Finance: Evidence from the Field". AFA 2001 New Orleans; Duke University Working Paper. SSRN 220251. == External links == Corporate Finance Overview - Corporate Finance Institute Corporate Finance Glossary - Pierre Vernimmen Corporate finance resources - Aswath Damodaran Financial management resources - James Van Horne Financial analysis items - Fincyclopedia	Wikipedia/Corporate_finance
A media conglomerate, media company, media group, or media institution is a company that owns numerous companies involved in mass media enterprises, such as music, television, radio, publishing, motion pictures, video games, amusement parks, or the Internet. The weekly magazine The Nation commented, "Media conglomerates strive for policies that facilitate their control of the markets around the world." == Terminology == A conglomerate is a large company composed of a number of companies (subsidiaries) engaged in generally unrelated businesses. Some media conglomerates use their access in multiple areas to share various kinds of content such as: news, video and music, between users. The media sector's tendency to consolidate has caused formerly diversified companies to appear less diverse to prospective investors in comparison with similar companies that are traded publicly and privately. Therefore, the term media group may also be applied, however, it has not yet replaced the more traditional term. == Criticism == Critics have accused the large media conglomerates of dominating the media and using unfair practices. During a protest in November 2007, critics such as Jesse Jackson spoke out against consolidation of the media. This can be seen in the news industry, where corporations refuse to publicize information that would be harmful to their interests. Because some corporations do not publish any material that criticizes them or their interests, media conglomerates have been criticized for limiting free speech or not protecting free speech. These practices are also suspected of contributing to the merging of entertainment and news (sensationalism) at the expense of the coverage of serious issues. They are also accused of being a leading force behind the standardization of culture (see globalization, Americanization) and are frequently criticized by groups that perceive news organizations as being biased toward special interests of the owners. Because there are fewer independent media, there is less diversity in news and entertainment and therefore less competition. This can result in the reduction of different points of view as well as vocalization about different issues. There is also a lack of ethnic and gender diversity as a majority of those in media are white, middle-class men. There is a concern that their views are being shared disproportionately more than other groups, such as women and ethnic minorities. Women and minorities also have less ownership of media. Women have less than 7 percent of TV and radio licenses, and minorities have around 7 percent of radio licenses and 3 percent of TV licenses. == Examples by country == In the 2024 Forbes Global 2000 list, Comcast is the world's largest media conglomerate, in terms of revenue, with The Walt Disney Company, Warner Bros. Discovery, & Paramount Global completing the top four. In 1984, fifty independent media companies owned the majority of media interests within the United States. By 2011, 90% of the United States's media was controlled by six media conglomerates: GE/Comcast (NBC, Universal), News Corp (Fox News, Wall Street Journal, New York Post), Disney (ABC, ESPN, Pixar), Viacom (MTV, BET, Paramount Pictures), Time Warner (CNN, HBO, Warner Bros.), and CBS (Showtime, NFL.com). Between 1941 and 1975, several laws that restricted channel ownership within radio and television were enacted in order to maintain unbiased and diverse media. However under the Reagan administration, Congress and the Federal Communications Commission, then led by FCC Chairman Mark S. Fowler, began a concerted deregulation over the years 1981 and 1985. The number of television stations a single entity can own increased from seven to 12 stations. The industry continued to deregulate with enactment of the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Signed by President Bill Clinton on 8 February 1996, it was considered by the FCC to be the "first major overhaul of telecommunications law in almost 62 years". In the radio industry, the 40-station ownership cap was lifted, leading to an unprecedented amount of consolidation. Since this period, IHeartMedia grew from 40 stations to 1200 stations, in all 50 states, while Viacom grew to owning 180 stations across 41 markets. As media consolidation grew, some in the nation began to speculate how it might negatively impact society at large. In the case of Minot, North Dakota, the concerns regarding media consolidation is realized. On 18 January 2002, a train containing hazardous chemicals derailed in the middle of the night, exposing countless Minot residents to toxic waste. Upon trying to get out an emergency broadcast, the Minot police were unable to reach anyone. They were instead forwarded to the same automated message, as all the broadcast stations in Minot were single-handedly owned by IHeartMedia. As the FCC reviews media ownership rules, broadcasters continued to petition it for the elimination of all rules, while those who are against this easing would often cite the incident in Minot as how consolidation could be harmful. Canada, Australia, the Philippines, and New Zealand also experience the concentration of multiple media enterprises in a few companies. This concentration is an ongoing concern for the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission, the Australian Communications and Media Authority, the Philippine National Telecommunications Commission, and New Zealand's Broadcasting Standards Authority. Other countries that have large media conglomerates with impacts on the world include: Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, France, China, Mexico and Brazil. Media conglomerates outside of the United States include Fujisankei Communications Group (Fuji Television), Yomiuri Shimbun Holdings, Hubert Burda Media, ITV, ProSiebenSat.1, Mediaset, Axel Springer, JCDecaux, China Central Television, Alibaba Group, ABS-CBN Corporation, GMA Network, MediaQuest Holdings, Radio Philippines Network, Aliw Broadcasting Corporation, Radio Mindanao Network, Advanced Media Broadcasting System, People's Television Network, Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation, Presidential Broadcast Service, Viva Communications, Prasar Bharati, The Asahi Shimbun, Grupo Televisa, TV Azteca, Grupo Imagen, Grupo Globo, Baidu, GMM Grammy and Bertelsmann. === United States === === International === == See also == Media imperialism Media proprietor State media Multinational corporation Lists of corporate assets Dispersal of ownership == References ==	Wikipedia/Media_conglomerate
A Scottish charitable incorporated organisation (SCIO) is a corporate form of business designed for (and only available to) charitable organisations in Scotland, similar to (but with important differences from) a charitable incorporated organisation in England and Wales. == Overview == CIO status is conferred by the Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator on application by a charity, whether new or existing. The main benefits of the form are that the charity has legal personality (the ability to enter contracts, sue and be sued, and to hold property in its own name - rather than in the name of its trustees), and its members have limited liability (their liability in the event the charity becomes insolvent is limited or nil). Gareth G Morgan of Schulich School of Business at York University says: the development of CIOs has taken a different path with far greater jurisdictional differences than would be needed simply to accommodate the different legal systems... in Scotland the emphasis seems to have been on simplicity and pragmatism, whilst in England and Wales the focus appears to be more on retaining corporate parallels with company law. These differences are particularly evident in the vastly different insolvency regimes, and in the order of magnitude difference in the detail of the secondary legislation. == History == The Scottish regulator began registering SCIOs in April 2011, and a fifth of new Scottish charities registered by December of that year were SCIOs. To spread the workload for the regulator, existing charitable companies and industrial and provident societies were unable to convert to SCIOs until 2012; other forms of charity in Scotland were able to apply from April 2011. == References ==	Wikipedia/Scottish_charitable_incorporated_organisation
A corporate group, company group or business group, also formally known as a group of companies, is a collection of parent and subsidiary corporations that function as a single economic entity through a common source of control. These types of groups are often managed by an account manager. The concept of a group is frequently used in tax law and accounting and (less frequently) company law to attribute the rights and duties of one member of the group to another or the whole. If the corporations are engaged in entirely different businesses, the group is called a conglomerate. The forming of corporate groups usually involves consolidation via mergers and acquisitions, although the group concept focuses on the instances in which the merged and acquired corporate entities remain in existence rather than the instances in which they are dissolved by the parent. The group may be owned by a holding company which may have no actual operations. == Legal independence == A corporate group is composed of companies. The general rule is that a company is a separate legal entity from its shareholders, that is the shareholder's liability for the subsidiary's debts is limited to the value of the shares, and the shareholders cannot be required to perform the company's obligations. However, some jurisdictions create exceptions to this rule. For example, Germany has created affiliated enterprise law which provides situations in which one company is liable for the debts of another company. In New Zealand, the Companies Act provides that the assets of related companies may be pooled to pay the creditors if one of the companies is liquidated. However, the circumstances in which this power will be exercised are very narrow. Berkey v Third Avenue Railway == Economic dependence == Concern (business) DHN v Tower Hamlets LBC EU Seventh Company Law Directive 83/349, on group accounts EU Draft Ninth Company Law Directive, on corporate groups == Law == === Accounting === EU Seventh Company Law Directive 83/349, on group accounts === Civil law === Salomon v Salomon Berkey v Third Avenue Railway Adams v Cape Industries plc === Codetermination === Mitbestimmungsgesetz == Definition == Leff defines "business group" as a group of companies that does business in different markets under common administrative or financial control whose members are linked by relations of interpersonal trust on the basis of similar personal ethnic or commercial background. One method of defining a group is as a cluster of legally distinct firms with a managerial relationship. The relationship between the firms in a group may be formal or informal. A keiretsu is one type of business group. A concern is another. Douma and Schreuder (2013) distinguish "horizontal" and "vertical business groups" as follows: 'Business groups can be horizontal or vertical as far as their structure is concerned. In a horizontal business group there is no central holding company – the group companies are connected through various formal or informal ties, including reciprocal shareholding. Thus, a horizontal business group is a rather loose confederation of firms. Coordination between them is achieved mainly by mutual adjustment and standardization of norms. Mitsubishi is a well-known example of a horizontal business group as are many other keiretsu. Chinese groups exhibit similar features. Horizontal business groups are also referred to as "associative business groups". A vertical business group is a group of companies controlled, but not entirely owned, by a single investor. Vertical groups are often organized as pyramids of companies controlled by the main investor through a holding company. A unique feature of pyramidal holdings is that it allows the main investor to exert control with a limited amount of capital. Korean chaebols, Indian business houses and most European business groups are vertical in character. Vertical business groups are also referred to as "hierarchical business groups". Encarnation refers to Indian business houses, emphasizing multiple forms of ties among group members. Powell and Smith-Doerr state that a business group is a network of firms that regularly collaborate over a long time period. Granovetter argues that business groups refers to an intermediate level of binding, excluding on the one hand a set of firms bound merely by short-term alliances and on the other a set of firms legally consolidated into a single unit. Williamson claims that business groups lie between markets and hierarchies; this is further worked out by Douma & Schreuder. Khanna and Rivkin suggest that business groups are typically not legal constructs though some regulatory bodies have attempted to codify a definition. In the United Arab Emirates, a business group can also be known as a trade association. Typical examples are Adidas Group or Icelandair Group. == See also == Business alliance Chaebol Concern Conglomerate Holding company Keiretsu Subsidiary Zaibatsu Multinational corporation == Further reading == Schmitthoff CM, and Wooldridge F, (eds), Groups of Companies (Sweet & Maxwell 1991) Blumberg PI, The Law of Corporate Groups: Tort, Contract and Other Common Law Problems in the Substantive Law of Parent and Subsidiary Corporations (Little, Brown and Company 1987) Witting C, Liability of Corporate Groups and Networks (Cambridge University Press 2018) Morris CHR, The Law of Financial Services Groups (Oxford University Press 2019) == Notes ==	Wikipedia/Corporate_group
Energy balance, in terms of energy economics, is concerned with all processes within an organization that have a reference to energy. It derives from the ecobalance and has the ambition to analyze and verify the emergence, transformation and use of energy resources in an organization in detail. Energy balances serve as a major statistical data base for energy policy and energy management decisions. They contain important information such as the amount and composition of energy consumption, its changes or the transformation of energy. Countries and NGOs publish energy balances, for instance World Energy Balances published by the International Energy Agency IEA. == Approach == The basic idea of a balance is that nothing can get lost or annihilated - this fits to the first law of thermodynamics, which assigns energy this property. But energy splits up during usage and its output does not have the same potential for the physical performance as before. For this reason it is important to distinguish between input and output of energy usage. The input side can easily be measured with the help of the meter readings. But on the output side there may be effects that are difficulty predictable, such as heat, dust or noise. In this context it is very interesting, how much of the energy used has actually reached the intended use. Based on this calculation, improvement measures can be derived. A separation in energy sources and places of consumption is necessary. An Outline based on the cost centre of the organization is also possible. == See also == Energy system Worldwide energy supply == References ==	Wikipedia/Energy_balance_(energy_economics)
An insular energy system or isolated energy system is defined by a country’s inability, due to smallness and/or remoteness, to interconnect with other electricity generators and consumers through a wider transmission grid outside its national borders. As a result, the country cannot take advantage of the more efficient neighboring electricity markets. This type of energy system is typically detected in small islands or in mainland countries where the costs for constructing infrastructure for power transmission purposes are prohibitively high, or in cases where a country may be isolated due to political issues. == Energy mix == The energy mix of insular energy systems is dominated by diesel and heavy fuel oil. The vast amounts of imported fossil fuel necessary to fulfil the energy needs of these systems create instability in the economy as well as the security of the countries. Additionally, the domination of fossil-fueled energy generation is strongly supported by several other factors, including the inefficiency of indigenous energy resources, the limited infrastructure of energy delivery, the lack of storage, and the flexibility of the power generators to meet seasonal needs. Insular energy systems typically have only a few independent power producers and a limited range of power generation technologies. Furthermore, there is lack of attractive support schemes or incentives for the progression of the system from fossil fuels to renewable and low-carbon energy sources. At the same time, their efforts to meet international or European obligations often fail and are normally also costly. == Disadvantages == A number of issues make the energy generation of insular systems extremely expensive and less secure. First, the great dependency of insular energy systems on imported energy sources for electricity generation and their associated high transportation and shipping costs are reflected in the electricity pricing. Additionally, the small sizes of these systems limit not only the production and consumption capacities, but also the establishment and growth of significant internal markets. Also, the dominance of a sole public or private energy producer means that a single stakeholder is fully responsible for generating, transmitting and distributing electricity and in control of the associated investment decisions, programmes, and tariff setting. The reduction of GHG emissions is another great challenge for insular energy systems given that most of their electricity production is based on fossil fuels. == Classification of systems == Insular energy systems can be divided into three categories according to their installed power capacity and location: Category A: Islands of up to 100 MW of installed capacity The countries found in this category have limited energy demand and large distance from the mainland. Only a limited number of these countries utilize renewable energy sources, contributing up to 5% of the energy mix. Category B: Islands from 100 MW up to 15GW of installed capacity The majority of the islands in this category exploit, to a small or large extent, renewable energy sources due to their larger consumption demand and higher GDPs. Category C: Mainland countries with no grid interconnection The GDP of the majority of countries found in this category is very low. The political situation in these countries limits the investment in electricity infrastructure, as health and military issues are typically more alarming and urgent to resolve. Conversely, this category also includes mainland nations that do not export or import electricity to their neighbours and are as also major petroleum exporting countries including Qatar, UAE and Saudi Arabia. It is evident that the abundance of fossil fuels found in these countries has not alarmed them to turn to renewable energy resources. == Transition to smart energy systems == The transition to smart systems can be achieved through a variety of measures and policies including: the promotion of energy efficiency measures; the establishment of smart grids; the utilization of renewable energy technologies; the installation of large storage systems. However, every action should preliminarily take into consideration the local conditions of the energy system, as well as the economic feasibility. Exploiting renewable energy sources can contribute significantly in reducing the level of energy imports of insular energy systems with positive impacts for the balance of trade and security of supply. Yet, there are obstacles that need to be overcome before renewable energy generation penetrates the insular energy systems. Renewable energy technologies are less reliable than conventional technologies due to the fact that the energy production is variable and weather dependent and thus additional technologies such as energy storage are required. Monopolistic power sectors also prevent the development of smaller scale renewable electricity generation that would be more efficient and cost-competitive and put conventional technologies in a preferential position due to the earlier profit resulting from the lower capital costs. == References ==	Wikipedia/Insular_energy_system
An energy service company (ESCO) is a company that provides a broad range of energy solutions including designs and implementation of energy savings projects, retrofitting, energy conservation, energy infrastructure outsourcing, power generation, energy supply, and risk management. A newer breed of ESCO includes innovative financing methods, such as off-balance sheet mechanisms, a range of applicable equipment configured in such a way that reduces the energy cost of a building. The ESCO starts by performing an analysis of the property, designs an energy efficient solution, installs the required elements, and maintains the system to ensure energy savings during the payback period. The savings in energy costs are often used to pay back the capital investment of the project over a five to twenty years period or reinvested into the building to allow the capital upgrades that may otherwise be unfeasible. If the project does not provide returns on the investment, the ESCO is often responsible to pay the difference. == History == === The beginning === The start of the energy services business can be attributed to the energy crisis of the late 1970s, as entrepreneurs developed ways to combat the rise in energy costs. One of the earliest examples was a company in Texas, Time Energy, which introduced a device to automate the switching of lights and other equipment to regulate energy use. The primary reason that the product did not initially sell was because potential users doubted that the savings would actually rise. To combat this doubt, the company decided to install the device upfront and ask for a percentage of the savings that was accumulated. The result was the basis for the ESCO model. Through this process, the company achieved higher sales and more return since the savings were large. === Industry growth through the 1970s and 1980s === As more entrepreneurs saw this market grow, more companies came into creation. The first wave of ESCOs were often small divisions of large energy companies or small, upstart, independent companies. However, after the energy crisis came to an end, the companies had little leverage on potential clients to perform energy-saving projects, given the lower cost of energy. This prevented the growth experienced in the late 1970s from continuing. The industry grew slowly through the 1970s and 1980s, spurred by specialist firms such as Hospital Efficiency Corporation (HEC Inc.), established in 1982 to focus on the energy intensive medical sector. HEC Inc., later renamed Select Energy Services, was acquired in 1990 by Northeast Utilities, and sold in 2006 to Ameresco. === The 1990s: Utilities and consolidated energy companies become the major players === With the rising cost of energy and the availability of efficiency technologies in lighting, HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning), and building energy management, ESCO projects became much more commonplace. The term ESCO has also become more widely known among potential clients looking to upgrade their building systems that are either outdated and need to be replaced, or for campus and district energy plant upgrades. With deregulation in the U.S. energy markets in the 1990s, the energy services business experienced a rapid rise. Utilities, which for decades enjoyed the shelter of monopolies with guaranteed returns on power plant investments, now had to compete to supply power to many of their largest customers. They now looked to energy services as a potential new business line to retain their existing large customers. Also, with the new opportunities on the supply side, many energy services companies (ESCOs) started to expand into the generation market, building district power plants or including cogeneration facilities within efficiency projects. For example, in November 1996 BGA, Inc., formerly a privately held, regional energy performance contracting and consulting company was acquired by TECO Energy, and in 2004 was acquired by Chevron Corporation. In 1998, BGA entered the District Energy Plant business, completing construction on the first 3rd-party owned and operated district cooling plant in Florida. === Decade of the 2000s: Consolidation, exit of many utilities === In the wake of the Enron collapse in 2001, and the sputtering or reverse of deregulation efforts, many utilities shut down or sold their energy services businesses. There was a significant consolidation among the remaining independent firms. According to the industry group NAESCO, revenues of ESCOs in the U.S. grew by 22% in 2006, reaching $3.6 billion. == ESCO operating principles == === Introduction === An energy service company (ESCO) is a company that provides comprehensive energy solutions to its customers, including auditing, redesigning and implementing changes to the ways the customer consumes energy, the main goal being improved efficiency. Other possible services provided include energy infrastructure outsourcing, energy supply, financing and risk management. It is this comprehensiveness of services that differentiates an ESCO from a common energy company, whose main business is solely providing energy to its customers. Typically compensation to the ESCO is performance based so that the benefits of improved energy efficiency are shared between the client and the ESCO. ESCOs often use performance contracting, meaning that if the project does not provide returns on the investment, the ESCO is responsible to pay the difference, thus assuring their clients of the energy and cost savings. Therefore, ESCOs are fundamentally different from consulting engineers and equipment contractors: the former are typically paid for their advice, whereas the latter are paid for the equipment, and neither accept any project risk. The risk-free nature of the service the ESCOs provide offers a convincing incentive for their clients to invest. Some typical characteristic of ESCOs are as follows: Ownership – ESCOs may be privately owned companies, either independent or part of a large conglomerate, state-owned, nonprofits, joint ventures, manufacturers or manufacturers' subsidiaries. Clients – ESCOs typically specialize on market niches by sector (industries, utilities, real estate, etc.) and by size (large or small projects). Technology – Some ESCOs have a technological specialization (e.g. lighting, HVAC, a particular industrial process) whereas others are aim for a holistic approach. Project financing – Financing capabilities vary with the financial situation of the ESCO. Some have large parent companies, which allows them to self-finance projects. However, all ESCOs rely to some extent on third-party financing. === Developing a project === The energy savings project often begins with the development of ideas that would generate energy savings, and in turn, cost savings. This task is usually the responsibility of the ESCO. The ESCO often approaches a potential client with a proposal of an energy savings project and a performance contract. This ESCO is said to “drive” the project. Once the owner is aware of the possibility of an energy savings project, he or she may choose to place it out for bid, or just stick with the original ESCO. During the initial period of research and investigation, an energy auditor from the ESCO surveys the site and reviews the project's systems to determine areas where cost savings are feasible, usually free of charge to the client. This is the energy audit, and the phase is often referred to as the feasibility study. A hypothesis of the potential project is developed by the client and the auditor, and then the ESCO's engineering development team expands upon and compiles solutions. This next phase is referred to as the engineering and design phase, which further defines the project and can provide more firm cost and savings estimates. The engineers are responsible for creating cost-effective measures to obtain the highest potential of energy savings. These measures can range from highly efficient lighting and heating/air conditioning upgrades, to more productive motors with variable speed drives and centralized energy management systems. There is a wide array of measures that can produce large energy savings. Once the project has been developed and a performance contract signed, the construction or implementation phase begins. Following the completion of this phase, the monitoring and maintenance or Measurement and Verification (M & V) phase begins. This phase is the verification of the pre-construction calculations and is used to determine the actual cost savings. This phase is not always included in the performance contract. In fact, there are three options the owner must consider during the performance contract review. These options are, from least to most expensive: No warranty other than that provided on the equipment. ESCO provided M & V to show the projected energy savings during the short term following completion. ESCO provided M & V to show the projected energy savings during the entire payback period. A typical transaction involves the ESCO borrowing cash to purchase equipment or to implement energy-savings for its clients. The client pays the ESCO its regular energy cost (or a large fraction of it), but the energy savings enable the ESCO to pay only a fraction of that to their energy supplier. The difference goes to pay the interest on the loan and to profit. Typically, ESCOs are able to implement and finance the efficiency improvements better than their client company could by itself. === Choosing an ESCO === Once the project has been defined, but before much of the engineering work has been completed, it may be necessary to choose an ESCO by putting the project “out to bid”. This is usually the case when the client has developed the project on his or her own or is required to allow others to bid on the work as required by the government. The latter is the case on any state or federally funded project. The typical process includes a Request for qualifications (RFQ) in which the interested ESCO's submit their corporate resumes, business profiles, experience, and initial plan. Once received, the client creates a “short list” of 3-5 companies. This list is of the companies whose profile for the project best matches with the owners’ ideas in the RFQ. The client then asks for a Request for Proposal (RFP) that is a much more detailed explanation of the project. This document contains all cost savings measures, products, M & V plans, and the performance contract. The client often allows a minimum of six weeks to compile the information before having it submitted. Once submitted, the Proposals are then reviewed by the client, who may conduct interviews with the applicants. The client then selects the ESCO that presents the best possible solution to the energy project, as determined by the client. A good ESCO will help the owner put all the pieces together from start to finish. According to the Energy Services Coalition, “A qualified ESCO can help you put the pieces together: Identify and evaluate energy-saving opportunities; Develop engineering designs and specifications; Manage the project from design to installation to monitoring; Arrange for financing; Train your staff and provide ongoing maintenance services; and Guarantee that savings will cover all project costs.” === Energy savings tracking methods === After installing energy conservation measures (ECMs), ESCOs often determine the energy savings resulting from the project and present the savings results to their customers. A common way to calculate energy savings is to measure the flows of energy associated with the ECM, and then to apply spreadsheet calculations to determine savings. For example, a chiller retrofit would require measurements of chilled water supply and return temperatures and kW. The benefit of this approach is that the ECM is isolated, and that only energy flows associated with the ECM itself are considered. This method is described as Option A or Option B in the International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP). Table 1 presents the different options. Option A requires some measurement and allows for estimations of some parameters. Option B requires measurement of all parameters. In both options, calculations are done (typically in spreadsheets) to determine energy savings. Option C uses utility bills to determine energy savings. There are many situations where Option A or Option B (Metering and Calculating) is the best approach to measuring energy savings, however, some ESCOs insist upon only using Option A or Option B, when clearly Option C would be most appropriate. If the ESCO was a lighting contractor, then Option A should work in all cases. Spot measurements of fixtures before and after, agreed upon hours of operation, and simple calculations can be inserted into a spreadsheet that can calculate savings. The same spreadsheet can be used over and over. However, for ESCOs that offer a variety of different retrofits, it is necessary to be able to employ all options so that the best option can be selected for each individual job. Controls Retrofits, or retrofits to HVAC systems are typically excellent candidates for Option C. After installing the energy conservation measures (ECMs), the savings created from the project must be determined. This process, termed Measurement and Verification (M&V), is frequently performed by the ESCO, but may also be performed by the customer or a third party. The International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP) is the standard M&V guideline for determining actual savings created by an energy management program. Because savings are the absence of energy use, they cannot be directly measured. IPMVP provides 4 methods for using measurement to reliably determine actual savings. A plan for applying the most appropriate of the 4 general methods to a specific project is typically created and agreed upon by all parties before implementation of the ECMs. IPMVP Option A – Retrofit Isolation: Key Parameter Measurement Savings are determined by field measurement of the key performance parameter(s) which define the energy use of the ECM's affected system(s). Parameters not selected for field measurement are estimated. IPMVP Option B – Retrofit Isolation: All Parameter Measurement Savings are determined by field measurement of the energy use of the ECM-affected system. IPMVP Option C – Whole Facility Savings are determined by measuring energy use at the whole facility or sub-facility level. IPMVP Option D – Calibrated Simulation Savings are determined through simulation of the energy use of the facility, or of a sub-facility. The simulation model must be calibrated so that it predicts an energy pattern that approximately matches actual metered data. Table 1 provides suggested IPMVP options for different project characteristics. For each project, an M&V approach which balances the uncertainty in achieved savings and the cost of the M&V plan should be selected. Some plans include only short term verification approaches and others include repeated measurements for an extended period. Because the expense of determining the amount of savings achieved erodes the benefit of the savings themselves, IPMVP suggests not spending more than 10% of the expected savings on M&V. Often M&V approaches are bundled with other monitoring, support, or maintenance services that help achieve or ensure the savings performance. These costs should not be considered M&V expenses and depending on the project and services details, may greatly exceed 10% of the savings. === Using the savings === Once the project is completed the immediate results of energy savings (often between 15 and 35 percent), and the long term maintenance costs can be put towards the capital investment of upgrading the energy system. This is often how ESCOs and performance contracts work. The initial implementation is done, in a sense, free of charge, with the payment coming from the percentage of the energy savings collected by a financing company or the ESCO. The client may also wish to use some capital investment money to lower that percentage during the payback period. The payback period can range from five to twenty years, depending on the negotiated contract. Most state or federally funded projects have a max payback of 15 years. Once the equipment and project have been paid for, the client may be entitled to the full amount of savings to use at their will. It is also common to see large capital improvements financed through energy savings projects. Upgrades to the mechanical/electrical system, new building envelope components, or even restorations and retrofits may be included in the contract even though they have no effect on the amount of energy savings. By using the energy savings, the client may be able to put the funds once used to pay for energy towards the capital improvement that would otherwise be unfeasible with the currently allotted funding. == U. S. Federal Program: "Super-ESPC" == Since its creation in the 1990s, a single U. S. government program known as "Super-ESPC" (ESPC stands for Energy Savings Performance Contracts) has been responsible for $2.9B in ESCO contracts. The program was modified and reauthorized in December 2008, and sixteen firms were awarded Indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity (IDIQ) contracts for up to $5B each, for total potential energy-savings projects worth $80B. Grouping the sixteen firms provides a convenient illustration of the industry structure and the ways that each firm generates value through projects that use the ESCO model of energy-savings performance contracts. Equipment-affiliated firms use performance contracting as a sales channel for their products. Utility-affiliated firms offer ESCO projects as a value-added service to attract and retain large customers and generally focus only on their utility footprint. Non-utility energy services companies are product neutral, tend to have a larger geographic footprint, and typically offer a wide range of services from energy retrofits to renewable energy development. Equipment affiliated NORESCO (Carrier) Honeywell Building Solutions SES Johnson Controls Government Systems, L.L.C. (York) Schneider Electric Siemens Government Services, Inc. Trane Utility affiliated ConEdison Constellation FPL Energy Services Pepco Energy Services Energy Systems Group Non-utility energy services Ameresco (Ennovate, Exelon Services Federal Group, E3, APS...Acquired) The Benham Companies, LLC (SAIC Acquired) CEG Solutions LLC (formerly Clark Energy Group LLC) Lockheed Martin Services, Inc. McKinstry Brewer Garrett == ESCO 2.0 == In June 2005, the GAO released a report, “Energy Savings: Performance Contracts Offer Benefits, But Vigilance Is Needed To Protect Government Interests.” The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Technology, Acquisition, and Logistics agreed with the GAO findings. “While these complicated contracts are structured to ensure that savings will exceed costs,” the DOD noted, “we recognize that our measurement and verification procedures must be improved to confirm estimates with actual data.” Unverified savings, often stipulated rather than proven, do not put more oil in the ground, take CO2 out of the air or reduce operating budgets The GAO ESPC study brings into question whether or not there is sufficient data to prove that the gains delivered by ESCOs are sustainable over time. The study further questions the practice of having ESCOs monitoring and validating the performance of their own projects. In fact, most buildings and facilities exhibit the same basic limitations with respect to energy conservation and optimum maintenance. US Federal studies show that major and minor building systems routinely fail to meet performance expectations, and these faults often go unnoticed over time. The functions of a building, the number of tenants, and the configuration of the space change over time in unanticipated manners that adversely affect the systems that control building performance. Surprisingly, almost all buildings, building complexes, and systems inside buildings still operate in a disconnected, stand-alone manner. Proprietary systems result in buildings that needlessly waste energy. Recent studies have found that roughly 30% of LEED certified buildings perform substantially better than anticipated, while 25% perform substantially worse than anticipated. In general, LEED certified buildings perform 25-30% better than non-LEED certified buildings with regards to energy use. It is ultimately difficult or impossible for customers to construct a single integrated picture that correlates energy usage and maintenance costs to control system performance, space usage, conservation measures, and the behavior of those using the facility space. A more recent phenomenon is the concept of combining the benefits of performance contracting with the benefits of green buildings, affectionately described as green performance contracting. The reason the concept makes sense is because for green buildings, the costliest prerequisites to meet are usually the energy efficiency requirements. The LEED rating system requires buildings to be benchmarked using the EPA EnergyStar system. The minimum score to meet the LEED prerequisites is a score of 75 or greater (meaning the building is in the top 75 percentile of benchmarked buildings). Since performance contracting attempts to find all the sources of energy waste, then a building that has gone through the performance contracting process should meet the LEED prerequisite. Green performance contracting can be used to achieve sustainability goals in new building design and construction as well as in existing buildings. New Buildings: Higher-efficiency choices are compared to the modeled performance of the as-designed less-efficient building. Applying performance contracting to buildings being designed and built is the perfect cure for pressure to “value engineer” the efficiency and sustainability out of new buildings as they are designed. In new buildings, performance contracting bridges the gap between the first-cost and life-cycle-cost perspectives by using long-term energy savings to pay for the incremental first-cost of high-efficiency measures. Existing buildings: Green performance contracting provides a mechanism for implementing and financing the building's efficiency and sustainability upgrades, including improved operations. Achieving sustainable building performance in existing buildings can be done at reasonable costs. If needed, system or building upgrades can be spread out over time and implemented when capital dollars become available. Green performance contracting provides comprehensive integrated solutions to a wide variety of building, site and infrastructure improvements, and it allows building owners to pay for these building sustainability improvements, including capital improvements or renewable energy, with funds in the organization's expense budget. The result is a better performing building along with all the public relations and marketing benefits of green buildings. === Retro-commissioning === Studies show that virtually every building suffers from incompletely installed controls systems, excessive chilling and heating capacity, and an inability to obtain the data needed to let senior decision makers understand how a building is really performing. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) found that an average building lasts only two-thirds of its forecast life before it needs to be replaced or substantially retrofitted. Often the explanation for this cluster of problems is incomplete or improper building commissioning at the beginning of the building's life cycle. (Building commissioning is the start-up process by which every new building's systems are initially configured and calibrated to its occupancy loads to get it up and running.) According to NIST, the time needed to do building commissioning right is rarely available, defects and opportunities are overlooked, and system potential goes unrealized. Over time equipment performance and control sequences naturally degrade, and substandard performance or even failures of systems and components go unrecognized. The ultimate result is almost universal waste of various kinds, including substantial energy and maintenance cost. === Independent Measurement and Verification === Few, if any, of these factors are addressable by the Energy Services Companies or through ESPCs because the information needed to define the real problems is not captured. There is a clear need for integrated solutions that offer the kind of accountability and transparency — and plenty of the “actual data” — that is currently lacking in the ESPC process. What is needed in fact is an independent means of continuously monitoring performance so that buildings reach peak performance sooner and maintain peak performance over time (as represented by the yellow field in the figure) despite changes in use, maintenance, energy cost, and user behavior. === Key components of ESCO 2.0 === Real-time integration and visibility of building management systems, metering subsystems, and asset management applications. Automated, real-time analysis and reporting of key performance indicators associated with subsystem operations, energy use, and equipment maintenance management. Recommendations for results-oriented energy usage and maintenance program refinements that will enable energy reduction targets to be met or exceeded. On-going monitoring of subsystems to continually expand energy conservation efforts and maintenance management improvements for further cost reductions. Independent verification of ESCO and other Energy Conservation Measures (ECM) programs. US Federal reporting into OMB Scorecard === UK and European based ESCOs === A number of firms have started offering ESCO services in Europe. As in the US, some belong to utilities, some belong to manufacturers and others are independent. == See also == Efficient energy use Industrial Assessment Center RESCO – renewable energy service company == References == == External links == AssoESCo - Associazione italiana delle Energy Service Company e degli Operatori dell'Efficienza Energetica ESCO Europe conference, 20-21, Milan, Italy New York Times, Sept 1, 2008 Ambit and other ESCOs for consumers	Wikipedia/Energy_service_company
The Annual Review of Environment and Resources is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that publishes review articles about environmental science and environmental engineering. It was first published in 1976 under the name the Annual Review of Energy. In 1991, the name was changed to the Annual Review of Energy and the Environment; it was again retitled in 2003 to the Annual Review of Environment and Resources. Beginning in 2020, it was published open access under the Subscribe to Open (S2O) publishing model. == History == The first volume of the journal was published in by Annual Reviews in 1976, under the title the Annual Review of Energy. One of the events that sparked its creation was the 1970s energy crisis. Unlike previous Annual Reviews titles, its subject area was interdisciplinary and lacked a history of literature. The first volume covered the energy system of the United States, and the journal's first editor was Jack M. Hollander. In 1991, the journal's name was changed to the Annual Review of Energy and the Environment. This was done in recognition that energy research and issues were interconnected with environmental issues. In 2003, the focus on the environment was further emphasized with an additional name change, to the Annual Review of Environment and Resources. Content published in the journal relates to environmental science and environmental engineering, such as ecology, conservation biology, energy development, hydrology, climate change, oceanography, and agriculture. Under Annual Reviews's Subscribe to Open publishing model, it was announced that the 2020 volume of Annual Review of Environment and Resources would be published open access, a first for the journal. As of 2020, it was published both in print and electronically. == Abstracting and indexing == According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2023 impact factor of 15.5 ranking it third of 182 journals in the category "Environmental Studies (SSCI)" and sixth of 358 journals in the category "Environmental Science (SCIE)". === Editors of volumes === Dates indicate publication years in which someone was credited as a lead editor or co-editor of a journal volume. The planning process for a volume begins well before the volume appears, so appointment to the position of lead editor generally occurred prior to the first year shown here. An editor who has retired or died may be credited as a lead editor of a volume that they helped to plan, even if it is published after their retirement or death. Jack M. Hollander (1975–1992) Robert H. Socolow (1993–2002) Pamela Matson (2003–2008) Ashok Gadgil and Diana Liverman (2009–2014) Gadgil, Liverman and Thomas P. Tomich (2015) Gadgil & Tomich (2016–present) == References == == External links == Official website	Wikipedia/Annual_Review_of_Energy
An energy transition (or energy system transformation) is a major structural change to energy supply and consumption in an energy system. Currently, a transition to sustainable energy is underway to limit climate change. Most of the sustainable energy is renewable energy. Therefore, another term for energy transition is renewable energy transition. The current transition aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from energy quickly and sustainably, mostly by phasing-down fossil fuels and changing as many processes as possible to operate on low carbon electricity. A previous energy transition perhaps took place during the Industrial Revolution from 1760 onwards, from wood and other biomass to coal, followed by oil and later natural gas. Over three-quarters of the world's energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels, but this usage emits greenhouse gases. Energy production and consumption are responsible for most human-caused greenhouse gas emissions. To meet the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change, emissions must be reduced as soon as possible and reach net-zero by mid-century. Since the late 2010s, the renewable energy transition has also been driven by the rapidly falling cost of both solar and wind power. After 2024, clean energy is cheaper than ever. Global solar module prices fell 35 percent to less than 9 cents/kWh. EV batteries saw their best price decline in seven years.Another benefit of the energy transition is its potential to reduce the health and environmental impacts of the energy industry. Heating of buildings is being electrified, with heat pumps being the most efficient technology by far. To improve the flexibility of electrical grids, the installation of energy storage and super grids are vital to enable the use of variable, weather-dependent technologies. However fossil-fuel subsidies are slowing the energy transition. == Definition == An energy transition is a broad shift in technologies and behaviours that are needed to replace one source of energy with another.: 202–203 A prime example is the change from a pre-industrial system relying on traditional biomass, wind, water and muscle power to an industrial system characterized by pervasive mechanization, steam power and the use of coal. The IPCC does not define energy transition in the glossary of its Sixth Assessment Report but it does define transition as: "The process of changing from one state or condition to another in a given period of time. Transition can occur in individuals, firms, cities, regions and nations, and can be based on incremental or transformative change." == Development of the term == After the 1973 oil crisis, the term energy transition was coined by politicians and media. It was popularised by US President Jimmy Carter in his 1977 Address on the Nation on Energy, calling to "look back into history to understand our energy problem. Twice in the last several hundred years, there has been a transition in the way people use energy ... Because we are now running out of gas and oil, we must prepare quickly for a third change to strict conservation and to the renewed use of coal and to permanent renewable energy sources like solar power." The term was later globalised after the 1979 second oil shock, during the 1981 United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy. From the 1990s, debates on energy transition have increasingly taken climate change mitigation into account. Parties to the agreement committed "to limit global warming to "well below 2 °C, preferably 1.5 °C compared to pre-industrial levels". This requires a rapid energy transition with a downshift of fossil fuel production to stay within the carbon emissions budget. In this context, the term energy transition encompasses a reorientation of energy policy. This could imply a shift from centralized to distributed generation. It also includes attempts to replace overproduction and avoidable energy consumption with energy-saving measures and increased efficiency. The historical transitions from locally supplied wood, water and wind energies to globally supplied fossil and nuclear fuels has induced growth in end-use demand through the rapid expansion of engineering research, education and standardisation. The mechanisms for the whole-systems changes include new discipline in Transition Engineering amongst all engineering professions, entrepreneurs, researchers and educators. However it has been argued that the term is a mere slogan and that rather than transitioning, as of 2024, use of all forms of primary energy has increased. == Examples of past energy transitions == Historic approaches to past energy transitions are shaped by two main discourses. One argues that humankind experienced several energy transitions in its past, while the other suggests the term "energy additions" as better reflecting the changes in global energy supply in the last three centuries. The chronologically first discourse was most broadly described by Vaclav Smil. It underlines the change in the energy mix of countries and the global economy. By looking at data in percentages of the primary energy source used in a given context, it paints a picture of the world's energy systems as having changed significantly over time, going from biomass to coal, to oil, and now a mix of mostly coal, oil and natural gas. Until the 1950s, the economic mechanism behind energy systems was local rather than global. The second discourse was most broadly described by Jean-Baptiste Fressoz. It emphasises that the term "energy transition" was first used by politicians, not historians, to describe a goal to achieve in the future – not as a concept to analyse past trends. When looking at the sheer amount of energy being used by humankind, the picture is one of ever-increasing consumption of all the main energy sources available to humankind. For instance, the increased use of coal in the 19th century did not replace wood consumption, indeed more wood was burned. Another example is the deployment of passenger cars in the 20th century. This evolution triggered an increase in both oil consumption (to drive the car) and coal consumption (to make the steel needed for the car). In other words, according to this approach, humankind never performed a single energy transition in its history but performed several energy additions. Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives, drivers and governance. As development progressed, different national systems became more and more integrated becoming the large, international systems seen today. Historical changes of energy systems have been extensively studied. While historical energy changes were generally protracted affairs, unfolding over many decades, this does not necessarily hold true for the present energy transition, which is unfolding under very different policy and technological conditions. For current energy systems, many lessons can be learned from history. The need for large amounts of firewood in early industrial processes in combination with prohibitive costs for overland transportation led to a scarcity of accessible (e.g. affordable) wood, and eighteenth century glass-works "operated like a forest clearing enterprise". When Britain had to resort to coal after largely having run out of wood, the resulting fuel crisis triggered a chain of events that two centuries later culminated in the Industrial Revolution. Similarly, increased use of peat and coal were vital elements paving the way for the Dutch Golden Age, roughly spanning the entire 17th century. Another example where resource depletion triggered technological innovation and a shift to new energy sources is 19th century whaling: whale oil eventually became replaced by kerosene and other petroleum-derived products. To speed up the energy transition it is also conceivable that there will be government buyouts or bailouts of coal mining regions. == Drivers for current energy transition == === Climate change mitigation and co-benefits === A rapid energy transition to very-low or zero-carbon sources is required to mitigate the effects of climate change.: 66 : 11 Coal, oil and gas combustion account for 89% of CO2 emissions: 20 and still provide 78% of primary energy consumption.: 12 Despite the knowledge about the risks of climate change and the increasing number of climate policies adopted since the 1980s, however, energy transitions have not accelerated towards decarbonization beyond historical trends and remain far off track in achieving climate targets. The deployment of renewable energy can generate co-benefits of climate change mitigation: positive socio-economic effects on employment, industrial development, health and energy access. Depending on the country and the deployment scenario, replacing coal power plants can more than double the number of jobs per average MW capacity. The energy transition could create many green jobs, for example in Africa. The costs for retraining workers for the renewable energy industry was found to be trivial for both coal in the U.S. and oil sands in Canada. The latter of which would only demand 2–6% of federal, provincial, and territorial oil and gas subsidies for a single year to be reallocated to provide oil and gas workers with a new career of approximately equivalent pay. In non-electrified rural areas, the deployment of solar mini-grids can significantly improve electricity access. Employment opportunities by the green transition are associated with the use of renewable energy sources or building activity for infrastructure improvements and renovations. === Energy security === Another important driver is energy security and independence, with increasing importance in Europe and Taiwan because of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Unlike Europes 2010s dependence on Russian gas, even if China stops supplying solar panels those already installed continue generating electricity. Militaries are using and developing electric vehicles, particularly for their stealthiness, but not tanks. As of 2023 renewable energy in Taiwan is far too small to help in a blockade. Centralised facilities such as oil refineries and thermal power plants can be put out of action by air attack, whereas although solar can be attacked decentralised power such as solar and wind may be less vulnerable. Solar and batteries reduces risky fuel convoys. However large hydropower plants are vulnerable. Some say that nuclear power plants are unlikely to be military targets, but others conclude that civil NPPs in war zones can be weaponised and exploited by the hostile forces not only for impeding energy supplies (and thus shattering the public morale of the adversary) but also for blackmailing and coercing the decisionmakers of the attacked state and their international allies with a vision of man-made nuclear disaster. === Economic development === For many developing economies, for example in the mineral-rich countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, the transition to renewable energies is predicted to become a driver of sustainable economic development. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has identified 37 minerals as critical for clean energy technologies and estimates that by 2050 global demand for these will increase by 235 per cent. Africa has large reserves of many of these so-called "green minerals, such as bauxite, cobalt, copper, chromium, manganese and graphite. The African Union has outlined a policy framework, the Africa Mining Vision, to leverage the continent's mineral reserves in pursuit of sustainable development and socio-economic transformation. Achieving these goals requires mineral-rich African economies to transition from commodity export to manufacture of higher value-added products. === Cost competitiveness of renewable energies === From 2010 to 2019, the competitiveness of wind and solar power substantially increased. Unit costs of solar energy dropped sharply by 85%, wind energy by 55%, and lithium-ion batteries by 85%.: 11 This has made wind and solar power the cheapest form for new installations in many regions. Levelized costs for combined onshore wind or solar with storage for a few hours are already lower than for gas peaking power plants. In 2021, the new electricity generating capacity of renewables exceeded 80% of all installed power.: 3 == Key technologies and approaches == The emissions reductions necessary to keep global warming below 2 °C will require a system-wide transformation of the way energy is produced, distributed, stored, and consumed.: 46 For a society to replace one form of energy with another, multiple technologies and behaviours in the energy system must change.: 202–203 Many climate change mitigation pathways envision three main aspects of a low-carbon energy system: The use of low-emission energy sources to produce electricity Electrification – that is increased use of electricity instead of directly burning fossil fuels Accelerated adoption of energy efficiency measures: 7.11.3 === Renewable energy === The most important energy sources in the low carbon energy transition are wind power and solar power. They could reduce net emissions by 4 billion tons CO2 equivalent per year each, half of it with lower net lifetime costs than the reference.: 38 Other renewable energy sources include bioenergy, geothermal energy and tidal energy, but they currently have higher net lifetime costs.: 38 By 2022, hydroelectricity is the largest source of renewable electricity in the world, providing 16% of the world's total electricity in 2019. However, because of its heavy dependence on geography and the generally high environmental and social impact of hydroelectric power plants, the growth potential of this technology is limited. Wind and solar power are considered more scalable, but still require vast quantities of land and materials. They have higher potential for growth. These sources have grown nearly exponentially in recent decades thanks to rapidly decreasing costs. In 2019, wind power supplied 5.3% worldwide electricity while solar power supplied 2.6%. While production from most types of hydropower plants can be actively controlled, production from wind and solar power depends on the weather. Electrical grids must be extended and adjusted to avoid wastage. Dammed hydropower is a dispatchable source, while solar and wind are variable renewable energy sources. These sources require dispatchable backup generation or energy storage to provide continuous and reliable electricity. For this reason, storage technologies also play a key role in the renewable energy transition. As of 2020, the largest scale storage technology is pumped storage hydroelectricity, accounting for the great majority of energy storage capacity installed worldwide. Other important forms of energy storage are electric batteries and power to gas. The "Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions" report by the IEA emphasizes the necessity of increasing grid investments to over $600 billion annually by 2030, up from $300 billion, to accommodate the integration of renewable energy. By 2040, the grid must expand by more than 80 million kilometers to manage renewable sources, which are projected to account for over 80% of the global power capacity increase over the next two decades. Failure to enhance grid infrastructure timely could lead to an additional 58 gigatonnes of CO2 emissions by 2050, significantly risking a 2°C global temperature rise. ==== Integration of variable renewable energy sources ==== With the integration of renewable energy, local electricity production is becoming more variable. It has been recommended that "coupling sectors, energy storage, smart grids, demand side management, sustainable biofuels, hydrogen electrolysis and derivatives will ultimately be needed to accommodate large shares of renewables in energy systems".: 28 Fluctuations can be smoothened by combining wind and sun power and by extending electricity grids over large areas. This reduces the dependence on local weather conditions. With highly variable prices, electricity storage and grid extension become more competitive. Researchers have found that "costs for accommodating the integration of variable renewable energy sources in electricity systems are expected to be modest until 2030".: 39 Furthermore, "it will be more challenging to supply the entire energy system with renewable energy".: 28 Fast fluctuations increase with a high integration of wind and solar energy. They can be addressed by operating reserves. Large-scale batteries can react within seconds and are increasingly used to keep the electricity grid stable. ==== 100% renewable energy ==== === Nuclear power === In the 1970s and 1980s, nuclear power gained a large share in some countries. In France and Slovakia more than half of the electrical power is still nuclear. It is a low carbon energy source but comes with risks and increasing costs. Since the late 1990s, deployment has slowed down. Decommissioning increases as many reactors are close to the end of their lifetime or long before because of anti-nuclear sentiments. Germany stopped its last three nuclear power plants by mid April 2023. On the other hand, the China General Nuclear Power Group is aiming for 200 GW by 2035, produced by 150 additional reactors. === Electrification === With the switch to clean energy sources where power is generated via electricity, end uses of energy such as transportation and heating need to be electrified to run on these clean energy sources. Concurrent with this switch is an expansion of the grid to handle larger amounts of generated electricity to supply to these end uses. Two key areas of electrification are electric vehicles and heat pumps. It is easier to sustainably produce electricity than it is to sustainably produce liquid fuels. Therefore, adoption of electric vehicles is a way to make transport more sustainable. While electric vehicle technology is relatively mature in road transport, electric shipping and aviation are still early in their development, hence sustainable liquid fuels may have a larger role to play in these sectors.: 139 A key sustainable solution to heating is electrification (heat pumps, or the less efficient electric heater). The IEA estimates that heat pumps currently provide only 5% of space and water heating requirements globally, but could provide over 90%. Use of ground source heat pumps not only reduces total annual energy loads associated with heating and cooling, it also flattens the electric demand curve by eliminating the extreme summer peak electric supply requirements. However, heat pumps and resistive heating alone will not be sufficient for the electrification of industrial heat. This because in several processes higher temperatures are required which cannot be achieved with these types of equipment. For example, for the production of ethylene via steam cracking temperatures as high as 900 °C are required. Hence, drastically new processes are required. Nevertheless, power-to-heat is expected to be the first step in the electrification of the chemical industry with an expected large-scale implementation by 2025. == Economic and geopolitical aspects == A shift in energy sources has the potential to redefine relations and dependencies between countries, stakeholders and companies. Countries or land owners with resources – fossil or renewable – face massive losses or gains depending on the development of any energy transition. In 2021, energy costs reached 13% of global gross domestic product. Global rivalries have contributed to the driving forces of the economics behind the low carbon energy transition. Technological innovations developed within a country have the potential to become an economic force. === Influences === The energy transition discussion is heavily influenced by contributions from the fossil fuel industries. One way that oil companies are able to continue their work despite growing environmental, social and economic concerns is by lobbying local and national governments. Historically, the fossil fuel lobby has been highly successful in limiting regulations. From 1988 to 2005, Exxon Mobil, one of the largest oil companies in the world, spent nearly $16 million in anti-climate change lobbying and providing misleading information about climate change to the general public. The fossil fuel industry acquires significant support through the existing banking and investment structure. The concept that the industry should no longer be financially supported has led to the social movement known as divestment. Divestment is defined as the removal of investment capital from stocks, bonds or funds in oil, coal and gas companies for both moral and financial reasons. Banks, investing firms, governments, universities, institutions and businesses are all being challenged with this new moral argument against their existing investments in the fossil fuel industry and many; such as Rockefeller Brothers Fund, the University of California, New York City and more; have begun making the shift to more sustainable, eco-friendly investments. In 2024 the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) projected that by 2050, over half of the world's energy will be carried by electricity and over three-quarters of the global energy mix will be from renewables. Although overtaken by both biomass and clean hydrogen, fossil fuels were still projected to supply 12% of energy. The transition is expected to reshape geopolitical power by reducing reliance on long-distance fossil fuel trade and enhancing the importance of regional energy markets. == Social and environmental aspects == === Impacts === A renewable energy transition can present negative social impacts for some people who rely on the existing energy economy or who are affected by mining for minerals required for the transition. This has led to calls for a just transition, which the IPCC defines as, "A set of principles, processes and practices that aim to ensure that no people, workers, places, sectors, countries or regions are left behind in the transition from a high-carbon to a low carbon economy." Use of local energy sources may stabilise and stimulate some local economies, create opportunities for energy trade between communities, states and regions, and increase energy security. Coal mining is economically important in some regions, and a transition to renewables would decrease its viability and could have severe impacts on the communities that rely on this business. Not only do these communities face energy poverty already, but they also face economic collapse when the coal mining businesses move elsewhere or disappear altogether. This broken system perpetuates the poverty and vulnerability that decreases the adaptive capacity of coal mining communities. Potential mitigation could include expanding the program base for vulnerable communities to assist with new training programs, opportunities for economic development and subsidies to assist with the transition. Increasing energy prices resulting from an energy transition may negatively impact developing countries including Vietnam and Indonesia. Increased mining for lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, and other critical minerals needed for expansion of renewable energy infrastructure has created increased environmental conflict and environmental justice issues for some communities. === Labour === A large portion of the global workforce works directly or indirectly for the fossil fuel economy. Moreover, many other industries are currently dependent on unsustainable energy sources (such as the steel industry or cement and concrete industry). Transitioning these workforces during the rapid period of economic change requires considerable forethought and planning. The international labor movement has advocated for a just transition that addresses these concerns. Recently, an energy crisis is upon the nations of Europe as a result of dependence on Russia's natural gas, which was cut off during the Russia-Ukraine war. This goes to show that humanity is still heavily dependent on fossil fuel energy sources and care should be taken to have a smooth transition, less energy-shortage shocks cripple the very efforts to effectively energise the transition. == Risks and barriers == Amongst the key issues to consider in relation to the pace of the global transition to renewables is how well individual electric companies are able to adapt to the changing reality of the power sector. For example, to date, the uptake of renewables by electric utilities has remained slow, hindered by their continued investment in fossil fuel generation capacity. Incomplete regulations on clean energy uptake and concerns about electricity shortages have been identified as key barriers to the energy transition in coal-dependent, fast developing economies such as Vietnam. Researchers found that social sentiments held by U.S. residents have proven to be barriers for energy transitions. The U.S. Department of Energy plans for wind energy to provide 35% of the electrical grid by 2050 are bringing wind energy projects closer to communities. Sentiments for wind energy opposition in local communities include sound annoyance, perceived health effects, and the reduction of scenic landscapes and views. Anticipated economic aspects are believed to be the most influential variable to perceptions of proposed wind energy developments. Economic barriers to acceptance of renewable energy include local tax increases, increase in electricity rates, decrease in tourism, property value impacts and distributional inequality. However, rural economic development, creation of jobs, investment opportunities, and lower electricity costs stand as possible benefits. == Examples by country == From 2000 to 2012 coal was the source of energy with the total largest growth. The use of oil and natural gas also had considerable growth, followed by hydropower and renewable energy. Renewable energy grew at a rate faster than any other time in history during this period. The demand for nuclear energy decreased, partly in reaction to a number of high profile accidents (Three Mile Island in 1979, Chernobyl in 1986, and Fukushima in 2011) but also due to the rising cost of nuclear energy which has made it more expensive than all utility scale alternatives. More recently, consumption of coal has declined relative to low carbon energy. Coal dropped from about 29% of the global total primary energy consumption in 2015 to 27% in 2017, and non-hydro renewables were up to about 4% from 2%. === Asia === ==== China ==== The Fourteenth Five-Year Plan placed increased emphasis on the green transition as essential to China's pursuit of high-quality and sustainable growth.: 9 ==== India ==== India has set renewable energy goals to transition 50% of its total energy consumption into renewable sources in the Paris climate accords. As of 2022 the Central Electricity Authority are well on track of achieving their goals, producing 160 GW electricity from clean sources like solar, wind, hydro power and nuclear power plants, this is 40% of its total capacity. India is ranked third on Ernst and Young's renewable energy country attractive index behind the US and China. Hydro electric power plants are a major part of India's energy infrastructure since the days of its independence in 1947. Former prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru called them the " temples of modern India" and believed them to be key drivers of modernity and industrialism for the nascent republic. Notable examples of hydro power stations include the 2400 MW Tehri hydropower complex, the 1960 MW Koyna hydroelectric project and the 1670 MW Srisailam Dam. Recently, India has given due importance to emerging renewable technologies like solar power plants and wind farms. They house 3 of the world's top 5 solar farms, including world's largest 2255 MW Bhadla Solar Park in and world's second-largest solar park of 2000 MW Pavgada Solar Park and 100 MW Kurnool Ultra mega solar park. While there has been positive change, air pollution from coal still kills many people and India has to cut down its reliance on traditional coal based power production as it still accounts for around 50% of its energy production. India is also moving towards its goal for electrification of the automotive industry, aiming to have at least 30% EV ownership among private vehicles by 2030. ==== Vietnam ==== Vietnam has led the Southeast Asia in solar and wind uptake, achieving about 20 GW in 2022 from almost zero in 2017. Thailand has the highest number of EV registrations, with 218,000 in 2022. The energy transition in Southeast Asia can be summarized as: Challenging, achievable, and interdependent. This implies that while there are obstacles, feasibility largely relies on international support. Public demand for improved local environmental quality and government's aims to promote a green economy are found to be key drivers in Vietnam. Governments ambition to attract international support for green growth initiatives and public demand for a clean environment have been found to be drivers of the energy transition in developing countries, such as Vietnam. Thanks to a relatively more conducive investment environment, Vietnam is poised to a faster energy transition than some other ASEAN members === Europe === ==== European Union ==== The European Green Deal is a set of policy initiatives by the European Commission with the overarching aim of making Europe climate neutral in 2050. An impact assessed plan will also be presented to increase the EU's greenhouse gas emission reductions target for 2030 to at least 50% and towards 55% compared with 1990 levels. The plan is to review each existing law on its climate merits, and also introduce new legislation on the circular economy, building renovation, biodiversity, farming and innovation. The president of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen, stated that the European Green Deal would be Europe's "man on the Moon moment", as the plan would make Europe the first climate-neutral continent. A survey found that digitally advanced companies put more money into energy-saving strategies. In the European Union, 59% of companies that have made investments in both basic and advanced technologies have also invested in energy efficiency measures, compared to only 50% of US firms in the same category. Overall, there is a significant disparity between businesses' digital profiles and investments in energy efficiency. ==== Germany ==== Germany has played an outsized role in the transition away from fossil fuels and nuclear power to renewables. The energy transition in Germany is known as die Energiewende (literally, "the energy turn") indicating a turn away from old fuels and technologies to new one. The key policy document outlining the Energiewende was published by the German government in September 2010, some six months before the Fukushima nuclear accident; legislative support was passed in September 2010. The policy has been embraced by the German federal government and has resulted in a huge expansion of renewables, particularly wind power. Germany's share of renewables has increased from around 5% in 1999 to 17% in 2010, reaching close to the OECD average of 18% usage of renewables. In 2022 Germany has a share of 46,2 % and surpassed the OECD average. A large driver for this increase in the shares of renewables energy are decreases in cost of capital. Germany boasts some of the lowest cost of capitals for renewable solar and wind onshore energy worldwide. In 2021 the International Renewable Energy Agency reported capital costs of around 1.1% and 2.4% for solar and wind onshore. This constitutes a significant decrease from previous numbers in the early 2000s, where capital costs hovered around 5.1% and 4.5% respectively. This decrease in capital costs was influenced by a variety of economic and political drivers. Following the 2008 financial crisis, Germany eased the refinancing regulations on banks by giving out cheap loans with low interest rates in order to stimulate the economy again. During this period, the industry around renewable energies also started to experience learning effects in manufacturing, project organisation as well as financing thanks to rising investment and order volumes. This coupled with various forms of subsidies contributed to a large reduction of the capital cost and the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for solar and onshore wind power. As the technologies have matured and become integral parts of the existing sociotechnical systems it is to be expected that in the future, experience effects and general interest rates will be key determinants for the cost-competitiveness of these technologies. Producers have been guaranteed a fixed feed-in tariff for 20 years, guaranteeing a fixed income. Energy co-operatives have been created, and efforts were made to decentralize control and profits. The large energy companies have a disproportionately small share of the renewables market. Nuclear power stations were closed, and the existing nine stations will close earlier than necessary, in 2022. The reduction of reliance on nuclear stations has had the consequence of increased reliance on fossil fuels. One factor that has inhibited efficient employment of new renewable energy has been the lack of an accompanying investment in power infrastructure to bring the power to market. It is believed 8300 km of power lines must be built or upgraded. Different Länder have varying attitudes to the construction of new power lines. Industry has had their rates frozen and so the increased costs of the Energiewende have been passed on to consumers, who have had rising electricity bills. Germans in 2013 had some of the highest electricity costs in Europe. Nonetheless, for the first time in more than ten years, electricity prices for household customers fell at the beginning of 2015. ==== Switzerland ==== Due to the high share of hydroelectricity (59.6%) and nuclear power (31.7%) in electricity production, Switzerland's per capita energy-related CO2 emissions are 28% lower than the European Union average and roughly equal to those of France. On 21 May 2017, Swiss voters accepted the new Energy Act establishing the 'energy strategy 2050'. The aims of the energy strategy 2050 are: to reduce energy consumption; to increase energy efficiency; and to promote renewable energies (such as water, solar, wind and geothermal power as well as biomass fuels). The Energy Act of 2006 forbids the construction of new nuclear power plants in Switzerland. ==== United Kingdom ==== By law production of greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom will be reduced to net zero by 2050. To help in reaching this statutory goal national energy policy is mainly focusing on the country's off-shore wind power and delivering new and advanced nuclear power. The increase in national renewable power – particularly from biomass – together with the 20% of electricity generated by nuclear power in the United Kingdom meant that by 2019 low carbon British electricity had overtaken that generated by fossil fuels. In order to meet the net zero target energy networks must be strengthened. Electricity is only a part of energy in the United Kingdom, so natural gas used for industrial and residential heat and petroleum used for transport in the United Kingdom must also be replaced by either electricity or another form of low-carbon energy, such as sustainable bioenergy crops or green hydrogen. Although the need for the energy transition is not disputed by any major political party, in 2020 there is debate about how much of the funding to try and escape the COVID-19 recession should be spent on the transition, and how many jobs could be created, for example in improving energy efficiency in British housing. Some believe that due to post-covid government debt that funding for the transition will be insufficient. Brexit may significantly affect the energy transition, but this is unclear as of 2020. The government is urging UK business to sponsor the climate change conference in 2021, possibly including energy companies but only if they have a credible short-term plan for the energy transition. == See also == == References ==	Wikipedia/Renewable_energy_transition
MARKAL is a numerical model used to carry out economic analysis of different energy related systems at the country level to represent its evolution over a period of usually of 40–50 years. The word MARKAL was generated by concatenating two words (MARKet and ALlocation). Various parameters such as energy costs, plant costs, plant performances, building performance and so on, can be input and the software will choose an optimal technology mix to meet that demand at minimum cost. It is available from the International Energy Agency. TIMES is an evolution of MARKAL and both energy models share many similarities. == Applications == A 2009 report describes a newly developed and updated UK MARKAL elastic demand (MED) model, used to explore low carbon pathways for the United Kingdom. == See also == Energy modeling == References ==	Wikipedia/Markal_model
The differential analyser is a mechanical analogue computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. It was one of the first advanced computing devices to be used operationally. In addition to the integrator devices, the machine used an epicyclic differential mechanism to perform addition or subtraction - similar to that used on a front-wheel drive car, where the speed of the two output shafts (driving the wheels) may differ but the speeds add up to the speed of the input shaft. Multiplication/division by integer values was achieved by simple gear ratios; multiplication by fractional values was achieved by means of a multiplier table, where a human operator would have to keep a stylus tracking the slope of a bar. A variant of this human-operated table was used to implement other functions such as polynomials. == History == Research on solutions for differential equations using mechanical devices, discounting planimeters, started at least as early as 1836, when the French physicist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis designed a mechanical device to integrate differential equations of the first order. The first description of a device which could integrate differential equations of any order was published in 1876 by James Thomson, who was born in Belfast in 1822, but lived in Scotland from the age of 10. Though Thomson called his device an "integrating machine", it is his description of the device, together with the additional publication in 1876 of two further descriptions by his younger brother, Lord Kelvin, which represents the invention of the differential analyser. One of the earliest practical uses of Thomson's concepts was a tide-predicting machine built by Kelvin starting in 1872–3. On Lord Kelvin's advice, Thomson's integrating machine was later incorporated into a fire-control system for naval gunnery being developed by Arthur Pollen, resulting in an electrically driven, mechanical analogue computer, which was completed by about 1912. Italian mathematician Ernesto Pascal also developed integraphs for the mechanical integration of differential equations and published details in 1914. However, the first widely practical general-purpose differential analyser was constructed by Harold Locke Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT, 1928–1931, comprising six mechanical integrators. In the same year, Bush described this machine in a journal article as a "continuous integraph". When he published a further article on the device in 1931, he called it a "differential analyzer". In this article, Bush stated that "[the] present device incorporates the same basic idea of interconnection of integrating units as did [Lord Kelvin's]. In detail, however, there is little resemblance to the earlier model." According to his 1970 autobiography, Bush was "unaware of Kelvin’s work until after the first differential analyzer was operational." Claude Shannon was hired as a research assistant in 1936 to run the differential analyzer in Bush's lab. Douglas Hartree of Manchester University brought Bush's design to England, where he constructed his first "proof of concept" model with his student, Arthur Porter, during 1934. As a result of this, the university acquired a full-scale machine incorporating four mechanical integrators in March 1935, which was built by Metropolitan-Vickers, and was, according to Hartree, "[the] first machine of its kind in operation outside the United States". During the next five years three more were added, at Cambridge University, Queen's University Belfast, and the Royal Aircraft Establishment in Farnborough. One of the integrators from this proof of concept is on display in the History of Computing section of the Science Museum in London, alongside a complete Manchester machine. In Norway, the locally built Oslo Analyser was finished during 1938, based on the same principles as the MIT machine. This machine had 12 integrators, and was the largest analyser built for a period of four years. In the United States, further differential analysers were built at the Ballistic Research Laboratory in Maryland and in the basement of the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania during the early 1940s. The latter was used extensively in the computation of artillery firing tables prior to the invention of the ENIAC, which, in many ways, was modelled on the differential analyser. Also in the early 1940s, with Samuel H. Caldwell, one of the initial contributors during the early 1930s, Bush attempted an electrical, rather than mechanical, variation, but the digital computer built elsewhere had much greater promise and the project ceased. In 1947, UCLA installed a differential analyser built for them by General Electric at a cost of $125,000. By 1950, this machine had been joined by three more. The UCLA differential analyzer appeared in 1950's Destination Moon, and the same footage in 1951's When Worlds Collide, where it was called "DA". A different shot appears in 1956's Earth vs. the Flying Saucers. At Osaka Imperial University (present-day Osaka University) around 1944, a complete differential analyser machine was developed (illustrated) to calculate the movement of an object and other problems with mechanical components, and then draws graphs on paper with a pen. It was later transferred to the Tokyo University of Science and has been displayed at the school's Museum of Science in Shinjuku Ward. Restored in 2014, it is one of only two still operational differential analyzers produced before the end of World War II. In Canada, a differential analyser was constructed at the University of Toronto in 1948 by Beatrice Helen Worsley, but it appears to have had little or no use. A differential analyser may have been used in the development of the bouncing bomb, used to attack German hydroelectric dams during World War II. Differential analysers have also been used in the calculation of soil erosion by river control authorities. The differential analyser was eventually rendered obsolete by electronic analogue computers and, later, digital computers. == Use of Meccano == The model differential analyser built at Manchester University in 1934 by Douglas Hartree and Arthur Porter made extensive use of Meccano parts: this meant that the machine was less costly to build, and it proved "accurate enough for the solution of many scientific problems". A similar machine built by J.B. Bratt at Cambridge University in 1935 is now in the Museum of Transport and Technology (MOTAT) collection in Auckland, New Zealand. A memorandum written for the British military's Armament Research Department in 1944 describes how this machine had been modified during World War II for improved reliability and enhanced capability, and identifies its wartime applications as including research on the flow of heat, explosive detonations, and simulations of transmission lines. It has been estimated, by Garry Tee that "about 15 Meccano model Differential Analysers were built for serious work by scientists and researchers around the world". == See also == Torque amplifier Ball-and-disk integrator General purpose analog computer == Notes == == Bibliography == Thomson, James (1876). "An Integrating Machine having a new Kinematic Principle". Proceedings of the Royal Society. 24 (164–170): 262–5. doi:10.1098/rspl.1875.0033. Thomson, William (1876). "Mechanical Integration of Linear Differential Equations of the Second Order with Variable Coefficients". Proceedings of the Royal Society. 24 (164–170): 269–71. doi:10.1098/rspl.1875.0035. S2CID 62694536. Thomson, William (1876). "Mechanical Integration of the general Linear Differential Equation of any Order with Variable Coefficients". Proceedings of the Royal Society. 24 (164–170): 271–5. doi:10.1098/rspl.1875.0036. Bush, Vannevar (1936). "Instrumental analysis". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 42 (10): 649–69. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1936-06390-1. Hartree, D. R.; Porter, Porter (1934–1935), "The construction and operation of a model differential analyser", Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 79: 51–73, reprinted as a pamphlet July 1935 Worsley, Beatrice Helen (1947). A mathematical survey of computing devices with an appendix on an error analysis of differential analyzers (Master's Thesis, MIT). Crank, J. (1947). The Differential Analyser, London: Longmans, Green (this is the only book that describes how to set up and operate a mechanical differential analyser). MacNee, A.B. (1948). An electronic differential analyzer (RLE, Technical Report 90, MIT. Note that this paper describes a very early electronic analogue computer, not a mechanical differential analyser: it is included because the author clearly felt that the only way to introduce such an innovation was to describe it as an "electronic differential analyser"). == External links == Vannevar Bush bio which focuses on the Differential Analyzer The Differential Analyser Explained (updated July 2009) Tim Robinson's Meccano Differential Analyser Professor Stephen Boyd at Stanford University provides a brief explanation of its working.	Wikipedia/Differential_analyzer
A traction control system (TCS), is typically (but not necessarily) a secondary function of the electronic stability control (ESC) on production motor vehicles, designed to prevent loss of traction (i.e., wheelspin) of the driven road wheels. TCS is activated when throttle input and engine power and torque transfer are mismatched to the road surface conditions. The intervention consists of one or more of the following: Brake force applied to one or more wheels Reduction or suppression of spark sequence to one or more cylinders Reduction of fuel supply to one or more cylinders Closing the throttle, if the vehicle is fitted with drive by wire throttle In turbocharged vehicles, a boost control solenoid is actuated to reduce boost and therefore engine power. Typically, traction control systems share the electrohydraulic brake actuator (which does not use the conventional master cylinder and servo) and wheel-speed sensors with ABS. The basic idea behind the need for a traction control system is the loss of road grip can compromise steering control and stability of vehicles. This is the result of the difference in traction of the drive wheels. The difference in slip may occur due to the turning of a vehicle or varying road conditions for different wheels. When a car turns, its outer and inner wheels rotate at different speeds; this is conventionally controlled by using a differential. A further enhancement of the differential is to employ an active differential that can vary the amount of power being delivered to outer and inner wheels as needed. For example, if outward slip is sensed while turning, the active differential may deliver more power to the outer wheel in order to minimize the yaw (essentially the degree to which the front and rear wheels of a car are out of line.) Active differential, in turn, is controlled by an assembly of electromechanical sensors collaborating with a traction control unit. == History == The predecessor of modern electronic traction control systems can be found in high-torque, high-power rear-wheel-drive cars as a limited slip differential. A limited-slip differential is a purely mechanical system that transfers a relatively small amount of power to the non-slipping wheel, while still allowing some wheel spin to occur. In 1971, Buick introduced MaxTrac, which used an early computer system to detect rear wheel spin and modulate engine power to those wheels to provide the most traction. A Buick exclusive item at the time, it was an option on all full-size models, including the Riviera, Estate Wagon, Electra 225, Centurion, and LeSabre. Cadillac introduced the Traction Monitoring System (TMS) in 1979 on the redesigned Eldorado. == Operation == When the traction control computer (often incorporated into another control unit, such as the ABS module) detects one or more driven wheels spinning significantly faster than another, it invokes the ABS electronic control unit to apply brake friction to wheels spinning with lessened traction. Braking action on slipping wheel(s) will cause power transfer to wheel axle(s) with traction due to the mechanical action within the differential. All-wheel-drive (AWD) vehicles often have an electronically controlled coupling system in the transfer case or transaxle engaged (active part-time AWD), or locked-up tighter (in a true full-time set up driving all wheels with some power all the time) to supply non-slipping wheels with torque. This often occurs in conjunction with the powertrain computer reducing available engine torque by electronically limiting throttle application and/or fuel delivery, retarding ignition spark, completely shutting down engine cylinders, and a number of other methods, depending on the vehicle and how much technology is used to control the engine and transmission. There are instances when traction control is undesirable, such as trying to get a vehicle unstuck in snow or mud. Allowing one wheel to spin can propel a vehicle forward enough to get it unstuck, whereas both wheels applying a limited amount of power will not produce the same effect. Many vehicles have a traction control shut-off switch for such circumstances. == Components of traction control == Generally, the main hardware for traction control and ABS are mostly the same. In many vehicles, traction control is provided as an additional option for ABS. Each wheel is equipped with a sensor that senses changes in its speed due to loss of traction. The sensed speed from the individual wheels is passed on to an electronic control unit (ECU). The ECU processes the information from the wheels and initiates braking to the affected wheels via a cable connected to an automatic traction control (ATC) valve. In all vehicles, traction control is automatically started when the sensors detect loss of traction at any of the wheels. == Use of traction control == In road cars: Traction control has traditionally been a safety feature in premium high-performance cars, which otherwise need sensitive throttle input to prevent spinning driven wheels when accelerating, especially in wet, icy, or snowy conditions. In recent years, traction control systems have become widely available in non-performance cars, minivans, and light trucks and in some small hatchbacks. In race cars: Traction control is used as a performance enhancement, allowing maximum traction under acceleration without wheel spin. When accelerating out of a turn, it keeps the tires at optimal slip ratio. In heavy trucks: Traction control is available as well. Here the pneumatic brake system needs some additional valves and control logic to realize a TCS (or sometimes called ASR) system. In motorcycles: Traction control for production motorcycles was first available with the BMW K1 in 1988. Honda offered Traction Control as an option, along with ABS, on their ST1100 beginning about 1992. By 2009, traction control was an option for several models offered by BMW and Ducati, the model year 2010 Kawasaki Concours 14 (1400GTR) and Honda CBR 650R in the year 2019, and Triumph "Modern Classic" line of motorcycles. In off-road vehicles: Traction control is used instead of or in addition to, the mechanical limited-slip or locking differential. It is often implemented with an electronic limited-slip differential, as well as other computerized controls of the engine and transmission. The spinning wheel is slowed with short applications of brakes, diverting more torque to the non-spinning wheel; this is the system adopted by Range Rover in 1993, for example. ABS brake-traction control has several advantages over limited-slip and locking differentials, such as steering control of a vehicle is easier, so the system can be continuously enabled. It also creates less stress on powertrain and driveline components, and increases durability as there are fewer moving parts to fail. When programmed or calibrated for off-road use, traction control systems like Ford’s four-wheel electronic traction control (ETC) which is included with AdvanceTrac, and Porsche’s four-wheel automatic brake differential (ABD), can send 100 percent of torque to any one wheel or wheels, via an aggressive brake strategy or "brake locking", allowing vehicles like the Expedition and Cayenne to keep moving, even with two wheels (one front, one rear) completely off the ground. === Use in motorsports === Very effective yet small units are available that allow the driver to remove the traction control system after an event if desired. In Formula One, an effort to ban traction control led to a change of rules for 2008: every car must have a standard (but custom mappable) ECU, issued by the FIA, which is relatively basic and does not have traction control capabilities. In 2003, Paul Tracy admitted that CART teams used traction control in the nineties, a device that was not formally legal until 2002 (although the switch to single engine supplier for 2003 reverted the legalization). In 2008, NASCAR suspended a Whelen Modified Tour driver, crew chief, and car owner for one race and disqualified the team after finding questionable wiring in the ignition system, which could have been used to implement traction control. == Traction control in cornering == Traction control is not just used for improving acceleration under slippery conditions. It can also help a driver to corner more safely. If too much throttle is applied during cornering, the driven wheels will lose traction and slide sideways. This occurs as understeer in front-wheel-drive vehicles and oversteer in rear-wheel-drive vehicles. Traction control can mitigate and possibly even correct understeer or oversteer from happening by limiting power to the overdriven wheel or wheels. However, it cannot increase the limits of frictional grip available and is used only to decrease the effect of driver error or compensate for a driver's inability to react quickly enough to wheel slip. Automobile manufacturers state in vehicle manuals that traction control systems should not encourage dangerous driving or encourage driving in conditions beyond the driver's control. == See also == Car safety == References == == External links == Traction control in Formula One	Wikipedia/Traction_control_system
A transmission control unit (TCU), also known as a transmission control module (TCM), or a gearbox control unit (GCU), is a type of automotive ECU that is used to control electronic automatic transmissions. Similar systems are used in conjunction with various semi-automatic transmissions, purely for clutch automation and actuation. A TCU in a modern automatic transmission generally uses sensors from the vehicle, as well as data provided by the engine control unit (ECU), to calculate how and when to change gears in the vehicle for optimum performance, fuel economy and shift quality. == History == Electronic automatic transmissions have been changing in design from purely hydromechanical controls to electronic controls since the late 1980s. Since then, development has been iterative and today designs exist from several stages of electronic automatic transmission control development. Transmission solenoids are a key component to these control units. The evolution of modern automatic transmission and the integration of electronic controls have allowed great progress in recent years. The modern automatic transmission is now able to achieve better fuel economy, reduced engine emissions, greater shift system reliability, improved shift feel, improved shift speed and improved vehicle handling. The immense range of programmability offered by a TCU allows the modern automatic transmission to be used with appropriate transmission characteristics for each application. On some applications, the TCU and the ECU are combined into a single unit as a powertrain control module (PCM). == Input parameters == The typical modern TCU uses signals from engine sensors, automatic transmission sensors and from other electronic controllers to determine when and how to shift. More modern designs share inputs or obtain information from an input to the ECU, whereas older designs often have their own dedicated inputs and sensors on the engine components. Modern TCUs are so complex in their design and make calculations based on so many parameters that there are an indefinite amount of possible shift behaviours === Vehicle speed sensor (VSS) === This sensor sends a varying frequency signal to the TCU to determine the current speed of the vehicle. The TCU uses this information to determine when a gear change should take place based in the various operating parameters. The TCU also uses a ratio between the turbine speed sensor (TSS) and wheel speed sensor (WSS) which is used to determine when to change gears. If either the TSS or WSS fails or malfunctions/becomes faulty, the ratio will be wrong which in return can cause problems like false speedometer readings and transmission slipping. To test these parts, check the resistance to make sure it's within manufacturer specs. === Wheel speed sensor (WSS) === Modern automatic transmissions also have a wheel speed sensor input to determine the true speed of the vehicle to determine whether the vehicle is going downhill or uphill and also adapt gear changes according to road speeds, and also whether to decouple the torque converter at a standstill to improve fuel consumption and reduce load on running gear. === Throttle position sensor (TPS) === The TPS sensor along with the vehicle speed sensor are the two main inputs for most TCUs. Older transmissions use this to determine engine load, with the introduction of drive-by-wire technology, this is often a shared input between the ECU and TCU. The input is used to determine the optimum time and characteristics for a gear change according to load on the engine. The rate of change is used to determine whether a downshift is appropriate for overtaking, for example, the value of the TPS is also continually monitored during the journey and shift programmes are changed accordingly (economy, sport mode, etc.). The TCU can also reference this information with the vehicle speed sensor to determine vehicle acceleration and compare this with a nominal value; if the actual value is much higher or lower (such as driving uphill or towing a trailer) the transmission will change its gearshift patterns to suit the situation. === Turbine speed sensor (TSS) === Known as an input speed sensor (ISS). This sensor sends a varying frequency signal to the TCU to determine the current rotational speed of the input shaft or torque converter. The TCU uses the input shaft speed to determine slippage across the torque converter and potentially to determine the rate of slippage across the bands and clutches. This information is vital to regulate the application of the torque converter lock-up clutch smoothly and effectively. === Transmission fluid Temperature sensor (TFT) === This may also be known as Transmission Oil Temperature. This sensor determines the fluid temperature inside the transmission. This is often used for diagnostic purposes to check ATF (Automatic Transmission Fluid) at the correct temperature. The main use of this has been as a failsafe feature to downshift the transmission if the ATF becomes extremely hot. On more modern transmissions this input allows the TCU to modify the line pressure and solenoid pressures according to the changing viscosity of the fluid based on temperature in order to improve shift comfort, and also to determine regulation of the torque converter lock-up clutch. === Kick down switch === One of the most common inputs into a TCU is the kick down switch which is used to determine if the accelerator pedal has been depressed past full throttle. Traditionally this was required on older transmissions with a simple logic in order to ensure maximum acceleration. When activated the transmission downshifts into the lowest permissible gear based on current road speed to use the full power reserves of the engine. This is still present in most transmissions though is no longer necessary to use in most circumstances because the TCU uses the throttle position sensor, the rate of change, and driver characteristics to determine whether a downshift may be necessary, thus eliminating the traditional need for this switch. === Brake light switch === This input is used to determine whether to activate the shift lock solenoid to prevent the driver from selecting a driving range with no foot on the brake. In more modern TCUs this input is also used to determine whether to downshift the transmission to increase engine braking effect if the transmission detects that the vehicle is going downhill. === Traction Control System (TCS) === Many TCUs now have an input from the vehicle's traction control system. If the TCS detects unfavourable road conditions, a signal is sent to the TCU. The TCU can modify shift programmes by upshifting early, eliminating the torque converter lock-up clutch application, and also eliminating the first gear totally and pulling off in 2nd. === Switches === These simple on/off electric switches detect the presence or absence of fluid pressure in a particular hydraulic line. They are used for diagnostic purposes and in some cases for controlling the application or release of hydraulic control elements. === Cruise control module === If the vehicle is fitted with cruise control the TCU may also have a connection to cruise control system. This can modify shift behaviour to take into account the throttle is not being operated by the driver to eliminate unexpected gearchanges when the cruise control is engaged. This is also used to inform the cruise control system about the position of the selector lever so that the cruise control can be deactivated if the lever is shifted out of a driving range. === Inputs from other controllers === A wide variety of information is delivered to the TCU via Controller Area Network communications or similar protocols (such as Chrysler's CCD bus, an early EIA-485-based vehicle local area network). In older vehicle designs, as well as in aftermarket TCUs sold into the racing and hobbyist markets, the TCU receives only the signals needed to control the transmission (engine speed, vehicle speed, throttle position or manifold vacuum, shift lever position). == Output parameters == The typical modern TCU sends out signals to shift solenoids, pressure control solenoids, torque converter lockup solenoids and to other electronic controllers. === Shift lock === Many automatic transmissions lock the selector lever via a shiftlock solenoid to stop a driving range being selected if the brake pedal is not depressed. === Shift solenoids === Modern electronic automatic transmissions have electrical solenoids which are activated to change gears. Simple electronic-control designs (such as Ford's AOD-E, AXOD-E and E4OD) use the solenoids to modify the shift points in an existing valve body, while more advanced designs (such as the Chrysler Ultradrive and its follow-ons) use the solenoids to control the clutches indirectly, by way of a greatly simplified valve body. === Pressure control solenoids === Modern electronic automatic transmissions are still fundamentally hydraulic. This requires precise pressure control. Older automatic transmission designs only use a single line pressure control solenoid which modifies pressure across the entire transmission. Newer automatic transmission designs often use many pressure control solenoids, and sometimes allow the shift solenoids themselves to provide precise pressure control during shifts by ramping the solenoid on and off. The shift pressure affects the shift quality (too high a pressure will result in rough shifting; too low a pressure will cause the clutches to overheat) and shift speed. === Torque converter clutch solenoid (TCC) === Most electronic automatic transmissions utilize a TCC solenoid to regulate the torque converter electronically. Once fully locked, the torque converter no longer applies torque multiplication and will spin at the same speed as the engine. This provides a major increase in fuel economy. Modern designs provide partial lockup in lower gears to improve fuel economy further, but this can increase wear on the clutch components. === Output to ECU === Many TCUs provide an output to the ECU to retard the ignition timing, or reduce the fuel quantity, for a few milliseconds to reduce load on the transmission during heavy throttle. This allows automatic transmissions to shift smoothly even on engines with large amounts of torque which would otherwise result in a harder shift and possible damage to the gearbox. === Outputs to other controllers === The TCU provides information about the health of the transmission, such as clutch wear indicators and shift pressures, and can raise trouble codes and set the malfunction indicator lamp on the instrument cluster if a serious problem is found. An output to the cruise control module is also often present to deactivate the cruise control if a neutral gear is selected, just like on a manual transmission. == Other applications == === Semi-automatic transmission === The transmission control unit (TCU) in older automobiles with a clutchless manual transmission (without a clutch pedal) typically consists of an electrical switch connected to the gearshift, that is activated whenever the internal transmission control unit senses driver touching the gearshift to switch gears, which then primes a sensor or solenoid to impel a clutch servo, and in turn, disengages the clutch actuator so the driver can change gears. The internal clutch actuator in a semi-automatic transmission can be powered by either hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric means. Later examples of clutchless manual transmissions used in road cars include the Saab Sensonic transmission, used in the 900 NG, and the Ferrari Valeo auto-manual transmission, used in the Mondial T. Both systems used a computer-controlled ECU or microprocessor, connected to a sensor embedded in the gearshift, that would detect when the driver was going to change gear (i.e., by touching the gearshift), and would actuate the clutch automatically, allowing the driver to change gear. Saab's Sensonic system was electro-hydraulic, using an electric motor or solenoid connected to a hydraulic clutch actuator, whereas Ferrari's Valeo system was electro-mechanical, using an electric motor or solenoid, connected to the mechanical clutch system. Similar TCU or GCU systems are used in racecars with paddle-shift transmissions. These electronic systems typically work in conjunction with the engine control unit (in a similar way to road cars), and are responsible for operating electronic throttle control, clutch and gearshift actuation (via an electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic actuator), gearshift time and speed, sensors, switches, solenoids, and other hydraulic, pneumatic, and electronic sub-systems that control and constitute the transmission control unit in a racecar. == References ==	Wikipedia/Transmission_control_unit
A ball differential is a type of differential typically used on radio-controlled cars. It differs from a geared differential by using several small ball bearings rotating between two plates, instead of bevel gears. == History == The first ball differential for Radio-controlled Cars was designed by Cecil Schumacher, a British motor sport engineer working at Cosworth and founder/owner of his eponymous model brand. Although a patent was applied for, it was denied as the idea had already been implemented into a lawn mower. Radio-controlled cars were still a new application for the ball differential and Schumacher is generally considered the modern day inventor of the concept. Such was the popularity of the ball differential, originally applied in 1/12 on-road cars, that he formed his eponymous company. To this date ball differentials remain very popular in the radio-controlled car market. They are used on almost every 1/12 on-road, scale touring car (although the sealed gear differential is gaining popularity in this class) and electric off-road produced by many manufacturers. In these classes they are regarded as the industry standard. Schumacher Racing Products even use ball differentials on their nitro truck range, these however use strong materials and larger and harder ball bearings. == Basic principles == Radio-controlled car manufacturers use the same basic design Schumacher created in the 1980s. The main part of the differential is a drive gear (or pulley in a belt transmission) with multiple holes cut through it, following its outside diameter. These holes are slightly larger than the width of the ball bearings, so that the balls, commonly around 2 mm diameter in a model car, sit inside the holes of the gear/pulley. On either side of the gear are the thrust washers. The thrust washers are pushed against the ball bearings inside the gear by Belleville washers. On one side of the gear is an adjusting collar, which allows for adjustments in the amount of slip allowed by the differential. A thrust bearing (or thrust race), on the opposite side of the gear, is used to stop the differential from loosening the retaining screw holding the output cups, used to attach the differential to the axle, onto the differential. As the screw is tightened it pushes the Belleville and thrust washers onto the gear/pulley. This creates contact between the washers and ball bearings inside of the gear/pulley. The friction created by the contact between the washers and ball bearings is, aided by grease (commonly silicone grease), designed so that as one washer moves, the ball bearings rotate. As the washer on one side of the gear rotates, the rotation of the balls causes the other washer to rotate in the opposite direction, because any rotating ball will have opposite sides moving in opposite directions . Differential movement is achieved through the process of the thrust washers rotating with the ball bearings. The retaining screw is designed so the differential can be easily adjusted by tightening or loosening the screw, consequently changing force. This makes the differential more adjustable than geared differentials, but there is a lower limit since the drive is by friction so there is always some limited slip action. There are several types of balls used in this type of differential. Some of the most common ball materials used by high end racers are ceramic and tungsten based. The advantage to something like ceramic based balls is that they are much harder, and have a longer life expectancy. Oftentimes when using less hard materials, the balls will "flat spot" causing a semi locked direction of the ball. This causes the differential to not turn with a smooth feeling and leaves it with an overall "gritty" feeling. == References == == External links == Schumacher Racing Products The Ball Differential, detailed information, (German language) CGI-graphics and animation that show the ball differential's inner workings Exploded diagram and general information on other types of differentials	Wikipedia/Ball_differential
A locking differential is a mechanical component, commonly used in vehicles, designed to overcome the chief limitation of a standard open differential by essentially "locking" both wheels on an axle together as if on a common shaft. This forces both wheels to turn in unison, regardless of the traction (or lack thereof) available to either wheel individually. When the differential is unlocked (open differential), it allows each wheel to rotate at different speeds (such as when negotiating a turn), thus avoiding tire scuffing. An open (or unlocked) differential always provides the same torque (rotational force) to each of the two wheels on that axle. Therefore, although the wheels can rotate at different speeds, they apply the same rotational force, even if one is entirely stationary, and the other spinning (equal torque; unequal rotational speed). By contrast, a locked differential forces both left and right wheels on the same axle to rotate at the same speed under nearly all circumstances, regardless of the tractional differences at either wheel. Therefore, each wheel can apply as much rotational force as the traction under it will allow, and the torques on each side-shaft will be unequal. (Unequal torque, equal rotational speeds). Exceptions apply to automatic lockers, discussed below. A locked differential can provide a significant traction advantage over an open differential, especially when the traction under each wheel differs significantly. All of the above applies to central differentials as well as to those in each axle: full-time four-wheel-drive vehicles have three differentials, one in each axle, and a central one (called a "transfer case") between the front and rear axles. == Applications == Some utility vehicles such as tow trucks, forklifts, tractors, and heavy equipment use locking differentials to maintain traction, especially when driving on soft, muddy, or uneven surfaces. Lockers are common in agricultural equipment and military trucks. On some farm tractors, there is a pedal that can be stepped on with the operator's heel to lock the differential as needed. Differential locking can also be used in the sport of drifting as an alternative to a limited-slip differential. Four-wheel drive vehicles that drive off-road often use a locking differential to keep from getting stuck when driving on loose, muddy, or rocky terrain. Locking differentials are considered essential equipment for serious off-road driving. Many such vehicles have a locking differential on the central differential (between the front and rear axles), rear differential and front differential, or any combination of any of the three. Differential locks are also used on some "non-utility" four-wheel-drive vehicles (such as the Mitsubishi Shogun) to compensate for a relative lack of axle articulation (vertical wheel movement). High amounts of articulation are desirable for off-road driving, to allow the wheels to maintain ground contact over uneven surfaces, but this can lead to excessive body-roll at high speeds on the road, as well as vague steering. Such 4x4s often have suspension systems designed as a compromise between articulation and handling. If articulation is limited, one wheel on an axle may be lifted off the ground by rough terrain, thus losing all traction to all wheels (all power goes to the lifted wheel, which spins freely). A rear locking differential is often supplied to make up for this compromise – if a wheel is lifted off the ground, the locking differential can be activated, driving the wheel that remains on the ground. == Types == === Automatic lockers === Automatic lockers lock and unlock automatically with no direct input from the driver. Some automatic locking differential designs ensure that engine power is always transmitted to both wheels, regardless of traction conditions, and will "unlock" only when one wheel is required to spin faster than the other during cornering. These would be more correctly termed automatic unlocking differentials, because their at-rest position is locked. They will never allow either wheel to spin slower than the differential carrier or axle as a whole, but will permit a wheel to be over-driven faster than the carrier speed. The most common example of this type would be the Detroit Locker, made by Eaton Corporation, also known as the Detroit No-Spin, which replaces the entire differential carrier assembly. Others, sometimes referred to as lunchbox lockers, use the stock differential carrier and replace only the internal spider gears and shafts with interlocking plates. Both types of automatic lockers will allow for a degree of differential wheel speed while turning corners in conditions of equal traction, but will otherwise lock both axle shafts together when traction conditions demand it. Pros: Automatic action, no stopping for engagement or disengagement is necessary when road conditions change. Cons: Increased tire wear and noticeable impact on driving behaviour. During cornering, which half-axle is uncoupled is dependent on torque direction applied by the driveline. When the torque direction is reversed, the speed of the driveline is suddenly forced to change from the inner to the outer axle, accompanied by tire chirping and a strong jerk. During cornering, the automatic locker is characterized by heavy understeer which transitions instantly to power oversteer when traction is exceeded. Some other automatic lockers operate as an open differential until wheel slip is encountered and then they lock up. These types generally use an internal governor to monitor vehicle speed and wheel slip. An example of this is the Eaton automatic locking differential (ALD), or Eaton automatic differential lock (ADL), developed by the Eaton Corporation and introduced in 1973 for GM's Rounded-Line C/K Series pickups and utilities. The Eaton ADL is sometimes incorrectly called the Gov-Lok, despite neither GM nor Eaton ever calling it by that name. Gov-Lok is rather an unofficial name of unknown origin that gained popularity over the years. Both Eaton and GM do not know where the name came from, and Eaton has made several unsuccessful attempts in the past to debunk the Gov-Lok name. An updated version of the old Eaton ADL design is still available from Eaton, now known as the Eaton mLocker mechanical differential lock. Some other automatic lockers operate as an open differential until high torque is applied, at which point they lock up. This style generally uses internal gears systems with very high friction. An example of this is the ZF sliding pins and cams type available for use in early Volkswagens. === Selectable lockers MRT === Selectable lockers allow the driver to lock and unlock the differential at will from the driver's seat. This can be accomplished in many ways. Compressed air (pneumatics). Vacuum Cable-operated mechanism as is employed on the "Ox Locker". Electronic solenoids and (electromagnetics) like Eaton's "ELocker". However, OEMs are beginning to offer electronic lockers as well. Nissan Corporation's electric locker can be found as optional equipment on the Frontier (Navara), Xterra, and Titan. Ford offers an electronic rear locker on the F-series and Ranger trucks, as well as the fullsize Bronco. Toyota currently offers a rear e-locker on the Tacoma, 4Runner, and Tundra (2022+) (TRD Off-Road and TRD Pro trims only), but has also offered front and rear e-lockers on vehicles such as the Land Cruiser in the past. Pros: Allows the differential to perform as an "open" differential for improved drivability and maneuverability, and provides full locking capability when it is desirable or needed. Cons: Mechanically complex with more parts to fail. Some lockers require the vehicle to stop for engagement. Needs human interaction and forward-thinking regarding upcoming terrain. Unskilled drivers often put massive stress on driveline components when leaving the differential in locked operation on terrain not requiring a locker. === Spool === A spool or full spool (in contrast to mini-spool) is a device that connects the two axles directly to the ring gear. There is no differentiation side to side, so a vehicle equipped with a spool will bark tires in turns and may become unmanageable in wet or snowy weather. Spools are usually reserved for competition vehicles not driven on the street. Mini-spool uses the stock carrier and replaces only the internal components of the differential, similar in installation to the lunchbox locker. A full spool replaces the entire carrier assembly with a single machined piece. A full spool is perhaps the strongest means of locking an axle, but has no ability to differentiate wheel speeds whatsoever, putting high stress on all affected driveline components. The internal spider gears of an open differential can also be welded together to make a locked axle; this method is not recommended as the welding process seriously compromises the metallurgical composition of the welded components, and can lead to failure of the unit under stress. ==== Welded differential ==== Regular "open differential" with internal gears welded together to form a locked differential or spool. Common for drifting or offroading where locking differentials are too expensive or unreliable. == Disadvantages == Because they do not operate as smoothly as standard differentials, automatic locking differentials are often responsible for increased tire wear. Some older automatic locking differentials are known for making a clicking or banging noise when locking and unlocking as the vehicle negotiates turns. This is annoying to many drivers. Automatic locking differentials also affect the ability of a vehicle to steer, particularly if a locker is located in the front axle. Aside from tire scuffing while turning any degree on high friction (low slip) surfaces, locked axles cause understeer and, if used on the front axle, will increase steering forces required to turn the vehicle. Furthermore, automatically locking differentials can cause a loss of control on ice where an open differential would allow one wheel to spin and the other to hold, while not transferring power. An example of this would be a vehicle parked sideways on a slippery grade. When both wheels spin, the vehicle will break traction and slide down the grade. == Alternatives == Limited-slip differentials (LSD) are considered a compromise between a standard differential and a locking differential because they operate more smoothly, and they do direct some extra torque to the wheel with the most traction compared to a standard differential, but are not capable of 100% lockup. Traction control systems are also used in many modern vehicles, either in addition to, or as a replacement of, locking differentials. Examples include: Volkswagen's electronic differential lock (EDL), Opel's TC+ installed for the first time in Opel Astra G (2001), et cetera. This is not in fact a differential lock, but operates at each wheel. Sensors monitor wheel speeds, and if one is rotating more than a specified number of revolutions per minute (e.g. 100) than the other (i.e. slipping) the traction control system momentarily brakes it. This transfers more power to the other wheel, but still employs the open differential, which is the same as on cars without the EDL option. If all drive wheels lose traction, then throttle control may be automatically applied. Electronic traction control systems may be integrated with anti-lock braking systems, which have a similar action on braking and use some similar components. Such systems are used for example on the most recent Nissan Pathfinder, Land Rover Defender, Land Rover Freelander, the McLaren P1 and the McLaren 650s. Welded differential (commonly referred to as welded diff), the gears in a (open) differential are welded together as to function as if there was no differential. This is a cheap alternative for offroading or drifting. Individual wheel drive (IWD), using separate engines, motors and/or gearboxes for each wheel in a vehicle, so that there is no need for torque distribution with drivetrain components from a centralised location. == References ==	Wikipedia/Locking_differential
A limited-slip differential (LSD) is a type of differential gear train that allows its two output shafts to rotate at different speeds but limits the maximum difference between the two shafts. Limited-slip differentials are often known by the generic trademark Positraction, a brand name owned by General Motors and originally used for its Chevrolet branded vehicles. In an automobile, such limited-slip differentials are sometimes used in place of a standard differential, where they convey certain dynamic advantages, at the expense of greater complexity. == Early history == In 1932, Ferdinand Porsche designed a Grand Prix racing car for the Auto Union company. The high power of the design caused one of the rear wheels to experience excessive wheel spin at any speed up to 160 km/h (100 mph). In 1935, Porsche commissioned the engineering firm ZF to design a limited-slip differential to improve performance. The ZF "sliding pins and cams" became available, and one example was the Type B-70 used during the Second World War in the military VWs (Kübelwagen and Schwimmwagen), although technically this was not a limited-slip differential, but a system composed of two freewheels, which sent the whole of the engine power to the slower-turning of the two wheels. Limited-slip differentials were widely introduced by U.S. automakers in the late 1950s and were marketed under a wide variety of trademarked names. In early 1956, Packard introduced a clutch-type limited-slip differential under the Twin Traction trademark, promoting it as an aid for driving in severe winter weather. In 1957, General Motors (GM) introduced a competing system for Chevrolet branded vehicles under the Positraction name. Within a few years, other American automotive brands introduced similar systems under a variety of names, including Safe-T-Track for GM's Pontiac brand and Anti Spin for its Oldsmobile brand, while the Ford Motor Company introduced Traction-Lok for Ford vehicles and Directed Power for its Lincoln cars. Chrysler purchased Power-Lok units from Dana Incorporated and Spin-Resistant units from Borg-Warner, marketing both under the Sure-Grip name on Chrysler, Dodge, and Plymouth vehicles. Limited-slip differentials became very popular and sought after during the muscle car era in the 1960s and 1970s. Despite the myriad marketing names used by competing brands, the popularity of Chevrolet vehicles resulted in Positraction becoming a generic trademark in the U.S. for limited-slip differentials generally. == Characteristics == The main advantage of a limited-slip differential is demonstrated by considering the case of a standard (or "open") differential in off-roading or snow situations where one wheel begins to slip. In such a case with a standard differential, the slipping or non-contacting wheel will receive the majority of the power (in the form of low-torque, high-rpm rotation), while the contacting wheel will remain stationary with respect to the ground. The torque transmitted by an open differential will always be equal at both wheels; if one tire is on a slippery surface, the supplied torque will easily overcome the available traction at a very low number. For example, the right tire might begin to spin as soon as 70 N⋅m (50 lb⋅ft) of torque is placed on it, since it is on an icy surface. Since the same amount of torque is always felt at both wheels, regardless of the speed at which they are turning, this means that the wheel with traction cannot receive more than 70 N⋅m (50 lb⋅ft) of torque either, which is far less than is required to move the vehicle. Meanwhile, the tire on the slippery surface will simply spin, absorbing all of the actual power output (which is a function of torque provided over the course of revolutions), even though both wheels are provided the same (very low) amount of torque. In this situation, a limited-slip differential prevents excessive power from being allocated to one wheel, and so keeps both wheels in powered rotation. The advantages of LSD in high-power, rear-wheel drive automobiles were demonstrated during the United States "Muscle-Car" era from the mid 1960s through the early 1970s. Cars of this era normally were rear-wheel drive and did not feature independent suspension for the rear tires (but instead used a live axle). With a live axle, when high torque is applied through the differential, the traction on the right rear tire is lower as the axle naturally wants to turn with the torsion of the drive shaft (but is held stationary by being mounted to the vehicle frame). This coined the terms "one wheel peel" or "one tire fire". As such, "Muscle-Cars" with LSD or "posi" (positraction) had a distinct advantage to their wheel-spinning counterparts. Mechanical limited-slip differentials are considered essential to perform a proper drift. == Basic principle of operation == Both limited-slip differentials and open differentials have a gear train that allows the output shafts to spin at different speeds while holding the sum of their speeds proportional to that of the input shaft. Automotive limited-slip differentials have some type of mechanism that applies a torque (internal to the differential) that resists the relative motion of the output shafts. In simple terms, this means they have some mechanism which resists a speed difference between the outputs, by creating a resisting torque between either the two outputs, or the outputs and the differential housing. There are many mechanisms used to create this resisting torque. Types of limited-slip differential typically are named from the type of the resisting mechanism. Examples include viscous and clutch-based LSDs. The amount of limiting torque provided by these mechanisms varies by design. A limited-slip differential has a more complex torque-split and should be considered in the case when the outputs are spinning the same speed and when spinning at different speeds. The torque difference between the two axles is called Trq d . (In this work it is called Trq f for torque friction). Trq d is the difference in torque delivered to the left and right wheel. The magnitude of Trq d comes from the slip-limiting mechanism in the differential and may be a function of input torque (as in the case of a gear differential), or the difference in the output speeds (as in the case of a viscous differential). The torque delivered to the outputs is: Trq 1 = ½ Trq in + ½ Trq d for the slower output Trq 2 = ½ Trq in – ½ Trq d for the faster output When traveling in a straight line, where one wheel starts to slip (and spin faster than the wheel with traction), torque is reduced to the slipping wheel (Trq 2 ) and provided to the slower wheel (Trq 1 ). In the case when the vehicle is turning and neither wheel is slipping, the inside wheel will be turning slower than the outside wheel. In this case the inside wheel will receive more torque than the outside wheel, which can result in understeer. When both wheels are spinning at the same speed, the torque distribution to each wheel is: Trq (1 or 2) = ½ Trq in ±(½ Trq d ) while Trq 1 +Trq 2 =Trq in . This means the maximum torque to either wheel is statically indeterminate but is in the range of ½ Trq in ±( ½ Trq d ). == Types == Several types of LSD are commonly used in passenger cars. Fixed value Torque sensitive Speed sensitive Electronically controlled === Fixed value === In this differential the maximum torque difference between the two outputs, Trq d , is a fixed value at all times regardless of torque input to the differential or speed difference between the two outputs. Typically this differential used spring-loaded clutch assemblies. === Torque sensitivity (HLSD) === These limited-slip differentials use helical gears, clutches or cones (an alternative type of clutch) where the engagement force of the gears or clutch is a function of the input torque applied to the differential (as the engine applies more torque the gears or clutches grip harder and Trq d increases). Torque sensing LSDs respond to driveshaft torque, so that the more driveshaft input torque present, the harder the clutches, cones or gears are pressed together, and thus the more closely the drive wheels are coupled to each other. Some include spring loading to provide some small torque so that with little or no input torque (trailing throttle/gearbox in neutral/main clutch depressed) the drive wheels are minimally coupled. The amount of preload (hence static coupling) on the clutches or cones is affected by the general condition (wear) and by how tightly they are loaded. ==== Clutch, cone-type, or plate LSD ==== The clutch type has a stack of thin clutch-discs, half of which are coupled to one of the drive shafts, the other half of which are coupled to the spider gear carrier. The clutch stacks may be present on both drive shafts, or on only one. If on only one, the remaining drive shaft is linked to the clutched drive shaft through the spider gears. In a cone type the clutches are replaced by a pair of cones which are pressed together achieving the same effect. One method for creating the clamping force is the use of a cam-ramp assembly such as used in a Salisbury/ramp style LSD. The spider gears mount on the pinion cross shaft which rests in angled cutouts forming cammed ramps. The cammed ramps are not necessarily symmetrical. If the ramps are symmetrical, the LSD is 2 way. If they are saw toothed (i.e. one side of the ramp is vertical), the LSD is 1 way. If both sides are sloped, but are asymmetric, the LSD is 1.5 way. An alternative is to use the natural separation force of the gear teeth to load the clutch. An example is the center differential of the 2011 Audi Quattro RS 5. As the input torque of the driveshaft tries to turn the differential center, internal pressure rings (adjoining the clutch stack) are forced sideways by the pinion cross shaft trying to climb the ramp, which compresses the clutch stack. The more the clutch stack is compressed, the more coupled the wheels are. The mating of the vertical ramp (80–85° in practice to avoid chipping) surfaces in a one-way LSD on overrun produces no cam effect or corresponding clutch stack compression. ==== 2-Way, 1-Way, 1.5-Way ==== Broadly speaking, there are three input torque states: load, no load, and over run. During load conditions, as previously stated, the coupling is proportional to the input torque. With no load, the coupling is reduced to the static coupling. The behavior on over run (particularly sudden throttle release) determines whether the LSD is 1 way, 1.5 way, or 2 way. A 2-way differential will have the same limiting torque Trq d in both the forward and reverse directions. This means the differential will provide some level of limiting action under engine braking. The early Packard Twin Traction unit is designed to function in this manner, which was promoted to provide a different benefit: if one rear drive wheel momentarily leaves the ground when it hits a bump with the differential under load, the airborne wheel will not spin freely and cause the vehicle to break traction when the spinning wheel touches the ground again. A 1-way differential will provide its limiting action in only one direction. When torque is applied in the opposite direction it behaves like an open differential. In the case of a FWD car it is argued to be safer than a 2-way differential. The argument is if there is no additional coupling on over run, i.e. a 1-way LSD as soon as the driver lifts the throttle, the LSD unlocks and behaves somewhat like a conventional open differential. This is also the best for FWD cars, as it allows the car to turn in on throttle release, instead of ploughing forward. A 1.5-way differential refers to one where the forward and reverse limiting torques, Trq d_fwd, d_rev , are different but neither is zero as in the case of the 1-way LSD. This type of differential is common in racing cars where a strong limiting torque can aid stability under engine braking. ==== Geared LSD ==== Geared, torque-sensitive mechanical limited-slip differentials use worm gears and spur gears to distribute and differentiate input power between two drive wheels or front and back axles. This is a completely separate design from the most common beveled spider gear designs seen in most automotive applications. As torque is applied to the gears, they are pushed against the walls of the differential housing, creating friction. The friction resists the relative movement of the outputs and creates the limiting torque Trq d . Unlike other friction-based LSD designs that combine a common spider gear "open" differential in combination with spring-loaded friction components that inhibit differentiation, the torque bias sensing design is inherent in its design, not as an add-on, but is still an LSD type (a design is selected which has inefficient gearing). The result is a differential that does not bind up like some LSD types and locking ones, but still gives increased power delivery under many road conditions. Examples include: Torsen T-1 is the brand name of the original Gleasman differential invented by Vernon Gleasman circa 1949 (US Patent 2,559,916 applied in 1949, granted 1951). The original Gleasman design was sold to The Gleason Works (later named Gleason Corporation), who started marketing it in 1982. The original T-1 model is incompatible with c-clip drive axles, which limited its use with many cars and pick-up trucks of the time. However, the original Torsen differential was used in racing by Mario Andretti and Paul Newman with great success. All later worm gear LSD designs were derived from the original Gleasman differential. The T-1 is original equipment in the Audi Quattro, Subaru Impreza WRX STI, Toyota Mega Cruiser and AM General HMMWV "Humvee". Torsen T-2 was a new Gleasman design circa 1984 (US Patent application WO1984003745 A1) that is compatible with c-clip axles. The new design, along with a merger creating Zexel-Gleason U.S.A. increased Torsen availability for OEM and aftermarket applications. Variants include the T-2R, which includes a Positraction style clutch pack that gives preload for racing purposes; and the T-3, a dual differential intended for AWD applications. The T-2 is original equipment in many high performance cars and pick-up trucks. Quaife differential, sold under the name Automatic Torque Biasing Differential (ATB Differential®️), covered by European Patent No. 130806A2. The Quaife version is most established in Europe and other markets other than the US, providing extensive aftermarket support for European and Japanese brand cars, especially front-wheel drive and all-wheel drive applications. The Mk1 & Mk2 (optional on later Mk3) Ford Focus RS used the Quaife ATB Differential®️ as original equipment. Eaton Corporation is the latest owner of the Truetrac differential, which has been in production for many years. Its design is similar to the Torsen T-2 (slightly less torque bias), and is an aftermarket part for many popular US-made solid axles for rear-wheel drive and 4x4 pick-up trucks. The Truetrac is most often used in the front axle of 4x4 pick-up trucks intended for off-road use, in combination with locking center and rear differentials. As is the case with all geared LSD designs, the Truetrac does not have any negative impact on steering that most other LSD and "locker" designs are prone to. === Speed sensitivity === Speed-sensitive differentials limit the torque difference between the outputs, Trq d , based on the difference in speed between the two output shafts. Thus for small output speed differences the differential’s behavior may be very close to an open differential. As the speed difference increases, the limiting torque increases. This results in different dynamic behavior as compared to a torque sensitive differential. ==== Viscous (VLSD) ==== The viscous type is generally simpler because it relies on hydrodynamic friction from fluids with high viscosity. Silicone-based oils are often used. Here, a cylindrical chamber of fluid filled with a stack of perforated discs rotates with the normal motion of the output shafts. The inside surface of the chamber is coupled to one of the driveshafts, and the outside coupled to the differential carrier. Half of the discs are connected to the inner, the other half to the outer, alternating inner/outer in the stack. Differential motion forces the interleaved discs to move through the fluid against each other. In some viscous couplings when speed is maintained the fluid will accumulate heat due to friction. This heat will cause the fluid to expand, and expand the coupler causing the discs to be pulled together resulting in a non-viscous plate to plate friction and a dramatic drop in speed difference. This is known as the hump phenomenon and it allows the side of the coupler to gently lock. In contrast to the mechanical type, the limiting action is much softer and more proportional to the slip, and so is easier to cope with for the average driver. New Process Gear used a viscous coupling of the Ferguson style in several of their transfer cases including those used in the AMC Eagle. Viscous LSDs are less efficient than mechanical types, that is, they "lose" some power. In particular, any sustained load which overheats the silicone results in sudden permanent loss of the differential effect. They do have the virtue of failing gracefully, reverting to semi-open differential behavior. Typically a visco-differential that has covered 60,000 miles (97,000 km) or more will be functioning largely as an open differential. The silicone oil is factory sealed in a separate chamber from the gear oil surrounding the rest of the differential. This is not serviceable; when the differential's behavior deteriorates, the VLSD center must be replaced. ==== Gerotor pump ==== This style limited-slip differential works by using a gerotor pump to hydraulically compress a clutch to transfer torque to the wheel that is rotating slower. The gerotor pump uses the differential carrier or cage to drive the outer rotor of the pump and one axle shaft to drive the inner rotor. When there is a difference between the left and right wheels' speed, the pump pressurizes the hydraulic fluid causing the clutch to compress, thereby causing the torque to be transferred to the wheel that is rotating slower. These pump-based systems have lower and upper limits on applied pressure which allows the differential to work like a conventional or open differential until there is a significant speed difference between the right and left wheel, and internal damping to avoid hysteresis. The newest gerotor pump based system has computer regulated output for more versatility and no oscillation. === Electronic === An electronic limited-slip differential will typically have a planetary or bevel gear set similar to that of an open differential and a clutch pack similar to that in a torque sensitive or gerotor pump based differential. In the electronic unit the clamping force on the clutch is controlled externally by a computer or other controller. This allows the control of the differential’s limiting torque, Trq d , to be controlled as part of a total chassis management system. An example of this type of differential is Subaru’s DCCD used in the Subaru WRX STi. The Jeep Quadra-Drive II four-wheel-drive system produced beginning in 2005 utilizes this type of differential. Another example is the Porsche PSD system used on the Porsche 928. An additional example is the SAAB XWD (Haldex Generation 4) with eLSD, which uses a common (electronically controlled via the vehicle computer network) hydraulic power pack to control both the longitudinal and transversal torque transfer of the XWD system. The same Haldex system is used on several other GM Epsilon based vehicles such as the Cadillac SRX etc. === Electronic systems: brake-based === These systems are alternatives to a traditional limited-slip differential. The systems harness various chassis sensors such as speed sensors, anti-lock braking system (ABS) sensors, accelerometers, and microcomputers to electronically monitor wheel slip and vehicle motion. When the chassis control system determines a wheel is slipping, the computer applies the brakes to that wheel. A significant difference between the limited-slip differential systems listed above and this brake-based system, is that brake-based systems do not inherently send the greater torque to the slower wheel, plus the added brake friction material wear that results from the use of such a system if the vehicle is driven in an environment where the brake-based system will activate on a regular basis. BMW's electronic limited-slip differential used on the F10 5 Series is an example of such a system. Another example began on the first year (1992) production of the re-styled, and new 4.6L V-8 overhead cam Ford Crown Victoria model with its optional anti-lock brakes. This option was available on the 1992 Crown Victoria, onward; on those cars equipped with anti-lock brakes. === Other related final drives === Spool Locking differential == In popular culture == In The Beach Boys' song "409", the lyrics mention the presence of a limited-slip differential: "...My four-speed, dual-quad, Positraction 4-0-9 (4-0-9, 4-0-9)." In the 1992 film My Cousin Vinny, the proof of innocence of two young men falsely accused of murder relies heavily on a photograph of tire marks made by a car which has a limited-slip differential, which (as Marisa Tomei's character famously declares in an Oscar-winning performance) "was not available on the '64 Buick Skylark," the car driven by the defendants. She argues that the evidence proves, rather, that the getaway car was a 1963 Pontiac Tempest, which did offer an optional Safe-T-Track (Pontiac's version of Positraction) limited-slip differential. == References == == External links ==	Wikipedia/Limited-slip_differential
Design methods are procedures, techniques, aids, or tools for designing. They offer a number of different kinds of activities that a designer might use within an overall design process. Conventional procedures of design, such as drawing, can be regarded as design methods, but since the 1950s new procedures have been developed that are more usually grouped under the name of "design methods". What design methods have in common is that they "are attempts to make public the hitherto private thinking of designers; to externalise the design process". Design methodology is the broader study of method in design: the study of the principles, practices and procedures of designing. == Background == Design methods originated in new approaches to problem solving developed in the mid-20th Century, and also in response to industrialisation and mass-production, which changed the nature of designing. A "Conference on Systematic and Intuitive Methods in Engineering, Industrial Design, Architecture and Communications", held in London in 1962 is regarded as a key event marking the beginning of what became known within design studies as the "design methods movement", leading to the founding of the Design Research Society and influencing design education and practice. Leading figures in this movement in the UK were J. Christopher Jones at the University of Manchester and L. Bruce Archer at the Royal College of Art. The movement developed through further conferences on new design methods in the UK and USA in the 1960s. The first books on rational design methods, and on creative methods also appeared in this period. New approaches to design were developing at the same time in Germany, notably at the Ulm School of Design (Hochschule für Gestaltung–HfG Ulm) (1953–1968) under the leadership of Tomás Maldonado. Design teaching at Ulm integrated design with science (including social sciences) and introduced new fields of study such as cybernetics, systems theory and semiotics into design education. Bruce Archer also taught at Ulm, and another influential teacher was Horst Rittel. In 1963 Rittel moved to the School of Architecture at the University of California, Berkeley, where he helped found the Design Methods Group, a society focused on developing and promoting new methods especially in architecture and planning. At the end of the 1960s two influential, but quite different works were published: Herbert A. Simon's The Sciences of the Artificial and J. Christopher Jones's Design Methods. Simon proposed the "science of design" as "a body of intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical, teachable doctrine about the design process", whereas Jones catalogued a variety of approaches to design, both rational and creative, within a context of a broad, futures creating, systems view of design. The 1970s saw some reaction against the rationality of design methods, notably from two of its pioneers, Christopher Alexander and J. Christopher Jones. Fundamental issues were also raised by Rittel, who characterised design and planning problems as wicked problems, un-amenable to the techniques of science and engineering, which deal with "tame" problems. The criticisms turned some in the movement away from rationalised approaches to design problem solving and towards "argumentative", participatory processes in which designers worked in partnership with the problem stakeholders (clients, customers, users, the community). This led to participatory design, user centered design and the role of design thinking as a creative process in problem solving and innovation. However, interest in systematic and rational design methods continued to develop strongly in engineering design during the 1980s; for example, through the Conference on Engineering Design series of The Design Society and the work of the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure association in Germany, and also in Japan, where the Japanese Society for the Science of Design had been established as early as 1954. Books on systematic engineering design methods were published in Germany and the UK. In the USA the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Design Engineering Division began a stream on design theory and methodology within its annual conferences. The interest in systematic, rational approaches to design has led to design science and design science (methodology) in engineering and computer science. == Methods and processes == The development of design methods has been closely associated with prescriptions for a systematic process of designing. These process models usually comprise a number of phases or stages, beginning with a statement or recognition of a problem or a need for a new design and culminating in a finalised solution proposal. In his 'Systematic Method for Designers' L. Bruce Archer produced a very elaborate, 229 step model of a systematic design process for industrial design, but also a summary model consisting of three phases: Analytical phase (programming and data collection, analysis), Creative phase (synthesis, development), and Executive phase (communication). The UK's Design Council created the Double Diamond (design process model), which breaks the creative design process into four phases: Discover (insight into the problem), Define (the area to focus upon), Develop (potential solutions), and Deliver (solutions that work). A systematic model for engineering design by Pahl and Beitz has phases of Clarification of the task, Conceptual design, Embodiment design, and Detail design. A less prescriptive approach to designing a basic design process for oneself has been outlined by J. Christopher Jones. In the engineering design process systematic models tend to be linear, in sequential steps, but acknowledging the necessity of iteration. In architectural design, process models tend to be cyclical and spiral, with iteration as essential to progression towards a final design. In industrial and product design, process models tend to comprise a sequence of stages of divergent and convergent thinking. The Dubberly Design Office has compiled examples of more than 80 design process models, but it is not an exhaustive list. Within these process models, numerous design methods can be applied. In his book of 'Design Methods' J. C. Jones grouped 26 methods according to their purposes within a design process: Methods of exploring design situations (e.g. Stating Objectives, Investigating User Behaviour, Interviewing Users), Methods of searching for ideas (e.g. Brainstorming, Synectics, Morphological Charts), Methods of exploring problem structure (e.g. Interaction Matrix, Functional Innovation, Information Sorting), Methods of evaluation (e.g. Checklists, Ranking and Weighting). Nigel Cross outlined eight stages in a process of engineering product design, each with an associated method: Identifying Opportunities - User Scenarios; Clarifying Objectives - Objectives Tree; Establishing Functions - Function Analysis; Setting Requirements - Performance Specification; Determining Characteristics - Quality Function Deployment; Generating Alternatives - Morphological Chart; Evaluating Alternatives - Weighted Objectives; Improving Details - Value Engineering. Many design methods still currently in use originated in the design methods movement of the 1960s and 70s, adapted to modern design practices. Recent developments have seen the introduction of more qualitative techniques, including ethnographic methods such as cultural probes and situated methods. == Emergence of design research and design studies == The design methods movement had a profound influence on the development of academic interest in design and designing and the emergence of design research and design studies. Arising directly from the 1962 Conference on Design Methods, the Design Research Society (DRS) was founded in the UK in 1966. The purpose of the Society is to promote "the study of and research into the process of designing in all its many fields" and is an interdisciplinary group with many professions represented. In the USA, a similar Design Methods Group (DMG) was also established in 1966 by Horst Rittel and others at the University of California, Berkeley. The DMG held a conference at MIT in 1968 with a focus on environmental design and planning, and that led to the foundation of the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA), which held its first conference in 1969. A group interested in design methods and theory in architecture and engineering formed at MIT in the early 1980s, including Donald Schön, who was studying the working practices of architects, engineers and other professionals and developing his theory of reflective practice. In 1984 the National Science Foundation created a Design Theory and Methodology Program to promote methods and process research in engineering design. Meanwhile in Europe, Vladimir Hubka established the Workshop Design-Konstruction (WDK),which led to a series of International Conferences on Engineering Design (ICED) beginning in 1981 and later became the Design Society. Academic research journals in design also began publication. DRS initiated Design Studies in 1979, Design Issues appeared in 1984, and Research in Engineering Design in 1989. == Influence on all professional design practice == Several pioneers of design methods developed their work in association with industry. The Ulm school established a significant partnership with the German consumer products company Braun through their designer Dieter Rams. J. Christopher Jones began his approach to systematic design as an ergonomist at the electrical engineering company AEI. L. Bruce Archer developed his systematic approach in projects for medical equipment for the UK National Health Service. In the USA, designer Henry Dreyfuss had a profound impact on the practice of industrial design by developing systematic processes and promoting the use of anthropometrics, ergonomics and human factors in design, including through his 1955 book 'Designing for People'. Another successful designer, Jay Doblin, was also influential on the theory and practice of design as a systematic process. Much of current design practice has been influenced and guided by design methods. For example, the influential IDEO consultancy uses design methods extensively in its 'Design Kit' and 'Method Cards'. Increasingly, the intersections of design methods with business and government through the application of design thinking have been championed by numerous consultancies within the design profession. Wide influence has also come through Christopher Alexander's pattern language method, originally developed for architectural and urban design, which has been adopted in software design, interaction design, pedagogical design and other domains. == See also == == References == == Other sources (not cited above) == Ko, A. J. Design Methods. https://faculty.washington.edu/ajko/books/design-methods/index.html Koberg, D. and J. Bagnall. (1972) The Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem-Solving, and the Process of Design. Los Altos, CA: Kaufmann. 2nd edition (1981): The All New Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem-Solving, and the Process of Reaching Goals. Krippendorff, K. (2006). The Semantic Turn; A New Foundation for Design. Taylor&Francis, CRC Press, USA. ISBN 978-0415779890 Plowright, P. (2014) Revealing Architectural Design: Methods, Frameworks and Tools. Routledge, UK. ISBN 978-0415639026 Protzen, J-P. and D. J. Harris. (2010) The Universe of Design: Horst Rittel's Theories of Design and Planning. Routledge. ISBN 0415779898 Pugh, S. (1991), Total Design: Integrated Methods for Successful Product Engineering. Addison-Wesley, UK. Roozenburg, N. and J. Eekels. (1991) Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods. Wiley, UK. ISBN 0471943517 Ulrich, K. and S. Eppinger. (2011) Product Design and Development. McGraw Hill, USA. ISBN 978-0073404776 == External links == Introductory Lecture on Design Methods by Rhodes Hileman Abstract: Design Methods Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes, Part 1 of 2. J. Conklin, M. Basadur, GK VanPatter; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2007 Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes, Part 2 of 2. J. Conklin, M. Basadur, GK VanPatter; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2007 Double Consciousness: Back to the Future with John Chris Jones. GK VanPatter, John Chris Jones; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2006	Wikipedia/Design_method
In macroeconomics, the secondary sector of the economy is an economic sector in the three-sector theory that describes the role of manufacturing. It encompasses industries that produce a finished, usable product or are involved in construction. This sector generally takes the output of the primary sector (i.e. raw materials like metals, wood) and creates finished goods suitable for sale to domestic businesses or consumers and for export (via distribution through the tertiary sector). Many of these industries consume large quantities of energy, require factories and use machinery; they are often classified as light or heavy based on such quantities. This also produces waste materials and waste heat that may cause environmental problems or pollution (see negative externalities). Examples include textile production, car manufacturing, and handicraft. Manufacturing is an important activity in promoting economic growth and development. Nations that export manufactured products tend to generate higher marginal GDP growth, which supports higher incomes and therefore marginal tax revenue needed to fund such government expenditures as health care and infrastructure. Among developed countries, it is an important source of well-paying jobs for the middle class (e.g., engineering) to facilitate greater social mobility for successive generations on the economy. Currently, an estimated 20% of the labor force in the United States is involved in the secondary industry. The secondary sector depends on the primary sector for the raw materials necessary for production. Countries that primarily produce agricultural and other raw materials (i.e., primary sector) tend to grow slowly and remain either under-developed or developing economies. The value added through the transformation of raw materials into finished goods reliably generates greater profitability, which underlies the faster growth of developed economies. == See also == List of countries by manufacturing output == References ==	Wikipedia/Industrial_sector
A corporation or body corporate is an individual or a group of people, such as an association or company, that has been authorized by the state to act as a single entity (a legal entity recognized by private and public law as "born out of statute"; a legal person in a legal context) and recognized as such in law for certain purposes.: 10 Early incorporated entities were established by charter (i.e., by an ad hoc act granted by a monarch or passed by a parliament or legislature). Most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations come in many different types but are usually divided by the law of the jurisdiction where they are chartered based on two aspects: whether they can issue stock, or whether they are formed to make a profit. Depending on the number of owners, a corporation can be classified as aggregate (the subject of this article) or sole (a legal entity consisting of a single incorporated office occupied by a single natural person). Registered corporations have legal personality recognized by local authorities and their shares are owned by shareholders whose liability is generally limited to their investment. One of the attractive early advantages business corporations offered to their investors, compared to earlier business entities like sole proprietorships and joint partnerships, was limited liability. Limited liability separates control of a company from ownership and means that a passive shareholder in a corporation will not be personally liable either for contractually agreed obligations of the corporation, or for torts (involuntary harms) committed by the corporation against a third party (acts done by the controllers of the corporation). Where local law distinguishes corporations by their ability to issue stock, corporations allowed to do so are referred to as stock corporations; one type of investment in the corporation is through stock, and owners of stock are referred to as stockholders or shareholders. Corporations not allowed to issue stock are referred to as non-stock corporations; i.e. those who are considered the owners of a non-stock corporation are persons (or other entities) who have obtained membership in the corporation and are referred to as a member of the corporation. Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for-profit are referred to as for-profit and not-for-profit corporations, respectively. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation; shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity. In most circumstances, a shareholder may also serve as a director or officer of a corporation. Countries with co-determination employ the practice of workers of an enterprise having the right to vote for representatives on the board of directors in a company. == History == The word "corporation" derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a "body of people". By the time of Justinian (reigned 527–565), Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names Universitas, corpus or collegium. Following the passage of the Lex Julia during the reign of Julius Caesar as Consul and Dictator of the Roman Republic (49–44 BC), and their reaffirmation during the reign of Caesar Augustus as Princeps senatus and Imperator of the Roman Army (27 BC–14 AD), collegia required the approval of the Roman Senate or the Emperor in order to be authorized as legal bodies. These included the state itself (the Populus Romanus), municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, and, in general, to perform legal acts through representatives. Private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor. The concept of the corporation was revived in the Middle Ages with the recovery and annotation of Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis by the glossators and their successors the commentators in the 11th–14th centuries. Particularly important in this respect were the Italian jurists Bartolus de Saxoferrato and Baldus de Ubaldis, the latter of whom connected the corporation to the metaphor of the body politic to describe the state. Early entities which carried on business and were the subjects of legal rights included the collegium of ancient Rome and the sreni of the Maurya Empire in ancient India. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the City of London Corporation. The point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity. The alleged oldest commercial corporation in the world, the Stora Kopparberg mining community in Falun, Sweden, obtained a charter from King Magnus Eriksson in 1347. In medieval times, traders would do business through common law constructs, such as partnerships. Whenever people acted together with a view to profit, the law deemed that a partnership arose. Early guilds and livery companies were also often involved in the regulation of competition between traders. === Mercantilism === Dutch and English chartered companies, such as the Dutch East India Company (also known by its Dutch initials: VOC) and the Hudson's Bay Company, were created to lead the colonial ventures of European nations in the 17th century. Acting under a charter sanctioned by the Dutch government, the Dutch East India Company defeated Portuguese forces and established itself in the Moluccan Islands in order to profit from the European demand for spices. Investors in the VOC were issued paper certificates as proof of share ownership, and were able to trade their shares on the original Amsterdam Stock Exchange. Shareholders were also explicitly granted limited liability in the company's royal charter. In England, the government created corporations under a royal charter or an Act of Parliament with the grant of a monopoly over a specified territory. The best-known example, established in 1600, was the East India Company of London. Queen Elizabeth I granted it the exclusive right to trade with all countries to the east of the Cape of Good Hope. Some corporations at this time would act on the government's behalf, bringing in revenue from its exploits abroad. Subsequently, the company became increasingly integrated with English and later British military and colonial policy, just as most corporations were essentially dependent on the Royal Navy's ability to control trade routes. Labeled by both contemporaries and historians as "the grandest society of merchants in the universe", the English East India Company would come to symbolize the dazzlingly rich potential of the corporation, as well as new methods of business that could be both brutal and exploitative. On 31 December 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted the company a 15-year monopoly on trade to and from the East Indies and Africa. By 1711, shareholders in the East India Company were earning a return on their investment of almost 150 per cent. Subsequent stock offerings demonstrated just how lucrative the company had become. Its first stock offering in 1713–1716 raised £418,000, its second in 1717–1722 raised £1.6 million. A similar chartered company, the South Sea Company, was established in 1711 to trade in the Spanish South American colonies, but met with less success. The South Sea Company's monopoly rights were supposedly backed by the Treaty of Utrecht, signed in 1713 as a settlement following the War of the Spanish Succession, which gave Great Britain an asiento to trade in the region for thirty years. In fact, the Spanish remained hostile and let only one ship a year enter. Unaware of the problems, investors in Britain, enticed by extravagant promises of profit from company promoters bought thousands of shares. By 1717, the South Sea Company was so wealthy (still having done no real business) that it assumed the public debt of the British government. This accelerated the inflation of the share price further, as did the Bubble Act 1720, which (possibly with the motive of protecting the South Sea Company from competition) prohibited the establishment of any companies without a royal charter. The share price rose so rapidly that people began buying shares merely in order to sell them at a higher price, which in turn led to higher share prices. This was the first speculative bubble the country had seen, but by the end of 1720, the bubble had "burst", and the share price sank from £1,000 to under £100. As bankruptcies and recriminations ricocheted through government and high society, the mood against corporations and errant directors was bitter. In the late 18th century, Stewart Kyd, the author of the first treatise on corporate law in English, defined a corporation as: a collection of many individuals united into one body, under a special denomination, having perpetual succession under an artificial form, and vested, by the policy of the law, with the capacity of acting, in several respects, as an individual, particularly of taking and granting property, of contracting obligations, and of suing and being sued, of enjoying privileges and immunities in common, and of exercising a variety of political rights, more or less extensive, according to the design of its institution, or the powers conferred upon it, either at the time of its creation or at any subsequent period of its existence. === Development of modern company law === Due to the late 18th century abandonment of mercantilist economic theory and the rise of classical liberalism and laissez-faire economic theory due to a revolution in economics led by Adam Smith and other economists, corporations transitioned from being government or guild affiliated entities to being public and private economic entities free of governmental directions. Smith wrote in his 1776 work The Wealth of Nations that mass corporate activity could not match private entrepreneurship, because people in charge of others' money would not exercise as much care as they would with their own. ==== Deregulation ==== The British Bubble Act 1720's prohibition on establishing companies remained in force until its repeal in 1825. By this point, the Industrial Revolution had gathered pace, pressing for legal change to facilitate business activity. The repeal was the beginning of a gradual lifting on restrictions, though business ventures (such as those chronicled by Charles Dickens in Martin Chuzzlewit) under primitive companies legislation were often scams. Without cohesive regulation, proverbial operations like the "Anglo-Bengalee Disinterested Loan and Life Assurance Company" were undercapitalized ventures promising no hope of success except for richly paid promoters. The process of incorporation was possible only through a royal charter or a private act and was limited, owing to Parliament's jealous protection of the privileges and advantages thereby granted. As a result, many businesses came to be operated as unincorporated associations with possibly thousands of members. Any consequent litigation had to be carried out in the joint names of all the members and was almost impossibly cumbersome. Though Parliament would sometimes grant a private act to allow an individual to represent the whole in legal proceedings, this was a narrow and necessarily costly expedient, allowed only to established companies. Then, in 1843, William Gladstone became the chairman of a Parliamentary Committee on Joint Stock Companies, which led to the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844, regarded as the first modern piece of company law. The Act created the Registrar of Joint Stock Companies, empowered to register companies by a two-stage process. The first, provisional, stage cost £5 and did not confer corporate status, which arose after completing the second stage for another £5. For the first time in history, it was possible for ordinary people through a simple registration procedure to incorporate. The advantage of establishing a company as a separate legal person was mainly administrative, as a unified entity under which the rights and duties of all investors and managers could be channeled. ==== Limited liability ==== However, there was still no limited liability and company members could still be held responsible for unlimited losses by the company. The next, crucial development, then, was the Limited Liability Act 1855, passed at the behest of the then Vice President of the Board of Trade, Robert Lowe. This allowed investors to limit their liability in the event of business failure to the amount they invested in the company – shareholders were still liable directly to creditors, but just for the unpaid portion of their shares. (The principle that shareholders are liable to the corporation had been introduced in the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844). The 1855 Act allowed limited liability to companies of more than 25 members (shareholders). Insurance companies were excluded from the act, though it was standard practice for insurance contracts to exclude action against individual members. Limited liability for insurance companies was allowed by the Companies Act 1862. This prompted the English periodical The Economist to write in 1855 that "never, perhaps, was a change so vehemently and generally demanded, of which the importance was so much overrated." The major error of this judgment was recognised by the same magazine more than 70 years later, when it claimed that, "[t]he economic historian of the future... may be inclined to assign to the nameless inventor of the principle of limited liability, as applied to trade corporations, a place of honour with Watt and Stephenson, and other pioneers of the Industrial Revolution. " These two features – a simple registration procedure and limited liability – were subsequently codified into the landmark 1856 Joint Stock Companies Act. This was subsequently consolidated with a number of other statutes in the Companies Act 1862, which remained in force for the rest of the century, up to and including the time of the decision in Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd. The legislation quickly led to a railway boom, resulting in a surge in the formation of companies. However, in the later nineteenth century, a period of depression set in, causing many of these companies to collapse and become insolvent. Strong academic, legislative, and judicial opinions emerged, opposing the notion that businessmen could escape accountability for their role in the failing businesses. ==== Further developments ==== In 1892, Germany introduced the Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung with a separate legal personality and limited liability even if all the shares of the company were held by only one person. This inspired other countries to introduce corporations of this kind. The last significant development in the history of companies was the 1897 decision of the House of Lords in Salomon v. Salomon & Co., where the House of Lords confirmed the separate legal personality of the company, and that the liabilities of the company were separate and distinct from those of its owners. In the United States, forming a corporation usually required an act of legislation until the late 19th century. Many private firms, such as Carnegie's steel company and Rockefeller's Standard Oil, avoided the corporate model for this reason (as a trust). State governments began to adopt more permissive corporate laws from the early 19th century, although these were all restrictive in design, often with the intention of preventing corporations from gaining too much wealth and power. In 1896, New Jersey was the first state to adopt an "enabling" corporate law, with the goal of attracting more business to the state. In 1899, Delaware followed New Jersey's lead by enacting an enabling corporate statute. However, Delaware only emerged as the leading corporate state after the enabling provisions of the 1896 New Jersey corporate law were repealed in 1913. The end of the 19th century saw the emergence of holding companies and corporate mergers creating larger corporations with dispersed shareholders. Countries began enacting antitrust laws to prevent anti-competitive practices and corporations were granted more legal rights and protections. The 20th century witnessed a proliferation of laws allowing for the creation of corporations through registration worldwide. These laws played a significant role in driving economic booms in many countries both before and after World War I. Another major post World War I shift was toward the development of conglomerates, in which large corporations purchased smaller corporations to expand their industrial base. Starting in the 1980s, many countries with large state-owned corporations began moving toward privatization, which involved selling publicly owned (or 'nationalized') services and enterprises to corporations. Deregulation aimed at reducing the regulation of corporate activity, often accompanied privatization as part of a laissez-faire policy. == Ownership and control == A corporation is, at least in theory, owned and controlled by its members. In a joint-stock company, the members are known as shareholders, and each of their shares in the ownership, control, and profits of the corporation is determined by the portion of shares in the company that they own. Thus, a person who owns a quarter of the shares of a joint-stock company owns a quarter of the company, is entitled to a quarter of the profit (or at least a quarter of the profit given to shareholders as dividends) and has a quarter of the votes capable of being cast at general meetings. In another kind of corporation, the legal document which established the corporation or which contains its current rules will determine the requirements for membership in the corporation. What these requirements are depends on the kind of corporation involved. In a worker cooperative, the members are people who work for the cooperative. In a credit union, the members are people who have accounts with the credit union. The day-to-day activities of a corporation are typically controlled by individuals appointed by the members. In some cases, this will be a single individual but more commonly corporations are controlled by a committee or by committees. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of committee structure. A single committee known as a board of directors is the method favored in most common law countries. Under this model, the board of directors is composed of both executive and non-executive directors, the latter being meant to supervise the former's management of the company. A two-tiered committee structure with a supervisory board and a managing board is common in civil law countries. In countries with co-determination (such as in Germany), workers elect a fixed fraction of the corporation's board. === Formation === Historically, corporations were created by a charter granted by the government. As explained above, such charters were often enacted as private bills. Today, a corporation is formed, or incorporated, by registering with the state, province, or national government and regulated by the laws enacted by that government. Registration is the main prerequisite to the corporation's assumption of limited liability. The law sometimes requires the corporation to designate its principal address, as well as a registered agent (a person or company designated to receive legal service of process). It may also be required to designate an agent or other legal representatives of the corporation. Generally, a corporation files articles of incorporation with the government, laying out the general nature of the corporation, the amount of stock it is authorized to issue, and the names and addresses of directors. Once the articles are approved, the corporation's directors meet to create bylaws that govern the internal functions of the corporation, such as meeting procedures and officer positions. In theory, a corporation cannot own its own stock. An exception is treasury stock, where the company essentially buys back stock from its shareholders, which reduces its outstanding shares. This essentially becomes the equivalent of unissued capital, where it is not classified as an asset on the balance sheet (passive capital). Under the internal affairs doctrine, the law of the jurisdiction in which a corporation is incorporated will govern its internal activities—that is, conflicts between shareholders and managers such as the board of directors and corporate officers. If a corporation operates outside its home state, it is usually required to register with other governments as a foreign corporation and must formally appoint a registered agent to accept service of process within such other jurisdictions. A foreign corporation is almost always subject to the laws of its host state pertaining to external affairs such as employment, crimes, contracts, civil actions, and the like. === Naming === Corporations generally have a distinct name. Historically, some corporations were named after the members of their boards of directors: for example, the "President and Fellows of Harvard College" is the name of one of the two governing boards of Harvard University, but it is also the exact name under which Harvard was legally incorporated. Nowadays, corporations in most jurisdictions have a distinct name that does not need to make reference to the members of their boards. In Canada, this possibility is taken to its logical extreme: many smaller Canadian corporations have no names at all, merely numbers based on a registration number (for example, "12345678 Ontario Limited"), which is assigned by the provincial or territorial government where the corporation incorporates. In most countries, corporate names include a term or an abbreviation that denotes the corporate status of the entity (for example, "Incorporated" or "Inc." in the United States) or the limited liability of its members (for example, "Limited", "Ltd.", or "LLC"). These terms vary by jurisdiction and language. In some jurisdictions, they are mandatory, and in others, such as California, they are not. Their use puts everybody on constructive notice that they are dealing with an entity whose liability is limited: one can only collect from whatever assets the entity still controls when one obtains a judgment against it. Corporate names are supposed to be unique to the jurisdiction in which the corporation is registered. Governments will not allow another corporation or any other kind of legal entity to register a name that is too similar to the name of an existing corporation. However, since "different states may register entities with the same names, a corporate name is a unique identifier only when combined with the name of the state of incorporation". This explains why lawyers in legal papers often expressly refer to a corporation's state of incorporation after the first mention of its name. Some jurisdictions do not allow the use of the word "company" alone to denote corporate status, since the word "company" may refer to a partnership or some other form of collective ownership (in the United States it can be used by a sole proprietorship but this is not generally the case elsewhere). == Personhood == Despite not being human beings, corporations have been ruled legal persons in a few countries, and have many of the same rights as natural persons do. For example, a corporation can own property, and can sue or be sued for as long as it exists. Corporations can exercise human rights against real individuals and the state, and they can themselves be responsible for human rights violations. Corporations can be "dissolved" either by statutory operation, the order of the court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Insolvency may result in a form of corporate failure, when creditors force the liquidation and dissolution of the corporation under court order, but it most often results in a restructuring of corporate holdings. Corporations can even be convicted of special criminal offenses in the UK, such as fraud and corporate manslaughter. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way that humans are. Legal scholars and others, such as Joel Bakan, have observed that a business corporation created as a "legal person" has a psychopathic personality because it is required to elevate its own interests above those of others even when this inflicts major risks and grave harms on the public or on other third-parties. Such critics note that the legal mandate of the corporation to focus exclusively on corporate profits and self-interest often victimizes employees, customers, the public at large, and/or the natural resources. The political theorist David Runciman notes that corporate personhood forms a fundamental part of the 21st century conception state, and believes the idea of the corporation as legal persons can help to clarify the role of citizens as political stakeholders, and to break down the sharp conceptual dichotomy between the state and the people or the individual, a distinction that, on his account, is "increasingly unable to meet the demands placed on the state in the modern world". == See also == == Notes == == References == == Further reading == Barnet, Richard; Muller, Ronald E. (1974). Global Reach: The Power of the Multinational Corporation. New York: Simon & Schuster. Bakan, Joel. The New Corporation: How "Good" Corporations Are Bad for Democracy. (2020) Blackstone, W. Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765) 455–473 Blumberg, Phillip I., The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law: The Search for a New Corporate Personality, (1993) Blumberg, PI, The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law (1993) Bromberg, Alan R. Crane and Bromberg on Partnership. 1968. Brown, Bruce. The History of the Corporation (2003) Cadman, John William. The Corporation in New Jersey: Business and Politics (1949) Conard, Alfred F. Corporations in Perspective. 1976. Cooke, C.A., Corporation, Trust and Company: A Legal History, (1950) Davies, PL, and LCB Gower, Principles of Modern Company Law (6th ed., Sweet and Maxwell, 1997), chapters 2–4 Davis, John P. Corporations Archived 2011-06-11 at the Wayback Machine (1904) Davis, Joseph S. Essays in the Earlier History of American Corporations Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine (1917) Dignam, Alan and John Lowry (2020), Company Law, Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-928936-3 Dodd, Edwin Merrick. American Business Corporations Until 1860, with Special Reference to Massachusetts (1954) DuBois, A. B. The English Business Company after the Bubble Act (1938) Formoy, RR, The Historical Foundations of Company Law (Sweet and Maxwell 1923) 21 Freedman, Charles. Joint-stock Enterprise in France: From Privileged Company to Modern Corporation (1979) Frentrop, P, A History of Corporate Governance 1602–2002 (Brussels et al., 2003) Freund, Ernst. The Legal Nature of the Corporation (1897), MCMaster.ca Hallis, Frederick. Corporate Personality: A Study in Jurisprudence (1930) Hessen, Robert. In Defense of the Corporation. Hoover Institute. 1979. Hunt, Bishop. The Development of the Business Corporation in England (1936) Klein and Coffee. Business Organization and Finance: Legal and Economic Principles. Foundation. 2002. Kocaoglu, Kagan (Cahn Kojaolu) A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law Kyd, S, A Treatise on the Law of Corporations (1793–1794) Mahoney, PG, "Contract or Concession? An Essay on the History of Corporate Law" (2000) 34 Ga. Law Review 873 Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Corporate Life in Ancient India Archived 2011-07-06 at the Wayback Machine, (1920) Means, Robert Charles. Underdevelopment and the Development of Law: Corporations and Corporation Law in Nineteenth-century Colombia, (1980) Micklethwait, John and Wooldridge, Adrian. The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea. New York: Modern Library. 2003. Provost, Claire; Kennard, Matt (2023). Silent Coup: How Corporations Overthrew Democracy. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1350269989. Owen, Thomas. The Corporation Under Russian Law: A Study in Tsarist Economic Policy (1991) Rungta, Radhe Shyam. The Rise of the Business Corporation in India, 1851–1900 (1970) Scott, W. R. Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720 Archived 2011-07-06 at the Wayback Machine (1912) Sobel, Robert. The Age of Giant Corporations: A Microeconomic History of American Business. (1984) Tooze, Adam, "Democracy and Its Discontents", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 10 (6 June 2019), pp. 52–53, 56–57. "Democracy has no clear answer for the mindless operation of bureaucratic and technological power. We may indeed be witnessing its extension in the form of artificial intelligence and robotics. Likewise, after decades of dire warning, the environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed.... Bureaucratic overreach and environmental catastrophe are precisely the kinds of slow-moving existential challenges that democracies deal with very badly.... Finally, there is the threat du jour: corporations and the technologies they promote." (pp. 56–57.) == External links == US Corporate Law at Wikibooks an Audio from a talk about the history of corporations and the English Law by Barrister Daniel Bennett	Wikipedia/Corporate
There are many uses of water in industry and, in most cases, the used water also needs treatment to render it fit for re-use or disposal. Raw water entering an industrial plant often needs treatment to meet tight quality specifications to be of use in specific industrial processes. Industrial water treatment encompasses all these aspects which include industrial wastewater treatment, boiler water treatment and cooling water treatment. == Overview == Water treatment is used to reduce inpact on equipment used in industrial processes, such as heating, cooling, processing, cleaning, and rinsing so that operating costs and risks are reduced. Poor water treatment lets water interact with the surfaces of pipes and vessels which contain it. Steam boilers can scale up or corrode, and these deposits will mean more fuel is needed to heat the same amount of water. Cooling towers can also scale up and corrode, but left untreated, the warm, dirty water they can contain will encourage bacteria to grow, and Legionnaires' disease can be the fatal consequence. Water treatment is also used to improve the quality of water contacting the manufactured product (e.g., semiconductors) and/or can be part of the product (e.g., beverages, pharmaceuticals). In these instances, poor water treatment can cause defective products. In many cases, effluent water from one process can be suitable for reuse in another process if given suitable treatment. This can reduce costs by lowering charges for water consumption, reduce the costs of effluent disposal because of reduced volume, and lower energy costs due to the recovery of heat in recycled wastewater. == Objectives == Industrial water treatment seeks to manage four main problem areas: scaling, corrosion, microbiological activity and disposal of residual wastewater. Boilers do not have many problems with microbes as the high temperatures prevent their growth. Scaling occurs when the chemistry and temperature conditions are such that the dissolved mineral salts in the water are caused to precipitate and form solid deposits. These can be mobile, like a fine silt, or can build up in layers on the metal surfaces of the systems. Scale is a problem because it insulates and heat exchange becomes less efficient as the scale thickens, which wastes energy. Scale also narrows pipe widths and therefore increases the energy used in pumping the water through the pipes. Corrosion occurs when the parent metal oxidises (as iron rusts, for example) and gradually the integrity of the plant equipment is compromised. The corrosion products can cause similar problems to scale, but corrosion can also lead to leaks, which in a pressurised system can lead to catastrophic failures. Microbes can thrive in untreated cooling water, which is warm and sometimes full of organic nutrients as wet cooling towers are very efficient air scrubbers. Dust, flies, grass, fungal spores, and others collect in the water and create a sort of "microbial soup" if not treated with biocides. Many outbreaks of the deadly Legionnaires' Disease have been traced to unmanaged cooling towers, and the UK has had stringent Health & Safety guidelines concerning cooling tower operations for many years as have had governmental agencies in other countries. Certain processes like tanning and paper making use heavy metals such as Chrome for tanning. Although most is used up but some amount remains and gets carried away with water. The presence in drinking water is toxic when consumed so even the smallest amount must be removed. == Disposal of residual industrial wastewaters == Disposal of residual wastewaters from an industrial plant is a difficult and costly problem. Most petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants have onsite facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the local and/or national regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into sewage treatment plants or into rivers, lakes or oceans. == Processes == Two of the main processes of industrial water treatment are boiler water treatment and cooling water treatment. A large amount of proper water treatment can lead to the reaction of solids and bacteria within pipe work and boiler housing. Steam boilers can suffer from scale or corrosion when left untreated. Scale deposits can lead to weak and dangerous machinery, while additional fuel is required to heat the same level of water because of the rise in thermal resistance. Poor quality dirty water can become a breeding ground for bacteria such as Legionella causing a risk to public health. Corrosion in low pressure boilers can be caused by dissolved oxygen, acidity and excessive alkalinity. Water treatment therefore should remove the dissolved oxygen and maintain the boiler water with the appropriate pH and alkalinity levels. Without effective water treatment, a cooling water system can suffer from scale formation, corrosion and fouling and may become a breeding ground for harmful bacteria. This reduces efficiency, shortens plant life and makes operations unreliable and unsafe. === Boiler water treatment === Boiler water treatment is a type of industrial water treatment focused on removal or chemical modification of substances potentially damaging to the boiler. Varying types of treatment are used at different locations to avoid scale, corrosion, or foaming. External treatment of raw water supplies intended for use within a boiler is focused on removal of impurities before they reach the boiler. Internal treatment within the boiler is focused on limiting the tendency of water to dissolve the boiler, and maintaining impurities in forms least likely to cause trouble before they can be removed from the boiler in boiler blowdown. Deaerator is used to reduce oxygen and nitrogen in boiler feed water applications. === Cooling water treatment === Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components of machinery and industrial equipment. Water may be a more efficient heat transfer fluid where air cooling is ineffective. In most occupied climates water offers the thermal conductivity advantages of a liquid with unusually high specific heat capacity and the option that of evaporative cooling. Low cost often allows rejection as waste after a single use, but recycling coolant loops may be pressurized to eliminate evaporative loss and offer greater portability and improved cleanliness. Unpressurized recycling coolant loops using evaporative cooling require a blowdown waste stream to remove impurities concentrated by evaporation. Disadvantages of water cooling systems include accelerated corrosion and maintenance requirements to prevent heat transfer reductions from biofouling or scale formation. Chemical additives to reduce these disadvantages may introduce toxicity to wastewater. Water cooling is commonly used for cooling automobile internal combustion engines and large industrial facilities such as nuclear and steam electric power plants, hydroelectric generators, petroleum refineries and chemical plants. == Technologies == Advancements in water treatment technology have affected all areas of industrial water treatment. Although mechanical filtration, such as reverse osmosis, is widely employed to filter contaminants, other technologies including the use of ozone generators, wastewater evaporation, electrodeionization and bioremediation are also able to address the challenges of industrial water treatment. Ozone treatment is a process in which ozone gas is injected into waste streams as a means to reduce or eliminate the need for water treatment chemicals or sanitizers that may be hazardous, including chlorine. === Chemical treatment === Chemical treatments utilize the additive of chemicals to make industrial water suitable for use or discharge. That includes processes like chemical precipitation, chemical disinfection, Advanced oxidation process (AOP), ion exchange, and chemical neutralization. AOPs are attractive in the treatment of hazardous wastewater due to its high oxidation potential and degradation performance. In AOPs, oxidants like Fenton's reagent, Ozone or Hydrogen peroxide are introduced in the wastewater to degrade harmful substances in industrial water for discharge. === Physical treatment === Physical treatment involves the separation of solids form industrial wastewater either through Filtration or Dissolved air flotation. Filtration involves the use of Membrane or filters such as mechanical filters like sand filtration etc to achieve solid-liquid separation. Whereas for Dissolved air flotation, pressurized air is pumped into the wastewater. The pressurized air then forms small bubbles which adhere to the suspended matter causing them to float to the surface of the water where they can be removed by a skimming device or an overflow. === Biological treatment === Biological treatment is needed to treat wastewater containing biodegradable elements. It is commonly used in municipal and industrial wastewater management facilities and usually consists in adding common bacteria and other microbes, mostly environmentally friendly, to treat the water. It is a sustainable practice that has been successful for over a century. Slow sand filters use a biological process to purify raw water to produce potable water. They work by using a complex biological film that grows naturally on the surface of sand. This gelatinous biofilm called the hypogeal layer or Schmutzdecke is located in the upper few millimetres of the sand layer. The surface biofilm purifies the water as it flows through the layer, the underlying sand provides a support medium for the biological treatment layer. The Schmutzdecke consists of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifera and a range of aquatic insect larvae. As the biofilm ages, more algae may develop and larger aquatic organisms including bryozoa, snails and Annelid worms may be present. As water passes through the hypogeal layer, particles of matter are trapped in the mucilaginous matrix and soluble organic material is adsorbed. The contaminants are metabolised by the bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Slow sand filters are typically 1–2 metres deep, and have a hydraulic loading rate of 0.2–0.4 cubic metres per square metre per hour. Filters lose their performance as the biofilm thickens and reduces the rate of flow. The filter is refurbished by removing the biofilm and a thin upper layer of sand. Water is decanted back into the filter and re-circulated to enable a new biofilm to develop. Alternatively wet harrowing involves stirring the sand and flushing the biolayer through for disposal. === Ultraviolet irradiation === Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection technology has been a common water treatment technology in the past two decades due to its ability to provide disinfected water without the use of harmful chemicals. The UV-C portion represents wavelengths from 200 nm - 280 nm which is used for disinfection. UV-C photons penetrate cells and damage the nucleic acid, rendering them incapable of reproduction, or microbiologically inactive. === Process water treatment technology === Process water is water that is used in a variety of manufacturing operations, such as: coating and plating; rinsing and spraying; washing, etc. Municipal and ground water often contain dissolved minerals which make it unsuitable for these processes because it would affect product quality and/or increase manufacturing costs. A proper incoming water treatment system can remedy these issues and create the right water conditions for specific industrial processes. == See also == Water treatment Wastewater treatment Wastewater quality indicators Cooling tower Fouling Pumpable ice technology == References == == External links ==	Wikipedia/Industrial_water_treatment
The chemical industry comprises the companies and other organizations that develop and produce industrial, specialty and other chemicals. Central to the modern world economy, the chemical industry converts raw materials (oil, natural gas, air, water, metals, and minerals) into commodity chemicals for industrial and consumer products. It includes industries for petrochemicals such as polymers for plastics and synthetic fibers; inorganic chemicals such as acids and alkalis; agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides; and other categories such as industrial gases, speciality chemicals and pharmaceuticals. Various professionals are involved in the chemical industry including chemical engineers, chemists and lab technicians. == History == Although chemicals were made and used throughout history, the birth of the heavy chemical industry (production of chemicals in large quantities for a variety of uses) coincided with the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution. === Industrial Revolution === One of the first chemicals to be produced in large amounts through industrial processes was sulfuric acid. In 1736 pharmacist Joshua Ward developed a process for its production that involved heating sulfur with saltpeter, allowing the sulfur to oxidize and combine with water. It was the first practical production of sulphuric acid on a large scale. John Roebuck and Samuel Garbett were the first to establish a large-scale factory in Prestonpans, Scotland, in 1749, which used leaden condensing chambers for the manufacture of sulfuric acid. In the early 18th century, cloth was bleached by treating it with stale urine or sour milk and exposing it to sunlight for long periods of time, which created a severe bottleneck in production. Sulfuric acid began to be used as a more efficient agent as well as lime by the middle of the century, but it was the discovery of bleaching powder by Charles Tennant that spurred the creation of the first great chemical industrial enterprise. His powder was made by reacting chlorine with dry slaked lime and proved to be a cheap and successful product. He opened the St Rollox Chemical Works, north of Glasgow, and production went from just 52 tons in 1799 to almost 10,000 tons just five years later. Soda ash was used since ancient times in the production of glass, textile, soap, and paper, and the source of the potash had traditionally been wood ashes in Western Europe. By the 18th century, this source was becoming uneconomical due to deforestation, and the French Academy of Sciences offered a prize of 2400 livres for a method to produce alkali from sea salt (sodium chloride). The Leblanc process was patented in 1791 by Nicolas Leblanc who then built a Leblanc plant at Saint-Denis. He was denied his prize money because of the French Revolution. In Britain, the Leblanc process became popular. William Losh built the first soda works in Britain at the Losh, Wilson and Bell works on the River Tyne in 1816, but it remained on a small scale due to large tariffs on salt production until 1824. When these tariffs were repealed, the British soda industry was able to rapidly expand. James Muspratt's chemical works in Liverpool and Charles Tennant's complex near Glasgow became the largest chemical production centres anywhere. By the 1870s, the British soda output of 200,000 tons annually exceeded that of all other nations in the world combined. These huge factories began to produce a greater diversity of chemicals as the Industrial Revolution matured. Originally, large quantities of alkaline waste were vented into the environment from the production of soda, provoking one of the first pieces of environmental legislation to be passed in 1863. This provided for close inspection of the factories and imposed heavy fines on those exceeding the limits on pollution. Methods were devised to make useful byproducts from the alkali. The Solvay process was developed by the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay in 1861. In 1864, Solvay and his brother Alfred constructed a plant in Charleroi Belgium. In 1874, they expanded into a larger plant in Nancy, France. The new process proved more economical and less polluting than the Leblanc method, and its use spread. In the same year, Ludwig Mond visited Solvay to acquire the rights to use his process, and he and John Brunner formed Brunner, Mond & Co., and built a Solvay plant at Winnington, England. Mond was instrumental in making the Solvay process a commercial success. He made several refinements between 1873 and 1880 that removed byproducts that could inhibit the production of sodium carbonate in the process. The manufacture of chemical products from fossil fuels began at scale in the early 19th century. The coal tar and ammoniacal liquor residues of coal gas manufacture for gas lighting began to be processed in 1822 at the Bonnington Chemical Works in Edinburgh to make naphtha, pitch oil (later called creosote), pitch, lampblack (carbon black) and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Ammonium sulphate fertiliser, asphalt road surfacing, coke oil and coke were later added to the product line. === Expansion and maturation === The late 19th century saw an explosion in both the quantity of production and the variety of chemicals that were manufactured. Large chemical industries arose in Germany and later in the United States. Production of artificial manufactured fertilizer for agriculture was pioneered by Sir John Lawes at his purpose-built Rothamsted Research facility. In the 1840s he established large works near London for the manufacture of superphosphate of lime. Processes for the vulcanization of rubber were patented by Charles Goodyear in the United States and Thomas Hancock in England in the 1840s. The first synthetic dye was discovered by William Henry Perkin in London. He partly transformed aniline into a crude mixture which, when extracted with alcohol, produced a substance with an intense purple colour. He also developed the first synthetic perfumes. German industry quickly began to dominate the field of synthetic dyes. The three major firms BASF, Bayer, and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes. By 1913, German industries produced almost 90% of the world's supply of dyestuffs and sold approximately 80% of their production abroad. In the United States, Herbert Henry Dow's use of electrochemistry to produce chemicals from brine was a commercial success that helped to promote the country's chemical industry. The petrochemical industry can be traced back to the oil works of Scottish chemist James Young, and Canadian Abraham Pineo Gesner. The first plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes, an English metallurgist. In 1856, he patented Parkesine, a celluloid based on nitrocellulose treated with a variety of solvents. This material, exhibited at the 1862 London International Exhibition, anticipated many of the modern aesthetic and utility uses of plastics. The industrial production of soap from vegetable oils was started by William Lever and his brother James in 1885 in Lancashire based on a modern chemical process invented by William Hough Watson that used glycerin and vegetable oils. By the 1920s, chemical firms consolidated into large conglomerates; IG Farben in Germany, Rhône-Poulenc in France and Imperial Chemical Industries in Britain. Dupont became a major chemicals firm in the early 20th century in America. == Products == Polymers and plastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene and polycarbonate comprise about 80% of the industry's output worldwide. Chemicals are used in many different consumer goods, and are also used in many different sectors. This includes agriculture manufacturing, construction, and service industries. Major industrial customers include rubber and plastic products, textiles, apparel, petroleum refining, pulp and paper, and primary metals. Chemicals are nearly a $5 trillion global enterprise, and the EU and U.S. chemical companies are the world's largest producers. Sales of the chemical business can be divided into a few broad categories, including basic chemicals (about 35% – 37% of dollar output), life sciences (30%), specialty chemicals (20% – 25%) and consumer products (about 10%). === Overview === Basic chemicals, or "commodity chemicals" are a broad chemical category including polymers, bulk petrochemicals and intermediates, other derivatives and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals, and fertilizers. Polymers are the largest revenue segment and includes all categories of plastics and human-made fibers. The major markets for plastics are packaging, followed by home construction, containers, appliances, pipe, transportation, toys, and games. The largest-volume polymer product, polyethylene (PE), is used mainly in packaging films and other markets such as milk bottles, containers, and pipe. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), another large-volume product, is principally used to make piping for construction markets as well as siding and, to a much smaller extent, transportation and packaging materials. Polypropylene (PP), similar in volume to PVC, is used in markets ranging from packaging, appliances, and containers to clothing and carpeting. Polystyrene (PS), another large-volume plastic, is used principally for appliances and packaging as well as toys and recreation. The leading human-made fibers include polyester, nylon, polypropylene, and acrylics, with applications including apparel, home furnishings, and other industrial and consumer use. Principal raw materials for polymers are bulk petrochemicals like ethylene, propylene and benzene. Petrochemicals and intermediate chemicals are primarily made from liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas and crude oil fractions. Large volume products include ethylene, propylene, benzene, toluene, xylenes, methanol, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), styrene, butadiene, and ethylene oxide. These basic or commodity chemicals are the starting materials used to manufacture many polymers and other more complex organic chemicals particularly those that are made for use in the specialty chemicals category. Other derivatives and basic industrials include synthetic rubber, surfactants, dyes and pigments, turpentine, resins, carbon black, explosives, and rubber products and contribute about 20 percent of the basic chemicals' external sales. Inorganic chemicals (about 12% of the revenue output) make up the oldest of the chemical categories. Products include salt, chlorine, caustic soda, soda ash, acids (such as nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and sulfuric acid), titanium dioxide, and hydrogen peroxide. Fertilizers are the smallest category (about 6 percent) and include phosphates, ammonia, and potash chemicals. === Life sciences === Life sciences (about 30% of the dollar output of the chemistry business) include differentiated chemical and biological substances, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, animal health products, vitamins, and pesticides. While much smaller in volume than other chemical sectors, their products tend to have high prices – over ten dollars per pound – growth rates of 1.5 to 6 times GDP, and research and development spending at 15 to 25% of sales. Life science products are usually produced with high specifications and are closely scrutinized by government agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration. Pesticides, also called "crop protection chemicals", are about 10% of this category and include herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides. === Specialty chemicals === Specialty chemicals are a category of relatively high-valued, rapidly growing chemicals with diverse end product markets. Typical growth rates are one to three times GDP with prices over a dollar per pound. They are generally characterized by their innovative aspects. Products are sold for what they can do rather than for what chemicals they contain. Products include electronic chemicals, industrial gases, adhesives and sealants as well as coatings, industrial and institutional cleaning chemicals, and catalysts. In 2012, excluding fine chemicals, the $546 billion global specialty chemical market was 33% Paints, Coating and Surface Treatments, 27% Advanced Polymer, 14% Adhesives and Sealants, 13% additives, and 13% pigments and inks. Speciality chemicals are sold as effect or performance chemicals. Sometimes they are mixtures of formulations, unlike "fine chemicals", which are almost always single-molecule products. === Consumer products === Consumer products include direct product sales of chemicals such as soaps, detergents, and cosmetics. Typical growth rates are 0.8 to 1.0 times GDP. Consumers rarely come into contact with basic chemicals. Polymers and specialty chemicals are materials that they encounter everywhere daily. Examples are plastics, cleaning materials, cosmetics, paints and coatings, electronics, automobiles and the materials used in home construction. These specialty products are marketed by chemical companies to the downstream manufacturing industries as pesticides, specialty polymers, electronic chemicals, surfactants, construction chemicals, industrial cleaners, flavours and fragrances, specialty coatings, printing inks, water-soluble polymers, food additives, paper chemicals, oil field chemicals, plastic adhesives, adhesives and sealants, cosmetic chemicals, water management chemicals, catalysts, and textile chemicals. Chemical companies rarely supply these products directly to the consumer. Annually the American Chemistry Council tabulates the US production volume of the top 100 chemicals. In 2000, the aggregate production volume of the top 100 chemicals totaled 502 million tons, up from 397 million tons in 1990. Inorganic chemicals tend to be the largest volume but much smaller in dollar revenue due to their low prices. The top 11 of the 100 chemicals in 2000 were sulfuric acid (44 million tons), nitrogen (34), ethylene (28), oxygen (27), lime (22), ammonia (17), propylene (16), polyethylene (15), chlorine (13), phosphoric acid (13) and diammonium phosphates (12). == Companies == The largest chemical producers today are global companies with international operations and plants in numerous countries. Below is a list of the top 25 chemical companies by chemical sales in 2015. (Note: Chemical sales represent only a portion of total sales for some companies.) Top chemical companies by chemical sales in 2015. == Technology == From the perspective of chemical engineers, the chemical industry involves the use of chemical processes such as chemical reactions and refining methods to produce a wide variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous materials. Most of these products serve to manufacture other items, although a smaller number go directly to consumers. Solvents, pesticides, lye, washing soda, and portland cement provide a few examples of products used by consumers. The industry includes manufacturers of inorganic- and organic-industrial chemicals, ceramic products, petrochemicals, agrochemicals, polymers and rubber (elastomers), oleochemicals (oils, fats, and waxes), explosives, fragrances and flavors. Examples of these products are shown in the Table below. Related industries include petroleum, glass, paint, ink, sealant, adhesive, pharmaceuticals and food processing. Chemical processes such as chemical reactions operate in chemical plants to form new substances in various types of reaction vessels. In many cases, the reactions take place in special corrosion-resistant equipment at elevated temperatures and pressures with the use of catalysts. The products of these reactions are separated using a variety of techniques including distillation especially fractional distillation, precipitation, crystallization, adsorption, filtration, sublimation, and drying. The processes and products or products are usually tested during and after manufacture by dedicated instruments and on-site quality control laboratories to ensure safe operation and to assure that the product will meet required specifications. More organizations within the industry are implementing chemical compliance software to maintain quality products and manufacturing standards. The products are packaged and delivered by many methods, including pipelines, tank-cars, and tank-trucks (for both solids and liquids), cylinders, drums, bottles, and boxes. Chemical companies often have a research-and-development laboratory for developing and testing products and processes. These facilities may include pilot plants and such research facilities may be located at a site separate from the production plant(s). == World chemical production == The scale of chemical manufacturing tends to be organized from largest in volume (petrochemicals and commodity chemicals), to specialty chemicals, and the smallest, fine chemicals. The petrochemical and commodity chemical manufacturing units are on the whole single product continuous processing plants. Not all petrochemical or commodity chemical materials are made in one single location, but groups of related materials often are to induce industrial symbiosis as well as material, energy and utility efficiency and other economies of scale. Those chemicals made on the largest of scales are made in a few manufacturing locations around the world, for example in Texas and Louisiana along the Gulf Coast of the United States, on Teesside (United Kingdom), and in Rotterdam in the Netherlands. The large-scale manufacturing locations often have clusters of manufacturing units that share utilities and large-scale infrastructure such as power stations, port facilities, and road and rail terminals. To demonstrate the clustering and integration mentioned above, some 50% of the United Kingdom's petrochemical and commodity chemicals are produced by the Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster on Teesside. Specialty chemical and fine chemical manufacturing are mostly made in discrete batch processes. These manufacturers are often found in similar locations but in many cases, they are to be found in multi-sector business parks. === Continents and countries === In the U.S. there are 170 major chemical companies. They operate internationally with more than 2,800 facilities outside the U.S. and 1,700 foreign subsidiaries or affiliates operating. The U.S. chemical output is $750 billion a year. The U.S. industry records large trade surpluses and employs more than a million people in the United States alone. The chemical industry is also the second largest consumer of energy in manufacturing and spends over $5 billion annually on pollution abatement. In Europe, the chemical, plastics, and rubber sectors are among the largest industrial sectors. Together they generate about 3.2 million jobs in more than 60,000 companies. Since 2000 the chemical sector alone has represented 2/3 of the entire manufacturing trade surplus of the EU. In 2012, the chemical sector accounted for 12% of the EU manufacturing industry's added value. Europe remains the world's biggest chemical trading region with 43% of the world's exports and 37% of the world's imports, although the latest data shows that Asia is catching up with 34% of the exports and 37% of imports. Even so, Europe still has a trading surplus with all regions of the world except Japan and China where in 2011 there was a chemical trade balance. Europe's trade surplus with the rest of the world today amounts to 41.7 billion Euros. Over the 20 years between 1991 and 2011, the European Chemical industry saw its sales increase from 295 billion Euros to 539 billion Euros, a picture of constant growth. Despite this, the European industry's share of the world chemical market has fallen from 36% to 20%. This has resulted from the huge increase in production and sales in emerging markets like India and China. The data suggest that 95% of this impact is from China alone. In 2012 the data from the European Chemical Industry Council shows that five European countries account for 71% of the EU's chemicals sales. These are Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Italy and the Netherlands. The chemical industry has seen growth in China, India, Korea, the Middle East, South East Asia, Nigeria and Brazil. The growth is driven by changes in feedstock availability and price, labor and energy costs, differential rates of economic growth and environmental pressures. Just as companies emerge as the main producers of the chemical industry, we can also look on a more global scale at how industrialized countries rank, with regard to the billions of dollars worth of production a country or region could export. Though the business of chemistry is worldwide in scope, the bulk of the world's $3.7 trillion chemical output is accounted for by only a handful of industrialized nations. The United States alone produced $689 billion, 18.6 percent of the total world chemical output in 2008. == See also == Chemical engineering Chemical leasing Pharmaceutical industry Industrial gas Prices of chemical elements Responsible Care Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster (NEPIC) == References == Aftalion, Fred (1991). A History of the International Chemical Industry. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1297-6.. online version Archived 2011-06-04 at the Wayback Machine Brandt, E. N. (1997). Growth Company: Dow Chemical's First Century. Michigan State University Press. ISBN 0-87013-426-4.. online review Chandler, Alfred D. (2005). Shaping the Industrial Century: The Remarkable Story of the Evolution of the Modern Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01720-X.. chapters 3-6 deal with DuPont, Dow Chemicals, Monsanto, American Cyanamid, Union Carbide, and Allied in US; and European chemical producers, Bayer, Farben, and ICI. McCoy, Micheal; et al. (July 10, 2006). "Facts & Figures of the Chemical Industry". Chemical & Engineering News. 84 (28): 35–72. Shreve, R. Norris; Brink, Joseph A. Jr. (1977). The Chemical Process Industries (4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. Woytinsky, W. S.; Woytinsky, E. S. (1953). World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks. pp. 1176–1205. Contains many tables and maps on the worldwide chemical industry in 1950. == External links == Chemical refinery resources: ccc-group.com	Wikipedia/Industrial_chemical
ITV, legally known as Channel 3, is a British free-to-air public broadcast television network. It is branded as ITV1 in most of the UK except for central and northern Scotland, where it is branded as STV. It was launched in 1955 as Independent Television to provide competition to BBC Television (established in 1936). ITV is the oldest commercial network in the UK. Since the passing of the Broadcasting Act 1990, it has been legally known as Channel 3 to distinguish it from the other analogue channels at the time: BBC1, BBC2 and Channel 4. ITV was, for decades, a network of separate companies that provided regional television services and also shared programmes among themselves to be shown on the entire network. Each franchise was originally owned by a different company. After several mergers, the fifteen regional franchises are now held by two companies: ITV plc, which runs the ITV1 channel, and STV Group, which runs the STV channel. The ITV network is a separate entity from ITV plc, the company that resulted from the merger of Granada plc and Carlton Communications in 2004. ITV plc holds the Channel 3 broadcasting licences for every region except for central and northern Scotland, which are held by STV Group. Today, ITV plc simply commissions the network schedule centrally; programmes are made by its own subsidiary ITV Studios and independent production companies. Regional programming remains in news and some current affairs series. Although the ITV network's history goes back to 1955, many regional franchisees changed over the years. Some of the most important names in the network's past—notably Thames, ABC and ATV—have no connection with the modern network. == History == The origins of ITV lie in the passing of the Television Act 1954, designed to break the monopoly on television held by the BBC Television Service. The act created the Independent Television Authority (ITA, then IBA after the Sound Broadcasting Act) to heavily regulate the industry and to award franchises. The first six franchises were awarded in 1954 for London, the Midlands and the North of England, with separate franchises for Weekdays and Weekends. The first ITV service to launch was London's Associated-Rediffusion on 22 September 1955, with the Midlands and North services launching in February 1956 and May 1956 respectively. Following these launches, the ITA awarded more franchises until the whole country was covered by fourteen regional stations, all launched by 1962. The network has been modified several times through franchise reviews that have taken place in 1963, 1967, 1974, 1980 and 1991, during which broadcast regions have changed and service operators have been replaced. Only one service operator has ever been declared bankrupt, WWN in 1963, with all other operators leaving the network as a result of a franchise review. Separate weekend franchises were removed in 1968 (with the exception of London) and over the years more services were added; these included a national breakfast franchise from 1983 onward—operating between 6:00 am and 9:25 am—and a teletext service. The Broadcasting Act 1990 changed the nature of ITV; the then regulator the IBA was replaced with a light-touch regulator, the ITC; companies became able to purchase other ITV regional companies and franchises were now being awarded based upon a highest-bidder auction, with few safeguards in place. This heavily criticised part of the review saw four operators replaced, and the operators facing different annual payments to the Treasury: Central Independent Television, for example, paid only £2,000—despite holding a lucrative and large region—because it was unopposed, while Yorkshire Television paid £37.7 million for a region of the same size and status, owing to heavy competition. Following the 1993 changes, ITV as a network began to consolidate with several companies doing so to save money by ceasing the duplication of services present when they were all separate companies. By 2004, the ITV network was owned by five companies, of which two, Carlton and Granada had become major players by owning between them all the franchises in England, Wales, the Scottish borders and the Isle of Man. That same year, the two merged to form ITV plc with the only subsequent acquisitions being the takeover of Channel Television, the Channel Islands franchise, in 2011; and UTV, the franchise for ITV in Northern Ireland, in 2015. == Organisation (other networks) == The ITV network is not owned or operated by one company, but by a number of licensees, which provide regional services while also broadcasting programmes across the network. Since 2016, the fifteen licences are held by two companies, with the majority held by ITV Broadcasting Limited, part of ITV plc. The network is regulated by the media regulator Ofcom who is responsible for awarding the broadcast licences. The last major review of the Channel 3 franchises was in 1991, with all operators' licences having been renewed between 1999 and 2002 and again from 2014 without a further contest. While this has been the longest period that the ITV network has gone without a major review of its licence holders, Ofcom announced (following consultation) that it would split the Wales and West licence from 1 January 2014, creating a national licence for Wales and joining the newly separated West region to Westcountry Television, to form a new licence for the enlarged South West of England region. All companies holding a licence were part of the non-profit body ITV Network Limited, which commissioned and scheduled network programming, with compliance previously handled by ITV plc and Channel Television. However, due to amalgamation of several of these companies since the creation of ITV Network Limited (and given Channel Television is now owned by ITV plc), it has been replaced by an affiliation system. Approved by Ofcom, this results in ITV plc commissioning and funding the network schedule, with STV and UTV paying a fee to broadcast it. All licensees have the right to opt out of network programming (except for the national news bulletins), but, unlike the previous system, will receive no fee refund for doing so. Therefore many do not opt out due to pressures from the parent company or because of limited resources. Prior to the affiliate system being introduced, STV would frequently (and sometimes controversially) opt out of several popular network programmes – such as the original run of the first series of Downton Abbey – citing the need to provide more Scottish content to its viewers. As a public service broadcaster, the ITV network is obliged to broadcast programming of public importance, including news, current affairs, children's and religious programming as well as party election broadcasts on behalf of the major political parties and political events, such as the Budget. The network also needs to produce accessible output containing subtitles, signing and audio description. In exchange for this programming, the ITV network is available on all platforms free to air and can be found at the top of the EPG of all providers. Since the launch of the platform in 1998, all of the ITV licensees have received gifted capacity on the digital terrestrial television platform. At present, the companies are able to broadcast additional channels and all choose to broadcast the ITV plc owned ITV2, ITV3, ITV4 and ITVBe in their region. UTV and STV (formerly Scottish Television and Grampian Television) previously broadcast their own services – UTV2 in Northern Ireland and S2 in central and northern Scotland – until 2002, when they adopted the ITV plc channels. Despite this, STV was given a broadcasting licence for what would become the STV2 channel in 2013, however this was short-lived and the channel closed in 2018. The broadcasters all make use of the Digital 3&4 multiplex, shared with Channel 4. CITV launched in March 2006 (closed September 2023). ITV Encore launched in June 2014 (closed May 2018) and ITVBe launched in October 2014. ITV Box Office launched in February 2017 (closed January 2020). On 13 September 2022, ITV confirmed that during the day of Monday 19 September, the day of the state funeral for Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, all programming schedules on ITV's digital channels will be scrapped, with the main ITV News coverage being shown live and uninterrupted on every channel. This was the first time ITV decided to do this, with the company keeping their digital channels' schedules mostly as advertised in the run up to the funeral (with a few amendments for cancelled sporting events on ITV4) and all royal coverage being on their main channel. === ITV plc === ITV plc owns thirteen of the fifteen franchises and broadcasts to England, Wales, southern Scotland, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and Northern Ireland through its subsidiary company ITV Broadcasting Limited. The company also owns the breakfast television licence, which as of January 2020, broadcasts across the network between 6:00 and 10:00am each morning using the Good Morning Britain (previously Daybreak) and Lorraine names. The company broadcasts a centralised service under the ITV1 brand. In Northern Ireland, ITV used the UTV brand name as the name of the channel until April 2020. The group also owns ITV Studios, the production arm of the company and formed from an amalgamation of all the production departments of the regional licences they own. The company produces a large proportion of ITV's networked programming (around 47%, but previously as high as 66% according to some reports), with the rest coming primarily from independent suppliers (under the Broadcasting Act 1990, at least 25% of ITV's total output must be from independent companies). ITV plc hopes to increase the amount of in-house programming to as close to the 75% limit as possible. The group cut the number of regional news programmes offered from 17 in 2007 to 9 by 2009, resulting several regions being merged to form one programme, including the Border and Tyne Tees regions, the Westcountry and West regions and the removal of sub regional programming, with some regions only represented by pre-recorded segments. Sub-regions were restored in 2013. === STV Group === STV Group plc owns two franchises, covering central and northern Scotland, through subsidiary companies STV Central and STV North, broadcasting a central service under the STV brand. The company had several disputes with ITV plc in the late 2000s and early 2010s over network programming. STV aimed to broadcast more Scottish programmes at peak times and so removed several key ITV plc programmes from their schedule in July 2009 including The Bill, Midsomer Murders and Lewis. Despite STV's explanation of expense, ITV plc were angered by the decision, as a recent schedule change had made The Bill central to their programming, and broadcast the programmes on ITV3 as well to ensure Scottish viewers could see the programmes. On 23 September ITV plc was reported to be in the process of suing STV for £20 million, as ITV felt dropping the shows constituted a breach of network agreements; STV subsequently counter-sued ITV plc for £35 million. The dispute was ended in 2011 with STV agreeing to pay ITV plc £18 million. The signing of the new affiliation deal has resulted in STV paying a flat fee for all networked programming, and so to drop any programmes is unlikely due to the large costs involved. == Current licensees == There are fifteen regional licences, covering fourteen regions (there are separate weekday and weekend licences for the London region), and one national licence for the breakfast service. All licences listed here were renewed until the end of 2024. Licences in England and Wales were held by the individual regional ITV plc owned companies prior to November 2008. The appointment to provide national news for Channel 3 is also subject to approval by Ofcom. This appointment has been held by ITN since the channel's inception, and has also been approved through the end of 2024. == Programming == For over 60 years of ITV, its homegrown programmes have become among the best remembered as well as being extremely successful. Before the 1990s, nearly all of the content for the channel was produced by the fifteen franchise licensees: the regional companies. However, following legislation in the Broadcasting Act 1990 imposing a 25% quota for commissioning of independent productions, the number of programmes from independent production companies not connected to the traditional ITV network, has increased rapidly. Notable examples include Talkback Thames (one half of which, Thames Television, was itself a former ITV franchisee), producers of The Bill and co-producers of The X Factor, and 2waytraffic, producers of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?. From the late 1990s, ITV's long-standing commitment to strong current affairs and documentary programming began to diminish with the ending of productions such as World in Action (Granada Television), This Week (Rediffusion London/Thames Television), First Tuesday (Yorkshire Television), Network First, Survival (Anglia Television), and Weekend World (LWT) and their replacement with populist shows such as Tonight. News at Ten was also axed in 1999, although it was reinstated in 2001. In December 2009, the final edition of ITV's long-running arts programme, The South Bank Show was broadcast. ITV's primetime schedules are dominated by its soap operas, such as the flagship Coronation Street and Emmerdale. At the start of the 21st century, ITV faced criticism for including a large amount of "reality TV" programmes in the schedule, such as Celebrity Fit Club, Celebrity Wrestling and Celebrity Love Island. In its defence, ITV does continue to show its major strengths in the fields of sports coverage and drama productions, and it continues to schedule national news in primetime. === Breakfast === Breakfast Television programmes have been broadcast on ITV at breakfast since 1 February 1983. It was initially run by an independent contractor - TV-am, and later GMTV - until GMTV Limited became a wholly owned subsidiary of ITV plc in November 2009. Historically, ITV aired breakfast programmes from 6am until 9.25am but ITV extended this to 10am on weekdays on 6 January 2020. and now broadcasts two breakfast programmes on weekdays - Good Morning Britain and Lorraine. Good Morning Britain keeps viewers up to date with all the latest news, sports, features and weather, whilst Lorraine predominantly focuses on celebrity interviews, recipes, fashion and showbiz. Until 27th August 2023, the service would show a simulcast of the CITV channel, but since that service has closed, a mix of repeated programming is shown whilst the CITV service that still exist broadcasts at breakfast time on ITV2 (which has the CITV block), ITV3, ITV4 and ITVBe from 7am show other repeats some of which provide a sign language service within the broadcast as part of its quota and licence requirements. === Daytime programming === ITV's strong daytime line-up helped by programmes such as This Morning, Loose Women, Dickinson's Real Deal and game shows Tipping Point and The Chase are very popular, achieving the highest audience share during the daytime slot. === Entertainment === In recent years the network has tried to use formats that ITV Studios own outright (whether they have originated in the UK with their Lifted Entertainment company or have come from production companies they own abroad), though some popular programme formats like The Masked Singer have still been acquired from other companies abroad. Currently ITV are behind the formats for Dancing on Ice, The Voice UK (the format originally coming from their Dutch production company) and I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!, while forthcoming music game show Walk The Line has been co-developed by Simon Cowell's Syco Entertainment and ITV. === National and international news === Since the network started, Independent Television News Limited (ITN) has held the contract to produce news for the ITV network, with 30-minute national news bulletins currently broadcast at 1:30 pm, and 10:00 pm, and an hour-long bulletin at 6.30pm. These bulletins were broadcast under the ITN brand from 1955 until 1999, when a new network identity reinforced the ITV brand, resulting in the new bulletins being broadcast under the ITV News brand. ITN has long been respected in the news industry as a source of reliable information and news, and as a result the service has won many awards for their programmes, the latest being in May 2011 when News at Ten was named best news programme by the Royal Television Society and BAFTA. ==== Weather ==== The ITV National Weather forecast was first broadcast in 1989, using data supplied by the Met Office, and was presented by a number of weather forecasters. The forecasts are sponsored with the sponsor's message appearing before and after the forecast. The forecasts are made immediately after the main national news bulletins. Prior to the creation of the national forecast, each regional company provided its own regional forecast. The regional forecasts today are incorporated into the main regional news bulletins, and in the summer months, includes a pollen count. === Late-night programming === Currently only new episodes of long-form news and current affairs programmes like Exposure, Peston and On Assignment are being scheduled after News at Ten, with the latter title only appearing on a monthly basis, typically on the last Tuesday of the month. The channel broadcasts a partnership teleshopping service for a couple of hours after midnight, replacing gambling broadcasts: the time between the news and the shopping is usually kept for re-runs, with ITV repeating its primetime entertainment shows, films, or sports programming from ITV4. ITV continues with its regular scheduled programming after the shopping service finishes at around 3am with showbiz news bulletin FYI Extra and repeats, many of which have on-screen BSL signing for the deaf community. Replacing the information-based ITV Nightscreen slot in 2021 was Unwind With ITV, programming produced in association with the Campaign Against Living Miserably. At around 4am each night this mindfulness programme shows calming shots of natural landscapes and relaxing animations for around an hour, with versions of the footage also seen on ITV2, ITV3 and ITV4. These three channels continue programming until around 02:30, sometimes using the Unwind with ITV sequences to fill small pieces of time before this. Teleshopping on ITVBe starts at 01:00 and continues until 07:00. There are some occasions when other coverage means this cycle of programmes get misplaced, for example a live event overnight, such as the Super Bowl or the Oscars, both of which ITV started airing in 2024, or, over Christmas, failing to sell Teleshopping slots, meaning more repeats, films and long Unwind sequences are used as filler instead. Overnight, STV broadcasts an overnight rolling news and information service, mixing reports from STV News and other information-based services, instead of ITV's shopping slot and Unwind. Due to STV opt-outs, this service can start later than or earlier than ITV's teleshopping. STV originally simulcast the Unwind slot, but this was eventually phased out and replaced with the aforementioned news and information service. This overnight programme service is very different to what used to be shown on the network in the years after 24-hour broadcasting was introduced - this included new entertainment, imports, sports and other information programmes, and, in some regions, a job finder service, however due to the small audience this was phased out and replaced by more relaxed and niche programming. Before 24-hour broadcasts, ITV's franchises simply closed down and restarted the following morning with ITV Morning News, followed by breakfast TV. === Regional programming === The regional ITV companies are required to provide local news as part of their franchise agreement together with local weather forecasts, with the main local bulletin at 6pm and regional bulletins located after each national news programme. In addition to this, traditionally ITV companies would provide other regional programming based on current affairs, entertainment or drama. However, apart from a monthly political programme, most non-news regional programming in the English regions was dropped by ITV plc in 2009, although it continues in Wales and the Channel Islands, as well as on STV and UTV and ITV Border in Scotland from 2014 to cover mainly Scottish politics whilst ITV Border in England broadcast network programming . On 14 January 2013, ITV plc regional news programmes titles were discontinued in favour of more generic branding under the ITV News title with the region listed as the subheading. However some "heritage" brand names were retained including Calendar, Granada Reports and Lookaround. On 28 June 2014, ITV News Cymru Wales returned to its historic name of Wales at Six. ==== Current regional news programmes ==== Anglia: ITV News Anglia (with East and West variations) Border: ITV News Lookaround (although with a Scotland non-news opt out) Central: ITV News Central (with East and West variations) Channel: ITV News Channel TV Granada: ITV News Granada Reports London: ITV News London Meridian: ITV News Meridian (with South variation and a Thames Valley opt-out and South East variation) STV Central: STV News (non-ITV plc) (with East and West variations) STV North: STV News (non-ITV plc) (with a Dundee opt-out) Tyne Tees: ITV News Tyne Tees UTV: UTV Live Wales: ITV News Wales at Six West Country: ITV News West Country (with West and South West variations) Yorkshire: ITV News Calendar (with East and West variations) ==== Former programmes ==== ATV: ATV Midlands News, ATV Today Anglia: About Anglia, Anglia News, Anglia News Tonight, Anglia Tonight Carlton: London Tonight Central / Carlton (Central): Central News, Central News at Six, Central Tonight Channel: Channel Report Grampian: North Tonight Granada: Northern Newscast, Scene at Six Thirty, Granada Tonight HTV Wales / ITV Wales: Report Wales/Y Dydd, Wales Tonight, HTV News, ITV Wales News HTV West / ITV West: Report West, HTV News, The West Tonight, ITV West News, West Country Tonight London Weekend Television / LWT: LWT News, London Tonight Meridian: Meridian Tonight Scottish Television / STV: Scotland Today Southern: Day by Day / Scene South East (Dover Transmitter) Television South West / TSW: Today South West, TSW Today Television South / TVS: Coast to Coast Thames: Thames News Thames Valley (Non-Franchise): Thames Valley Tonight Tyne Tees: Today At Six, Northern Life, Tyne Tees Today / Network North (Bilsdale Transmitter), North East Tonight Ulster Television / UTV: Good Evening Ulster, Six Tonight Westward: Westward Diary Westcountry / Carlton (Westcountry): Westcountry Live === Sports === Football ITV holds joint rights for the FIFA World Cup and the UEFA European Championship with the BBC and has shown every World Cup live since 1966, on a shared basis with the BBC. This arrangement has been in place since the 1960s. ITV shares the rights for the FA Cup with the BBC, having previously done so from 1955 to 1988. ITV also held the live rights to the competition from 1998 to 2001 and from 2008 until 2014. The 24/25 season also added the Carabao Cup to its portfolio broadcasting both semi finals with the first leg of one and the second leg of the other and the final sharing the broadcasting rights with Sky Sports. Horse racing ITV other flagship sporting coverage is as the exclusive free to air home of British horse racing. ITV's deal, which began on 1 January 2017, encompasses horse racing every Saturday afternoon on ITV or ITV4. Boxing ITV Sport has broadcast many boxing matches over the years under the Big Fight Live banner and the sport was a regular fixture on ITV screens until the mid 1990s when ITV lost its two premier contracts to Sky Sports In 2005, ITV returned to the ring when it reached an agreement to broadcast the main share of Frank Warren's Sports Network fights. This continued until 2008, and in 2010 ITV decided to stop covering the sport as ITV thought that boxing was no longer commercially viable. In the late 2010s ITV showed some boxing on a pay-per-view channel ITV Box Office. However ITV's boxing coverage is now restricted to Premier Boxing Champions which it shows on ITV4, having closed ITV Box Office at the start of 2020. Cycling ITV has shown the Tour de France in 2002. Initially, live coverage was only broadcast at the weekend but since the 2010 Tour de France, ITV4 has broadcast daily live coverage of every stage. ITV also broadcasts the Women's Tour and Tour of Britain live. Darts ITV4 covers six tournaments each year, including the UK Open, The Masters and the World Series of Darts. ITV had previously extensively covered the sport and did so from 1972 until it decided to drop the sport in 1988. ITV resumed coverage of darts in 2007 and since then it has gradually increased the number of events it shows. Motorsport ITV's flagship motorsport coverage is of the British Touring Car Championship and has shown the event in full since 2002. ITV also broadcasts highlights of the World Superbike Championship and the British Superbike Championship. ITV had previously covered Formula One and did so for 12 seasons, from 1997 to 2008. Rugby ITV has broadcast every Rugby World Cup live since 1991. ITV also broadcasts the Women's Rugby World Cup and the Under 20 World Cup. Since 2016, ITV has shared coverage of the Six Nations Championship with the BBC. ITV broadcasts all England, France Ireland and Italy home matches live, while BBC shows all Scotland and Wales home matches live. ITV also shows 7 live matches from Premiership Rugby including the final and a weekly highlights show on ITV4 on Sunday evenings, repeated later on ITV1. Snooker Snooker is another sport which ITV dropped but has subsequently restarted showing. In the 1980s and early 1990s, ITV broadcast four tournaments per season. ITV dropped snooker after the 1993 British Open and the sport was mostly absent from ITV screens until the 2010s. In summer 2014 ITV and Barry Hearn announced they had signed a 5-year deal to cover 2 Snooker Tournaments per year, keeping coverage of the Champion of Champions and a new tournament called the World Grand Prix. ITV now shows four tournaments each year, including the Champion of Champions and the World Grand Prix. === Children's programming === The network broadcasts children's programming under the CITV (Children's ITV) strand. Children's programming was originally provided during weekday afternoons and weekend mornings, however following the launch of the CITV channel in 2006, all children's programming, with the exception of the weekend ITV Breakfast slot, were relocated from the ITV line-up to the CITV channel in 2007, a move which was challenged by Ofcom in April 2007. In 2023, ITV announced that CITV would cease broadcasting as a linear channel, and would be replaced by ITVX Kids, a streaming media service which launched in July 2023. The CITV channel closed on 1 September 2023, with a dedicated CITV programming block now broadcasting on ITV2 every morning, from 2 September 2023. === Schools programming === Schools programming on the network began in 1957 in some regions and expanded as more regions began broadcasting. It was a contractual obligation for some ITV companies to broadcast schools programming, and this was initially broadcast as part of the normal scheduling. The programmes were moved into a segment for broadcast during the day in the 1960s, under the banner Independent Television for Schools and Colleges and from 1987 were broadcast on Channel 4 in the ITV Schools on Channel 4 segment. In 1993, this segment became Channel 4 Schools and later in 2000 4Learning. These strands of programming consisted of schools programming from all the ITV companies or from independent sources. The schools strand itself is now defunct, with no particular branding segment used. === Acquired programming === ITV was originally very reliant on broadcasting American series, with westerns such as Gunsmoke and Rawhide in particular being considerable successes for the network during its earlier years. Action drama The Fugitive and sci-fi anthology The Twilight Zone were also broadcast by various regions in the early 1960s, with Batman and I Dream of Jeannie shown later on in the decade. Due to the varying schedules of many ITV regions, acquired content was not broadcast by some franchises. By the 1970s, most ITV regions were airing the likes of Hawaii Five-O, Happy Days, and The Brady Bunch. 1972 also saw the beginning of ITV's daytime programmes at lunchtime, a slot that would become associated with the many Australian soap operas that were broadcast in the newly expanded schedule, including The Sullivans and The Young Doctors. By the 1980s, more were added to the schedule, such as Sons and Daughters and A Country Practice. In primetime by the 1980s, ITV was broadcasting the likes of Hill Street Blues (which ITV began showing just one week after its debut on NBC in the United States) and L.A. Law. It was also early in the decade when Australian evening soap opera Prisoner: Cell Block H was bought by ITV, and was broadcast after News at Ten. By 1982, Channel 4 had launched, and despite originally being related to ITV, it competed against its parent network to screen popular American programmes such as St. Elsewhere and Cheers, although the latter did receive a single ITV broadcast as part of a night showcasing Channel 4 programmes. Both Hill Street Blues and L.A. Law had moved from ITV to Channel 4 by the end of their runs. A heavy emphasis on action, fantasy and science fiction series was also placed by ITV during the 1980s, with The A-Team, Buck Rogers in the 25th Century, and Airwolf being broadcast by the network, as well as the likes of Baywatch and SeaQuest DSV by the 1990s. ITV also picked up a glut of older-skewing CBS dramas through that period, including Murder, She Wrote and Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman. In February 1989, in tandem with the network launching its national weather forecast, and as part of a new early evening lineup which involved the shortening of Children's ITV, Australian soap Home and Away was acquired by ITV, particularly to compete with the success of rival Australian soap opera Neighbours on BBC One. ITV also broadcast Beverly Hills, 90210 beginning in early 1991, in the same Saturday teatime slot that Baywatch had occupied, although some episodes were broadcast in later time slots. It moved to Sky One beginning with the third season. ITV reshuffled its daytime schedules in the Autumn of 1993, and just a few months prior, Central began broadcasting the New Zealand soap opera Shortland Street. The revamp saw more ITV companies pick it up, with Scottish Television the only region to reject the series outright. Central also broadcast the Australian soap opera Echo Point around the same time, although no other franchises picked it up. ITV also aired a considerable amount of syndicated unscripted US programmes in daytime during the 90s, such as Judge Judy and The Jerry Springer Show. By 1996, ITV had been quiet with US series in primetime, particularly as Channel 4 and Sky One increased the competition for securing the most popular US dramas and sitcoms. However, that summer, ITV debuted the primetime soap Savannah, in a 9pm Friday slot. It was a considerable success for ITV's standards, and it became the highest rated new American series of that year. Despite this success, ITV moved the show for its second season, no longer networking the series and moving to late night slots. ITV tried again at broadcasting an American drama series in September 1997, with the ABC legal drama The Practice, which ran in the same slot that Savannah had the year prior. It saw nowhere near the same levels of success, and was dropped by the network after just three episodes. It later resurfaced in late night before moving to BBC One in 2000. ITV attempted launching a Monday night block for American sitcoms in the post-News at Ten slot in the autumn of 1998, with Veronica's Closet (which ITV beat Channel 4 for the rights to) followed by Dharma & Greg. After this failed to catch much steam, ITV all but pulled out from showing American programmes on the main network by the end of the decade, and it would prove to be the final time ITV aired US comedy on the main network. ITV made attempts during the mid 2000s to poach proven popular US shows such as the mystery comedy-drama Desperate Housewives and medical drama House from Channel 4 and Five, respectively, but both shows ended up remaining on their incumbent rights holders. ITV were reportedly also interested in 2004 about acquiring the Friends spin-off Joey but later denied such interest, and in 2007 were close to picking up Neighbours after the BBC declined to continue broadcasting it, although Five eventually won the rights to both programmes. ITV returned to US programming in 2006, acquiring Six Degrees. Initially it had been planned to air in a primetime slot in 2007, but ended up being shown in late nights in 2008. This could be due to the show being cancelled after its first season by original network ABC due to low ratings, despite high expectations and its slot following top-10 hit Grey's Anatomy. It was also around this time that Supernatural and Dexter, which ITV2 & ITV4 aired respectively, were given late night repeats on ITV1. The following year, ITV acquired another US programme, fellow ABC series Pushing Daisies. It debuted in 2008 in a Saturday evening slot and initially did well garnering 5.7 million viewers, although there were fan complaints when ITV chose to skip broadcasting the second episode, blaming football coverage, eventually releasing it on their website. The last attempt so far by ITV to broadcast acquired output in primetime was the TV adaption of Lethal Weapon in 2017, where it remained for all three seasons. As of 2024, most US acquired programming that ITV owns the UK rights to, such as Family Guy, Bob's Burgers, The O.C., Dawson's Creek, Gilmore Girls and Superstore air on ITV2, as opposed to the main ITV network. === Notable programming === ==== Daytime programming ==== ==== Primetime programming ==== ==== Weekend programming ==== ==== Night-time programming ==== AEW Dynamite AEW Rampage Motorsport Shop Direct Unwind with ITV === Teletext provider === The Public Teletext Licence allows the holder to broadcast a text-based information service around the clock on Channel 3 (as well as Channel 4 and S4C) frequencies. Teletext on ITV was provided by ORACLE from 1974 until 1993 and from 1993 to 2010 by Teletext Ltd., whose news, sport and TV listings pages rivalled the BBC's offering, Ceefax on terrestrial and BBC Red Button on digital. Teletext Ltd. also provided digital teletext for the Channel 3 services, as well as the text output for both Channel 4 and S4C under the same licence and Channel 5. However, the licence was revoked by Ofcom on 29 January 2010 for failing to provide news and local non-news information on ITV and there is currently no teletext licence holder for ITV. == Availability outside the UK == ITV (as UTV) is widely available in Ireland, where it is received directly in areas bordering Northern Ireland, or in coastal areas from Wales (as ITV Cymru Wales). Until 2015, it was also carried on cable, when it was replaced by UTV Ireland, which was itself replaced by be3, now Virgin Media Three. ITV programming is also available to Irish viewers on Virgin Media One (including soap operas Emmerdale and Coronation Street). ITV is also available on cable and IPTV in Switzerland and Liechtenstein. Since 27 March 2013, it has been offered by the British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) to members of HM Forces and their families around the world, replacing the BFBS3 TV channel, which already carried a selection of ITV programmes. == Criticism == Since the launch of ITV, there have been concerns from politicians and the press that ITV faced a conflict concerning programme audiences and advertisers. As advertisers are reluctant to buy advertising space around low viewing programmes, there is a pressure on ITV to broadcast more popular programmes in peak times. This became more profound in the early 21st century, following a relaxation in regulation and significantly more competition in the advertising market following the huge increase in commercial channels. In the 2000s, programmes from the reality television genre including the celebrity and talent show subgenres became a dominant presence on the channel. This led to accusations of ITV 'dumbing down' their programmes and appealing to the 'lowest common denominator', accusations that are at odds with the network's status as a public service broadcaster. ITV was/is also heavily criticized for scaling back its regional programmes, including regional news. == Awards and nominations == == Visual identity == There has never been an identity for ITV as a whole that was adopted uniformly by all broadcasters within the ITV network. Before 1989, each regional company used its own name for identification and the name "ITV" was rarely seen on screen, except for some sub-brands such as ITV Schools or ITV Sport. In September 1989, a national ITV corporate identity was established, which saw regional brands combined with the national ITV brand, although the balance between regional and national brands varied from company to company, and some companies never used the ITV brand at all. It was not until October 2002 that national ITV-branded continuity was adopted across all the regions in England and Wales (see ITV1), although regional continuity before local programmes continued until November 2006. == See also == List of ITV channels List of ITV journalists and newsreaders List of television programmes broadcast by ITV List of television channels in the United Kingdom == Notes == == References == == External links == ITV – itv.com STV – stv.tv === Parent companies === ITV plc STV Group plc	Wikipedia/ITV_(TV_network)
Magnolia Network is an American basic cable network owned by Warner Bros. Discovery in partnership with Chip and Joanna Gaines, the founders of lifestyle company Magnolia. It broadcasts personality-based lifestyle programs related to topics such as home construction, renovation, and cuisine. The channel was first launched by the E. W. Scripps Company on September 30, 1999, as DIY Network, a spin-off of HGTV focusing on instructional programming related to "do it yourself" (DIY) activities such as home improvement. It later focused on reality series following personalities involved in home renovation and related businesses. In 2022, the channel relaunched as Magnolia Network, which is led by Chip and Joanna Gaines of HGTV's Fixer Upper. After the merger that formed Warner Bros. Discovery, Magnolia Network was overseen by the heads of HBO and Cinemax. As of December 2023, Magnolia Network is available to 51 million pay television households in the United States, down from its 2016 peak of 62 million households. == History == DIY was the second network to be launched by the E. W. Scripps Company, following the success of HGTV, with the network's first two years adapting HGTV's program library into programs for certain DIY niches as Scripps filmed new original content for the new network. The network offered a large amount of broadband content (originally project worksheets and instruction pages for printout by users, later video clips and more) to create demand for and help cable operators launch and justify their cable broadband services. Scripps announced that DIY Network would launch in high definition on May 1, 2010, on "two prominent distributors", adding 200 new original programs by year's end. One of the "prominent distributors" turned out to be Dish Network, which launched DIY HD on May 12, 2010. DirecTV added DIY HD on September 19, 2012. === Relaunch as Magnolia Network === In November 2018, Chip and Joanna Gaines of the former HGTV series Fixer Upper announced on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon that they were in early talks to form a "lifestyle focused media network" with Discovery Inc. via their personal company Magnolia. The duo had left HGTV shortly after the acquisition of Scripps Networks Interactive by Discovery; after realizing that Fixer Upper had been one of the network's top programs, Discovery CEO David Zaslav met the Gaineses at their home in Waco, Texas to discuss a joint venture. In April 2019, Discovery officially announced their new venture, and that its linear television component would launch some time in 2020, replacing DIY Network. HGTV president Allison Page was named president of the venture, reporting directly to Zaslav. Discovery announced on January 16, 2020, that the Magnolia Network would launch on October 4. The launch was then delayed indefinitely on April 21, as the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the ability to produce the network's launch programming. Magnolia Network went on with a four-part preview special that month, Magnolia Presents: A Look Back & A Look Ahead, which premiered on DIY Network to a total of 2.5 million viewers. On August 4, 2020, it was announced that Magnolia Network would launch in 2021. It was also announced that a revival of Fixer Upper, Fixer Upper: Welcome Home, was also in production for Magnolia Network. Due to the delay in production, a preview of Magnolia Network programming debuted as part of the January 4, 2021, launch of the Discovery+ streaming service. A second preview special, A Look Back & A Look Ahead Vol. 2, premiered on Discovery+ on April 23 and DIY Network the next day. The Magnolia Network app and an early slate of programming on Discovery+, including Fixer Upper: Welcome Home, launched on July 15. On January 5, 2022, DIY Network officially relaunched as Magnolia Network. Within days, one of its launch and spotlight series, Home Work, was removed from the network and Discovery+ due to allegations of substandard work, lengthy delays and egregious billing by the show's hosts, Andrew and Candis Meredith, on previous projects. The series was soon brought back to Magnolia Network after the investigation found no "ill or malicious" intents by the couple that ran the series. In April 2022, Discovery Inc. merged with WarnerMedia to form Warner Bros. Discovery. On April 7, 2022, it was reported that after the completion of the merger, Magnolia Network's leadership would report to Casey Bloys—HBO and HBO Max (now Max) chief content officer—rather than Zaslav, nor head of U.S. Networks Kathleen Finch (who oversaw the former SNI channels as chief officer of lifestyle brands after the Discovery acquisition). On August 4, 2022, it was reported that selected Magnolia Network programs would be added to HBO Max on September 30, 2022, with Discovery+ remaining the network's main streaming home. == Programming == In the past, DIY Network's programming focused on: Home construction (Building Off the Grid) Home repair or restoration (Bath Crashers, Yard Crashers, Blog Cabin, Ed the Plumber, Kitchen Crashers, Maine Cabin Masters, Restored, Sweat Equity) Home improvement (The Vanilla Ice Project, BATHtastic, Mega Dens, Man Caves, Cool Tools) Gardening and landscaping (Yard Crashers) Building and contracting (Million Dollar Contractor, Sledgehammer, Barnwood Builders, Texas Flip and Move) Earlier shows included a variety of topics, including auto repair, jewelry design, plumbing, boating, knitting and quilting, and woodworking. DIY's renovation shows included programs that had a specific historical restoration focus, like Restored, and some shows had specific geographic focuses, like shows outlining historical restorations in Virginia and South Carolina, for example. The network also carried This Old House repeats until the mid-2010s, when the property moved to other outlets. As recently as late 2009, it aired some older HGTV archive programming, including the Carol Duvall Show. As Magnolia Network, the channel carries a similar mixture of personality-based series relating to home design, construction, renovation, and landscaping, with new original programming, and programs carried over from DIY Network (including Barnwood Builders, Building Off the Grid, and returning reruns of This Old House, among others). The network's scope was also expanded to include food-oriented series, such as Family Dinner and Magnolia Table with Joanna Gaines, and other series such as Extraordinary Stories Behind Everyday Things. In 2024, the network expanded into reality competition programming with three series produced by the Gaines: the artistic roller skating competition series Roller Jam, talent competition series Second Chance Stage, and game show Human vs Hamster. All three series premiered exclusively on Max. == International versions == === Canada === A Canadian version of DIY Network launched on October 19, 2009, by CW Media (a consortium of Canwest and Goldman Sachs), replacing the Canadian version of Fine Living. As in the U.S., a preview of Magnolia Network programming was initially offered in Canada via Discovery+ upon its local launch in October 2021, before DIY Network Canada relaunched as Magnolia Network on March 28, 2022. The channel was closed on December 31, 2024, as Corus Entertainment lost the rights to all Warner Bros. Discovery factual brands to Rogers Communications. The channel was replaced by a legally distinct, Rogers-owned version of Magnolia Network on January 1, 2025. == References == == External links == Official website	Wikipedia/DIY_Network
Interior design is the art and science of enhancing the interior of a building to achieve a healthier and more aesthetically pleasing environment for the people using the space. With a keen eye for detail and a creative flair, an interior designer is someone who plans, researches, coordinates, and manages such enhancement projects. Interior design is a multifaceted profession that includes conceptual development, space planning, site inspections, programming, research, communicating with the stakeholders of a project, construction management, and execution of the design. == History and current terms == In the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building. The profession of interior design has been a consequence of the development of society and the complex architecture that has resulted from the development of industrial processes. The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the contemporary interior design profession. The profession of interior design is separate and distinct from the role of interior decorator, a term commonly used in the US; the term is less common in the UK, where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking, not yet officially a profession. In ancient India, architects would also function as interior designers. This can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma the architect—one of the gods in Indian mythology. In these architects' design of 17th-century Indian homes, sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen inside the palaces, while during the medieval times wall art paintings were a common feature of palace-like mansions in India commonly known as havelis. While most traditional homes have been demolished to make way to modern buildings, there are still around 2000 havelis in the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan that display wall art paintings. In ancient Egypt, "soul houses" (or models of houses) were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. From these, it is possible to discern details about the interior design of different residences throughout the different Egyptian dynasties, such as changes in ventilation, porticoes, columns, loggias, windows, and doors. Painting interior walls has existed for at least 5,000 years, with examples found as far north as the Ness of Brodgar, as have templated interiors, as seen in the associated Skara Brae settlement. It was the Greeks, and later Romans who added co-ordinated, decorative mosaics floors, and templated bath houses, shops, civil offices, Castra (forts) and temple, interiors, in the first millennia BC. With specialised guilds dedicated to producing interior decoration, and formulaic furniture, in buildings constructed to forms defined by Roman architects, such as Vitruvius: De architectura, libri decem (The Ten Books on Architecture). Throughout the 17th and 18th century and into the early 19th century, interior decoration was the concern of the homemaker, or an employed upholsterer or craftsman who would advise on the artistic style for an interior space. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete interior design for their buildings. === Commercial interior design and management === In the mid-to-late 19th century, interior design services expanded greatly, as the middle class in industrial countries grew in size and prosperity and began to desire the domestic trappings of wealth to cement their new status. Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management, offering full house furnishings in a variety of styles. This business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the professional interior design in the mid-20th century. In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits. They framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. To meet the growing demand for contract interior work on projects such as offices, hotels, and public buildings, these businesses became much larger and more complex, employing builders, joiners, plasterers, textile designers, artists, and furniture designers, as well as engineers and technicians to fulfil the job. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes. As department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up model rooms at national and international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the pioneering firms in this regard were Waring & Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons, and Holland & Sons. These traditional high-quality furniture making firms began to play an important role as advisers to unsure middle class customers on taste and style, and began taking out contracts to design and furnish the interiors of many important buildings in Britain. This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War. The Herter Brothers, founded by two German émigré brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior decorators. With their own design office and cabinet-making and upholstery workshops, Herter Brothers were prepared to accomplish every aspect of interior furnishing including decorative paneling and mantels, wall and ceiling decoration, patterned floors, and carpets and draperies. A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the middle class was the architect Owen Jones, one of the most influential design theorists of the nineteenth century. Jones' first project was his most important—in 1851, he was responsible for not only the decoration of Joseph Paxton's gigantic Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition but also the arrangement of the exhibits within. He chose a controversial palette of red, yellow, and blue for the interior ironwork and, despite initial negative publicity in the newspapers, was eventually unveiled by Queen Victoria to much critical acclaim. His most significant publication was The Grammar of Ornament (1856), in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design and decoration. Jones was employed by some of the leading interior design firms of the day; in the 1860s, he worked in collaboration with the London firm Jackson & Graham to produce furniture and other fittings for high-profile clients including art collector Alfred Morrison as well as Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt. In 1882, the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators. Some of the most distinguished companies of the period were Crace, Waring & Gillowm and Holland & Sons; famous decorators employed by these firms included Thomas Edward Collcutt, Edward William Godwin, Charles Barry, Gottfried Semper, and George Edmund Street. === Transition to professional interior design === By the turn of the 20th century, amateur advisors and publications were increasingly challenging the monopoly that the large retail companies had on interior design. English feminist author Mary Haweis wrote a series of widely read essays in the 1880s in which she derided the eagerness with which aspiring middle-class people furnished their houses according to the rigid models offered to them by the retailers. She advocated the individual adoption of a particular style, tailor-made to the individual needs and preferences of the customer:One of my strongest convictions, and one of the first canons of good taste, is that our houses, like the fish's shell and the bird's nest, ought to represent our individual taste and habits. The move toward decoration as a separate artistic profession, unrelated to the manufacturers and retailers, received an impetus with the 1899 formation of the Institute of British Decorators; with John Dibblee Crace as its president, it represented almost 200 decorators around the country. By 1915, the London Directory listed 127 individuals trading as interior decorators, of which 10 were women. Rhoda Garrett and Agnes Garrett were the first women to train professionally as home decorators in 1874. The importance of their work on design was regarded at the time as on a par with that of William Morris. In 1876, their work – Suggestions for House Decoration in Painting, Woodwork and Furniture – spread their ideas on artistic interior design to a wide middle-class audience. By 1900, the situation was described by The Illustrated Carpenter and Builder:Until recently when a man wanted to furnish he would visit all the dealers and select piece by piece of furniture ....Today he sends for a dealer in art furnishings and fittings who surveys all the rooms in the house and he brings his artistic mind to bear on the subject.In America, Candace Wheeler was one of the first woman interior designers and helped encourage a new style of American design. She was instrumental in the development of art courses for women in a number of major American cities and was considered a national authority on home design. An important influence on the new profession was The Decoration of Houses, a manual of interior design written by Edith Wharton with architect Ogden Codman in 1897 in America. In the book, the authors denounced Victorian-style interior decoration and interior design, especially those rooms that were decorated with heavy window curtains, Victorian bric-a-brac, and overstuffed furniture. They argued that such rooms emphasized upholstery at the expense of proper space planning and architectural design and were, therefore, uncomfortable and rarely used. The book is considered a seminal work, and its success led to the emergence of professional decorators working in the manner advocated by its authors, most notably Elsie de Wolfe. Elsie De Wolfe was one of the first interior designers. Rejecting the Victorian style she grew up with, she chose a more vibrant scheme, along with more comfortable furniture in the home. Her designs were light, with fresh colors and delicate Chinoiserie furnishings, as opposed to the Victorian preference of heavy, red drapes and upholstery, dark wood and intensely patterned wallpapers. Her designs were also more practical; she eliminated the clutter that occupied the Victorian home, enabling people to entertain more guests comfortably. In 1905, de Wolfe was commissioned for the interior design of the Colony Club on Madison Avenue; its interiors garnered her recognition almost over night. She compiled her ideas into her widely read 1913 book, The House in Good Taste. In England, Syrie Maugham became a legendary interior designer credited with designing the first all-white room. Starting her career in the early 1910s, her international reputation soon grew; she later expanded her business to New York City and Chicago. Born during the Victorian Era, a time characterized by dark colors and small spaces, she instead designed rooms filled with light and furnished in multiple shades of white and mirrored screens. In addition to mirrored screens, her trademark pieces included: books covered in white vellum, cutlery with white porcelain handles, console tables with plaster palm-frond, shell, or dolphin bases, upholstered and fringed sleigh beds, fur carpets, dining chairs covered in white leather, and lamps of graduated glass balls, and wreaths. === Expansion === The interior design profession became more established after World War II. From the 1950s onwards, spending on the home increased. Interior design courses were established, requiring the publication of textbooks and reference sources. Historical accounts of interior designers and firms distinct from the decorative arts specialists were made available. Organisations to regulate education, qualifications, standards and practices, etc. were established for the profession. Interior design was previously seen as playing a secondary role to architecture. It also has many connections to other design disciplines, involving the work of architects, industrial designers, engineers, builders, craftsmen, etc. For these reasons, the government of interior design standards and qualifications was often incorporated into other professional organisations that involved design. Organisations such as the Chartered Society of Designers, established in the UK in 1986, and the American Designers Institute, founded in 1938, governed various areas of design. It was not until later that specific representation for the interior design profession was developed. The US National Society of Interior Designers was established in 1957, while in the UK the Interior Decorators and Designers Association was established in 1966. Across Europe, other organisations such as The Finnish Association of Interior Architects (1949) were being established and in 1994 the International Interior Design Association was founded. Ellen Mazur Thomson, author of Origins of Graphic Design in America (1997), determined that professional status is achieved through education, self-imposed standards and professional gate-keeping organizations. Having achieved this, interior design became an accepted profession. == Interior decorators and interior designers == Interior design is the art and science of understanding people's behavior to create functional spaces, that are aesthetically pleasing, within a building. Decoration is the furnishing or adorning of a space with decorative elements, sometimes complemented by advice and practical assistance. In short, interior designers may decorate, but decorators do not design. === Interior designer === Interior designer implies that there is more of an emphasis on planning, functional design and the effective use of space, as compared to interior decorating. An interior designer in fine line design can undertake projects that include arranging the basic layout of spaces within a building as well as projects that require an understanding of technical issues such as window and door positioning, acoustics, and lighting. Although an interior designer may create the layout of a space, they may not alter load-bearing walls without having their designs stamped for approval by a structural engineer. Interior designers often work directly with architects, engineers and contractors. Interior designers must be highly skilled in order to create interior environments that are functional, safe, and adhere to building codes, regulations and ADA requirements. They go beyond the selection of color palettes and furnishings and apply their knowledge to the development of construction documents, occupancy loads, healthcare regulations and sustainable design principles, as well as the management and coordination of professional services including mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and life safety—all to ensure that people can live, learn or work in an innocuous environment that is also aesthetically pleasing. Someone may wish to specialize and develop technical knowledge specific to one area or type of interior design, such as residential design, commercial design, hospitality design, healthcare design, universal design, exhibition design, furniture design, and spatial branding. Interior design is a creative profession that is relatively new, constantly evolving, and often confusing to the public. It is not always an artistic pursuit and can rely on research from many fields to provide a well-trained understanding of how people are often influenced by their environments. === Color in interior design === Color is a powerful design tool in decoration, as well as in interior design, which is the art of composing and coordinating colors together to create a stylish scheme on the interior architecture of the space. It can be important to interior designers to acquire a deep experience with colors, understand their psychological effects, and understand the meaning of each color in different locations and situations in order to create suitable combinations for each place. Color is something that an interior design needs to understand. Color can affect the way that humans think, feel, or look at space. Color can have a major effect on human behavior through all ages. An interior designer must understand that different colors can easily overstimulate people depending on the environment. Color can also have effects on a room. For example, if someone is claustrophobic then painting a room in darker colors could make the room feel smaller therefore the person could feel trapped. Combining colors together could result in creating a state of mind as seen by the observer, and could eventually result in positive or negative effects on them. Colors can make the room feel either more calm, cheerful, comfortable, stressful, or dramatic. Color combinations can make a tiny room seem larger or smaller. So it is for the Interior designer to choose appropriate colors for a place towards achieving how clients would want to look at, and feel in, that space. In 2024, red-colored home accessories were popularized on social media and in several design magazines for claiming to enhance interior design. This was coined the Unexpected Red Theory. == Lighting == Lighting is very important when designing a space. Lighting in a room can affect the way that a room is shown. By adding natural and artificial lighting a designer can enhance the features in space and make it more pleasing. When an interior designer places lighting in a home it is important to know what lighting to put where and how to use lighting to highlight important places in the room. Lighting can enhance the aesthetic appeal of a place, setting the mood for the room. For example, when putting lighting into an office you want tp make sure there is overhead lighting, task/ desk lighting and natural lighting. Making sure there is enough lighting in a workspace is important so the person using the place does not strain their eyesight. == Specialties == === Residential === Residential design is the design of the interior of private residences. As this type of design is specific for individual situations, the needs and wants of the individual are paramount in this area of interior design. The interior designer may work on the project from the initial planning stage or may work on the remodeling of an existing structure. It is often a process that takes months to fine-tune and create a space with the vision of the client. === Commercial === Commercial design encompasses a wide range of subspecialties. Retail: includes malls and shopping centers, department stores, specialty stores, visual merchandising, and showrooms. Visual and spatial branding: The use of space as a medium to express a corporate brand. Corporate: office design for any kind of business such as banks. Healthcare: the design of hospitals, assisted living facilities, medical offices, dentist offices, psychiatric facilities, laboratories, medical specialist facilities. Hospitality and recreation: includes hotels, motels, resorts, cruise ships, cafes, bars, casinos, nightclubs, theaters, music and concert halls, opera houses, sports venues, restaurants, gyms, health clubs and spas, etc. Institutional: government offices, financial institutions (banks and credit unions), schools and universities, religious facilities, etc. Industrial facilities: manufacturing and training facilities as well as import and export facilities. Exhibition: includes museums, gallery, exhibition hall, specially the design for showroom and exhibition gallery. Traffic building: includes bus station, subway station, airports, pier, etc. Sports: includes gyms, stadiums, swimming rooms, basketball halls, etc. Teaching in a private institute that offer classes of interior design. Self-employment. Employment in private sector firms. === Other === Other areas of specialization include amusement and theme park design, museum and exhibition design, exhibit design, event design (including ceremonies, weddings, baby and bridal showers, parties, conventions, and concerts), interior and prop styling, craft styling, food styling, product styling, tablescape design, theatre and performance design, stage and set design, scenic design, and production design for film and television. Beyond those, interior designers, particularly those with graduate education, can specialize in healthcare design, gerontological design, educational facility design, and other areas that require specialized knowledge. Some university programs offer graduate studies in theses and other areas. For example, both Cornell University and the University of Florida offer interior design graduate programs in environment and behavior studies. == Profession == === Education === There are various paths that one can take to become a professional interior designer. All of these paths involve some form of training. Working with a successful professional designer is an informal method of training and has previously been the most common method of education. In many states, however, this path alone cannot lead to licensing as a professional interior designer. Training through an institution such as a college, art or design school or university is a more formal route to professional practice. In many countries, several university degree courses are now available, including those on interior architecture, taking three or four years to complete. A formal education program, particularly one accredited by or developed with a professional organization of interior designers, can provide training that meets a minimum standard of excellence and therefore gives a student an education of a high standard. There are also university graduate and Ph.D. programs available for those seeking further training in a specific design specialization (i.e. gerontological or healthcare design) or those wishing to teach interior design at the university level. === Working conditions === There are a wide range of working conditions and employment opportunities within interior design. Large and tiny corporations often hire interior designers as employees on regular working hours. Designers for smaller firms and online renovation platforms usually work on a contract or per-job basis. Self-employed designers, who made up 32% of interior designers in 2020, usually work the most hours. Interior designers often work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and meet clients' needs and wishes. In some cases, licensed professionals review the work and sign it before submitting the design for approval by clients or construction permitting. The need for licensed review and signature varies by locality, relevant legislation, and scope of work. Their work can involve significant travel to visit different locations. However, with technology development, the process of contacting clients and communicating design alternatives has become easier and requires less travel. == Styles == === Art Deco === The Art Deco style began in Europe in the early years of the 20th century, with the waning of Art Nouveau. The term "Art Deco" was taken from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes, a world's fair held in Paris in 1925. Art Deco rejected many traditional classical influences in favour of more streamlined geometric forms and metallic color. The Art Deco style influenced all areas of design, especially interior design, because it was the first style of interior decoration to spotlight new technologies and materials. Art Deco style is mainly based on geometric shapes, streamlining, and clean lines. The style offered a sharp, cool look of mechanized living utterly at odds with anything that came before. Art Deco rejected traditional materials of decoration and interior design, opting instead to use more unusual materials such as chrome, glass, stainless steel, shiny fabrics, mirrors, aluminium, lacquer, inlaid wood, sharkskin, and zebra skin. The use of harder, metallic materials was chosen to celebrate the machine age. These materials reflected the dawning modern age that was ushered in after the end of the First World War. The innovative combinations of these materials created contrasts that were very popular at the time – for example the mixing together of highly polished wood and black lacquer with satin and furs. The barber shop in the Austin Reed store in London was designed by P. J. Westwood. It was soon regarded as the trendiest barber shop in Britain due to its use of metallic materials. The color themes of Art Deco consisted of metallic color, neutral color, bright color, and black and white. In interior design, cool metallic colors including silver, gold, metallic blue, charcoal grey, and platinum tended to predominate. Serge Chermayeff, a Russian-born British designer made extensive use of cool metallic colors and luxurious surfaces in his room schemes. His 1930 showroom design for a British dressmaking firm had a silver-grey background and black mirrored-glass wall panels. Black and white was also a very popular color scheme during the 1920s and 1930s. Black and white checkerboard tiles, floors and wallpapers were very trendy at the time. As the style developed, bright vibrant colors became popular as well. Art Deco furnishings and lighting fixtures had a glossy, luxurious appearance with the use of inlaid wood and reflective finishes. The furniture pieces often had curved edges, geometric shapes, and clean lines. Art Deco lighting fixtures tended to make use of stacked geometric patterns. === Modern art === Modern design grew out of the decorative arts, mostly from the Art Deco, in the early 20th century. One of the first to introduce this modernist style was Frank Lloyd Wright, who had not become hugely popularized until completing the house called Fallingwater in the 1930s. Modern art reached its peak during the 1950s and '60s, which is why designers and decorators today may refer to modern design as being "mid-century". Modern art does not refer to the era or age of design and is not the same as contemporary design, a term used by interior designers for a shifting group of recent styles and trends. === Arab materials === "Majlis painting", also called nagash painting, is the decoration of the majlis, or front parlor of traditional Arabic homes, in the Asir province of Saudi Arabia and adjoining parts of Yemen. These wall paintings, an arabesque form of mural or fresco, show various geometric designs in bright colors: "Called 'nagash' in Arabic, the wall paintings were a mark of pride for a woman in her house." The geometric designs and heavy lines seem to be adapted from the area's textile and weaving patterns. "In contrast with the sobriety of architecture and decoration in the rest of Arabia, exuberant color and ornamentation characterize those of Asir. The painting extends into the house over the walls and doors, up the staircases, and onto the furniture itself. When a house is being painted, women from the community help each other finish the job. The building then displays their shared taste and knowledge. Mothers pass these on to their daughters. This artwork is based on a geometry of straight lines and suggests the patterns common to textile weaving, with solid bands of different colors. Certain motifs reappear, such as the triangular mihrab or 'niche' and the palmette. In the past, paint was produced from mineral and vegetable pigments. Cloves and alfalfa yielded green. Blue came from the indigo plant. Red came from pomegranates and a certain mud. Paintbrushes were created from the tough hair found in a goat's tail. Today, however, women use modern manufactured paint to create new looks, which have become an indicator of social and economic change." Women in the Asir province often complete the decoration and painting of the house interior. "You could tell a family's wealth by the paintings," Um Abdullah says: "If they didn't have much money, the wife could only paint the motholath, the basic straight, simple lines, in patterns of three to six repetitions in red, green, yellow and brown." When women did not want to paint the walls themselves, they could barter with other women who would do the work. Several Saudi women have become famous as majlis painters, such as Fatima Abou Gahas. The interior walls of the home are brightly painted by the women, who work in defined patterns with lines, triangles, squares, diagonals and tree-like patterns. "Some of the large triangles represent mountains. Zigzag lines stand for water and also for lightning. Small triangles, especially when the widest area is at the top, are found in pre-Islamic representations of female figures. That the small triangles found in the wall paintings in 'Asir are called banat may be a cultural remnant of a long-forgotten past." "Courtyards and upper pillared porticoes are principal features of the best Nadjdi architecture, in addition to the fine incised plaster wood (jiss) and painted window shutters, which decorate the reception rooms. Good examples of plasterwork can often be seen in the gaping ruins of torn-down buildings- the effect is light, delicate and airy. It is usually around the majlis, around the coffee hearth and along the walls above where guests sat on rugs, against cushions. Doughty wondered if this "parquetting of jis", this "gypsum fretwork... all adorning and unenclosed" originated from India. However, the Najd fretwork seems very different from that seen in the Eastern Province and Oman, which are linked to Indian traditions, and rather resembles the motifs and patterns found in ancient Mesopotamia. The rosette, the star, the triangle and the stepped pinnacle pattern of dadoes are all ancient patterns, and can be found all over the Middle East of antiquity. Al-Qassim Province seems to be the home of this art, and there it is normally worked in hard white plaster (though what you see is usually begrimed by the smoke of the coffee hearth). In Riyadh, examples can be seen in unadorned clay. === Sustainable Design === Sustainable Design is becoming more important today. This type of style includes eco-friendly, energy efficient, and sustainable design while keeping the space functional. Modern design prioritizes energy efficient design styles and eco-friendly design styles. == Media popularization == Interior design has become the subject of television shows. In the United Kingdom, popular interior design and decorating programs include 60 Minute Makeover (ITV), Changing Rooms (BBC), and Selling Houses (Channel 4). Famous interior designers whose work is featured in these programs include Linda Barker and Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen. In the United States, the TLC Network aired a popular program called Trading Spaces, a show based on the UK program Changing Rooms. In addition, both HGTV and the DIY Network also televise many programs about interior design and decorating, featuring the works of a variety of interior designers, decorators, and home improvement experts in a myriad of projects. Fictional interior decorators include the Sugarbaker sisters on Designing Women and Grace Adler on Will & Grace. There is also another show called Home MADE. There are two teams and two houses and whoever has the designed and made the worst room, according to the judges, is eliminated. Another show on the Style Network, hosted by Niecy Nash, is Clean House where they re-do messy homes into themed rooms that the clients would like. Other shows include Design on a Dime, Designed to Sell, and The Decorating Adventures of Ambrose Price. The show called Design Star has become more popular through the five seasons that have already aired. The winners of this show end up getting their own TV shows, of which are Color Splash hosted by David Bromstad, Myles of Style hosted by Kim Myles, Paint-Over! hosted by Jennifer Bertrand, The Antonio Treatment hosted by Antonio Ballatore, and finally Secrets from a Stylist hosted by Emily Henderson. Bravo also has a variety of shows that explore the lives of interior designers. These include Flipping Out, which explores the life of Jeff Lewis and his team of designers; Million Dollar Decorators explores the lives of interior designers Nathan Turner, Jeffrey Alan Marks, Mary McDonald, Kathryn Ireland, and Martyn Lawrence Bullard. Interior design has also become the subject of radio shows. In the U.S., popular interior design & lifestyle shows include Martha Stewart Living and Living Large featuring Karen Mills. Famous interior designers whose work is featured on these programs include Bunny Williams, Barbara Barry, and Kathy Ireland, among others. Many interior design magazines exist to offer advice regarding color palette, furniture, art, and other elements that fall under the umbrella of interior design. These magazine often focus on related subjects to draw a more specific audience. For instance, architecture as a primary aspect of Dwell, while Veranda is well known as a luxury living magazine. Lonny Magazine and the newly relaunched, Domino Magazine, cater to a young, hip, metropolitan audience, and emphasize accessibility and a do-it-yourself (DIY) approach to interior design. == Gallery == == Notable interior decorators == Other early interior decorators: Sibyl Colefax Dorothy Draper Pierre François Léonard Fontaine Syrie Maugham Margery Hoffman Smith Elsie de Wolfe Arthur Stannard Vernay Frank Lloyd Wright Many of the most famous designers and decorators during the 20th century had no formal training. Some examples include Sister Parish, Robert Denning and Vincent Fourcade, Kerry Joyce, Kelly Wearstler, Stéphane Boudin, Georges Geffroy, Emilio Terry, Carlos de Beistegui, Nina Petronzio, Lorenzo Mongiardino, Mary Jean Thompson and David Nightingale Hicks. Notable interior designers in the world today include Scott Salvator, Troy Adams, Jonathan Adler, Michael S. Smith, Martin Brudnizki, Mary Douglas Drysdale, Kelly Hoppen, Kelly Wearstler, Nina Campbell, David Collins, Nate Berkus, Sandra Espinet, Jo Hamilton and Nicky Haslam. == See also == 1960s decor American Society of Interior Designers Blueprint British Institute of Interior Design Chartered Society of Designers Environmental psychology Experiential interior design Fuzzy architectural spatial analysis Interior architecture Interior design psychology Interior design regulation in the United States Japanese interior design Primitive decorating Wall decals Window treatment == References == == External links == Candace Wheeler: The Art and Enterprise of American Design, 1875–1900, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which includes a great deal of content about early interior design	Wikipedia/Interior_designers
Designing Women is an American television sitcom created by Linda Bloodworth-Thomason that aired on CBS between September 29, 1986 and May 24, 1993, producing seven seasons and 163 episodes. It was a joint production of Bloodworth/Thomason Mozark Productions in association with Columbia Pictures Television for CBS. The series centers on the lives of four women and one man working together at an interior design firm in 1980s Atlanta, Georgia, called Sugarbaker & Associates. It originally starred Dixie Carter as Julia Sugarbaker, president of the design firm; Delta Burke as Suzanne Sugarbaker, the design firm's silent partner and Julia's ex-beauty queen sister; Annie Potts as head designer Mary Jo Shively; and Jean Smart as office manager Charlene Frazier. In the third season, Meshach Taylor was given a starring role for his previously recurring character of delivery man and later partner Anthony Bouvier. Later in its run, the series gained notoriety for its well-publicized behind-the-scenes conflicts and cast changes. Julia Duffy and Jan Hooks replaced Burke and Smart for season six, but Duffy was not brought back for the seventh and final season, and she was replaced by Judith Ivey. == Premise == Julia Sugarbaker (Dixie Carter) is an elegant, sophisticated, outspoken woman who is the co-founder and president of Sugarbaker & Associates, an interior design firm located in her own home in Atlanta. She is partnered with her younger sister, Suzanne (Delta Burke), an attractive, selfish, self-centered former Miss Georgia World, who invested her money but does not have an official position within the business. Naïve but sweet-natured Charlene Frazier (Jean Smart), who worked as a secretary for Julia's late husband, Hayden, also invested half of her savings at Sugarbaker's and works as office manager. Charlene's next-door neighbor and recently divorced best friend, Mary Jo Shively (Annie Potts), is the main interior designer of the firm and also a full partner. Alongside the women, there is Anthony Bouvier (Meshach Taylor), an ex-convict who is hired as the company's deliveryman and later becomes a full partner. By late 1986, Julia and Suzanne's mother, Perky (Louise Latham), comes for a visit with her outrageous best friend Bernice Clifton (Alice Ghostley). Perky does not stay long and moves to Japan, leaving Bernice in Atlanta, where she begins to spend time with the others. At the end of the fifth season, actress Delta Burke left the show after a much-publicized feud with the show's producers, so her character, Suzanne, moved to Japan to join her mother, Perky. Actress Jean Smart also left at the beginning of the sixth season after deciding she wanted to spend more time with her young child. To handle Smart's departure, her character, Charlene, moved to England with her Air Force husband and their daughter. Julia and Suzanne's obnoxious cousin Allison (Julia Duffy) acquires Suzanne's share of the design firm and also rents her home. Charlene's sister Carlene (Jan Hooks) moves in with her. Carlene also begins working at Sugarbaker's, filling the office manager vacancy that older sister Charlene left behind. Allison (Duffy) left after the sixth season. Texan widow Bonnie Jean Poteet (Judith Ivey), was written in for season seven. These changes failed to hold the attention of viewers who enjoyed the original cast of the first five seasons. Designing Women was cancelled after the seventh season. == Cast and characters == === Main === Dixie Carter as Julia Sugarbaker, president and founder of Sugarbaker & Associates interior design firm. Elegant and classy, but outspoken and opinionated, Julia is known for a no-nonsense demeanor; throughout the course of the show, Julia has several monologues and speeches from a feminist and liberal perspective, and is known for telling people off, earning her the nickname of "The Terminator". She is very protective of her sister Suzanne, even though she is usually the first one to criticize her egocentric statements. Julia is notable as a very talented singer, usually performing in her church choir, and, later on, she also pretends to be a cabaret singer under the pseudonym "Giselle". Annie Potts as Mary Jo Shively, Sugarbaker's main designer. Mary Jo is a sarcastic but kind person and a devoted single mother of two. Jean Smart as Charlene Frazier-Stillfield (seasons 1–5; guest star: season 6), Julia's late husband's former secretary and now office manager of Sugarbaker's. Originally from a large family in Poplar Bluff, Missouri, Charlene is naïve and sweet-hearted, whose ditziness can be annoying for her co-workers. She's one of Elvis' biggest fans and worked with several big names while secretary in Arkansas, including Fred Smith, Sam Walton and Bill Clinton. Eventually, Charlene marries Colonel William Stillfield and they have a baby, Olivia. By 1991, they move to England, leaving her younger sister, Carlene, to fill in for her at Sugarbaker's. Delta Burke as Suzanne Sugarbaker (seasons 1–5), Julia's younger sister and a silent partner at Sugarbaker's. A former beauty queen and alumna of Ole Miss, Suzanne is self-centered and vain, and generally more laissez-faire and traditional in contrast to her sister's views. Thrice-divorced, Suzanne usually dates wealthy elderly men who are terminally ill. During the series, she deals with weight gain and confronts issues of body image for women. In 1991, Suzanne sells all of her shares and moves to Japan to live with her mother. Meshach Taylor as Anthony Bouvier (recurring: seasons 1–2, main: seasons 3–7), an ex-convict and a law student, who works as Sugarbaker's delivery man until 1990 and then becomes a full partner. Anthony is very close to his co-workers but develops a special relationship with Suzanne throughout the series. After he is dumped by his girlfriend, Vanessa Chamberlain (Jackeé Harry), BJ sets up a trip to Las Vegas where a drunk Anthony marries a Folies Bergère singer, Etienne (Sheryl Lee Ralph). He eventually falls in love with her and tries to make the marriage work. Julia Duffy as Allison Sugarbaker (season 6), Julia and Suzanne's conservative cousin who becomes a partner at Sugarbaker & Associates. Allison comes from New York City for a visit after buying Suzanne's shares and decides to move back to the South, taking possession of Suzanne's house as well, which Anthony had been renting. They eventually became housemates, but are always arguing because of her attempts to throw him out. After one year being a partner at the design firm, Allison decides to invest in a Victoria's Secret franchise, leaving Atlanta and Sugarbaker's behind. Jan Hooks as Carlene Frazier-Dobber (seasons 6–7), Charlene's naïve younger sister from Poplar Bluff, Missouri, who becomes a receptionist at Sugarbaker's after divorcing her car salesman husband, Dwayne Dobber. Judith Ivey as Bonnie Jean "BJ" Poteet (season 7), a lively and sharp-witted Texas millionaire who becomes a Sugarbaker & Associates partner after Allison sells her shares. Her late husband James Poteet, a successful tycoon, had a heart attack during their wedding reception, leaving her the control of his Atlanta-based company, Poteet Industries. === Recurring === Scott Bakula as Ted Shively (seasons 1–2), Mary Jo's ex-husband and a gynecologist Douglas Barr as William "Bill" Stillfield (seasons 2–5), Charlene's husband, a colonel in the U.S. Air Force Olivia Brown as Vanessa Hargraves (season 4), Anthony's girlfriend Hal Holbrook as Reese Watson (seasons 1–4), Julia's love interest, a widowed and successful Atlanta attorney (the character was killed off in season 5 so Holbrook could appear on Evening Shade) Alice Ghostley as Bernice Clifton, the Sugarbakers' eccentric family friend; Ghostley was billed as a "Special Guest Star" throughout the series Richard Gilliland as J.D. Shackelford (seasons 1–5), Mary Jo's boyfriend, a talent scout for the Atlanta Braves Michael Goldfinger as Rusty (seasons 4–6), the Sugarbakers' electrician Brian Lando as Quinton Shively (seasons 1–6), Mary Jo's son George Newbern as Payne McIlroy (seasons 1–6), Julia's son Gerald McRaney as Dash Goff (season 2), Suzanne's first husband, a novelist and college professor at the University of Arkansas Sheryl Lee Ralph as Etienne Toussaint Bouvier (season 7), a showgirl Anthony marries after meeting her while she was performing at the Tropicana Las Vegas Lexi Randall as Randa Oliver (season 5), a young girl left in the care of Julia while her wealthy parents are in Europe Priscilla Weems as Claudia Marie Shively (seasons 1–5), Mary Jo's daughter == Episodes == == Filming locations == The exterior of the house seen in the series as the location of the Sugarbakers' design firm is the Angelo Marre House located in the historic Quapaw Quarter district in Little Rock, Arkansas. The home of Suzanne Sugarbaker seen in the series is the Arkansas Governor's Mansion, also in the Quapaw Quarter. Both homes are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. == Critical reception == When the show debuted in CBS's Monday-night lineup in 1986, it garnered respectable ratings; however, CBS moved the show several times to other time slots. After dismal ratings in Sunday night and Thursday night time slots, CBS placed it on hiatus and was ready to cancel the show, but a viewer campaign saved the show and returned it to its Monday night slot. The show's ratings solidified, and it regularly landed in the top 20 rankings. From 1989 through 1992, Designing Women and Murphy Brown (which also centered around a strong, opinionated female character) aired back-to-back, creating a very successful hour-long block for CBS, as both shows were thought to appeal to similar demographics. The show was a top 30 hit for three seasons, from 1989 to 1992, in which the 1989–1992 seasons made it the most successful of the time and helped CBS, which struggled in the ratings around the late 1980s. A move to the Friday night death slot in fall 1992 caused ratings to fall again and the series to be canceled. == Political views == Show creators Linda Bloodworth-Thomason and Harry Thomason were strong supporters of longtime friend and then-Democratic nominee for President of the United States, Bill Clinton and his wife Hillary. Midway through the seventh season, Julia is stranded in the airport while attempting to attend Clinton's first inauguration, in an episode ("The Odyssey") that aired five days prior. Earlier in the series, Charlene mentions working for Clinton during his Arkansas governorship. Another Clinton-related joke was the introduction during the sixth season of the prissy character, Allison Sugarbaker, who makes it quite clear to the others that she attended Wellesley College, Hillary's alma mater. An early third season episode ("The Candidate") also revolves around Julia running for commissioner; she debates on television against a conservative candidate, to whom she eventually loses. In reality, Dixie Carter was a libertarian-leaning Republican who disagreed with some of the liberal views expressed by her onscreen character. However, she did support liberal causes, such as civil rights and same-sex marriage. Carter cut a deal with the Thomasons in which Julia would sing a song in a future episode for every liberal-leaning monologue. == Awards and nominations == == Home media == Shout! Factory has released all seven seasons of Designing Women on DVD in Region 1. On September 2, 2003, Sony Pictures released The Best of Designing Women, a single-disc DVD featuring five episodes ranging between seasons one through four: "Designing Women (Pilot)" (season 1), "Killing All the Right People" (season 2), "Reservations for Eight" (season 2), "Big Haas and Little Falsie" (season 3) and "They Shoot Fat Women, Don't They?" (season 4). On September 28, 2010, Shout! Factory released Designing Women, Volume 1, a single-disc DVD featuring seven episodes from the first season: "Designing Women (Pilot)", "A Big Affair", "Design House", "I Do, I Don't", "New Year's Daze", "Monette", "And Justice for Paul". On June 5, 2012, Shout! Factory released Designing Women – 20 Timeless Episodes, aimed for casual fans to enjoy the series without buying full season sets. The 2-disc DVD set included the following episodes, ranging from seasons one through five: Disc 1 – "Designing Women (pilot)" (season 1), "New Year's Daze" (season 1), "Monette" (season 1), "Oh Suzannah" (season 1), "Ted Remarries" (season 2), "Killing All the Right People" (season 2), "Heart Attacks" (season 2), "Return of Ray Don" (season 2), "Big Haas & Little Falsie" (season 3), "The Wilderness Experience" (season 3). Disc 2 – "The Naked Truth" (season 3), "Stand & Fight" (season 3), "Nightmare from Hee Haw" (season 3), "Julia Gets Her Head Caught in a Fence" (season 4), "Julia & Suzanne's Big Adventure" (season 4), "Foreign Affairs" (season 4), "A Blast from the Past" (season 5), "And Now, Here's Bernice" (season 5), "This is Art?" (season 5) and "The Pride of the Sugarbakers" (season 5). == Syndication == CBS ran reruns of the show in their daytime lineup at 10:00 a.m. (ET) from April 1991 to June 1992. Subsequently, Designing Women aired on the Lifetime cable network for over a decade. Despite its popularity, the show left the network on August 4, 2006. A 90-minute retrospective special, The Designing Women Reunion, aired on Lifetime on July 28, 2003, reuniting Burke, Potts, Smart, Carter and Taylor in which they shared memories from their time on the series, and also featured interviews with the Thomasons and various writers. Actors Alice Ghostley, Hal Holbrook, Gerald McRaney, and Richard Gilliland also took part in the special. The series also aired on Nick at Nite beginning October 2, 2006; however, it quickly left and later appeared on its sister network TV Land, airing at various late-night and morning times occasionally until the network lost the rights to air the show in 2008. The series aired on ION Television in 2007 and has also aired on Comedy Gold, TV Guide Network, and Logo. In recognition of the show's 30th anniversary, getTV began running the series in June 2017 with nightly blocks featuring 30 fan-favorite episodes, after which the series began airing regularly on the network, until it was later removed in 2019. Antenna TV added the show in January of 2020, then later moved to sister station Rewind TV when the channel launched on September 1, 2021. It later moved back to Antenna in September 2022, before it moved back to Rewind on May 26, 2025, airing weeknights at 8:00 and 8:30 p.m. EST and Sundays from 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. EST. FETV also aired the show before they removed it. As of August 28, 2019, the series is available for streaming on Hulu. The episodes are not the original versions aired on CBS, but the syndication versions, which contain an altered opening credit sequence and choppy edits to allow more time for commercials. In 2024, all 7 seasons are available on Amazon Prime Video until it was removed later that same year, also using the syndication prints. == Spin-off == Burke returned as the Suzanne Sugarbaker character in the 1995 spin-off series, Women of the House. The series ran for one season, airing on CBS from January 4, 1995, to August 18, 1995, with the final four episodes airing on Lifetime on September 8, 1995. == References == == External links == Designing Women at IMDb	Wikipedia/Designing_Women
Bravo is an American basic cable television network, launched on December 8, 1980. It is owned by the NBCUniversal Media Group division of Comcast's NBCUniversal. The channel originally focused on programming related to fine arts and film. Since the 2000s, its has focused heavily on reality series targeted at 25-to-54-year-old women and the LGBTQ community at large. Its former sister channels are Nickelodeon and IFC, which are currently owned by Paramount Global and AMC Networks, respectively. As of November 2023, Bravo is available to approximately 70,000,000 pay television households in the United States, down from its 2013 peak of 95,000,000 households. == History == === Launch and early programming === Bravo originally launched as a commercial-free premium channel on December 8, 1980. It was originally co-owned by Cablevision's Rainbow Media division and Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment; the channel claimed to be "the first television service dedicated to film and the performing arts". The channel originally broadcast its programming two days a week and—like Bravo's former sister network Nickelodeon, which shared its channel space with Alpha Repertory Television Service—shared its channel space with the adult-oriented pay channel Escapade (now Playboy TV), which featured R-rated B movies (of the action, grindhouse and horror genres) and softcore pornographic films. In 1981, Bravo was available to 48,000 subscribers throughout the United States; this total increased four years later to around 350,000 subscribers. A 1985 profile of Bravo in The New York Times observed that most of its programming consisted of international, classic, and independent film. Celebrities such as E. G. Marshall and Roberta Peters provided opening and closing commentary to the films broadcast on the channel. Performing arts programs seen on Bravo included the show Jazz Counterpoint. During the mid-1980s, Bravo converted from a premium service into a basic cable channel, although it remained a commercial-free service. Bravo signed an underwriting deal with Texaco in 1992 and within a month broadcast the first Texaco Showcase production, a stage adaptation of Romeo and Juliet. By the mid-1990s, Bravo began to incorporate more PBS-style underwriting sponsorships, and then began accepting traditional commercial advertising by 1998. In the Encyclopedia of Television, Megan Mullen perceived certain Bravo programs as "considered too risky or eclectic for mainstream channels". Those programs were Karaoke and Cold Lazarus, the final serials by British playwright Dennis Potter shown by Bravo in June 1997, and Michael Moore's documentary series The Awful Truth from 1999. === Acquisition by NBC, shift to reality === In 1999, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer acquired a 20% stake in the channel, which it subsequently sold back to Rainbow Media in 2001. National Broadcasting Company, Inc. bought the network in 2002 for $1.25 billion; it had owned a stake in the channel and its sister networks for several years up to that point. NBC's then-parent company, General Electric, merged the network and its other broadcast and cable properties with Vivendi Universal Entertainment in May 2004 to form NBC Universal. In 2003, Bravo began airing reruns of The West Wing for several years, including running marathons on certain holidays. Bravo saw a massive success in 2003 with the reality series Queer Eye for the Straight Guy, which garnered 3.5 million viewers. The network began to add more reality shows to its lineup, some of them also very successful, including Project Runway in 2004, and Million Dollar Listing, The Real Housewives of Orange County and Top Chef, all in 2006. All spawned numerous spin-off shows, and some even turned into international franchises. The success of all these shows led Bravo to change its format from focusing on performing arts, drama, and independent film to being focused on reality series, pop culture, fashion and celebrities. In 2009, Entertainment Weekly put "Bravo reality shows" on its end-of-the-decade "best-of" list, saying, "From Queer Eye for the Straight Guy's Fab Five to Project Runway's fierce fashionistas to the kvetching, perma-tanned Real Housewives franchise, Bravo's quirky reality programming mixes high culture and low scruples to create deliciously addictive television." A study released in May 2008 ranked Bravo as the brand most identified as gay-friendly among gay consumers. Bravo's age demographic is people 18–54, according to the Cable Television Advertising Bureau's cable television profiles. Other successful reality series followed, including Shahs of Sunset (2012), Vanderpump Rules (2013), Married to Medicine (2013), Below Deck (2013), Southern Charm (2014), and Summer House (2017). Bravo's first ever scripted series, Girlfriends' Guide to Divorce, premiered in 2014 and ran until 2018. On February 7, 2017, coinciding with the premiere of another scripted series, Imposters, Bravo updated its imaging with a refresh to its speech bubble-inspired logo, with the letters now all rendered in lowercase (replacing the wordmark text based on the logos used by the channel between 1994 and 2005), and a neutralized imaging to attract more male viewers. The "...by Bravo" marketing tag was also phased out from general use. On November 20, 2024, NBCUniversal announced that it would spin off most of its cable networks and selected digital properties into a new publicly-traded company ("SpinCo") owned by Comcast shareholders, with NBCUniversal Media Group chairman Mark Lazarus as CEO. Bravo was notably excluded from the spin-off, due to its position as a major content provider for NBCU's streaming service Peacock. == Controversies == In August 2023, several of the network's reality stars, including Bethenny Frankel, Raquel Leviss, Lisa Rinna, and many others, accused Bravo and its parent company, NBCUniversal, of mistreating them and creating a hostile working environment for them. Frankel has also filed a lawsuit against the network and NBC as a result of the allegations. In January 2024, Caroline Manzo filed a lawsuit against Bravo which alleged that the network and its affiliated companies—Forest Productions, Warner Bros. Entertainment, NBCUniversal Media, Shed Media and Peacock TV— would "regularly ply the Real Housewives cast with alcohol, cause them to become severely intoxicated, and then direct, encourage and/or allow them to sexually harass other cast members because that is good for ratings." The lawsuit was filed a year after it was reported Brandi Glanville gave Manzo "unwanted kisses" while they participated in season 5 of The Real Housewives Ultimate Girls Trip. The lawsuit also accused Bravo of knowing that Glanville had a history of sexual misconduct, but hired her anyway for good ratings. == Programming == Bravo's programming schedule primarily includes originally produced programming, particularly reality content. Most popularly, the channel is known for its TV franchises The Real Housewives and Inside the Actors Studio, as well as Top Chef, Project Runway, Flipping Out, Below Deck, and Married to Medicine. The channel also airs reruns of series from parent network NBC and occasionally other NBCUniversal-owned networks, off-network series, including those from NBCUniversal Television Distribution, and feature films, primarily from the Universal Pictures catalog. Bravo utilizes block programming for both new shows and existing ones such as its "Fashion By Bravo" block. Following its acquisition by NBC, Bravo began to supplement NBC Sports coverage of the Olympic Games, airing live events during the overnight and morning hours during the 2004 Summer Olympics; this coverage continued with the 2006 Winter Olympics. The channel carried no coverage during the 2008 games, as NBC Universal had acquired Oxygen, allowing Bravo to continue to carry its regular programming schedule during NBC coverage of the Games. In 2012, the network served as the near-exclusive home for the Games' tennis tournament at Wimbledon, with up to 56 hours of coverage except for the men's and women's singles finals, which aired on NBC. During the 2016 Rio Olympics, Bravo served as the exclusive home of the entire tennis tournament. == International versions == === Australia === An Australian channel called Arena rebranded its on-air presentation in 2008 to align with Bravo as a result of an agreement with Bravo Media. Arena uses the now-former Bravo slogan "Watch What Happens" and has access to Bravo-produced programming. As of July 2020, the channel had dropped the Bravo-inspired branding, and added content from other providers such as WarnerMedia. In October 2022, it was announced that Australia's Seven Network would launch a local version of the network, titled 7Bravo on 15 January 2023, as part of a joint venture with NBCU. === Canada === A Canadian version of Bravo was launched in 1995 by CHUM Limited. The channel originally aired much of the same arts-focused genres of programming then aired by its American counterpart. Around the same period of its U.S. counterpart's channel drift, though particularly after its acquisition by Bell Media, Bravo Canada would pivot its focus toward television dramas, and was later rebranded as CTV Drama Channel in 2019. Most of Bravo's original programming would be acquired by other Canadian speciality channels and domestic platforms. Corus Entertainment's Slice and Food Network Canada would acquire such shows as The Real Housewives franchise and Top Chef, respectively, and would also commission domestic adaptations (The Real Housewives of Vancouver and Toronto; Top Chef Canada) of these franchises. In 2018, NBCUniversal's streaming service Hayu, would launch in Canada; and feature several shows and franchises from Bravo and its siblings. On June 10, 2024, Rogers Sports & Media announced that it had acquired Canadian rights to the Bravo brand and original programming, and that it planned to relaunch the network in September 2024, with Rogers later announcing that Bravo would replace OLN (a channel originally established as the Canadian version of a different now-defunct Comcast network). === New Zealand === MediaWorks New Zealand announced that it would close the youth-oriented free to air channel Four in July 2016 and replace it with Bravo as part of a deal with NBCUniversal. The New Zealand channel is currently co-owned by Warner Bros. Discovery. === Brazil === A Brazilian version of Bravo was launched in 1996 by a partnership between TVA - then Grupo Abril's television arm -, TV Cultura and the original American network. The channel produced original programming like the Brazilian version of Inside Actors Studio called Studio Brasil. In August 1999, Bravo was rebranded as Film&Arts after Bravo Networks took the fully control of channel's administration. == Bravo's A-List Awards == In 2008, Bravo's A-List Awards were created to honor celebrities "who have made an unforgettable mark" in various fields of pop culture such as beauty, design, fashion, and cooking. == References == == External links == Official website	Wikipedia/Bravo_(U.S._TV_network)
An interior design magazine is a publication that focuses primarily on interior design in a hard copy periodical format or on the Internet. Interior design magazines document the interior of homes, furniture, home accessories, textiles and architecture usually in a highly stylized or staged format. They may also feature cafes, historic houses, eco-friendly living and cutting-edge design. Each issue or publication often acts as a “how to” guide for interior decorating and styling, as well as providing readers up to date design news and the latest trends. Contemporary houses in the magazines today are often highly styled photographs, which are done by interior stylists or decorators. They often do not feature people and just focus on the furniture or interior. Some magazines, such as Apartamento, feature homes that are not staged, but rather highlight elements of the house just as the inhabitant has left them. == 18th-century origins == The 18th century was the first period in which English domestic interiors were represented in both text and image. The format and writing of interior design magazines were mainly modeled on architecture and art journals, which began publication from the 1890s. These magazines began to lay the origins of domesticity, homemaking and decorating, which would later continue to grow into separate titles. It was Alexander Koch who was responsible for Germany's first serial publications specifically on interior design. Koch's Innendekoration started publication in January 1890, while his Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration (1897–1932) also focused primarily on interiors. They were joined by others such as Das Interieur (1900–1915) in Vienna, and House Beautiful (1896–1930) in Chicago. House Beautiful was a consumer driven magazine that aimed to fulfill the aspirations of the reader, rather than presenting an actually achievable or affordable home. These magazines circulated internationally and their impact can be measured by the second generation of magazines, often similar in format, that were formed in their mould in the years to follow. Graphic layouts became an important feature for interior design magazines, as many began following each other or beginning their own trend. It began allowing more space, focusing on the arrangement and layout of text, image and font. The titling of the drawings, in stylized capitals, was carried out in a specific style associated with the Rudolf von Larisch school of lettering. Often the interior schemes were represented from above and from a diagonal axis, emphasizing the angularity of the composition with a rapidly receding vanishing point. Illustrations ranged from full colour paintings to carefully reproduced lithography prints of interiors and drawings, usually in colour. From the 1920s onwards, design publishing was driven by avant-garde design ideals and commercial publishing practices. The introduction of the digital camera in the late 20th century allowed photographers to capture the interiors of celebrities as well as everyday people. == Domestic advice books == The second half of the 19th century brought about the development of several publications offering advice on how to manage and decorate the home. Suggestions ranging from fashioning gothic architecture inspired furniture and embroidery were featured in household manuals Cassell's Household Guide and Isabella Beeton's Book of Household Management, published in the 1860s. Aimed at the increasing Victorian middle class, these manuals encouraged the purchase of material goods for their homes. The manual Hints on Household Taste by Charles Eastlake first published in 1868 dealt explicitly with decorative choice and consisted of articles that were first successive in magazines. Inspired by American advice manuals, these books often reflected on the gendered nature of society, drawing divisions between the ‘masculine’ dining room and ‘feminine’ drawing room. Design suggestions for the drawing room included using light colours while methods for dining rooms, libraries and studies featured heavy furniture and animal skins. However, domestic manuals in the 1920s revealed the changes in the gendered division of space and pushed the rise of the sitting room as a shared space. From the 1920s to the 1970s, advice literature was increasingly concerned with the shift from a service culture to a self-service culture. This stems from the idea that readers now had to learn how to host dinner parties or functions with the absence of a butler or housekeeper. Advice writers catered to a new group of readers keen to entertain in a manner different from the one they had known growing up. The hostess performed the conflicting roles of both entertaining the guests and cooking, which involved her in both front and backstage regions of the home. == Retail catalogues for interiors == A rise in interest of home furnishings for 19th-century middle-class Britain and US meant there was a higher demand for furniture in department stores and furniture shops. Capitalizing on the power of the wealthy class to whom they appealed, retailers took advantage of cheaply available printing methods and began selling retail catalogues. These pamphlets presented information of furniture and interiors available to all consumers and in particular, Sears, who offered to deliver any item countrywide. Terrance Conran's Habitat, founded in 1964, came about to service a growing number of affluent consumers, intent on purchasing a cost-efficient interior presented in ready-to-made rooms. The first Habitat catalogue in 1966 was marketed as a guide to decorating a home and not just a telling tool. Swedish company IKEA created the same room-set device to document its tens of thousands of products and in the process dominated the global market in the late 20th century. Founded by Ingvar Kamprad in 1943, the catalogue was first produced in 1951 and by 2002 had a distribution figure of 110 million across 34 languages. == List of interior design magazines == Below is a list of popular interior design magazines: === US magazines === Architectural Digest Better Homes and Gardens Dwell Elle Decor Founterior HGTV Magazine House Beautiful Interior Design Interiors - defunct Metropolis Veranda Vogue Living === UK magazines === House & Garden House Beautiful Wallpaper World of Interiors === Digital magazines === Dezeen == References ==	Wikipedia/Interior_design_magazine
HGTV Star, named HGTV Design Star for the first seven seasons, is an American reality competition show that premiered on July 23, 2006, on the cable television network HGTV. Clive Pearse served as host for Seasons 1-4, then judge Vern Yip served as host for Season 5, replacing Clive Pearse. HGTV'D host Tanika Ray served as host for Season 6 and Design Star Season 1 winner David Bromstad joined the show as a mentor. Bromstad later returned not only as mentor but as host, replacing Tanika Ray, for the remainder of the show including Design Star: All Stars, even though Tanika Ray was announced as host for Season 7. Vern Yip (Deserving Design), Genevieve Gorder (Dear Genevieve), and Sabrina Soto (The High/Low Project) currently serve as the show's three judges. Candice Olson ("Divine Design", "Candice Tells All") served as a judge for seasons 4 and 5; starting with season 6, a third rotating judge was brought in to fill the spot left by Olson. Previous judges include Cynthia Rowley, a designer of fashion and home accessories; and Martha McCully, Executive Editor of InStyle magazine. The contestants compete for their own design show on HGTV, which follows the format of The Next Food Network Star on sister channel Food Network. Each week, the judges decide whom to eliminate; and, in Seasons 1-4, Clive Pearse would tell the contestant(s) who had been eliminated, "Your show has been cancelled...please exit the studio." Each week, the remaining contestants participate in an interior design challenge such as designing a living space with a specific purpose (bedroom, livingroom, garage) or creating a space in an empty room, using unconventional items from a pet store, mechanics store, or a discount store. The designers are given a specified amount of time and cash to create their designs, sometimes working alone and sometimes in teams. The series was cancelled after eight seasons. On November 2, 2020, it was announced that a spin-off titled Design Star: Next Gen will premiere in 2021. == Cast == === Presenters === === Judges === == Seasons == === Season 1 === Winner: David Bromstad Location: New York City, New York Host: Clive Pearse Judges: Vern Yip, Cynthia Rowley, Martha McCully === Season 2 === Winner: Kim Myles Location: Las Vegas, Nevada Host: Clive Pearse Judges: Vern Yip, Cynthia Rowley, Martha McCully === Season 3 === Winner: Jennifer Bertrand Location: Nashville, Tennessee Host: Clive Pearse Judges: Vern Yip, Cynthia Rowley, Martha McCully === Season 4 === This was Clive Pearse's final season as host, and two new judges (Olson and Gorder) joined the panel. Winner: Antonio Ballatore Location: Los Angeles, California Host: Clive Pearse Judges: Vern Yip, Candice Olson, Genevieve Gorder === Season 5 === Season 5 featured a new producer and a new format. Prop stylist Emily Henderson won the competition; and her show, Secrets from a Stylist, premiered August 29, 2010. Winner: Emily Henderson Location: New York City, New York Host: Vern Yip Judges: Vern Yip, Candice Olson, Genevieve Gorder === Season 6 === This season features Tanika Ray as host and David Bromstad as mentor. It premiered on July 11, 2011. Winner: Meg Caswell Location: New York City, New York Host: Tanika Ray Judges: Vern Yip, Candice Olson, Genevieve Gorder Mentor: David Bromstad === Season 7 === This season features David Bromstad as host and mentor. It premiered on May 29, 2012. Winner: Danielle Colding Location: Los Angeles, California Host: David Bromstad (Tanika Ray was originally announced as host) Judges: Vern Yip, Genevieve Gorder Mentor: David Bromstad === All Stars === This season features David Bromstad as host and mentor. It premiered on July 31, 2012. Winner: Leslie Ezelle Location: Dallas, Texas Host: David Bromstad Judges: Vern Yip, Genevieve Gorder Mentor: David Bromstad === Season 8 === This season was the last to feature David Bromstad as the host and mentor. It premiered on June 9, 2013. Winner: Tiffany Brooks Location: Los Angeles, California Host: David Bromstad Judges: Vern Yip, Genevieve Gorder, Sabrina Soto Mentor: David Bromstad == See also == Ellen's Design Challenge Designer Superstar Challenge == References == == External links == Official website HGTV Star at IMDb HGTV Star at TV Guide Kim Myles Q&A at AllYourTV.com David Bromstad Q&A at AllYourTV.com	Wikipedia/HGTV_Design_Star
TLC is an American multinational cable and satellite television network owned by the Networks division of Warner Bros. Discovery. First established in 1980 as The Learning Channel, it initially focused on educational and instructional programming. By the late 1990s, after an acquisition by Discovery, Inc. earlier in the decade, the network began to pivot towards reality television programming—predominantly focusing on programming involving lifestyles and personal stories—to the point that the previous name with "The Learning Channel" spelled out was phased out in favor of its initialism. As of November 2023, with its programming primarily dedicated to the nine-series 90 Day Fiancé universe, comprising 31% of the shows carried by the channel, TLC is available to approximately 71,000,000 pay television households in the United States—down from its 2011 peak of 100,000,000 households. == History == === 1972–1980: Early history as the Appalachian Educational Satellite Project === TLC's history traces to the 1972 formation of the Appalachian Educational Satellite Project (AESP), a distance education project formed by the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC), in participation with the Education Satellite Communication Demonstration (ESCD), a partnership with the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and NASA intended to transmit instructional, career and health programming via satellite to provide televised educational material to public schools and universities in the Appalachian region. ARC submitted a proposal to participate in the ESCD and use the ATS-6 communications satellite (launched into orbit in 1974) to disseminate "career education" programming to teachers at no cost; the consortium set up 15 earth station receiver sites across eight states in conjunction with local education service agencies. The ATS-6 temporarily ceased service to the Appalachian region after being re-orbited to India in September 1975; by the time the satellite reoriented to the United States the following year, the number of earth receivers used to transmit AESP content increased to 45 sites in Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina (some of which also acted as relays to local television stations in the region). All programming offered through the project was accepted for academic credit at 12 universities in the region. In October 1978, NASA disclosed the ATS-6 would suspend transmissions for 12 months due to transmission problems with the satellite. As a result, ARC decided to purchase transponder time on the commercial Satcom I communications satellite, in order to continue its distance education offerings. === 1980–1998: From ACSN to The Learning Channel, "A place for learning minds" === The non-profit Appalachian Community Service Network (ACSN) was incorporated in April 1980, maintaining a board of directors appointed by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The ACSN television service launched in October 1980 as ACSN – The Learning Channel; unlike the closed-circuit AESP, the network distributed its programming available directly to cable systems for home viewing. Its programming also expanded to include "informational" content. (NASA immediately launched NASA TV as the ACSN's internal replacement.) By 1982, ACSN claimed that it "achieved the fastest rate of growth of all basic cable programming services", with availability on around 70 cable affiliates reaching 1.5 million subscribers; by this point, 70 universities granted academic credit for telecourses carried on the network. On January 1, 1984, the network shortened its name to The Learning Channel. The channel mostly featured documentary content pertaining to nature, science, history, current events, medicine, technology, cooking, home improvement, and other information-based topics. A notable example of such programming was Sew, What's New?, a fashion design show presented by George W. Trippon. These were more focused, more technical, and of a more academic nature than the content that was being broadcast at the time on its eventual rival, The Discovery Channel, which launched in 1985. TLC was geared toward an inquisitive and narrow audience during this time, and had modest ratings. An exception to this viewership commonality was Captain's Log (produced and hosted by Mark Graves, also known as Captain Mark Gray), a weekly primetime boating safety series that aired from 1987 to 1990; the program often achieved between a 4.5 to 6 rating share and was the highest compensated series in the history of TLC with over 30 times the compensation of any other series on the network. In 1986, Infotech, Inc.—then-owner of the Financial News Network (FNN)—acquired a 51% interest in The Learning Channel for $3 million; the American Community Service Network retained a 31.5% share of the network, with the remaining 17.5% owned by network management. On February 15, 1991, The Discovery Channel, Inc.—owners of the namesake cable channel—announced it had reached an agreement to acquire The Learning Channel from ACSN and Infotech (the latter of which was in the process of a bankruptcy-led asset liquidation to repay creditors, subsequently resulting in the sale of the Financial News Network to a joint venture of NBC and Cablevision that integrated the network with rival financial news channel CNBC) for $12.75 million (equivalent to $29.43 million today). Under Discovery, The Learning Channel continued to focus primarily on instructional and educational programming for much of the 1990s; however, in what preceded its later expansion of such content, it also began to include shows less focused on education and geared more toward attracting popular consumption and mass marketing. In 1992, the network's name was shortened to "TLC", although the full name remained in use on alternating basis. TLC continued to offer educational programs such as Paleoworld (a show about prehistoric creatures), though more and more of its programming began to be devoted to niche audiences for shows regarding subjects like home improvement (Hometime and Home Savvy were two of the first), arts and crafts, crime programs such as The New Detectives, medical programming (particularly reality-based shows following real patients through the process of operations), and other shows that appealed to daytime audiences, particularly housewives. This was to be indicative of a major change in programming content and target audience over the next few years. === 1998–2008: "Life Unscripted", new direction === TLC began to explore new avenues starting in the late 1990s, deemphasizing educational material in favor of entertainment. Ready Set Learn!, the network's children's program block, was slowly reduced through the years as the network deliberately redirected viewers towards the full-day lineup of children's programming on Discovery Kids. The block was dropped completely in late 2008, and Cable in the Classroom programming, meant for recording by teachers, was discontinued in 2014. In 1998, the channel began to distance itself from its original name "The Learning Channel", and instead began to advertise itself only as "TLC". During this period, there was a huge shift in content, with most new programming being geared towards reality-drama and interior design shows. The huge success of shows like Trading Spaces, Junkyard Wars, A Wedding Story, and A Baby Story exemplified this new shift in programming towards more mass-appeal shows. This came at a time when Discovery itself was overhauling much, and in some cases competition series of its own programming, introducing shows like American Chopper (which Discovery moved to TLC for a time). Much of the older, more educationally focused programming could still be found dispersed amongst other channels owned by Discovery Communications. On March 27, 2006, the network launched a new look and promotional campaign, dropping the "Life Unscripted" tag and introducing a new theme, "Live and Learn", trying to turn around the network's reliance on decorating shows and reality programming. As part of the new campaign, the channel's original name, "The Learning Channel", returned to occasional usage in promotions. The new theme also played on "life lessons", which featured heavily in the network's advertising and promotional clips. This campaign used humor to appeal to a target audience in their 30s. In 2007, TLC premiered Say Yes to the Dress, a reality series following clients of Kleinfeld Bridal in Manhattan. === 2008–present: Further focus on personal stories === In early March 2008, TLC launched a new imaging campaign, "Life Surprises". This new slogan came as TLC began to shift even more to personal stories, and away from the once-dominating home improvement shows. Programs focused on family life became the core of the channel. Jon & Kate Plus 8, which by 2008 was the highest-rated program on TLC, and Little People, Big World were joined by 17 Kids and Counting—a show which followed the lives of the Duggar family (and was in turn retitled 18 Kids and Counting, and then 19 Kids and Counting, as the family expanded), and Table for 12 in 2008 and 2009 respectively. The series Toddlers & Tiaras also debuted in 2008, and proved popular enough to spawn a spin-off in 2012, Here Comes Honey Boo Boo, focusing on the family life of recurring contestant Alana "Honey Boo Boo" Thompson. Also premiering on TLC in 2009 was Cake Boss, which focuses on the head baker at Carlo's Bakery and his staff, who mostly consist of his family. In July 2014, TLC introduced a new slogan and promotional campaign, "Everyone Needs a Little TLC", which continued to build upon the network's current focus on personal stories and family life. In 2014, Here Comes Honey Boo Boo was canceled after it was reported that Alana's mother had been dating a registered sex offender. In 2015, 19 Kids and Counting was canceled by TLC after the Duggars' eldest son, Josh Duggar, admitted to acts of molestation he had committed against minors while he was a teenager. It was subsequently succeeded by a spin-off series, Counting On, which followed the adult lives of Duggar family members; the series was canceled in June 2021 after Josh Duggar was arrested on child pornography charges (for which he was later convicted). In 2017, home design programming began to return to the network with the premiere of Nate & Jeremiah By Design; the series was renewed for a second season. In April 2018, TLC premiered a revival of Trading Spaces (which accompanied the season 2 premiere of Nate & Jeremiah By Design); the season premiere and an accompanying reunion special were seen by 2.8 million viewers, marking the network's highest-rated Saturday primetime program since 2010. In March 2018, Discovery Communications acquired Scripps Networks Interactive, and was renamed Discovery, Inc. TLC president Nancy Daniels left the network to become the chief brand officer of Discovery's factual networks, to replace the outgoing Rich Ross. She was replaced by Scripps Networks' chief programmer Kathleen Finch as chief brand officer of Discovery's lifestyle networks, overseeing TLC and the six networks formerly owned by SNI (such as HGTV and Food Network), among others. In 2019, HGTV and TLC premiered a co-commissioned revival of another former TLC series, While You Were Out; new episodes premiered on both networks simultaneously, with HGTV airing an alternate cut of the episode focusing more on the renovation process. == Programming == == High-definition feed == A high definition simulcast of TLC was launched on September 1, 2007. It is currently available on many subscription-television systems in the United States and Canada. == International == === Middle East and North Africa === OSN—a paid platform in the Middle East and North Africa—launched TLC HD and broadcast it with the Discovery Network, using the same form as the American TLC channel and adding new exclusive Arabic-English programs from its production as "Nidaa". It is broadcast in Israel, by satellite provider yes. === The Americas === ==== Canada ==== TLC's American feed is available in Canada on most cable and satellite providers, as it is authorized for carriage as a foreign cable television service by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission; save for a few differences it features the same programming schedule as that seen in the United States. ==== Latin America ==== The Latin American TLC HD, was launched on December 1, 2009, exclusively in high-definition, in the same style as the American channel (most of TLC's programming is available in standard-definition on Discovery Home & Health). On November 1, 2011, the Latin American version of Discovery Travel & Living was relaunched as TLC: Travel & Living Channel, which now also has a dedicated feed for Brazil. === Europe === ==== United Kingdom and Ireland ==== An English-language version of the channel was originally launched in 1994 across Europe and was subsequently renamed Discovery Home and Leisure and later Discovery Real Time as part of Discovery's slate of themed channels. TLC relaunched in the UK and Ireland on April 30, 2013. ==== Romania ==== TLC Romania was launched on January 20, 2011, replacing the European version of Discovery Travel & Living in this country. On August 2, 2022, it launched its local Romanian feed and audio track replacing the international feed. ==== Bulgaria ==== In early 2013 the channel launched in Bulgaria. ==== Finland ==== In November 2016, TLC began to appear free, before that TLC was a payment channel in Finland. ==== France ==== TLC's French channel launched on 26 February 2024 as a replacement for Discovery Science. ==== Portugal ==== In November 2011, TLC Portugal debuted on ZON TV (now NOS TV) distributor and satellite services and after on MEO TV. ==== Greece ==== On October 3, 2011, TLC Greece debuted on the Conn-x TV IPTV and OTE TV satellite services. ==== Germany ==== TLC Germany launched on April 10, 2014, on cable, IPTV and satellite services in both HD and SD. ==== Hungary ==== The Channel's Hungarian version was launched on April 30, 2012, as TLC Hungary, replacing the European version of Discovery Travel & Living in on Central Europe's best country (The SD version available in Sat TV, Cable and IPTV, and almost HD version available in Hungarian BIX (IPTV) services). ==== Norway ==== A Norwegian version of the channel was launched on March 4, 2010, as TLC Norway, replacing the European version of Discovery Travel & Living in Norway. ==== Poland ==== On October 1, 2010, the Polish version of Discovery Travel & Living was relaunched as TLC Poland, replacing the European version of Discovery Travel & Living in Poland. ==== The Balkans ==== TLC Balkans was also launched on October 1, 2010, replacing the European version of the "Travel & Living Channel" in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and North Macedonia. TLC Balkans' playout is from Belgrade, Serbia. ==== Netherlands/Flanders (Belgium) ==== On July 4, 2011, a Dutch version was launched, time sharing with Animal Planet's standard definition feed. Animal Planet remained a 24-hour service for high-definition viewers. TLC became a 24-hour channel on January 8, 2013. It is also available in HD. ==== Switzerland ==== On June 3, 2014, the Swiss cable provider UPC Cablecom launched TLC in Switzerland. ==== Turkey ==== On November 6, 2015, TLC Turkey began broadcasting replacing CNBC-e channel. === Asia === On September 1, 2010, the Asia Pacific versions of Discovery Travel & Living were relaunched as TLC, with the acronym standing for "Travel and Living Channel". ==== India ==== An Indian version was launched in 2006 under the jurisdiction of Discovery Channel. It was relaunched as TLC on September 1, 2010. ==== South Korea ==== A South Korean version was launched on December 4, 2013, under the Discovery Communications and CMB (Central Media Broadcasting Korea). The channel was replaced by EXF (Extreme Fun TV) on May 1, 2016. === Oceania === A New Zealand version was launched in the 2015 On Sky Television in New Zealand. === Sub-Saharan Africa and South Africa === The network airs throughout the region on DStv, and launched on September 1, 2011. == References == == External links == Official website TLC Norway official website TLC Poland official website TLC Russian official website	Wikipedia/TLC_Network
Industrial design is a process of design applied to physical products that are to be manufactured by mass production. It is the creative act of determining and defining a product's form and features, which takes place in advance of the manufacture or production of the product. Industrial manufacture consists of predetermined, standardized and repeated, often automated, acts of replication, while craft-based design is a process or approach in which the form of the product is determined personally by the product's creator largely concurrent with the act of its production. All manufactured products are the result of a design process, but the nature of this process can vary. It can be conducted by an individual or a team, and such a team could include people with varied expertise (e.g. designers, engineers, business experts, etc.). It can emphasize intuitive creativity or calculated scientific decision-making, and often emphasizes a mix of both. It can be influenced by factors as varied as materials, production processes, business strategy, and prevailing social, commercial, or aesthetic attitudes. Industrial design, as an applied art, most often focuses on a combination of aesthetics and user-focused considerations, but also often provides solutions for problems of form, function, physical ergonomics, marketing, brand development, sustainability, and sales. == History == === Precursors === For several millennia before the onset of industrialization, design, technical expertise, and manufacturing was often done by individual crafts people, who determined the form of a product at the point of its creation, according to their own manual skill, the requirements of their clients, experience accumulated through their own experimentation, and knowledge passed on to them through training or apprenticeship. The division of labour that underlies the practice of industrial design did have precedents in the pre-industrial era. The growth of trade in the medieval period led to the emergence of large workshops in cities such as Florence, Venice, Nuremberg, and Bruges, where groups of more specialized craftsmen made objects with common forms through the repetitive duplication of models which defined by their shared training and technique. Competitive pressures in the early 16th century led to the emergence in Italy and Germany of pattern books: collections of engravings illustrating decorative forms and motifs which could be applied to a wide range of products, and whose creation took place in advance of their application. The use of drawing to specify how something was to be constructed later was first developed by architects and shipwrights during the Italian Renaissance. In the 17th century, the growth of artistic patronage in centralized monarchical states such as France led to large government-operated manufacturing operations epitomized by the Gobelins Manufactory, opened in Paris in 1667 by Louis XIV. Here teams of hundreds of craftsmen, including specialist artists, decorators and engravers, produced sumptuously decorated products ranging from tapestries and furniture to metalwork and coaches, all under the creative supervision of the King's leading artist Charles Le Brun. This pattern of large-scale royal patronage was repeated in the court porcelain factories of the early 18th century, such as the Meissen porcelain workshops established in 1709 by the Grand Duke of Saxony, where patterns from a range of sources, including court goldsmiths, sculptors, and engravers, were used as models for the vessels and figurines for which it became famous. As long as reproduction remained craft-based, however, the form and artistic quality of the product remained in the hands of the individual craftsman, and tended to decline as the scale of production increased. === Birth of industrial design === The emergence of industrial design is specifically linked to the growth of industrialization and mechanization that began with the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain in the mid 18th century. The rise of industrial manufacture changed the way objects were made, urbanization changed patterns of consumption, the growth of empires broadened tastes and diversified markets, and the emergence of a wider middle class created demand for fashionable styles from a much larger and more heterogeneous population. The first use of the term "industrial design" is often attributed to the industrial designer Joseph Claude Sinel in 1919 (although he himself denied this in interviews), but the discipline predates 1919 by at least a decade. Christopher Dresser is considered among the first independent industrial designers. Industrial design's origins lie in the industrialization of consumer products. For instance, the Deutscher Werkbund (a precursor to the Bauhaus founded in 1907 by Peter Behrens and others) was a state-sponsored effort to integrate traditional crafts and industrial mass-production techniques, to put Germany on a competitive footing with Great Britain and the United States. The earliest published use of the term may have been in The Art-Union, 15 September 1840. Dyce's Report to the Board of Trade, on Foreign Schools of Design for Manufactures. Mr. Dyce's official visit to France, Prussia, and Bavaria, for the purpose of examining the state of schools of design in those countries, will be fresh in the recollection of our readers. His report on this subject was ordered to be printed some few months since, on the motion of Mr. Hume; and it is the sum and substance of this Report that we are now about to lay before our own especial portion of the reading public. The school of St. Peter, at Lyons, was founded about 1750, for the instruction of draftsmen employed in preparing patterns for the silk manufacture. It has been much more successful than the Paris school; and having been disorganized by the revolution, was restored by Napoleon and differently constituted, being then erected into an Academy of Fine Art: to which the study of design for silk manufacture was merely attached as a subordinate branch. It appears that all the students who entered the school commence as if they were intended for artists in the higher sense of the word and are not expected to decide as to whether they will devote themselves to the Fine Arts or to Industrial Design, until they have completed their exercises in drawing and painting of the figure from the antique and from the living model. It is for this reason, and from the fact that artists for industrial purposes are both well-paid and highly considered (as being well-instructed men), that so many individuals in France engage themselves in both pursuits. The Practical Draughtsman's Book of Industrial Design by Jacques-Eugène Armengaud was printed in 1853. The subtitle of the (translated) work explains, that it wants to offer a "complete course of mechanical, engineering, and architectural drawing." The study of those types of technical drawing, according to Armengaud, belongs to the field of industrial design. This work paved the way for a big expansion in the field of drawing education in France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Robert Lepper helped to establish one of the USA's first industrial design degree programs in 1934 at Carnegie Institute of Technology. == Education == Product design and industrial design overlap in the fields of user interface design, information design, and interaction design. Various schools of industrial design specialize in one of these aspects, ranging from pure art colleges and design schools (product styling), to mixed programs of engineering and design, to related disciplines such as exhibit design and interior design, to schools that almost completely subordinated aesthetic design to concerns of usage and ergonomics, the so-called functionalist school. Except for certain functional areas of overlap between industrial design and engineering design, the former is considered an applied art while the latter is an applied science. Educational programs in the U.S. for engineering require accreditation by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) in contrast to programs for industrial design which are accredited by the National Association of Schools of Art and Design (NASAD). Of course, engineering education requires heavy training in mathematics and physical sciences, which is not typically required in industrial design education. === Institutions === Most industrial designers complete a design or related program at a vocational school or university. Relevant programs include graphic design, interior design, industrial design, architectural technology, and drafting. Diplomas and degrees in industrial design are offered at vocational schools and universities worldwide. Diplomas and degrees take two to four years of study. The study results in a Bachelor of Industrial Design (B.I.D.), Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) or Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.). Afterwards, the bachelor programme can be extended to postgraduate degrees such as Master of Design, Master of Fine Arts and others to a Master of Arts or Master of Science. == Definition == Industrial design studies function and form—and the connection between product, user, and environment. Generally, industrial design professionals work in small scale design, rather than overall design of complex systems such as buildings or ships. Industrial designers don't usually design motors, electrical circuits, or gearing that make machines move, but they may affect technical aspects through usability design and form relationships. Usually, they work with other professionals such as engineers who focus on the mechanical and other functional aspects of the product, assuring functionality and manufacturability, and with marketers to identify and fulfill customer needs and expectations. Design, itself, is often difficult to describe to non-designers because the meaning accepted by the design community is not made of words. Instead, the definition is created as a result of acquiring a critical framework for the analysis and creation of artifacts. One of the many accepted (but intentionally unspecific) definitions of design originates from Carnegie Mellon's School of Design: "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones." This applies to new artifacts, whose existing state is undefined, and previously created artifacts, whose state stands to be improved. Industrial design can overlap significantly with engineering design, and in different countries the boundaries of the two concepts can vary, but in general engineering focuses principally on functionality or utility of products, whereas industrial design focuses principally on aesthetic and user-interface aspects of products. In many jurisdictions this distinction is effectively defined by credentials and/or licensure required to engage in the practice of engineering. "Industrial design" as such does not overlap much with the engineering sub-discipline of industrial engineering, except for the latter's sub-specialty of ergonomics. At the 29th General Assembly in Gwangju, South Korea, 2015, the Professional Practise Committee unveiled a renewed definition of industrial design as follows: "Industrial Design is a strategic problem-solving process that drives innovation, builds business success and leads to a better quality of life through innovative products, systems, services and experiences." An extended version of this definition is as follows: "Industrial Design is a strategic problem-solving process that drives innovation, builds business success and leads to a better quality of life through innovative products, systems, services and experiences. Industrial Design bridges the gap between what is and what's possible. It is a trans-disciplinary profession that harnesses creativity to resolve problems and co-create solutions with the intent of making a product, system, service, experience or a business, better. At its heart, Industrial Design provides a more optimistic way of looking at the future by reframing problems as opportunities. It links innovation, technology, research, business and customers to provide new value and competitive advantage across economic, social and environmental spheres. Industrial Designers place the human in the centre of the process. They acquire a deep understanding of user needs through empathy and apply a pragmatic, user centric problem solving process to design products, systems, services and experiences. They are strategic stakeholders in the innovation process and are uniquely positioned to bridge varied professional disciplines and business interests. They value the economic, social and environmental impact of their work and their contribution towards co-creating a better quality of life. " == Design process == Although the process of design may be considered 'creative,' many analytical processes also take place. In fact, many industrial designers often use various design methodologies in their creative process. Some of the processes that are commonly used are user research, sketching, comparative product research, model making, prototyping and testing. The design process is iterative, involving dozens or even hundreds of ideas being considered until the final design is reached. Industrial designers often utilize 3D software, computer-aided industrial design and CAD programs to move from concept to production. They may also build a prototype or scaled down sketch models through a 3D printing process or using other materials such as paper, balsa wood, various foams, or clay for modeling. They may then use industrial CT scanning to test for interior defects and generate a CAD model. From this the manufacturing process may be modified to improve the product. Product characteristics specified by industrial designers may include the overall form of the object, the location of details with respect to one another, colors, texture, form, and aspects concerning the use of the product. Additionally, they may specify aspects concerning the production process, choice of materials and the way the product is presented to the consumer at the point of sale. The inclusion of industrial designers in a product development process may lead to added value by improving usability, lowering production costs, and developing more appealing products. Industrial design may also focus on technical concepts, products, and processes. In addition to aesthetics, human factors, ergonomics and anthropometrics, it can also encompass engineering, usefulness, market placement, and other concerns—such as psychology, and the emotional attachment of the user. These values and accompanying aspects that form the basis of industrial design can vary—between different schools of thought, and among practicing designers. == Industrial design rights == Industrial design rights are intellectual property rights that make exclusive the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. A design patent would also be considered under this category. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Under the Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs, a WIPO-administered treaty, a procedure for an international registration exists. An applicant can file for a single international deposit with WIPO or with the national office in a country party to the treaty. The design will then be protected in as many member countries of the treaty as desired. In 2022, about 1.1 million industrial design applications were filed worldwide. This represents a decrease of 3% on 2021, marking a first drop in filings since 2014. In 2023, the number of applications rose again, with about 1.19 million design applications filed. === Hague top applicants === The Hague System for the International Registration of Industrial Designs provides an international mechanism that secures protection of up to 100 designs in multiple countries or regions, through a single international application. International design applications are filed directly through WIPO using the WIPO Hague System. The domestic legal framework of each designated contracting party governs the design protection provided by the resulting international registrations. The Hague System does not require the applicant to file a national or regional design application. == Examples of industrial design == A number of industrial designers have made such a significant impact on culture and daily life that their work is documented by historians of social science. Alvar Aalto, renowned as an architect, also designed a significant number of household items, such as chairs, stools, lamps, a tea-cart, and vases. Raymond Loewy was a prolific American designer who is responsible for the Royal Dutch Shell corporate logo, the original BP logo (in use until 2000), the PRR S1 steam locomotive, the Studebaker Starlight (including the later bulletnose), as well as Schick electric razors, Electrolux refrigerators, short-wave radios, Le Creuset French ovens, and a complete line of modern furniture, among many other items. Richard Teague, who spent most of his career with the American Motors Corporation, originated the concept of using interchangeable body panels so as to create a wide array of different vehicles using the same stampings. He was responsible for such unique automotive designs as the Pacer, Gremlin, Matador coupe, Jeep Cherokee, and the complete interior of the Eagle Premier. Milwaukee's Brooks Stevens was best known for his Milwaukee Road Skytop Lounge car and Oscar Mayer Wienermobile designs, among others. Viktor Schreckengost designed bicycles manufactured by Murray bicycles for Murray and Sears, Roebuck and Company. With engineer Ray Spiller, he designed the first truck with a cab-over-engine configuration, a design in use to this day. Schreckengost also founded The Cleveland Institute of Art's school of industrial design. Oskar Barnack was a German optical engineer, precision mechanic, industrial designer, and the father of 35mm photography. He developed the Leica, which became the hallmark for photography for 50 years, and remains a high-water mark for mechanical and optical design. Charles and Ray Eames were most famous for their pioneering furniture designs, such as the Eames Lounge Chair Wood and Eames Lounge Chair. Other influential designers included Henry Dreyfuss, Eliot Noyes, John Vassos, and Russel Wright. Dieter Rams is a German industrial designer closely associated with the consumer products company Braun and the Functionalist school of industrial design. German industrial designer Luigi Colani, who designed cars for automobile manufacturers including Fiat, Alfa Romeo, Lancia, Volkswagen, and BMW, was also known to the general public for his unconventional approach to industrial design. He had expanded in numerous areas ranging from mundane household items, instruments and furniture to trucks, uniforms and entire rooms. A grand piano created by Colani, the Pegasus, is manufactured and sold by the Schimmel piano company. Many of Apple's recent products were designed by Sir Jonathan Ive. == See also == == References == === Sources === Barnwell, Maurice. Design, Creativity and Culture, Black Dog, 2011, ISBN 978 1 907317 408 Barnwell, Maurice. Design Evolution: Big Bang to Big Data,Toronto, 2014. ISBN 978-0-9937396-0-6 Baynes, Ken (1991). "Forms of Representation". In Pirovano, Carlo (ed.). History of Industrial Design. Vol. 1. Milan: Electa. pp. 108–127. OCLC 32885051. Benton, Charlotte (2000). "Design and Industry". In Kemp, Martin (ed.). The Oxford History of Western Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 380–383. ISBN 0198600127. Forty, Adrian. Objects of Desire: Design and Society Since 1750. Thames Hudson, May 1992. ISBN 978-0-500-27412-5 Heskett, John (1980). Industrial Design. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0500201811. Kirkham, Pat (1999). Industrial design. Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press. Mayall, WH, Industrial Design for Engineers, London: Iliffe Books, 1967, ISBN 978-0592042053 Mayall, WH, Machines and Perception in Industrial Design, London: Studio Vista, 1968, ISBN 978-0289279168 Meikle, Jeffrey. Twentieth Century Limited: Industrial Design engineering in America, 1925 - 1939, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979 ISBN 978-0877222460 Noblet, Jocelyn de (1993). "Design in Progress". In Noblet, Jocelyn de (ed.). Industrial design: reflection of a century. Paris: Flammarion/APCI. pp. 21–25. ISBN 2080135392. Pulos, Arthur (1983). American Design Ethic: A History of Industrial Design. MIT Press. ISBN 9780262368100. == External links == Doodles, Drafts and Designs: Industrial Drawings from the Smithsonian (2004) Smithsonian Institution Libraries Hague Yearly Review related to industrial design Hague applications	Wikipedia/Industrial_designers
Michael Sean Smith (born 1963) is an American interior designer based in Los Angeles. Smith was appointed by President Barack Obama to the Committee for the Preservation of the White House from 2008-2016 and is responsible for the 2010 makeover of the Oval Office. == Early life == Michael Smith was born in 1963. He studied at the Otis College of Art and Design in Los Angeles and at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London for graduate studies. == Career == He started his career by working with the antiques dealer Gep Durenberger and with the New York designer John Saladino. He has been running his own interior design business since 1990. In an interview with The Washington Post, he describes his style as "updated traditional"; in fact, his work blends vintage and contemporary looks with elements such as "Georgian antiques, Uzbek suzani textiles, 18th-century Chinese wallpaper, sun-bleached Moroccan carpets and a dash of Anthropologie and Pottery Barn". Architectural Digest included Smith among its "AD 100", its "selection of the top architects and interior designers" published in the magazine in recent years. Its editorial "profile" of Smith characterizes his style as "a blend of classic European style and American modernism". Smith was also named 2003 Designer of the Year by Elle Decor. Smith's clients reportedly include News Corporation president Peter Chernin, Oaktree Capital chairman Howard Marks, writer Gigi Levangie Grazer, model Cindy Crawford (for whom Smith has designed two California houses and two New York apartments), film director Steven Spielberg, and actors Dustin Hoffman and Michelle Pfeiffer. === White House makeover === In 2008, Barack and Michelle Obama appointed Smith to redecorate the residential quarters of the White House. During this project, Smith worked with Michelle Obama and White House curator William Allman to select art on-loan from museums to be displayed in private quarters and elsewhere. In February 2010, President Obama appointed him a member of the Committee for the Preservation of the White House. Smith's makeover of the Oval Office was revealed to the public in late August 2010. Dominated by shades of taupe and beige, the designer redecorated the bookcases with Native American baskets and ceramics from the National Museum of the American Indian and installed "a rug woven with quotations from Martin Luther King Jr., John F. Kennedy and others; two fawn-colored cotton-rayon sofas; two elegant midnight-blue lamps by Christopher Spitzmiller; and an extremely contemporary mica coffee table from Roman Thomas, a New York furnituremaker". Smith has authored several books on interior design including: The Curated House: Creating Style, Beauty, and Balance, Building Beauty: The Alchemy of Design, Kitchens and Baths, Houses, and Elements of Style. == Personal life == He lived in Madrid, Spain, with his partner, United States Ambassador to Spain, James Costos. Currently Smith and Costos reside in the Bel Air neighborhood of Los Angeles and in Palm Springs, California. == Publications == Michael S. Smith: Elements of Style (with Diane Dorrans Saeks). New York: Rizzoli, c2004. ISBN 0-8478-2762-3 Michael S. Smith: Houses (with Christine Pittel). New York: Rizzoli, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8478-3070-1 == References == == External links == Official website "A Designer’s World: The dazzling interiors of Michael Smith" (Elle Decor) "An Elegant Retreat in Malibu: Inspired by Palladian villas, designer Michael S. Smith creates a sublime seaside getaway" (Elle Decor)	Wikipedia/Michael_S._Smith_(interior_designer)
The unexpected red theory is a design theory asserting that incorporating red-colored home accessories can enhance interior design. Coined by Taylor Migliazzo Simon, a designer based in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, the theory first attained popularity on the social media platform TikTok in January 2024, and eventually received widespread coverage across various design magazines. == Critical analysis and reception == Design journalists and publications have created listicles to highlight interior spaces, such as houses and hotels, that reflect the theory. In Real Simple, journalist Morgan Noll wrote that "red is one of the most visible colors in the color spectrum so it has a strong ability to grab attention and attract the eye." In The Daily Telegraph, Sophie Robinson, a designer, criticized that “you can’t just add red to any room – it’s just not that simple. It can look jarring.” == References ==	Wikipedia/Unexpected_Red_Theory
Esquire Network was an American pay television network that was a 50/50 joint venture between NBCUniversal and the Hearst Corporation. Launched on October 1, 1998 as Style Network, a spin-off of E!, the channel initially consisted of fashion, design, and urban lifestyle-themed programming. In 2008, Style shifted its programming towards personality-centric reality shows. The network was relaunched as Esquire Network on September 23, 2013; said rebrand was supposed to be on G4, but that was given to Style due to G4's low ratings. As Esquire Network, the channel focused on travel, cooking, sports and fashion, and also aired reruns of popular sitcoms and dramas. Due to low ratings and subsequent carriage decline by cable providers, Esquire Network ceased operations as a cable channel on June 28, 2017, to become an online-only brand; no further comments have been made about the online-only model since. == History == === Style Network === The channel was originally launched as Style Network (although on-air promotions typically referred to it as simply "Style") on October 1, 1998, serving as a spin-off of E!. It was intended to leverage E!'s coverage of fashion and to provide an expanded venue for shows such as Fashion Emergency. The network focused on fashion, design, interior decoration and urban lifestyle-related programming. Style provided coverage of events like New York Fashion Week and showcased various designers. Early programming included: The Look for Less, Shabby Chic with Rachel Ashwell, Glow: The Beauty Show, Vogue Takes..., Stylemaker, Model, Runway, Dining with Style, and Homes with Style. Around 2003, the channel began airing a variety of "makeover" shows. The home makeover show Clean House lasted for ten seasons on the network; How Do I Look? lasted eight seasons. Starting around 2008, Style shifted its focus to personality-based reality programing such as Jerseylicious, Tia & Tamera, and Big Rich Texas, along with a female-focused spin-off of The Soup known as The Dish. On June 25, 2012, Style Network was rebranded with a revised logo and a new slogan: "Work it. Love it. Style it." In 2013, the channel launched two real estate related shows: Hot Listings: Miami and Built, which featured male models remodeling houses. === Esquire Network transition === In December 2012, NBCUniversal signed a brand licensing deal with the Hearst Corporation, owner of Esquire magazine, to relaunch G4 into Esquire Network, which would air shows aimed at a metrosexual audience about travel, cooking, fashion and other male-targeted programming that is not sports related, including the addition of acquired and archived program content from the NBCUniversal library such as Party Down, Parks and Recreation and week-delayed episodes of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. The rebranding was scheduled to take place on April 22, 2013, but was moved to an unspecified date in the summer on April 15, 2013, as network general manager Adam Stotsky stated the rebranding was pushed back in order to have a broader slate of original series to launch than would have been available for the April launch. In May 2013, the launch date was pushed to September 23, 2013, with its first program being an 80th anniversary special on Esquire which was rebroadcast later in primetime. On September 9, 2013, NBCUniversal announced that it would replace Style Network with Esquire Network, leaving G4 "as is for the foreseeable future, though it's highly unlikely the company will invest in more original programming" according to The Hollywood Reporter. One of the factors was likely Style's distribution on DirecTV, giving Esquire more homes at launch with the Style channel slot than they would have had with G4 (G4 had earlier been dropped by DirecTV in 2010 due to the channel's low viewership and had never been able to come to terms on a new carriage agreement). This forced last-second changes to Esquire Network's planned schedule outside of primetime. Cable-edited reruns of Sex and the City (a series which took heavy criticism from Esquire magazine during its original run) remained on its schedule until December 2013 (when the rights were shifted to E!), with most of Style's series quietly shelved, or transferred to E!, Bravo and Oxygen. International versions of Style Network continued to exist several years after, as the Esquire brand license was restricted solely to the United States. The original iteration of G4 ceased on December 31, 2014. The sudden change in networks surprised both viewers and providers, who had already shifted or expected the G4 channel space to a more appropriate place among other men's networks, and now had to deal with shifting Esquire's channel position away from women's networks, along with having to answer customer inquiries about the sudden demise of the Style Network and its programming. More privately, talent which had been brought on for Style programming, including the Mowry twins, reacted angrily to seeing their projects cancelled without notice or be shifted among other networks with different programming priorities, and NBCUniversal would have to deal with the repercussions of ending a network's life with only two weeks' notice. Style made no mention of the oncoming rebranding until September 18, when a 60-second farewell clip was posted on its YouTube channel serving as a retrospective of the network's history and ending with a thanks to the channel's audience for their viewership. Other social media platforms for individual Style programs also began to mention the end of the network on that day. The last program to air on Style on September 22, 2013, was an overnight repeat of the Tia & Tamera season finale episode "Twerkin' 9 to 5" (which became its de facto series finale as Tia and Tamera Mowry opted not to continue with the series) at 2 a.m. Eastern Time, with the nightly three-hour paid programming block leading into the Esquire Network launch special after a 30-second abbreviated version of the Style farewell clip aired on the channel space. The changeover occurred on September 23, 2013, at 6 a.m. Eastern Time. === 2016–2017 carriage decline === Throughout 2015 and into 2016, the majority of the original programs produced for Esquire Network ended up being low-rated, with only the youth football reality series Friday Night Tykes and the network's Men in Blazers–produced live broadcasts of Pamplona's running of the bulls receiving any critical acclaim or notice. The rest of its lineup was criticized for depending on derivative and "copycat" formats of better programming, which was often found on other networks or produced for free consumption independently and uploaded to streaming video providers such as YouTube and Vimeo. After only several months, the network stopped airing repeats of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon after its February 2014 end, immediately upon his move to the higher-profile Tonight Show, which NBC refused to dilute the value of with cable repeats. American Ninja Warrior, which had started on G4, was expected to be a linchpin of Esquire Network's lineup, but with the delay of the network's launch to the fall of 2013, NBCUniversal did not want to wait to launch the season, and the program had success airing on NBC during the summer as repeats in previous seasons. The show's sixth season, which had been taped expecting to air as part of Esquire Network and visually featured its logo in prominent places, then moved to NBC for the 2014 summer season, and airing as a new season on the broadcast network, proved the show's worth with great ratings. NBCUniversal decided to move the series permanently to NBC, leaving Esquire Network with repeats rather than new episodes, and even before its launch, removing one of the network's G4-era critical series from being used to promote its other content. Though it did receive a spin-off as consolation, Team Ninja Warrior, Esquire Network had no other compatible programming to promote it, and it never cracked the top 100 cable shows in any of its first season airings. It was moved to USA Network for its second season and beyond. Press attention for the network's programming soon was limited to the bookends of their premieres, then to their eventual notice of cancellation, including little to no promotion from Esquire magazine itself due to a lack of compatible promotion. The magazine, which under the brand licensing deal was expected to be used to source new series ideas or its writers participating in factual programming such as countdowns, was also severely underutilized, with most of the content developed for the network ending up being from traditional talent pipelines used by NBCUniversal, rather than the magazine itself. Due to these multiple issues, the network began to carry more repeats of existing library comedy and drama series (many of which were seen over-the-air for free on sister networks Cozi TV, LXTV, and NBC's streaming apps, along with other NBCU networks), which again brought the network towards the same issues befalling G4, Chiller, and Cloo, where little original content being produced made it a network viewers and providers claimed provided little value for its monthly carriage fees. On October 1, 2016, Dish Network removed the channel from the lineup. As with their earlier dropping of Cloo, the provider stated that most of the network's rerun-centric programming was duplicative of that available on other networks and streaming services. The only notice of the dropping was through the provider's monthly billing statement. AT&T then gave notice that Esquire Network would be dropped from U-verse and DirecTV on December 15, 2016, a move that cut the network's availability by 25% and removed almost all consumer-based satellite service availability outside of niche C-Band consumers. Charter Communications through its Time Warner Cable, Bright House Networks and Spectrum subsidiaries removed the channel from their lineup nationwide on April 25, 2017 (the same day they removed Chiller from their lineup, also nationwide), leaving Verizon FiOS and Google Fiber as a few of the last cable providers to carry Esquire Network until its demise; online access to the network's TV Everywhere live feed was maintained by Charter until the network's termination. === End of operations === On January 18, 2017, it was announced that the network would end all pay television distribution in the summer of 2017 and convert to an online-only model. The network went off the air on June 28 at noon Eastern time. The network programmed a final marathon of Friday Night Tykes that day, ending with the season one finale, "Finish What We Started". After the episode ended, a "thank you" slide was shown with the network's web address (which shortly thereafter was turned into a redirect to the main Esquire website). No further comment was made in regards to the supposed online-only version of the network, and Esquire's "TV" section on their website now contains the general features and behind-the-scenes footage prevalent on most magazine sites. The network's final two projects, Edgehill (a true crime series about the Murder of Suzanne Jovin) and Borderland USA (a reality series about the U.S. Border Patrol Tactical Unit) were promised to air on the new digital version of the network, but have since been abandoned. By coincidence, G4's Canadian network outlived both its mother American network and the Esquire Network, ending operations on August 31, 2017, two months longer than Esquire. G4 would relaunch in the United States in a new hybrid cable-digital form on November 16, 2021, after a year of lead-up promotions and announcements, though it ended operations itself on November 18, 2022. Hearst has since re-established Esquire-branded programming through the stations of Hearst Television and its streaming network Very Local beginning in 2021, with In Transit, a tourism travelogue series hosted by Dave Holmes. == Programming == == International == Internationally, Style Network was launched in the Arab world in December 2007 on Showtime Arabia, across Southern and Western Africa during back in November 2007 on DStv, in the United Kingdom and Ireland on June 10, 2008, in Japan on World on Demand, Australia in November 2009, and Poland in August 2011. The network was also launched in CEE, from February 19, 2011, until May 1, 2014 Style Network continues to air in international markets, though its British/Irish version ceased operations on December 9, 2013, while its African version ceased operations on March 31, 2015. The brand licensing agreement with Hearst for Esquire Network was exclusive to the United States, and NBCU and Hearst never pursued any international versions for Esquire Network. In 2014, the Australian version of the Style Network made its first local commission, Fashion Bloggers, after its American counterpart rebranded. Style Australia shut down on 17 December 2019 as part of a restructuring of NBCU's Australian operations and a broad re-map of Foxtel's channel lineup. == References == == External links ==	Wikipedia/Style_Network
Modern methods of construction (MMC) is a term used mainly in the UK construction industry to refer to "smart construction" processes designed to improve upon traditional design and construction approaches by focusing on (among other things) component and process standardisation, design for manufacture and assembly (DfMA), prefabrication, preassembly, off-site manufacture (including modular building) and onsite innovations such as additive manufacture (3D printing). While such modern approaches may be applied to infrastructure works (bridges, tunnels, etc.) and to commercial or industrial buildings, MMC has become particularly associated with construction of residential housing. However, several specialist housing businesses established to target this market did not become commercially viable. == History == The MMC term started to enter common industry use in the early 2000s following the publication of the Egan Report, Rethinking Construction, in November 1998. An industry task force chaired by Sir John Egan, produced an influential report on the UK construction industry, which did much to drive efficiency improvements in UK construction industry practice during the early years of the 21st century, with its recommendations implemented through initiatives including the Movement for Innovation (M4I) and the Construction Best Practice Programme (CBBP). However, the emergence of some non-traditional methods substantially predated Egan's report; procurement of prefabricated homes, for example, was a UK government response to housing shortages after both World Wars, the CLASP created prefabricated schools in the late 1950s, and the 1964-1970 Labour government engaged in an "Industrialised Building Drive". MMC has been repeatedly advocated in UK government construction strategy statements including the 2017 Transforming Infrastructure Performance from the Infrastructure and Projects Authority (IPA), the 2019 Construction Sector Deal, the Construction Playbook (2020, 2022), and the IPA's 2021 TIP Roadmap to 2030. The 2022 Playbook and TIP Roadmap also encouraged procurement of construction projects based on product 'platforms' ("Platform Design for Manufacture and Assembly, PDfMA") comprising kits of parts, production processes, knowledge, people and relationships required to deliver all or part of construction projects. The UK Government has also invested in MMC initiatives and businesses. During the 2010s, as government backing (including via Homes England) for MMC grew, several UK companies (for example, Ilke Homes, L&G Modular Homes, House by Urban Splash, Modulous, Lighthouse and TopHat) were established to develop modular homes as an alternative to traditionally-built residences. From its Knaresborough, Yorkshire factory (opened in 2018, closed in 2023), Ilke Homes delivered two- and three-bedroom 'modular' homes that could be erected in 36 hours. Homes England invested £30m in Ilke Homes in November 2019, and a further £30m in September 2021. Despite a further fund-raising round, raising £100m in December 2022, Ilke Homes went into administration on 30 June 2023, with most of the company's 1,150 staff made redundant, and creditors owed £320m, including £68m owed to Homes England. L&G Modular Homes halted production in May 2023, blaming planning delays and the COVID-19 pandemic for its failure, with the enterprise incurring total losses over seven years of £295m. In November 2023, Homes England loaned £15m to TopHat, another loss-making MMC housebuilder, to fund construction of a factory in Corby; in March 2024, the factory's opening was postponed and the company announced 70 redundancies. MD Andrew Shepherd left TopHat in May 2024. In August 2024, TopHat faced a winding-up hearing after a petition was filed by Harworth, a Yorkshire based property developer, but settled out of court. Also in August 2024, housebuilder Persimmon wrote off a £25m investment in TopHat it made in 2023, due to "a re-assessment of risks within the modular build sector". In October 2024, having accumulated a loss of around £87m since 2016, TopHat confirmed it was winding down its Derby factory operations, with most staff being made redundant. In its penultimate year of trading, TopHat made an operating loss of £46m on turnover of less than £11m. In January 2024, following the high-profile failures of Ilke Homes, L&G Modular and House by Urban Splash during 2022 and 2023, the House of Lords Built Environment Committee highlighted that the UK Government needed to take a more coherent approach to addressing barriers affecting adoption of MMC: "If the Government wants the sector to be a success, it needs to take a step back, acquire a better understanding of how it works and the help that it needs, set achievable goals and develop a coherent strategy." Modulous and Lighthouse went into administration in January and March 2024 respectively. In late March 2024, housing minister Lee Rowley told the Lords Committee that the government would be reviewing its MMC policies in light of the crisis in the volumetric house-building sector. He promised "a full update in late spring once we have undertaken further detailed work with the sector". Following the July 2024 general election, a House of Lords Library report was published in August 2024 ahead of a scheduled debate in September 2024; it said the new Labour government would publish a new long-term housing strategy "in the coming months". == Defining MMC == MMC refers to a variety of off-site construction methods: modular construction: three-dimensional units produced in a factory are transported to site and assembled and connected non-structural pods: for example, fitted kitchens or bathrooms that can be incorporated into load-bearing structures panelised systems: flat panel units typically used for walls, ceilings and floors, and made of timber, light steel or concrete, and sub-assemblies and components such as roof frames and floor cassettes. During the early 2000s, the Housing Corporation classified a number of offsite manufacturing initiatives. Its classification included volumetric construction (e.g. bathroom and kitchen pods), panellised construction systems, hybrid construction (volumetric units integrated with panellised systems), sub-assemblies and components (e.g. floor and roof cassettes, wiring looms, pre-fabricated plumbing), and site-based MMC approaches. In 2017, the IPA's Transforming Infrastructure Performance committed the government to "smart construction, using modern methods, including offsite manufacture". It said: "Smart construction (or 'modern methods of construction') offers the opportunity to transition from traditional construction to manufacturing, and unlock the benefits from standard, repeatable processes with components manufactured offsite." === MMC framework === Recognising that terms such as MMC, prefabrication and off-site construction were prone to different interpretations, a Modern Methods of Construction working group was established by the UK's Ministry for Housing, Communities and Local Government (MHCLG) to develop a definition framework. With inputs from Build Offsite, Homes England, National House Building Council (NHBC) and Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS), the Modern Methods of Construction (MMC) framework definition was published in 2019. It was intended to regularise and refine the term MMC by defining the broad spectrum of innovative construction techniques being applied, enabling clients, advisors, lenders and investors, warranty providers, building insurers and valuers to all build a common understanding of the different forms of MMC use. It divides factory-produced systems into seven categories: Another approach to defining and measuring use of MMC was proposed by Mark Farmer in the 2016 Farmer Review. The term Pre-Manufactured Value (PMV) identifies the percentage of a construction project's value which is manufactured before installation at the final workface. This measure has been adopted by parts of the UK Government in an attempt to influence use of MMC on public sector funded projects. == Criticisms == As previously mentioned, while MMC suggests a modern approach, some of its processes - notably prefabrication, but also standardisation of components - were extensively deployed during the 20th century. MMC, particularly in the UK, has been challenging to implement due to the volatility of the UK housing market, while the increasingly globalised nature of the supply chain for products such as panelised cladding systems also creates issues - for example, concerns about working conditions in remote off-site factories, and the de-skilling impacts on traditional capabilities in local communities. Moreover, re-classifying activities as manufacturing rather than construction would also materially impact the headline labour productivity of the construction sector. Also "Off-site factories are essentially transient entities. There is hence no guarantee they will be able to supply replacement components in the future. And the more that manufactured components rely on 'high-precision engineering' the less malleable they are in terms of future adaptation." After high-profile business failures in the sector (including Ilke Homes), a 2024 study proposed steps to improve public perceptions of MMC and increase industry adoption. Confidence had also been adversely affected by the disjointed nature of MMC organisations, poor communication defining MMC, and unfair value comparisons. The study made a series of recommendations, including standardisation of systems, development of an MMC glossary and rethinking planning policies. == References ==	Wikipedia/Modern_methods_of_construction
Design on a Dime is a decorating television series that aired on HGTV from 2003 to 2013. In this long-running series, a design team demonstrates how problem areas can be revitalized on a budget of only $1,000. The show was based in Chicago, IL. and featured a rotation of design teams and hosts. Later episodes featured designer Casey Noble (a season five Design Star contestant) using innovative solutions to the toughest makeover scenarios and with a bigger budget of $2,500. There were a few variations, including episodes highlighting a $3,000 wedding, Christmas, a special "Etsy" episode, and more. == Hosts == Casey Noble (2011-2013): Noble began her design career as a computer graphic artist in Washington, D.C., before moving to California to study interior design at The Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising. In 2009, Noble founded her own design firm with two colleagues. She competed in season five of HGTV's Design Star, finishing in the top three. Kahi Lee: Lee started her HGTV career hosting the series Freestyle (2005–07). She joined Design on a Dime in 2007. She also works as an interior designer in Los Angeles. Sam Kivett Frank Fontana: Fontana won The Great Domestic Showdown, a reality television show on ABC, in 2004. He joined Design on a Dime in 2007 and worked primarily with Kelly Edwards and Ali Azhar. Lee Snijders: Lee was the second host and lead designer on Design on a Dime. In 1990, Snijders created Lee Snijders Designs, which encompassed his love of interior and furniture design. He worked for five years with Walt Disney Imagineering before switching to HGTV, where he competed and won two episodes of Designers Challenge, ultimately becoming the host and lead designer for HGTV's Design on a Dime from 2001 to 2009. In 2018, Lee retired to Las Vegas, Nevada, where he operates his business "Breech Gear". Kristan Cunningham: Cunningham studied interior design at the University of Charleston, followed by moving to Los Angeles to work in high-end furniture showrooms. She published the book Design on a Dime: Achieve High Style on a $1000 Budget in 2003 and Six Steps to Design on a Dime. Cunningham hosted the first 10 seasons of the show, beginning in 2003. She left HGTV in 2011 after filming more than 150 episodes. == Design team == Spencer Anderson: Anderson grew up in Houston, Texas, where he studied art and metal sculpture. He later moved to Los Angeles, where he began assistant art directing on small cable films. Ali Azhar: As a contractor, Azhar handles lighting, building, and tiling, among other things. Summer Baltzer: Baltzer began her career designing and decorating for community and equity theater productions in the Southern California area, while also running her own residential interior design business. She received her formal training at California State University-Northridge in the Family Environmental Sciences department, where she studied architectural and interior design. Charles Burbridge: Burbridge had a decorative painting and interiors business in Los Angeles. Kelly Edwards: Edwards was born in Chicago. After working for three years in Los Angeles as the design assistant for one of the original Design on a Dime design teams, she returned to her hometown. Abraham Hopkins: Hopkins' approach is to bring green homes and eco-developments to the public. Hopkins is the owner of Paradigm Building, a construction company specializing in green building. Before, he worked for 10 years as a carpenter. He received a bachelor's degree in construction management from Cal Poly. He went on to earn his contractor's license following that, and with five years of experience, he was certified as a Green Builder. David Sheinkopf: Sheinkopf grew up in New York City. After years of acting, he began building and designing, focusing on set design and art direction on music videos and commercials. == Seasons == Design on a Dime started airing in 2003, producing a total of 31 seasons. == External links == Official website == References ==	Wikipedia/Design_on_a_Dime
David Collins (1 March 1955 – 17 July 2013) was an Irish architect who specialised in designing the interiors of bars and restaurants in London. == Biography == === Early life === David Collins was born in Dublin, Ireland on 1 March 1955. He studied architecture at the Bolton Street School of Architecture in Dublin. === Career === He established the David Collins Studio, an interior design firm based in London, in 1985. One of his first interior designs was chef Pierre Koffmann's La Tante Claire in Chelsea. He then designed chef Marco Pierre White's (now defunct) Harvey's Harveys (restaurant)[1] in 1988. Later, he designed The Gilbert Scott, chef Marcus Wareing's restaurant at the St Pancras Renaissance Hotel. Another Wareing restaurant that he designed was the Blue Bar in Belgravia. He went on to design The Wolseley, the Delaunay Hotel, J Sheekey, Brasserie Zédel, Colbert, Gordon Ramsay at Royal Hospital Road, and Nobu Berkeley St. He also designed retail interiors for Jimmy Choo, Alexander McQueen and Harrods. Additionally, he designed The Charles, an apartment building on the Upper East Side in New York City. He was a close friend of Madonna: he designed her London and New York apartments and she used a poem that he wrote as the basis of her 1998 song "Drowned World/Substitute for Love", for which he received a co-writing credit. === Influence === David Collins's design and aesthetic has had a huge impact, which was part of what led him to be named to the 2012 AD100 list. Simon Mills of Wallpaper* magazine said that "It is no exaggeration to say that the restaurant and hotel revolution in London of the last two decades would not have been the same without him." === Death === Collins died in London on 17 July 2013 from melanoma only three weeks after being diagnosed. == Legacy == A book that Collins had been working on was published posthumously in May 2014 and the Studio celebrated its 35th anniversary in 2020. == See also == == References == == External links == David Collins at IMDb	Wikipedia/David_Collins_(interior_designer)
The Antonio Treatment is a one-hour weekly docu-design series show on HGTV and is hosted by Antonio Ballatore, who won Season 4 of the HGTV reality show Design Star. The pilot episode aired on January 1, 2010 and the show officially premiered March 14, 2010, Ballatore and his crew of unconventional craftsmen transform lackluster homes into radical–yet functional–custom creations. They make over multiple rooms in such locations as homes, offices, and any place suffering from drab decor that will benefit from Ballatore's unique and unapologetic design style. The series follows him as he explores new locations and design techniques, developing his craft, and finding his niche in the world of interior design. == Episodes == === Series overview === === Season 1 (2010) === The pilot episode was shown on January 1, 2010. Season 1 premiered on March 14, 2010 with back to back episodes. === Season 2 (2011) === On August 16, 2010, HGTV announced it had ordered an additional 13 episodes for a second season. == References == == External links == Official HGTV site	Wikipedia/The_Antonio_Treatment
Gerontechnology, also called gerotechnology is an inter- and multidisciplinary academic as well as a professional field that combines various disciplines of gerontology and technology. Sustainability of an aging society depends on our effectiveness in creating technological environments, including assistive technology and inclusive design, for innovative and independent living and social participation of older adults in any state of health, comfort as well as safety. In short, gerontechnology concerns matching technological environments to health, housing, mobility, communication, leisure, work and also the personality/individual dispositions of older people. Gerontechnology is most frequently identified as a subset of HealthTech and is -- since the 2010s -- more commonly referred to as AgeTech or Agetech in Europe and the United States. Research outcomes form the basis for designers, builders, engineers, manufacturers, and those in the health professions (nursing, medicine, gerontology, geriatrics, environmental psychology, developmental psychology, etc.), to provide an optimum living environment for the widest range of ages. == Description == Gerontechnology is considered an adjunct to the promotion of human health and physical as well as emotional well-being. It pertains to both human development and aging with the aim to compress morbidity and to increase vitality and quality of life throughout the lifespan. It creates solutions to extend the working phase in society by maximizing the vital and productive years in the later years of life, which consequently reduces the cost of care. The overall framework of gerontechnology may be seen as a matrix of domains of human activity: (1) health & self-esteem, housing & activities of daily living, communication & governance, mobility & transport, work & leisure, as well as (2) technology interventions or impact levels (enhancement & satisfaction, prevention & engagement, compensation & assistance, care and care organisation). Underpinning all these elements are generic and applied evidence-based research findings that aid in the development of products and services. Gerontechnology has much in common with other interdisciplinary domains, such as Assistive Technology (for the compensation & assistance and the care support & care organisation rows of the matrix), Everybodytech, Technology for All (for example Technology 4 All.org) and Universal Design for the development of all products and services pertaining to gerontechnology. == Gerontological design == Gerontological design focuses on providing effective solutions to improve the way of life for aging people, through gerontological knowledge and design research methods to obtain a better understanding of individuals' preferences and requirements. Gerontological design also refers specifically to the study and practice of building design methods that support older users in the built environment. Some universities host professors, commonly in architecture or interior design departments, that specialize in the study and teaching of this design specialization. Not only does this include the examination of building design characteristics that impact older adults' physiological well-being, but it can also include the investigation of building design characteristics that impact informational needs (i.e. finding one's way around in a space) or social interaction needs (Campbell, 2012). Between 2008 and 2030, Singapore will witness an age profile shift in its population's history. In 2005, one in 12 residents was 65 years or older. By 2030, one in five residents will be 65 years or older. Studies show that in 2002, 7% of the world's population is aged 65 and above. By 2050, it is envisaged that the percentage could rise to nearly 17%. The ageing population and its impact on economics, politics, education and lifestyle is no longer an isolated issue but a global concern. Products and services relevant to the "silver industry" or the "mature market" increasingly abound in the marketplace. The demand for designers with a keen sense for the aging population's needs who employ gerontological design process knowledge concomitantly rises. == Publications == An international academic journal with delayed open-access, Gerontechnology [1], is published by the International Society for Gerontechnology (ISG) [2]. A comprehensive volume titled Gerontechnology [3] edited by Sunkyo Kwon has been published in 2016/2017. == Applications == Age technology (AgeTech/Agetech) has been used to enhance aspects of insurance, domiciliary care, residential and nursing homes, health care, and risk management. The services may originate from various independent service providers or the interconnection of devices and services enabled through open APIs. Commercial businesses with an ageing component including the opportunities around the “Silver Economy” – providing services for the ‘wants’ of the older demographic, supporting independent living – addressing the ‘needs’ of the older demographic, longevity – extending healthy lifespan and geroscience. In the US, startup Aging2.0 launched in 2015 and has since organized 170 meet-up events, opened volunteer chapters in 30 countries and signed up 30 companies for its own accelerator program. Amongst these, SingFit “makes it easy for everyone to become a music therapist”, WalkJoy is a wearable sensor that measures a person’s gait and alerts caregivers when someone could be about to fall. Active Protective is a personal airbag that inflates to stop someone breaking their hip. And Vynca records a person’s dying wishes, so families aren’t unsure when the time comes. The company Honor, which connects seniors, caregivers and their families, recently raised $20 million, the biggest funding in the emerging category so far. In Europe, London-based AgeTech startup Birdie secured a €7 million Series A to help elderly adults live independently while independent living system Kraydel has raised over £1m in innovation and public sector grants to develop its smart device which sits on top of the TV, linking elderly people to their carers or family members, through their TV screens. == Education == The first ISG Masterclass [4] for PhD students in 2006 produced a scheme to support gerontechnological research. == See also == Gero-Informatics Gerontology Biomechatronics == References == == External links == The International Society for Gerontechnology (ISG) The official LinkedIn discussion group of ISG Gero-tech Aging and Accessible Technology MIT AgeLab Center for Aging Services Technologies (CAST) IMIA Working Group on Smart Homes and Ambient Assisted Living Gerontological Society of America: Formal Interest Group on Technology & Aging Active and Assisted Living Programme Indiana University Gero-informatics Program GGT Deutsche Gesellschaft für Gerontotechnik – GGT German Society of Gerontechnology FIK research program implemented by Tecnalia Research & Innovation Technical Research Centre for Dependency Care and Autonomous Living (CETpD) created by the UPC and Fundació Hospital Comarcal Sant Antoni Abat. Gerontechnologie.net The French web portal about Gerontechnology.	Wikipedia/Gerontological_design
Jo Hamilton (born in Eton, Berkshire) is a British interior designer. She is the founder and creative director of Jo Hamilton Interiors. Hamilton has been a show ambassador and key speaker for House, in Dublin's RDS, and the Index Exhibition, in Dubai's World Trade Centre. She was also the long-term resident interior designer at Grand Designs Live in both London and Birmingham as well as a key speaker and one of three "show ambassadors" along with Kevin McCloud and Charlie Luxton, and formerly George Clarke (architect). Further speaking appointments have included London's Decorex, the International Contemporary Furniture Fair (ICFF), in New York, and the International Property Awards, for which she is a judge. Hamilton has also served as a judge for the What House? Awards and the Index Architecture and Design Awards. Hamilton has appeared on Sky Living series Who'd Be a Billionaire?, BBC's What To Do With The House (When The Kids Leave) and ITV's 60-Minute Makeover. Hamilton regularly features in articles about interior design by media outlets that have included The Independent, the Daily Telegraph, The Times, Irish Independent, Metro, and the BBC, among others. She has worked on interior design-related PR activities with a number of respected companies including Jacaranda Carpets and Rugs and homewares chain HomeSense who in 2014 commissioned her to open a series of new stores across England. Hamilton has also been a brand ambassador for Bosch (home appliance brand) and Dulux. She became an interior designer in 1995 with a brief professional background in graphic design. Her father, the author and journalist Brian Clarke, wrote a monthly column for The Times for a number of years on fly-fishing and the environment. == References ==	Wikipedia/Jo_Hamilton_(interior_designer)

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