text stringlengths 559 401k | source stringlengths 13 121 |
|---|---|
Nucleic acid design is the process of generating a set of nucleic acid base sequences that will associate into a desired conformation. Nucleic acid design is central to the fields of DNA nanotechnology and DNA computing. It is necessary because there are many possible sequences of nucleic acid strands that will fold into a given secondary structure, but many of these sequences will have undesired additional interactions which must be avoided. In addition, there are many tertiary structure considerations which affect the choice of a secondary structure for a given design.
Nucleic acid design has similar goals to protein design: in both, the sequence of monomers is rationally designed to favor the desired folded or associated structure and to disfavor alternate structures. However, nucleic acid design has the advantage of being a much computationally simpler problem, since the simplicity of Watson-Crick base pairing rules leads to simple heuristic methods which yield experimentally robust designs. Computational models for protein folding require tertiary structure information whereas nucleic acid design can operate largely on the level of secondary structure. However, nucleic acid structures are less versatile than proteins in their functionality.
Nucleic acid design can be considered the inverse of nucleic acid structure prediction. In structure prediction, the structure is determined from a known sequence, while in nucleic acid design, a sequence is generated which will form a desired structure.
== Fundamental concepts ==
The structure of nucleic acids consists of a sequence of nucleotides. There are four types of nucleotides distinguished by which of the four nucleobases they contain: in DNA these are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). Nucleic acids have the property that two molecules will bind to each other to form a double helix only if the two sequences are complementary, that is, they can form matching sequences of base pairs. Thus, in nucleic acids the sequence determines the pattern of binding and thus the overall structure.
Nucleic acid design is the process by which, given a desired target structure or functionality, sequences are generated for nucleic acid strands which will self-assemble into that target structure. Nucleic acid design encompasses all levels of nucleic acid structure:
Primary structure—the raw sequence of nucleobases of each of the component nucleic acid strands;
Secondary structure—the set of interactions between bases, i.e., which parts of which strands are bound to each other; and
Tertiary structure—the locations of the atoms in three-dimensional space, taking into consideration geometrical and steric constraints.
One of the greatest concerns in nucleic acid design is ensuring that the target structure has the lowest free energy (i.e. is the most thermodynamically favorable) whereas misformed structures have higher values of free energy and are thus unfavored.
These goals can be achieved through the use of a number of approaches, including heuristic, thermodynamic, and geometrical ones. Almost all nucleic acid design tasks are aided by computers, and a number of software packages are available for many of these tasks.
Two considerations in nucleic acid design are that desired hybridizations should have melting temperatures in a narrow range, and any spurious interactions should have very low melting temperatures (i.e. they should be very weak). There is also a contrast between affinity-optimizing "positive design", seeks to minimize the energy of the desired structure in an absolute sense, and specificity-optimizing "negative design", which considers the energy of the target structure relative to those of undesired structures. Algorithms which implement both kinds of design tend to perform better than those that consider only one type.
== Approaches ==
=== Heuristic methods ===
Heuristic methods use simple criteria which can be quickly evaluated to judge the suitability of different sequences for a given secondary structure. They have the advantage of being much less computationally expensive than the energy minimization algorithms needed for thermodynamic or geometrical modeling, and being easier to implement, but at the cost of being less rigorous than these models.
Sequence symmetry minimization is the oldest approach to nucleic acid design and was first used to design immobile versions of branched DNA structures. Sequence symmetry minimization divides the nucleic acid sequence into overlapping subsequences of a fixed length, called the criterion length. Each of the 4N possible subsequences of length N is allowed to appear only once in the sequence. This ensures that no undesired hybridizations can occur which have a length greater than or equal to the criterion length.
A related heuristic approach is to consider the "mismatch distance", meaning the number of positions in a certain frame where the bases are not complementary. A greater mismatch distance lessens the chance that a strong spurious interaction can happen. This is related to the concept of Hamming distance in information theory. Another related but more involved approach is to use methods from coding theory to construct nucleic acid sequences with desired properties.
=== Thermodynamic models ===
Information about the secondary structure of a nucleic acid complex along with its sequence can be used to predict the thermodynamic properties of the complex.
When thermodynamic models are used in nucleic acid design, there are usually two considerations: desired hybridizations should have melting temperatures in a narrow range, and any spurious interactions should have very low melting temperatures (i.e. they should be very weak). The Gibbs free energy of a perfectly matched nucleic acid duplex can be predicted using a nearest neighbor model. This model considers only the interactions between a nucleotide and its nearest neighbors on the nucleic acid strand, by summing the free energy of each of the overlapping two-nucleotide subwords of the duplex. This is then corrected for self-complementary monomers and for GC-content. Once the free energy is known, the melting temperature of the duplex can be determined. GC-content alone can also be used to estimate the free energy and melting temperature of a nucleic acid duplex. This is less accurate but also much less computationally costly.
Software for thermodynamic modeling of nucleic acids includes Nupack,
mfold/UNAFold, and Vienna.
A related approach, inverse secondary structure prediction, uses stochastic local search which improves a nucleic acid sequence by running a structure prediction algorithm and the modifying the sequence to eliminate unwanted features.
=== Geometrical models ===
Geometrical models of nucleic acids are used to predict tertiary structure. This is important because designed nucleic acid complexes usually contain multiple junction points, which introduces geometric constraints to the system. These constraints stem from the basic structure of nucleic acids, mainly that the double helix formed by nucleic acid duplexes has a fixed helicity of about 10.4 base pairs per turn, and is relatively stiff. Because of these constraints, the nucleic acid complexes are sensitive to the relative orientation of the major and minor grooves at junction points. Geometrical modeling can detect strain stemming from misalignments in the structure, which can then be corrected by the designer.
Geometric models of nucleic acids for DNA nanotechnology generally use reduced representations of the nucleic acid, because simulating every atom would be very computationally expensive for such large systems. Models with three pseudo-atoms per base pair, representing the two backbone sugars and the helix axis, have been reported to have a sufficient level of detail to predict experimental results. However, models with five pseudo-atoms per base pair, explicitly including the backbone phosphates, are also used.
Software for geometrical modeling of nucleic acids includes GIDEON,
Tiamat,
Nanoengineer-1,
and UNIQUIMER 3D.
Geometrical concerns are especially of interest in the design of DNA origami, because the sequence is predetermined by the choice of scaffold strand. Software specifically for DNA origami design has been made, including caDNAno
and SARSE.
== Applications ==
Nucleic acid design is used in DNA nanotechnology to design strands which will self-assemble into a desired target structure. These include examples such as DNA machines, periodic two- and three-dimensional lattices, polyhedra, and DNA origami. It can also be used to create sets of nucleic acid strands which are "orthogonal", or non-interacting with each other, so as to minimize or eliminate spurious interactions. This is useful in DNA computing, as well as for molecular barcoding applications in chemical biology and biotechnology.
== See also ==
Nucleic acid analogues
Synthetic biology
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Brenneman, Arwen; Condon, Anne (2002). "Strand design for biomolecular computation". Theoretical Computer Science. 287: 39–58. doi:10.1016/S0304-3975(02)00135-4.—A review of approaches to nucleic acid primary structure design.
Dirks, Robert M.; Lin, Milo; Winfree, Erik; Pierce, Niles A. (2004). "Paradigms for computational nucleic acid design". Nucleic Acids Research. 32 (4): 1392–1403. doi:10.1093/nar/gkh291. PMC 390280. PMID 14990744.—A comparison and evaluation of a number of heuristic and thermodynamic methods for nucleic acid design.
Seeman, N (1982). "Nucleic acid junctions and lattices". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 99 (2): 237–47. Bibcode:1982JThBi..99..237S. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(82)90002-9. PMID 6188926.—One of the earliest papers on nucleic acid design, describing the use of sequence symmetry minimization to construct immoble branched junctions.
Andersen, Ebbe Sloth (2010). "Prediction and design of DNA and RNA structures". New Biotechnology. 27 (3): 184–193. doi:10.1016/j.nbt.2010.02.012. PMID 20193785.—A review comparing the capabilities of available nucleic acid design software. | Wikipedia/Nucleic_acid_design |
A design change is a modification to the design of a product or system. Design changes can happen at any stage in the product development process as well as later in the product or system's lifecycle.
Design changes that happen early in the design process are less expensive when compared to those that take place after it is introduced into full-scale production. The cost of the change increases with its development time. Fundamentally, design changes can be classified into pre production and post production changes. The pre-production changes can happen in the conceptual design stage, prototype stage, detailing stage, testing stage. The post -production stage changes can happen almost immediately the product is introduced into the production or much later in the product lifecycle This might be due to many reasons including response to a changing market demand, uncovering of design faults that need to be corrected, the product or system not meeting stakeholder requirements, parts becoming obsolete or no longer available from suppliers, and so forth. One of the tools to manage design changes is the House of Quality which can help to trace the impacts of a proposed change to understand who and what will be affected.
One of the issues in handling design changes is that they propagate or 'ripple out' from the points of initiation. This is because, for example, a change to one part design will also require changes to others, so they can continue to fit together and work together to deliver a design's functionality. Understanding these ripple effects may determine whether to accept a change request and in coordinating the change's implementation. A range of approaches have been developed to help predict and manage design change ripple effects. Some are quite practical while others remain in the research domain.
== See also ==
Change control
Change management (engineering)
Engineering change order
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Hauser J R, Clausing D, "The House of Quality", Harvard Business Review | Wikipedia/Design_change |
Responsive web design (RWD) or responsive design is an approach to web design that aims to make web pages render well on a variety of devices and window or screen sizes from minimum to maximum display size to ensure usability and satisfaction.
A responsive design adapts the web-page layout to the viewing environment by using techniques such as fluid proportion-based grids, flexible images, and CSS3 media queries, an extension of the @media rule, in the following ways:
The fluid grid concept calls for page element sizing to be in relative units like percentages, rather than absolute units like pixels or points.
Flexible images are also sized in relative units, so as to prevent them from displaying outside their containing element.
Media queries allow the page to use different CSS style rules based on characteristics of the device the site is being displayed on, e.g. width of the rendering surface (browser window width or physical display size).
Responsive layouts automatically adjust and adapt to any device screen size, whether it is a desktop, a laptop, a tablet, or a mobile phone.
Responsive web design became more important as users of mobile devices came to account for the majority of website visitors. In 2015, for instance, Google announced Mobilegeddon and started to boost the page ranking of mobile-friendly sites when searching from a mobile device.
Responsive web design is an example of user interface plasticity.
== Challenges, and other approaches ==
Luke Wroblewski has summarized some of the RWD and mobile design challenges and created a catalog of multi-device layout patterns. He suggested that, compared with a simple RWD approach, device experience or RESS (responsive web design with server-side components) approaches can provide a user experience that is better optimized for mobile devices. Server-side CSS generator implementation of stylesheet languages like Sass can be part of such an approach. Google has recommended responsive design for smartphone websites over other approaches.
Although many publishers have implemented responsive designs, one challenge for RWD adoption was that some banner advertisements and videos were not fluid. However, search advertising and (banner) display advertising came to support specific device platform targeting and different advertisement size formats for desktop, smartphone, and basic mobile devices. Different landing page URLs have been used for different platforms, or Ajax has been used to display different advertisement variants on a page. CSS tables permitted hybrid fixed and fluid layouts.
There have been many ways of validating and testing RWD designs, ranging from mobile site validators and mobile emulators to simultaneous testing tools like Adobe Edge Inspect. The Chrome, Firefox and Safari browsers and developer tools have offered responsive design viewport resizing tools, as do third parties.
== History ==
The W3C specification of HTML+ stated that websites have to be rendered according to the user preferences. The customization of web page layout was lacking however. Many web developers resorted to ordinary HTML tables as a way to customize the layout and bring some basic responsiveness to their websites at the same time.
First major site to feature a layout that adapts in a non-trivial manner to browser viewport width was Audi.com launched in late 2001, created by a team at razorfish consisting of Jürgen Spangl and Jim Kalbach (information architecture), Ken Olling (design), and Jan Hoffmann (interface development). Limited browser capabilities meant that for Internet Explorer, the layout could adapt dynamically in the browser whereas, for Netscape, the page had to be reloaded from the server when resized.
Cameron Adams created a demonstration in 2004. By 2008, a number of related terms such as "flexible", "liquid", "fluid", and "elastic" were being used to describe layouts. CSS3 media queries were almost ready for prime time in late 2008/early 2009. Ethan Marcotte coined the term responsive web design—and defined it to mean fluid grid / flexible images / media queries—in a May 2010 article in A List Apart. He described the theory and practice of responsive web design in his brief 2011 book titled Responsive Web Design. Responsive design was listed as #2 in Top Web Design Trends for 2012 by .net magazine after progressive enhancement at #1.
Mashable called 2013 the Year of Responsive Web Design.
== Related concepts ==
Mobile-first design and progressive enhancement are related concepts that predate RWD. Browsers of basic mobile phones do not understand JavaScript or media queries, so a recommended practice was to create a basic web site and enhance it for smartphones and personal computers, rather than rely on graceful degradation to make a complex, image-heavy site work on mobile phones.
== See also ==
== References == | Wikipedia/Responsive_web_design |
A design system is a comprehensive set of standards, documentation, and reusable components that guide the development of digital products within an organization. It serves as a single source of truth for designers and developers, ensuring consistency and efficiency across projects. A design system may consist of: pattern and component libraries; style guides for font, color, spacing, component dimensions, and placement; design languages, coded components, brand languages, and documentation. Design systems aid in digital product design and development of products such as mobile applications or websites.
A design system serves as a reference to establish a common understanding between design, engineering, and product teams. This understanding ensures smooth communication and collaboration between different teams involved in designing and building a product, and ultimately results in a consistent user experience.
Notable design systems include Lightning Design System (by Salesforce), Material Design (by Google), Carbon Design System (by IBM), and Fluent Design System (by Microsoft).
== Advantages ==
Some of the advantages of a design system are:
Streamlined design to production workflow.
Creates a unified language between and within the cross-functional teams.
Faster builds, through reusable components and shared rationale.
Better products, through more cohesive user experiences and a consistent design language.
Improved maintenance and scalability, through the reduction of design and technical debt.
Stronger focus for product teams, through tackling common problems so teams can concentrate on solving user needs.
== Origins ==
Design systems have been in practice for a long time under different nomenclatures. Design systems have been significant in the design field since they were created but have had many changes and improvements since their origin. Using systems or patterns as they called it in 1960s was first mentioned in NATO Software Engineering Conference (discussion on how the softwares should be developed) by Christopher Alexander gaining industry’s attention. In 1970s, he published a book named “A Pattern Language” along with Murray Silverstein, and Sara Ishikawa which discussed the interconnected patterns in architecture in an easy and democratic way and that gave birth to what we know today as “Design Systems”.
Interests in the digital field surged again in the latter half of the 1980s, for this tool to be used in software development which led to the notion of Software Design Pattern. As patterns are best maintained in a collaborative editing environment, it led to the invention of the first wiki, which later led to the invention of Wikipedia itself. Regular conferences were held, and even back then, patterns were used to build user interfaces. The surge continued well into the 90s, with Jennifer Tidwell's research closing the decade. Scientific interest continued way into the 2000s.
Mainstream interest about pattern languages for UI design surged again by the opening of Yahoo! Design Pattern Library in 2006 with the simultaneous introduction of Yahoo! User Interface Library (YUI Library for short). The simultaneous introduction was meant to allow more systematic design than mere components which the UI library has provided.
Google's Material Design in 2014 was the first to be called a "design language" by the firm (the previous version was called "Holo Theme"). Soon, others followed suit.
Technical challenges of large-scale web projects led to the invention of systematic approaches in the 2010s, most notably BEM and Atomic Design. The book about Atomic Design helped popularize the term "Design System" since 2016. The book describes an approach to design layouts of digital products in a component-based way making it future-friendly and easy to update.
== Difference between pattern languages and design systems and UI kits ==
A pattern language allows its patterns to exist in many different shapes and forms – for example, a login form, with an input field for username, password, and buttons to log in, register and retrieve lost password is a pattern, no matter if the buttons are green or purple. Patterns are called patterns exactly because their exact nature might differ, but similarities provide the relationship between them (called a configuration) to remain the same. A design language however always has a set of visual guidelines to contain specific colors and typography. Most design systems allow elements of a design language to be configured (via its patterns) according to need.
A UI kit is simply a set of UI components, with no explicit rules provided on its usage.
== Design tokens ==
A design token is a named variable that stores a specific design attribute, such as a color, typography setting, spacing value, or other design decision. Design tokens serve as a single source of truth for these attributes across an entire brand or system, and provide a wide array of benefits such as abstraction, flexibility, scalability, and consistency to large design systems. Design tokens, which are essentially design decisions expressed in code, also improve collaboration between designers and developers. The concept of design tokens exists within a variety of well known design systems such as Google's Material Design, Amazon's Style Dictionary, Adobe's Spectrum and the Atlassian Design System
The W3C Design Tokens Community Group is working to provide open standards for design tokens.
== Summary ==
A design system comprises various components, patterns, styles, and guidelines that aid in streamlining and optimizing design efforts. The critical factors to consider when creating a design system include the scope and ability to reproduce your projects and the availability of resources and time. If design systems are not appropriately implemented and maintained, they can become disorganized, making the design process less efficient. When implemented well however, they can simplify work, make the end products more cohesive, and empower designers to address intricate UX challenges.
== References ==
== External links ==
What is a Design System? by Robert Gourley
Design Systems Handbook by Marco Suarez, Jina Anne, Katie Sylor-Miller, Diana Mounter, and Roy Stanfield. (Design Better by InVision)
Post (in French): Why set up a design system?
Design Patterns
Example Design Systems | Wikipedia/Design_system |
Public interest design is a human-centered and participatory design practice that places emphasis on the “triple bottom line” of sustainable design that includes ecological, economic, and social issues and on designing products, structures, and systems that address issues such as economic development and the preservation of the environment. Projects incorporating public interest design focus on the general good of the local citizens with a fundamentally collaborative perspective.
Starting in the late 1990s, several books, convenings, and exhibitions have generated new momentum and investment in public interest design. Since then, public interest design—frequently described as a movement or field—has gained public recognition.
== History ==
Public interest design grew out of the community design movement, which got its start in 1968 after American civil rights leader Whitney Young issued a challenge to attendees of the American Institute of Architects (AIA) national convention:
". . . you are not a profession that has distinguished itself by your social and civic contributions to the cause of civil rights, and I am sure this does not come to you as any shock. You are most distinguished by your thunderous silence and your complete irrelevance."
The response to Young’s challenge was the establishment of community design centers (CDCs) across the United States. CDCs, which were often established with the support of area universities, provided a variety of design services – such as affordable housing - within their own neighborhoods.
In architecture schools, “design/build programs” provided outreach to meet local design needs, particularly in low-income and underserved areas. One of the earliest design/build programs was Yale University’s Vlock Building Project. The project, which was initiated by students at Yale University School of Architecture in 1967, requires graduate students to design and build low-income housing.
One of the most publicized programs is the Auburn University Rural Studio design/build program, which was founded in 1993. Samuel Mockbee and D.K. Ruth created the program to inspire hands-on community-outreach and service-based architectural opportunities for students. The program gained traction due to Mockbee investing in the low-income housing aesthetics — an aspect previously downplayed in architectural design of houses for the poor. Mockbee and Ruth expressed their understanding of the communities through their architectural designs; the visuals and functionality address the needs of the citizens. The Rural Studio’s first project, Bryant House, was completed in 1994 for $16,500.
== Public Interest Design from the 1990s – Present ==
Interest in public interest design – particularly socially responsible architecture – began to grow during the 1990s and continued into the first decade of the new millennium in reaction to the expansive globalization. Conferences, books, and exhibitions began to showcase the design work being done beyond the community design centers, which had greatly decreased in numbers since their peak in the seventies.
Non-profit organizations – including Architecture for Humanity, BaSiC Initiative, Design Corps, Public Architecture, Project H, Project Locus, and MASS Design Group – began to provide design services that served a larger segment of the population than had been served by traditional design professions.
Many public interest design organizations also provide training and service-learning programs for architecture students and graduates. In 1999, the Enterprise Rose Architectural Fellowship was established, giving young architects the opportunity to work on three-year-long design and community development projects in low-income communities.
Two of the earliest formal public interest design programs include the Gulf Coast Community Design Studio at Mississippi State University and the Public Interest Design Summer Program at the University of Texas
. In February 2015, Portland State University launched the first graduate certificate program in Public Interest Design in the United States.
The first professional-level training was conducted in July 2011 by the Public Interest Design Institute (PIDI) and held at the Harvard Graduate School of Design.
Also in 2011, a survey of American Institute of Architects (AIA), 77% of AIA members agreed that the mission of the professional practice of public interest design could be defined as the belief that every person should be able to live in a socially, economically, and environmentally healthy community.
== Conferences and exhibits ==
The annual Structures for Inclusion conference showcases public interest design projects from around the world. The first conference, which was held in 2000, was called “Design for the 98% Without Architects." Speaking at the conference, Rural Studio co-founder Samuel Mockbee challenged attendees to serve a greater segment of the population: “I believe most of us would agree that American architecture today exists primarily within a thin band of elite social and economic conditions...in creating architecture, and ultimately community, it should make no difference which economic or social type is served, as long as the status quo of the actual world is transformed by an imagination that creates a proper harmony for both the affluent and the disadvantaged."
In 2007, the Cooper Hewitt National Design Museum held an exhibition, titled “Design for the Other 90%,” curated by Cynthia Smith. Following the success of this exhibit, Smith developed the "Design Other 90" initiative into an ongoing series, the second of which was titled “Design for the Other 90%: CITIES” (2011), held at the United Nations headquarters. In 2010, Andres Lipek of the Museum of Modern Art in New York curated an exhibit, called “Small Scale, Big Change: New Architectures of Social Engagement.”
== Professional Networks ==
One of the oldest professional networks related to public interest design is the professional organization Association for Community Design (ACD), which was founded in 1977.
In 2005, adopting a term coined by architect Kimberly Dowdell, the Social Economic Environmental Design (SEED) Network was co-founded by a group of community design leaders, during a meeting hosted by the Loeb Fellowship at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. The SEED Network established a common set of five principles and criteria for practitioners of public interest design. An evaluation tool called the SEED Evaluator is available to assist designers and practitioners in developing projects that align with SEED Network goals and criteria.
In 2006, the Open Architecture Network was launched by Architecture for Humanity in conjunction with co-founder Cameron Sinclair's TED Wish. Taking on the name Worldchanging in 2011, the network is an open-source community dedicated to improving living conditions through innovative and sustainable design. Designers of all persuasions can share ideas, designs and plans as well as collaborate and manage projects. while protecting their intellectual property rights using the Creative Commons "some rights reserved" licensing system.
In 2007, DESIGN 21: Social Design Network, an online platform built in partnership with UNESCO, was launched.
In 2011, the Design Other 90 Network was launched by the Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum, in conjunction with its Design with the Other 90%: CITIES exhibition.
In 2012, IDEO.org, with the support of The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, launched HCD Connect, a network for social sector leaders committed to human-centered design. In this context, human-centered design begins with the end-user of a product, place, or system — taking into account their needs, behaviors and desires. The fast-growing professional network of 15,000 builds on "The Human-Centered Design Toolkit," which was designed specifically for people, nonprofits, and social enterprises that work with low-income communities throughout the world. People using the HCD Toolkit or human-centered design in the social sector now have a place to share their experiences, ask questions, and connect with others working in similar areas or on similar challenges.
== See also ==
Design/Build
Healthy community design
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
Opinion poll
Participatory design
Public opinion
Sustainable architecture
Sustainable Design
Social design
Voting
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Books advocating public interest design:
Jones, T., Pettus, W., & Pyatok, M. (1997). Good Neighbors, Affordable Family Housing. ISBN 978-0070329133
Carpenter, W. J. (1997). Learning by Building: Design and Construction in Architectural Education. ISBN 978-0471287933
Bell, B. (2003). Good Deeds, Good Design: Community Service through Architecture. ISBN 978-1568983912
Stohr, K. & Sinclair, C. (editors) (2006). Design Like You Give a Damn: Architectural Responses to Humanitarian Crises. ISBN 978-1933045252
Bell, B. & Wakeford, K. (editors) (2008). Expanding Architecture, Design as Activism. ISBN 978-1933045788
Piloton, E. (2009). Design Revolution: 100 Products that Empower People. ISBN 978-1933045955
Cary, J. (2010). The Power of Pro Bono: 40 Stories about Design for the Public Good by Architects and Their Clients. ISBN 978-1935202189
Stohr, K. & Sinclair, C. (editors) (2012). Design Like You Give a Damn 2: Building Change from the Ground Up. ISBN 978-0810997028
== External links ==
Infographic: “From Idealism to Realism: The History of Public Interest Design”
PublicInterestDesign.org daily blog and website
Public Interest Design Institute
The SEED Network | Wikipedia/Public_interest_design |
An Energy Neutral Design is a Design of any type (Website, Multi-media, Architecture, Art, Music, Entertainment, etc.) that has the environment and low energy consumption practices in mind during all stages of planning and production.
Energy neutral design can also refer to environmentally powered electronics, where devices absorb or harvest energy from their immediate surroundings (ex. light, heat, radio waves, motion) and transform it to the electricity they require for their operation. One example of this is the batteryless radio. Research specifically in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and Internet of Things (IoT) devices targets energy neutral design by taking miniature technologies and using ideas like data compression and non-continuous data transmission to reduce energy consumption.
== Examples ==
Zero-energy building
Energy efficiency in British housing
Carbon footprint
Low-carbon economy
Live Earth
Reverb
== See also ==
Energy Portal
== References == | Wikipedia/Energy_neutral_design |
Video design or projection design is a creative field of stagecraft. It is concerned with the creation and integration of film, motion graphics and live camera feed into the fields of theatre, opera, dance, fashion shows, concerts and other live events. Video design has only recently gained recognition as a separate creative field becoming an integral tool for engagement and learning while spanning its influence to different realms of intellects such as education. A review conducted by 113 peers between 1992 and 2021 revealed a marked increase in research on video design principles, particularly after 2008. This surge correlates with the proliferation of platforms like YouTube, which have popularized video-based learning. The United Scenic Artists' Local 829, a union representing designers and scenic artists in the US entertainment industry, added the Global Projection Designer membership category in 2007. Prior to this, the responsibilities of video design would often be taken on by a scenic designer or lighting designer. A person who practices the art of video design is often known as a Video Designer. However, naming conventions vary worldwide, so practitioners may also be credited as Projection Designer, "Media Designer", Cinematographer or Video Director (amongst others). As a relatively new field of stagecraft, practitioners create their own definitions, rules and techniques.
== History ==
Filmmaking and video production content has been used in performance for many years, as has large format slide projection delivered by systems such as the PANI projector. The German Erwin Piscator, as stage director at the Berlin Volksbühne in the 1920s, made extensive use of film projected onto his sets. However, the development of digital projection technology in the mid 90s, and the resulting drop in price, made it more attractive and practical to live performance producers, directors and scenic designers. The role of the video designer has developed as a response to this, and in recognition of the demand in the industry for experienced professionals to handle the video content of a production.
United Scenic Artists' Local 829, the Union representing Scenic Artists in the USA has included "Projection Designers" as of mid- 2007. This means anybody working in this field will be doing so officially as "Projection Designer" if he or she is working under a union contract, even if the design utilizes technology other than video projectors. The term "Projection Designer" stems from the days when slide and film projectors were the primary projection source and is now in wide use across North America.
MA Digital Theatre, University of the Arts London is the first Master's level course in the UK designed to teach video design exclusively as a specific discipline, rather than embedding it into scenic design.
Also, Opera Academy Verona has a Workshop Laboratory from 2009 of Projection Design for Opera and Theatre, Directed from Carlo Saleti, Gianfranco Veneruci and Florian CANGA.
In the USA, a number of programs started at about the same time reflecting the growing acceptance of the profession and the need for skilled projection designers. Yale University began a graduate level program in Projection Design in 2010., It's being headed by Wendall K. Harrington. CalArts had their concentration Video For Performance [1] since the mid-2000s and is currently led by Peter Flaherty while UT Austin started the MFA concentration Integrated Media for Live Performance also in 2010. It is being led by the Sven Ortel. Both the UT Austin and Yale program are part of an MFA in Design and graduated their first students in 2013.
== Components of Video Design ==
These component of video design serves as a basic foundation for developing a theatrical play, that mesmerizing and enhances audience's sensory experiences. They include: Environment, Color, Space, Scale, Movement and Sound design
=== Environment ===
This is the canvas video designers are faced with when constructing a compelling story to the audience, as Miroslaw Rogala's describes in her article "Nature Is Leaving Us: A Video Theatre Work", "by implicit contract with the audience, I am promising them a vaster canvas than their predetermined notions of television; I am therefore demanding more from them in terms of their attention and engagement. "By harnessing the physical 2D layer of video projection, designers have the ability to construct a visual field where their artwork is a living-breathing physical manifestation of their idea.
=== Space ===
This component of video design is describes manipulation of perspective of a play. Rogala breaks these perspectives into 3 namely, "frog-eye-view", "human view" and "bird-eye-view". By tilting the projection or camera along an axis, the designer manipulates the views to create invoke imbalances or invoke an emotion to the audience.
=== Scale ===
This is a tool used by a video designer to fit a video projection to multiple screens (or video walls); ranging from small, intimate displays to large video-walls. Doing so, shift the audience's perception of proximity, presence, and importance. Manipulation of scale, allows video designers to disrupt the realism creating a constructive views that contributes to the overall play. According to Rogala, "By altering the scale of the projected images—from close-up facial expressions to full-body silhouettes—we shift the viewer’s perception of spatial relationships and intimacy."
=== Color ===
This is a tool used by video designers to invoke emotional response from the audience.According to Parker-Starbuck, "The projected image does not merely serve as a backdrop or setting, but becomes a performative element that interacts with the live body, space, and time, thereby challenging traditional notions of theatrical presence." The use of color in this context serves as a means of creating an immersive experience which ultimately influences audiences' emotion.
=== Movement ===
This is a multilayered tool not constrained by just a performers body movements, it extends to camera movements, projection movement as well as transitions medias. as Rogala puts it: "Movement in Nature Is Leaving Us is not confined to the body. It is distributed across multiple visual planes — live, recorded, and projected — producing a spatial rhythm that defies theatrical gravity." It is used by video designers to create fluid, nonlinear experiences to the audience."The transitions between live action and mediated movement are seamless, allowing the viewer to experience a choreography of perception as much as of bodies."
=== Sound Environment ===
In Nature is leaving us, sound is not treated as just a background or temporal filler. Instead, it is used as a tool to for shaping temporal rhythm and psychological tones. Manipulation of this tool induces a heighten sensory reception of the audience. As Rogala puts it, "digitally altered voices, sampled sounds, and non-linear loops envelop the viewer in a sonic architecture that resists narrative cohesion."
== Roles of the video designer ==
Depending on the production, and due to the crossover of this field with the fields of lighting design and scenic design, a video designer's roles and responsibilities may vary from show to show. A video designer may take responsibility for any or all of the following.
The overall conceptual design of the video content to be included in the piece, including working with the other members of the production team to ensure that the video content is integrated with the other design areas.
The creation of this video content using 2D and 3D animation, motion graphics, stop motion animation, illustration, filming or any other method.
The management of live cameras, their signal and how it is used on stage as part of the design.
The direction, lighting and/or cinematography of any film clips included in the piece.
The design of the technical system to deliver the video content, including the specification of video projectors, LED displays, monitors and control systems, cabling routes and rigging positions for optimal video effects.
Managing the budget allocated to video, including the sourcing of display and control technologies, their delivery, maintenance and insurance.
This is a very wide skills base, and it is not uncommon for a video designer to work with associates or assistants who can take responsibility for certain areas. For example, a video designer may conceptually design the video content, but hire a skilled animator to create it, a programmer to program the control system, a production engineer to designer and engineer the control system and a projectionist to choose the optimum projection positions and maintain the equipment.
== Concert video design ==
Concert video design is a niche of the filmmaking and video production industry that involves the creation of original video content intended explicitly for display during a live concert performance.
The creation of visuals for live music performances bears close resemblance to music videos, but are typically meant to be displayed as 'backplate' imagery that adds a visual component to the music performed onstage. However, as the use of video content during musical performances has grown in popularity since the turn of the 21st century, it has become more common to have self-standing 'introductory' and 'interstitial' videos that play on screen on stage without the performers. These pieces may include footage of the artist or artists, shot specifically for the video, and presented onstage with pre-recorded music so that the final appearance is essentially a music video. Such stand-alone videos, however, are typically only viewed in this live setting and may include additional theatrical sound effects.
The earliest concert video visuals likely date to the late 1960s when concerts for artists such as Jimi Hendrix and The Doors featured psychedelic imagery on projection screens suspended behind the performers. Live concert performances took on more and more theatrical elements particularly notable in the concert events put on by Pink Floyd throughout their career.
Laurie Anderson was among the earliest to experiment with video content as part of a live performance, and her ideas and images were a direct inspiration to performers as diverse as David Bowie, Madonna and Kanye West. In 1982, Devo integrated rear-projected visuals into their concert set, choreographing themselves to match and interact with the action on the video for several songs, but the concert that made video content 'standard practice' was the 1993 U2's Zoo TV Tour, conceived and designed by production designer Willie Williams, a collaborator of Laurie Anderson's.
== Technology used in video design ==
Video designers make use of many technologies from the fields of stagecraft, broadcast equipment and home cinema equipment to build a workable video system, including technologies developed specifically for live video and technologies appropriated from other fields. A video system may include any of the following:
== See also ==
== References == | Wikipedia/Video_design |
C-K design theory or concept-knowledge theory is both a design theory and a theory of reasoning in design. It defines design reasoning as a logic of expansion processes, i.e. a logic that organizes the generation of unknown objects. The theory builds on several traditions of design theory, including systematic design, axiomatic design, creativity theories, general and formal design theories.
== Background ==
Claims made for C-K design theory include that it is the first design theory that:
Offers a comprehensive formalization of design that is independent of any design domain or object
Explains invention, creation, and discovery within the same framework as design processes.
The name of the theory is based on its central premises: the distinction between two spaces:
a space of concepts C
a space of knowledge K.
The process of design is defined as a double expansion of the C and K spaces through the application of four types of operators: C→C, C→K, K→C, K→K.
The first draft of C-K theory was sketched by Armand Hatchuel, and then developed by Hatchuel and his colleague, Benoît Weil. Recent publications explain C-K theory and its practical application in different industries.
== Genesis of C-K theory ==
C-K theory was a response to three perceived limitations of existing design theories:
Design theory when assimilated to problem solving theory is unable to account for innovative aspects of design.
Classic design theories dependent on object domains, machine design, architecture or industrial design favored design theories that were tailored to their specific knowledge bases and contexts. Without a unified design theory these fields experience difficulties over cooperation in real design situations.
Design theories and creativity theories have been developed as separate fields of research. But design theory should include the creative, surprising and serendipitous aspects of design; while creativity theories have been unable to account for intentional inventive processes common in design fields.
C-K theory uses an approach which is domain-independent and which allows acting on unknown objects, and changes of the definitions of known objects during the process (revision of objects' identities). C-K theory was shown by Hatchuel and Weil to be closely related to Braha's Formal Design Theory and its clarification by Braha and Reich's Coupled Design Theory, which are both based on topological structures for design modeling.
== Structure of C-K theory ==
The core idea behind C-K theory is to define rigorously a design situation. A brief is an incomplete description of objects that do not exist yet and are still partly unknown. The first step in C-K theory is to define a brief as a concept, through the introduction of a formal distinction between concept and knowledge spaces; the second step is to characterize the operators that are needed between these two spaces.
=== Knowledge ===
The knowledge space is defined as a set of propositions with a logical status, according to the knowledge available to the designer or the group of designers. The knowledge space (i.e. K-Space) describes all objects and truths that are established from the point of view of the designer. Then K-Space is expandable as new truths may appear in it as an effect of the design process. Conversely, the structure and properties of the K-Space have a major influence on the process.
=== Concept ===
A concept is defined as a proposition without a logical status in the K-Space. A central finding of C-K theory is that concepts are the necessary departure point of a design process. Without concepts, design reduces to standard optimization or problem-solving. Concepts assert the existence of an unknown object that presents some properties desired by the designer. Concepts can be partitioned or included, but not searched nor explored.
=== C-K operators ===
Building on these premises, C-K theory shows the design process as the result of four operators: C→K, K→C, C→C, K→K.
The initial concept is partitioned using propositions from K: K→C
These partitions add new properties to the concepts and create new concepts: C→C
Thanks to a conjunction C→K this expansion of C may in return provoke the expansion of the K space: K→K
The process can be synthesized through a design square. One design solution for a first concept C0 will be a path in the C-space that forms a new proposition in K. There may exist several design paths for the same C0.
== Central findings ==
The following graphical representation summarises the design process using C-K theory.
Crazy concepts
Crazy concepts are concepts that seem absurd as an exploration path in a design process. Both C-K theory and practical applications have shown that crazy concepts can benefit the global design process by adding extra knowledge, not to be used to pursue that "crazy concept" design path, but to be used to further define a more "sensible concept" and lead to its eventual conjunction. The following image is a graphical representation of this process.
Design creativity
The creative aspect of Design results from two distinct expansions: C-expansions which may be seen as "new ideas", and K-expansions which are necessary to validate these ideas or to expand them towards successful designs.
Unification of design theories
Domain dependent design theories are built on some specific structure of the K-space, either by assuming that some objects have invariant definitions and properties (like in all engineering fields), or by assuming that the K-space presents some stable structure (e.g. that the functions of an object can be defined independently from its technical realization, as in systematic design theory).
Theory of design
At The Design Society's 2009 International Conference on Engineering Design, an awarded-paper links scientific discovery and design process using C-K theory as a formal framework. It is suggested that a science of design is possible, and complementary to the more traditional bounded rationality.
Mathematical modelling
Mathematical approaches to design have been developed since the 1960s by scholars such as Christopher Alexander, Hiroyuki Yoshikawa, Dan Braha and Yoram Reich. They tended to model the dynamic co-evolution between design solutions and requirements. Within the field of engineering design, C-K theory opens new modelling directions that explore connections with basic issues in logic and mathematics; these are different from the classic use of scientific models in design. It has been argued that C-K theory has analogies with forcing in set theory, and with intuitionistic mathematics.
Industrial applications
C-K theory has been applied in several industrial contexts since 1998, mainly in France, Sweden and Germany. It is generally used as a method that increases the innovative capacity of design and R&D departments. C-K theory has also inspired new management principles for collaborative innovation, with the aim of overcoming the limitations of standard design management methods.
== References == | Wikipedia/C-K_theory |
Boiler design is the process of designing boilers used for various purposes. The main function of a boiler is to heat water to generate steam. Steam produced in a boiler can be used for a variety of purposes including space heating, sterilisation, drying, humidification and power generation. The temperature or condition of steam required for these applications is different, so boiler designs vary accordingly.
== Modern design benefits ==
Modern boiler design offers several benefits. In the past, improper design of boilers has caused explosions which led to loss of life and property. Modern designs attempt to avoid such mishaps. Further, mathematical modeling can determine how much space a boiler will need and the type of materials to be used. When the design specifications of a boiler are determined, design engineers can estimate a cost and time schedule for the construction.
Boiler design may be based upon:
Production of a maximum quantity of steam with minimal fuel consumption
Economic feasibility of installation
Minimal operator attention required during operation
Capability for quick starting
Conformity to safety regulations
Quality of raw water : how hard or soft the water is will determine the material of the boiler.
Heat source - the fuel to be burned and its ash properties or the process material from which the heat is to be recovered.
Capacity/steam output required, usually measured in tonnes per hour or kg/s.
Steam condition - pressure, temperature, etc.
Safety considerations
Mechanical constraints
Cost restrictions
Monetary cost
Tensile strength of material must be considered while using any joining processes.
Accessories and mountings are devices which form an integral part of boiler but are not mounted on it. They include economizers, superheaters, feed pumps and air pre-heaters. Accessories help in controlling and running the boiler efficiently. Certain common mountings (specifically those required by the Indian Boiler Act) include:
Feed check valve - regulates the flow of water into the boiler and prevents the back flow of water in case of failure of the feed pump.
Steam stop valve - regulates the flow of steam that is produced in the boiler to the steam pipe, and may also be used to stop the supply of steam from the boiler
Fusible plug - placed at the lowest level of water and above the combustion chamber, its function is to extinguish the fire as soon as the water level in the shell of the boiler falls below a certain marked level.
Blow-off cock - removes water from the shell at regular intervals to remove the various impurities that may be settled at the bottom of the shell.
Safety valves - automatically prevent the steam pressure from exceeding safe levels
Water-level indicators - indicate the level of water in the shell.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Malek, Mohammad A. (2005.) "Power boiler design, inspection, and repair: ASME code simplified." McGraw-Hill. ISBN
Stromeyer, C.E. (1893.) "Marine boiler management and construction." Longmans, Green, and Co.
Outdoor wood-fired boiler | Wikipedia/Boiler_design |
Modelur is a 3D parametric urban design software, implemented as a SketchUp plugin.
In contrast to common CAD applications, where the user designs buildings with usual dimensions such as width, depth, and height, Modelur offers the design of built environment through key urban parameters such as the number of storeys and gross floor area of a building. In addition, urban control values (i.e. Floor Space Index, Built-up Area, etc. ) and requirements (i.e. number of parking lots or green areas) based on land use normatives are calculated in real-time.
== Sources ==
Trimble SketchUp
Modelur on SketchUp Extension Warehouse
Modelur on YouTube
== External links ==
Modelur Homepage
Modelur Userguide
SketchUp Extension Warehouse | Wikipedia/Modelur |
The indie design movement is made up of independent designers, artists, and craftspeople who design and make a wide array of products − without being part of large, industrialised businesses. The indie design movement can be seen as being an aspect of the general indie movement and DIY culture.
The designs created generally include works and art pieces that are individual to that creative individual. Such products may include jewellery and other fashion accessories, ceramics, clothing, glass art, metalwork, furniture, cosmetics, handicrafts, and diverse artworks.
== Marketing ==
Self-employed indie designers are supported by shoppers who are seeking niche and often handmade products as opposed to those mass-produced by manufacturing and retail corporations.
Indie designers often sell their items directly to buyers by way of their own online shops, craft fairs, street markets and a variety of online marketplaces, such as Etsy. However, they may also engage in consignment and/or wholesale relationships with retail outlets, both online and offline.
Corporate knockoffs
In recent years some large manufacturing and/or retail fashion and other lifestyle corporations have sold products which appear to closely resemble or directly copy innovative original works of indie designers and artists. This has caused some controversy.
== See also ==
Design Piracy Prohibition Act
Fashion design copyright
== References == | Wikipedia/Indie_design |
Design for the environment (DfE) is a design approach to reduce the overall human health and environmental impact of a product, process or service, where impacts are considered across its life cycle. Different software tools have been developed to assist designers in finding optimized products or processes/services. DfE is also the original name of a United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) program, created in 1992, that works to prevent pollution, and the risk pollution presents to humans and the environment. The program provides information regarding safer chemical formulations for cleaning and other products. EPA renamed its program "Safer Choice" in 2015.
== Introduction ==
Initial guidelines for a DfE approach were written in 1990 by East Meets West, a New York-based non-governmental organization founded by Anneke van Waesberghe. It became a global movement targeting design initiatives and incorporating environmental motives to improve product design in order to minimize health and environmental impacts by incorporating it from design stage all the way to the manufacturing process. The DfE strategy aims to improve technology and design tactics to expand the scope of products. By incorporating eco-efficiency into design tactics, DfE takes into consideration the entire life-cycle of the product, while still making products usable but minimizing resource use. The key focus of DfE is to minimize the environmental-economic cost to consumers while still focusing on the life-cycle framework of the product. By balancing both customer needs as well as environmental and social impacts DfE aims to "improve the product use experience both for consumers and producers, while minimally impacting the environment".
== Practices ==
Four main concepts that fall under the DfE umbrella.
Design for environmental processing and manufacturing: Raw material extraction (mining, drilling, etc.), processing (processing reusable materials, metal melting, etc.) and manufacturing are done using materials and processes which are not dangerous to the environment or the employees working on said processes. This includes the minimization of waste and hazardous by-products, air pollution, energy expenditure and other factors.
Design for environmental packaging: Materials used in packaging are environmentally responsible, which can be achieved through the reuse of shipping products, elimination of unnecessary paper and packaging products, efficient use of materials and space, use of recycled and/or recyclable materials.
Design for disposal or reuse: The end-of-life of a product is very important, because some products emit dangerous chemicals into the air, ground and water after they are disposed of in a landfill. Planning for the reuse or refurbishing of a product will change the types of materials that would be used, how they could later be disassembled and reused, and the environmental impacts such materials have.
Design for energy efficiency: The design of products to reduce overall energy consumption throughout the product's life.
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is employed to forecast the impacts of different (production) alternatives of the product in question, thus being able to choose the most environmentally friendly. A life cycle analysis can serve as a tool when determining the environmental impact of a product or process. Proper LCAs can help a designer compare several different products according to several categories, such as energy use, toxicity, acidification, CO2 emissions, ozone depletion, resource depletion and many others. By comparing different products, designers can make decisions about which environmental hazard to focus on in order to make the product more environmentally friendly.
== Rationale ==
Modern day businesses aim to produce goods at a low cost while maintaining quality, staying competitive in the global marketplace, and meeting consumer preferences for more environment friendly products. To help businesses meet these challenges, EPA encourages businesses to incorporate environmental considerations into the design process. The benefits of incorporating DfE include: cost savings, reduced business and environmental risks, expanded business and market opportunities, and to meet environmental regulations.
== Companies and products ==
Starbucks: Starbucks is decreasing its carbon footprint by building more energy efficient stores and facilities, conserving energy and water, and purchasing renewable energy credits. Starbucks has achieved LEED certificates in 116 stores in 12 countries. Starbucks has even created a portable, LEED certified store in Denver. It is Starbucks' goal to reduce energy consumption by 25% and to cover 100% of its electricity with renewable energy by 2015.
Hewlett Packard: HP is working towards reducing energy used in manufacturing, developing materials that have less environmental impact, and designing easily recyclable equipment.
IBM: Their goal is to extend product life beyond just production, and to use reusable and recyclable products. This means that IBM is currently working on creating products that can be safely disposed of at the end of its product life. They are also reducing consumption of energy to minimize their carbon footprint.
Philips: For almost 20 years now, sustainable development has been a crucial part of Philips decision making and manufacturing process. Philips' goal is to produce products with their environmental responsibility in mind. Not only are they working on reducing energy during the manufacturing process, Phillips is also participating in a unique project, philanthropy through design. Since 2005, Philips has been working on and developing philanthropy through design. They collaborate with other organizations to use their expertise and innovation to help the more fragile parts of our society.
Besides these large brand names there are several other consumer product companies in the DfE program this including:
Atlantic Chemical & Equipment Co.
American Cleaning Solutions
BCD Supply
Beta Technology
Brighton USA
== Design process ==
A business can design for the environment by:
Evaluating the human health and environmental impacts of its processes and products.
Identifying what information is needed to make human health and environment decisions
Conducting an assessment of alternatives
Considering cross-media impacts and the benefits of substituting chemicals
Reducing the use and release of toxic chemicals through the innovation of cleaner technologies that use safer chemicals.
Implementing pollution prevention, energy efficiency, and other resource conservation measures.
Making products that can be reused and recycled
Monitoring the environmental impacts and costs associated with each product or process
Recognizing that although change can be rapid, in many cases a cycle of evaluation and continuous improvement is needed.
== Safer Choice labeling program ==
EPA's DfE labeling program was renamed "Safer Choice" in 2015.
== Current U.S. laws and regulations encouraging DfE in the electronics industry ==
=== National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) ===
EPA promulgated the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to establish basic air pollution control requirements across the U.S. The NAAQS sets standards on six main sources of pollutants, which include emissions of: ozone (0.12 ppm per 1 hour), carbon monoxide (35 ppm per 1 hour; primary standard), particulate matter (50g/m^3 at an annual arithmetic mean), sulfur dioxide (80g/m^3 at an annual arithmetic mean), nitrogen dioxide (100g/m^3 at an annual arithmetic mean), and lead emissions (1.5g/m^3 at an annual arithmetic mean).
=== Stratospheric ozone protection ===
Stratospheric ozone protection is required by section 602 of the Clean Air Act of 1990. This regulation aims to decrease emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chemicals that are destroying the stratospheric ozone layer. The protection initiative categorizes ozone-depleting substances into two classes: Class I, and Class II.
Class I substances include 20 different kinds of chemicals and have all been phased-out of production processes since 2000. Class II substances consist of 33 different hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). The EPA has already begun plans to decrease emissions in HCFCs and plan to completely phase out the class II substances by 2030.
=== Reporting requirements for releases of toxic substances ===
A firm operating in the electronics industry in Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Codes 20-39 that has more than 10 full-time employees and consumes more than 10,000 lbs per year of any toxic chemical lists in 40 CFR 372.65 must file a toxic release inventory.
=== Other regulations ===
National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP)
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES–Water pollution permit program)
Underground Injection Control Program
Hazardous waste management
Underground storage tank management
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
The European Union: The European Platform on Life Cycle Assessment
Sustainable design for the environment
Department Life Cycle Engineering, University of Stuttgart (English)
Sustainable Building Alliance.org
Sustainable Residential Design.org: Using Low-Impact Materials Resource Guide | Wikipedia/Design_for_the_environment |
Industrial arts is an educational program that features the fabrication of objects in wood or metal using a variety of hand, power, or machine tools. Industrial Arts are commonly referred to as Technology Education. It may include small engine repair and automobile maintenance, and all programs usually cover technical drawing as part of the curricula. As an educational term, industrial arts dates from 1904 when Charles R. Richards of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York suggested it to replace manual training.
In the United States, industrial arts classes are colloquially known as "shop class"; these programs expose students to the basics of home repair, manual craftsmanship, and machine safety. Most industrial arts programs were established in comprehensive rather than dedicated vocational schools and focused on a broad range of skills rather than on a specific vocational training. In 1980, the name of industrial arts education in New York State was changed to "technology education" during what was called the "Futuring Project". The project goal was to increase students' technological literacy.
In Victoria, Australia, industrial arts is still a key part of the high school curriculum. The term now describes a key study of technology that focuses on both engineering and industrial technologies. Additionally, design using the aforementioned technologies is now a key part of the industrial arts curriculum and has been since the mid-1980s.
One of the most important aspects of industrial arts is that students design and create solutions; learning the challenges involved with working with materials and also the challenges of small-scale project management.
Some universities have doctoral programs in industrial arts.
Industrial arts includes product design, industrial design, industrial photography and digital business arts.
== Clubs ==
An industrial arts club is an organization that promotes the use of industrial fabrication equipment by the general public. Clubs have grown out of the decline of industrial arts (aka shop class) programs in comprehensive school systems in the US.
Clubs began as student organizations in primary and secondary schools offering industrial, the TechShop and Sparqs Industrial Arts Club based in Massachusetts which grew out of campus activities at MIT.
== In New South Wales ==
Industrial Arts (IA) is an important part of the (NSW) high school curriculum. Industrial Arts syllabi are managed, like all NSW syllabi by the Board of Studies. In some schools Industrial Arts faculties have become part of a larger Technology faculty, however, many schools still have a stand-alone Industrial Arts faculty.
The primary role of Industrial Arts education is to expose students to a variety of industrial and engineering technologies that improve their understanding of the industrial and engineered world. Moreover, students learn both project management and design principles, most courses are project-based with students realizing a solution to a design or engineering challenge. Two key components of the projects are synthesis of a solution and evaluation of the final product. Both of these components are the highest order objectives in Bloom's Taxonomy.
=== Curricula ===
Industrial Arts have a single compulsory course for Years 7 and 8: Technology (Mandatory). This course also has areas that cover Home Economics concepts and Information Communication Technologies (ICT) content.
For Years 9 and 10 all Industrial Arts courses are electives, the three electives on offer are Design and Technology, Graphics Technology, and Industrial Technology. The most popular Industrial Arts elective is Industrial Technology.
Design and Technology: this course centers on design without a prescribed context, so students may work with a variety of non-specified technologies. Students are given a design challenge and they come up with a solution. Their passage through the design process is documented in a Design Folio. In some schools, Design and Technology may not be delivered by the Industrial Arts faculty, in some schools the Home Economics faculty may run the Design and Technology course.
Graphics Technology: this course introduces students to both manual (pencil) technical drawing and Computer Aided Design (CAD). This course has a core study in Year 9 and then a variety of electives for Year 10 including Engineering Drawing, Architectural Drawing, and Computer Animation.
Industrial Technology: this course may be studied with a variety of different disciplines with the most popular ones being: timber, metal, electronics, multimedia and engineering. All have a common theme that students are involved in designing and making projects relevant to the context being studied. For example, a student in Industrial Technology – Multimedia may be asked to design an animation or website advertising a product. The development of their project is documented in their Project Report. A key part of the project report is the evaluation of the finished product.
In Years 11 and 12, Industrial Arts offers three Higher School Certificate (HSC) non-Vocational courses: Design and Technology, Engineering Studies, and Industrial Technology.
Design and Technology is an extension of the junior course of the same name. The course centers on design without a prescribed context, so students may work with a variety of non-specified technologies. For their HSC students must create a Major Design Project. Students establish a need and then try to solve it and realize a solution. A key part of the project is evaluated through the design process. The Major Design project counts for 60% of their final HSC examination mark.
Engineering Studies is primarily a theory course that introduces students to the engineered world. The course looks at a variety of engineering applications and fields of engineering. Students learn about engineering history and societal implications, engineering mechanics, engineering materials, engineering electronics, and engineering communication methods. The course introduces students to many concepts that they would otherwise the first encounter in undergraduate engineering programs at university. One of the fundamental aspects of the course is learning engineering through the investigation of real-life applications. This builds greater significance and understanding in students.
Industrial Technology is also an extension of the junior course of the same name. The course centers on students working within a prescribed technology such as Timber Products and Furniture Industries, Multimedia Industries Automotive Industries, Electronics Industries, Graphics Industries, and Metal and Engineering Industries. For their HSC students must create a Major Project. Students develop a project and document their progress through the project. Hence they learn the vital skills of project management. Similar to Design and Technology evaluation of the project is an important part of the associated documentation. The Major Project counts for 60% of their final HSC examination mark. The fundamental difference between Industrial Technology and Design and Technology is that a student studying Industrial Technology must study theory relevant to specific technology and also study industry practices relevant to their technology.
=== Professional association ===
In NSW the professional association for Industrial Arts teachers is the Institute of Industrial Arts Technology Education (IIATE). This organization releases a quarterly journal (on CD) and also runs an annual conference that investigates matters relevant to Industrial Arts education. Moreover, the IIATE represents Industrial Arts teachers in a variety of situations such as syllabus development meetings and teacher training interviews.
Another important role that The IIATE fulfills is that of Professional Learning. The IIATE has run some very successful training days called Hands-on Technology where teachers can build their skills and knowledge in a variety of areas. This Hands-on concept has now been extended with the Hands-on Engineering day now being developed to assist teachers in delivering the Industrial Arts' courses Industrial Technology - Engineering and Engineering Studies.
The IIATE has also successfully run training programs for CAD software which has enabled many more teachers to effectively embed CAD into their teaching.
== See also ==
Applied arts
Design and Technology, the equivalent course in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth countries
Industrial design
== References ==
== External links ==
Early Industrial Arts Exhibition Catalogs from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries | Wikipedia/Industrial_arts |
Value sensitive design (VSD) is a theoretically grounded approach to the design of technology that accounts for human values in a principled and comprehensive manner. VSD originated within the field of information systems design and human-computer interaction to address design issues within the fields by emphasizing the ethical values of direct and indirect stakeholders. It was developed by Batya Friedman and Peter Kahn at the University of Washington starting in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Later, in 2019, Batya Friedman and David Hendry wrote a book on this topic called "Value Sensitive Design: Shaping Technology with Moral Imagination". Value Sensitive Design takes human values into account in a well-defined matter throughout the whole process. Designs are developed using an investigation consisting of three phases: conceptual, empirical and technological. These investigations are intended to be iterative, allowing the designer to modify the design continuously.
The VSD approach is often described as an approach that is fundamentally predicated on its ability to be modified depending on the technology, value(s), or context of use. Some examples of modified VSD approaches are Privacy by Design which is concerned with respecting the privacy of personally identifiable information in systems and processes. Care-Centered Value Sensitive Design (CCVSD) proposed by Aimee van Wynsberghe is another example of how the VSD approach is modified to account for the values central to care for the design and development of care robots.
== Design process ==
VSD uses an iterative design process that involves three types of investigations: conceptual, empirical and technical. Conceptual investigations aim at understanding and articulating the various stakeholders of the technology, as well as their values and any values conflicts that might arise for these stakeholders through the use of the technology. Empirical investigations are qualitative or quantitative design research studies used to inform the designers' understanding of the users' values, needs, and practices. Technical investigations can involve either analysis of how people use related technologies, or the design of systems to support values identified in the conceptual and empirical investigations. Friedman and Hendry account seventeen methods, including their main purpose, an overview of its function as well as key references:
Stakeholder Analysis (Purpose: Stakeholder identification and legitimation): Identification of individuals, groups, organizations, institutions, and societies that might reasonably be affected by the technology under investigation and in what ways. Two overarching stakeholder categories: (1) those who interact directly with the technology, direct stakeholders; and (2) those indirectly affected by the technology, indirect stakeholders.
Stakeholder Tokens (Purpose: Stakeholder identification and interaction): Playful and versatile toolkit for identifying stakeholders and their interactions. Stakeholder tokens facilitate identifying stakeholders, distinguishing core from peripheral stakeholders, surfacing excluded stakeholders, and articulating relationships among stakeholders.
Value Source Analysis (Purpose: Identify value sources): Distinguish among the explicitly supported project values, designers’ personal values, and values held by other direct and indirect stakeholders.
Co-evolution of Technology and Social Structure (Purpose: Expand design space): Expanding the design space to include social structures integrated with technology may yield new solutions not possible when considering the technology alone. As appropriate, engage with the design of both technology and social structure as part of the solution space. Social structures may include policy, law, regulations, organizational practices, social norms, and others.
Value Scenario (Purpose: Values representation and elicitation): Narratives, comprising stories of use, intended to surface human and technical aspects of technology and context. Value scenarios emphasize implications for direct and indirect stakeholders, related key values, widespread use, indirect impacts, longer-term use, and similar systemic effects.
Value Sketch (Purpose: Values representation and elicitation): Sketching activities as a way to tap into stakeholders’ non-verbal understandings, views, and values about a technology.
Value-oriented Semi-structured Interview (Purpose: Values elicitation): Semi-structured interview questions as a way to tap into stakeholders’ understandings, views and values about a technology. Questions typically emphasize stakeholders’ evaluative judgments (e.g., all right or not all right) about a technology as well as rationale (e.g., why?). Additional considerations introduced by the stakeholder are pursued.
Scalable Information Dimensions (Purpose: Values elicitation): Sets of questions constructed to tease apart the impact of pervasiveness, proximity, granularity of information, and other scalable dimensions. Can be used in interview or survey formats.
Value-oriented Coding Manual (Purpose: Values analysis): Hierarchically structured categories for coding qualitative responses to the value representation and elicitation methods. Coding categories are generated from the data and a conceptualization of the domain. Each category contains a label, definition, and typically up to three sample responses from empirical data. Can be applied to oral, written, and visual responses.[1]
Value-oriented Mockup, Prototype or Field Deployment (Purpose: Values representation and elicitation): Development, analysis, and co-design of mockups, prototypes and field deployments to scaffold the investigation of value implications of technologies that are yet to be built or widely adopted. Mock-ups, prototypes or field deployments emphasize implications for direct and indirect stakeholders, value tensions, and technology situated in human contexts.
Ethnographically Informed Inquiry regarding Values and Technology (Purpose: Values, technology and social structure framework and analysis): Framework and approach for data collection and analysis to uncover the complex relationships among values, technology and social structure as those relationships unfold. Typically involves indepth engagement in situated contexts over longer periods of time.
Model for Informed Consent Online (Purpose: Design principles and values analysis): Model with corresponding design principles for considering informed consent in online contexts. The construct of informed encompasses disclosure and comprehension; that of consent encompasses voluntariness, competence, and agreement. Furthermore, implementations of informed consent.
Value Dams and Flows (Purpose: Values analysis): Analytic method to reduce the solution space and resolve value tensions among design choices. First, design options that even a small percentage of stakeholders strongly object to are removed from the design space—the value dams. Then of the remaining design options, those that a good percentage of stakeholders find appealing are foregrounded in the design—the value flows. Can be applied to the design of both technology and social structures.
Value Sensitive Action-Reflection Model (Purpose: Values representation and elicitation): Reflective process for introducing value sensitive prompts into a co-design activity. Prompts can be designer or stakeholder generated.
Multi-lifespan timeline (Purpose: Priming longer-term and multi-generational design thinking): Priming activity for longer-term design thinking. Multi-lifespan timelines prompt individuals to situate themselves in a longer time frame relative to the present, with attention to both societal and technological change.
Multi-lifespan co-design (Purpose: Longer-term design thinking and envisioning): Co-design activities and processes that emphasize longer-term anticipatory futures with implications for multiple and future generations.
Envisioning Cards (Purpose: Value sensitive design toolkit for industry, research, and educational practice): Value sensitive envisioning toolkit. A set of 32 cards, the Envisioning Cards build on four criteria: stakeholders, time, values, and pervasiveness. Each card contains on one side a title and an evocative image related to the card theme; on the flip side, the envisioning criterion, card theme, and a focused design activity. Envisioning Cards can be used for ideation, co-design, heuristic critique, and evaluation. The second edition of the Envision Cards was published online under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license in 2024. This second edition of the Envisioning Cards brings together under one cohesive design the original set of 32 Envisioning Cards published in 2011 including the four suits—Stakeholders, Time, Values, and Pervasiveness—with the supplementary set of 13 Envisioning Cards published in 2018 with the Multi-lifespan suit.
== Criticisms ==
Two commonly cited criticisms are critiques of the heuristics of values on which VSD is built. These critiques have been forwarded by Le Dantec et al. and Manders-Huits. Le Dantec et al. argue that formulating a pre-determined list of implicated values runs the risk of ignoring important values that can be elicited from any given empirical case by mapping those value a priori. Manders-Huits instead takes on the concept of ‘values’ itself with VSD as the central issue. She argues that the traditional VSD definition of values as “what a person or group of people consider important in life” is nebulous and runs the risk of conflating stakeholders preferences with moral values.
Wessel Reijers and Bert Gordijn have built upon the criticisms of Le Dantec et alia and Manders-Huits that the value heuristics of VSD are insufficient given their lack of moral commitment. They propose that a heuristic of virtues stemming from a virtue ethics approach to technology design, mostly influenced by the works of Shannon Vallor, provides a more holistic approach to technology design. Steven Umbrello has criticized this approach arguing that not only can the heuristic of values be reinforced but that VSD does make moral commitments to at least three universal values: human well-being, justice and dignity. Batya Friedman and David Hendry, in "Value Sensitive Design: Shaping Technology with Moral Imagination", argue that although earlier iterations of the VSD approach did not make explicit moral commitments, it has since evolved over the past two decades to commit to at least those three fundamental values.
VSD as a standalone approach has also been criticized as being insufficient for the ethical design of artificial intelligence. This criticism is predicated on the self-learning and opaque artificial intelligence techniques like those stemming from machine learning and, as a consequence, the unforeseen or unforeseeable values or disvalues that may emerge after the deployment of an AI system. Steven Umbrello and Ibo van de Poel propose a modified VSD approach that uses the Artificial Intelligence for Social Good (AI4SG) factors as norms to translate abstract philosophical values into tangible design requirements. What they propose is that full-lifecycle monitoring is necessary to encourage redesign in the event that unwanted values manifest themselves during the deployment of a system.
== See also ==
UrbanSim
Batya Friedman
Jeroen van den Hoven
Ibo van de Poel
Aimee van Wynsberghe
Alan Borning
Behnam Taebi
Steven Umbrello
Values-based innovation
Positive computing
== References ==
== External links ==
Value Sensitive Design Research Lab
Blackwell Reference Online: Value Sensitive Design | Wikipedia/Value_sensitive_design |
Evolutionary design, continuous design, evolutive design, incremental design or evolutionary architecture is directly related to any modular design application, in which components can be freely substituted to improve the design, modify performance, or change another feature at a later time.
Software architects and software developers should use "fitness functions" to continuously keep the software system in check. According to Neal Ford, evolutionary architecture delays decisions until the "last responsible moment." That moment can be identified with fast feedback loops and guiding fitness functions.
According to Neal Ford, evolutionary architecture adopts "Bring the pain forward," tackling tough tasks early, fostering automation and swift issue detection.
== Informatics ==
In particular, it applies (with the name continuous design) to software development. In this field it is a practice of creating and modifying the design of a system as it is developed, rather than purporting to specify the system completely before development starts (as in the waterfall model). Continuous design was popularized by extreme programming. Continuous design also uses test driven development and refactoring.
Martin Fowler wrote a popular book called Refactoring, as well as a popular article entitled "Is Design Dead?", that talked about continuous/evolutionary design. James Shore wrote an article in IEEE titled "Continuous Design".
== Industrial design Project ==
Modular design states that a product is made of subsystems that are joined together to create a full product. The above design model defined in electronics and evolved in industrial design into well consolidated industrial standards related to platform concept and its evolution.
== See also ==
Rapid application development
Continuous integration
Evolutionary database design
== References ==
== External links ==
Is Design Dead? | Wikipedia/Continuous_design |
Print design, a subset of graphic design, is a form of visual communication used to convey information to an audience through intentional aesthetic design printed on a tangible surface, designed to be printed on paper, as opposed to presented on a digital platform. A design can be considered print design if its final form was created through an imprint made by the impact of a stamp, seal, or dye on the surface of the paper.
== History ==
There are several methods used to create print design artworks, spanning more than five hundred years. Printing technologies available throughout history heavily influenced the style of designs created by graphic designers at the time of production, as different methods of creating print design offer varying features. Before the emergence of the design and printing technologies of the twentieth and twenty-first century such as the inkjet printer, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop, and Adobe InDesign, print design relied on mechanical technologies such as movable type, the letterpress, and lithography.
=== Movable Type ===
Chinese alchemist Pi Sheng invented the concept of movable type, circa 1045 CE. He created individual characters out of clay and lined them up, using a wax-like substance to keep them in place. They could then be pressed down to create an imprint, mimicking the effect of woodblock printing, which was the popular method at the time. Reusable, movable type was a revolutionary concept, however it did not gain traction in China because organizing the characters was not very compatible with the Chinese writing system. This innovation came about more than 400 years prior to the "invention" of movable type with the printing press in Europe, and it is unlikely that Pi Sheng was of any influence to Gutenberg.
=== Letterpress ===
The letterpress, perfected in the mid fifteenth century by Johannes Gutenberg (1398-1468) through the combined use of the printing press, oil-based inks, and cast metal type, remained the most common and efficient method of printing until the 1960s. Used frequently with typography design and type layout, the letterpress operates through the stamping of type and photo-engraved metal blocks on paper. The metal blocks are arranged in a frame by the printer, and the text columns and etchings are separated by vertical or horizontal metal bars; it is even possible to arrange the blocks at an angle using a letterpress. With the letterpress, print design and graphics remained black and white print on paper until the late nineteenth century. The letterpress was the first technology that allowed for mass production and distribution of printed material at a large scale, and because of this, quickly replaced the slow processes of woodblock printing and hand copying of print design. As time went on and technology progressed, the letterpress did as well. The Industrial Revolution brought about steam powered printing presses and Linotype machines, advancing the mechanical process of printing to a speed never seen before.
=== Lithography ===
Lithography, introduced at the end of the nineteenth century, allowed for the use of color in prints and allowed artists to print on larger surfaces than the letterpress. Additionally, lithography enabled artists to draw their own lettering on designs, which was not possible with the letterpress. The design was drawn directly onto the stone by the artist, and then transferred onto the surface of the paper.
== Uses ==
Print design is essential for branding, marketing, and communication, encompassing business cards, brochures, posters, flyers, packaging, publishing, and advertising. It involves creating visual elements and strategic messaging to effectively communicate with target audiences. Print design also plays a crucial role in publishing, including book covers, magazine layouts, and official documents. Print design remains prevalent in society through all forms of communicative design. The importance of printed visual design was highlighted during the First World War, as posters helped to inform and instruct the audience. A short list of print design's uses today includes:
Posters
Brochures
Flyers
Packaging labels
Business cards
Book covers
Book design and layout
Magazines
Banners
Receipts
Shopping bags
== References == | Wikipedia/Print_design |
In 3D computer graphics, a wire-frame model (also spelled wireframe model) is a visual representation of a three-dimensional (3D) physical object. It is based on a polygon mesh or a volumetric mesh, created by specifying each edge of the physical object where two mathematically continuous smooth surfaces meet, or by connecting an object's constituent vertices using (straight) lines or curves.
The object is projected into screen space and rendered by drawing lines at the location of each edge. The term "wire frame" comes from designers using metal wire to represent the three-dimensional shape of solid objects. 3D wireframe computer models allow for the construction and manipulation of solids and solid surfaces. 3D solid modeling efficiently draws higher quality representations of solids than conventional line drawing.
Using a wire-frame model allows for the visualization of the underlying design structure of a 3D model. Traditional two-dimensional views and drawings/renderings can be created by the appropriate rotation of the object, and the selection of hidden-line removal via cutting planes.
Since wire-frame renderings are relatively simple and fast to calculate, they are often used in cases where a relatively high screen frame rate is needed (for instance, when working with a particularly complex 3D model, or in real-time systems that model exterior phenomena).
When greater graphical detail is desired, surface textures can be added automatically after the completion of the initial rendering of the wire frame. This allows a designer to quickly review solids, or rotate objects to different views without the long delays associated with more realistic rendering, or even the processing of faces and simple flat shading.
The wire frame format is also well-suited and widely used in programming tool paths for direct numerical control (DNC) machine tools.
Hand-drawn wire-frame-like illustrations date back as far as the Italian Renaissance. Wire-frame models were also used extensively in video games to represent 3D objects during the 1980s and early 1990s, when "properly" filled 3D objects would have been too complex to calculate and draw with the computers of the time. Wire-frame models are also used as the input for computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
There are three main types of 3D computer-aided design (CAD) models; wire frame is the most abstract and least realistic. The other types are surface and solid. The wire-frame method of modelling consists of only lines and curves that connect the points or vertices and thereby define the edges of an object.
== Simple example of wireframe model ==
An object is specified by two tables: (1) Vertex Table, and, (2) Edge Table.
The vertex table consists of three-dimensional coordinate values for each vertex with reference to the origin.
Edge table specifies the start and end vertices for each edge.
A naive interpretation could create a wire-frame representation by simply drawing straight lines between the screen coordinates of the appropriate vertices using the edge list.
Unlike representations designed for more detailed rendering, face information is not specified (it must be calculated if required for solid rendering).
Appropriate calculations have to be performed to transform the 3D coordinates of the vertices into 2D screen coordinates.
== See also ==
Animation
3D computer graphics
Computer animation
Computer-generated imagery (CGI)
Mockup
Polygon mesh
Vector graphics
Virtual cinematography
== References ==
Principles of Engineering Graphics by Maxwell Macmillan International Editions
ASME Engineer's Data Book by Clifford Matthews
Engineering Drawing by N.D. Bhatt
Texturing and Modeling by Davis S. Ebert
3D Computer Graphics by Alan Watt | Wikipedia/Wire-frame_model |
Modular design, or modularity in design, is a design principle that subdivides a system into smaller parts called modules (such as modular process skids), which can be independently created, modified, replaced, or exchanged with other modules or between different systems.
== Overview ==
A modular design can be characterized by functional partitioning into discrete scalable and reusable modules, rigorous use of well-defined modular interfaces, and making use of industry standards for interfaces. In this context modularity is at the component level, and has a single dimension, component slottability. A modular system with this limited modularity is generally known as a platform system that uses modular components. Examples are car platforms or the USB port in computer engineering platforms.
In design theory this is distinct from a modular system which has higher dimensional modularity and degrees of freedom. A modular system design has no distinct lifetime and exhibits flexibility in at least three dimensions. In this respect modular systems are very rare in markets. Mero architectural systems are the closest example to a modular system in terms of hard products in markets. Weapons platforms, especially in aerospace, tend to be modular systems, wherein the airframe is designed to be upgraded multiple times during its lifetime, without the purchase of a completely new system. Modularity is best defined by the dimensions effected or the degrees of freedom in form, cost, or operation.
Modularity offers benefits such as reduction in cost (customization can be limited to a portion of the system, rather than needing an overhaul of the entire system), interoperability, shorter learning time, flexibility in design, non-generationally constrained augmentation or updating (adding new solution by merely plugging in a new module), and exclusion. Modularity in platform systems, offer benefits in returning margins to scale, reduced product development cost, reduced O&M costs, and time to market. Platform systems have enabled the wide use of system design in markets and the ability for product companies to separate the rate of the product cycle from the R&D paths. The biggest drawback with modular systems is the designer or engineer. Most designers are poorly trained in systems analysis and most engineers are poorly trained in design. The design complexity of a modular system is significantly higher than a platform system and requires experts in design and product strategy during the conception phase of system development. That phase must anticipate the directions and levels of flexibility necessary in the system to deliver the modular benefits. Modular systems could be viewed as more complete or holistic design whereas platforms systems are more reductionist, limiting modularity to components. Complete or holistic modular design requires a much higher level of design skill and sophistication than the more common platform system.
Cars, computers, process systems, solar panels, wind turbines, elevators, furniture, looms, railroad signaling systems, telephone exchanges, pipe organs, synthesizers, electric power distribution systems and modular buildings are examples of platform systems using various levels of component modularity. For example, one cannot assemble a solar cube from extant solar components or easily replace the engine on a truck or rearrange a modular housing unit into a different configuration after a few years, as would be the case in a modular system. These key characteristics make modular furniture incredibly versatile and adaptable. The only extant examples of modular systems in today's market are some software systems that have shifted away from versioning into a completely networked paradigm.
Modular design inherently combines the mass production advantages of standardization with those of customization. The degree of modularity, dimensionally, determines the degree of customization possible. For example, solar panel systems have 2-dimensional modularity which allows adjustment of an array in the x and y dimensions. Further dimensions of modularity would be introduced by making the panel itself and its auxiliary systems modular. Dimensions in modular systems are defined as the effected parameter such as shape or cost or lifecycle. Mero systems have 4-dimensional modularity, x, y, z, and structural load capacity. As can be seen in any modern convention space, the space frame's extra two dimensions of modularity allows far greater flexibility in form and function than solar's 2-d modularity. If modularity is properly defined and conceived in the design strategy, modular systems can create significant competitive advantage in markets. A true modular system does not need to rely on product cycles to adapt its functionality to the current market state. Properly designed modular systems also introduce the economic advantage of not carrying dead capacity, increasing the capacity utilization rate and its effect on cost and pricing flexibility.
== Applications ==
=== In vehicles ===
Aspects of modular design can be seen in cars or other vehicles to the extent of there being certain parts to the car that can be added or removed without altering the rest of the car.
A simple example of modular design in cars is the fact that, while many cars come as a basic model, paying extra will allow for "snap in" upgrades such as a more powerful engine, vehicle audio, ventilated seats, or seasonal tires; these do not require any change to other units of the car such as the chassis, steering, electric motor or battery systems.
=== In machines and architecture ===
Modular design can be seen in certain buildings. Modular buildings (and also modular homes) generally consist of universal parts (or modules) that are manufactured in a factory and then shipped to a build site where they are assembled into a variety of arrangements.
Modular buildings can be added to or reduced in size by adding or removing certain components. This can be done without altering larger portions of the building. Modular buildings can also undergo changes in functionality using the same process of adding or removing components.
For example, an office building can be built using modular parts such as walls, frames, doors, ceilings, and windows. The interior can then be partitioned (or divided) with more walls and furnished with desks, computers, and whatever else is needed for a functioning workspace. If the office needs to be expanded or redivided to accommodate employees, modular components such as wall panels can be added or relocated to make the necessary changes without altering the whole building. Later, this same office can be broken down and rearranged to form a retail space, conference hall or another type of building, using the same modular components that originally formed the office building. The new building can then be refurnished with whatever items are needed to carry out its desired functions.
Other types of modular buildings that are offered from a company like Allied Modular include a guardhouse, machine enclosure, press box, conference room, two-story building, clean room and many more applications.
Many misconceptions are held regarding modular buildings. In reality modular construction is a viable method of construction for quick turnaround and fast growing companies. Industries that would benefit from this include healthcare, commercial, retail, military, and multi-family/student housing.
=== In computer hardware ===
Modular design in computer hardware is the same as in other things (e.g. cars, refrigerators, and furniture). The idea is to build computers with easily replaceable parts that use standardized interfaces. This technique allows a user to upgrade certain aspects of the computer easily without having to buy another computer altogether.
A computer is one of the best examples of modular design. Typical computer modules include a computer chassis, power supply units, processors, mainboards, graphics cards, hard drives, and optical drives. All of these parts should be easily interchangeable as long as the user uses parts that support the same standard interface.
=== In smartphones ===
The idea of a modular smartphone was explored in Project Ara, which provided a platform for manufactures to create modules for a smartphone which could then be customised by the end user. The Fairphone uses a similar principle, where the user can purchase individual parts to repair or upgrade the phone.
=== In televisions ===
In 1963 Motorola introduced the first rectangular color picture tube, and in 1967 introduced the modular Quasar brand. In 1964 it opened its first research and development branch outside of the United States, in Israel under the management of Moses Basin. In 1974 Motorola sold its television business to the Japan-based Matsushita, the parent company of Panasonic.
=== In weaponry ===
Some firearms and weaponry use a modular design to make maintenance and operation easier and more familiar. For instance, German firearms manufacturer Heckler & Koch produces several weapons that, while being different types, are visually and, in many instances, internally similar. These are the G3 battle rifle, HK21 general-purpose machine gun, MP5 submachine gun, HK33 and G41 assault rifles, and PSG1 sniper rifle.
=== In trade show exhibits and retail displays ===
The concept of modular design has become popular with trade show exhibits and retail promotional displays. These kind of promotional displays involve creative custom designs but need a temporary structure that can be reusable. Thus many companies are adapting to the Modular way of exhibit design. In this they can use pre engineered modular systems that act as building blocks to creative a custom design. These can then be reconfigured to another layout and reused for a future show. This enables the user to reduce cost of manufacturing and labor (for set up and transport) and is a more sustainable way of creating experiential set ups.
== Integrating the digital twin into modular design ==
Product lifecycle management is a strategy for efficiently managing information about a product (and product families, platforms, modules, and parts) during its product lifecycle. Researchers have described how integrating a digital twin—a digital representation of a physical product—with modular design can improve product lifecycle management.
== Integrating life-cycle and energy assessments into modular design ==
Some authors observe that modular design has generated in the vehicle industry a constant increase of weight over time. Trancossi advanced the hypothesis that modular design can be coupled by some optimization criteria derived from the constructal law. In fact, the constructal law is modular for his nature and can apply with interesting results in engineering simple systems. It applies with a typical bottom-up optimization schema:
a system can be divided into subsystems (elemental parts) using tree models;
any complex system can be represented in a modular way and it is possible to describe how different physical magnitudes flow through the system;
analyzing the different flowpaths it is possible to identify the critical components that affect the performance of the system;
by optimizing those components and substituting them with more performing ones, it is possible to improve the performances of the system.
A better formulation has been produced during the MAAT EU FP7 Project. A new design method that couples the above bottom-up optimization with a preliminary system level top-down design has been formulated. The two step design process has been motivated by considering that constructal and modular design does not refer to any objective to be reached in the design process. A theoretical formulation has been provided in a recent paper, and applied with success to the design of a small aircraft, the conceptual design of innovative commuter aircraft, the design of a new entropic wall, and an innovative off-road vehicle designed for energy efficiency.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Schilling, MA., "Toward a general modular systems theory and its application to interfirm product modularity" Academy of Management Review, 2000, Vol 25(2):312-334. [1]
Erixon, O.G. and Ericsson, A., "Controlling Design Variants" USA: Society of Manufacturing Engineers 1999 [2] ISBN 0-87263-514-7 [3]
Clark, K.B. and Baldwin, C.Y., "Design Rules. Vol. 1: The Power of Modularity" Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press 2000 ISBN 0-262-02466-7
Baldwin, C.Y., Clark, K.B., "The Option Value of Modularity in Design" Harvard Business School, 2002 [4]
Levin, Mark Sh. "Modular systems design and evaluation". Springer, 2015.
Modularity in Design Formal Modeling & Automated Analysis
"Modularity: upgrading to the next generation design architecture" Archived 2019-07-19 at the Wayback Machine, an interview | Wikipedia/Modular_design |
A design director (also called Director of Design) is a position found within the software development, web development, product design, advertising, media, automotive or movie industries. It may be useful in other product focused organizations as well. The duties are similar to those of a creative instructor but with greater emphasis on technical design and production along with creative and ideas. The design director oversees the design of branding, product, UI, UX, Print, Advertising for a client, ensuring that the design elements fits in with the client's requirements and the product fits the design brief the client wish to promote for their company or product. However, unlike a creative director, the design director is also responsible for the overall quality of the final creative work and the quality of the project's design elements.
The distinction between the two positions is that advertising creative directors are usually promoted from copyrighting or art directing positions. Design directors, are promoted from senior designer positions. Design directors also require a much greater technical understanding of design process and techniques with cross platform and multi-disciplinary team application of their work also common place. As a role design directors are not only concerned with the creative elements, but also business, production and user facing experiences.
== See also ==
Design
Creativity
Artistic inspiration
Communication
== References == | Wikipedia/Design_director |
A geometric modeling kernel is a solid modeling software component used in computer-aided design (CAD) packages. Available modelling kernels include:
ACIS is developed and licensed by Spatial Corporation of Dassault Systèmes.
SMLib is developed by Solid Modeling Solutions.
Convergence Geometric Modeler is developed by Dassault Systèmes.
Parasolid is developed and licensed by Siemens.
Romulus was a predecessor to Parasolid.
ShapeManager is developed by Autodesk and was forked from ACIS in 2001.
Granite is developed by Parametric Technology Corporation.
C3D Modeler is developed by C3D Labs, part of the ASCON Group.
CGAL is an opensource Computational Geometry Algorithms Library which has support for boolean operations on Polyhedra; but no sweep, revolve or NURBS.
Open CASCADE is an opensource modeling kernel.
sgCore is a freeware proprietary modeling kernel distributed as an SDK.
K3 kernel is developed by Center GeoS.
SOLIDS++ is developed by IntegrityWare, Inc.
APM Engine is developed by RSDC APM.
KCM is developed and licensed by Kubotek Kosmos
SvLis Geometric Kernel became opensource and discontinued, for Windows only.
IRIT modeling environment, for Windows only.
GTS GNU Triangulated Surface Library, for polygon meshes only and not surfaces.
Russian Geometric Kernel.
Geometry Kernel, a multi-platform C++ library with source code accessible for clients, developed and distributed by RDF - Geometry Kernel web site.
SolveSpace has its own integrated parametric solid geometry kernel with a limited NURBS support.
== Kernel market ==
The kernel market currently is dominated by Parasolid and ACIS, which were introduced in the late 1980s. The latest kernel to enter the market is KCM. ShapeManager has no presence in the kernel licensing market and in 2001 Autodesk clearly stated they were not going into this business.
The world's newest geometric modeling kernel is Russian Geometric Kernel owned by the Russian government, and it is not clear if it is going to be commercially available, despite offering unique features over the other kernels on the market.
== Kernel developers ==
The table below contains a representative list of developers developing their own kernel or licensing the kernel from a third-party.
== References == | Wikipedia/Geometric_modeling_kernel |
The open-design movement involves the development of physical products, machines and systems through use of publicly shared design information. This includes the making of both free and open-source software (FOSS) as well as open-source hardware. The process is generally facilitated by the Internet and often performed without monetary compensation. The goals and philosophy of the movement are identical to that of the open-source movement, but are implemented for the development of physical products rather than software. Open design is a form of co-creation, where the final product is designed by the users, rather than an external stakeholder such as a private company.
== Origin ==
Sharing of manufacturing information can be traced back to the 18th and 19th century. Aggressive patenting put an end to that period of extensive knowledge sharing.
More recently, principles of open design have been related to the free and open-source software movements. In 1997 Eric S. Raymond, Tim O'Reilly and Larry Augustin established "open source" as an alternative expression to "free software", and in 1997 Bruce Perens published The Open Source Definition. In late 1998, Dr. Sepehr Kiani (a PhD in mechanical engineering from MIT) realized that designers could benefit from open source policies, and in early 1999 he convinced Dr. Ryan Vallance and Dr. Samir Nayfeh of the potential benefits of open design in machine design applications. Together they established the Open Design Foundation (ODF) as a non-profit corporation, and set out to develop an Open Design Definition.
The idea of open design was taken up, either simultaneously or subsequently, by several other groups and individuals. The principles of open design are closely similar to those of open-source hardware design, which emerged in March 1998 when Reinoud Lamberts of the Delft University of Technology proposed on his "Open Design Circuits" website the creation of a hardware design community in the spirit of free software.
Ronen Kadushin coined the title "Open Design" in his 2004 Master's thesis, and the term was later formalized in the 2010 Open Design Manifesto.
== Current directions ==
The open-design movement currently unites two trends. On one hand, people apply their skills and time on projects for the common good, perhaps where funding or commercial interest is lacking, for developing countries or to help spread ecological or cheaper technologies. On the other hand, open design may provide a framework for developing advanced projects and technologies that might be beyond the resource of any single company or country and involve people who, without the copyleft mechanism, might not collaborate otherwise. There is now also a third trend, where these two methods come together to use high-tech open-source (e.g. 3D printing) but customized local solutions for sustainable development. Open Design holds great potential in driving future innovation as recent research has proven that stakeholder users working together produce more innovative designs than designers consulting users through more traditional means. The open-design movement may arguably organize production by prioritising socio-ecological well-being over corporate profits, over-production and excess consumption.
== Open machine design as compared to open-source software ==
The open-design movement is currently fairly nascent but holds great potential for the future. In some respects design and engineering are even more suited to open collaborative development than the increasingly common open-source software projects, because with 3D models and photographs the concept can often be understood visually. It is not even necessary that the project members speak the same languages to usefully collaborate.
However, there are certain barriers to overcome for open design when compared to software development where there are mature and widely used tools available and the duplication and distribution of code cost next to nothing. Creating, testing and modifying physical designs is not quite so straightforward because of the effort, time and cost required to create the physical artefact; although with access to emerging flexible computer-controlled manufacturing techniques the complexity and effort of construction can be significantly reduced (see tools mentioned in the fab lab article).
== Organizations ==
Open design was considered in 2012 a fledgling movement consisting of several unrelated or loosely related initiatives. Many of these organizations are single, funded projects, while a few organizations are focusing on an area needing development. In some cases (e.g. Thingiverse for 3D printable designs or Appropedia for open source appropriate technology) organizations are making an effort to create a centralized open source design repository as this enables innovation. Notable organizations include:
AguaClara, an open-source engineering group at Cornell University publishing a design tool and CAD designs for water treatment plants
Arduino, an open-source electronics hardware platform, community and company
Elektor
GrabCAD
Instructables
Local Motors: methods of transport, vehicles
LittleBits
One Laptop Per Child, a project to provide children in developing territories laptop computers with open hardware and software
OpenCores, digital electronic hardware
Open Architecture Network
Open Hardware and Design Alliance (OHANDA)
OpenStructures (OSP), a modular construction model where everyone designs on the basis of one shared geometrical grid.
Open Source Ecology, including solar cells
Thingiverse, miscellaneous
VOICED
VIA OpenBook netbook has CAD files for the design licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Unported License
Wikispeed, open-source modular vehicles
Open Source Design, a community created in 2016 to hold space for designers interested in open source.
Zoetrope, an open design low-cost wind turbine.
== See also ==
3D printing services
Cosmopolitan localism
Commons-based peer production
Co-creation
Knowledge commons
Modular design
OpenBTS
Open manufacturing
Open-source appropriate technology
Open-source architecture
Open Source Initiative
Open-source software
Open standard and Open standardization
Open Design Alliance
Digital public goods
== References ==
== External links ==
Episodes of Collective Invention (Peter B. Meyer, August 2003) An article on several historical examples of what could be called "open design"
"Lawrence Lessig and the Creative Commons Developing Nations License" (Alex Steffen, November 2006) An interview with Lawrence Lessig on the use of the Developing Nations License by Architecture for Humanity to create a global open design network
"In the Next Industrial Revolution, Atoms Are the New Bits" (Chris Anderson, Wired February 2010) | Wikipedia/Open-design_movement |
Use-centered design is a design philosophy in which the focus is on the goals and tasks associated with skill performance in specific work or problem domains, in contrast to a user-centered design approach, where the focus is on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end user of the designed artifact.
Bennett and Flach (2011) have drawn a contrast between dyadic and triadic approaches to the semiotics of display design. The classical 'user-centered' approach is based on a dyadic semiotic model where the focus is on the human-interface dyad. This approach frames 'meaning' as a process of interpreting the symbolic representation. That is, meaning is constructed from internal information processes. From this dyadic perspective, the design goal is to build interfaces that 'match' the users internal model (i.e., match user expectations).
In contrast, the 'use-centered' approach is based on a triadic semiotic model that includes the work domain (or ecology) as a third component of the semiotic system. In the triadic system, the work domain provides a ground for meaning outside of the human information processing system. In this, triadic semiotic system, the focus is on the match between the constraints in the work domain and the mental representations. From this 'use-centered' approach the goal is to design displays that 'shape' the internal mental representations so that they reflect validated models of the work domain. In other words, the goal is to shape user expectations to conform with the validated 'deep structure' of the work domain. In doing this, work analysis (e.g., Vicente 1999) and multi-level means ends representations of work domain constraints (i.e., Rasmussen's Abstraction Hierarchy) are the typical methods used to specify the 'deep structure' of a work domain. By building configural display representations that conform to this deep structure -- it is possible to facilitate skilled interactions between the human and the work domain.
Thus, an emphasis on 'use' rather than 'user' suggests a more problem-centered focus for interface design. Note that it remains important to respect the real limitations of human information processing systems through the use of graphical displays that support efficient chunking of information. However, the main point is that the organization MUST be consistent with the demands of the work or problem domain, if the interactions that result are expected to be skillful. In the end, the representations must be 'grounded' in the use-domain!
Charles Sanders Peirce is the inspiration for the triadic model of semiotics. Peirce was interested in the fixation of belief relative to pragmatic demands of everyday experiences. Peirce also introduced the construct of 'abduction' as an alternative to classical logic (deduction and induction). The 'use-centered' approach assumes abduction as the appropriate model for problem solving. Thus, use-centered design focuses on supporting the closed-loop dynamic of learning from experience. That is, by acting on hypotheses and simultaneously testing those hypotheses in terms of the practical consequences of the actions that they guide. The convergence, stability, and robustness of abduction processes depend critically on the information coupling between perception and action. When the coupling is rich an abduction system will typically converge on 'beliefs' that lead to pragmatically successful (i.e., satisfying) interactions (i.e., skilled interactions). This is the ultimate goal of use-centered design - to support skilled interactions between a person and a work domain.
The term use-centered design was first coined by Flach and Dominguez.
== References == | Wikipedia/Use-centered_design |
Universal design is the design of buildings, products or environments to make them accessible to people, regardless of age, disability, or other factors. It emerged as a rights-based, anti-discrimination measure, which seeks to create design for all abilities. Evaluating material and structures that can be utilized by all. It addresses common barriers to participation by creating things that can be used by the maximum number of people possible. "When disabling mechanisms are to be replaced with mechanisms for inclusion, different kinds of knowledge are relevant for different purposes. As a practical strategy for inclusion, Universal Design involves dilemmas and often difficult priorities." Curb cuts or sidewalk ramps, which are essential for people in wheelchairs but also used by all, are a common example of universal design.
== History ==
The term universal design was coined by the architect Ronald Mace to describe the concept of designing all products and the built environment to be aesthetic and usable to the greatest extent possible by everyone, regardless of their age, ability, or status in life. However, due to some people having unusual or conflicting access needs, such as a person with low vision needing bright light and a person with photophobia needing dim light, universal design does not address absolutely every need for every person in every situation.
Universal design emerged from slightly earlier barrier-free concepts, the broader accessibility movement, and adaptive and assistive technology and also seeks to blend aesthetics into these core considerations. As life expectancy rises and modern medicine increases the survival rate of those with significant injuries, illnesses, and birth defects, there is a growing interest in universal design. There are many industries in which universal design is having strong market penetration but there are many others in which it has not yet been adopted to any great extent. Universal design is also being applied to the design of technology, instruction, services, and other products and environments. Several different fields, such as engineering, architecture, and medicine collaborate in order to effectively create accessible environments that can lend to inclusion for a variety of disabilities. It can change the socio-material relationships people have with spaces and environments and create positive experiences for all kinds of abilities. Which allows for meaningful participation across multiple demographics experiencing disability.
=== Barrier-free design ===
In 1960, specifications for barrier-free design were published as a compendium of over 11 years of disability ergonomic research. In 1961, the American National Standard Institute (ANSI) A1171.1 specifications were published as the first Barrier Free Design standard. It presented criteria for designing facilities and programs for use by individuals with disabilities. The research started in 1949 at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and continues to this day. The principal investigator, Dr. Timothy Nugent, who is credited in the 1961, 1971, and 1980 standards, also started the National Wheelchair Basketball Association.
The ANSI A117.1 standard was adopted by the US federal government General Services Administration under the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) in 1984, then in 1990 for American with Disabilities Act (ADA). The archived research documents are at the International Code Council (ICC) - ANSI A117.1 division. Dr. Nugent made presentations around the globe in the late 1950s and 1960s presenting the concept of independent functional participation for individuals with disabilities through program options and architectural design.
Another comprehensive publication by the Royal Institute of British Architects published three editions 1963, 1967, 1976 and 1997 of Designing for the Disabled by Selwyn Goldsmith UK. These publications contain valuable empirical data and studies of individuals with disabilities. Both standards are excellent resources for the designer and builder.
Disability ergonomics should be taught to designers, engineers, non-profits executives to further the understanding of what makes an environment wholly tenable and functional for individuals with disabilities.
In October 2003, representatives from China, Japan, and South Korea met in Beijing and agreed to set up a committee to define common design standards for a wide range of products and services that are easy to understand and use. Their goal is to publish a standard in 2004 which covers, among other areas, standards on containers and wrappings of household goods (based on a proposal from experts in Japan), and standardization of signs for public facilities, a subject which was of particular interest to China as it prepared to host the 2008 Summer Olympics.
=== Design for All ===
Selwyn Goldsmith, author of Designing for the Disabled (1963), pioneered the concept of free access for people with disabilities. His most significant achievement was the creation of the dropped curb – now a standard feature of the built environment.
The term Design for All (DfA) is used to describe a design philosophy targeting the use of products, services and systems by as many people as possible without the need for adaptation. "Design for All is design for human diversity, social inclusion and equality" (EIDD Stockholm Declaration, 2004). According to the European Commission, it "encourages manufacturers and service providers to produce new technologies for everyone: technologies that are suitable for the elderly and people with disabilities, as much as the teenage techno wizard." The origin of Design for All lies in the field of barrier-free accessibility for people with disabilities and the broader notion of universal design.
Design for All has been highlighted in Europe by the European Commission in seeking a more user-friendly society in Europe. Design for All is about ensuring that environments, products, services and interfaces work for people of all ages and abilities in different situations and under various circumstances.
Design for All has become a mainstream issue because of the aging of the population and its increasingly multi-ethnic composition. It follows a market approach and can reach out to a broader market. Easy-to-use, accessible, affordable products and services improve the quality of life of all citizens. Design for All permits access to the built environment, access to services and user-friendly products which are not just a quality factor but a necessity for many aging or disabled persons. Including Design for All early in the design process is more cost-effective than making alterations after solutions are already in the market. This is best achieved by identifying and involving users ("stakeholders") in the decision-making processes that lead to drawing up the design brief and educating public and private sector decision-makers about the benefits to be gained from making coherent use of Design (for All) in a wide range of socio-economic situations
==== In information and communication technology (ICT) ====
Design for All criteria are aimed at ensuring that everyone can participate in the Information society. The European Union refers to this under the terms eInclusion and eAccessibility. A three-way approach is proposed: goods which can be accessed by nearly all potential users without modification or, failing that, products being easy to adapt according to different needs, or using standardized interfaces that can be accessed simply by using assistive technology. To this end, manufacturers and service providers, especially, but not exclusively, in the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), produce new technologies, products, services and applications for everyone.
==== European organizational networks ====
In Europe, people have joined in networks to promote and develop Design for All:
The European Design for All eAccessibility Network (EDeAN) was launched under the lead of the European Commission and the European Member States in 2002. It fosters Design for All for eInclusion, that is, creating an information society for all. It has national contact centres (NCCs) in almost all EU countries and more than 160 network members in national networks.
EIDD - Design for All Europe is a NGO and a 100% self-financed European organization that covers the entire area of theory and practice of Design for All, from the built environment and tangible products to communication, service and system design. Originally set up in 1993 as the European Institute for Design and Disability (EIDD), to enhance the quality of life through Design for All, it changed its name in 2006 to bring it into line with its core business. EIDD - Design for All Europe disseminates the application of Design for All to business and administration communities previously unaware of its benefits and currently (2016) has 31 member organizations in 20 European countries.
EuCAN - The European Concept for Accessibility Network started in 1984 as an open network of experts and advocates from all over Europe in order to promote and support the Design for All approach. The coordination work of EuCAN and the functioning of the network are mainly voluntary work. In 1999 the Luxembourg Disability Information and Meeting Centre (better known by its acronym "Info-Handicap") took over the coordination of the steering group, together with the implicit responsibility for the follow-up of the European Concept for Accessibility (ECA). The EuCAN publications - like ECA - aim to provide practical guidance. They are neither academic nor policy documents.
== Principles and goals ==
The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University expounded the following principles:
Equitable use
Flexibility in use
Simple and intuitive
Perceptible information
Tolerance for error
Low physical effort
Size and space for approach and use
Each principle is broader than those of accessible design or barrier-free design contains and few brief guidelines that can be applied to design processes in any realm: physical or digital.
=== Goals ===
In 2012, the Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access at the University at Buffalo expanded the definition of the principles of universal design to include social participation and health and wellness. Rooted in evidence based design, the 8 goals of universal design were also developed.
Body Fit
Comfort
Awareness
Understanding
Wellness
Social Integration
Personalization
Cultural Appropriateness
The first four goals are oriented to human performance: anthropometry, biomechanics, perception, cognition. Wellness bridges human performance and social participation. The last three goals addresses social participation outcomes. The definition and the goals are expanded upon in the textbook "Universal Design: Creating Inclusive Environments."
== The "barrier-free" concept ==
Barrier-free (バリアフリー, bariafurii) building modification consists of modifying buildings or facilities so that they can be used by people who are disabled or have physical impairments. The term is used primarily in Japan and other non-English speaking countries (e.g. German: Barrierefreiheit; Finnish: esteettömyys), while in English-speaking countries, terms such as "accessibility" and "accessible" dominate in everyday use. An example of barrier-free design would be installing a ramp for wheelchair users alongside steps. In the late 1990s, any element which could make the use of the environment inconvenient for people with disabilities was (and still is) considered a barrier, for example, poor public street lighting. In the case of new buildings, however, the idea of barrier-free modification has largely been superseded by the concept of universal design, which seeks to design things from the outset to support easy access.
Freeing a building of barriers means:
Recognizing the features that could form barriers for some people,
Thinking inclusively about the whole range of impairment and disability,
Reviewing everything - from structure to smallest detail,
Seeking feedback from users and learning from mistakes.
Barrier-free is also a term that applies to accessibility in situations where legal codes such as the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 applies. The process of adapting barrier-free public policies started when the Veterans Administration and US President's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped noticed a large amount of US citizens coming back from the Vietnam War injured and unable to navigate public spaces.The ADA is a law focusing on all building aspects, products and design that is based on the concept of respecting human rights. It doesn't contain design specifications directly.
An example of a country that has sought to implement barrier-free accessibility in housing estates is Singapore. Within five years, all public housing estates in the country, all 7,800 blocks of apartments, have benefited from the program.
== Barrier-free design examples ==
The types of Universal Design elements vary dependent on the targeted population and the space. For example, in public spaces, universal design elements are often broad areas of accessibility while in private spaces, design elements address the specific requirements of the resident. Examples of these design elements are varied and leverage different approaches for different effects. Some examples include:
=== Communication ===
Bright and appropriate lighting, particularly task lighting
Auditory output redundant with information on visual displays
Visual output redundant with information in auditory output
Contrast controls on visual output
Use of meaningful icons with text labels
Clear lines of sight to reduce dependence on sound
Volume controls on auditory output
Speed controls on auditory output
Choice of language on speech output
Signs with light-on-dark visual contrast
Web pages that provide alternative text to describe images
Instruction that presents material both orally and visually
Labels in large print on equipment control buttons
Audio description, closed captioning
=== Access and mobility ===
Public transit systems with low-floor buses that "kneel" (bring their front end to ground level to eliminate gap) and/or are equipped with ramps rather than on-board lifts.
Smooth, ground level entrances without stairs
Surface textures that require low force to traverse on level, less than 5 pounds force per 120 pounds rolling force
Surfaces that are stable, firm, and slip resistant per ASTM 2047
Wide interior doors (3'0"), hallways, and alcoves with 60" × 60" turning space at doors and dead-ends
Functional clearances for approach and use of elements and components
Ramp access in swimming pools
=== Ease of use ===
Lever handles for opening doors rather than twisting knobs
Single-hand operation with closed fist for operable components including fire alarm pull stations
Components that do not require tight grasping, pinching or twisting of the wrist
Components that require less than 5 pounds of force to operate
Light switches with large flat panels rather than small toggle switches
Buttons and other controls that can be distinguished by touch
"Gesture movements" enabled spaces that may one help control temperature, lighting, social atmosphere, and other sensory qualities of an environment.
Cabinets with pull-out shelves, kitchen counters at several heights to accommodate different tasks and postures
== Design for All example ==
The following examples of Designs for All were presented in the book Diseños para todos/Designs for All published in 2008 by Optimastudio with the support of Spain's Ministry of Education, Social Affairs and Sports (IMSERSO) and CEAPAT:
Audiobook
Automatic door
Electric toothbrush
Flexible drinking straw
Google
Low-floor bus
Q-Drums
Tactile paving
Trolley case (roll along suitcase)
Velcro
Other useful items for those with mobility limitations:
Washlet
Wireless remote controlled power sockets
Wireless remote controlled window shades
== National legislation ==
Chile - Ley nº 20.422, "ESTABLECE NORMAS SOBRE IGUALDAD DE OPORTUNIDADES E INCLUSIÓN SOCIAL DE PERSONAS CON DISCAPACIDAD."
U.S. - Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and Section 508 Amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 More Disability Rights Laws in the United States:
Fair Housing Act
Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
Telecommunications Act
Air Carrier Access Act
National Voter Registration Act
Civil Rights for Institutionalized Persons Act
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
Architectural Barriers Act
Italy - legge n. 13/1989; D.M. n. 236/1989; legge n. 104/1992; D.P.R. n. 503/1996; D.P.R. n. 380/2001 (artt. 77–82)
Australia - Disability Discrimination Act 1992
India - Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights & Full Participation) Act, 1995
United Kingdom - Disability Discrimination Act 1995, Disability Discrimination Act 2005 and Equality Act 2010
Ireland - Disability Act 2005
France - Loi n°2005-102 du 11 février 2005 pour l'égalité des droits et des chances, la participation et la citoyenneté des personnes handicapées (Act n°2005-102 of 11 February 2005 for equality of rights and of opportunities, for participation and for citizenship of people with disabilities)
South Korea - Prohibition of Discrimination Against Persons with Disabilities, 2008
Norway - Discrimination and Accessibility Act of 2009
Vietnam - National Law on Persons with Disability, enacted 17 June 2010.
Canada - Accessible Canada Act, enacted 11 July 2019.
== Laws and policies related to accessibility or universal design ==
Ontario, Canada "Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act, 2005". 15 December 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
United States of America. "Universal Design and Accessibility". Section508.gov. General Services Administration. March 2022. Archived from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
Mexico City, Mexico. "Claudia Sheinbaum Pardo's Plan for Government."
Document describing 12 points of intention for the government, the following are directly related to accessibility in Mexico City
6. Public Spaces
7. Mobility
9. Human rights and equality
10. Equality and inclusion
Mexico City, Mexico. "Plaza Pública." Reconstruction Commission.
Following the 2017 earthquake that destroyed a lot of Mexico City, this policy was released that involved the public in the rebuilding process, creating a good platform for requesting accessibility and universal design.
Madrid, Spain. "PLAN ESTRATÉGICO DE DERECHOS HUMANOS DEL AYUNTAMIENTO DE MADRID."
A 19-point plan describing the rights of elderly citizens, where the following are directly related to accessibility
11. Right to live free from discrimination and violence
19. Right to a sustainable city environment that provides mobility and quality of life
The International Organization for Standardization, the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization, and the International Electrotechnical Commission have developed standards:
CEN/CENELEC Guide 6 – Guidelines for standards developers to address the needs of older persons and persons with disabilities (Identical to ISO/IEC Guide 71, but free for download)
ISO 21542:2021 – Building construction — Accessibility and usability of the built environment (available in English and French)
ISO 20282-1:2006 – Ease of operation of everyday products — Part 1: Context of use and user characteristics
ISO/TS 20282-2:2013 – Usability of consumer products and products for public use — Part 2: Summative test method, published 1 August 2013
== Funding agencies ==
The Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center (RERC) on universal design in the Built Environment funded by what is now the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research completed its activities on September 29, 2021. Twenty RERCs are currently funded.
The Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access at the University at Buffalo is a current recipient.
== Common shortcomings ==
=== Aswan case study ===
One study conducted in Aswan, Egypt published in the Journal of Engineering and Applied Science aimed to explore the accessibility in three administrative buildings in the area. They were looking for universal design in entrances and exits, circulation of traffic within the building, and wayfinding within the building's services. They decided to focus their case study on administrative buildings in order to exemplify universal design that granted access for all citizens to all locations. Among the buildings, there were some shared issues. The researchers found that vertical movement was difficult for disabled patrons, given that there were no elevators. There was also no dropped curb, no Braille system, and the handles of doors were difficult to open, and there were no sensory indicators such as sounds or visual signs.
This case highlights the importance if demographics when considering needs for universal design. Over 60% of the citizens who use this building on a daily basis are elderly, but there aren't accommodations that are helpful to their capabilities. Along with the lack of tactile features to guide the visually impaired, the space within the building is very congested, especially for one who may not have full physical capabilities and must use a wheelchair. The circulation suffers as a result, as well as the wayfinding in the structure.
=== Latin America ===
==== Guadalajara ====
Although there have been attempts to create more accessible public and outdoor spaces, the restorations made have ultimately failed to meet the needs of the disabled and elderly.
== Bibliography ==
Vega, Eugenio (2022). Crónica del siglo de la peste : pandemias, discapacidad y diseño (in Spanish). Getafe, Madrid: Experimenta. ISBN 978-84-18049-73-6. OCLC 1298550791.
Williamson, Bess (2020). Accessible America : a history of disability and design. New York. ISBN 978-1-4798-0249-4. OCLC 1126545082.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
== See also ==
Autism friendly
Curb cut effect
Development plan
Disability rights movement
Inclusion (disability rights)
Inclusive design
Sensory friendly
Transgenerational design
Universal usability
Urban planning
== References ==
== External links ==
Universal Design Product Collection - a digital collection of over 200 products through our two gallery installations of the Unlimited by Design exhibition and a traveling exhibit called "live | work | eat | play." - from the University at Buffalo Libraries | Wikipedia/Universal_design |
Drug design, often referred to as rational drug design or simply rational design, is the inventive process of finding new medications based on the knowledge of a biological target. The drug is most commonly an organic small molecule that activates or inhibits the function of a biomolecule such as a protein, which in turn results in a therapeutic benefit to the patient. In the most basic sense, drug design involves the design of molecules that are complementary in shape and charge to the biomolecular target with which they interact and therefore will bind to it. Drug design frequently but not necessarily relies on computer modeling techniques. This type of modeling is sometimes referred to as computer-aided drug design. Finally, drug design that relies on the knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of the biomolecular target is known as structure-based drug design. In addition to small molecules, biopharmaceuticals including peptides and especially therapeutic antibodies are an increasingly important class of drugs and computational methods for improving the affinity, selectivity, and stability of these protein-based therapeutics have also been developed.
== Definition ==
The phrase "drug design" is similar to ligand design (i.e., design of a molecule that will bind tightly to its target). Although design techniques for prediction of binding affinity are reasonably successful, there are many other properties, such as bioavailability, metabolic half-life, and side effects, that first must be optimized before a ligand can become a safe and effective drug. These other characteristics are often difficult to predict with rational design techniques.
Due to high attrition rates, especially during clinical phases of drug development, more attention is being focused early in the drug design process on selecting candidate drugs whose physicochemical properties are predicted to result in fewer complications during development and hence more likely to lead to an approved, marketed drug. Furthermore, in vitro experiments complemented with computation methods are increasingly used in early drug discovery to select compounds with more favorable ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) and toxicological profiles.
== Drug targets ==
A biomolecular target (most commonly a protein or a nucleic acid) is a key molecule involved in a particular metabolic or signaling pathway that is associated with a specific disease condition or pathology or to the infectivity or survival of a microbial pathogen. Potential drug targets are not necessarily disease causing but must by definition be disease modifying. In some cases, small molecules will be designed to enhance or inhibit the target function in the specific disease modifying pathway. Small molecules (for example receptor agonists, antagonists, inverse agonists, or modulators; enzyme activators or inhibitors; or ion channel openers or blockers) will be designed that are complementary to the binding site of target. Small molecules (drugs) can be designed so as not to affect any other important "off-target" molecules (often referred to as antitargets) since drug interactions with off-target molecules may lead to undesirable side effects. Due to similarities in binding sites, closely related targets identified through sequence homology have the highest chance of cross reactivity and hence highest side effect potential.
Most commonly, drugs are organic small molecules produced through chemical synthesis, but biopolymer-based drugs (also known as biopharmaceuticals) produced through biological processes are becoming increasingly more common. In addition, mRNA-based gene silencing technologies may have therapeutic applications. For example, nanomedicines based on mRNA can streamline and expedite the drug development process, enabling transient and localized expression of immunostimulatory molecules. In vitro transcribed (IVT) mRNA allows for delivery to various accessible cell types via the blood or alternative pathways. The use of IVT mRNA serves to convey specific genetic information into a person's cells, with the primary objective of preventing or altering a particular disease.
=== Drug discovery ===
==== Phenotypic drug discovery ====
Phenotypic drug discovery is a traditional drug discovery method, also known as forward pharmacology or classical pharmacology. It uses the process of phenotypic screening on collections of synthetic small molecules, natural products, or extracts within chemical libraries to pinpoint substances exhibiting beneficial therapeutic effects. This method is to first discover the in vivo or in vitro functional activity of drugs (such as extract drugs or natural products), and then perform target identification. Phenotypic discovery uses a practical and target-independent approach to generate initial leads, aiming to discover pharmacologically active compounds and therapeutics that operate through novel drug mechanisms. This method allows the exploration of disease phenotypes to find potential treatments for conditions with unknown, complex, or multifactorial origins, where the understanding of molecular targets is insufficient for effective intervention.
==== Rational drug discovery ====
Rational drug design (also called reverse pharmacology) begins with a hypothesis that modulation of a specific biological target may have therapeutic value. In order for a biomolecule to be selected as a drug target, two essential pieces of information are required. The first is evidence that modulation of the target will be disease modifying. This knowledge may come from, for example, disease linkage studies that show an association between mutations in the biological target and certain disease states. The second is that the target is capable of binding to a small molecule and that its activity can be modulated by the small molecule.
Once a suitable target has been identified, the target is normally cloned and produced and purified. The purified protein is then used to establish a screening assay. In addition, the three-dimensional structure of the target may be determined.
The search for small molecules that bind to the target is begun by screening libraries of potential drug compounds. This may be done by using the screening assay (a "wet screen"). In addition, if the structure of the target is available, a virtual screen may be performed of candidate drugs. Ideally, the candidate drug compounds should be "drug-like", that is they should possess properties that are predicted to lead to oral bioavailability, adequate chemical and metabolic stability, and minimal toxic effects. Several methods are available to estimate druglikeness such as Lipinski's Rule of Five and a range of scoring methods such as lipophilic efficiency. Several methods for predicting drug metabolism have also been proposed in the scientific literature.
Due to the large number of drug properties that must be simultaneously optimized during the design process, multi-objective optimization techniques are sometimes employed. Finally because of the limitations in the current methods for prediction of activity, drug design is still very much reliant on serendipity and bounded rationality.
== Computer-aided drug design ==
The most fundamental goal in drug design is to predict whether a given molecule will bind to a target and if so how strongly. Molecular mechanics or molecular dynamics is most often used to estimate the strength of the intermolecular interaction between the small molecule and its biological target. These methods are also used to predict the conformation of the small molecule and to model conformational changes in the target that may occur when the small molecule binds to it. Semi-empirical, ab initio quantum chemistry methods, or density functional theory are often used to provide optimized parameters for the molecular mechanics calculations and also provide an estimate of the electronic properties (electrostatic potential, polarizability, etc.) of the drug candidate that will influence binding affinity.
Molecular mechanics methods may also be used to provide semi-quantitative prediction of the binding affinity. Also, knowledge-based scoring function may be used to provide binding affinity estimates. These methods use linear regression, machine learning, neural nets or other statistical techniques to derive predictive binding affinity equations by fitting experimental affinities to computationally derived interaction energies between the small molecule and the target.
Ideally, the computational method will be able to predict affinity before a compound is synthesized and hence in theory only one compound needs to be synthesized, saving enormous time and cost. The reality is that present computational methods are imperfect and provide, at best, only qualitatively accurate estimates of affinity. In practice, it requires several iterations of design, synthesis, and testing before an optimal drug is discovered. Computational methods have accelerated discovery by reducing the number of iterations required and have often provided novel structures.
Computer-aided drug design may be used at any of the following stages of drug discovery:
hit identification using virtual screening (structure- or ligand-based design)
hit-to-lead optimization of affinity and selectivity (structure-based design, QSAR, etc.)
lead optimization of other pharmaceutical properties while maintaining affinity
In order to overcome the insufficient prediction of binding affinity calculated by recent scoring functions, the protein-ligand interaction and compound 3D structure information are used for analysis. For structure-based drug design, several post-screening analyses focusing on protein-ligand interaction have been developed for improving enrichment and effectively mining potential candidates:
Consensus scoring
Selecting candidates by voting of multiple scoring functions
May lose the relationship between protein-ligand structural information and scoring criterion
Cluster analysis
Represent and cluster candidates according to protein-ligand 3D information
Needs meaningful representation of protein-ligand interactions.
== Types ==
There are two major types of drug design. The first is referred to as ligand-based drug design and the second, structure-based drug design.
=== Ligand-based ===
Ligand-based drug design (or indirect drug design) relies on knowledge of other molecules that bind to the biological target of interest. These other molecules may be used to derive a pharmacophore model that defines the minimum necessary structural characteristics a molecule must possess in order to bind to the target. A model of the biological target may be built based on the knowledge of what binds to it, and this model in turn may be used to design new molecular entities that interact with the target. Alternatively, a quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR), in which a correlation between calculated properties of molecules and their experimentally determined biological activity, may be derived. These QSAR relationships in turn may be used to predict the activity of new analogs.
=== Structure-based ===
Structure-based drug design (or direct drug design) relies on knowledge of the three dimensional structure of the biological target obtained through methods such as x-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy. If an experimental structure of a target is not available, it may be possible to create a homology model of the target based on the experimental structure of a related protein. Using the structure of the biological target, candidate drugs that are predicted to bind with high affinity and selectivity to the target may be designed using interactive graphics and the intuition of a medicinal chemist. Alternatively, various automated computational procedures may be used to suggest new drug candidates.
Current methods for structure-based drug design can be divided roughly into three main categories. The first method is identification of new ligands for a given receptor by searching large databases of 3D structures of small molecules to find those fitting the binding pocket of the receptor using fast approximate docking programs. This method is known as virtual screening.
A second category is de novo design of new ligands. In this method, ligand molecules are built up within the constraints of the binding pocket by assembling small pieces in a stepwise manner. These pieces can be either individual atoms or molecular fragments. The key advantage of such a method is that novel structures, not contained in any database, can be suggested. A third method is the optimization of known ligands by evaluating proposed analogs within the binding cavity.
==== Binding site identification ====
Binding site identification is the first step in structure based design. If the structure of the target or a sufficiently similar homolog is determined in the presence of a bound ligand, then the ligand should be observable in the structure in which case location of the binding site is trivial. However, there may be unoccupied allosteric binding sites that may be of interest. Furthermore, it may be that only apoprotein (protein without ligand) structures are available and the reliable identification of unoccupied sites that have the potential to bind ligands with high affinity is non-trivial. In brief, binding site identification usually relies on identification of concave surfaces on the protein that can accommodate drug sized molecules that also possess appropriate "hot spots" (hydrophobic surfaces, hydrogen bonding sites, etc.) that drive ligand binding.
==== Scoring functions ====
Structure-based drug design attempts to use the structure of proteins as a basis for designing new ligands by applying the principles of molecular recognition. Selective high affinity binding to the target is generally desirable since it leads to more efficacious drugs with fewer side effects. Thus, one of the most important principles for designing or obtaining potential new ligands is to predict the binding affinity of a certain ligand to its target (and known antitargets) and use the predicted affinity as a criterion for selection.
One early general-purposed empirical scoring function to describe the binding energy of ligands to receptors was developed by Böhm. This empirical scoring function took the form:
Δ
G
bind
=
Δ
G
0
+
Δ
G
hb
Σ
h
−
b
o
n
d
s
+
Δ
G
ionic
Σ
i
o
n
i
c
−
i
n
t
+
Δ
G
lipophilic
|
A
|
+
Δ
G
rot
N
R
O
T
{\displaystyle \Delta G_{\text{bind}}=\Delta G_{\text{0}}+\Delta G_{\text{hb}}\Sigma _{h-bonds}+\Delta G_{\text{ionic}}\Sigma _{ionic-int}+\Delta G_{\text{lipophilic}}\left\vert A\right\vert +\Delta G_{\text{rot}}{\mathit {NROT}}}
where:
ΔG0 – empirically derived offset that in part corresponds to the overall loss of translational and rotational entropy of the ligand upon binding.
ΔGhb – contribution from hydrogen bonding
ΔGionic – contribution from ionic interactions
ΔGlip – contribution from lipophilic interactions where |Alipo| is surface area of lipophilic contact between the ligand and receptor
ΔGrot – entropy penalty due to freezing a rotatable in the ligand bond upon binding
A more general thermodynamic "master" equation is as follows:
Δ
G
bind
=
−
R
T
ln
K
d
K
d
=
[
Ligand
]
[
Receptor
]
[
Complex
]
Δ
G
bind
=
Δ
G
desolvation
+
Δ
G
motion
+
Δ
G
configuration
+
Δ
G
interaction
{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lll}\Delta G_{\text{bind}}=-RT\ln K_{\text{d}}\\[1.3ex]K_{\text{d}}={\dfrac {[{\text{Ligand}}][{\text{Receptor}}]}{[{\text{Complex}}]}}\\[1.3ex]\Delta G_{\text{bind}}=\Delta G_{\text{desolvation}}+\Delta G_{\text{motion}}+\Delta G_{\text{configuration}}+\Delta G_{\text{interaction}}\end{array}}}
where:
desolvation – enthalpic penalty for removing the ligand from solvent
motion – entropic penalty for reducing the degrees of freedom when a ligand binds to its receptor
configuration – conformational strain energy required to put the ligand in its "active" conformation
interaction – enthalpic gain for "resolvating" the ligand with its receptor
The basic idea is that the overall binding free energy can be decomposed into independent components that are known to be important for the binding process. Each component reflects a certain kind of free energy alteration during the binding process between a ligand and its target receptor. The Master Equation is the linear combination of these components. According to Gibbs free energy equation, the relation between dissociation equilibrium constant, Kd, and the components of free energy was built.
Various computational methods are used to estimate each of the components of the master equation. For example, the change in polar surface area upon ligand binding can be used to estimate the desolvation energy. The number of rotatable bonds frozen upon ligand binding is proportional to the motion term. The configurational or strain energy can be estimated using molecular mechanics calculations. Finally the interaction energy can be estimated using methods such as the change in non polar surface, statistically derived potentials of mean force, the number of hydrogen bonds formed, etc. In practice, the components of the master equation are fit to experimental data using multiple linear regression. This can be done with a diverse training set including many types of ligands and receptors to produce a less accurate but more general "global" model or a more restricted set of ligands and receptors to produce a more accurate but less general "local" model.
== Examples ==
A particular example of rational drug design involves the use of three-dimensional information about biomolecules obtained from such techniques as X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy. Computer-aided drug design in particular becomes much more tractable when there is a high-resolution structure of a target protein bound to a potent ligand. This approach to drug discovery is sometimes referred to as structure-based drug design. The first unequivocal example of the application of structure-based drug design leading to an approved drug is the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor dorzolamide, which was approved in 1995.
Another case study in rational drug design is imatinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor designed specifically for the bcr-abl fusion protein that is characteristic for Philadelphia chromosome-positive leukemias (chronic myelogenous leukemia and occasionally acute lymphocytic leukemia). Imatinib is substantially different from previous drugs for cancer, as most agents of chemotherapy simply target rapidly dividing cells, not differentiating between cancer cells and other tissues.
Additional examples include:
== Drug screening ==
Types of drug screening include phenotypic screening, high-throughput screening, and virtual screening. Phenotypic screening is characterized by the process of screening drugs using cellular or animal disease models to identify compounds that alter the phenotype and produce beneficial disease-related effects. Emerging technologies in high-throughput screening substantially enhance processing speed and decrease the required detection volume. Virtual screening is completed by computer, enabling a large number of molecules can be screened with a short cycle and low cost. Virtual screening uses a range of computational methods that empower chemists to reduce extensive virtual libraries into more manageable sizes.
== Case studies ==
== Criticism ==
It has been argued that the highly rigid and focused nature of rational drug design suppresses serendipity in drug discovery.
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Drug+Design at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
[Drug Design Org](https://www.drugdesign.org/chapters/drug-design/) | Wikipedia/Drug_design |
Algorithms-Aided Design (AAD) is the use of specific algorithms-editors to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. The algorithms-editors are usually integrated with 3D modeling packages and read several programming languages, both scripted or visual (RhinoScript, Grasshopper, MEL, C#, Python). The Algorithms-Aided Design allows designers to overcome the limitations of traditional CAD software and 3D computer graphics software, reaching a level of complexity which is beyond the human possibility to interact with digital objects. The acronym appears for the first time in the book AAD Algorithms-Aided Design, Parametric Strategies using Grasshopper, published by Arturo Tedeschi in 2014.
== Further reading ==
Mario Carpo, "The second digital turn: design beyond intelligence", Writing Architecture, 2017, ISBN 9780262534024
"AD Scripting Cultures: Architectural Design and Programming", John Wiley & Sons, 1 edition 2011, ISBN 978-0-470-74642-4
Kostas Terzidis, "Algorithmic Architecture", Routledge, 1 edition 2006, ISBN 978-0750667258
Nicholas Pisca, "YSYT - Maya MEL Basics for Designers", 2009, ISBN 0578009889
Arturo Tedeschi, AAD Algorithms-Aided Design, Parametric Strategies using Grasshopper, Le Penseur, Brienza 2014, ISBN 978-88-95315-30-0
https://architosh.com/2016/05/inflection-point-disruptions-platforms-and-growth-with-rhino-grasshopper-part-1/
== References ==
== External links == | Wikipedia/Algorithms-Aided_Design |
Speculative design is a design practice concerned with future design proposals of a critical nature. The term was popularised by Anthony Dunne and Fiona Raby as a subsidiary of critical design. The aim is not to present commercially-driven design proposals but to design proposals that identify and debate crucial issues that might happen in the future. Speculative design is concerned with future consequences and implications of the relationship between science, technology, and humans. It problematizes this relation by proposing provocative future design scenarios where technology and design implications are accentuated. These design proposals are meant to trigger debates about the future rather than marketing products.
== Definition ==
Dunne and Raby, the researchers who coined the term speculative design, describe it as:
“an activity where conjecture is as good as knowledge, where futuristic and alternative scenarios convey ideas, and where the goal is to emphasize implications of “mindless” decisions for mankind.”
Speculative design is used to challenge preconceptions, raise questions and to provoke debate. It opens the door for designers to imagine possible futures.
James Auger claims speculative design "combines informed, hypothetical extrapolations of an emerging technology’s development with a deep consideration of the cultural landscape into which it might be deployed, to speculate on future products, systems and services”.
Speculative designers develop alternative presents to ask why things are the way they are so that they can project the future. James Auger explains that these alternative presents can make radical interventions to the current practices and evolving technologies by applying different ideologies and practices.
Speculative design emphasizes the “philosophical inquiry into technological application”; it tends to take the discussion on technology beyond the experts to a broad population of the audience. The resulting artifacts often appear subversive and irreverent in nature; they look different to the public, and this is the key behind triggering discussions and stimulating questions.
Speculative design can be distinguished from design that operates within commercial borders where the aim of designing is profitability. Speculative design is an exploratory design genre and a Research through Design (RtD) approach.
== Origins and early attempts ==
Anti-design and Italian radical design could be considered as ancestors of speculative design. However, the format of speculative design as we know it today is derived from the critical design practice. Both are connected and use similar approaches. Dunne and Raby described critical design as a practice that “uses speculative design proposals to challenge narrow assumptions, preconceptions, and givens about the role products play in everyday life”. Critical design is a form of design that uses design tools and process not to solve a problem but to rethink the borders and parameters of a problem from a critical point of view Dunne and Raby explained the term further in their book ‘Design Noir: The Secret Life of Electronic Objects,’ as “Instead of thinking about appearance, user-friendliness or corporate identity, industrial designers could develop design proposals that challenge conventional values”.
The relationship between speculative design and critical design can be seen from Matt Malpass identification of the current contemporary design practices into three classifications; the first is associative design, the second is speculative design, and the third is critical design. Speculative design is a form of critical design that is concerned with future proposals. It examines future scenarios to ask the question of “what if?”.
Some attempts of the Italian radical design can be considered as speculative design. For instance, Ettore Sottsass worked on “The planet as a festival” in 1973. Speculative design is inspired by the attitude and position of the Italian radical design, yet does not necessarily imitate its format and motivations.
== Motivation ==
Speculative design aims to defy capitalist-driven design directions and showcase their negative impacts on design practice. Dunne and Raby note that hyper-commercialization of design during the 1980s drove this practice. Designers struggled to find a social model to align with outside of the capitalist economy. However, after the financial crash of 2008, the interest in finding other alternatives to the current design models was triggered. In this sense, the role of design is to be a catalyst in producing alternative visions rather than being the source of vision itself.
Speculative designers' motivation is to take a position or an attitude towards the current design practice and propose alternatives. Designers might have different points of view about how they would present a design idea or focal issue. Bruce and Stephanie Tharp identify the different positions designers could take towards their projects; these could be: declarative, suggestive, inquisitive, facilitative, and disruptive.
Auger extends this discussion on explaining what speculative design should do by mentioning aspects for it:
" Arrange emerging (not yet available) technological ‘elements’ to hypothesise future products and artefacts, or
apply alternative plans, motivations, or ideologies to those currently driving technological development in order to facilitate new arrangements of existing elements, and
develop new perspectives on big systems."
Aiming at:
" Asking ‘what is a better future (or present)?’
Generating a better understanding of the potential implications of a specific (disruptive) technology in various contexts and on multiple scales – with a particular focus on everyday life.
Moving design ‘upstream’ – to not simply package technology at the end of the technological journey but to impact and influence that journey from its genesis."
== In theory ==
Speculative design relies on speculation and proposition; its value comes from speculating about future scenarios where design is used in a particular context to showcase a notion or an idea of debate. The most significant aim of speculative design is to enact change rather than conforming to the status quo. According to Johannessen, Keitsch and Pettersen the change aspects can be segmented into three elements:
Political and social change,
Product value and user experience change
Aesthetics
Speculative designers do not suggest what a preferable future is; they let society decide what is a preferable future for them, whereas affirmative design, government, and industries actually decide on their preferable future and create it. It encourages the audience to suggest their preferable future that has no direct relevance with today’s perspective of how the future should be and this raises the awareness for society on how they could influence their choices for the future; the logic of the ‘laws’ of future implies that if we strive for something, we can eventually turn it into reality, even if it seems incredible now.
Speculative design triggers the debate about the actions we take today (in the present) that build future events. It encourages the users to be the change of today. It questions technology at early stages; it is concerned with the domestication of technology and upstream engagement. It poses societal and ethical implications to interrogate them. It questions the role of industrial and product design in delivering new science and technology. Speculative design as a subsidiary of critical design is built on the fundamentals Frankfurt school of criticism. Therefore, critical thinking is an essential aspect of speculative design. Critiquing norms, values and why we design is what motivates speculative designers.
Design is a future-oriented practice by nature. However, the issue lies in the fact that vast majority of designers tend to abide by technological advancements without interrogating them or questioning the implications of such technology. An example of this is the wide adoption of social media and how this affected society (for example, the social dilemma).
Designers, in this case, do not attempt to change the future, but rather they tend to adapt their design towards what they can see as a probable future. In this sense, they see it as something that they cannot change. In this context, speculative design aims to influence change by raising questions and provoking debates by implementing designed objects. Speculative design uses objects or prototypes that do imply implicit meanings about complex social and technological issues.
To highlight the differences between affirmative design and speculative design, Dunne and Raby introduced the A/B Manifesto to contrast their meanings and to highlight what does it mean to be critical or speculative in design.
== In practice ==
Speculative design can be seen as an attitude, stance, or position instead of a process or methodology.
Tactics, methods, and strategies for speculative design have wide variation. It depends on the designer’s intention and the careful management of the outcome of the design project.
Speculative design needs a “perceptual bridge” between what the audience identifies as their reality and the fictional elements in the speculative concept.
Tactics and strategies of speculative design:
Reductio Ad Absurdum
Counterfactuals
Ambiguity
Satire
and the outcome of speculative design can be a project in the form of:
Para-functional prototypes
Post-optimal prototypes
== Adjacent practices ==
Speculative design has many adjacent practices including critical design, discursive design, and design fiction. They share similar motivations but different purposes or target areas.
== Criticism ==
The most significant criticism for critical and speculative design would be based on the understanding that design is not functional or useful, so it cannot be considered as design. The grounds for criticism are built on the basic understanding of design as a problem-solving activity. In contrast, speculative design is concerned with problem finding. It does not create functional objects at the end but rather problematizes an issue or social implication.
Other criticism would be directed towards speculative design as it does sometimes present dystopian futures that do resemble the lives of other parts of the world. It can sometimes be considered as a niche practice that is only presented in highly intellectual venues such as MOMA and V&A Museum, as pointed out by Prado & Oliveira in 2014.
Another criticism for speculative design is dissemination and reflection. The format and venues of presenting speculative design proposals do not imply a methodological approach for engaging with the audience and broader society. This is what Bruce and Stephanie Tharp call (a message in a bottle).
== See also ==
Critical design
Critical making
Design fiction
Dunne & Raby
== References == | Wikipedia/Speculative_design |
Philosophy of design is the study of definitions of design, and the assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. The field, which is mostly a sub-discipline of aesthetics, is defined by an interest in a set of problems, or an interest in central or foundational concerns in design. In addition to these central problems for design as a whole, many philosophers of design consider these problems as they apply to particular disciplines (e.g. philosophy of art).
Although most practitioners are philosophers specialized in aesthetics (i.e., aestheticians), several prominent designers and artists have contributed to the field. For an introduction to the philosophy of design see the article by Per Galle at the Royal Danish Academy of Art.
== Notable philosophers and theorists ==
Philosophers of design, or philosophers relevant to the philosophical study of design:
== References == | Wikipedia/Philosophy_of_design |
The terms design computing and other relevant terms including design and computation and computational design refer to the study and practice of design activities through the application and development of novel ideas and techniques in computing. One of the early groups to coin this term was the Key Centre of Design Computing and Cognition at the University of Sydney in Australia, which for more than fifty years (since the late 1960s) pioneered the research, teaching, and consulting of design and computational technologies. This group organised the academic conference series "Artificial Intelligence in Design (AID)" published by Springer during that period. AID was later renamed "Design Computing and Cognition (DCC)" and is currently a leading biannual conference in the field. Other notable groups in this area are the Design and Computation group at Massachusetts Institute of Technology's School of Architecture + Planning and the Computational Design group at Georgia Tech.
Whilst these terms share in general an interest in computational technologies and design activity, there are important differences in the various approaches, theories, and applications. For example, while in some circles the term "computational design" refers in general to the creation of new computational tools and methods in the context of computational thinking, design computing is concerned with bridging these two fields in order to build an increased understanding of design.
The Bachelor of Design Computing (BDesComp) was created in 2003 at the University of Sydney and continues to be a leading programme in interaction design and creative technologies, now hosted by the Design Lab. In that context, design computing is defined to be the use and development of computational models of design processes and digital media to assist and/or automate various aspects of the design process with the goal of producing higher quality and new design forms.
== Areas ==
In recent years a number of research and education areas have been grouped under the umbrella term "design computing", namely:
Artificial intelligence in design
Expert systems and knowledge-based systems
Computational creativity
Computer-aided design
Responsive computer-aided design
Digital architecture
Digital morphogenesis
Visual and spatial modelling
Computational analogy
Automated design systems
Design support systems
Computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW)
Building information modeling (BIM)
Extended reality (XR) and spatial computing
Digital place-making
== Research groups ==
The main research groups working in this area span from Faculties of Architecture, Engineering and Computer Science. Australia has been a pioneer in this area. For the last five decades the Key Centre of Design Computing and Cognition (KCDC), currently known as the Design Lab, at the University of Sydney has been active in establishing this area of research and teaching. The University of Sydney offers a Bachelor of Design Computing ([1]) and the University of New South Wales also in Sydney a Bachelor of Computational Design ([2]). In the US this research area is also known as "Design and Computation", namely at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Other relevant research groups include:
Critical Research in Digital Architecture (CRIDA), Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, University of Melbourne
School of Architecture, Carnegie Mellon
Department of Computer Science, University College London
Department of Informatics Engineering, Universidade de Coimbra
Department of Computer Science, Vrije University, Amsterdam
Creativity and Cognition Studios, University of Technology Sydney
Department of Computer Science, University of Colorado at Boulder
Department of Architecture, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Department of Architecture, MIT
Department of Computer Science, Helsinki University of Technology
College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology
Design Machine Group, University of Washington College of Built Environments, Seattle
Design Computing Program, Georgia Institute of Technology College of Architecture
School of Interactive Arts + Technology, Simon Fraser University
Department of Architecture, Technical University of Delft, The Netherlands
Institute of Computational Design, University of Stuttgart
Architectural Design Computing, Istanbul Technical University
Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey
Centre of IT and Architecture (CITA), The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen
Institute of Architectural Algorithms & Applications (Inst.AAA), Southeast University, Nanjing
Department of Experimental and Digital Design and Construction, University of Kassel, Germany
Computational Media Design (CMD) program, University of Calgary, Canada
School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urbanism (FEC-Unicamp), University of Campinas, Brazil
Computation, Appearance, and Manufacturing group (CAM), Max Planck Institute for Informatics, Saarbrücken, Germany
== Conferences ==
The biannual International Conference on Design Computing and Cognition (DCC) brings together high quality research on this area, as do annual conferences by the Association for Computer Aided Design In Architecture and others.
== References == | Wikipedia/Design_computing |
Version control (also known as revision control, source control, and source code management) is the software engineering practice of controlling, organizing, and tracking different versions in history of computer files; primarily source code text files, but generally any type of file.
Version control is a component of software configuration management.
A version control system is a software tool that automates version control. Alternatively, version control is embedded as a feature of some systems such as word processors, spreadsheets, collaborative web docs, and content management systems, e.g., Wikipedia's page history.
Version control includes viewing old versions and enables reverting a file to a previous version.
== Overview ==
As teams develop software, it is common to deploy multiple versions of the same software, and for different developers to work on one or more different versions simultaneously. Bugs or features of the software are often only present in certain versions (because of the fixing of some problems and the introduction of others as the program develops). Therefore, for the purposes of locating and fixing bugs, it is vitally important to be able to retrieve and run different versions of the software to determine in which version(s) the problem occurs. It may also be necessary to develop two versions of the software concurrently: for instance, where one version has bugs fixed, but no new features (branch), while the other version is where new features are worked on (trunk).
At the simplest level, developers could simply retain multiple copies of the different versions of the program, and label them appropriately. This simple approach has been used in many large software projects. While this method can work, it is inefficient as many near-identical copies of the program have to be maintained. This requires a lot of self-discipline on the part of developers and often leads to mistakes. Since the code base is the same, it also requires granting read-write-execute permission to a set of developers, and this adds the pressure of someone managing permissions so that the code base is not compromised, which adds more complexity. Consequently, systems to automate some or all of the revision control process have been developed. This abstracts most operational steps (hides them from ordinary users).
Moreover, in software development, legal and business practice, and other environments, it has become increasingly common for a single document or snippet of code to be edited by a team, the members of which may be geographically dispersed and may pursue different and even contrary interests. Sophisticated revision control that tracks and accounts for ownership of changes to documents and code may be extremely helpful or even indispensable in such situations.
Revision control may also track changes to configuration files, such as those typically stored in /etc or /usr/local/etc on Unix systems. This gives system administrators another way to easily track changes made and a way to roll back to earlier versions should the need arise.
Many version control systems identify the version of a file as a number or letter, called the version number, version, revision number, revision, or revision level. For example, the first version of a file might be version 1. When the file is changed the next version is 2. Each version is associated with a timestamp and the person making the change. Revisions can be compared, restored, and, with some types of files, merged.
== History ==
IBM's OS/360 IEBUPDTE software update tool dates back to 1962, arguably a precursor to version control system tools. Two source management and version control packages that were heavily used by IBM 360/370 installations were The Librarian and Panvalet.
A full system designed for source code control was started in 1972: the Source Code Control System (SCCS), again for the OS/360. SCCS's user manual, especially the introduction, having been published on December 4, 1975, implied that it was the first deliberate revision control system. The Revision Control System (RCS) followed in 1982 and, later, Concurrent Versions System (CVS) added network and concurrent development features to RCS. After CVS, a dominant successor was Subversion, followed by the rise of distributed version control tools such as Git.
== Structure ==
Revision control manages changes to a set of data over time. These changes can be structured in various ways.
Often the data is thought of as a collection of many individual items, such as files or documents, and changes to individual files are tracked. This accords with intuitions about separate files but causes problems when identity changes, such as during renaming, splitting or merging of files. Accordingly, some systems such as Git, instead consider changes to the data as a whole, which is less intuitive for simple changes but simplifies more complex changes.
When data that is under revision control is modified, after being retrieved by checking out, this is not in general immediately reflected in the revision control system (in the repository), but must instead be checked in or committed. A copy outside revision control is known as a "working copy". As a simple example, when editing a computer file, the data stored in memory by the editing program is the working copy, which is committed by saving. Concretely, one may print out a document, edit it by hand, and only later manually input the changes into a computer and save it. For source code control, the working copy is instead a copy of all files in a particular revision, generally stored locally on the developer's computer; in this case saving the file only changes the working copy, and checking into the repository is a separate step.
If multiple people are working on a single data set or document, they are implicitly creating branches of the data (in their working copies), and thus issues of merging arise, as discussed below. For simple collaborative document editing, this can be prevented by using file locking or simply avoiding working on the same document that someone else is working on.
Revision control systems are often centralized, with a single authoritative data store, the repository, and check-outs and check-ins done with reference to this central repository. Alternatively, in distributed revision control, no single repository is authoritative, and data can be checked out and checked into any repository. When checking into a different repository, this is interpreted as a merge or patch.
=== Graph structure ===
In terms of graph theory, revisions are generally thought of as a line of development (the trunk) with branches off of this, forming a directed tree, visualized as one or more parallel lines of development (the "mainlines" of the branches) branching off a trunk. In reality the structure is more complicated, forming a directed acyclic graph, but for many purposes "tree with merges" is an adequate approximation.
Revisions occur in sequence over time, and thus can be arranged in order, either by revision number or timestamp. Revisions are based on past revisions, though it is possible to largely or completely replace an earlier revision, such as "delete all existing text, insert new text". In the simplest case, with no branching or undoing, each revision is based on its immediate predecessor alone, and they form a simple line, with a single latest version, the "HEAD" revision or tip. In graph theory terms, drawing each revision as a point and each "derived revision" relationship as an arrow (conventionally pointing from older to newer, in the same direction as time), this is a linear graph. If there is branching, so multiple future revisions are based on a past revision, or undoing, so a revision can depend on a revision older than its immediate predecessor, then the resulting graph is instead a directed tree (each node can have more than one child), and has multiple tips, corresponding to the revisions without children ("latest revision on each branch"). In principle the resulting tree need not have a preferred tip ("main" latest revision) – just various different revisions – but in practice one tip is generally identified as HEAD. When a new revision is based on HEAD, it is either identified as the new HEAD, or considered a new branch. The list of revisions from the start to HEAD (in graph theory terms, the unique path in the tree, which forms a linear graph as before) is the trunk or mainline. Conversely, when a revision can be based on more than one previous revision (when a node can have more than one parent), the resulting process is called a merge, and is one of the most complex aspects of revision control. This most often occurs when changes occur in multiple branches (most often two, but more are possible), which are then merged into a single branch incorporating both changes. If these changes overlap, it may be difficult or impossible to merge, and require manual intervention or rewriting.
In the presence of merges, the resulting graph is no longer a tree, as nodes can have multiple parents, but is instead a rooted directed acyclic graph (DAG). The graph is acyclic since parents are always backwards in time, and rooted because there is an oldest version. Assuming there is a trunk, merges from branches can be considered as "external" to the tree – the changes in the branch are packaged up as a patch, which is applied to HEAD (of the trunk), creating a new revision without any explicit reference to the branch, and preserving the tree structure. Thus, while the actual relations between versions form a DAG, this can be considered a tree plus merges, and the trunk itself is a line.
In distributed revision control, in the presence of multiple repositories these may be based on a single original version (a root of the tree), but there need not be an original root - instead there can be a separate root (oldest revision) for each repository. This can happen, for example, if two people start working on a project separately. Similarly, in the presence of multiple data sets (multiple projects) that exchange data or merge, there is no single root, though for simplicity one may think of one project as primary and the other as secondary, merged into the first with or without its own revision history.
== Specialized strategies ==
Engineering revision control developed from formalized processes based on tracking revisions of early blueprints or bluelines. This system of control implicitly allowed returning to an earlier state of the design, for cases in which an engineering dead-end was reached in the development of the design. A revision table was used to keep track of the changes made. Additionally, the modified areas of the drawing were highlighted using revision clouds.
=== In Business and Law ===
Version control is widespread in business and law. Indeed, "contract redline" and "legal blackline" are some of the earliest forms of revision control, and are still employed in business and law with varying degrees of sophistication. The most sophisticated techniques are beginning to be used for the electronic tracking of changes to CAD files (see product data management), supplanting the "manual" electronic implementation of traditional revision control.
== Source-management models ==
Traditional revision control systems use a centralized model where all the revision control functions take place on a shared server. If two developers try to change the same file at the same time, without some method of managing access the developers may end up overwriting each other's work. Centralized revision control systems solve this problem in one of two different "source management models": file locking and version merging.
=== Atomic operations ===
An operation is atomic if the system is left in a consistent state even if the operation is interrupted. The commit operation is usually the most critical in this sense. Commits tell the revision control system to make a group of changes final, and available to all users. Not all revision control systems have atomic commits; Concurrent Versions System lacks this feature.
=== File locking ===
The simplest method of preventing "concurrent access" problems involves locking files so that only one developer at a time has write access to the central "repository" copies of those files. Once one developer "checks out" a file, others can read that file, but no one else may change that file until that developer "checks in" the updated version (or cancels the checkout).
File locking has both merits and drawbacks. It can provide some protection against difficult merge conflicts when a user is making radical changes to many sections of a large file (or group of files). If the files are left exclusively locked for too long, other developers may be tempted to bypass the revision control software and change the files locally, forcing a difficult manual merge when the other changes are finally checked in. In a large organization, files can be left "checked out" and locked and forgotten about as developers move between projects - these tools may or may not make it easy to see who has a file checked out.
=== Version merging ===
Most version control systems allow multiple developers to edit the same file at the same time. The first developer to "check in" changes to the central repository always succeeds. The system may provide facilities to merge further changes into the central repository, and preserve the changes from the first developer when other developers check in.
Merging two files can be a very delicate operation, and usually possible only if the data structure is simple, as in text files. The result of a merge of two image files might not result in an image file at all. The second developer checking in the code will need to take care with the merge, to make sure that the changes are compatible and that the merge operation does not introduce its own logic errors within the files. These problems limit the availability of automatic or semi-automatic merge operations mainly to simple text-based documents, unless a specific merge plugin is available for the file types.
The concept of a reserved edit can provide an optional means to explicitly lock a file for exclusive write access, even when a merging capability exists.
=== Baselines, labels and tags ===
Most revision control tools will use only one of these similar terms (baseline, label, tag) to refer to the action of identifying a snapshot ("label the project") or the record of the snapshot ("try it with baseline X"). Typically only one of the terms baseline, label, or tag is used in documentation or discussion; they can be considered synonyms.
In most projects, some snapshots are more significant than others, such as those used to indicate published releases, branches, or milestones.
When both the term baseline and either of label or tag are used together in the same context, label and tag usually refer to the mechanism within the tool of identifying or making the record of the snapshot, and baseline indicates the increased significance of any given label or tag.
Most formal discussion of configuration management uses the term baseline.
== Distributed revision control ==
Distributed revision control systems (DRCS) take a peer-to-peer approach, as opposed to the client–server approach of centralized systems. Rather than a single, central repository on which clients synchronize, each peer's working copy of the codebase is a bona-fide repository.
Distributed revision control conducts synchronization by exchanging patches (change-sets) from peer to peer. This results in some important differences from a centralized system:
No canonical, reference copy of the codebase exists by default; only working copies.
Common operations (such as commits, viewing history, and reverting changes) are fast, because there is no need to communicate with a central server.: 7
Rather, communication is only necessary when pushing or pulling changes to or from other peers.
Each working copy effectively functions as a remote backup of the codebase and of its change-history, providing inherent protection against data loss.: 4
== Best practices ==
Following best practices is necessary to obtain the full benefits of version control. Best practice may vary by version control tool and the field to which version control is applied. The generally accepted best practices in software development include: making incremental, small, changes; making commits which involve only one task or fix -- a corollary to this is to commit only code which works and does not knowingly break existing functionality; utilizing branching to complete functionality before release; writing clear and descriptive commit messages, make what why and how clear in either the commit description or the code; and using a consistent branching strategy. Other best software development practices such as code review and automated regression testing may assist in the following of version control best practices.
== Costs and benefits ==
Costs and benefits will vary dependent upon the version control tool chosen and the field in which it is applied. This section speaks to the field of software development, where version control is widely applied.
=== Costs ===
In addition to the costs of licensing the version control software, using version control requires time and effort. The concepts underlying version control must be understood and the technical particulars required to operate the version control software chosen must be learned. Version control best practices must be learned and integrated into the organization's existing software development practices. Management effort may be required to maintain the discipline needed to follow best practices in order to obtain useful benefit.
=== Benefits ===
==== Allows for reverting changes ====
A core benefit is the ability to keep history and revert changes, allowing the developer to easily undo changes. This gives the developer more opportunity to experiment, eliminating the fear of breaking existing code.
==== Branching simplifies deployment, maintenance and development ====
Branching assists with deployment. Branching and merging, the production, packaging, and labeling of source code patches and the easy application of patches to code bases, simplifies the maintenance and concurrent development of the multiple code bases associated with the various stages of the deployment process; development, testing, staging, production, etc.
==== Damage mitigation, accountability and process and design improvement ====
There can be damage mitigation, accountability, process and design improvement, and other benefits associated with the record keeping provided by version control, the tracking of who did what, when, why, and how.
When bugs arise, knowing what was done when helps with damage mitigation and recovery by assisting in the identification of what problems exist, how long they have existed, and determining problem scope and solutions. Previous versions can be installed and tested to verify conclusions reached by examination of code and commit messages.
==== Simplifies debugging ====
Version control can greatly simplify debugging. The application of a test case to multiple versions can quickly identify the change which introduced a bug. The developer need not be familiar with the entire code base and can focus instead on the code that introduced the problem.
==== Improves collaboration and communication ====
Version control enhances collaboration in multiple ways. Since version control can identify conflicting changes, i.e. incompatible changes made to the same lines of code, there is less need for coordination among developers.
The packaging of commits, branches, and all the associated commit messages and version labels, improves communication between developers, both in the moment and over time. Better communication, whether instant or deferred, can improve the code review process, the testing process, and other critical aspects of the software development process.
== Integration ==
Some of the more advanced revision-control tools offer many other facilities, allowing deeper integration with other tools and software-engineering processes.
=== Integrated development environment ===
Plugins are often available for IDEs such as Oracle JDeveloper, IntelliJ IDEA, Eclipse, Visual Studio, Delphi, NetBeans IDE, Xcode, and GNU Emacs (via vc.el). Advanced research prototypes generate appropriate commit messages.
== Common terminology ==
Terminology can vary from system to system, but some terms in common usage include:
=== Baseline ===
An approved revision of a document or source file to which subsequent changes can be made. See baselines, labels and tags.
=== Blame ===
A search for the author and revision that last modified a particular line.
=== Branch ===
A set of files under version control may be branched or forked at a point in time so that, from that time forward, two copies of those files may develop at different speeds or in different ways independently of each other.
=== Change ===
A change (or diff, or delta) represents a specific modification to a document under version control. The granularity of the modification considered a change varies between version control systems.
=== Change list ===
On many version control systems with atomic multi-change commits, a change list (or CL), change set, update, or patch identifies the set of changes made in a single commit. This can also represent a sequential view of the source code, allowing the examination of source as of any particular changelist ID.
=== Checkout ===
To check out (or co) is to create a local working copy from the repository. A user may specify a specific revision or obtain the latest. The term 'checkout' can also be used as a noun to describe the working copy. When a file has been checked out from a shared file server, it cannot be edited by other users. Think of it like a hotel, when you check out, you no longer have access to its amenities.
=== Clone ===
Cloning means creating a repository containing the revisions from another repository. This is equivalent to pushing or pulling into an empty (newly initialized) repository. As a noun, two repositories can be said to be clones if they are kept synchronized, and contain the same revisions.
=== Commit (noun) ===
=== Commit (verb) ===
To commit (check in, ci or, more rarely, install, submit or record) is to write or merge the changes made in the working copy back to the repository. A commit contains metadata, typically the author information and a commit message that describes the change.
=== Commit message ===
A short note, written by the developer, stored with the commit, which describes the commit. Ideally, it records why the modification was made, a description of the modification's effect or purpose, and non-obvious aspects of how the change works.
=== Conflict ===
A conflict occurs when different parties make changes to the same document, and the system is unable to reconcile the changes. A user must resolve the conflict by combining the changes, or by selecting one change in favour of the other.
=== Delta compression ===
Most revision control software uses delta compression, which retains only the differences between successive versions of files. This allows for more efficient storage of many different versions of files.
=== Dynamic stream ===
A stream in which some or all file versions are mirrors of the parent stream's versions.
=== Export ===
Exporting is the act of obtaining the files from the repository. It is similar to checking out except that it creates a clean directory tree without the version-control metadata used in a working copy. This is often used prior to publishing the contents, for example.
=== Fetch ===
See pull.
=== Forward integration ===
The process of merging changes made in the main trunk into a development (feature or team) branch.
=== Head ===
Also sometimes called tip, this refers to the most recent commit, either to the trunk or to a branch. The trunk and each branch have their own head, though HEAD is sometimes loosely used to refer to the trunk.
=== Import ===
Importing is the act of copying a local directory tree (that is not currently a working copy) into the repository for the first time.
=== Initialize ===
To create a new, empty repository.
=== Interleaved deltas ===
Some revision control software uses Interleaved deltas, a method that allows storing the history of text based files in a more efficient way than by using Delta compression.
=== Label ===
See tag.
=== Locking ===
When a developer locks a file, no one else can update that file until it is unlocked. Locking can be supported by the version control system, or via informal communications between developers (aka social locking).
=== Mainline ===
Similar to trunk, but there can be a mainline for each branch.
=== Merge ===
A merge or integration is an operation in which two sets of changes are applied to a file or set of files. Some sample scenarios are as follows:
A user, working on a set of files, updates or syncs their working copy with changes made, and checked into the repository, by other users.
A user tries to check in files that have been updated by others since the files were checked out, and the revision control software automatically merges the files (typically, after prompting the user if it should proceed with the automatic merge, and in some cases only doing so if the merge can be clearly and reasonably resolved).
A branch is created, the code in the files is independently edited, and the updated branch is later incorporated into a single, unified trunk.
A set of files is branched, a problem that existed before the branching is fixed in one branch, and the fix is then merged into the other branch. (This type of selective merge is sometimes known as a cherry pick to distinguish it from the complete merge in the previous case.)
=== Promote ===
The act of copying file content from a less controlled location into a more controlled location. For example, from a user's workspace into a repository, or from a stream to its parent.
=== Pull, push ===
Copy revisions from one repository into another. Pull is initiated by the receiving repository, while push is initiated by the source. Fetch is sometimes used as a synonym for pull, or to mean a pull followed by an update.
=== Pull request ===
=== Repository ===
=== Resolve ===
The act of user intervention to address a conflict between different changes to the same document.
=== Reverse integration ===
The process of merging different team branches into the main trunk of the versioning system.
=== Revision and version ===
A version is any change in form. In SVK, a Revision is the state at a point in time of the entire tree in the repository.
=== Share ===
The act of making one file or folder available in multiple branches at the same time. When a shared file is changed in one branch, it is changed in other branches.
=== Stream ===
A container for branched files that has a known relationship to other such containers. Streams form a hierarchy; each stream can inherit various properties (like versions, namespace, workflow rules, subscribers, etc.) from its parent stream.
=== Tag ===
A tag or label refers to an important snapshot in time, consistent across many files. These files at that point may all be tagged with a user-friendly, meaningful name or revision number. See baselines, labels and tags.
=== Trunk ===
The trunk is the unique line of development that is not a branch (sometimes also called Baseline, Mainline or Master)
=== Update ===
An update (or sync, but sync can also mean a combined push and pull) merges changes made in the repository (by other people, for example) into the local working copy. Update is also the term used by some CM tools (CM+, PLS, SMS) for the change package concept (see changelist). Synonymous with checkout in revision control systems that require each repository to have exactly one working copy (common in distributed systems)
=== Unlocking ===
Releasing a lock.
=== Working copy ===
The working copy is the local copy of files from a repository, at a specific time or revision. All work done to the files in a repository is initially done on a working copy, hence the name. Conceptually, it is a sandbox.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
"Visual Guide to Version Control", Better explained.
Sink, Eric, "Source Control", SCM (how-to). The basics of version control. | Wikipedia/Revision_control |
Graphisoft SE is a European multinational corporation that designs software, and is headquartered in Budapest, Hungary. As a subsidiary of Nemetschek, Graphisoft develops Building Information Modeling software products for architects, interior designers and planners. Graphisoft has subsidiaries in Germany, France, Switzerland, United States, United Kingdom, Spain, Japan and a representative office in Singapore. The company's flagship product is Archicad — an architectural design software developed since 1984 for Windows and Mac platforms.
== History ==
=== Foundation ===
In 1982, Graphisoft was established by Gábor Bojár. The Hungarian software developer created terrain modeling software on microcomputers while he was head of a mathematical department at the Geophysical Institute in Budapest. The communist history of Hungary was an important factor in the success of Graphisoft. When private companies had been allowed, Bojár promptly left his job and launched Graphisoft with a competent team. They were all experts in three-dimensional mathematical modeling but had no access to the most modern and efficient computers. This limitation led to the development of 3D modeling software that could be used on low-cost PCs. Then the team provided such software to architects. Since 1984, Graphisoft has been supported by Apple. Steve Jobs was impressed by Graphisoft's capability and the development of the architectural CAD from Bojár in the 2D/3D technology. Therefore, he sent them an Apple computer. This made it possible to create Archicad, the first desktop BIM system and Graphisoft's flagship product.
Graphisoft's flagship product, Archicad was introduced in 1987 as the Virtual Building concept, later (2003) regarded as building information modeling (BIM), and allowing architects to draw walls, windows, doors, slabs and roofs — a common feature now of every BIM-based architectural design software. Subsequent Archicad releases introduced other BIM features such as Teamwork, which enabled more architects to work on the same building in parallel, edit functions in three-dimensional model views, and interoperability add-ons to communicate with other applications using IFC — now a de facto standard in data exchange between BIM applications.
Graphisoft built a campus north of Budapest, Graphisoft Park. The construction of the technology park began in 1998. Today, it includes the company‘s global headquarters and hosts several technology companies such as Microsoft, SAP and Canon. Graphisoft was introduced to the Frankfurt Stock Exchange in 1998 and the Budapest Stock Exchange in 2000, and was purchased by Nemetschek AG (Germany) in 2007.
In 2013, Graphisoft signed a contract with Nikken Sekkei, to create the BIM Competence & Research Center in order to advance BIM in Japan and Southeast Asia. In 2016, Graphisoft partnered with the company Atlas Cloud to provide a cloud-based access to Archicad. In September 2018, Graphisoft Park expanded by 20,000 square-meters in the cause of its 20th anniversary, lifting the park's total area to 75,000sqm. The new buildings are rented to companies under lease. In addition, Graphisoft Park developed an advanced learning center, the Aquincum Institute of Technology (AIT-Budapest).
In April 2019, Graphisoft's CEO Viktor Várkonyi started to manage the Planning and Design Division at Graphisoft's mother company Nemetschek. Huw Roberts was appointed the new CEO of Graphisoft.
In June 2019, Graphisoft entered a partnership with Epic Games to launch next-generation real-time rendering solution for its customers.
Daniel Csillag was named CEO of Graphisoft in February 2024, succeeding Huw Roberts.
== Products ==
=== Graphisoft Archicad ===
Archicad is a complex architectural design tool offering 2D and 3D drafting, visualization and documentation functions for architects and planners to create three-dimensional designs and detailed technical documentation, thus enabling architects to use Archicad from the earliest design phases to the technical detail drawings. As of 2023 Archicad is in its 26th generation.
=== Graphisoft BIM Server ===
Graphisoft's second generation collaboration system lets more architects work on the same building simultaneously with Archicad by allowing them to access and manage the building information model database over the internet. Graphisoft BIM Server is shipped with Archicad from version 13.
Available in both private and public cloud configurations on standard hardware. BIMcloud SaaS allows fast, efficient, and secure access to shared projects in real time
=== Graphisoft MEP Modeler ===
Graphisoft MEP Modeler (Mechanical/Electrical/Plumbing) Modeler is an Archicad extension for architects to incorporate duct work and piping into the architectural design. MEP Modeler allows architects to create, edit or import 3D MEP networks and coordinate them with the Building Information Model, facilitating the BIM workflow between engineers and architects.
=== Graphisoft EcoDesigner ===
Graphisoft EcoDesigner helps architects to use virtual building information to evaluate energy performance, thus the sustainability of the building from the very first concept design. EcoDesigner allows architects to analyze their design for energy efficiency, providing feedback on the building's estimated energy performance.
=== Graphisoft BIMcloud ===
BIMcloud offers secure, real-time multi-disciplinary collaboration between all project team members regardless of the size or complexity of the project, the location of the offices, or the speed of the internet connection. Available in both private and public cloud configurations on standard hardware.
=== DDScad ===
Graphisoft merged with sister company DDScad in 2021 to add full MEP capabilities to Archicad.
DDScad solutions support users with intelligent Mechanical, Electrical, Plumbing (MEP) design tools, integrated calculations, and comprehensive documentation of all building systems.
=== Archicad Collaborate ===
Graphisoft announced Archicad Collaborate on March 21, 2023. The subscription-based offering combines Archicad with BIMcloud Software as a Service (SaaS) for the price of an Archicad subscription. “The included software, services, and cloud technology in Archicad Collaborate offer a compelling advantage over rival BIM solutions in the market where such items are often separated into additional to-purchase options.”
=== Graphisoft BIMx ===
BIMx, formerly marketed as Virtual Building Explorer is an interactive BIM model presentation tool, which allows the presentation of entire building models without the need for installing Archicad or other BIM authoring tool. The software combines video game-like navigation with native BIM features, including measurement of real building dimensions, model cut-throughs, and project markups.
== See also ==
Drawbase Software
== References == | Wikipedia/Graphisoft |
Landscape design is an independent profession and a design and art tradition, practiced by landscape designers, combining nature and culture. In contemporary practice, landscape design bridges the space between landscape architecture and garden design.
== Design scope ==
Landscape design focuses on both the integrated master landscape planning of a property and the specific garden design of landscape elements and plants within it. The practical, aesthetic, horticultural, and environmental sustainability are also components of landscape design, which is often divided into hardscape design and softscape design. Landscape designers often collaborate with related disciplines such as architecture, civil engineering, surveying, landscape contracting, and artisan specialties.
Design projects may involve two different professional roles: landscape design and landscape architecture.
Landscape design typically involves artistic composition and artisanship, horticultural finesse and expertise, and emphasis on detailed site involvement from conceptual stages through to final construction.
Landscape architecture focuses more on urban planning, city and regional parks, civic and corporate landscapes, large scale interdisciplinary projects, and delegation to contractors after completing designs.
There can be a significant overlap of talent and skill between the two roles, depending on the education, licensing, and experience of the professional. Both landscape designers and landscape architects practice landscape design.
== Design approach ==
The landscape design phase consists of research, gathering ideas, and setting a plan. Design factors include objective qualities such as: climate and microclimates; topography and orientation, site drainage and groundwater recharge; municipal and resource building codes; soils and irrigation; human and vehicular access and circulation; recreational amenities (i.e., sports and water); furnishings and lighting; native plant habitat botany when present; property safety and security; construction detailing; and other measurable considerations.
Design factors also include subjective qualities such as genius loci (the special site qualities to emphasize); client's needs and preferences; desirable plants and elements to retain on site, modify, or replace, and that may be available for borrowed scenery from beyond; artistic composition from perspectives of both looking upon and observing from within; spatial development and definition – using lines, sense of scale, and balance and symmetry; plant palettes; and artistic focal points for enjoyment. There are innumerable other design factors and considerations brought to the complex process of designing a garden that is beautiful, well-functioning, and that thrives over time.
The up-and-coming practice of online landscape design allows professional landscapers to remotely design and plan sites through manipulation of two-dimensional images without ever physically visiting the location. Due to the frequent lack of non-visual, supplementary data such as soil assessments and pH tests, online landscaping necessarily must focus on incorporating only plants which are tolerant across many diverse soil conditions.
== Training ==
Historically, landscape designers trained by apprenticing—such as André Le Nôtre, who apprenticed with his father before designing the Gardens of Versailles—to accomplished masters in the field, with the titular name varying and reputation paramount for a career. The professional section of garden designers in Europe and the Americas went by the name "Landscape Gardener". In the 1890s, the distinct classification of landscape architect was created, with educational and licensing test requirements for using the title legally. Beatrix Farrand, the sole woman in the founding group, refused the title preferring Landscape Gardener. Matching the client and technical needs of a project, and the appropriate practitioner with talent, legal qualifications, and experienced skills, surmounts title nomenclature.
Institutional education in landscape design appeared in the early 20th century. Over time it became available at various levels. Ornamental horticulture programs with design components are offered at community college and universities within schools of agriculture or horticulture, with some beginning to offer garden or landscape design certificates and degrees. Departments of landscape architecture are located within university schools of architecture or environmental design, with undergraduate and graduate degrees offered. Specialties and minors are available in horticultural botany, horticulture, natural resources, landscape engineering, construction management, fine and applied arts, and landscape design history. Traditionally, hand-drawn drawings documented the design and position of features for construction, but Landscape design software is frequently used now.
Other routes of training are through informal apprenticeships with practicing landscape designers, landscape architects, landscape contractors, gardeners, nurseries and garden centers, and docent programs at botanical and public gardens. Since the landscape designer title does not have a college degree or licensing requirements to be used, there is a very wide range of sophistication, aesthetic talent, technical expertise, and specialty strengths to be responsibly matched with specific client and project requirements.
== Gardening ==
Many landscape designers have an interest and involvement with gardening, personally or professionally. Gardens are dynamic and not static after construction and planting are completed, and so in some ways are "never done". Involvement with landscape management and direction of the ongoing garden direction, evolution, and care depend on the professional's and client's needs and inclinations. As with the other interrelated landscape disciplines, there can be an overlap of services offered under the titles of landscape designer or professional gardener.
== See also ==
Concrete landscape curbing
Landscape assessment
Space in landscape design
== References == | Wikipedia/Landscape_design |
Evidence-based design (EBD) is the process of constructing a building or physical environment based on scientific research to achieve the best possible outcomes. Evidence-based design is especially important in evidence-based medicine, where research has shown that environment design can affect patient outcomes. It is also used in architecture, interior design, landscape architecture, facilities management, education, and urban planning. Evidence-based design is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices.
== Background ==
Evidence-based design (EBD) was popularized by the seminal study by Ulrich (1984) that showed the impact of a window view on patient recovery. Studies have since examined the relationships between design of the physical environment of hospitals with outcomes in health, the results of which show how the physical environment can lower the incidence of nosocomial infections, medical errors, patient falls, and staff injuries; and reduce stress of facility users, improve safety and productivity, reduce resource waste, and enhance sustainability.
Evidence in EBD may include a wide range of sources of knowledge, from systematic literature reviews to practice guidelines and expert opinions. Evidence-based design was first defined as "the deliberate attempt to base design decisions on the best available research evidence" and that "an evidence-based designer, together with an informed client, makes decisions based on the best available information from research and project evaluations". The Center for Heath Design (CHD), a non-profit organization that supports healthcare and design professionals to improve the understanding and application of design that influence the performance of healthcare, patient satisfaction, staff productivity and safety, base their model on the importance of working in partnership with the client and interdisciplinary team to foster understanding of the client, preferences and resources.
The roots of evidence-based design could go back to 1860 when Florence Nightingale identified fresh air as "the very first canon of nursing," and emphasized the importance of quiet, proper lighting, warmth and clean water. Nightingale applied statistics to nursing, notably with "Diagram of the causes of mortality in the army in the East". This statistical study led to advances in sanitation, although the germ theory of disease was not yet fully accepted.
Nightingale was also an enthusiast for the therapeutic benefits of sunlight and views from windows. She wrote: "Second only to fresh air … I should be inclined to rank light in importance for the sick. Direct sunlight, not only daylight, is necessary for speedy recovery … I mention from experience, as quite perceptible in promoting recovery, the being able to see out of a window, instead of looking against a dead wall; the bright colours of flowers; the being able to read in bed by the light of the window close to the bed-head. It is generally said the effect is upon the mind. Perhaps so, but it is not less so upon the body on that account ...."
Nightingale’s ideas appear to have been influential on E R Robson, architect to the London School Board, when he wrote: “It is well known that the rays of the sun have a beneficial influence on the air of a room, tending to promote ventilation, and that they are to a young child very much what they are to a flower.”
The evidence-based design movement began in the 1970s with Archie Cochranes's book Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services. to collect, codify, and disseminate "evidence" gathered in randomised controlled trials relative to the built environment. A 1984 study by Roger Ulrich seemed to support Nightingale's ideas from more than a century before: he found that surgical patients with a view of nature suffered fewer complications, used less pain medication and were discharged sooner than those who looked out on a brick wall; and laid the foundation for what has now become a discipline known as evidence-based design. Studies exist about the psychological effects of lighting, carpeting and noise on critical-care patients, and evidence links physical environment with improvement of patients and staff safety, wellness and satisfaction. Architectural researchers have studied the impact of hospital layout on staff effectiveness, and social scientists studied guidance and wayfinding. In the 1960s and 1970s numerous studies were carried out using methods drawn from behavioural psychology to examine both people’s behaviour in relation to buildings and their responses to different designs – see for example the book by David Canter and Terence Lee More recently, architectural researchers have conducted post-occupancy evaluations (POE) to provide advice on improving building design and quality. While the EBD process is particularly suited to healthcare, it may be also used in other fields for positive health outcomes and provision of healing environments.
While healthcare proved to be one of the most prominent sectors to examine the evidence base for how good design benefits building occupants, visitors and the public, other sectors also have considerable bodies of evidence. And, many sectors benefit from literature reviews that draw together and summarise the evidence. In the UK some were led by the UK Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, a government watchdog established by the Labour Party following its election in 1997 and commitment to improving the quality of the UK stock of public sector buildings. Other reviews were supported by various public or private organisations, and some were undertaken in academia. Reviews were undertaken at the urban scale, some were cross-sectoral and others were sector based (hospitals, schools, higher education). An academic paper by Sebastian Macmillan) gives an overview of the field as it was in 2006.
== A cautionary note about the strength of evidence in the built environment ==
In supporting evidence-based design, some caution is needed to ascertain the robustness of the evidence: the architectural psychology movement eventually drew criticism for its tendency towards ‘architectural determinism’ – a confusion between correlation and causality with the implication that there were mechanistic and causal links between the built environment and human behaviour. As some of the studies reviewed below reveal, the evidence is often weak or, worse, conflicting. In an early review of evidence in the healthcare sector, Rubin, Owens & Golden examined the medical literature for research papers on the effect of the physical environment on patient outcomes. They concluded that, if the demanding standards of proof used in medical research were used, almost all the studies would have to be regarded as methodologically flawed or at least limited. Unfortunately strongly held opinions are not the same as rigorously collected evidence.
== Evidence-base for architecture generally, housing and urban environments ==
In 2002, CABE published a cross-sectoral study that set a pattern by reviewing a selection of the evidence (which it called the key research) for healthcare buildings, educational buildings, housing, urban environments, and business premises. It claimed: “Good design is not just about the aesthetic improvement of our environment, it is as much about improved quality of life, equality of opportunity and economic growth. … Good design does not cost more when measured across the lifetime of the building or place …”
At the urban scale, in 2001, CABE and DETR published a study on the value of urban design which includes a literature review plus some case studies.
In New Zealand, a landmark review
was supported by the Ministry for the Environment. The study categorised the evidence as conclusive, strong, suggestive or anecdotal, and also noted the difficulty of establishing causation since various design elements may be found in combination with other features. The authors state that urban design is context-specific and cautions against automatically adopting what works elsewhere in New Zealand.
In its 2003 review of the evidence about housing CABE expressed similar concerns about the evidence base when it said: “The most striking finding in a review of the literature relating to the quality of residential design is the almost complete absence of any empirical attempts to measure the implications of high quality on costs, prices or values.”
David Halpern’s book brings together and reviews a substantial number of studies covering among other issues: mental ill-health in city centres; social isolation in out of town housing estates; residential satisfaction; and estate layouts, semi-private spaces and a sense of community. He concludes that there is substantial evidence to show the physical environment has real and significant effects on group and friendship formation, and on patterns of neighbourly behaviour.
Other literature reviews include a 2006 study by the Scottish Executive and one by the UK NWDA/RENEW North West.
== Public open space ==
CABE’s 2004 literature review on public open space draws attention to the physical and mental health benefits associated with access to recreational space, as well as the environmental value of biodiversity and improved air quality. In a follow up 2005 study entitled Does Money Grown on Trees? CABE assessed the impact on the value of residential property of proximity to a park, drawing on valuations prepared by local property experts in which external variables (shops, schools, busy roads) were controlled for. Economic and non-monetary benefits from the proximity were identified.
== Schools and Higher Education ==
A comprehensive review of the literature was undertaken in 2005 for the Design Council. It concluded that there was evidence for the effect of basic physical variables (air quality, temperature, noise) on learning but that once minimum standards were achieved, further improvements were less significant. The reviewers found forceful opinions on the effects of lighting and colour but that the supporting evidence was conflicting. It was difficult to draw generalizable conclusions about other physical characteristics, and the interactions between different elements was as important as single elements.
Other literature reviews of the education sector include two by Price Waterhouse Coopers and one by researchers at the University of Salford.
In the higher education sector, a review by CABE reports on the links between building design and the recruitment, retention and performance of staff and students. Fifty articles are reviewed, and five new case studies reported.
== Offices ==
The offices sector has been widely studied with the major concerns focusing on productivity. A study in 2000 by Sheffield Hallam University reported that apart from surveys of occupants of individual offices, the evidence base on new workplaces was mainly journalistic and biased towards interviews with successes and failures. Some companies claimed that new spatial arrangements led to reduced costs, reduced absenteeism and easier recruitment, faster development of new ideas, and increased profitability. But others reported the exact opposite; and the reasons for this remained unclear.
CABE and the British Council for Offices published a joint study in 2005. The paper reports that four main issues have been studied: the largest is environmental and ergonomic issues related to the comfort of individual office workers; secondly research on the efficiency with which office space is used; thirdly adaptability and flexibility and finally research related to supporting work processes. The report is critical of the disproportionate focus on the performance of building services compared with other aspects of buildings.
== Evidence-based design for healthcare facilities ==
There is a growing awareness among healthcare professionals and medical planners for the need to create patient-centered environments that can help patients and family cope with the stress that accompanies illness. There is also growing supporting research and evidence through various studies that have shown both the influence of well-designed environments on positive patient health outcomes, and poor design on negative effects including longer hospital stays.
Using biophilic design concepts in interior environments is increasingly argued to have positive impacts on health and well-being through improving direct and indirect experiences of nature. Numerous studies have demonstrated improved patient health outcomes through environmental measures; exposing patients to nature has been shown to produce substantial alleviation of pain, and limited research also suggests that patients experience less pain when exposed to higher levels of daylight in their hospital rooms. Patients have an increased need for sleep during illness, but suffer from poor sleep when hospitalised. Approaches such as single-bed rooms and reduced noise have been shown to improve patient sleep. Natural daylight in patient rooms help to maintain circadian rhythms and improve sleep.
According to Heerwagen, an environmental psychologist, medical models of health integrate behavioral, social, psychological, and mental processes. Contact with nature and daylight has been found to enhance emotional functioning; drawing on research from studies (EBD) on well-being outcomes and building features. Positive feelings such as calmness increase, while anxiety, anger, or other negative emotions diminish with views of nature. In contrast there is also convincing evidence that stress could be worsened and ineffective in fostering restoration in built environments that lack nature.
Few studies have shown the restorative effects of gardens for stressed patients, families and staff. Behavioural observation and interview methods in post occupancy studies of hospital gardens have shown a faster recovery from stress by nearly all garden users. Limited evidence suggest increased benefits when these gardens contain foliage, flowers, water, pleasant nature sounds, such as birds and water.
== Related approaches ==
=== Performance-based building design ===
EBD is closely related to performance-based building design (PBBD) practices. As an approach to design, PBBD tries to create clear statistical relationships between design decisions and satisfaction levels demonstrated by the building systems. Like EBD, PBBD uses research evidence to predict performance related to design decisions.
The decision-making process is non-linear, since the building environment is a complex system. Choices cannot be based on cause-and-effect predictions; instead, they depend on variable components and mutual relationships. Technical systems, such as heating, ventilation and air-conditioning, have interrelated design choices and related performance requirements (such as energy use, comfort and use cycles) are variable components.
=== Evidence-based medicine ===
Evidence-based medicine (EBM) is a systematic process of evaluating scientific research which is used as the basis for clinical treatment choices. Sackett, Rosenberg, Gray, Haynes and Richardson argue that "evidence-based medicine is the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients". It is used in the healthcare industry to convince decision-makers to invest the time and money to build better buildings, realizing strategic business advantages as a result. As medicine has become increasingly evidence-based, healthcare design uses EBD to link hospitals' physical environments with healthcare outcomes.
=== Research-informed design ===
Research-informed design (RID) is a less-developed concept that is commonly misunderstood and used synonymously with EBD, although they are different. It can be defined as the process of applying credible research in integration with the project team to inform the environmental design to achieve the project goals. Credible research here, includes qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches with the highest standards of rigor suitable for their methodology.
The literature for "research-informed" practices comes from education, and not from the healthcare disciplines. The process involves application of the outcomes from literature review and empirical investigation to inform design during the design phase, given the constraints; and to share the process and the lessons learnt just like in EDB.
== Research and accreditation ==
As EBD is supported by research, many healthcare organizations are adopting its principles with the guidance of evidence-based designers. The Center for Health Design developed the Pebble Project, a joint research effort by CHD and selected healthcare providers on the effect of building environments on patients and staff. Health Environment Research & Design journal and the Health Care Advisory Board are additional sources of information and database on EBD.
The Evidence Based Design Accreditation and Certification (EDAC) program was introduced in 2009 by The Center for Health Design to provide internationally recognized certification and promote the use of EBD in healthcare building projects, making EBD an accepted and credible approach to improving healthcare outcomes. EDAC identifies those experienced in EBD and teaches about the research process: identifying, hypothesizing, implementing, gathering and reporting data associated with a healthcare project.
== Process ==
There are four components to evidence-based design:
Gather qualitative and quantitative intelligence
Map strategic, cultural and research goals
Hypothesize outcomes, innovate, and implement translational design
Measure and share outcomes
=== Meta-analysis template for literature review ===
In his book Evidence-based Policy: A Realistic Perspective, Ray Pawson suggests a meta-analysis template which may be applied to EBD. With this protocol, the field will be able to provide designers with a source for evidence-based design.
A systematic review process should follow five steps:
Formulating the review question
Identifying and collecting evidence
Evaluating the quality of the evidence
Extracting, processing and systematizing data
Disseminating findings
=== Conceptual model ===
According to Hamilton, architects have a responsibility in translation of research in the field, and its application in informing designs. He further illustrates a conceptual model architects could use, that identifies four levels of addressing research and methods base on varying levels of commitment:
Level 1
Informed design decisions based on available literature on environmental research, based on applicability, such as the use of a state of the art technology or strategy based on the physical setting of the project
Level 2
Design decisions based on predictive performance and measurable outcomes, rather than subjective decisions based on random choice
Level 3
Results reported publicly, with the objective of moving information on the methods and results moving information beyond the design team,
The peer review, makes the process more robust, as it could include varying perspectives from those who may or may not agree with the findings
Level 4
Publishing findings in peer-reviewed journals
Collaborating with academic and social scientists
=== Working model ===
A white paper (series 3/5) from the Center for Health Design presents a working model to help designers implement EBD decision-making. The primary goal is providing a healing environment; positive outcomes depend on three investments:
Designed infrastructure, including the built environment and technology
Re-engineered clinical and administrative practices to maximize infrastructure investment
Leadership to maximize human and infrastructure investments
All three investments depend on existing research.
=== Strategies ===
A white paper from the Center for Health Design identifies ten strategies to aid EBD decision-making:
Start with problems. Identify the problems the project is trying to solve and for which the facility design plays an important role (for example, adding or upgrading technology, expanding services to meet growing market demand, replacing aging infrastructure)
Use an integrated multidisciplinary approach with consistent senior involvement, ensuring that everyone with problem-solving tools is included. It is essential to stimulate synergy between different community to maximize efforts, outcomes and interchanges.
Maintain a patient- and family-centered approach; patient and family experiences are key to defining aims and assessing outcomes.
Focus on financial operations past the first-cost impact, exploring the cost-effectiveness of design options over time and considering multi-year investment returns.
Apply disciplined participation and criteria management. These processes use decision-making tools such as SWOT analysis, analytic hierarchy processes and decision trees which may also be used in design (particularly of technical aspects such as structure, fire safety or energy use).
Establish incentive-linked criteria to increase design-team motivation and involve end users with checklists, surveys and simulations.
Use strategic partnerships to create new products with hospital-staff expertise and influence.
Encourage simulation and testing, assuming the patient's perspective when making lighting and energy models and computer visualizations.
Use a lifecycle perspective (30–50 years) from planning to product, exploring the lifecycle return on investment of design strategies for safety and workforce outcomes.
Overcommunicate. Positive outcomes are connected with the involvement of clinical staff and community members with meetings, newsletters, webcams and other tools.
== Tools ==
Evidence-based design has been applied to efficacy measurements of a building's design, and is usually done at the post-construction stage as a part of a post-occupancy evaluation (POE). The POE assesses strengths and weaknesses of design decisions in relation to human behaviour in a built environment. Issues include acoustics, odor control, vibration, lighting and user-friendliness, and are binary-choice (acceptable or unacceptable). Other research techniques, such as observation, photography, checklists, interviews, surveys and focus groups, supplement traditional design-research methods.
Assessment tools have been developed by The Center for Health Design and the Picker Institute to help healthcare managers and designers gather information on consumer needs, assess their satisfaction and measure quality improvements:
The Patient Environmental Checklist assesses an existing facility's strong and weak points. Specific environmental features are evaluated by patients and their families on a 5-point scale, and the checklist quickly identifies areas needing improvement.
The Patient Survey gathers information on patients' experiences with the built environment. The questions range is wide, since patients' priorities may differ significantly from those of administrators or designers.
Focus Groups with consumers learn about specific needs and generate ideas for future solutions.
== References ==
Cama, R., "Patient room advances and controversies: Are you in the evidence-based healthcare design game?", Healthcare Design, March 2009.
Cochrane, A. L. (1972). Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services. Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust. ISBN 978-0-900574-17-7.
Hall, C.R., "CHD rolls out evidence-based design accreditation and certification", Health Facilities Management, July 2009.
Kirk, Hamilton D., "Research Informed Design & Outcomes for Healthcare" in Evidence Based Hospital Design Forum, Washington, January 2009.
Stankos, M. and Scharz, B., "Evidence-Based Design in Healthcare: A Theoretical Dilemma", IDRP Interdisciplinary Design and Research e-Journal, Volume I, Issue I (Design and Health), January 2007.
Ulrich, R.S., "Effects of Healthcare Environmental Design on Medical Outcomes" in Design & Health – The therapeutic benefits of design, proceedings of the 2nd Annual International Congress on Design and Health. Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, June 2000.
Webster, L. and Steinke, C., "Evidence-based design: A new direction for health care". Design Quarterly, Winter 2009
Sadler, B.L., Dubose, J.R., Malone, E.B. and Zimring, C.M., "The business case for building better hospitals through evidence based design". White Paper Series 1/5, Evidence-Based Design Resources for Healthcare Executives Archived 2017-04-19 at the Wayback Machine, Center for Health Design, September 2008.
Ulrich, R.S., Zimring, C.M., Zhu, X., Dubose, J., Seo, H.B., Choi, Y.S., Quan, X. and Joseph, A., "A review of the research literature on evidence based healthcare design", White Paper Series 5/5, Evidence-Based Design Resources for Healthcare Executives Archived 2017-04-19 at the Wayback Machine, Center for Health Design, September 2008.
== Further reading ==
A Visual Reference to Evidence-Based Design by Jain Malkin.
Study Guide 1: An Introduction to Evidence-Based Design: Exploring Healthcare and Design.
Study Guide 2: Building the Evidence-Base: Understanding Research in Helathcare Design.
Study Guide 3: Integrating Evidence-Based Design: Practicing the Healthcare Design Process.
A Practitioner's Guide to Evidence-Based Design by Debra D. Harris, PhD, Anjali Joseph, PhD, Franklin Becker, PhD, Kirk Hamilton, FAIA, FACHA, Mardelle McCuskey Shepley, AIA, D.Arch.
Evidence-Based Design for Multiple Building Types by D. Kirk Hamilton and David H. Watkins.
Stout, Chris E. and Hayes, Randy A. The evidence-based practice: methods, models, and tools for mental health professionals. John Wiley and Sons, January 2005.
Ulrich, R., Quan, X., Zimring, C., Joseph, A. and, Choudhary, R., "The Role of the Physical Environment in the Hospital of the 21st Century". Report to the Center for Health Design, September 2004.
Cama, R., (2009). Evidence-Based Healthcare Design. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Phiri, M. (2015). Design Tools for Evidence-Based Healthcare Design. Abingdon & New York: Routledge.
Phiri, M. & Chen, B. (2014). Sustainability and Evidence-Based Design in Healthcare Estate. Heidelberg: Springer.
== External links ==
The Center for Health Design
Role of the Physical Environment in the Hospital of the 21st Century: Report published by The Center for Health Design in 2004 summarizing evidence-based design research for healthcare
InformeDesign: Research database of studies linking environment to outcomes
Center for Health Systems and Design
Picker Institute
Tulane Center for Evidence-Based Global Health | Wikipedia/Evidence-based_design |
Design methods are procedures, techniques, aids, or tools for designing. They offer a number of different kinds of activities that a designer might use within an overall design process. Conventional procedures of design, such as drawing, can be regarded as design methods, but since the 1950s new procedures have been developed that are more usually grouped under the name of "design methods". What design methods have in common is that they "are attempts to make public the hitherto private thinking of designers; to externalise the design process".
Design methodology is the broader study of method in design: the study of the principles, practices and procedures of designing.
== Background ==
Design methods originated in new approaches to problem solving developed in the mid-20th Century, and also in response to industrialisation and mass-production, which changed the nature of designing. A "Conference on Systematic and Intuitive Methods in Engineering, Industrial Design, Architecture and Communications", held in London in 1962 is regarded as a key event marking the beginning of what became known within design studies as the "design methods movement", leading to the founding of the Design Research Society and influencing design education and practice. Leading figures in this movement in the UK were J. Christopher Jones at the University of Manchester and L. Bruce Archer at the Royal College of Art.
The movement developed through further conferences on new design methods in the UK and USA in the 1960s. The first books on rational design methods, and on creative methods also appeared in this period.
New approaches to design were developing at the same time in Germany, notably at the Ulm School of Design (Hochschule für Gestaltung–HfG Ulm) (1953–1968) under the leadership of Tomás Maldonado. Design teaching at Ulm integrated design with science (including social sciences) and introduced new fields of study such as cybernetics, systems theory and semiotics into design education. Bruce Archer also taught at Ulm, and another influential teacher was Horst Rittel. In 1963 Rittel moved to the School of Architecture at the University of California, Berkeley, where he helped found the Design Methods Group, a society focused on developing and promoting new methods especially in architecture and planning.
At the end of the 1960s two influential, but quite different works were published: Herbert A. Simon's The Sciences of the Artificial and J. Christopher Jones's Design Methods. Simon proposed the "science of design" as "a body of intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical, teachable doctrine about the design process", whereas Jones catalogued a variety of approaches to design, both rational and creative, within a context of a broad, futures creating, systems view of design.
The 1970s saw some reaction against the rationality of design methods, notably from two of its pioneers, Christopher Alexander and J. Christopher Jones. Fundamental issues were also raised by Rittel, who characterised design and planning problems as wicked problems, un-amenable to the techniques of science and engineering, which deal with "tame" problems. The criticisms turned some in the movement away from rationalised approaches to design problem solving and towards "argumentative", participatory processes in which designers worked in partnership with the problem stakeholders (clients, customers, users, the community). This led to participatory design, user centered design and the role of design thinking as a creative process in problem solving and innovation.
However, interest in systematic and rational design methods continued to develop strongly in engineering design during the 1980s; for example, through the Conference on Engineering Design series of The Design Society and the work of the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure association in Germany, and also in Japan, where the Japanese Society for the Science of Design had been established as early as 1954. Books on systematic engineering design methods were published in Germany and the UK. In the USA the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Design Engineering Division began a stream on design theory and methodology within its annual conferences. The interest in systematic, rational approaches to design has led to design science and design science (methodology) in engineering and computer science.
== Methods and processes ==
The development of design methods has been closely associated with prescriptions for a systematic process of designing. These process models usually comprise a number of phases or stages, beginning with a statement or recognition of a problem or a need for a new design and culminating in a finalised solution proposal. In his 'Systematic Method for Designers' L. Bruce Archer produced a very elaborate, 229 step model of a systematic design process for industrial design, but also a summary model consisting of three phases: Analytical phase (programming and data collection, analysis), Creative phase (synthesis, development), and Executive phase (communication). The UK's Design Council created the Double Diamond (design process model), which breaks the creative design process into four phases: Discover (insight into the problem), Define (the area to focus upon), Develop (potential solutions), and Deliver (solutions that work). A systematic model for engineering design by Pahl and Beitz has phases of Clarification of the task, Conceptual design, Embodiment design, and Detail design. A less prescriptive approach to designing a basic design process for oneself has been outlined by J. Christopher Jones.
In the engineering design process systematic models tend to be linear, in sequential steps, but acknowledging the necessity of iteration. In architectural design, process models tend to be cyclical and spiral, with iteration as essential to progression towards a final design. In industrial and product design, process models tend to comprise a sequence of stages of divergent and convergent thinking. The Dubberly Design Office has compiled examples of more than 80 design process models, but it is not an exhaustive list.
Within these process models, numerous design methods can be applied. In his book of 'Design Methods' J. C. Jones grouped 26 methods according to their purposes within a design process: Methods of exploring design situations (e.g. Stating Objectives, Investigating User Behaviour, Interviewing Users), Methods of searching for ideas (e.g. Brainstorming, Synectics, Morphological Charts), Methods of exploring problem structure (e.g. Interaction Matrix, Functional Innovation, Information Sorting), Methods of evaluation (e.g. Checklists, Ranking and Weighting).
Nigel Cross outlined eight stages in a process of engineering product design, each with an associated method: Identifying Opportunities - User Scenarios; Clarifying Objectives - Objectives Tree; Establishing Functions - Function Analysis; Setting Requirements - Performance Specification; Determining Characteristics - Quality Function Deployment; Generating Alternatives - Morphological Chart; Evaluating Alternatives - Weighted Objectives; Improving Details - Value Engineering.
Many design methods still currently in use originated in the design methods movement of the 1960s and 70s, adapted to modern design practices. Recent developments have seen the introduction of more qualitative techniques, including ethnographic methods such as cultural probes and situated methods.
== Emergence of design research and design studies ==
The design methods movement had a profound influence on the development of academic interest in design and designing and the emergence of design research and design studies. Arising directly from the 1962 Conference on Design Methods, the Design Research Society (DRS) was founded in the UK in 1966. The purpose of the Society is to promote "the study of and research into the process of designing in all its many fields" and is an interdisciplinary group with many professions represented.
In the USA, a similar Design Methods Group (DMG) was also established in 1966 by Horst Rittel and others at the University of California, Berkeley. The DMG held a conference at MIT in 1968 with a focus on environmental design and planning, and that led to the foundation of the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA), which held its first conference in 1969. A group interested in design methods and theory in architecture and engineering formed at MIT in the early 1980s, including Donald Schön, who was studying the working practices of architects, engineers and other professionals and developing his theory of reflective practice. In 1984 the National Science Foundation created a Design Theory and Methodology Program to promote methods and process research in engineering design.
Meanwhile in Europe, Vladimir Hubka established the Workshop Design-Konstruction (WDK),which led to a series of International Conferences on Engineering Design (ICED) beginning in 1981 and later became the Design Society.
Academic research journals in design also began publication. DRS initiated Design Studies in 1979, Design Issues appeared in 1984, and Research in Engineering Design in 1989.
== Influence on all professional design practice ==
Several pioneers of design methods developed their work in association with industry. The Ulm school established a significant partnership with the German consumer products company Braun through their designer Dieter Rams. J. Christopher Jones began his approach to systematic design as an ergonomist at the electrical engineering company AEI. L. Bruce Archer developed his systematic approach in projects for medical equipment for the UK National Health Service.
In the USA, designer Henry Dreyfuss had a profound impact on the practice of industrial design by developing systematic processes and promoting the use of anthropometrics, ergonomics and human factors in design, including through his 1955 book 'Designing for People'. Another successful designer, Jay Doblin, was also influential on the theory and practice of design as a systematic process.
Much of current design practice has been influenced and guided by design methods. For example, the influential IDEO consultancy uses design methods extensively in its 'Design Kit' and 'Method Cards'. Increasingly, the intersections of design methods with business and government through the application of design thinking have been championed by numerous consultancies within the design profession. Wide influence has also come through Christopher Alexander's pattern language method, originally developed for architectural and urban design, which has been adopted in software design, interaction design, pedagogical design and other domains.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Other sources (not cited above) ==
Ko, A. J. Design Methods. https://faculty.washington.edu/ajko/books/design-methods/index.html
Koberg, D. and J. Bagnall. (1972) The Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem-Solving, and the Process of Design. Los Altos, CA: Kaufmann. 2nd edition (1981): The All New Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem-Solving, and the Process of Reaching Goals.
Krippendorff, K. (2006). The Semantic Turn; A New Foundation for Design. Taylor&Francis, CRC Press, USA. ISBN 978-0415779890
Plowright, P. (2014) Revealing Architectural Design: Methods, Frameworks and Tools. Routledge, UK. ISBN 978-0415639026
Protzen, J-P. and D. J. Harris. (2010) The Universe of Design: Horst Rittel's Theories of Design and Planning. Routledge. ISBN 0415779898
Pugh, S. (1991), Total Design: Integrated Methods for Successful Product Engineering. Addison-Wesley, UK.
Roozenburg, N. and J. Eekels. (1991) Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods. Wiley, UK. ISBN 0471943517
Ulrich, K. and S. Eppinger. (2011) Product Design and Development. McGraw Hill, USA. ISBN 978-0073404776
== External links ==
Introductory Lecture on Design Methods by Rhodes Hileman
Abstract: Design Methods
Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes, Part 1 of 2. J. Conklin, M. Basadur, GK VanPatter; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2007
Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes, Part 2 of 2. J. Conklin, M. Basadur, GK VanPatter; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2007
Double Consciousness: Back to the Future with John Chris Jones. GK VanPatter, John Chris Jones; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2006 | Wikipedia/Design_methods |
Integrated circuit design, semiconductor design, chip design or IC design, is a sub-field of electronics engineering, encompassing the particular logic and circuit design techniques required to design integrated circuits (ICs). An IC consists of miniaturized electronic components built into an electrical network on a monolithic semiconductor substrate by photolithography.
IC design can be divided into the broad categories of digital and analog IC design. Digital IC design is to produce components such as microprocessors, FPGAs, memories (RAM, ROM, and flash) and digital ASICs. Digital design focuses on logical correctness, maximizing circuit density, and placing circuits so that clock and timing signals are routed efficiently. Analog IC design also has specializations in power IC design and RF IC design. Analog IC design is used in the design of op-amps, linear regulators, phase locked loops, oscillators and active filters. Analog design is more concerned with the physics of the semiconductor devices such as gain, matching, power dissipation, and resistance. Fidelity of analog signal amplification and filtering is usually critical, and as a result analog ICs use larger area active devices than digital designs and are usually less dense in circuitry.
Modern ICs are enormously complicated. An average desktop computer chip, as of 2015, has over 1 billion transistors. The rules for what can and cannot be manufactured are also extremely complex. Common IC processes of 2015 have more than 500 rules. Furthermore, since the manufacturing process itself is not completely predictable, designers must account for its statistical nature. The complexity of modern IC design, as well as market pressure to produce designs rapidly, has led to the extensive use of automated design tools in the IC design process. The design of some processors has become complicated enough to be difficult to fully test, and this has caused problems at large cloud providers. In short, the design of an IC using EDA software is the design, test, and verification of the instructions that the IC is to carry out. Artificial Intelligence has been demonstrated in chip design for creating chip layouts which are the locations of standard cells and macro blocks in a chip.
== Fundamentals ==
Integrated circuit design involves the creation of electronic components, such as transistors, resistors, capacitors and the interconnection of these components onto a piece of semiconductor, typically silicon. A method to isolate the individual components formed in the substrate is necessary since the substrate silicon is conductive and often forms an active region of the individual components. The two common methods are p-n junction isolation and dielectric isolation. Attention must be given to power dissipation of transistors and interconnect resistances and current density of the interconnect, contacts and vias since ICs contain very tiny devices compared to discrete components, where such concerns are less of an issue. Electromigration in metallic interconnect and ESD damage to the tiny components are also of concern. Finally, the physical layout of certain circuit subblocks is typically critical, in order to achieve the desired speed of operation, to segregate noisy portions of an IC from quiet portions, to balance the effects of heat generation across the IC, or to facilitate the placement of connections to circuitry outside the IC.
=== Design flow ===
A typical IC design cycle involves several steps:
System specification
Feasibility study and die size estimate
Function analysis
Architectural or system-level design
Logic design
Analogue design, simulation, and layout
Digital design and simulation
System simulation, emulation, and verification
Circuit design
Digital design synthesis
Design for testing and automatic test pattern generation
Design for manufacturability
Physical design
Floorplanning
Place and route
Parasitic extraction
Physical verification and signoff
Static timing
Co-simulation and timing
Mask data preparation (layout post-processing)
Chip finishing with tape out
Reticle layout
Layout-to-mask preparation
Reticle fabrication
Photomask fabrication
Wafer fabrication
Packaging
Die test
Post silicon validation and integration
Device characterization
Tweak (if necessary)
Chip deployment
Datasheet generation (usually a PDF file)
Ramp up
Production
Yield analysis / warranty analysis reliability
Failure analysis on any returns
Plan for next generation chip using production information if possible
Focused ion beams may be used during chip development to establish new connections in a chip.
=== Summary ===
Roughly saying, digital IC design can be divided into three parts.
Electronic system-level design: This step creates the user functional specification. The user may use a variety of languages and tools to create this description. Examples include a C/C++ model, VHDL, SystemC, SystemVerilog Transaction Level Models, Simulink, and MATLAB.
RTL design: This step converts the user specification (what the user wants the chip to do) into a register transfer level (RTL) description. The RTL describes the exact behavior of the digital circuits on the chip, as well as the interconnections to inputs and outputs.
Physical circuit design: This step takes the RTL, and a library of available logic gates (standard cell library), and creates a chip design. This step involves use of IC layout editor, layout and floor planning, figuring out which gates to use, defining places for them, and wiring (clock timing synthesis, routing) them together.
Note that the second step, RTL design, is responsible for the chip doing the right thing. The third step, physical design, does not affect the functionality at all (if done correctly) but determines how fast the chip operates and how much it costs.
A standard cell normally represents a single logic gate, a diode or simple logic components such as flip-flops, or logic gates with multiple inputs. The use of standard cells allows the chip's design to be split into logical and physical levels. A fabless company would normally only work on the logical design of a chip, determining how cells are connected and the functionality of the chip, while following design rules from the foundry the chip will be made in, while the physical design of the chip, the cells themselves, are normally done by the foundry and it comprises the physics of the transistor devices and how they are connected to form a logic gate. Standard cells allow chips to be designed and modified more quickly to respond to market demands, but this comes at the cost of lower transistor density in the chip and thus larger die sizes.
Foundries supply libraries of standard cells to fabless companies, for design purposes and to allow manufacturing of their designs using the foundry's facilities. A Process design kit (PDK) may be provided by the foundry and it may include the standard cell library as well as the specifications of the cells, and tools to verify the fabless company's design against the design rules specified by the foundry as well as simulate it using the foundry's cells. PDKs may be provided under non-disclosure agreements. Macros/Macrocells/Macro blocks, Macrocell arrays and IP blocks have greater functionality than standard cells, and are used similarly. There are soft macros and hard macros. Standard cells are usually placed following standard cell rows.
== Design lifecycle ==
The integrated circuit (IC) development process starts with defining product requirements, progresses through architectural definition, implementation, bringup and finally production. The various phases of the integrated circuit development process are described below. Although the phases are presented here in a straightforward fashion, in reality there is iteration and these steps may occur multiple times.
=== Requirements ===
Before an architecture can be defined some high level product goals must be defined. The requirements are usually generated by a cross functional team that addresses market opportunity, customer needs, feasibility, and much more. This phase should result in a product requirements document.
=== Architecture ===
The architecture defines the fundamental structure, goals and principles of the product. It defines high level concepts and the intrinsic value proposition of the product. Architecture teams take into account many variables and interface with many groups. People creating the architecture generally have a significant amount of experience dealing with systems in the area for which the architecture is being created. The work product of the architecture phase is an architectural specification.
=== Micro-architecture ===
The micro-architecture is a step closer to the hardware. It implements the architecture and defines specific mechanisms and structures for achieving that implementation. The result of the micro-architecture phase is a micro-architecture specification which describes the methods used to implement the architecture.
=== Implementation ===
In the implementation phase the design itself is created using the micro-architectural specification as the starting point. This involves low level definition and partitioning, writing code, entering schematics and verification. This phase ends with a design reaching tapeout.
=== Bringup ===
After a design is created, taped-out and manufactured, actual hardware, 'first silicon', is received which is taken into the lab where it goes through bringup. Bringup is the process of powering, testing and characterizing the design in the lab. Numerous tests are performed starting from very simple tests such as ensuring that the device will power on to much more complicated tests which try to stress the part in various ways. The result of the bringup phase is documentation of characterization data (how well the part performs to spec) and errata (unexpected behavior).
=== Productization ===
Productization is the task of taking a design from engineering into mass production manufacturing. Although a design may have successfully met the specifications of the product in the lab during the bringup phase there are many challenges that product engineers face when trying to mass-produce those designs. The IC must be ramped up to production volumes with an acceptable yield. The goal of the productization phase is to reach mass production volumes at an acceptable cost.
=== Sustaining ===
Once a design is mature and has reached mass production it must be sustained. The process must be continually monitored and problems dealt with quickly to avoid a significant impact on production volumes. The goal of sustaining is to maintain production volumes and continually reduce costs until the product reaches end of life.
== Design process ==
=== Microarchitecture and system-level design ===
The initial chip design process begins with system-level design and microarchitecture planning. Within IC design companies, management and often analytics will draft a proposal for a design team to start the design of a new chip to fit into an industry segment. Upper-level designers will meet at this stage to decide how the chip will operate functionally. This step is where an IC's functionality and design are decided. IC designers will map out the functional requirements, verification testbenches, and testing methodologies for the whole project, and will then turn the preliminary design into a system-level specification that can be simulated with simple models using languages like C++ and MATLAB and emulation tools. For pure and new designs, the system design stage is where an Instruction set and operation is planned out, and in most chips existing instruction sets are modified for newer functionality. Design at this stage is often statements such as encodes in the MP3 format or implements IEEE floating-point arithmetic. At later stages in the design process, each of these innocent looking statements expands to hundreds of pages of textual documentation.
=== RTL design ===
Upon agreement of a system design, RTL designers then implement the functional models in a hardware description language like Verilog, SystemVerilog, or VHDL. Using digital design components like adders, shifters, and state machines as well as computer architecture concepts like pipelining, superscalar execution, and branch prediction, RTL designers will break a functional description into hardware models of components on the chip working together. Each of the simple statements described in the system design can easily turn into thousands of lines of RTL code, which is why it is extremely difficult to verify that the RTL will do the right thing in all the possible cases that the user may throw at it.
To reduce the number of functionality bugs, a separate hardware verification group will take the RTL and design testbenches and systems to check that the RTL actually is performing the same steps under many different conditions, classified as the domain of functional verification. Many techniques are used, none of them perfect but all of them useful – extensive logic simulation, formal methods, hardware emulation, lint-like code checking, code coverage, and so on. Verification such as that done by emulators can be carried out in FPGAs or special processors, and emulation replaced simulation. Simulation was initially done by simulating logic gates in chips but later on, RTLs in chips were simulated instead. Simulation is still used when creating analog chip designs. Prototyping platforms are used to run software on prototypes of the chip design while it is under development using FPGAs but are slower to iterate on or modify and can't be used to visualize hardware signals as they would appear in the finished design.
A tiny error here can make the whole chip useless, or worse. The famous Pentium FDIV bug caused the results of a division to be wrong by at most 61 parts per million, in cases that occurred very infrequently. No one even noticed it until the chip had been in production for months. Yet Intel was forced to offer to replace, for free, every chip sold until they could fix the bug, at a cost of $475 million (US).
=== Physical design ===
RTL is only a behavioral model of the actual functionality of what the chip is supposed to operate under. It has no link to a physical aspect of how the chip would operate in real life at the materials, physics, and electrical engineering side. For this reason, the next step in the IC design process, physical design stage, is to map the RTL into actual geometric representations of all electronics devices, such as capacitors, resistors, logic gates, and transistors that will go on the chip.
The main steps of physical design are listed below. In practice there is not a straightforward progression - considerable iteration is required to ensure all objectives are met simultaneously. This is a difficult problem in its own right, called design closure.
Logic synthesis: The RTL is mapped into a gate-level netlist in the target technology of the chip.
Floorplanning: The RTL of the chip is assigned to gross regions of the chip, input/output (I/O) pins are assigned and large objects (arrays, cores, etc.) are placed.
Placement: The gates in the netlist are assigned to nonoverlapping locations on the die area.
Logic/placement refinement: Iterative logical and placement transformations to close performance and power constraints.
Clock insertion: Clock signal wiring is (commonly, clock trees) introduced into the design.
Routing: The wires that connect the gates in the netlist are added.
Postwiring optimization: Performance (timing closure), noise (signal integrity), and yield (Design for manufacturability) violations are removed.
Design for manufacturability: The design is modified, where possible, to make it as easy and efficient as possible to produce. This is achieved by adding extra vias or adding dummy metal/diffusion/poly layers wherever possible while complying to the design rules set by the foundry.
Final checking: Since errors are expensive, time-consuming and hard to spot, extensive error checking is the rule, making sure the mapping to logic was done correctly, and checking that the manufacturing rules were followed faithfully.
Chip finishing with Tapeout and mask generation: the design data is turned into photomasks in mask data preparation.
== Analog design ==
Before the advent of the microprocessor and software based design tools, analog ICs were designed using hand calculations and process kit parts. These ICs were low complexity circuits, for example, op-amps, usually involving no more than ten transistors and few connections. An iterative trial-and-error process and "overengineering" of device size was often necessary to achieve a manufacturable IC. Reuse of proven designs allowed progressively more complicated ICs to be built upon prior knowledge. When inexpensive computer processing became available in the 1970s, computer programs were written to simulate circuit designs with greater accuracy than practical by hand calculation. The first circuit simulator for analog ICs was called SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuits Emphasis). Computerized circuit simulation tools enable greater IC design complexity than hand calculations can achieve, making the design of analog ASICs practical.
As many functional constraints must be considered in analog design, manual design is still widespread today, in contrast to digital design which is highly automated, including automated routing and synthesis. As a result, modern design flows for analog circuits are characterized by two different design styles – top-down and bottom-up. The top-down design style makes use of optimization-based tools similar to conventional digital flows. Bottom-up procedures re-use “expert knowledge” with the result of solutions previously conceived and captured in a procedural description, imitating an expert's decision. An example are cell generators, such as PCells.
=== Coping with variability ===
A challenge most critical to analog IC design involves the variability of the individual devices built on the semiconductor chip. Unlike board-level circuit design which permits the designer to select devices that have each been tested and binned according to value, the device values on an IC can vary widely which are uncontrollable by the designer. For example, some IC resistors can vary ±20% and β of an integrated BJT can vary from 20 to 100. In the latest CMOS processes, β of vertical PNP transistors can even go below 1. To add to the design challenge, device properties often vary between each processed semiconductor wafer. Device properties can even vary significantly across each individual IC due to doping gradients. The underlying cause of this variability is that many semiconductor devices are highly sensitive to uncontrollable random variances in the process. Slight changes to the amount of diffusion time, uneven doping levels, etc. can have large effects on device properties.
Some design techniques used to reduce the effects of the device variation are:
Using the ratios of resistors, which do match closely, rather than absolute resistor value.
Using devices with matched geometrical shapes so they have matched variations.
Making devices large so that statistical variations become an insignificant fraction of the overall device property.
Segmenting large devices, such as resistors, into parts and interweaving them to cancel variations.
Using common centroid device layout to cancel variations in devices which must match closely (such as the transistor differential pair of an op amp).
== Vendors ==
The three largest companies selling electronic design automation tools are Synopsys, Cadence, and Mentor Graphics.
== See also ==
Integrated circuit layout design protection
Electronic circuit design
Electronic design automation
Power network design (IC)
Processor design
IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems
Multi-project wafer service
Standard cell
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Electronic Design Automation For Integrated Circuits Handbook, by Lavagno, Martin, and Scheffer, ISBN 0-8493-3096-3 A survey of the field of electronic design automation, one of the main enablers of modern IC design. | Wikipedia/Integrated_circuit_design |
Molecular design software is notable software for molecular modeling, that provides special support for developing molecular models de novo.
In contrast to the usual molecular modeling programs, such as for molecular dynamics and quantum chemistry, such software directly supports the aspects related to constructing molecular models, including:
Molecular graphics
interactive molecular drawing and conformational editing
building polymeric molecules, crystals, and solvated systems
partial charges development
geometry optimization
support for the different aspects of force field development
== Comparison of software covering the major aspects of molecular design ==
== Notes and references ==
== See also ==
== External links ==
molecular design IUPAC term definition.
Journal of Computer-Aided Molecular Design
Molecular Modeling resources
Materials modelling and computer simulation codes
Click2Drug.org Directory of in silico (computer-aided) drug design tools.
Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling
Journal of Computational Chemistry | Wikipedia/Molecular_design_software |
Computer numerical control (CNC) or CNC machining is the automated control of machine tools by a computer. It is an evolution of numerical control (NC), where machine tools are directly managed by data storage media such as punched cards or punched tape. Because CNC allows for easier programming, modification, and real-time adjustments, it has gradually replaced NC as computing costs declined.
A CNC machine is a motorized maneuverable tool and often a motorized maneuverable platform, which are both controlled by a computer, according to specific input instructions. Instructions are delivered to a CNC machine in the form of a sequential program of machine control instructions such as G-code and M-code, and then executed. The program can be written by a person or, far more often, generated by graphical computer-aided design (CAD) or computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software. In the case of 3D printers, the part to be printed is "sliced" before the instructions (or the program) are generated. 3D printers also use G-Code.
CNC offers greatly increased productivity over non-computerized machining for repetitive production, where the machine must be manually controlled (e.g. using devices such as hand wheels or levers) or mechanically controlled by pre-fabricated pattern guides (see pantograph mill). However, these advantages come at significant cost in terms of both capital expenditure and job setup time. For some prototyping and small batch jobs, a good machine operator can have parts finished to a high standard whilst a CNC workflow is still in setup.
In modern CNC systems, the design of a mechanical part and its manufacturing program are highly automated. The part's mechanical dimensions are defined using CAD software and then translated into manufacturing directives by CAM software. The resulting directives are transformed (by "post processor" software) into the specific commands necessary for a particular machine to produce the component and then are loaded into the CNC machine.
Since any particular component might require the use of several different tools – drills, saws, touch probes etc. – modern machines often combine multiple tools into a single "cell". In other installations, several different machines are used with an external controller and human or robotic operators that move the component from machine to machine. In either case, the series of steps needed to produce any part is highly automated and produces a part that meets every specification in the original CAD drawing, where each specification includes a tolerance.
== Description ==
Motion is controlling multiple axes, normally at least two (X and Y), and a tool spindle that moves in the Z (depth). The position of the tool is driven by direct-drive stepper motors or servo motors to provide highly accurate movements, or in older designs, motors through a series of step-down gears. Open-loop control works as long as the forces are kept small enough and speeds are not too great. On commercial metalworking machines, closed-loop controls are standard and required to provide the accuracy, speed, and repeatability demanded.
=== Parts description ===
As the controller hardware evolved, the mills themselves also evolved. One change has been to enclose the entire mechanism in a large box as a safety measure (with safety glass in the doors to permit the operator to monitor the machine's function), often with additional safety interlocks to ensure the operator is far enough from the working piece for safe operation. Most new CNC systems built today are 100% electronically controlled.
CNC-like systems are used for any process that can be described as movements and operations. These include laser cutting, welding, friction stir welding, ultrasonic welding, flame and plasma cutting, bending, spinning, hole-punching, pinning, gluing, fabric cutting, sewing, tape and fiber placement, routing, picking and placing, and sawing.
== History ==
The first NC machines were built in the 1940s and 1950s, based on existing tools that were modified with motors that moved the tool or part to follow points fed into the system on punched tape. These early servomechanisms were rapidly augmented with analog and digital computers, creating the modern CNC machine tools that have revolutionized machining processes.
== Today ==
Now the CNC in the processing manufacturing field has been very extensive, not only the traditional milling and turning, other machines and equipment are also installed with the corresponding CNC, which makes the manufacturing industry in its support, greatly improving the quality and efficiency. Of course, the latest trend in CNC is to combine traditional subtractive manufacturing with additive manufacturing (3D printing) to create a new manufacturing method - hybrid additive subtractive manufacturing (HASM). Another trend is the combination of AI, using a large number of sensors, with the goal of achieving flexible manufacturing.
== Examples of CNC machines ==
== Other CNC tools ==
Many other tools have CNC variants, including:
== Tool/machine crashing ==
In CNC, a "crash" occurs when the machine moves in such a way that is harmful to the machine, tools, or parts being machined, sometimes resulting in bending or breakage of cutting tools, accessory clamps, vises, and fixtures, or causing damage to the machine itself by bending guide rails, breaking drive screws, or causing structural components to crack or deform under strain. A mild crash may not damage the machine or tools but may damage the part being machined so that it must be scrapped. Many CNC tools have no inherent sense of the absolute position of the table or tools when turned on. They must be manually "homed" or "zeroed" to have any reference to work from, and these limits are just for figuring out the location of the part to work with it and are no hard motion limit on the mechanism. It is often possible to drive the machine outside the physical bounds of its drive mechanism, resulting in a collision with itself or damage to the drive mechanism. Many machines implement control parameters limiting axis motion past a certain limit in addition to physical limit switches. However, these parameters can often be changed by the operator.
Many CNC tools also do not know anything about their working environment. Machines may have load sensing systems on spindle and axis drives, but some do not. They blindly follow the machining code provided and it is up to an operator to detect if a crash is either occurring or about to occur, and for the operator to manually abort the active process. Machines equipped with load sensors can stop axis or spindle movement in response to an overload condition, but this does not prevent a crash from occurring. It may only limit the damage resulting from the crash. Some crashes may not ever overload any axis or spindle drives.
If the drive system is weaker than the machine's structural integrity, then the drive system simply pushes against the obstruction, and the drive motors "slip in place". The machine tool may not detect the collision or the slipping, so for example the tool should now be at 210mm on the X-axis, but is, in fact, at 32mm where it hit the obstruction and kept slipping. All of the next tool motions will be off by −178mm on the X-axis, and all future motions are now invalid, which may result in further collisions with clamps, vises, or the machine itself. This is common in open-loop stepper systems but is not possible in closed-loop systems unless mechanical slippage between the motor and drive mechanism has occurred. Instead, in a closed-loop system, the machine will continue to attempt to move against the load until either the drive motor goes into an overload condition or a servo motor fails to get to the desired position.
Collision detection and avoidance are possible, through the use of absolute position sensors (optical encoder strips or disks) to verify that motion occurred, or torque sensors or power-draw sensors on the drive system to detect abnormal strain when the machine should just be moving and not cutting, but these are not a common component of most hobby CNC tools. Instead, most hobby CNC tools simply rely on the assumed accuracy of stepper motors that rotate a specific number of degrees in response to magnetic field changes. It is often assumed the stepper is perfectly accurate and never missteps, so tool position monitoring simply involves counting the number of pulses sent to the stepper over time. An alternate means of stepper position monitoring is usually not available, so crash or slip detection is not possible.
Commercial CNC metalworking machines use closed-loop feedback controls for axis movement. In a closed-loop system, the controller monitors the actual position of each axis with an absolute or incremental encoder. Proper control programming will reduce the possibility of a crash, but it is still up to the operator and programmer to ensure that the machine is operated safely. However, during the 2000s and 2010s, the software for machining simulation has been maturing rapidly, and it is no longer uncommon for the entire machine tool envelope (including all axes, spindles, chucks, turrets, tool holders, tailstocks, fixtures, clamps, and stock) to be modeled accurately with 3D solid models, which allows the simulation software to predict fairly accurately whether a cycle will involve a crash. Although such simulation is not new, its accuracy and market penetration are changing considerably because of computing advancements.
== Numerical precision and equipment backlash ==
Within the numerical systems of CNC programming, the code generator can assume that the controlled mechanism is always perfectly accurate, or that precision tolerances are identical for all cutting or movement directions. While the common use of ball screws on most modern NC machines eliminates the vast majority of backlash, it still must be taken into account. CNC tools with a large amount of mechanical backlash can still be highly precise if the drive or cutting mechanism is only driven to apply cutting force from one direction, and all driving systems are pressed tightly together in that one cutting direction. However, a CNC device with high backlash and a dull cutting tool can lead to cutter chatter and possible workpiece gouging. The backlash also affects the precision of some operations involving axis movement reversals during cutting, such as the milling of a circle, where axis motion is sinusoidal. However, this can be compensated for if the amount of backlash is precisely known by linear encoders or manual measurement.
The high backlash mechanism itself is not necessarily relied on to be repeatedly precise for the cutting process, but some other reference object or precision surface may be used to zero the mechanism, by tightly applying pressure against the reference and setting that as the zero references for all following CNC-encoded motions. This is similar to the manual machine tool method of clamping a micrometer onto a reference beam and adjusting the Vernier dial to zero using that object as the reference.
== Positioning control system ==
In numerical control systems, the position of the tool is defined by a set of instructions called the part program. Positioning control is handled using either an open-loop or a closed-loop system. In an open-loop system, communication takes place in one direction only: from the controller to the motor. In a closed-loop system, feedback is provided to the controller so that it can correct for errors in position, velocity, and acceleration, which can arise due to variations in load or temperature. Open-loop systems are generally cheaper but less accurate. Stepper motors can be used in both types of systems, while servo motors can only be used in closed systems.
=== Cartesian coordinates ===
The G & M code positions are all based on a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. This system is a typical plane often seen in mathematics when graphing. This system is required to map out the machine tool paths and any other kind of actions that need to happen in a specific coordinate. Absolute coordinates are what are generally used more commonly for machines and represent the (0,0,0) point on the plane. This point is set on the stock material to give a starting point or "home position" before starting the actual machining.
== Coding ==
=== G-codes ===
G-codes are used to command specific movements of the machine, such as machine moves or drilling functions. The majority of G-code programs start with a percent (%) symbol on the first line, then followed by an "O" with a numerical name for the program (i.e. "O0001") on the second line, then another percent (%) symbol on the last line of the program. The format for a G-code is the letter G followed by two to three digits; for example G01. G-codes differ slightly between a mill and lathe application, for example:
[G00 Rapid Motion Positioning]
[G01 Linear Interpolation Motion]
[G02 Circular Interpolation Motion-Clockwise]
[G03 Circular Interpolation Motion-Counter Clockwise]
[G04 Dwell (Group 00) Mill]
[G10 Set offsets (Group 00) Mill]
[G12 Circular Pocketing-Clockwise]
[G13 Circular Pocketing-Counter Clockwise]
=== M-codes ===
[Code Miscellaneous Functions (M-Code)]. M-codes are miscellaneous machine commands that do not command axis motion. The format for an M-code is the letter M followed by two to three digits; for example:
[M01 Operational stop]
[M02 End of Program]
[M03 Start Spindle - Clockwise]
[M04 Start Spindle - Counter Clockwise]
[M05 Stop Spindle]
[M06 Tool Change]
[M07 Coolant on mist coolant]
[M08 Flood coolant on]
[M09 Coolant off]
[M10 Chuck open]
[M11 Chuck close]
[M12 Spindle up]
[M13 BOTH M03&M08 Spindle clockwise rotation & flood coolant]
[M14 BOTH M04&M08 Spindle counter clockwise rotation & flood coolant]
[M15 BOTH M05&M09 Spindle stop and Flood coolant off]
[M16 Special tool call]
[M19 Spindle orientate]
[M29 DNC mode]
[M30 Program reset & rewind]
[M38 Door open]
[M39 Door close]
[M40 Spindle gear at middle]
[M41 Low gear select]
[M42 High gear select]
[M53 Retract Spindle] (raises tool spindle above current position to allow operator to do whatever they would need to do)
[M68 Hydraulic chuck close]
[M69 Hydraulic chuck open]
[M78 Tailstock advancing]
[M79 Tailstock reversing]
=== Example ===
Having the correct speeds and feeds in the program provides for a more efficient and smoother product run. Incorrect speeds and feeds will cause damage to the tool, machine spindle, and even the product. The quickest and simplest way to find these numbers would be to use a calculator that can be found online. A formula can also be used to calculate the proper speeds and feeds for a material. These values can be found online or in Machinery's Handbook.
== See also ==
Automatic tool changer
Binary cutter location
CNC plunge milling
Computer-aided technologies
Computer-aided engineering (CAE)
Coordinate-measuring machine (CMM)
Design for manufacturability
Direct numerical control (DNC)
EIA RS-274
EIA RS-494
Gerber format
Home automation
Maslow CNC
Multiaxis machining
Optical tracer
Part program
Robotics
Touch probe
List of computer-aided manufacturing software
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Brittain, James (1992), Alexanderson: Pioneer in American Electrical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-4228-X.
Holland, Max (1989), When the Machine Stopped: A Cautionary Tale from Industrial America, Boston: Harvard Business School Press, ISBN 978-0-87584-208-0, OCLC 246343673.
Noble, David F. (1984), Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation, New York, New York, US: Knopf, ISBN 978-0-394-51262-4, LCCN 83048867.
Reintjes, J. Francis (1991), Numerical Control: Making a New Technology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-506772-9.
Weisberg, David, The Engineering Design Revolution (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 7 July 2010.
Wildes, Karl L.; Lindgren, Nilo A. (1985), A Century of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-23119-0.
Herrin, Golden E. "Industry Honors The Inventor Of NC", Modern Machine Shop, 12 January 1998.
Siegel, Arnold. "Automatic Programming of Numerically Controlled Machine Tools", Control Engineering, Volume 3 Issue 10 (October 1956), pp. 65–70.
Smid, Peter (2008), CNC Programming Handbook (3rd ed.), New York: Industrial Press, ISBN 9780831133474, LCCN 2007045901.
Christopher jun Pagarigan (Vini) Edmonton Alberta Canada. CNC Infomatic, Automotive Design & Production.
Fitzpatrick, Michael (2019), "Machining and CNC Technology".
== External links ==
Media related to Computer numerical control at Wikimedia Commons | Wikipedia/Computer_numerical_control |
User experience design (UX design, UXD, UED, or XD), upon which is the centralized requirements for "User Experience Design Research" (also known as UX Design Research), defines the experience a user would go through when interacting with a company, its services, and its products. User experience design is a user centered design approach because it considers the user's experience when using a product or platform. Research, data analysis, and test results drive design decisions in UX design rather than aesthetic preferences and opinions, for which is known as UX Design Research. Unlike user interface design, which focuses solely on the design of a computer interface, UX design encompasses all aspects of a user's perceived experience with a product or website, such as its usability, usefulness, desirability, brand perception, and overall performance. UX design is also an element of the customer experience (CX), and encompasses all design aspects and design stages that are around a customer's experience.
== History ==
User experience design is a conceptual design discipline rooted in human factors and ergonomics. This field, since the late 1940s, has focused on the interaction between human users, machines, and contextual environments to design systems that address the user's experience. User experience became a positive insight for designers in the early 1990s with the proliferation of workplace computers. Don Norman, a professor and researcher in design, usability, and cognitive science, coined the term "user experience", and brought it to a wider audience that is inside our modernized society.
I invented the term because I thought human interface and usability were too narrow. I wanted to cover all aspects of the person's experience with the system including industrial design graphics, the interface, the physical interaction and the manual. Since then the term has spread widely, so much so that it is starting to lose its meaning.
== Elements ==
=== Research ===
User experience design draws from design approaches like human-computer interaction and user-centered design, and includes elements from similar disciplines like interaction design, visual design, information architecture, user research, and others.
Another portion of the research is understanding the end-user and the purpose of the application. Though this might seem clear to the designer, stepping back and empathizing with the user will yield the best results.
It helps to identify and prove or disprove assumptions, find commonalities across target audience members, and recognize their needs, goals, and mental models.
=== Visual design ===
Visual design, also commonly known as graphic design, user interface design, communication design, and visual communication, represents the aesthetics or look-and-feel of the front end of any user interface. Graphic treatment of interface elements is often perceived as the visual design. The purpose of visual design is to use visual elements like colors, images, and symbols to convey a message to its audience. Fundamentals of Gestalt psychology and visual perception give a cognitive perspective on how to create effective visual communication.
=== Information architecture ===
Information architecture is the art and science of structuring and organizing the information in products and services to support usability and findability.
In the context of information architecture, information is separate from both knowledge and data, and lies nebulously between them. It is information about objects. The objects can range from websites, to software applications, to images et al. It is also concerned with metadata: terms used to describe and represent content objects such as documents, people, process, and organizations. Information architecture also encompasses how the pages and navigation are structured.
=== Interaction design ===
It is well recognized that the component of interaction design is an essential part of user experience (UX) design, centering on the interaction between users and products. The goal of interaction design is to create a product that produces an efficient and delightful end-user experience by enabling users to achieve their objectives in the best way possible
The growing emphasis on user-centered design and the strong focus on enhancing user experience have made interaction designers essential in shaping products that align with user expectations and adhere to the latest UI patterns and components.
In the last few years, the role of interaction designer has shifted from being just focused on specifying UI components and communicating them to the engineers to a situation in which designers have more freedom to design contextual interfaces based on helping meet the user's needs. Therefore, User Experience Design evolved into a multidisciplinary design branch that involves multiple technical aspects from motion graphics design and animation to programming.
=== Usability ===
Usability is the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use.
Usability is attached to all tools used by humans and is extended to both digital and non-digital devices. Thus, it is a subset of user experience but not wholly contained. The section of usability that intersects with user experience design is related to humans' ability to use a system or application. Good usability is essential to positive user experience but does not alone guarantee it.
=== Accessibility ===
Accessibility of a system describes its ease of reach, use, and understanding. In terms of user experience design, it can also be related to the overall comprehensibility of the information and features. It helps shorten the learning curve associated with the system. Accessibility in many contexts can be related to the ease of use for people with disabilities and comes under usability. In addition, accessible design is the concept of services, products, or facilities in which designers should accommodate and consider for the needs of people with disabilities. The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) state that all content must adhere to the four main principles of POUR: Perceivable, Operable, Understandable, and Robust.
==== WCAG compliance ====
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 covers a wide range of recommendations for making Web content more accessible. This makes web content more usable to users in general. Making content more usable and readily accessible to all types of users enhances a user's overall user experience.
=== Human–computer interaction ===
Human–computer interaction is concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them.
==== Getting ready to design ====
After research, the designer uses the modeling of the users and their environments. User modeling or personas are composite archetypes based on behavior patterns uncovered during research. Personas provide designers a precise way of thinking and communicating about how groups of users behave, how they think, what they want to accomplish and why. Once created, personas help the designer to understand the users' goals in specific contexts, which is particularly useful during ideation and for validating design concepts. Other types of models include workflow models, artifact models, and physical models.
==== Design ====
When the designer has a solid understanding of the user's needs and goals, they begin to sketch out the interaction framework (also known as wireframes). This stage defines the high-level structure of screen layouts, as well as the product's flow, behavior, and organization. There are many kinds of materials that can be involved during this iterative phase, from whiteboards to paper prototypes. As the interaction framework establishes an overall structure for product behavior, a parallel process focused on the visual and industrial designs. The visual design framework defines the experience attributes, visual language, and the visual style.
Once a solid and stable framework is established, wireframes are translated from sketched storyboards to full-resolution screens that depict the user interface at the pixel level. At this point, it is critical for the programming team to collaborate closely with the designer. Their input is necessary to create a finished design that can and will be built while remaining true to the concept.
==== Test and iterate ====
Usability testing is carried out by giving users various tasks to perform on the prototypes. Any issues or problems faced by the users are collected as field notes and these notes are used to make changes in the design and reiterate the testing phase. Aside from monitoring issues, questions asked by users are also noted in order to identify potential points of confusion. Usability testing is, at its core, a means to "evaluate, not create".
== UX deliverables ==
UX designers perform a number of different tasks and, therefore, use a range of deliverables to communicate their design ideas and research findings to stakeholders. Regarding UX specification documents, these requirements depend on the client or the organization involved in designing a product. The four major deliverables are: a title page, an introduction to the feature, wireframes, and a version history. Depending on the type of project, the specification documents can also include flow models, cultural models, personas, user stories, scenarios, and any prior user research.
The deliverables that UX designers will produce as part of their job include wireframes, prototypes, user flow diagrams, specification and tech docs, websites and applications, mockups, presentations, personas, user profiles, videos, and, to a lesser degree, reports. Documenting design decisions, in the form of annotated wireframes, gives the developer the necessary information they may need to successfully code the project.
=== After launching a project ===
Requires:
User testing/usability testing
A/B testing
Information architecture
Sitemaps and user flows
Additional wireframing as a result of test results and fine-tuning
== UX stakeholders ==
A user experience designer is considered a UX practitioner, along with the following job titles: user experience researcher, information architect, interaction designer, human factors engineer, business analyst, consultant, creative director, interaction architect, and usability specialist.
=== Interaction designers ===
Interaction designers (IxD) are responsible for understanding and specifying how the product should behave. This work overlaps with the work of both visual and industrial designers in a couple of important ways. When designing physical products, interaction designers must work with industrial designers early on to specify the requirements for physical inputs and to understand the behavioral impacts of the mechanisms behind them. Interaction designers cross paths with visual designers throughout the project. Visual designers guide the discussions of the brand and emotive aspects of the experience, Interaction designers communicate the priority of information, flow, and functionality in the interface.
=== Technical communicators ===
Historically, technical and professional communication (TPC) has been as an industry that practices writing and communication. However, recently UX design has become more prominent in TPC as companies look to develop content for a wide range of audiences and experiences. It is now an expectation that technical and professional skills should be coupled with UX design. According to Verhulsdonck, Howard, and Tham, "...it is not enough to write good content. According to industry expectations, next to writing good content, it is now also crucial to design good experiences around that content." Technical communicators must now consider different platforms such as social media and apps, as well as different channels like web and mobile.
==== UX writers ====
In a similar manner, coupling TPC with UX design allows technical communicators to garner evidence on target audiences. UX writers, a branch of technical communicators, specialize in crafting content for mobile platforms while executing a user-centered approach. UX writers focus on developing content to guide users through interfaces, applications, and websites. Their responsibilities include maintaining UI text, conducting user research for usability testing, and developing the tone for a product's communication.
UX writers maintain the practices of technical communicators, by developing documentation that establishes consistency in terminology and tone, promoting a cohesive user experience. However, beyond the writing, UX writers maintain UI text by ensuring that microscopy, such as button labels, error messages, and tooltips, remains user-friendly, as well. In doing this, the writers are also tasked with ensuring accessibility—considering issues like screen reader compatibility or providing non-text elements, such as icons. UX writers conduct extensive research to understand the behaviors and preferences of the target audience through user testing and feedback analysis. These methods of research can include user persona creation and user surveys. Lastly, when setting the tone in a product's communication, UX writers highlight factors that affect user engagement and perception. In short, the writers consider the product's emotional impact on the users, and align the tone with brand's personality.
Within the field of UX design, UX writers bridge the gaps between various fields to create a cohesive and user-centric experience. Their expertise in language and communication work to unify design, development, and user research teams by ensuring that the user interface's content aligns with the broader objectives of the product or service. By focusing on clarity, consistency, and empathy, UX writers contribute to the integration of design elements, technical functionality, and user preferences, while following a design process to ensure products with intuitive, accessible, and responsive behavior to user needs.
=== User interface designers ===
User interface (UI) design is the process of making interfaces in software or computerized devices with a focus on looks or style. Designers aim to create designs users will find easy to use and pleasurable. UI design typically refers to graphical user interfaces but also includes others, such as voice-controlled ones.
=== Visual designers ===
The visual designer ensures that the visual representation of the design effectively communicates the data and hints at the expected behavior of the product. At the same time, the visual designer is responsible for conveying the brand ideals in the product and for creating a positive first impression; this responsibility is shared with the industrial designer if the product involves hardware. In essence, a visual designer must aim for maximum usability combined with maximum desirability. Visual designer need not be good in artistic skills but must deliver the theme in a desirable manner.
== UX design testing ==
Usability testing is the most common method designers use to test their designs. The basic idea behind conducting a usability test is to check whether the design of a product or brand works well with the target users. Usability testing is about testing whether the product's design is successful and, if not, how it can be improved.
While designers conduct tests, they are not testing for the user but for the design. Further, every design is evolving, with both UX design and design thinking moving in the direction of Agile software development. The designers carry out usability testing as early and often as possible, ensuring that every aspect of the final product has been tested.
Usability tests play an important role in the delivery of a cohesive final product; however, a variety of factors influence the testing process. Evaluating qualitative and quantitative methods provides an adequate picture of UX designs, and one of these quantitative methods is A/B testing (see Usability testing). Another key concept in the efficacy of UX design testing is the idea of a persona or the representation of the most common user of a certain website or program, and how these personas would interact with the design in question. At the core of UX design usability testing is the user; however, steps in automating design testing have been made, with Micron developing the Advanced Test Environment (ATE), which automates UX tests on Android-powered smartphones. While quantitative software tools that collect actionable data, such as loggers and mobile agents, provide insight into a user's experience, the qualitative responses that arise from live, user based UX design testing are lost. The ATE serves to simulate a devices movement that affects design orientation and sensor operation in order to estimate the actual experience of the user based on previously collected user testing data.
== See also ==
Action research
Activity-centered design
Agile software development
Attentive user interface
Customer experience
Design thinking
Paper prototyping
Participatory design
Process-centered design
User advocacy
User experience
User experience evaluation
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Buxton, Bill (2010). Sketching User Experiences: Getting the Design Right and the Right Design. Elsevier Science. pp. 436. ISBN 978-0-12-374037-3.
Cooper, Alan (1999). The Inmates Are Running the Asylum: Why High-Tech Products Drive Us Crazy and How to Restore the Sanity. p. 261. ISBN 978-0-672-31649-4.
Cooper, Alan; Reimann, Robert; Cronin, David; Noessel, Christopher (2014). About Face: The Essentials of Interaction Design (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-76657-6.
Curedale, Robert (2018). Mapping Methods 2: Step-by-step guide Experience Maps Journey Maps Service Blueprints Affinity Diagrams Empathy Maps Business Model Canvas (2nd ed.). Design Community College Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-940805-37-5.
Moggridge, Bill (2006). Designing Interactions. MIT Press. pp. 766. ISBN 978-0-262-13474-3.
Moser, Christian (2008). User Experience Design: Mit erlebniszentrierter Softwareentwicklung zu Produkten, die begeistern. Springer. p. 252. ISBN 978-3-642-13362-6.
Norman, Donald (2013). The Design of Everyday Things. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-465-06710-7.
Tidwell, Jenifer (2005). Designing Interfaces. p. 332. ISBN 978-1-4493-7970-4. | Wikipedia/User_experience_design |
Game design is the process of creating and shaping the mechanics, systems, rules, and gameplay of a game. Game design processes apply to board games, card games, dice games, casino games, role-playing games, sports, war games, or simulation games.In Elements of Game Design, game designer Robert Zubek defines game design by breaking it down into three elements:
Game mechanics and systems, which are the rules and objects in the game.
Gameplay, which is the interaction between the player and the mechanics and systems. In Chris Crawford on Game Design, the author summarizes gameplay as "what the player does".
Player experience, which is how users feel when they are playing the game.
In academic research, game design falls within the field of game studies (not to be confused with game theory, which studies strategic decision making, primarily in non-game situations).
== Process of design ==
Game design is part of a game's development from concept to final form. Typically, the development process is iterative, with repeated phases of testing and revision. During revision, additional design or re-design may be needed.
=== Development team ===
==== Game designer ====
A game designer (or inventor) is a person who invents a game's concept, central mechanisms, rules, and themes. Game designers may work alone or in teams.
==== Game developer ====
A game developer is a person who fleshes out the details of a game's design, oversees its testing, and revises the game in response to player feedback.
Often game designers also do development work on the same project. However, some publishers commission extensive development of games to suit their target audience after licensing a game from a designer. For larger games, such as collectible card games, designers and developers work in teams with separate roles.
==== Game artist ====
A game artist creates visual art for games. Game artists are often vital to role-playing games and collectible card games.
Many graphic elements of games are created by the designer when producing a prototype of the game, revised by the developer based on testing, and then further refined by the artist and combined with artwork as a game is prepared for publication or release.
=== Concept ===
A game concept is an idea for a game, briefly describing its core play mechanisms, objectives, themes, and who the players represent.
A game concept may be pitched to a game publisher in a similar manner as film ideas are pitched to potential film producers. Alternatively, game publishers holding a game license to intellectual property in other media may solicit game concepts from several designers before picking one to design a game.
=== Design ===
During design, a game concept is fleshed out. Mechanisms are specified in terms of components (boards, cards, tokens, etc.) and rules. The play sequence and possible player actions are defined, as well as how the game starts, ends, and win conditions (if any).
=== Prototypes and play testing ===
A game prototype is a draft version of a game used for testing. Uses of prototyping include exploring new game design possibilities and technologies.
Play testing is a major part of game development. During testing, players play the prototype and provide feedback on its gameplay, the usability of its components, the clarity of its goals and rules, ease of learning, and entertainment value. During testing, various balance issues may be identified, requiring changes to the game's design. The developer then revises the design, components, presentation, and rules before testing it again. Later testing may take place with focus groups to test consumer reactions before publication.
== History ==
=== Folk process ===
Many games have ancient origins and were not designed in the modern sense, but gradually evolved over time through play. The rules of these games were not codified until early modern times and their features gradually developed and changed through the folk process. For example, sports (see history of sports), gambling, and board games are known, respectively, to have existed for at least nine thousand, six thousand, and four thousand years. Tabletop games played today whose descent can be traced from ancient times include chess, go, pachisi, mancala, and pick-up sticks. These games are not considered to have had a designer or been the result of a contemporary design process.
After the rise of commercial game publishing in the late 19th century, many games that had formerly evolved via folk processes became commercial properties, often with custom scoring pads or preprepared material. For example, the similar public domain games Generala, Yacht, and Yatzy led to the commercial game Yahtzee in the mid-1950s.
Today, many commercial games, such as Taboo, Balderdash, Pictionary, or Time's Up!, are descended from traditional parlour games. Adapting traditional games to become commercial properties is an example of game design. Similarly, many sports, such as soccer and baseball, are the result of folk processes, while others were designed, such as basketball, invented in 1891 by James Naismith.
=== New media ===
The first games in a new medium are frequently adaptations of older games. Later games often exploit the distinctive properties of a new medium. Adapting older games and creating original games for new media are both examples of game design.
Technological advances have provided new media for games throughout history. For example, accurate topographic maps produced as lithographs and provided free to Prussian officers helped popularize wargaming. Cheap bookbinding (printed labels wrapped around cardboard) led to mass-produced board games with custom boards. Inexpensive (hollow) lead figurine casting contributed to the development of miniature wargaming. Cheap custom dice led to poker dice. Flying discs led to Ultimate frisbee.
== Purposes ==
Games can be designed for entertainment, education, exercise or experimental purposes. Additionally, elements and principles of game design can be applied to other interactions, in the form of gamification. Games have historically inspired seminal research in the fields of probability, artificial intelligence, economics, and optimization theory. Applying game design to itself is a current research topic in metadesign.
=== Educational purposes ===
By learning through play children can develop social and cognitive skills, mature emotionally, and gain the self-confidence required to engage in new experiences and environments. Key ways that young children learn include playing, being with other people, being active, exploring and new experiences, talking to themselves, communicating with others, meeting physical and mental challenges, being shown how to do new things, practicing and repeating skills, and having fun.
Play develops children's content knowledge and provides children the opportunity to develop social skills, competencies, and disposition to learn. Play-based learning is based on a Vygotskian model of scaffolding where the teacher pays attention to specific elements of the play activity and provides encouragement and feedback on children's learning. When children engage in real-life and imaginary activities, play can be challenging in children's thinking. To extend the learning process, sensitive intervention can be provided with adult support when necessary during play-based learning.
== Design issues by game type ==
Different types of games pose specific game design issues.
=== Board games ===
Board game design is the development of rules and presentational aspects of a board game. When a player takes part in a game, it is the player's self-subjection to the rules that create a sense of purpose for the duration of the game. Maintaining the players' interest throughout the gameplay experience is the goal of board game design. To achieve this, board game designers emphasize different aspects such as social interaction, strategy, and competition, and target players of differing needs by providing for short versus long-play, and luck versus skill. Beyond this, board game design reflects the culture in which the board game is produced.
The most ancient board games known today are over 5000 years old. They are frequently abstract in character and their design is primarily focused on a core set of simple rules. Of those that are still played today, games like go (c. 400 BC), mancala (c. 700 AD), and chess (c. 600 AD) have gone through many presentational and/or rule variations. In the case of chess, for example, new variants are developed constantly, to focus on certain aspects of the game, or just for variation's sake.
Traditional board games date from the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Whereas ancient board game design was primarily focused on rules alone, traditional board games were often influenced by Victorian mores. Academic (e.g. history and geography) and moral didacticism were important design features for traditional games, and Puritan associations between dice and the Devil meant that early American game designers eschewed their use in board games entirely. Even traditional games that did use dice, like Monopoly (based on the 1906 The Landlord's Game), were rooted in educational efforts to explain political concepts to the masses. By the 1930s and 1940s, board game design began to emphasize amusement over education, and characters from comic strips, radio programmes, and (in the 1950s) television shows began to be featured in board game adaptations.
Recent developments in modern board game design can be traced to the 1980s in Germany, and have led to the increased popularity of "German-style board games" (also known as "Eurogames" or "designer games"). The design emphasis of these board games is to give players meaningful choices. This is manifested by eliminating elements like randomness and luck to be replaced by skill, strategy, and resource competition, by removing the potential for players to fall irreversibly behind in the early stages of a game, and by reducing the number of rules and possible player options to produce what Alan R. Moon has described as "elegant game design". The concept of elegant game design has been identified by The Boston Globe's Leon Neyfakh as related to Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's the concept of "flow" from his 1990 book, "Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience".
Modern technological advances have had a democratizing effect on board game production, with services like Kickstarter providing designers with essential startup capital and tools like 3D printers facilitating the production of game pieces and board game prototypes. A modern adaptation of figure games are miniature wargames like Warhammer 40,000.
=== Card games ===
Card games can be designed as gambling games, such as Poker, or simply for fun, such as Go Fish. As cards are typically shuffled and revealed gradually during play, most card games involve randomness, either initially or during play, and hidden information, such as the cards in a player's hand.
How players play their cards, revealing information and interacting with previous plays as they do so, is central to card game design. In partnership card games, such as Bridge, rules limiting communication between players on the same team become an important part of the game design. This idea of limited communication has been extended to cooperative card games, such as Hanabi.
=== Dice games ===
Dice games differ from card games in that each throw of the dice is an independent event, whereas the odds of a given card being drawn are affected by all the previous cards drawn or revealed from a deck. For this reason, dice game design often centers around forming scoring combinations and managing re-rolls, either by limiting their number, as in Yahtzee or by introducing a press-your-luck element, as in Can't Stop.
=== Casino games ===
Casino game design can entail the creation of an entirely new casino game, the creation of a variation on an existing casino game, or the creation of a new side bet on an existing casino game.
Casino game mathematician, Michael Shackleford has noted that it is much more common for casino game designers today to make successful variations than entirely new casino games. Gambling columnist John Grochowski points to the emergence of community-style slot machines in the mid-1990s, for example, as a successful variation on an existing casino game type.
Unlike the majority of other games which are designed primarily in the interest of the player, one of the central aims of casino game design is to optimize the house advantage and maximize revenue from gamblers. Successful casino game design works to provide entertainment for the player and revenue for the gambling house.
To maximise player entertainment, casino games are designed with simple easy-to-learn rules that emphasize winning (i.e. whose rules enumerate many victory conditions and few loss conditions), and that provide players with a variety of different gameplay postures (e.g. card hands). Player entertainment value is also enhanced by providing gamblers with familiar gaming elements (e.g. dice and cards) in new casino games.
To maximise success for the gambling house, casino games are designed to be easy for croupiers to operate and for pit managers to oversee.
The two most fundamental rules of casino game design are that the games must be non-fraudable (including being as nearly as possible immune from advantage gambling) and that they must mathematically favor the house winning. Shackleford suggests that the optimum casino game design should give the house an edge of smaller than 5%.
=== Tabletop role-playing games ===
The design of tabletop role-playing games typically requires the establishment of setting, characters, and gameplay rules or mechanics. After a role-playing game is produced, additional design elements are often devised by the players themselves. In many instances, for example, character creation is left to the players.
Early role-playing game theories developed on indie role-playing game design forums in the early 2000s.
== Game studies ==
Game design is a topic of study in the academic field of game studies. Game studies is a discipline that deals with the critical study of games, game design, players, and their role in society and culture. Prior to the late-twentieth century, the academic study of games was rare and limited to fields such as history and anthropology. As the video game revolution took off in the early 1980s, so did academic interest in games, resulting in a field that draws on diverse methodologies and schools of thought.
Social scientific approaches have concerned themselves with the question of, "What do games do to people?" Using tools and methods such as surveys, controlled laboratory experiments, and ethnography, researchers have investigated the impacts that playing games have on people and the role of games in everyday life.
Humanities approaches have concerned themselves with the question of, "What meanings are made through games?" Using tools and methods such as interviews, ethnographies, and participant observation, researchers have investigated the various roles that games play in people's lives and the meanings players assign to their experiences.
From within the game industry, central questions include, "How can we create better games?" and, "What makes a game good?" "Good" can be taken to mean different things, including providing an entertaining experience, being easy to learn and play, being innovative, educating the players, and/or generating novel experiences.
== See also ==
Gamification
Play (activity)
Video game design
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Mandeville, Alexia (2025). Video Game Design for Dummies. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-39430-817-0.
Bates, Bob (2004). Game Design (2nd ed.). Thomson Course Technology. ISBN 978-1-59200-493-5.
Baur, Wolfgang (2012). Complete Kobold Guide to Game Design. Open Design LLC. ISBN 978-1936781065.
Burgun, Keith (2012). Game Design Theory: A New Philosophy for Understanding Games. A K Peters/CRC Press. ISBN 978-1466554207.
Costikyan, Greg (2013). Uncertainty in Games. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262018968.
Elias, George Skaff (2012). Characteristics of Games. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262017138.
Hofer, Margaret (2003). The Games We Played: The Golden Age of Board & Table Games. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1568983974.
Huizinga, Johan (1971). Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0807046814.
Kankaanranta, Marja Helena (2009). Design and Use of Serious Games. Intelligent Systems, Control and Automation: Science and Engineering. Springer. ISBN 978-9048181414..
Moore, Michael E.; Novak, Jeannie (2010). Game Industry Career Guide. Delmar: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-4283-7647-2.
Norman, Donald A. (2002). The Design of Everyday Things. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0465067107..
Oxland, Kevin (2004). Gameplay and design. Addison Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-20467-7.
Peek, Steven (1993). The Game Inventor's Handbook. Betterway Books. ISBN 978-1558703155.
Peterson, Jon (2012). Playing at the World. Unreason Press. ISBN 978-0615642048..
Salen Tekinbad, Katie (2003). Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262240451..
Schell, Jesse (2008). The Art of Game Design: A book of lenses. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0123694966.
Somberg, Guy (6 September 2018). Game Audio Programming 2: Principles and Practices. CRC Press 2019. ISBN 9781138068919. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
Tinsman, Brian (2008). The Game Inventor's Guidebook: How to Invent and Sell Board Games, Card Games, Role-Playing Games, & Everything in Between!. Morgan James Publishing. ISBN 978-1600374470.
Woods, Stewart (2012). Eurogames: The Design, Culture and Play of Modern European Board Games. McFarland. ISBN 978-0786467976.
Zubek, Robert (August 2020). Elements of Game Design. The MIT Press. ISBN 9780262043915. | Wikipedia/Game_design |
In the design of integrated circuits, power network design is the analysis and design of on-chip conductor networks that distribute electrical power on a chip. As in all engineering, this involves tradeoffs – the network must have adequate performance and be sufficiently reliable, but it should not use more resources than required.
== Function ==
The power distribution network distributes power and ground voltages from pad locations to all devices in a design. Shrinking device dimensions, faster switching frequencies and increasing power consumption in deep sub-micrometer technologies cause large switching currents to flow in the power and ground networks which degrade performance and reliability. A robust power distribution network is essential to ensure reliable operation of circuits on a chip. Power supply integrity verification is a critical concern in high-performance designs.
== Design considerations ==
Due to the resistance of the interconnects constituting the network, there is a voltage drop across the network, commonly referred to as the IR-drop. The package supplies currents to the pads of the power grid either by means of package leads in wire-bond chips or through C4 bump arrays in flip chip technology. Although the resistance of package is quite small, the inductance of package leads is significant which causes a voltage drop at the pad locations due to the time varying current drawn by the devices on die. This voltage drop is referred to as the di/dt-drop. Therefore, the voltage seen at the devices is the supply voltage minus the IR-drop and di/dt-drop.
Excessive voltage drops in the power grid reduce switching speeds and noise margins of circuits, and inject noise which might lead to functional failures. High average current densities lead to undesirable wearing out of metal wires due to electromigration (EM). Therefore, the challenge in the design of a power distribution network is in achieving excellent voltage regulation at the consumption points notwithstanding the wide fluctuations in power demand across the chip, and to build such a network using minimum area of the metal layers. These issues are prominent in high performance chips such as microprocessors, since large amounts of power have to be distributed through a hierarchy of many metal layers. A robust power distribution network is vital in meeting performance guarantees and ensuring reliable operation.
Capacitance between power and ground distribution networks, referred to as decoupling capacitors or decaps, acts as local charge storage and is helpful in mitigating the voltage drop at supply points. Parasitic capacitance between metal wires of supply lines, device capacitance of the non-switching devices, and capacitance between N-well and substrate, occur as implicit decoupling capacitance in a power distribution network. Unfortunately, this implicit decoupling capacitance is sometimes not enough to constrain the voltage drop within safe bounds and designers often have to add intentional explicit decoupling capacitance structures on the die at strategic locations. These explicitly added decoupling capacitances are not free and increase the area and leakage power consumption of the chip. Parasitic interconnect resistance, decoupling capacitance and package/interconnect inductance form a complex RLC circuit which has its own resonance frequency. If the resonance frequency lies close to the operating frequency of the design, large voltage drops can develop in the grid.
The crux of the problem in designing a power grid is that there are many unknowns until the very end of the design cycle. Nevertheless, decisions about the structure, size and layout of the power grid have to be made at very early stages when a large part of the chip design has not even begun. Unfortunately, most commercial tools focus on post-layout verification of the power grid when the entire chip design is complete and detailed information about the parasitics of the power and ground lines and the currents drawn by the transistors are known. Power grid problems revealed at this stage are usually very difficult or expensive to fix, so the preferred methodologies help to design an initial power grid and refine it progressively at various design stages.
Due to the growth in power consumption and switching speeds of modern high performance microprocessors, the di/dt effects are becoming a growing concern in high speed designs. Clock gating, which is a preferred scheme for power management of high performance designs, can cause rapid surges in current demands of macro-blocks and increase di/dt effects. Designers rely on the on-chip parasitic capacitances and intentionally added decoupling capacitors to counteract the di/dt variations in the voltage. But it is necessary to model accurately the inductance and capacitance of the package and chip and analyze the grid with such models, as otherwise the amount of decoupling to be added might be underestimated or overestimated. Also it is necessary to maintain the efficiency of the analysis even when including these detailed models.
== Analysis ==
A critical issue in the analysis of power grids is the large size of the network (typically millions of nodes in a state-of-the-art microprocessor). Simulating all the non-linear devices in the chip together with the power grid is computationally infeasible. To make the size manageable, the simulation is done in two steps. First, the non-linear devices are simulated assuming perfect supply voltages and the currents drawn by the devices are measured. Next, these devices are modeled as independent time-varying current sources for simulating the power grid and the voltage drops at the transistors are measured. Since voltage drops are typically less than 10% of the power supply voltage, the error incurred by ignoring the interaction between the device currents and the supply voltage is small. By doing these two steps, the power grid analysis problem reduces to solving a linear network which is still quite large. To further reduce the network size, we can exploit the hierarchy in the power distribution models.
The circuit currents are not independent due to signal correlations between blocks. This is addressed by deriving the inputs for individual blocks of the chip from the results of logic simulation using a common set of chip-wide input patterns. An important issue in power grid analysis is to determine what these input patterns should be. For IR-drop analysis, patterns that produce maximum instantaneous currents are required, whereas for electromigration purposes, patterns producing large sustained (average) currents are of interest.
Power grid analysis can be classified into input vector dependent methods and vectorless methods. The input vector pattern dependent methods employ search techniques to find a set of input patterns which cause the worst drop in the grid. A number of methods have been proposed in literature which use genetic algorithms or other search techniques to find vectors or a pattern of vectors that maximize the total current drawn from the supply network. Input vector-pattern dependent approaches are computationally intensive and are limited to circuit blocks rather than full-chip analysis. Furthermore, these approaches are inherently optimistic, underestimating the voltage drop and thus letting some of the supply noise problems go unnoticed. The vectorless approaches, on the other hand, aim to compute an upper bound on the worst-case drop in an efficient manner. These approaches have the advantage of being fast and conservative, but are sometimes too conservative, leading to overdesign.
Most of the literature on power network analysis deals with the issue of computing the worst voltage drops in the power network. Electromigration is an equally serious concern, but is attacked with almost identical methods. Instead of the voltage at each node, EM analysis solves for current in each branch, and instead of a voltage limit, there is a current limit per wire, depending on its layer and width.
Other IC applications may use only a portions of the flows mentioned here. A gate array or field programmable gate array (FPGA) designer, for example, will only do the design stages, since the detailed usage of these parts is not known when the power supply must be designed. Likewise, a user of FPGAs or gate arrays will only use the analysis portion, as the design is already fixed.
== See also ==
Power gating
== References ==
Electronic Design Automation For Integrated Circuits Handbook, by Lavagno, Martin, and Scheffer, ISBN 0-8493-3096-3 A survey of the field of electronic design automation. This summary was derived (with permission) from Vol II, Chapter 20, Design and Analysis of Power Supply Networks, by David Blaauw, Sanjay Pant, Rajat Chaudhry, and Rajendran Panda. | Wikipedia/Power_network_design_(IC) |
Spacecraft design is a process where systems engineering principles are systemically applied in order to construct complex vehicles for missions involving travel, operation or exploration in outer space. This design process produces the detailed design specifications, schematics, and plans for the spacecraft system, including comprehensive documentation outlining the spacecraft's architecture, subsystems, components, interfaces, and operational requirements, and potentially some prototype models or simulations, all of which taken together serve as the blueprint for manufacturing, assembly, integration, and testing of the spacecraft to ensure that it meets mission objectives and performance criteria.
Spacecraft design is conducted in several phases. Initially, a conceptual design is made to determine the feasibility and desirability of a new spacecraft system, showing that a credible design exists to carry out the mission. The conceptual design review ensures that the design meets the mission statement without any technical flaws while being internally consistent. Next, a preliminary design is carried out, where the focus is on functional performance, requirements definition, and interface definition at both subsystem and system levels. The preliminary design review evaluates the adequacy of the preliminary design. In the following phase, detailed design is drawn and coded for the system as a whole and all the subsystems, and a critical design review is performed where it is evaluated whether the design is sufficiently detailed to fabricate, integrate, and test the system.
Throughout spacecraft design, potential risks are rigorously identified, assessed, and mitigated, systems components are properly integrated and comprehensively tested. The entire lifecycle (including launch, mission operations and end-of-mission disposal) is taken into account. An iterative process of reviews and testing is continuously employed to refine, optimize and enhance the design's effectiveness and reliability. In particular, the spacecraft's mass, power, thermal control, propulsion, altitude control, telecommunication, command and data, and structural aspects are taken into consideration. Choosing the right launch vehicle and adapting the design to the chosen launch vehicle is also important. Regulatory compliance, adherence to International standards, designing for a sustainable, debris-free space environment are some other considerations that have become important in recent times.
Spacecraft design includes the design of both robotic spacecraft (satellites and planetary probes), and spacecraft for human spaceflight (spaceships and space stations). Human-carrying spacecraft require additional life-support systems, crew accommodation, and safety measures to support human occupants, as well as human factor engineering considerations such as ergonomics, crew comfort, and psychological well-being. Robotic spacecraft require autonomy, reliability, and remote operation capabilities without human presence. The distinctive nature and the unique needs and constraints related to each of them significantly impact spacecraft design considerations.
Recent developments in spacecraft design include electric propulsion systems (e.g. ion thrusters and Hall-effect thrusters) for high-specific-impulse propulsion, solar sails (using solar radiation pressure) for continuous thrust without the need for traditional rockets, additive manufacturing (3D printing) and advanced materials (e.g. advanced composites, nanomaterials and smart materials) for rapid prototyping and production of lightweight and durable components, artificial intelligence and machine learning-assisted autonomous systems for spacecraft autonomy and improved operational efficiency in long and faraway missions, in situ resource utilization (ISRU) technologies for extraction and utilization of local resources on celestial bodies, and CubeSats and other standardized miniature satellites for cost-effective space missions around Earth.
Spacecraft design involves experts from various fields such as engineering, physics, mathematics, computer science, etc. who come together to collaborate and participate in interdisciplinary teamwork. Furthermore, international collaboration and partnerships between space agencies, organizations, and countries help share expertise, resources, and capabilities for the mutual benefit of all parties. The challenges of spacecraft design drive technological innovation and engineering breakthroughs in professional and industrial sectors. The complexity of spacecraft design engages students in STEM subjects (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics), fosters scientific literacy and inspire the next generation of scientists, engineers, and innovators.
== Origin ==
Spacecraft design was born as a discipline in the 1950s and 60s with the advent of American and Soviet space exploration programs. Since then it has progressed, although typically less than comparable terrestrial technologies. This is for a large part due to the challenging space environment, but also to the lack of basic R&D, and other cultural factors within the design community. On the other hand, another reason for slow space travel application design is the high energy cost, and low efficiency, for achieving orbit. This cost might be seen as too high a "start-up cost."
== Areas of engineering involved ==
Spacecraft design brings together aspects of various disciplines, namely:
Astronautics for mission design and derivation of the design requirements,
Systems engineering for maintaining the design baseline and derivation of subsystem requirements,
Communications engineering for the design of the subsystems that communicate with the ground (e.g. telemetry) and perform ranging.
Computer engineering for the design of the on-board computers and computer buses. This subsystem is mainly based on terrestrial technologies, but unlike most of them, it must: cope with the space environment, be highly autonomous, and provide higher fault tolerance.
It may incorporate space qualified radiation-hardened components.
Software engineering for the on-board software which runs all the on-board applications, as well as low-level control software. This subsystem is very similar to terrestrial real-time and embedded software designs,
Electrical engineering for the design of the power subsystem, which generates, stores, and distributes the electrical power to all the on-board equipment,
Control theory for the design of the attitude and orbit control subsystem, which points the spacecraft correctly, and maintains or changes the orbit according to the mission profile; the hardware used for actuation and sensing in space is usually very specific to spacecraft,
Thermal engineering for the design of the thermal control subsystem (including radiators, iinsulation, ad heaters), which maintains environmental conditions compatible with operations of the spacecraft equipment; This subsystem has very space-specific technologies, since in space, radiation and conduction usually dominate as thermal effects, by opposition with Earth where convection is typically the main one,
Propulsion engineering for the design of the propulsion subsystem, which provides a means of transporting the spacecraft from one orbit to another,
Mechanical engineering for the design of the spacecraft structures and mechanisms, as well as the selection of materials for use in vacuum. These include beams, panels, and deployable appendages or separation devices (to separate from the launch vehicle).
== Spacecraft Subsystems ==
=== Structure ===
The spacecraft bus carries the payload. Its subsystems support the payload and help in pointing the payload correctly. It puts the payload in the right orbit and keeps it there. It provides housekeeping functions. It also provides orbit and attitude maintenance, electric power, command, telemetry, and data handling, structure and rigidity, temperature control, data storage, and communication, if required. The payload and spacecraft bus may be different units or it may be a combined one. The booster adapter provides the load-carrying interface with the vehicle (payload and spacecraft bus together).
The spacecraft may also have a propellant load, which is used to drive or push the vehicle upwards, and a propulsion kick stage. The propellant commonly used is a compressed gas like nitrogen, a quid a such as monopropellant hydrazine or solid fuel, which is used for velocity corrections and attitude control. In a kick stage (also called apogee boost motor, propulsion module, or integral propulsion stage) a separate rocket motor is used to send the spacecraft into its mission orbit.
While designing a spacecraft, the orbit which is going to be used should be considered into thnt as it affects attitude control, thermal design, and the electric power subsystem. But these effects are secondary as compared to the effect caused on the payload due to the orbit. Thus while designing the mission; the designer selects such an orbit which increases the payload performance. The designer even calculates the required spacecraft performance characteristics such as pointing, thermal control, power quantity, and duty cycle. The spacecraft is then made, which satisfies all the requirements.
=== Attitude determination and control ===
The attitude determination and control subsystem (ADCS) is used to change the attitude (orientation) of the spacecraft. There are some external torques acting on the spacecraft along the axis passing through its center of gravity which can reorient the spacecraft in any direction or can give it a spin. The ADCS nullifies these torques by applying equal and opposite torques using the proion and navigation. Moment of inertia of the body is to be calculated to determine the external torques which also requires determination of vehicle's absolute attitude using sensors. The property called 'gyroscopic stiffness' is used to reduce the spinning effect.
The simplest spacecraft achieve control by spinning or interacting with the Earth's magnetic or gravity fields. Sometimes they are uncontrolled. Spacecraft may have several bodies or they are attached to important parts, such as solar arrays or communication antennas which need individual attitude pointing. For controlling the appendage's attitude, actuators are often used, with separate sensors and controllers.
The various types of control techniques used are:
Passive Control Techniques.
Spin Control Techniques.
Three-axis Control Techniques.
=== Telemetry, tracking, and command ===
Telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) is used for communication between spacecraft and the ground systems. The subsystem functions are:
Controlling of spacecraft by the operator on Earth
Receive the uplink commands, process and send them to other subsystems for implication.
Receive the downlink commands from subsystems, process and transmit them to Earth.
Inform constantly about the spacecraft position.
=== Communication ===
The process of sending information towards the spacecraft is called uplink or forward link and the opposite process is called downlink or return link. Uplink consists of commands and ranging tones where as downlink consists of status telemetry, ranging tones and even may include payload data. Receiver, transmitter and a wide-angle (hemispheric or omnidirectional) antenna are the main components of a basic communication subsystem. Systems with high data rates may even use a directional antenna, if required. The subsystem can provide us with the coherence between uplink and downlink signals, with the help of which we can measure range-rate Doppler shifts. The communication subsystem is sized by data rate, allowable error rate, communication path length, and RF frequency.
The vast majority of spacecraft communicate using radio antennas -- satellite communication.
A few spacecraft communicate using lasers—either directly to the ground as with LADEE; or between satellites as with OICETS, Artemis, Alphabus, and the European Data Relay System.
=== Power ===
The electrical power subsystem (EPS) consists of 4 subunits :
Power Source (Battery, solar cell, fuelcells, thermoelectric couple)
Storage unit (No. of batteries in series)
Power Distribution (Cabling, switching, shock protection)
Power Regulation and Control (To prevent battery overcharging and overheating)
=== Thermal ===
Thermal control subsystem (TCS) is used to maintain the temperature of all spacecraft components within certain limits. Both upper and lower limits are defined for each component. There are two limits, namely, operational (in working conditions) and survival (in non-working conditions). Temperature is controlled by using insulators, radiators, heaters, louvers and by giving proper surface finish to components.
=== Propulsion ===
The main function of the propulsion subsystem is to provide thrust so as to change the spacecraft's translational velocity or to apply torques to change its angular momentum. There is no requirement of thrust and hence even no requirement of propulsion equipment in a simplest spacecraft. But many of them need a controlled thrust in their system, so their design includes some form of metered propulsion (a propulsion system that can be turned on and off in small increments).
Thrusting is used for the following purposes: for changing the orbital parameters, to control attitude during thrusting, correct velocity errors, maneuver, counter disturbance forces (e.g., drag), and control and correct angular momentum. The propulsion subsystem includes a propellant, tankage, distribution system, pressurant, and propellant controls. It also includes thrusters or engines.
== Space mission architecture ==
Spacecraft design is always informed by the particular mission architecture of the spaceflight under consideration. Typically, a variety of mission architectures can be envisioned that would achieve the overall objective of the flight, whether those objectives be to gather scientific data or merely transport cargo across the space environment to serve any variety of purposes, governmental or economic.
Spaceflight mission architectures will specify whether a spacecraft is to be autonomous or telerobotic, or even be crewed so as to deal with particular exigencies or goals of the mission. Other considerations include fast or slow trajectories, payload makeup and capacity, length of the mission, or the level of system redundancy so that the flight can achieve various degrees of fault-tolerance.
== References ==
"Solar sails fly from science fiction into reality". Popular Mechanics.
== External links ==
Media related to Spacecraft design at Wikimedia Commons | Wikipedia/Spacecraft_design |
News design is the process of arranging material on a newspaper page, according to editorial and graphical guidelines and goals. Main editorial goals include the ordering of news stories by order of importance, while graphical considerations include readability and balanced, unobtrusive incorporation of advertising.
News design incorporates principles of graphic design and is taught as part of journalism training in schools and colleges. Overlapping and related terms include layout, makeup (formerly paste up) and pagination.
The era of modern newspapers begins in the mid-nineteenth century, with the Industrial Revolution, and increased capacities for printing and distribution. Over time, improvements in printing technology, graphical design, and editorial standards have led to changes and improvements in the look and readability of newspapers. Nineteenth-century newspapers were often densely packed with type, often arranged vertically, with multiple headlines for each article. A number of the same technological limitations persisted until the advent of digital typesetting and pagination in late 20th century.
== Process ==
Designers typically use desktop publishing software to arrange the elements on the pages directly. In the past, before digital pre-press pagination, designers used precise "lay out dummies" to direct the exact layout of elements for each page.
A complete layout dummy was required for designating proper column widths by which a typesetter would set type, and arrange columns of text. Layout also required the calculation of lengths of copy (text in "column inches"), for any chosen width.
Much of the variance and incoherence of early newspapers was because last minute corrections were exclusively handled by typesetters. With photographic printing process, typesetting gave way to paste-up, whereby columns of type were printed by machines (phototypesetters) on high-resolution film for paste-up on photographed final prints. These prints in turn were "shot to negative" with a large format production camera —directly to steel-emulsion photographic plates.
Though paste-up put an end to cumbersome typesetting, this still required planned layouts and set column widths. Photographic plates are (still) wrapped on printing drums to directly apply ink to newsprint (paper).
In the mid-1990s, the paste-up process gave way to the direct to plate process, where computer-paginated files were optically transmitted directly to the photographic plate. Replacing several in-between steps in newspaper production, direct to plate pagination allowed for much more flexibility and precision than before. Designers today still used column grid layouts only with layout software, such as Adobe InDesign or Quark.
== Design options ==
Designers choose photo sizes and headline sizes (both the size of the letters and how much space the headline will take). They may decide what articles will go on which pages, and where on the page, alone or in consultation with editors. They may choose typefaces for special pages, but newspapers usually have a design style that determines most routine uses.
== Notable news designers ==
John E. Allen in Linotype News of the 1930s was the first to write extensively about the design of the U.S. press, followed at mid century by Syracuse journalism professor Edmund Arnold, sometimes identified as the father of "modern" newspaper design, and journalist Harold Evans played a key role in British news design later in the century.
== See also ==
Society for News Design
Photo caption
Page layout
== References ==
Barnhurst, Kevin G. Seeing the Newspaper (1994)
Harrower, Tim The Newspaper Designer's Handbook (2007)
Unlimited Graphic Design
www.newspaperdesign.in
== External links ==
Media related to News design at Wikimedia Commons | Wikipedia/News_design |
Database design is the organization of data according to a database model. The designer determines what data must be stored and how the data elements interrelate. With this information, they can begin to fit the data to the database model. A database management system manages the data accordingly.
Database design is a process that consists of several steps.
== Conceptual data modeling ==
The first step of database design involves classifying data and identifying interrelationships. The theoretical representation of data is called an ontology or a conceptual data model.
=== Determining data to be stored ===
In a majority of cases, the person designing a database is a person with expertise in database design, rather than expertise in the domain from which the data to be stored is drawn e.g. financial information, biological information etc. Therefore, the data to be stored in a particular database must be determined in cooperation with a person who does have expertise in that domain, and who is aware of the meaning of the data to be stored within the system.
This process is one which is generally considered part of requirements analysis, and requires skill on the part of the database designer to elicit the needed information from those with the domain knowledge. This is because those with the necessary domain knowledge often cannot clearly express the system requirements for the database as they are unaccustomed to thinking in terms of the discrete data elements which must be stored. Data to be stored can be determined by Requirement Specification.
=== Determining data relationships ===
Once a database designer is aware of the data which is to be stored within the database, they must then determine where dependency is within the data. Sometimes when data is changed you can be changing other data that is not visible. For example, in a list of names and addresses, assuming a situation where multiple people can have the same address, but one person cannot have more than one address, the address is dependent upon the name. When provided a name and the list the address can be uniquely determined; however, the inverse does not hold – when given an address and the list, a name cannot be uniquely determined because multiple people can reside at an address. Because an address is determined by a name, an address is considered dependent on a name.
(NOTE: A common misconception is that the relational model is so called because of the stating of relationships between data elements therein. This is not true. The relational model is so named because it is based upon the mathematical structures known as relations.)
=== Conceptual schema ===
The information obtained can be formalized in a diagram or schema. At this stage, it is a conceptual schema.
==== ER diagram (entity–relationship model) ====
One of the most common types of conceptual schemas is the ER (entity–relationship model) diagrams.
Attributes in ER diagrams are usually modeled as an oval with the name of the attribute, linked to the entity or relationship that contains the attribute.
ER models are commonly used in information system design; for example, they are used to describe information requirements and / or the types of information to be stored in the database during the conceptual structure design phase.
== Logical data modeling ==
Once the relationships and dependencies amongst the various pieces of information have been determined, it is possible to arrange the data into a logical structure which can then be mapped into the storage objects supported by the database management system. In the case of relational databases the storage objects are tables which store data in rows and columns. In an Object database the storage objects correspond directly to the objects used by the Object-oriented programming language used to write the applications that will manage and access the data. The relationships may be defined as attributes of the object classes involved or as methods that operate on the object classes.
The way this mapping is generally performed is such that each set of related data which depends upon a single object, whether real or abstract, is placed in a table. Relationships between these dependent objects are then stored as links between the various objects.
Each table may represent an implementation of either a logical object or a relationship joining one or more instances of one or more logical objects. Relationships between tables may then be stored as links connecting child tables with parents. Since complex logical relationships are themselves tables they will probably have links to more than one parent.
=== Normalization ===
In the field of relational database design, normalization is a systematic way of ensuring that a database structure is suitable for general-purpose querying and free of certain undesirable characteristics—insertion, update, and deletion anomalies that could lead to loss of data integrity.
A standard piece of database design guidance is that the designer should create a fully normalized design; selective denormalization can subsequently be performed, but only for performance reasons. The trade-off is storage space vs performance. The more normalized the design is, the less data redundancy there is (and therefore, it takes up less space to store), however, common data retrieval patterns may now need complex joins, merges, and sorts to occur – which takes up more data read, and compute cycles. Some modeling disciplines, such as the dimensional modeling approach to data warehouse design, explicitly recommend non-normalized designs, i.e. designs that in large part do not adhere to 3NF. Normalization consists of normal forms that are 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, Boyce-Codd NF (3.5NF), 4NF, 5NF and 6NF.
Document databases take a different approach. A document that is stored in such a database, typically would contain more than one normalized data unit and often the relationships between the units as well. If all the data units and the relationships in question are often retrieved together, then this approach optimizes the number of retrieves. It also simplifies how data gets replicated, because now there is a clearly identifiable unit of data whose consistency is self-contained. Another consideration is that reading and writing a single document in such databases will require a single transaction – which can be an important consideration in a Microservices architecture. In such situations, often, portions of the document are retrieved from other services via an API and stored locally for efficiency reasons. If the data units were to be split out across the services, then a read (or write) to support a service consumer might require more than one service calls, and this could result in management of multiple transactions, which may not be preferred.
== Physical design ==
=== Physical data modeling ===
The physical design of the database specifies the physical configuration of the database on the storage media. This includes detailed specification of data elements and data types.
=== Other physical design ===
This step involves specifying the indexing options and other parameters residing in the DBMS data dictionary. It is the detailed design of a system that includes modules & the database's hardware & software specifications of the system. Some aspects that are addressed at the physical layer:
Performance – mainly addressed via indexing for the read/update/delete queries, data type choice for insert queries
Replication – what pieces of data get copied over into another database, and how often. Are there multiple-masters, or a single one?
High-availability – whether the configuration is active-passive, or active-active, the topology, coordination scheme, reliability targets, etc all have to be defined.
Partitioning – if the database is distributed, then for a single entity, how is the data distributed amongst all the partitions of the database, and how is partition failure taken into account.
Backup and restore schemes.
At the application level, other aspects of the physical design can include the need to define stored procedures, or materialized query views, OLAP cubes, etc.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
S. Lightstone, T. Teorey, T. Nadeau, "Physical Database Design: the database professional's guide to exploiting indexes, views, storage, and more", Morgan Kaufmann Press, 2007. ISBN 0-12-369389-6
M. Hernandez, "Database Design for Mere Mortals: A Hands-On Guide to Relational Database Design", 3rd Edition, Addison-Wesley Professional, 2013. ISBN 0-321-88449-3
== External links ==
[1]
[2]
Database Normalization Basics Archived 2007-02-05 at the Wayback Machine by Mike Chapple (About.com)
Database Normalization Intro Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine, Part 2 Archived 2011-07-08 at the Wayback Machine
"An Introduction to Database Normalization". Archived from the original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2012-02-25.
"Normalization". Archived from the original on 2010-01-06. Retrieved 2012-02-25. | Wikipedia/Database_design |
Integrated design is a comprehensive holistic approach to design which brings together specialisms usually considered separately. It attempts to take into consideration all the factors and modulations necessary to a decision-making process.
A few examples are the following:
Design of a building which considers whole building design including architecture, structural engineering, passive solar building design and HVAC. The approach may also integrate building lifecycle management and a greater consideration of the end users of the building. The aim of integrated building design is often to produce sustainable architecture.
Design of both a product (or family of products) and the assembly system that will produce it.
Design of an electronic product that considers both hardware and software aspects, although this is often called co-design (not to be confused with participatory design, which is also often called co-design).
The requirement for integrated design comes when the different specialisms are dependent on each other or "coupled". An alternative or complementary approach to integrated design is to consciously reduce the dependencies. In computing and systems design, this approach is known as loose coupling.
== Dis-integrated design ==
Three phenomena are associated with a lack of integrated design:
Silent design: design by default, by omission or by people not aware that they are participating in design activity.
Partial design: design is only used to a limited degree, such as in superficial styling, often after the important design decisions have been made.
Disparate design: design activity may be widespread, but is not co-ordinated or brought together to realise its potential. The resulting design may have needless complexity, internal inconsistency, logical flaws and a lack of a unifying vision.
A committee is sometimes a deliberate attempt to address disparate design, but the phrase "design by committee" is associated with this failing, leading to disparate design. "Design by committee" can also lead to a kind of silent design, as design decisions are not properly considered, for fear of upsetting a hard-won compromise.
== Methods for integrated design ==
The integrated design approach incorporates collaborative methods and tools to encourage and enable the specialists in the different areas to work together to produce an integrated design.
A charrette provides opportunity for all specialists to collaborate and align early in the design process.
Human-Centered Design provides an integrated approach to problem solving, commonly used in design and management frameworks that develops solutions to problems by involving the human perspective in all steps of the problem-solving process.
== References ==
== See also ==
Holism
Mode 2
Participatory design
System integration
Systems engineering | Wikipedia/Integrated_design |
The concept of design paradigms derives from the rather ambiguous idea of paradigm originating in the sociology of science, which carries at least two main meanings:
As models, archetypes, or quintessential examples of solutions to problems. A 'paradigmatic design' in this sense, refers to a design solution that is considered by a community as being successful and influential. Usually success is associated to market share or some other measure of popularity, but this need not be the case. For instance, the eMate and other Apple Newton devices can be considered as paradigmatic because of their influence in subsequent designs, despite their commercial failure.
As sociological paradigms, a design paradigm is the constellation of beliefs, rules, knowledge, etc. that is valid for a particular design community. Here a paradigm is not a particular solution, but rather the underlying system of ideas that causes a range of solutions to be 'normal' or 'obvious'. A current example is the laptop: as of 2010 the design paradigm of laptops includes a portable computer unit consisting of a QWERTY keyboard, a hinged screen, etc. Moreover, such device is assumed to be helpful in task such as education as in the One Laptop per Child project.
While the first meaning of "design paradigm" refers to exemplary design solutions that create "design trends", the second meaning refers to what a group of people expects from a type of design solutions.
The term "design paradigm" is used within the design professions, including architecture, industrial design and engineering design, to indicate an archetypal solution. Thus a Swiss Army Knife is a design paradigm illustrating the concept of a single object that changes configuration to address a number of problems.
Design paradigms have been introduced in a number of books including Design Paradigms: A Sourcebook for Creative Visualization by Warren Wake, and discussed in Design Paradigms: Case Histories of Error and Judgment in Engineering but never defined by Henry Petroski. This concept is close to design pattern coined by Christopher Alexander in A Pattern Language.
Design paradigms can be used either to describe a design solution, or as an approach to design problem solving. Problem solving occurs through a process of abstraction and characterization of design solutions, with subsequent categorization into problem solving types. The approach is akin to the use of metaphor in language; metaphors are used to help explain concepts that are new or unfamiliar, and to bridge between a problem we understand and a problem we don't. Design paradigms then can be seen as higher order metaphors; as the often three-dimensional distillation of a working relationship between parts, between groups of things, between the known and the unknown. In this sense, a bridge is a paradigm of the connection between the known and the unknown, and the functional equivalent of a physical bridge is consequently used in many fields from computer hardware to musical composition.
The design paradigms concept has proven so powerful in traditional fields of design, that it has inspired a branch of computer science, where computational analogies to design paradigms are commonly called software design patterns. Importantly however, in design professions the term "design pattern" usually describes a 2-dimensional structure, whereas the term "design paradigm" (or model) usually implies a higher order, having 3 or more dimensions.
== See also ==
Canonical protocol pattern
== References == | Wikipedia/Design_paradigm |
Inclusive design is a design process in which a product, service, or environment is designed to be usable for as many people as possible, particularly groups who are traditionally excluded from being able to use an interface or navigate an environment. Its focus is on fulfilling as many user needs as possible, not just as many users as possible. Historically, inclusive design has been linked to designing for people with physical disabilities, and accessibility is one of the key outcomes of inclusive design. However, rather than focusing on designing for disabilities, inclusive design is a methodology that considers many aspects of human diversity that could affect a person's ability to use a product, service, or environment, such as ability, language, culture, gender, and age. The Inclusive Design Research Center reframes disability as a mismatch between the needs of a user and the design of a product or system, emphasizing that disability can be experienced by any user. With this framing, it becomes clear that inclusive design is not limited to interfaces or technologies, but may also be applied to the design of policies and infrastructure.
Three dimensions in inclusive design methodology identified by the Inclusive Design Research Centre include:
Recognize, respect, and design with human uniqueness and variability.
Use inclusive, open, and transparent processes, and co-design with people who represent a diversity of perspectives.
Realize that you are designing in a complex adaptive system, where changes in a design will influence the larger systems that utilize it.
Further iterations of inclusive design include product inclusion, a practice of bringing an inclusive lens throughout development and design. This term suggests looking at multiple dimensions of identity including race, age, gender and more.
== History ==
In the 1950s, Europe, Japan, and the United States began to move towards "barrier-free design", which sought to remove obstacles in built environments for people with physical disabilities. By the 1970s, the emergence of accessible design began to move past the idea of building solutions specifically for individuals with disabilities towards normalization and integration. In 1973, the United States passed the Rehabilitation Act, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in programs conducted by federal agencies, a crucial step towards recognizing that accessible design was a condition for supporting people's civil rights. In May 1974, the magazine Industrial Design published an article, "The Handicapped Majority," which argued that handicaps were not a niche concern and 'normal' users suffered from poor design of products and environments as well.
Clarkson and Coleman describe the emergence of inclusive design in the United Kingdom as a synthesis of existing projects and movement. Coleman also published the first reference to the term in 1994 with The Case for Inclusive Design, a presentation at the 12th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association. Much of this early work was inspired by an aging population and people living for longer times in older ages as voiced by scholars like Peter Laslett. Public focus on accessibility further increased with the passage of the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which expanded the responsibility of accessible design to include both public and private entities.
In the 1990s, the United States followed the United Kingdom in shifting focus from universal design to inclusive design. Around this time, Selwyn Goldsmith (in the UK) and Ronald 'Ron' Mace (in the US), two architects who had both survived polio and were wheelchair users, advocated for an expanded view of design for everyone. Along with Mace, nine other authors from five organizations in the United States developed the Principles of Universal Design in 1997. In 1998, the United States amended Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act to include inclusivity requirements for the design of information and technology.
In 2016, the Design for All Showcase at the White House featured a panel on inclusive design. The show featured clothing and personal devices either on the market or in development, modeled by disabled people. Rather than treating accessible and inclusive design as a product of compliance to legal requirements, the showcase positioned disability as a source of innovation.
== Related concepts and terms ==
Inclusive design is often equated to accessible or universal design, as all three concepts are related to ensuring that products are usable by all people.
=== Accessibility ===
Accessibility is oriented towards the outcome of ensuring that a product supports individual users' needs. Accessible design is often based upon compliance with government- or industry-designated guidelines, such as Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility Standards or Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG). As a result, it is limited in scope and often focuses on specific accommodations to ensure that people with disabilities have access to products, services, or environments. In contrast, inclusive design considers the needs of a wider range of potential users, including those with capability impairments that may not be legally recognized as disabilities. Inclusive design seeks out cases of exclusion from a product or environment, regardless of the cause, and seeks to reduce that exclusion. For example, a design that aims to reduce safety risks for people suffering from age-related long-sightedness would be best characterized as an inclusive design. Inclusive design also looks beyond resolving issues of access to improving the overall user experience.
As a result, accessibility is one piece of inclusive design, but not the whole picture. In general, designs created through an inclusive design process should be accessible, as the needs of people with different abilities are considered during the design process. But accessible designs aren't necessarily inclusive if they don't move beyond providing access to people of different abilities and consider the wider user experience for different types of people—particularly those who may not suffer from recognized, common cognitive, or physical disabilities.
=== Universal design ===
Universal design is design for everyone: the term was coined by Ronald Mace in 1980, and its aim is to produce designs that all people can use fully, without the need for adaptations. Universal design originated in work on the design of built environments, though its focus has expanded to encompass digital products and services as well.
Universal design principles include usefulness to people with diverse abilities; intuitive use regardless of user's skill level; perceptible communication of necessary information; tolerance for error; low physical effort; and appropriate size and space for all users. Many of these principles are compatible with accessible and inclusive design, but universal design typically provides a single solution for a large user base, without added accommodations. Therefore, while universal design supports the widest range of users, it does not aim to address individual accessibility needs. Inclusive design acknowledges that it is not always possible for one product to meet every user's needs, and thus explores different solutions for different groups of people.
=== Design justice ===
"Design justice" is a term coined to describe designing systems based on historical inequalities. As articulated by the Design Justice Network, it aims to “rethink design processes, center individuals who are typically marginalized by design, and employ collaborative, creative practices to tackle the most pressing challenges faced by communities.” By emphasizing the viewpoints of those historically excluded from design decisions, Design Justice seeks to redistribute power and promote inclusivity within systems, environments, and products.
== Approaches to inclusive design ==
In general, inclusive design involves engaging with users and seeking to understand their needs. Frequently, inclusive design approaches include steps such as: developing empathy for the needs and contexts of potential users; forming diverse teams; creating and testing multiple solutions; encouraging dialogue regarding a design rather than debate; and using structured processes that guide conversations toward productive outcomes.
=== Principles of Universal Design (1997) ===
Five United States organizations—including the Institute for Human Centered Design (IHCD) and Ronald Mace at North Carolina State University—developed the Principles of Universal Design in 1997. The IHCD has since shifted the language of the principles from 'universal' to 'inclusive.'
Equitable Use: Any group of users can use the design.
Flexibility in Use: A wide range of preferences and abilities is accommodated.
Simple, Intuitive Use: Regardless of the user's prior experience or knowledge, the use of the design is easy to understand.
Perceptible Information: Any necessary information is communicated to the user, regardless of environment or user abilities.
Tolerance for Error: Any adverse or hazardous consequences of actions is minimized.
Low Physical Effort: The design can be used efficiently and comfortably.
Size and Space for Approach & Use: Regardless of the user's body size, posture, or mobility, there is appropriate size and space to approach and use the design.
=== UK Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (2006) ===
The Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE) is an arm of the UK Design Council, which advises the government on architecture, urban design and public space. In 2006, they created the following set of inclusive design principles:
Inclusive: Everyone can use it safely, easily, and with dignity.
Responsive: Takes account of what people say they need and want.
Flexible: Different people can use it differently.
Convenient: Usable without too much effort.
Accommodating: For all people, regardless of age, gender, mobility, ethnicity, or circumstances.
Welcoming: No disabling barriers that might exclude some people.
Realistic: More than one solution to address differing needs.
Understandable: Everyone can locate and access it.
=== Inclusive Design Toolkit ===
The University of Cambridge's Inclusive Design Toolkit advocates incorporating inclusive design elements throughout the design process in iterative cycles of:
Exploring the needs
Creating solutions
Evaluating how well the needs are met
=== Corporate inclusive design approaches ===
Microsoft emphasizes the role of learning from people who represent different perspectives in their inclusive design approach. They advocate for the following steps:
Recognize exclusion: Open up products and services to more people.
Solve for one, extend to many: Designing for people with disabilities tends to result in designs that benefit other user groups as well.
Learn from diversity: Center people from the start of the design process, and develop insight from their perspectives.
At Adobe, the inclusive design process begins with identification of situations where people are excluded from using a product. They describe the following principles of inclusive design:
Identify ability-based exclusion: Proactively understand how and why people are excluded.
Identify situational challenges: These are specific scenarios where a user is unable to use a product effectively, such as when an environmental circumstance makes it difficult to use a design. For example, if a video does not include closed-captioning, it may be difficult to understand the audio in a noisy environment.
Avoid personal biases: Involve people from different communities throughout the design process.
Offer various ways to engage: When a user is given different options, they can choose a method that serves them best.
Provide equivalent experiences to all users: When designing different ways for people to engage with your product, ensure that the quality of these experiences is comparable for each user.
Google's, the inclusive design process is called product inclusion, and looks at 13 dimensions of identity and the intersections of those dimensions throughout the product development and design process.
=== Participatory design ===
Participatory design is rooted in the design of Scandinavian workplaces in the 1970s, and is based in the idea that those affected by a design should be consulted during the design process. Designers anticipate how users will actually use a product—and rather than focusing on merely designing a useful product, the whole infrastructure is considered: the goal is to design a good environment for the product at use time. This methodology treats the challenge of design as an ongoing process. Further, rather than viewing the design process in phases, such as analysis, design, construction, and implementation, the participatory design approach looks at projects in terms of a collection of users and their experiences.
== Examples of inclusive design ==
There are numerous examples of inclusive design that apply to interfaces and technology, consumer products, and infrastructure.
=== Interfaces and technology ===
Text legibility for older users: To ensure legibility of text for users of all ages, designers must use "reasonably large font sizes, have high contrast between characters in the foreground and background, and use a clean typeface." These design elements are beneficial to all users of an interface, but they are implemented to address the needs of senior users in particular. Other inclusive design solutions include adding buttons that allow users to adjust the font size of a website to their liking, or giving users the option to switch to a "dark mode" that is easier on the eyes for some users.
Assistive clothing: Individuals with physical disabilities may experience difficulties with dressing or undressing. In recent years, inclusive design practices have been implemented in the fashion industry by brands including Kohl’s, Nike, Target, Tommy Hilfiger, and Zappos. Such adaptive clothing products can take the form of magnets or velcro on the side of pants, zippers on the sleeves of tops to become detachable, and natural fibers to ensure breathability, temperature control, and overall comfort.
=== Consumer products ===
The ROPP Closure: Because most elderly and disabled people do not have the necessary strength to open packaging, a project was conducted that centered on modifying the packaging for plastic and glass containers. The roll-on pilfer-proof (ROPP) closure, a design used to seal spirit bottles, was used as a model in the project to determine the capable strength of consumers and the physical strength required to open the glass and plastic containers while also keeping the container properly sealed. If the strength limits of consumers and the design limits of the ROPP closure are solved, the majority of the public will be able to open a container, and the containers will be fully closed.
=== Infrastructure ===
Playgrounds/parks in urban areas: Children are often excluded from accessible public places in cities due to safety concerns, so spatial planners design playgrounds and parks within cities in order to give children the opportunity to freely examine their curiosities. These areas are significant for a child's growth because children can socialize with each other, explore their surroundings, and stay physically active without worrying about any common dangers that can occur in an urban environment.
Musholm: Musholm is a sports center located in Denmark which contains a 110 meter-long activity ramp with landings and recreational zones, where wheelchair users can engage in activities such as a climbing wall and a cable lift. The initial objective for the designers of this building was making sure that the facilities were accessible to everyone.
The Friendship Park: Located in Uruguay, this park was built so that it can be easily accessible for every child, especially children with disabilities. The park has swings available for children in wheelchairs, wide walkways, curved corners instead of sharp edges, and flooring that is cushioned and slip resistant. These features were added in order "to not only make the space safe, but to also make the space easy to use."
Tactile Pavement in Urban Area: Visually impaired individuals may have hard time navigating their surroundings. Implementing tactile pavement with different but identifiable textures allows them to understand what is ahead. Some indicators includes blister paving patterns, where it locates around crosswalks to indicate road crossing ahead, cycleway tactile paving that help alert people of cyclist path, where the pavements has lined tile along the path for the cyclist and directional tactile paving that help indicate the direction of the sidewalks when there are no other indicators on the street.
== See also ==
Feminist design
Universal design
Transgenerational design
Empathic design
Human-centered design
== References ==
== Further reading ==
The no 1 thing you're getting wrong about inclusive design
What is inclusive design?
Inclusive design principles
Inclusive design at IBM | Wikipedia/Inclusive_design |
Design Professionals of Canada (or DesCan, formerly known as the Society of Graphic Designers of Canada, or GDC) is Canadaʼs national certification body for graphic and communication design and since 1956 has established standards for design professionals, educators, and leaders. DesCan licenses and certifies members whose services meet the standardized, national criteria. DesCan was Canada's first distinct group to professionalize graphic design as a distinct field.
== History ==
In 1956 designers Frank Davies, John Gibson, Frank Newfeld, and Leslie (Sam) Smart met in Toronto to form the Society of Typographic Designers of Canada (TDC).
In 1968 the organization changed its name to the Society of Graphic Designers of Canada (GDC) with the Federal Charter approved on in 1976, unifying the country under one national association.
In 1996 GDC's five Ontario Chapters combined to form the Association of Registered Graphic Designers of Ontario and received provincial legislation granting them authority to use the title of Registered Graphic Designer and the R.G.D. designation within the province of Ontario.
GDC celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2006 with a commemorative stamp from Canada Post.
In 2021 the organization changed its name to the Design Professionals of Canada (DesCan) to more accurately reflect a broadening variety of membership.
Today DesCan has chapters throughout Canada and has representation in every province and territory as well as many international members.
=== Friends and Affiliates of DesCan ===
DesCan is well-respected internationally and is a member of the International Council of Design (ico-D), the worldwide non-governmental body representing graphic and communication designers, allowing members to attain international recognition, professional development, and a global perspective on graphic design. DesCan is one of the ten largest association members in ico-D and has been a member since 1974.
DesCan is also allied with the Societe des Designers Graphiques du Quebec (SDGQ), representing graphic designers in Quebec, the university and College Designers Association (UCDA), the Canadian Association of Professional Image Creators (CAPIC), and the Australian Graphic Design Association (AGDA).
In 2010 the organization adopted membership changes to replace the MGDC and LGDC certifications with a new CGD™ certification in order to reduce confusion over the meaning of the MGDC designation. The CGD certification mark was replaced with CDP™ in 2021.
== Activities ==
The DesCan maintains a national certified body of graphic and communication designers and promotes standards of graphic design and ethical business practices for the benefit of Canadian industry, commerce, public service and education.
Through the media, publications, seminars, events, conferences and exhibits, the DesCan builds awareness of graphic and communication design and its essential role in business and society.
From 1977, initially in British Columbia and then across Canada, Graphex has provided a design competition.
Since 1960, the DesCan has been recognizing as Fellows those designers who make major contributions to Canadian graphic design. Designers who have received the honour include Allan Fleming (1960), Burton Kramer (1975), Chris Yaneff (1983), Paul Arthur (1996), Jim Rimmer (2007), and Mark Busse (2014).
== Organization ==
DesCan consists of ten chapters across Canada, facilitating a national, ongoing exchange of ideas and information for designers and students:
== Affiliations ==
DesCan is a professional member of ico-D (International Council of Communication Design), the worldwide non-governmental body representing the graphic design profession. This provides DesCan members with the opportunity for international recognition, professional development, and a global perspective on graphic design.
The Société des designers graphiques du Québec (SDGQ), representing graphic designers in the province of Quebec, has a formal relationship with the GDC.
== CDP™ Certification ==
DesCan certifies and licenses members whose services meet the standardized, national criteria. The CDP™ certification mark is recognized across Canada as the mark of professional services and ethical business conduct. Current certification requirements and guidelines can be found at https://descan.ca/certification/.
== See also ==
Association of Registered Graphic Designers
Société des designers graphiques du Québec (in French)
== References ==
== External links ==
Society of Graphic Designers of Canada (GDC) Website | Wikipedia/Graphex |
Object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD) is a technical approach for analyzing and designing an application, system, or business by applying object-oriented programming, as well as using visual modeling throughout the software development process to guide stakeholder communication and product quality.
OOAD in modern software engineering is typically conducted in an iterative and incremental way. The outputs of OOAD activities are analysis models (for OOA) and design models (for OOD) respectively. The intention is for these to be continuously refined and evolved, driven by key factors like risks and business value.
== History ==
In the early days of object-oriented technology before the mid-1990s, there were many different competing methodologies for software development and object-oriented modeling, often tied to specific Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tool vendors. No standard notations, consistent terms and process guides were the major concerns at the time, which degraded communication efficiency and lengthened learning curves.
Some of the well-known early object-oriented methodologies were from and inspired by gurus such as Grady Booch, James Rumbaugh, Ivar Jacobson (the Three Amigos), Robert Martin, Peter Coad, Sally Shlaer, Stephen Mellor, and Rebecca Wirfs-Brock.
In 1994, the Three Amigos of Rational Software started working together to develop the Unified Modeling Language (UML). Later, together with Philippe Kruchten and Walker Royce (eldest son of Winston Royce), they have led a successful mission to merge their own methodologies, OMT, OOSE and Booch method, with various insights and experiences from other industry leaders into the Rational Unified Process (RUP), a comprehensive iterative and incremental process guide and framework for learning industry best practices of software development and project management. Since then, the Unified Process family has become probably the most popular methodology and reference model for object-oriented analysis and design.
== Overview ==
An object contains encapsulated data and procedures grouped to represent an entity. The 'object interface' defines how the object can be interacted with. An object-oriented program is described by the interaction of these objects. Object-oriented design is the discipline of defining the objects and their interactions to solve a problem that was identified and documented during object-oriented analysis.
What follows is a description of the class-based subset of object-oriented design, which does not include object prototype-based approaches where objects are not typically obtained by instantiating classes but by cloning other (prototype) objects. Object-oriented design is a method of design encompassing the process of object-oriented decomposition and a notation for depicting both logical and physical as well as state and dynamic models of the system under design.
The software life cycle is typically divided up into stages, going from abstract descriptions of the problem, to designs, then to code and testing, and finally to deployment. The earliest stages of this process are analysis and design. The analysis phase is also often called "requirements acquisition".
In some approaches to software development—known collectively as waterfall models—the boundaries between each stage are meant to be fairly rigid and sequential. The term "waterfall" was coined for such methodologies to signify that progress went sequentially in one direction only, i.e., once analysis was complete then and only then was design begun and it was rare (and considered a source of error) when a design issue required a change in the analysis model or when a coding issue required a change in design.
The alternative to waterfall models are iterative models. This distinction was popularized by Barry Boehm in a very influential paper on his Spiral Model for iterative software development. With iterative models it is possible to do work in various stages of the model in parallel. So for example it is possible—and not seen as a source of error—to work on analysis, design, and even code all on the same day and to have issues from one stage impact issues from another. The emphasis on iterative models is that software development is a knowledge-intensive process and that things like analysis can't really be completely understood without understanding design issues, that coding issues can affect design, that testing can yield information about how the code or even the design should be modified, etc.
Although it is possible to do object-oriented development using a waterfall model, in practice most object-oriented systems are developed with an iterative approach. As a result, in object-oriented processes "analysis and design" are often considered at the same time.
The object-oriented paradigm emphasizes modularity and re-usability. The goal of an object-oriented approach is to satisfy the "open–closed principle". A module is open if it supports extension, or if the module provides standardized ways to add new behaviors or describe new states. In the object-oriented paradigm this is often accomplished by creating a new subclass of an existing class. A module is closed if it has a well defined stable interface that all other modules must use and that limits the interaction and potential errors that can be introduced into one module by changes in another. In the object-oriented paradigm this is accomplished by defining methods that invoke services on objects. Methods can be either public or private, i.e., certain behaviors that are unique to the object are not exposed to other objects. This reduces a source of many common errors in computer programming.
The software life cycle is typically divided up into stages going from abstract descriptions of the problem to designs then to code and testing and finally to deployment. The earliest stages of this process are analysis and design. The distinction between analysis and design is often described as "what vs. how". In analysis developers work with users and domain experts to define what the system is supposed to do. Implementation details are supposed to be mostly or totally (depending on the particular method) ignored at this phase. The goal of the analysis phase is to create a functional model of the system regardless of constraints such as appropriate technology. In object-oriented analysis this is typically done via use cases and abstract definitions of the most important objects. The subsequent design phase refines the analysis model and makes the needed technology and other implementation choices. In object-oriented design the emphasis is on describing the various objects, their data, behavior, and interactions. The design model should have all the details required so that programmers can implement the design in code.
== Object-oriented analysis ==
The purpose of any analysis activity in the software life-cycle is to create a model of the system's functional requirements that is independent of implementation constraints.
The main difference between object-oriented analysis and other forms of analysis is that by the object-oriented approach we organize requirements around objects, which integrate both behaviors (processes) and states (data) modeled after real world objects that the system interacts with. In other or traditional analysis methodologies, the two aspects: processes and data are considered separately. For example, data may be modeled by ER diagrams, and behaviors by flow charts or structure charts.
Common models used in OOA are use cases and object models. Use cases describe scenarios for standard domain functions that the system must accomplish. Object models describe the names, class relations (e.g. Circle is a subclass of Shape), operations, and properties of the main objects. User-interface mockups or prototypes can also be created to help understanding.
== Object-oriented design ==
Object-oriented design (OOD) is the process of planning a system of interacting objects to solve a software problem. It is a method for software design. By defining classes and their functionality for their children (instantiated objects), each object can run the same implementation of the class with its state.
During OOD, a developer applies implementation constraints to the conceptual model produced in object-oriented analysis. Such constraints could include the hardware and software platforms, the performance requirements, persistent storage and transaction, usability of the system, and limitations imposed by budgets and time. Concepts in the analysis model which is technology independent, are mapped onto implementing classes and interfaces resulting in a model of the solution domain, i.e., a detailed description of how the system is to be built on concrete technologies.
Important topics during OOD also include the design of software architectures by applying architectural patterns and design patterns with the object-oriented design principles.
=== Input (sources) for object-oriented design ===
The input for object-oriented design is provided by the output of object-oriented analysis. Realize that an output artifact does not need to be completely developed to serve as input of object-oriented design; analysis and design may occur in parallel, and in practice, the results of one activity can feed the other in a short feedback cycle through an iterative process. Both analysis and design can be performed incrementally, and the artifacts can be continuously grown instead of completely developed in one shot.
Some typical input artifacts for object-oriented design are:
Conceptual model: The result of object-oriented analysis, captures concepts in the problem domain. The conceptual model is explicitly chosen to be independent of implementation details, such as concurrency or data storage.
Use case: A description of sequences of events that, taken together, lead to a system doing something useful. Each use case provides one or more scenarios that convey how the system should interact with the users called actors to achieve a specific business goal or function. Use case actors may be end users or other systems. In many circumstances use cases are further elaborated into use case diagrams. Use case diagrams are used to identify the actor (users or other systems) and the processes they perform.
System sequence diagram: A system sequence diagram (SSD) is a picture that shows, for a particular scenario of a use case, the events that external actors generate, their order, and possible inter-system events.
User interface documentation (if applicable): Document that shows and describes the look and feel of the end product's user interface. It is not mandatory to have this, but it helps to visualize the end product and therefore helps the designer.
Relational data model (if applicable): A data model is an abstract model that describes how data is represented and used. If an object database is not used, the relational data model should usually be created before the design since the strategy chosen for object–relational mapping is an output of the OO design process. However, it is possible to develop the relational data model and the object-oriented design artifacts in parallel, and the growth of an artifact can stimulate the refinement of other artifacts.
=== Object-oriented concepts ===
The five basic concepts of object-oriented design are the implementation-level features built into the programming language. These features are often referred to by these common names:
Object/Class: A tight coupling or association of data structures with the methods or functions that act on the data. This is called a class, or object (an object is created based on a class). Each object serves a separate function. It is defined by its properties, what it is and what it can do. An object can be part of a class, which is a set of similar objects.
Information hiding: The ability to protect some object components from external entities. This is realized by language keywords to enable a variable to be declared as private or protected to the owning class.
Inheritance: The ability for a class to extend or override the functionality of another class. The so-called subclass has a whole section derived (inherited) from the superclass and has its own set of functions and data.
Interface (object-oriented programming): The ability to defer the implementation of a method. The ability to define the functions or methods signatures without implementing them.
Polymorphism (specifically, Subtyping): The ability to replace an object with its sub-objects. The ability of an object-variable to contain not only that object but also all of its sub-objects.
=== Designing concepts ===
Defining objects, creating class diagram from conceptual diagram: Usually map entity to class.
Identifying attributes and their models.
Use design patterns (if applicable): A design pattern is not a finished design, it is a description of a solution to a common problem, in a context.
The main advantage of using a design pattern is that it can be reused in multiple applications. It can also be thought of as a template for how to solve a problem that can be used in many different situations and/or applications. Object-oriented design patterns typically show relationships and interactions between classes or objects, without specifying the final application classes or objects involved.
Define application framework (if applicable): An application framework is usually a set of libraries or classes that are used to implement the standard structure of an application for a specific operating system. By bundling a large amount of reusable code into a framework, much time is saved for the developer since he/she is saved the task of rewriting large amounts of standard code for each new application that is developed.
Identify persistent objects/data (if applicable): Identify objects that have to last longer than a single runtime of the application. Design the object relation mapping if a relational database is used.
Identify and define remote objects (if applicable) and their variations.
=== Output (deliverables) of object-oriented design ===
Sequence diagram – Extend the system sequence diagram to add specific objects that handle the system events.
A sequence diagram shows, as parallel vertical lines, different processes or objects that live simultaneously, and, as horizontal arrows, the messages exchanged between them, in the order in which they occur.
Class diagram – A class diagram is a type of static structure UML diagram that describes the structure of a system by showing the system's classes, its attributes, and the relationships between the classes. The messages and classes identified through the development of the sequence diagrams can serve as input to the automatic generation of the global class diagram of the system.
=== Some design principles and strategies ===
Dependency injection: The basic idea is that if an object depends upon having an instance of some other object then the needed object is "injected" into the dependent object; for example, being passed a database connection as an argument to the constructor instead of creating one internally.
Acyclic dependencies principle: The dependency graph of packages or components (the granularity depends on the scope of work for one developer) should have no cycles. This is also referred to as having a directed acyclic graph. For example, package C depends on package B, which depends on package A. If package A depended on package C, you would have a cycle.
Composite reuse principle: Favor polymorphic composition of objects over inheritance.
== Object-oriented modeling ==
Object-oriented modeling (OOM) is a common approach to modeling applications, systems, and business domains by using the object-oriented paradigm throughout the entire development life cycles. OOM is a main technique heavily used by both OOD and OOA activities in modern software engineering.
Object-oriented modeling typically divides into two aspects of work: the modeling of dynamic behaviors like business processes and use cases, and the modeling of static structures like classes and components. OOA and OOD are the two distinct abstract levels (i.e. the analysis level and the design level) during OOM. The Unified Modeling Language (UML) and SysML are the two popular international standard languages used for object-oriented modeling.
The benefits of OOM are:
Efficient and effective communication
Users typically have difficulties in understanding comprehensive documents and programming language codes well. Visual model diagrams can be more understandable and can allow users and stakeholders to give developers feedback on the appropriate requirements and structure of the system. A key goal of the object-oriented approach is to decrease the "semantic gap" between the system and the real world, and to have the system be constructed using terminology that is almost the same as the stakeholders use in everyday business. Object-oriented modeling is an essential tool to facilitate this.
Useful and stable abstraction
Modeling helps coding. A goal of most modern software methodologies is to first address "what" questions and then address "how" questions, i.e. first determine the functionality the system is to provide without consideration of implementation constraints, and then consider how to make specific solutions to these abstract requirements, and refine them into detailed designs and codes by constraints such as technology and budget. Object-oriented modeling enables this by producing abstract and accessible descriptions of both system requirements and designs, i.e. models that define their essential structures and behaviors like processes and objects, which are important and valuable development assets with higher abstraction levels above concrete and complex source code.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Grady Booch. "Object-oriented Analysis and Design with Applications, 3rd edition":http://www.informit.com/store/product.aspx?isbn=020189551X Addison-Wesley 2007.
Rebecca Wirfs-Brock, Brian Wilkerson, Lauren Wiener. Designing Object Oriented Software. Prentice Hall, 1990. [A down-to-earth introduction to the object-oriented programming and design.]
A Theory of Object-Oriented Design: The building-blocks of OOD and notations for representing them (with focus on design patterns.)
Martin Fowler. Analysis Patterns: Reusable Object Models. Addison-Wesley, 1997. [An introduction to object-oriented analysis with conceptual models]
Bertrand Meyer. Object-oriented software construction. Prentice Hall, 1997
Craig Larman. Applying UML and Patterns – Introduction to OOA/D & Iterative Development. Prentice Hall PTR, 3rd ed. 2005.
Setrag Khoshafian. Object Orientation.
Ulrich Norbisrath, Albert Zündorf, Ruben Jubeh. Story Driven Modeling. Amazon Createspace. p. 333, 2013. ISBN 9781483949253.
== External links ==
Article Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with UML and RUP an overview (also about CRC cards).
Applying UML – Object Oriented Analysis & Design tutorial
OOAD & UML Resource website and Forums – Object Oriented Analysis & Design with UML
Software Requirement Analysis using UML article by Dhiraj Shetty
Article Object-Oriented Analysis in the Real World
Object-Oriented Analysis & Design – overview using UML
Larman, Craig. Applying UML and Patterns – Third Edition
Object-Oriented Analysis and Design
LePUS3 and Class-Z: formal modelling languages for object-oriented design
The Hierarchy of Objects | Wikipedia/Object-oriented_design |
Filter design is the process of designing a signal processing filter that satisfies a set of requirements, some of which may be conflicting. The purpose is to find a realization of the filter that meets each of the requirements to an acceptable degree.
The filter design process can be described as an optimization problem. Certain parts of the design process can be automated, but an experienced designer may be needed to get a good result.
The design of digital filters is a complex topic. Although filters are easily understood and calculated, the practical challenges of their design and implementation are significant and are the subject of advanced research.
== Typical design requirements ==
Typical requirements which may be considered in the design process are:
Frequency response
Phase shift or group delay
impulse response
Causal filter required?
Stable filter required?
Finite (in duration) impulse response required?
Computational complexity
Technology
=== The frequency function ===
The required frequency response is an important parameter. The steepness and complexity of the response curve determines the filter order and feasibility.
A first-order recursive filter will only have a single frequency-dependent component. This means that the slope of the frequency response is limited to 6 dB per octave. For many purposes, this is not sufficient. To achieve steeper slopes, higher-order filters are required.
In relation to the desired frequency function, there may also be an accompanying weighting function, which describes, for each frequency, how important it is that the resulting frequency function approximates the desired one.
Typical examples of frequency function are:
A low-pass filter is used to cut unwanted high-frequency signals.
A high-pass filter passes high frequencies fairly well; it is helpful as a filter to cut any unwanted low-frequency components.
A band-pass filter passes a limited range of frequencies.
A band-stop filter passes frequencies above and below a certain range. A very narrow band-stop filter is known as a notch filter.
An all-pass filter passes all frequencies equally in gain. Only the phase shift is changed, which also affects the group delay.
A differentiator has an amplitude response proportional to the frequency.
A low-shelf filter passes all frequencies, but increases or reduces frequencies below the shelf frequency by specified amount.
A high-shelf filter passes all frequencies, but increases or reduces frequencies above the shelf frequency by specified amount.
A peak EQ filter makes a peak or a dip in the frequency response, commonly used in parametric equalizers.
=== Phase and group delay ===
An all-pass filter passes through all frequencies unchanged, but changes the phase of the signal. Filters of this type can be used to equalize the group delay of recursive filters. This filter is also used in phaser effects.
A Hilbert transformer is a specific all-pass filter that passes sinusoids with unchanged amplitude but shifts each sinusoid phase by ±90°.
A fractional delay filter is an all-pass that has a specified and constant group or phase delay for all frequencies.
=== The impulse response ===
There is a direct correspondence between the filter's frequency function and its impulse response: the former is the Fourier transform of the latter. That means that any requirement on the frequency function is a requirement on the impulse response, and vice versa.
However, in certain applications it may be the filter's impulse response that is explicit and the design process then aims at producing as close an approximation as possible to the requested impulse response given all other requirements.
In some cases it may even be relevant to consider a frequency function and impulse response of the filter which are chosen independently from each other. For example, we may want both a specific frequency function of the filter and that the resulting filter have a small effective width in the signal domain as possible. The latter condition can be realized by considering a very narrow function as the wanted impulse response of the filter even though this function has no relation to the desired frequency function. The goal of the design process is then to realize a filter which tries to meet both these contradicting design goals as much as possible. An example is for high-resolution audio in which the frequency response (magnitude and phase) for steady state signals (sum of sinusoids) is the primary filter requirement, while an unconstrained impulse response may cause unexpected degradation due to time spreading of transient signals.
=== Causality ===
Any filter operating in real time (the filter response only depends on the current and past inputs) must be causal. If the design process yields a noncausal filter, the resulting filter can be made causal by introducing an appropriate time-shift (or delay).
Filters that do not operate in real time (e.g. for image processing) can be non-causal. Noncausal filters may be designed to have zero delay.
=== Stability ===
A stable filter assures that every limited input signal produces a limited filter response. A filter which does not meet this requirement may in some situations prove useless or even harmful. Certain design approaches can guarantee stability, for example by using only feed-forward circuits such as an FIR filter. On the other hand, filters based on feedback circuits have other advantages and may therefore be preferred, even if this class of filters includes unstable filters. In this case, the filters must be carefully designed in order to avoid instability.
=== Locality ===
In certain applications we have to deal with signals which contain components which can be described as local phenomena, for example pulses or steps, which have certain time duration. A consequence of applying a filter to a signal is, in intuitive terms, that the duration of the local phenomena is extended by the width of the filter. This implies that it is sometimes important to keep the width of the filter's impulse response function as short as possible.
According to the uncertainty relation of the Fourier transform, the product of the width of the filter's impulse response function and the width of its frequency function must exceed a certain constant. This means that any requirement on the filter's locality also implies a bound on its frequency function's width. Consequently, it may not be possible to simultaneously meet requirements on the locality of the filter's impulse response function as well as on its frequency function. This is a typical example of contradicting requirements.
=== Computational complexity ===
A general desire in any design is that the number of operations (additions and multiplications) needed to compute the filter response is as low as possible. In certain applications, this desire is a strict requirement, for example due to limited computational resources, limited power resources, or limited time. The last limitation is typical in real-time applications.
There are several ways in which a filter can have different computational complexity. For example, the order of a filter is more or less proportional to the number of operations. This means that by choosing a low order filter, the computation time can be reduced.
For discrete filters the computational complexity is more or less proportional to the number of filter coefficients. If the filter has many coefficients, for example in the case of multidimensional signals such as tomography data, it may be relevant to reduce the number of coefficients by removing those which are sufficiently close to zero. In multirate filters, the number of coefficients by taking advantage of its bandwidth limits, where the input signal is downsampled (e.g. to its critical frequency), and upsampled after filtering.
Another issue related to computational complexity is separability, that is, if and how a filter can be written as a convolution of two or more simpler filters. In particular, this issue is of importance for multidimensional filters, e.g., 2D filter which are used in image processing. In this case, a significant reduction in computational complexity can be obtained if the filter can be separated as the convolution of one 1D filter in the horizontal direction and one 1D filter in the vertical direction. A result of the filter design process may, e.g., be to approximate some desired filter as a separable filter or as a sum of separable filters.
=== Other considerations ===
It must also be decided how the filter is going to be implemented:
Analog filter
Analog sampled filter
Digital filter
Mechanical filter
==== Analog filters ====
The design of linear analog filters is for the most part covered in the linear filter section.
==== Digital filters ====
Digital filters are classified into one of two basic forms, according to how they respond to a unit impulse:
Finite impulse response, or FIR, filters express each output sample as a weighted sum of the last N input samples, where N is the order of the filter. FIR filters are normally non-recursive, meaning they do not use feedback and as such are inherently stable. A moving average filter or CIC filter are examples of FIR filters that are normally recursive (that use feedback). If the FIR coefficients are symmetrical (often the case), then such a filter is linear phase, so it delays signals of all frequencies equally which is important in many applications. It is also straightforward to avoid overflow in an FIR filter. The main disadvantage is that they may require significantly more processing and memory resources than cleverly designed IIR variants. FIR filters are generally easier to design than IIR filters - the Parks-McClellan filter design algorithm (based on the Remez algorithm) is one suitable method for designing quite good filters semi-automatically. (See Methodology.)
Infinite impulse response, or IIR, filters are the digital counterpart to analog filters. Such a filter contains internal state, and the output and the next internal state are determined by a linear combination of the previous inputs and outputs (in other words, they use feedback, which FIR filters normally do not). In theory, the impulse response of such a filter never dies out completely, hence the name IIR, though in practice, this is not true given the finite resolution of computer arithmetic. IIR filters normally require less computing resources than an FIR filter of similar performance. However, due to the feedback, high order IIR filters may have problems with instability, arithmetic overflow, and limit cycles, and require careful design to avoid such pitfalls. Additionally, since the phase shift is inherently a non-linear function of frequency, the time delay through such a filter is frequency-dependent, which can be a problem in many situations. 2nd order IIR filters are often called 'biquads' and a common implementation of higher order filters is to cascade biquads. A useful reference for computing biquad coefficients is the RBJ Audio EQ Cookbook.
==== Sample rate ====
Unless the sample rate is fixed by some outside constraint, selecting a suitable sample rate is an important design decision. A high rate will require more in terms of computational resources, but less in terms of anti-aliasing filters. Interference and beating with other signals in the system may also be an issue.
==== Anti-aliasing ====
For any digital filter design, it is crucial to analyze and avoid aliasing effects. Often, this is done by adding analog anti-aliasing filters at the input and output, thus avoiding any frequency component above the Nyquist frequency. The complexity (i.e., steepness) of such filters depends on the required signal-to-noise ratio and the ratio between the sampling rate and the highest frequency of the signal.
== Theoretical basis ==
Parts of the design problem relate to the fact that certain requirements are described in the frequency domain while others are expressed in the time domain and that these may conflict. For example, it is not possible to obtain a filter which has both an arbitrary impulse response and arbitrary frequency function. Other effects which refer to relations between the time and frequency domain are
The uncertainty principle between the time and frequency domains
The variance extension theorem
The asymptotic behaviour of one domain versus discontinuities in the other
=== The uncertainty principle ===
As stated by the Gabor limit, an uncertainty principle, the product of the width of the frequency function and the width of the impulse response cannot be smaller than a specific constant. This implies that if a specific frequency function is requested, corresponding to a specific frequency width, the minimum width of the filter in the signal domain is set. Vice versa, if the maximum width of the response is given, this determines the smallest possible width in the frequency. This is a typical example of contradictory requirements where the filter design process may try to find a useful compromise.
=== The variance extension theorem ===
Let
σ
s
2
{\displaystyle \sigma _{s}^{2}}
be the variance of the input signal and let
σ
f
2
{\displaystyle \sigma _{f}^{2}}
be the variance of the filter. The variance of the filter response,
σ
r
2
{\displaystyle \sigma _{r}^{2}}
, is then given by
σ
r
2
{\displaystyle \sigma _{r}^{2}}
=
σ
s
2
{\displaystyle \sigma _{s}^{2}}
+
σ
f
2
{\displaystyle \sigma _{f}^{2}}
This means that
σ
r
>
σ
f
{\displaystyle \sigma _{r}>\sigma _{f}}
and implies that the localization of various features such as pulses or steps in the filter response is limited by the filter width in the signal domain. If a precise localization is requested, we need a filter of small width in the signal domain and, via the uncertainty principle, its width in the frequency domain cannot be arbitrary small.
=== Discontinuities versus asymptotic behaviour ===
Let f(t) be a function and let
F
(
ω
)
{\displaystyle F(\omega )}
be its Fourier transform. There is a theorem which states that if the first derivative of F which is discontinuous has order
n
≥
0
{\displaystyle n\geq 0}
, then f has an asymptotic decay like
t
−
n
−
1
{\displaystyle t^{-n-1}}
.
A consequence of this theorem is that the frequency function of a filter should be as smooth as possible to allow its impulse response to have a fast decay, and thereby a short width.
== Methodology ==
One common method for designing FIR filters is the Parks-McClellan filter design algorithm, based on the Remez exchange algorithm. Here the user specifies a desired frequency response, a weighting function for errors from this response, and a filter order N. The algorithm then finds the set of N coefficients that minimize the maximum deviation from the ideal. Intuitively, this finds the filter that is as close as you can get to the desired response given that you can use only N coefficients. This method is particularly easy in practice and at least one text includes a program that takes the desired filter and N and returns the optimum coefficients. One possible drawback to filters designed this way is that they contain many small ripples in the passband(s), since such a filter minimizes the peak error.
Another method to finding a discrete FIR filter is filter optimization described in Knutsson et al., which minimizes the integral of the square of the error, instead of its maximum value. In its basic form this approach requires that an ideal frequency function of the filter
F
I
(
ω
)
{\displaystyle F_{I}(\omega )}
is specified together with a frequency weighting function
W
(
ω
)
{\displaystyle W(\omega )}
and set of coordinates
x
k
{\displaystyle x_{k}}
in the signal domain where the filter coefficients are located.
An error function
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
is defined as
ε
=
‖
W
⋅
(
F
I
−
F
{
f
}
)
‖
2
{\displaystyle \varepsilon =\|W\cdot (F_{I}-{\mathcal {F}}\{f\})\|^{2}}
where
f
(
x
)
{\displaystyle f(x)}
is the discrete filter and
F
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}
is the discrete-time Fourier transform defined on the specified set of coordinates. The norm used here is, formally, the usual norm on
L
2
{\displaystyle L^{2}}
spaces. This means that
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
measures the deviation between the requested frequency function of the filter,
F
I
{\displaystyle F_{I}}
, and the actual frequency function of the realized filter,
F
{
f
}
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}\{f\}}
. However, the deviation is also subject to the weighting function
W
{\displaystyle W}
before the error function is computed.
Once the error function is established, the optimal filter is given by the coefficients
f
(
x
)
{\displaystyle f(x)}
which minimize
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
. This can be done by solving the corresponding least squares problem. In practice, the
L
2
{\displaystyle L^{2}}
norm has to be approximated by means of a suitable sum over discrete points in the frequency domain. In general, however, these points should be significantly more than the number of coefficients in the signal domain to obtain a useful approximation.
=== Simultaneous optimization in both domains ===
The previous method can be extended to include an additional error term related to a desired filter impulse response in the signal domain, with a corresponding weighting function. The ideal impulse response can be chosen independently of the ideal frequency function and is in practice used to limit the effective width and to remove ringing effects of the resulting filter in the signal domain. This is done by choosing a narrow ideal filter impulse response function, e.g., an impulse, and a weighting function which grows fast with the distance from the origin, e.g., the distance squared. The optimal filter can still be calculated by solving a simple least squares problem and the resulting filter is then a "compromise" which has a total optimal fit to the ideal functions in both domains. An important parameter is the relative strength of the two weighting functions which determines in which domain it is more important to have a good fit relative to the ideal function.
== See also ==
Digital filter
Prototype filter
Finite impulse response#Filter design
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
A. Antoniou (1993). Digital Filters: Analysis, Design, and Applications (2 ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-07-002117-4.
A. Antoniou (2006). Digital Signal Processing: Signals, Systems, and Filters. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-07-145424-7.
S.W.A. Bergen; A. Antoniou (2005). "Design of Nonrecursive Digital Filters Using the Ultraspherical Window Function". EURASIP Journal on Applied Signal Processing. 2005 (12): 1910. Bibcode:2005EJASP2005...44B. doi:10.1155/ASP.2005.1910.
A.G. Deczky (October 1972). "Synthesis of Recursive Digital Filters Using the Minimum p-Error Criterion". IEEE Trans. Audio Electroacoustics. AU-20 (4): 257–263. doi:10.1109/TAU.1972.1162392.
J.K. Kaiser (1974). "Nonrecursive Digital Filter Design Using the I0-sinh Window Function". Proc. 1974 IEEE Int. Symp. Circuit Theory (ISCAS74). San Francisco, CA. pp. 20–23.
H. Knutsson; M. Andersson; J. Wiklund (June 1999). "Advanced Filter Design". Proc. Scandinavian Symposium on Image Analysis, Kangerlussuaq, Greenland.
S.K. Mitra (1998). Digital Signal Processing: A Computer-Based Approach. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-07-286546-2.
A.V. Oppenheim; R.W. Schafer; J.R. Buck (1999). Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN 978-0-13-754920-7.
T.W. Parks; J.H. McClellan (March 1972). "Chebyshev Approximation for Nonrecursive Digital Filters with Linear Phase". IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory. CT-19 (2): 189–194. doi:10.1109/TCT.1972.1083419.
L.R. Rabiner; J.H. McClellan; T.W. Parks (April 1975). "FIR Digital Filter Design Techniques Using Weighted Chebyshev Approximation". Proc. IEEE. 63 (4): 595–610. doi:10.1109/PROC.1975.9794. S2CID 12579115.
== External links ==
An extensive list of filter design articles and software at Circuit Sage
A list of digital filter design software at dspGuru
Analog Filter Design Demystified
Yehar's digital sound processing tutorial for the braindead! This paper explains simply (between others topics) filters design theory and give some examples | Wikipedia/Filter_design |
Intelligence-based design is the purposeful manipulation of the built-environment to effectively engage humans in an essential manner through complex organized information. Intelligence-based theory evidences the conterminous relationship between mind and matter, i.e. the direct neurological evaluations of surface, structure, pattern, texture and form. Intelligence-based theory maintains that our sense of well-being is established through neuro-engagement with the physical world at the deepest level common to all people i.e. "Innate Intelligence."
These precursory readings of the physical environment represent an evolved set of information processing skills that the human mind has developed over millennia through direct lived experience. This physiological engagement with the world operates in a more immediate sense than the summary events of applied meaning or intellectual speculation. It is through this direct neurological engagement that humans connect more fully with the world. Many of mankind's early religious associations with physical structures were informed by an intuitive understanding that structure and materials speak to our deeper self, i.e. the human spirit, the soul. Intelligence based theory reveals this effectual dimension of the built-environment and its relationship to human cognitive development, mental acuity, perceptual awareness, spirituality, and sense of well-being. It is within this realm that the mind's eye connects, or fails to connect, with the world outside. The degree of neuro-connectivity which occurs at these intervals serves to render the built-environment either intelligible or un-intelligible. The study and theory of this occurrence is known as "Intelligence-based design".
== Antecedents ==
Several distinct strands of design thinking, in parallel development, lead towards Intelligence-based design. Christopher Alexander contributed early on to the scientific approach to design, by proposing a theory of design in his book Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Those were the years when Artificial Intelligence was being developed by Herbert A. Simon, and Alexander was part of that movement. His later work A Pattern Language, although written for architects and urbanists, was picked up by the software community and used as a combinatorial and organizational rubric for software complexity, especially Design patterns (computer science). Alexander's most recent work The Nature of Order continues by building up a framework for design that relies upon natural and biological structures. Entirely separate from this, E. O. Wilson introduced the Biophilia hypothesis to describe the affinity of humans to other living structures, and to conjecture our innate need for such a connection. This topic was later investigated by Stephen R. Kellert and others, and applied to the design of the artificial environment. The third and independent component of the theory is the recent developments in mobile robotics by Rodney Brooks, where a breakthrough occurred by largely dispensing with internal memory. The practical concept of "Intelligence without representation" otherwise known as the Subsumption architecture and Behavior-based robotics introduced by Brooks suggests a parallel with the way human beings interact with, and design their own environment. These notions are brought together in Intelligence-based design, which is a topic currently under investigation for design applications in both architecture and urbanism.
== References ==
Stephen R. Kellert, Judith Heerwagen, and Martin Mador, Editors, BIOPHILIC DESIGN: THE THEORY, SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF BRINGING BUILDINGS TO LIFE, John Wiley, New York, 2008.
Masden, K. G. II, “Architecture, Nature, and Human Intelligence,” The History of Mundaneum 1999-2009, IUCN/International Union for the Conservation of Nature & MUNDANEUM, Spanish versions, 2009.
Salingaros, Nikos A., & Masden, K. G. II, “Intelligence-Based Design: A Sustainable Foundation for Architectural Education World Wide,” International Journal of Architectural Research, MIT, Vol. 2, Issue 1, 2008, pp. 129–188.
Salingaros, Nikos A., & Masden, K. G. II, “Restructuring 21st Century Architecture Through Human Intelligence,” Inaugural issue of International Journal of Architectural Research, MIT, Vol.1, Issue 1, 2007, pp. 36–52. | Wikipedia/Intelligence-based_design |
Sound design is the art and practice of creating auditory elements of media. It involves specifying, acquiring and creating audio using production techniques and equipment or software. It is employed in a variety of disciplines including filmmaking, television production, video game development, theatre, sound recording and reproduction, live performance, sound art, post-production, radio, new media and musical instrument development. Sound design commonly involves performing (see e.g. Foley) and editing of previously composed or recorded audio, such as sound effects and dialogue for the purposes of the medium, but it can also involve creating sounds from scratch through synthesizers. A sound designer is one who practices sound design.
== History ==
The use of sound to evoke emotion, reflect mood and underscore actions in plays and dances began in prehistoric times when it was used in religious practices for healing or recreation. In ancient Japan, theatrical events called kagura were performed in Shinto shrines with music and dance.
Plays were performed in medieval times in a form of theatre called Commedia dell'arte, which used music and sound effects to enhance performances. The use of music and sound in the Elizabethan Theatre followed, in which music and sound effects were produced off-stage using devices such as bells, whistles, and horns. Cues would be written in the script for music and sound effects to be played at the appropriate time.
Italian composer Luigi Russolo built mechanical sound-making devices, called "intonarumori," for futurist theatrical and music performances starting around 1913. These devices were meant to simulate natural and man-made sounds, such as trains or bombs. Russolo's treatise, The Art of Noises, is one of the earliest written documents on the use of abstract noise in the theatre. After his death, his intonarumori' were used in more conventional theatre performances to create realistic sound effects.
=== Recorded sound ===
Possibly the first use of recorded sound in the theatre was a phonograph playing a baby's cry in a London theatre in 1890. Sixteen years later, Herbert Beerbohm Tree used recordings in his London production of Stephen Phillips’ tragedy NERO. The event is marked in the Theatre Magazine (1906) with two photographs; one showing a musician blowing a bugle into a large horn attached to a disc recorder, the other with an actor recording the agonizing shrieks and groans of the tortured martyrs. The article states: “these sounds are all realistically reproduced by the gramophone”. As cited by Bertolt Brecht, there was a play about Rasputin written in (1927) by Alexej Tolstoi and directed by Erwin Piscator that included a recording of Lenin's voice. Whilst the term "sound designer" was not yet in use, some stage managers specialised as "effects men", creating and performing offstage sound effects using a mix of vocal mimicry, mechanical and electrical contraptions and gramophone records. A great deal of care and attention was paid to the construction and performance of these effects, both naturalistic and abstract. Over the twentieth century recorded sound effects began to replace live sound effects, though often it was the stage manager's duty to find the sound effects, and an electrician played the recordings during performances.
Between 1980 and 1988, Charlie Richmond, USITT's first Sound Design Commissioner, oversaw efforts of their Sound Design Commission to define the duties, responsibilities, standards and procedures expected of a theatre sound designer in North America. He summarized his conclusions in a document which, although somewhat dated, provides a succinct record of what was then expected. It was subsequently provided to the ADC and David Goodman at the Florida USA local when they both planned to represent sound designers in the 1990s.
=== Digital technology ===
MIDI and digital audio technology have contributed to the evolution of sound production techniques in the 1980s and 1990s. Digital audio workstations (DAW) and a variety of digital signal processing algorithms applied in them allow more complicated soundtracks with more tracks and auditory effects to be realized. Features such as unlimited undo and sample-level editing allows fine control over the soundtracks.
In theatre sound, features of computerized theatre sound design systems have also been recognized as being essential for live show control systems at Walt Disney World and, as a result, Disney utilized systems of that type to control many facilities at their Disney-MGM Studios theme park, which opened in 1989. These features were incorporated into the MIDI Show Control (MSC) specification, an open communications protocol for interacting with diverse devices. The first show to fully utilize the MSC specification was the Magic Kingdom Parade at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom in September 1991.
The rise of interest in game audio has also brought more advanced interactive audio tools that are also accessible without a background in computer programming. Some of such software tools (termed "implementation tools" or "audio engines") feature a workflow that's similar to that in more conventional DAW programs and can also allow the sound production personnel to undertake some of the more creative interactive sound tasks (that are considered to be part of sound design for computer applications) that previously would have required a computer programmer. Interactive applications have also given rise to many techniques in "dynamic audio" which loosely means sound that's "parametrically" adjusted during the program's run-time. This allows for a broader expression in sounds, more similar to that in films, because this way the sound designer can e.g. create footstep sounds that vary in a believable and non-repeating way and that also corresponds to what's seen in the picture. The digital audio workstation cannot directly "communicate" with game engines, because the game's events often occur in an unpredictable order, whereas traditional digital audio workstations as well as so called linear media (TV, film etc.) have everything occur in the same order every time the production is run. Especially, games have also brought in dynamic or adaptive mixing.
The World Wide Web has greatly enhanced the ability of sound designers to acquire source material quickly, easily and cheaply. Nowadays, a designer can preview and download crisper, more "believable" sounds as opposed to toiling through time- and budget-draining "shot-in-the-dark" searches through record stores, libraries and "the grapevine" for (often) inferior recordings. In addition, software innovation has enabled sound designers to take more of a DIY (or "do-it-yourself") approach. From the comfort of their home and at any hour, they can simply use a computer, speakers and headphones rather than renting (or buying) costly equipment or studio space and time for editing and mixing. This provides for faster creation and negotiation with the director.
== Applications ==
=== Film ===
In motion picture production, a Sound Editor/Designer is a member of a film crew responsible for the entirety or some specific parts of a film's soundtrack. In the American film industry, the title Sound Designer is not controlled by any professional organization, unlike titles such as Director or Screenwriter.
The terms sound design and sound designer began to be used in the motion picture industry in 1969. At that time, The title of Sound Designer was first granted to Walter Murch by Francis Ford Coppola in recognition for Murch's contributions to the film The Rain People. The original meaning of the title Sound Designer, as established by Coppola and Murch, was "an individual ultimately responsible for all aspects of a film's audio track, from the dialogue and sound effects recording to the re-recording (mix) of the final track". The term sound designer has replaced monikers like supervising sound editor or re-recording mixer for the same position: the head designer of the final sound track. Editors and mixers like Murray Spivack (King Kong), George Groves (The Jazz Singer), James G. Stewart (Citizen Kane), and Carl Faulkner (Journey to the Center of the Earth) served in this capacity during Hollywood's studio era, and are generally considered to be sound designers by a different name.
The advantage of calling oneself a sound designer beginning in later decades was two-fold. It strategically allowed for a single person to work as both an editor and mixer on a film without running into issues pertaining to the jurisdictions of editors and mixers, as outlined by their respective unions. Additionally, it was a rhetorical move that legitimised the field of post-production sound at a time when studios were downsizing their sound departments, and when producers were routinely skimping on budgets and salaries for sound editors and mixers. In so doing, it allowed those who called themselves sound designers to compete for contract work and to negotiate higher salaries. The position of Sound Designer therefore emerged in a manner similar to that of Production Designer, which was created in the 1930s when William Cameron Menzies made revolutionary contributions to the craft of art direction in the making of Gone with the Wind.
The audio production team is a principal member of the production staff, with creative output comparable to that of the film editor and director of photography. Several factors have led to the promotion of audio production to this level, when previously it was considered subordinate to other parts of film:
Cinema sound systems became capable of high-fidelity reproduction, particularly after the adoption of Dolby Stereo. Before stereo soundtracks, film sound was of such low fidelity that only the dialogue and occasional sound effects were practical. These sound systems were originally devised as gimmicks to increase theater attendance, but their widespread implementation created a content vacuum that had to be filled by competent professionals. Dolby's immersive Dolby Atmos format, introduced in 2012, provides the sound team with 128 tracks of audio that can be assigned to a 7.1.2 bed that utilizes two overhead channels, leaving 118 tracks for audio objects that can be positioned around the theater independent of the sound bed. Object positions are informed by metadata that places them based on x,y,z coordinates and the number of speakers available in the room. This immersive sound format expands creative opportunities for the use of sound beyond what was achievable with older 5.1 and 7.1 surround sound systems. The greater dynamic range of the new systems, coupled with the ability to produce sounds at the sides, behind, or above the audience, provided the audio post-production team new opportunities for creative expression in film sound.
Some directors were interested in realizing the new potential of the medium. A new generation of filmmakers, the so-called "Easy Riders and Raging Bulls"—Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, and others—were aware of the creative potential of sound and wanted to use it.
Filmmakers were inspired by the popular music of the era. Concept albums of groups such as Pink Floyd and The Beatles suggested new modes of storytelling and creative techniques that could be adapted to motion pictures.
New filmmakers made their early films outside the Hollywood establishment, away from the influence of film labor unions and the then rapidly dissipating studio system.
The contemporary title of sound designer can be compared with the more traditional title of supervising sound editor; many sound designers use both titles interchangeably. The role of supervising sound editor, or sound supervisor, developed in parallel with the role of sound designer. The demand for more sophisticated soundtracks was felt both inside and outside Hollywood, and the supervising sound editor became the head of the large sound department, with a staff of dozens of sound editors, that was required to realize a complete sound job with a fast turnaround.
=== Theatre ===
Sound design, as a distinct discipline, is one of the youngest fields in stagecraft, second only to the use of projection and other multimedia displays, although the ideas and techniques of sound design have been around almost since theatre started. Dan Dugan, working with three stereo tape decks routed to ten loudspeaker zones during the 1968–69 season of American Conservatory Theater (ACT) in San Francisco, was the first person in the USA to be called a sound designer.
A theatre sound designer is responsible for everything the audience hears in the performance space, including music, sound effects, sonic textures, and soundscapes. These elements are created by the sound designer, or sourced from other sound professionals, such as a composer in the case of music. Pre-recorded music must be licensed from a legal entity that represents the artist's work. This can be the artist themselves, a publisher, record label, performing rights organization or music licensing company. The theatre sound designer is also in charge of choosing and installing the sound system —speakers, sound desks, interfaces and convertors, playout/cueing software, microphones, radio mics, foldback, cables, computers, and outboard equipment like FX units and dynamics processors.
Modern audio technology has enabled theatre sound designers to produce flexible, complex, and inexpensive designs that can be easily integrated into live performance. The influence of film and television on playwriting is seeing plays being written increasingly with shorter scenes, which is difficult to achieve with scenery but easily conveyed with sound. The development of film sound design is giving writers and directors higher expectations and knowledge of sound design. Consequently, theatre sound design is widespread and accomplished sound designers commonly establish long-term collaborations with directors.
==== Musicals ====
Sound design for musicals often focuses on the design and implementation of a sound reinforcement system that will fulfill the needs of the production. If a sound system is already installed in the performance venue, it is the sound designer's job to tune the system for the best use for a particular production. Sound system tuning employs various methods including equalization, delay, volume, speaker and microphone placement, and in some cases, the addition of new equipment. In conjunction with the director and musical director, if any, the sound reinforcement designer determines the use and placement of microphones for actors and musicians. The sound reinforcement designer ensures that the performance can be heard and understood by everyone in the audience, regardless of the shape, size or acoustics of the venue, and that performers can hear everything needed to enable them to do their jobs. While sound design for a musical largely focuses on the artistic merits of sound reinforcement, many musicals, such as Into the Woods also require significant sound scores (see Sound Design for Plays). Sound Reinforcement Design was recognized by the American Theatre Wing's Tony Awards with the Tony Award for Best Sound Design of a Musical until the 2014–15 season, later reinstating in the 2017–18 season.
==== Plays ====
Sound design for plays often involves the selection of music and sounds (sound score) for a production based on intimate familiarity with the play, and the design, installation, calibration and utilization of the sound system that reproduces the sound score. The sound designer for a play and the production's director work together to decide the themes and emotions to be explored. Based on this, the sound designer for plays, in collaboration with the director and possibly the composer, decides upon the sounds that will be used to create the desired moods. In some productions, the sound designer might also be hired to compose music for the play. The sound designer and the director usually work together to "spot" the cues in the play (i.e., decide when and where sound will be used in the play). Some productions might use music only during scene changes, whilst others might use sound effects. Likewise, a scene might be underscored with music, sound effects or abstract sounds that exist somewhere between the two. Some sound designers are accomplished composers, writing and producing music for productions as well as designing sound. Many sound designs for plays also require significant sound reinforcement (see Sound Design for Musicals). Sound Design for plays was recognized by the American Theatre Wing's Tony Awards with the Tony Award for Best Sound Design of a Play until the 2014–15 season, later reinstating the award in the 2017–18 season.
==== Professional organizations ====
Theatrical Sound Designers and Composers Association (TSDCA)
The Association for Sound Design and Production is a charity representing theatre sound designers and engineers in the UK.
United Scenic Artists (USA) Local USA 829, which is integrated within IATSE, represents theatrical sound designers in the United States.
Theatrical Sound Designers in English Canada are represented by the Associated Designers of Canada (ADC), and in Québec by l'Association des professionnels des arts du Québec (APASQ).
=== Music ===
In the contemporary music business, especially in the production of rock music, ambient music, progressive rock, and similar genres, the record producer and recording engineer play important roles in the creation of the overall sound (or soundscape) of a recording, and less often, of a live performance. A record producer is responsible for extracting the best performance possible from the musicians and for making both musical and technical decisions about the instrumental timbres, arrangements, etc. On some, particularly more electronic music projects, artists and producers in more conventional genres have sometimes sourced additional help from artists often credited as "sound designers", to contribute specific auditory effects, ambiences etc. to the production. These people are usually more versed in e.g. electronic music composition and synthesizers than the other musicians on board.
In the application of electroacoustic techniques (e.g. binaural sound) and sound synthesis for contemporary music or film music, a sound designer (often also an electronic musician) sometimes refers to an artist who works alongside a composer to realize the more electronic aspects of a musical production. This is because sometimes there exists a difference in interests between composers and electronic musicians or sound designers. The latter specialises in electronic music techniques, such as sequencing and synthesizers, but the former is more experienced in writing music in a variety of genres. Since electronic music itself is quite broad in techniques and often separate from techniques applied in other genres, this kind of collaboration can be seen as natural and beneficial.
Notable examples of (recognized) sound design in music are the contributions of Michael Brook to the U2 album The Joshua Tree, George Massenburg to the Jennifer Warnes album Famous Blue Raincoat, Chris Thomas to the Pink Floyd album The Dark Side of the Moon, and Brian Eno to the Paul Simon album Surprise.
In 1974, Suzanne Ciani started her own production company, Ciani/Musica. Inc., which became the #1 sound design music house in New York.
=== Fashion ===
In fashion shows, the sound designer often works with the artistic director to create an atmosphere fitting the theme of a collection, commercial campaign or event.
=== Computer applications and other applications ===
Sound is widely used in a variety of human–computer interfaces, in computer games and video games. There are a few extra requirements for sound production for computer applications, including re-usability, interactivity and low memory and CPU usage. For example, most computational resources are usually devoted to graphics. Audio production should account for computational limits for sound playback with audio compression or voice allocating systems.
Sound design for video games requires proficient knowledge of audio recording and editing using a digital audio workstation, and an understanding of game audio integration using audio engine software, audio authoring tools, or middleware to integrate audio into the game engine. Audio middleware is a third-party toolset that sits between the game engine and the audio hardware.
Interactivity with computer sound can involve using a variety of playback systems or logic, using tools that allow the production of interactive sound (e.g. Max/MSP, Wwise). Implementation might require software or electrical engineering of the systems that modify sound or process user input. In interactive applications, a sound designer often collaborates with an engineer (e.g. a sound programmer) who's concerned with designing the playback systems and their efficiency.
== Awards ==
Sound designers have been recognized by awards organizations for some time, and new awards have emerged more recently in response to advances in sound design technology and quality. The Motion Picture Sound Editors and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences recognizes the finest or most aesthetic sound design for a film with the Golden Reel Awards for Sound Editing in the film, broadcast, and game industries, and the Academy Award for Best Sound respectively. In 2021, the 93rd Academy Awards merged Best Sound Editing and Best Sound Mixing into one general Best Sound category. In 2007, the Tony Award for Best Sound Design was created to honor the best sound design in American theatre on Broadway.
North American theatrical award organizations that recognize sound designers include these:
Dora Mavor Moore Awards
Drama Desk Awards
Helen Hayes Awards
Obie Awards
Joseph Jefferson Awards
Major British award organizations include the Olivier Awards. The Tony Awards retired the awards for Sound Design as of the 2014–2015 season, then reinstated the categories in the 2017–18 season.
== See also ==
Audio engineering
Berberian Sound Studio
Crash box
Director of audiography
List of sound designers
Musique concrète
IEZA Framework – a framework for conceptual game sound design
Video production – in connection with short music films
Sound logo
== References ==
== External links ==
FilmSound.org: A Learning Space dedicated to the Art of Sound Design
Kai's Theater Sound Hand Book
Association of Sound Designers
sounDesign: online publication about Sound Communication | Wikipedia/Sound_design |
Systems-oriented design (SOD) uses system thinking in order to capture the complexity of systems addressed in design practice. The main mission of SOD is to build the designers' own interpretation and implementation of systems thinking. SOD aims at enabling systems thinking to fully benefit from design thinking and practice and design thinking and practice to fully benefit from systems thinking. SOD addresses design for human activity systems and can be applied to any kind of design problem ranging from product design and interaction design through architecture to decision-making processes and policy design.
SOD is a variation in the pluralistic field of Systemic Design. It is one of the most practice and design-oriented versions of relating and merging systems thinking and design.
== Background ==
Design is getting more and more complex for several reasons, for example, due to globalisation, need for sustainability, and the introduction of new technology and increased use of automation. Many of the challenges designers meet today can be considered wicked problems. The characteristics of a wicked problem include that there is no definitive formulation of the problem and that the solutions are never true or false but rather better or worse. A traditional problem-solving approach is not sufficient in addressing for such design problems. SOD is an approach that addresses the challenges the designer faces when working with complex systems and wicked problems, providing tools and techniques which make it easier for the designer to grasp the complexity of the problem at hand. With a systems-oriented approach towards design, the designer acknowledges that the starting point for the design process is constantly moving and that "every implemented solution is consequential. It leaves "traces" that cannot be undone." (see Rittel and Webber's 5th property of wicked problems).
Designers are well suited to work with complexity and wicked problems for several reasons:
They are trained and experienced in creative thinking and idea generation;
They know how to synthesise solutions from complex and fuzzy material;
Designers can visualise, which is an enormous advantage for understanding and communicating complexity.
SOD emphasises these abilities as central and seeks to further train the designer in systems thinking and systems practice as a skill and an art.
== History ==
SOD was developed and defined over time by Birger Ragnvald Sevaldson and colleagues at the Oslo School of Architecture and Design (AHO). Though there were earlier traces, it started in 2006 with a studio course for master students called "The Challenge of Complexity" " named after a conference in Finland in the early 1990s.
The initiative was purely design-driven, and it implied using large graphic maps as visual thinking tools and embracing very complex visualisations of systems. These were around 2008, dubbed "Gigamaps" by Sevaldson. In 2012, Sevaldson organised a seminar called "Relating Systems Thinking and Design" (RSD). A group from the international design community was invited and presented at the seminar.
After the seminar, this group got together in the loft of the Savoy hotel and there founded the informal network that later was called Systemic Design Research Network.
RSD developed into an annual conference with the first three conferences at AHO. In 2013, The emerging new movement of systems thinking in design shifted from being called Systems Oriented Design to Systemic Design. Sevaldson initiated this change to, on the one hand, maintain the development of SOD into a designerly approach while, on the other hand, allowing the bigger field to grow pluralistically into different variations. Harold Nelson suggested the name Systemic Design.
This allowed SOD to develop into a more designerly way where practice and praxeology became ever more important. Parallel to this, SOD was clarifying its theoretical bases by relating to diverse historical systems theories but, most importantly, to Soft Systems and Critical Systems Thinking. Especially Gerald Midgley became important. Also the crystallisation of SOD developed through the publication of the book mentioned above in 2022.
Through the years, the collaboration with Andreas Wettre, a business consultant, becoming a full-time employee at AHO has been crucial. He brought in organisational perspectives amongst others Stacey
== Influences ==
Systems-oriented design builds on systems theory and systems thinking to develop practices for addressing complexity in design. There are many of the classical first and second-wave systems theorists that have been influential that won't be mentioned here. Soft systems methodology (SSM) was influential, acknowledging conflicting worldviews and people's purposeful actions, and a systems view on creativity. However, more important, SOD is inspired by critical systems thinking and approaches systems theories in an eclectic way transforming the thoughts of the different theories to fit the design process. The design disciplines build on their own traditions and have a certain way of working with problems, often referred to as design thinking or the design way. Design thinking is a creative process based on the "building up" of ideas. This style of thinking is one of the advantages of the designer and is the reason why simply employing one of the existing systems approaches into design, like, for example, systems engineering, is not found sufficient by the advocates of SOD.
Compared with other systems approaches, SOD is less concerned with hierarchies and borders of systems, modelling and feedback loops, and more focused on the whole fields of relations and patterns of interactions. S.O.D. seeks richness rather than simplification of the complex systems.
== Systems thinking in the design process ==
Methods and techniques from other disciplines are used to understand the complexity of the system, including for example, ethnographic studies, risk analysis, and scenario thinking. Methods and concepts unique to SOD include, for example, the Rich Design Space, Gigamapping, and Incubation Techniques.
Incubation is one of the 4 proposed stages of creativity: preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification.
== Further development and applications ==
The concept of systems-oriented design was initially proposed by professor Birger Sevaldson at the Oslo School of Architecture and Design (AHO) . The SOD approach is currently under development through teaching and research projects, as well as through the work of design practitioners. AHO provides Master courses in Systems Oriented Design each term as part of their Industrial Design program. In these courses, design students are trained in using the tools and techniques of SOD in projects with outside partners. Research projects in systems-oriented design are carried out at the Centre for Design Research at AHO in order to develop the concept, methods and tools further. In 2016 the project Systemic Approach to Architectural Performance was announced as an institutional cooperation between the Faculty of Art and Architecture at the Technical University of Liberec and the Oslo School of Architecture and Design. Its mission is to link the methodology of systems-oriented design with performance-oriented architecture on the case study Marie Davidova's project Wood as a Primary Medium to Architectural Performance.
== See also ==
Creative problem solving process
Creativity techniques
Systems thinking
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Systems Oriented Design (website provided by the Oslo School of Architecture and Design) | Wikipedia/Systems-oriented_design |
Alibre Design is a 3D parametric computer aided design (3D CAD) software suite developed by Alibre for Microsoft Windows. Available in fifteen languages. Alibre is a brand of Alibre, LLC, a company based in Texas.
== About ==
Founded in 1997, Alibre began working closely with Microsoft in 1998 to develop the first web-based collaborative 3D design environment. The environment operated on a web-browser and allowed multiple users to work on the same design simultaneously. Following this development, Alibre received a patent for "System and method for solid modeling," protecting their technologies for generating 3D geometries across a high bandwidth, distributed network. Alibre's purported aim in this development was to give businesses a cost-effective way to geographically distribute teams by enabling networked design environments without incurring large capital expenditures.
Alibre Design is based on the ACIS modeling kernel from Spatial, and a 2D and 3D constraint solving system from Siemens PLM, among other technologies. It allows users to create modeled representations of concepts to facilitate design and manufacturing, with 2D and 3D functionality. Parametric solid modeling is driven by intelligent dimensions, meaning that the software automatically recomputes designs to accommodate changes to a single dimension, thereby maintaining the design's dimensional accuracy without necessitating manual adjustment of each dimension.
== Products and features ==
Alibre's products fall into two categories intended for different users and applications. Alibre Design Professional has a basic set of features intended for users to get started with CAD, whereas Alibre Design Expert is a 3D and 2D modeling application suitable or intended for professional use.
=== Design tools ===
Some of Alibre's key design tools include:
Part modeling to define the geometry of individual components using a variety of powerful parametric feature creation tools
Sheet metal modeling to define the geometry of individual components created from sheeted materials, such as sheet metal. Software adheres to the real-world constraints of sheeted goods
Assembly modeling to define relationships between individual components for final assembled designs. Software analyzes the relation of components to assess real-word constraints and conditions, such as tangency or alignment
Exploded assembly view creation and publishing animated sequences to 3D PDF
Surface modeling to create organic surface models
2D drafting to convert previously created 3D designs into 2D engineering drawings for manufacturing, patents and design communication. Extensive detailing tools available for creating professional drawings meeting major engineering drawing standards
Bill of Material generation and inclusion in 2D drawings
Integrated scripting environment using Python language
=== Data management ===
Versioning and rollback
Search
Where-used
Extensible metadata
Local or LAN installation
=== Technical support and training ===
Alibre includes free training through a built-in help section in the software. Free training is also available via online tutorials and videos.
To get direct technical assistance for Alibre products, customers must buy a software maintenance plan, which gives access to support via telephone or online ticket system.
== Compatibility ==
=== Supported file formats for import ===
STEP AP203/214/242 (*.stp, *.step, *.ste)
IGES (*.igs)
ACIS (*.sat)
Parasolid (*.x_t, *.x_b, *.xmt_txt, *xmt_bin)
Rhino (*.3dm)
AutoCAD DXF (*.dxf), DWG (*.dwg)
SolidWorks Files (*.sldprt, *.sldasm)
Autodesk Inventor (*.ipt, *.iam)
Pro/Engineer (*.prt, *.asm, *.xpr, *.xas)
Catia (*.CATPart, *.CATProduct)
Solid Edge (*.par, *.psm, *.asm)
NX (*.prt)
Various image formats (bmp, dib, rle, gif, tif, tiff, png, jpg, jpeg, jfif, emf, wmf)
=== Supported file formats for export ===
STEP AP203/214/242 (*.stp, *.step, *.ste)
IGES (*.igs)
ACIS (*.sat)
Parasolid (*.x_t)
Stereolithography (*.stl)
DXF (*.dxf), DWG (*.dwg)
PDF and 3D PDF
SolidWorks (*.sldprt, *.sldasm)
JT (Jupiter Tessellation) Visualization format
Luxion KeyShot (*.bip)
OBJ (*.obj) - via an add-on in Alibre Design Expert
== See also ==
Comparison of computer-aided design editors
== References ==
== Further reading ==
King, Nelson (August 2000). "Alibre Puts Design Online". PC Magazine. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
Rosato, D.V. (2003). Plastics Engineered Product Design. Elsevier Science. pp. 353–. ISBN 978-0-08-051407-9. Retrieved June 26, 2016. (subscription required)
"(Can't access title)". Volume 79, Issues 18-23. Machine Design. 2007. p. 12. Retrieved 26 June 2016. (subscription required)
Madsen, D.A.; Madsen, D.P. (2012). Engineering Drawing and Design. Cengage Learning. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-111-30957-2. Retrieved June 26, 2016. | Wikipedia/Alibre_Design |
Design for excellence (DfX or DFX) is a term and abbreviation used interchangeably in the existing literature, where the X in design for X is a variable which can have one of many possible values. In many fields (e.g., very-large-scale integration (VLSI) and nanoelectronics) X may represent several traits or features including: manufacturability, power, variability, cost, yield, or reliability. This gives rise to the terms design for manufacturability (DfM, DFM), design for inspection (DFI), design for variability (DfV), design for cost (DfC). Similarly, other disciplines may associate other traits, attributes, or objectives for X.
Under the label design for X, a wide set of specific design guidelines are summarized. Each design guideline addresses a given issue that is caused by, or affects the traits of, a product. The design guidelines usually propose an approach and corresponding methods that may help to generate and apply technical knowledge to control, improve, or even invent particular traits of a product. From a knowledge-based view, the design guideline represents an explicit form of procedural or knowing-how-to knowledge. However, two problems are prevalent. First, this explicit knowledge (i.e. the design guidelines) were transformed from a tacit form of knowledge (i.e., by experienced engineers, or other specialists). Thus, it is not granted that a freshman or someone who is outside the subject area will comprehend this generated explicit knowledge. This is because it still contains embedded fractions of knowledge or respectively include non-obvious assumptions, also called context-dependency (see e.g. Doz and Santos, 1997:16–18). Second, the traits of a product are likely to exceed the knowledge base of one human. There exists a wide range of specialized fields of engineering, and considering the whole life cycle of a product will require non-engineering expertise. For this purpose, examples of design guidelines are listed in the following.
== Rules, guidelines, and methodologies along the product life cycle ==
DfX methodologies address different issues that may occur in one or more phase of a product life cycle:
Development phase
Production phase
Use phase
Disposal phase
Each phase is explained with two dichotomous categories of tangible products to show differences in prioritizing design issues in certain product life cycle phases:
Consumer durables
Capital goods
Non-durables that are consumed physically when used, e.g. chocolate or lubricants, are not discussed. There also exist a wide range of other classifications because products are either (a) goods, (b) service, or (c) both (see OECD and Eurostat, 2005:48). Thus, one can also refer to whole product, augmented product, or extended product. Also the business unit strategy of a firm are ignored, even though it significantly influences priority-setting in design.
=== Development phase ===
Design rules
Basic rules of embodiment design: clarity, simplicity, safety (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 205–236)
Organizational process
Design for short time to market (Bralla, 1996: 255–266)
System design, testing & validation
Design for reliability (Bralla, 1996: 165–181), Synonyms: reliability engineering (VDI4001-4010)
Design for test
Design for safety (Bralla, 1996: 195–210; VDI2244); Synonyms: safety engineering, safe-life design
Design for quality (Bralla, 1996: 149–164; VDI2247), Synonyms: quality engineering
Design against corrosion damage (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 294–304)
Design for minimum risk (Pahl and Beitz, 1996:373–380)
=== Production-operations phase ===
Design rules
Design to cost (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 467–494; VDI2234; VDI 2235), see Target costing, Value engineering
Design to standards (Pahl and Beitz, 1996:349–356), see Interchangeable parts, product modularity, product architecture, product platform
Design Guidelines
Design for assembly (Bralla, 1996: 127–136), (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 340–349)
Design for inspection (Hitchens Carl (2014) Guide to Engineering Metrology)
Design for manufacturability (Bralla, 1996: 137–148), (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 317–340)
Design for logistics, design for postponement (see Delayed differentiation)
Specific situations
Design for electronic assemblies (Bralla, 1996: 267–279)
Design for low-quantity production (Bralla, 1996: 280–288)
==== Design rules ====
Design to cost and design to standards serves cost reduction in production operations, or respectively supply chain operations. Except for luxury goods or brands (e.g., Swarovski crystals, Haute couture fashion, etc.), most goods, even exclusive products, rely on cost reduction, if these are mass produced. The same is valid for the functional production strategy of mass customization. Through engineering design physical interfaces between a) parts or components or assemblies of the product and b) the manufacturing equipment and the logistical material flow systems can be changed, and thus cost reducing effects in operating the latter may be achieved.
==== Design guidelines ====
Design for manufacturability ensures the fabrication of single parts or components that are based on an integral design in mechanical engineering terms. Every production technology has its own specific design guideline that needs to be consulted depending on the situation.
Design for assembly addresses the combination of single parts or components to subassemblies, assemblies, modules, systems, etc., that are based on a differential design in mechanical engineering terms. An important issue is how the embodied interfaces within a product are designed (mechanical engineering, electrical engineering). Contrary, software or respectively firmware interfaces (software engineering, electrical engineering) are not significant for assembly operations, because these can be easily flash installed within one production step. That is a cost efficient way to enable a wide range of product variants.
Design for logistics covers issues along supply chain partners (i.e., legally independent firms) but is by its means closely related to the design for assembly guidelines. In academic research, design for logistics is tangent to the strategic alliances, supply chain management, and the engineering part of new product development. For example, Sanchez and Mahoney (1996) argued that product modularity (i.e., how physical sub-systems of a product are sub-divided through interfaces; also called product or system architecture), and organizational modularity (i.e., how organisational entities are structured), depend on each other. Fixson et al. (2005) found that the relationship between product architecture and organisational structure is reciprocal in the contexts of early supplier involvement during system design and the concept phase of the product development process.
=== Use phase ===
User focused, see Product design, Industrial design
Design for user-friendliness (Bralla, 1996: 237–254), see Usability, Ben Shneiderman, Emotional Design
Design for ergonomics (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 305–310)
Design for aesthetics (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 311–316)
After-sales focused
Design for serviceability (Bralla, 1996: 182–194; Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 357–359),
Design for maintainability (Bralla, 1996: 182–194; Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 357–359; VDI2246),
Design for repair-reuse-recyclability, a key part of the International Design Excellence Awards criteria
==== Comparison: consumer durables vs. capital goods ====
User focused design guidelines may be associated with consumer durables, and after-sales focused design guidelines may be more important for capital goods. However, in case of capital goods design for ergonomics is needed to ensure clarity, simplicity, and safety between the human-machine interface. The intent is to avoid shop-accidents as well as to ensure efficient work flows. Also design for aesthetics has become more and more important for capital goods in recent years. In business-to-business (B2B) markets, capital goods are usually ordered, or respectively business transaction are initiated, at industrial trade fairs. The functional traits of capital goods in technical terms are assumed generally as fulfilled across all exhibiting competitors. Therefore, a purchaser may be subliminally influenced by the aesthetics of a capital good when it comes to a purchasing decision. For consumer durables the aspect of after sales highly depends on the business unit's strategy in terms of service offerings, therefore generally statements are not possible to formulate.
=== Disposal phase ===
Design for Environment (Bralla, 1996: 182–194), see also Life cycle assessment, Technology assessment, sustainable engineering, sustainable design
Design for recycling (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 360–372), design for disassembly
Active disassembly
Remanufacturing
Recycling of electrical and electronical equipment – Disassembly and processing (VDI2343)
Recycling oriented product development (VDI 2243)
== Similar concepts in product development ==
Several other concepts in product development and new product development are very closely related:
Engineering Design: Design for X
Time dimension: product life cycle, Product Life Cycle Engineering, product life cycle management (that is not the same like the product cycle in business studies and economics, see e.g. Vernon (1966)). Primarily, the unit of analysis here is a product, or more clearly, one item
Meso-level organisation: concurrent engineering (American), simultaneous engineering (British), and overlapping-parallel product development processes
Micro-level organisation: cross-functional teams, inter-disciplinary teams, etc.
Looking at all life stages of a product (product life cycle (engineering)) is essential for design for X, otherwise the X may be suboptimized, or make no sense. When asking what competencies are required for analysing situations that may occur along the life of a product, it becomes clear that several departmental functions are required. An historical assumption is that new product development is conducted in a departmental-stage process (that can be traced back to the classical theory of the firm, e.g. Max Weber's bureaucracy or Henri Fayol's administration principles), i.e., new product development activities are closely associated with certain department of a firm. At the start of the 1990s, the concept of concurrent engineering gained popularity to overcome dysfunctions of departmental stage processes. Concurrent engineering postulates that several departments must work closely together for certain new product development activities (see Clark and Fujimoto, 1991). The logical consequence was the emergence of the organisational mechanism of cross-functional teams. For example, Filippini et al. (2005) found evidence that overlapping product development processes only accelerate new product development projects if these are executed by a cross-functional team, vice versa.
== References ==
Design for X references
Pahl, G., and Beitz, W. (1996). Engineering Design - A Systematic Approach, 2nd edition, London: Springer. (Google Books Preview)
Bralla, J. G. (1996). Design for Excellence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
VDI-guidelines of the "Verein Deutscher Ingenieure" can requested under (www) or purchased from the publisher Beuth (www); most guidelines are bilingual in German and English.
Auxiliary references
Doz, Y. and Santos, J.F.P. (1997). On the management of knowledge: from the transparency of collocation and co-setting to the quandary of dispersion and differentiation. Fontainebleau, France.
Sanchez, R. and Mahoney, J.T. (1996) Modularity, flexibility, and knowledge management in product and organization design. Strategic Management Journal, 17, 63–76.
OECD; Eurostat (2005). Oslo Manual 2005: The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities - Proposed guidelines for collecting and interpreting technological innovation data. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Statistical Office of the European Communities. (pdf)
Vernon, R. (1966) International Investment and International Trade in the Product Cycle. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 80, 190–207.
Clark, K.B. and Fujimoto, T. (1991). Product development performance. Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press.
Filippini, R., Salmaso, L. and Tessarolo, P. (2005) Product Development Time Performance: Investigating the Effect of Interactions between Drivers. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 21, 199–214.
== External links ==
DfX-Symposium in Germany
The IBM Proprinter: A Case Study in Engineering Design
Mottonen, M., Harkonen, J., Belt, P., Haapasalo, H. and Simila, J. (2009). "Managerial view on design for manufacturing", Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol. 109, No. 6, pp. 859–872.
[1] | Wikipedia/Design_for_X |
High-level design (HLD) explains the architecture that would be used to develop a system. The architecture diagram provides an overview of an entire system, identifying the main components that would be developed for the product and their interfaces.
The HLD can use non-technical to mildly technical terms which should be understandable to the administrators of the system. In contrast, low-level design further exposes the logical detailed design of each of these elements for use by engineers and programmers. HLD documentation should cover the planned implementation of both software and hardware.
== Purpose ==
Preliminary design: In the preliminary stages of system development, the need is to size the project and to identify those parts which might be risky or time-consuming.
Design overview: As the project proceeds, the need is to provide an overview of how the various sub-systems and components of the system fit together.
In both cases, the high-level design should be a complete view of the entire system, breaking it down into smaller parts that are more easily understood. To minimize the maintenance overhead as construction proceeds and the lower-level design is done, it is best that the high-level design is elaborated only to the degree needed to satisfy these needs.
== High-level design document ==
A high-level design document or HLDD adds the necessary details to the current project description to represent a suitable model for building. This document includes a high-level architecture diagram depicting the structure of the system, such as the hardware, database
architecture, application architecture (layers), application flow (navigation), security architecture and technology architecture.
== Design overview ==
A high-level design provides an overview of a system, product, service, or process.
Such an overview helps supporting components be compatible to others.
The highest-level design should briefly describe all platforms, systems, products, services, and processes that it depends on, and include any important changes that need to be made to them.
In addition, there should be brief consideration of all significant commercial, legal, environmental, security, safety, and technical risks, along with any issues and assumptions.
The idea is to mention every work area briefly, clearly delegating the ownership of more detailed design activity whilst also encouraging effective collaboration between the various project teams.
Today, most high-level designs require contributions from a number of experts, representing many distinct professional disciplines.
Finally, every type of end-user should be identified in the high-level design and each contributing design should give due consideration to customer experience.
== See also ==
Software development process
Systems development life cycle
== References ==
== External links ==
High Level Design Document sample format | Wikipedia/High-level_design |
Interactive design is a user-oriented field of study that focuses on meaningful communication using media to create products through cyclical and collaborative processes between people and technology. Successful interactive designs have simple, clearly defined goals, a strong purpose and intuitive screen interface.
== Interactive design compared to interaction design ==
In some cases interactive design is equated to interaction design; however, in the specialized study of interactive design there are defined differences.
To assist in this distinction, interaction design can be thought of as:
Making devices usable, useful, and fun, focusing on the efficiency and intuitive hardware
A fusion of product design, computer science, and communication design
A process of solving specific problems under a specific set of contextual circumstances
The creation of form for the behavior of products, services, environments, and systems
Making dialogue between technology and user invisible, i.e. reducing the limitations of communication through and with technology.
About connecting people through various products and services,
Whereas interactive design can be thought of as:
Giving purpose to interaction design through meaningful experiences
Consisting of six main components including User control, Responsiveness, Real-Time Interactions, Connectedness, Personalization, and Playfulness
Focuses on the use and experience of the software
Retrieving and processing information through on-demand responsiveness
Acting upon information to transform it
The constant changing of information and media, regardless of changes in the device
Providing interactivity through a focus on the capabilities and constraints of human cognitive processing
While both definitions indicate a strong focus on the user, the difference arises from the purposes of interactive design and interaction design. In essence interactive design involves the creation of interactive products and services, while interaction design focuses on the design of those products and services. Interaction design without interactive design provides only design concepts. Interactive design without interaction design may not built products good enough for the user.
== History ==
=== Fluxus ===
Interactive Design is heavily influenced by the Fluxus movement, which focuses on a "do-it-yourself" aesthetic, anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility. Fluxus is different from Dada in its richer set of aspirations. Fluxus is not a modern-art movement or an art style, rather it is a loose international organization which consists of many artists from different countries. There are 12 core ideas that form Fluxus.
Globalism
Unity of Art and Life
Intermedia
Experimentalism
Chance
Playfulness
Simplicity
Implicativeness
Exemplativism
Specificity
Presence in time
Musicality
=== Computers ===
The birth of the personal computer gave users the ability to become more interactive with what they were able to input into the machine. This was mostly due to the invention of the mouse. With an early prototype created in 1963 by Douglas Engelbart, the mouse was conceptualized as a tool to make the computer more interactive.
=== The Internet and Interactive Design ===
With the tendency of increasing use to the Internet, the advent of interactive media and computing, and eventually the emergence of digital interactive consumer products, the two cultures of design and engineering gravitated towards a common interest in flexible use and user experience. The most important characteristic of the Internet is its openness to communication between people and people. In other words, everyone can readily communicate and interact with what they want on the Internet. Recent century, the notion of interactive design started popularity with Internet environment. Stuart Moulthrop was shown interactive media by using hypertext, and made genre of hypertext fiction on the Internet. Stuart philosophies could be helpful to the hypertext improvements and media revolution with developing of the Internet. This is a short history of Hypertext. In 1945, the first concept of Hypertext had originated by Vannevar Bush as he wrote in his article As We May Think. And a computer game called Adventure was invented as responding users' needs via the first hypertextual narrative in the early 1960s. And then Douglas Engelbart and Theodor Holm Nelson who made Xanadu collaborated to make a system called FRESS in the 1970's. Their efforts brought immense political ramifications. By 1987, Computer Lib and Dream Machine were published by Microsoft Press. And Nelson joined Autodesk, which announced plans to support Xanadu as a commercial. The definition of Xanadu is a project that has declared an improvement over the World Wide Web, with mission statement that today's popular software simulates paper. The World Wide Web trivializes our original hypertext model with one-way ever-breaking links and no management of version or contents. In the late 1980s, Apple computer began giving away Hypercard. Hypercard is relatively cheap and simple to operate. In the early 1990s, the hypertext concept has finally received some attention from humanist academics. We can see the acceptance through Jay David Bolters ' Writing Space (1991)', and George Landow's Hypertext.
=== Advertising ===
Upon the transition from analogue to digital technology, one sees a further transition from digital technology to interactive media in advertising agencies. This transition caused many of the agencies to reexamine their business and try to stay ahead of the curve. Although it is a challenging transition, the creative potential of interactive design lies in combining almost all forms of media and information delivery: text, images, film, video and sound, and that in turn negates many boundaries for advertising agencies, making it a creative haven.
Hence, with this constant motion forward, agencies such as R/GA have established a routine to keep up. Founded in 1977 by Richard and Robert Greenberg, the company has reconstructed its business model every nine years. Starting from computer-assisted animation camera, it is now an "Agency for the Digital World". Robert Greenberg explains: "the process of changing models is painful because you have to be ready to move on from the things that you're good at". This is one example of how to adapt to such a fast-paced industry, and one major conference that stays on top of things is the How Interactive Design Conference, which helps designers make the leap towards the digital age.
=== Interactive new media art ===
Nowadays, following the development of science and technology, various new media appear in different areas, like art, industry and science. Most technologies described as "new media" are digital, often having characteristics of being manipulated, networkable, dense, compressible, and interactive (like the internet, video games and mobiles). In the industry field, companies no longer focus on products itself, they focus more on human-centered design. Therefore, "interactive" become an important element in the new media. Interactivity is not only computer and video signal presenting with each other, but it should be more referred to communication and respondence among viewers and works.
According to Selnow's (1988) theory, interactivity has three levels:
Communicative Recognition: This communication is specific to the partner. Feedback is based on recognition of the partner. When a learner inputs information into a computer and the computer responds specifically to that input, there is mutual recognition. The menu format allows mutual recognition.
Feedback: The responses are based on previous feedback. As the communication continues, the feedback progresses to reflect understanding. When a learner refines a search query and the computer responds with a refined list, message exchange is progressing.
Information Flow: There is an opportunity for a two-way flow of information. It is necessary both the learner and the computer have means of exchanging information. The search engine tool allows for learner input via use of the keyboard and the computer responds with written information.
New media has been described as the "mixture between existing cultural conventions and the conventions of software. For instance newspapers and television, they have been produced from traditional outlets to forms of interactive multimedia." New media can allow audiences access to content anytime, anywhere, on any digital device. It also promotes interactive feedback, participation, and community creation around the media content.
New media is a vague term to mean a whole slew of things. The Internet and social media are both forms of new media. Any type of technology that enables digital interactivity is a form of new media. Video games, as well as Facebook, would be a great example of a type of new media. New media art is simply art that utilizes these new media technologies, such as digital art, computer graphics, computer animation, virtual art, Internet art, and interactive art. New media art is very focused on the interactivity between the artist and the spectator.
Many new media art works, such as Jonah Brucker-Cohen and Katherine Moriwaki's UMBRELLA.net and Golan Levin et al.'s Dialtones: A Telesymphony, involve audience participation. Other works of new media art require audience members to interact with the work but not to participate in its production. In interactive new media art, the work responds to audience input but is not altered by it. Audience members may click on a screen to navigate through a web of linked pages, or activate motion sensors that trigger computer programs, but their actions leave no trace on the work itself. Each member of the audience experiences the piece differently based on the choices he or she makes as while interacting with the work. In Olia Lialina's My Boyfriend Came Back From The War, for example, visitors click through a series of frames on a Web page to reveal images and fragments of text. Although the elements of the story never change, the way the story unfolds is determined by each visitor's own actions.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Lyons, Nancy; Wilker, Meghan (2012). Interactive Project Management: Pixels, People, and Process. Berkeley, California: New Riders. ISBN 978-0-321-81515-6. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
Iuppa, Nicholas. (2001) Interactive Design for New Media and the Web Boston, Focal Print. ISBN 978-0-240-80414-9
Parker, Lauren (2004). Interplay: interactive design. London: V & A Pub. ISBN 1-85177-433-5. Interplay-Interactive-Design-V-Contemporary. | Wikipedia/Interactive_design |
A design language or design vocabulary is an overarching scheme or style that guides the design of a complement of products or architectural settings, creating a coherent design system for styling.
== Objectives ==
Designers wishing to give their suite of products a unique but consistent appearance and user interface can define a specification for it. The specification can describe choices for design aspects such as materials, color schemes, shapes, patterns, textures, or layouts. They then follow the scheme in the design of each object in the suite.
Usually, design languages are not rigorously defined; the designer basically makes one thing similarly as another. In other cases, they are followed strictly, so that the products gain a strong thematic quality. For example, although there is a great variety of unusual chess set designs, the pieces within a set are typically thematically consistent.
Sometimes, designers encourage others to follow their design languages when decorating or accessorizing.
== Industrial design ==
Industrial design is the process of designing products for mass production. A design language can provide a range of products a similar style that sets it apart from competitors.
In automotive design, the design language often uses a signature grille design. For instance, many BMW vehicles share a design language, including front-end styling consisting of a split "kidney grille" and four circular headlights. Some manufacturers have appropriated design language cues from rival firms.
=== Examples ===
Apple used the Snow White design for its home computers in the 1980s, which used parallel stripes to give the impression that the enclosure was smaller than it actually was. The Apple Industrial Design Group is responsible for the industrial design of all Apple products.
Cadillac introduced the Art and Science design philosophy in 2000, which emphasized sharp and crisp edges — what noted automotive journalist Dan Neil described as a "fractal geometric style."
Ford used the New Edge design language in the 1990s and early 2000s, which combined intersecting arcs to create soft aerodynamic shapes. Later Ford used Kinetic Design that featured a large lower trapezoidal grill on many vehicles.
Mazda has used the Nagare design language, which used flowing lines influenced by wind. Mazda later used the Kodo design language.
Other examples include the Dynamic Shield design language used by Mitsubishi, and Dynamic x Solid used by Subaru.
== Software ==
In software architecture, design languages are related to architecture description languages. The most well known design language is Unified Modeling Language.
In the context of graphical user interfaces, for example, human interface guidelines can be thought of as design languages for applications.
=== Examples ===
Apple has created some software design languages. The Platinum design language was used for Mac OS 8 and 9 and emphasized various shades of gray. The Aqua design language was introduced with Mac OS X Jaguar and emphasized flatter interface elements and liberal use of reflection effects and transparency. Brushed metal, first used in 1999, was intended for programs such as QuickTime Player that mimic the operation or interface of common devices.
Microsoft has used the Aero design language for Windows Vista and Windows 7. The Aero design language used semitransparent glass like window borders as a distinctive feature. The Metro design language focused on simplified icons, absence of clutter and basic shapes. Metro was used in many Microsoft products including Windows 8, Windows Phone 7, the Xbox 360 and Xbox One. The Fluent Design System was developed as a revamp of Metro in 2017, and used more motion, depth and translucency effects.
Google developed Material Design in 2014 which emphasizes smooth responsive animations and transitions, padding and depth using lighting and shadows. Many of Google's products have implemented Material Design including Android, Android applications and web applications.
Flat design is a design language and style that simplifies elements and colours. It has influenced user interface design in Microsoft's Zune, Android starting with Android 4.0, iOS 7 and OS X Yosemite.
In 2021, the GNOME Project expanded its focus of Adwaita to allow it to prosper as a design language for GNOME.
== See also ==
Graphic design
Human interface guidelines
Object-modeling language
Complementary architecture
Pattern language
User interface design
== References ==
== External links ==
Human Interface Guidelines | Wikipedia/Design_language |
In general, the term design load can refer to two distinct concepts:
the maximum amount a system is designed to handle, or
the maximum amount the system is capable of producing.
These interpretations represent fundamentally different aspects of system performance. The design load is either the same as or a multiple of the rated load, which represents the system's declared performance capacity, see structural design load section below.
Structures and pressure vessels have design loads of the first type. Electric motors, compressors and heaters have design loads of the second type. Cranes have design loads of both the first and second type because they have to lift a defined load and do that at a specified speed.
== Example crane design load ==
A crane's rated load is its Safe Working Load (SWL) and the design load (DL) is, (p 90)
D
L
=
ψ
S
W
L
{\displaystyle DL=\psi SWL}
The dynamic lift factor for offshore cranes in the range 10 kN < SWL ≤ 2500 kN is not less than
ψ
=
1.3
{\textstyle \psi =1.3}
.(p 84) Thus for a crane with a SWL of 2000 kN (~200 tonne) its design load is not less than,
D
L
=
1.3
×
2000
=
2600
k
N
{\displaystyle DL=1.3\times 2000=2600kN}
The minimum breaking load (MBL) for the combined capacity of reeves of a steel wire hoisting rope required on this size of crane is, (p 68)
M
B
L
=
2.3
D
L
=
2.3
×
2600
=
5980
k
N
{\displaystyle MBL=2.3DL=2.3\times 2600=5980kN}
Thus the MBL is 2.3 times of the DL and ~3 times that of the SWL for this example. Similar ratios are obtained for other parts of the crane's structure. This factor of safety has been shown to be required when a failure could be catastrophic, such as a crane dropping its load or collapsing entirely. The dynamic lift factor increases as the SWL of a crane decreases and its exact value is dependent on the hoisting speed of the crane and other factors. These calculations are more complex and beyond the scope of this article.
== Structural design load ==
In structural design, the design load depends on the calculation method used. There are two widely accepted methods, Allowable Strength Design (ASD) and Load Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). In general terms, the engineer uses unfactored structural loads and the material yield strength with a safety factor in ASD; while in LRFD both structural loads and strength are factored and the strength is the ultimate rather than the yield. For example, a bridge would have a specified load carrying capacity, with the design load being determined according to the calculation method used and applied in the calculations to ensure the actual real-world capacity of the bridge to carry specified load.
== See also ==
Limit states design
Factor of safety
Specified load
== References == | Wikipedia/Design_load |
The engineering design process, also known as the engineering method, is a common series of steps that engineers use in creating functional products and processes. The process is highly iterative – parts of the process often need to be repeated many times before another can be entered – though the part(s) that get iterated and the number of such cycles in any given project may vary.
It is a decision making process (often iterative) in which the engineering sciences, basic sciences and mathematics are applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective. Among the fundamental elements of the design process are the establishment of objectives and criteria, synthesis, analysis, construction, testing and evaluation.
== Common stages ==
It's important to understand that there are various framings/articulations of the engineering design process. Different terminology employed may have varying degrees of overlap, which affects what steps get stated explicitly or deemed "high level" versus subordinate in any given model. This, of course, applies as much to any particular example steps/sequences given here.
One example framing of the engineering design process delineates the following stages: research, conceptualization, feasibility assessment, establishing design requirements, preliminary design, detailed design, production planning and tool design, and production. Others, noting that "different authors (in both research literature and in textbooks) define different phases of the design process with varying activities occurring within them," have suggested more simplified/generalized models – such as problem definition, conceptual design, preliminary design, detailed design, and design communication. Another summary of the process, from European engineering design literature, includes clarification of the task, conceptual design, embodiment design, detail design. (NOTE: In these examples, other key aspects – such as concept evaluation and prototyping – are subsets and/or extensions of one or more of the listed steps.)
=== Research ===
Various stages of the design process (and even earlier) can involve a significant amount of time spent on locating information and research. Consideration should be given to the existing applicable literature, problems and successes associated with existing solutions, costs, and marketplace needs.
The source of information should be relevant. Reverse engineering can be an effective technique if other solutions are available on the market. Other sources of information include the Internet, local libraries, available government documents, personal organizations, trade journals, vendor catalogs and individual experts available.
=== Design requirements ===
Establishing design requirements and conducting requirement analysis, sometimes termed problem definition (or deemed a related activity), is one of the most important elements in the design process in certain industries, and this task is often performed at the same time as a feasibility analysis. The design requirements control the design of the product or process being developed, throughout the engineering design process. These include basic things like the functions, attributes, and specifications – determined after assessing user needs. Some design requirements include hardware and software parameters, maintainability, availability, and testability.
=== Feasibility ===
In some cases, a feasibility study is carried out after which schedules, resource plans and estimates for the next phase are developed. The feasibility study is an evaluation and analysis of the potential of a proposed project to support the process of decision making. It outlines and analyses alternatives or methods of achieving the desired outcome. The feasibility study helps to narrow the scope of the project to identify the best scenario.
A feasibility report is generated following which Post Feasibility Review is performed.
The purpose of a feasibility assessment is to determine whether the engineer's project can proceed into the design phase. This is based on two criteria: the project needs to be based on an achievable idea, and it needs to be within cost constraints. It is important to have engineers with experience and good judgment to be involved in this portion of the feasibility study.
=== Concept generation ===
A concept study (conceptualization, conceptual design) is often a phase of project planning that includes producing ideas and taking into account the pros and cons of implementing those ideas. This stage of a project is done to minimize the likelihood of error, manage costs, assess risks, and evaluate the potential success of the intended project. In any event, once an engineering issue or problem is defined, potential solutions must be identified. These solutions can be found by using ideation, the mental process by which ideas are generated. In fact, this step is often termed Ideation or "Concept Generation." The following are widely used techniques:
trigger word – a word or phrase associated with the issue at hand is stated, and subsequent words and phrases are evoked.
morphological analysis – independent design characteristics are listed in a chart, and different engineering solutions are proposed for each solution. Normally, a preliminary sketch and short report accompany the morphological chart.
synectics – the engineer imagines him or herself as the item and asks, "What would I do if I were the system?" This unconventional method of thinking may find a solution to the problem at hand. The vital aspects of the conceptualization step is synthesis. Synthesis is the process of taking the element of the concept and arranging them in the proper way. Synthesis creative process is present in every design.
brainstorming – this popular method involves thinking of different ideas, typically as part of a small group, and adopting these ideas in some form as a solution to the problem
Various generated ideas must then undergo a concept evaluation step, which utilizes various tools to compare and contrast the relative strengths and weakness of possible alternatives.
=== Preliminary design ===
The preliminary design, or high-level design includes (also called FEED or Basic design), often bridges a gap between design conception and detailed design, particularly in cases where the level of conceptualization achieved during ideation is not sufficient for full evaluation. So in this task, the overall system configuration is defined, and schematics, diagrams, and layouts of the project may provide early project configuration. (This notably varies a lot by field, industry, and product.) During detailed design and optimization, the parameters of the part being created will change, but the preliminary design focuses on creating the general framework to build the project on.
S. Blanchard and J. Fabrycky describe it as:
“The ‘whats’ initiating conceptual design produce ‘hows’ from the conceptual design evaluation effort applied to feasible conceptual design concepts. Next, the ‘hows’ are taken into preliminary design through the means of allocated requirements. There they become ‘whats’ and drive preliminary design to address ‘hows’ at this lower level.”
=== Detailed design ===
Following FEED is the Detailed Design (Detailed Engineering) phase, which may consist of procurement of materials as well.
This phase further elaborates each aspect of the project/product by complete description through solid modeling, drawings as well as specifications.
Computer-aided design (CAD) programs have made the detailed design phase more efficient. For example, a CAD program can provide optimization to reduce volume without hindering a part's quality. It can also calculate stress and displacement using the finite element method to determine stresses throughout the part.
=== Production planning ===
The production planning and tool design consists of planning how to mass-produce the product and which tools should be used in the manufacturing process. Tasks to complete in this step include selecting materials, selection of the production processes, determination of the sequence of operations, and selection of tools such as jigs, fixtures, metal cutting and metal or plastics forming tools. This task also involves additional prototype testing iterations to ensure the mass-produced version meets qualification testing standards.
== Comparison with the scientific method ==
Engineering is formulating a problem that can be solved through design. Science is formulating a question that can be solved through investigation.
The engineering design process bears some similarity to the scientific method. Both processes begin with existing knowledge, and gradually become more specific in the search for knowledge (in the case of "pure" or basic science) or a solution (in the case of "applied" science, such as engineering). The key difference between the engineering process and the scientific process is that the engineering process focuses on design, creativity and innovation while the scientific process emphasizes explanation, prediction and discovery (observation).
== Degree programs ==
Methods are being taught and developed in Universities including:
Engineering Design, University of Bristol Faculty of Engineering
Dyson School of Design Engineering, Imperial College London
TU Delft, Industrial Design Engineering.
University of Waterloo, Systems Design Engineering
== See also ==
Applied science
Computer-automated design
Design engineer
Engineering analysis
Engineering optimization
Industrial engineering
New product development
Systems engineering process
Surrogate model
Traditional engineering
== References ==
== External links ==
"Criteria for accrediting engineering programs, Engineering accrediting commission" (PDF). ABET.
Ullman, David G. (2009) The Mechanical Design Process, Mc Graw Hill, 4th edition, ISBN 978-0072975741
Eggert, Rudolph J. (2010) Engineering Design, Second Edition, High Peak Press, Meridian, Idaho, ISBN 978-0131433588 | Wikipedia/Engineering_design_process |
Iterative design is a design methodology based on a cyclic process of prototyping, testing, analyzing, and refining a product or process. Based on the results of testing the most recent iteration of a design, changes and refinements are made. This process is intended to ultimately improve the quality and functionality of a design. In iterative design, interaction with the designed system is used as a form of research for informing and evolving a project, as successive versions, or iterations of a design are implemented.
== History ==
Iterative design has long been used in engineering fields. One example is the plan–do–check–act cycle implemented in the 1960s. Most New product development or existing product improvement programs have a checking loop which is used for iterative purposes. DMAIC uses the Six Sigma framework and has such a checking function.
=== Object-Oriented Programming ===
Iterative design is connected with the practice of object-oriented programming, and the phrase appeared in computer science literature as early as 1990. The idea has its roots in spiral development, conceived of by Barry Boehm.
== Iterative design process ==
The iterative design process may be applied throughout the new product development process. However, changes are easiest and less expensive to implement in the earliest stages of development. The first step in the iterative design process is to develop a prototype. The prototype should be evaluated by a focus group or a group not associated with the product in order to deliver non-biased opinions. Information from the focus group should be synthesized and incorporated into the next iteration of the design. The process should be repeated until user issues have been reduced to an acceptable level.
=== Application: Human computer interfaces ===
Iterative design is commonly used in the development of human computer interfaces. This allows designers to identify any usability issues that may arise in the user interface before it is put into wide use. Even the best usability experts cannot design perfect user interfaces in a single attempt, so a usability engineering lifecycle should be built around the concept of iteration.
The typical steps of iterative design in user interfaces are as follows:
Complete an initial interface design
Present the design to several test users
Note any problems had by the test user
Refine interface to account for/fix the problems
Repeat steps 2-4 until user interface problems are resolved
Iterative design in user interfaces can be implemented in many ways. One common method of using iterative design in computer software is software testing. While this includes testing the product for functionality outside of the user interface, important feedback on the interface can be gained from subject testing early versions of a program. This allows software companies to release a better quality product to the public, and prevents the need of product modification following its release.
Iterative design in online (website) interfaces is a more continual process, as website modification, after it has been released to the user, is far more viable than in software design. Often websites use their users as test subjects for interface design, making modifications based on recommendations from visitors to their sites.
== Iterative design use ==
Iterative design is a way of confronting the reality of unpredictable user needs and behaviors that can lead to sweeping and fundamental changes in a design. User testing will often show that even carefully evaluated ideas will be inadequate when confronted with a user test. Thus, it is important that the flexibility of the iterative design's implementation approach extends as far into the system as possible. Designers must further recognize that user testing results may suggest radical change that requires the designers to be prepared to completely abandon old ideas in favor of new ideas that are more equipped to suit user needs. Iterative design applies in many fields, from making knives to rockets. As an example consider the design of an electronic circuit that must perform a certain task, and must ultimately fit in a small space on a circuit board. It is useful to split these independent tasks into two smaller and simpler tasks, the functionality task, and the space and weight task. A breadboard is a useful way of implementing the electronic circuit on an interim basis, without having to worry about space and weight.
Once the circuit works, improvements or incremental changes may be applied to the breadboard to increase or improve functionality over the original design. When the design is finalized, one can set about designing a proper circuit board meeting the space and weight criteria. Compacting the circuit on the circuit board requires that the wires and components be juggled around without changing their electrical characteristics. This juggling follows simpler rules than the design of the circuit itself, and is often automated. As far as possible off the shelf components are used, but where necessary for space or performance reasons, custom made components may be developed.
Several instances of iterative design are as follows:
Wiki: A wiki is a natural repository for iterative design. The 'Page History' facility allows tracking back to prior versions. Modifications are mostly incremental, and leave substantial parts of the text unchanged.
Common law: The principle of legal precedent builds on past experience. This makes law a form of iterative design where there should be a clear audit trail of the development of legal thought.
Evolution: There is a parallel between iterative and the theory of natural Selection. Both involve a trial and error process in which the most suitable design advances to the next generation, while less suitable designs perish by the wayside. Subsequent versions of a product should also get progressively better as its producers learn what works and what doesn't in a process of refinement and continual improvement.
== Fast prototyping tools ==
One approach to iterative design is to use the highest level of abstraction for developing an early generation product. The principle here is that rapid development may not produce efficient code, but obtaining feedback is more important than technology optimization. Examples of this approach include use of non-functional code, object databases, or low code platforms - these allow quick testing of designs before issues of optimization are addressed.
== Benefits ==
When properly applied, iterative design will ensure a product or process is the best solution possible. When applied early in the development stage, significant cost savings are possible.
Other benefits to iterative design include:
Serious misunderstandings are made evident early in the lifecycle, when it's possible to react to them.
It enables and encourages user feedback, so as to elicit the system's real requirements.
Where the work is contracted, Iterative Design provides an incremental method for more effectively involving the client in the complexities that often surround the design process.
The development team is forced to focus on those issues that are most critical to the project, and team members are shielded from those issues that distract and divert them from the project's real risks.
Continual testing enables an objective assessment of the project's status.
Inconsistencies among requirements, designs, and implementations are detected early.
The workload of the team, especially the testing team, is spread out more evenly throughout the lifecycle.
This approach enables the team to leverage lessons learned, and therefore to continually improve the process.
Stakeholders in the project can be given concrete evidence of the project's status throughout the lifecycle.
== Marshmallow Challenge ==
The Marshmallow Challenge is an instructive design challenge. It involves the task of constructing the highest possible free-standing structure with a marshmallow on top. The structure must be completed within 18 minutes using only 20 sticks of spaghetti, one yard of tape, and one yard of string.
Observation and studies of participants show that kindergartners are regularly able to build higher structures, in comparison to groups of business school graduates. This is explained by the tendency for children to at once stick the marshmallow on top of a simple structure, test the prototype, and continue to improve upon it. Whereas, business school students tend to spend time vying for power, planning, and finally producing a structure to which the marshmallow is added. The challenge helps to build and develop prototyping, teamwork, leadership and innovation skills and is a popular STEM activity. The challenge was invented by Peter Skillman of Palm, Inc. and popularized by Tom Wujec of Autodesk.
== See also ==
Disruptive innovation
Extreme programming
Spiral model
Top-down and bottom-up design
Paper prototyping
Scrum (software development)
== References ==
Boehm, Barry W. (May 1988) "A Spiral Model of Software Development and Enhancement," Computer, IEEE, pp. 61–72.
Gould, J.D. and Lewis, C. (1985). Designing for Usability: Key Principles and What Designers Think, Communications of the ACM, March, 28(3), 300–311.
Kruchten, Philippe. The Rational Unified Process—An Introduction,
Kruchten, P. (2000). "From Waterfall to Iterative Development – A Challenging Transition for Project Managers" (PDF) (White paper). Rational Software Corporation. Retrieved 2019-08-17.
== External links ==
Iterative User Interface Design at useit.com
Association for Computing Machinery
Marshmallow Challenge official website
TED video on Marshmallow Challenge
Classroom images of Marshmallow Challenge | Wikipedia/Iterative_design |
Adaptive web design (AWD) promotes the creation of multiple versions of a web page to better fit the user's device, as opposed to a single static page which loads (and looks) the same on all devices or a single page which reorders and resizes content responsively based on the device/screen size/browser of the user.
This most often describes the use of a mobile and a desktop version of a page (or in most cases, the entire website), either of which is retrieved based on the user-agent defined in the HTTP GET request, which is known as dynamic serving. Adaptive web design was one of the first strategies for optimizing a site for mobile readability, the most common practice involved using a completely separate website for mobile and desktop, with mobile devices often redirected to the mobile version of the site served on a subdomain (often the third level subdomain, denoted "m"; e.g. http://m.website.com/; and/or URL parameters like &app=m&persist_app=1 used on YouTube). Today the use of two separate static sites for mobile and desktop viewing is being largely phased out, with Server-side scripting instead utilized to serve dynamically generated pages or to dynamically decide which version of a static page to serve, although the use of independent sites for mobile and desktop can still be frequently observed. While many websites employ either responsive or adaptive web design techniques, the two are not mutually exclusive, and best practices for the most universally readable designed content employ a combination of the two techniques to support a complete spectrum of hardware and software.
The existence of separate front ends allows clients who experience technical issues with either to fall back to another, with the chance that the issue does not occur.
== Technical definition ==
Adaptive web design is a process of server-side detection that chooses a design layout and size to display. All types of web design layouts can be used, including responsive layout. The adaptive design will serve different versions of the page to different devices based on common screen sizes and resolutions. The term was first coined by Aaron Gustafson in his 2011 book Adaptive Web Design: Crafting Rich Experiences with Progressive Enhancement.
== Terminology of techniques ==
Adaptive web design uses multiple page layouts for a single web page and sometimes progressive enhancement (PE). The adaptive model is a "mobile separate" layout, in contrast to "mobile first" JavaScript, and progressive enhancement of responsive web design. "Mobile separate" is the same concept as "mobile first", except the design layout of AWD is to have a separate base mobile layout versus the single design layout of responsive web design.
Browsers of basic mobile phones do not understand JavaScript or media queries, so a recommended practice is to create a basic mobile layout and use progressive enhancement for smart phones, rather than rely on graceful degradation to make a complex, image-heavy site work.
== Technology advances leading to necessity ==
Adaptive design is a broad approach to web design that focuses on suitability for a variety of interfaces rather than restricting itself to the format intended for a desktop display. This is especially significant as mobile devices now have a larger market share than desktops. Although dynamic web practices have been around for more than two decades, dynamic design in reference to graphical layout, particularly for mobile device viewing, is a more recent concept. New technologies such as CSS3 Media Queries, AJAX, HTML5, and JavaScript have centered around responsive design, which is typically more efficient and effective than adaptive design. The transition from desktop to mobile has led to a move away from adaptive web design and towards responsive web design.
=== History, adaptation and evolution ===
Adaptive web design works to detect the screen size during the HTTP GET request, prior to the page being served and load the appropriately designed page specific to the user-agent. With adaptive standard layout, "generally you would design an adaptive site for six common screen widths: 320, 480, 760, 960, 1200, and 1600". This was not only common practice for mobile optimization, but the transition period between 4:3 low resolution CRT monitors and high resolution 16:9 LCD monitors. Standard adaptive web design was necessary to create fluid layouts for the various monitors available.
In the very early days of smartphones, screen dimensions varied greatly, and mobile web browsers lacked the advanced functionality and plugins used to create rich environments in desktop browsers. Additionally, mobile internet use was expensive and very slow, so it was necessary to design "stripped-down" mobile pages, with fewer or lower quality images and sharp text-wrapping for easy readability. The next major change to adaptive standard web design came with the rise of the iPhone and widespread 3G availability, with 3G dramatically increasing connection speeds and available bandwidth. It became common for sites to have two versions: a mobile layout optimized for iPhone (usually with the subdomain prefix "m") and a desktop layout. The mobile versions were still usually "scaled-down" with lower quality images and sometimes lacked content such as videos in order to decrease loading time. Designs were also influenced by the spread of touchscreen devices, with websites using larger links and buttons that make navigating using a finger as a pointer easier. Later, the widespread implementation of 4G LTE's fast mobile broadband meant it was no longer necessary to downgrade mobile media quality or trim content to deal with slow connection speeds. As Google's Android OS rose to popularity and introduced more variation in the smartphone market, the multi-page paradigm of standard dynamic web design became less common, though it still sees some use to completely separate touchscreen content design from desktop design. When integrating with material design or device specific layout and color schemes, some developers find it simpler to create three-page templates (Android, iPhone/iOS, desktop), changing the icons and colors between each, while using media queries to determine layout. The practice results in much simpler page design and code but updating requires editing all three templates.
==== Responsive web design vs. adaptive web design ====
There is no consensus on naming, and both adaptive and responsive are used to refer to the same behavior, but what is commonly called responsive design uses fewer page layouts than standard adaptive design, typically only one. Adaptive design is considered less future-proof and less efficient than responsive design because the screen sizes of common devices are constantly changing and highly variable. A hybrid adaptive/responsive design model involves multiple versions of pages with responsive layouts.
Standard adaptive layouts can also use viewport responsive scaling of the page (as in responsive web design), but the approach of creating different layouts for different devices or resolutions is now rare and typically seen where the site wishes to target users of non-smart internet-capable mobile devices and obsolete smartphones which can't use the technologies new responsive designs require.
There are variations on these concepts that blur the lines between adaptive and responsive web design, like Django's "views" and some aspected of AJAX, which serve different versions of pages, including for the purpose of fluidity on different devices, however pages are generated dynamically, not statically.
== See also ==
== References == | Wikipedia/Adaptive_web_design |
Reflex was a 3D building design software application developed in the mid 1980s and - along with its predecessor Sonata - is now regarded as a forerunner to today's building information modelling applications.
== History ==
The application was developed by two former GMW Computers employees who had been involved with Sonata. After Sonata had "disappeared in a mysterious, corporate black hole, somewhere in eastern Canada in 1992," Jonathan Ingram and colleague Gerard Gartside then went on to develop Reflex, bought for $30 million by Parametric Technology Corporation (PTC) in July 1996.
PTC had identified the architecture, engineering and construction market as a target for its parametric modelling solutions, and bought Reflex to expand into the sector. However, the fit between Reflex and PTC's existing solutions was poor, and PTC's Pro/Reflex gained little market traction; PTC then sold the product to another US company, The Beck Group, in 1997, where it formed the kernel of a parametric estimating package called DESTINI.
Around the same time, several people from PTC set up a new company, Charles River Software (renamed Revit Technology Corporation in 2000, later (2002) bought by Autodesk). Leonid Raiz and Irwin Jungreis obtained from PTC a non-exclusive, source code development license for Reflex as part of their severance package. In the words of Jerry Laiserin: "While Autodesk Revit may not contain genomic snippets of Reflex code, Revit clearly is spiritual heir to a lineage of BIM 'begats' — RUCAPS begat Sonata, Sonata begat Reflex, and Reflex begat Revit."
In a 2017 letter to AEC Magazine, Jungreis said:
"After receiving several hours of instruction in the software architecture of Reflex from Reflex developers, we decided not to use it as our starting point because of several important differences at the very foundations of the software. At that point, we put it aside and never looked at it again. ... Revit was not based on Reflex. No code from Reflex was used...."
However, Ingram, in his 2020 book Understanding BIM: The Past, Present and Future, shows much of the functionality of Reflex is duplicated in Revit. A 2022 account of the history of BIM by Kasper Miller asserts: "Reflex and Revit shared a myriad of features — so much so that it is fairly clear where the Revit team found much of its inspiration".
== References ==
=== Sources ===
Crotty, Ray (2012). The Impact of Building Information Modelling: Transforming Construction. London: SPON/Routledge. ISBN 9781136860560.
Ingram, Jonathan (2020). Understanding BIM: The Past, Present and Future. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 9780367244187. | Wikipedia/Reflex_(building_design_software) |
Strategic design is the application of future-oriented design principles in order to increase an organization's innovative and competitive qualities. Its foundations lie in the analysis of external and internal trends and data, which enables design decisions to be made on the basis of facts rather than aesthetics or intuition. The discipline is mostly practiced by design agencies or by internal development departments.
== Definition ==
"Traditional definitions of design often focus on creating discrete solutions—be it a product, a building, or a service. Strategic design is about applying some of the principles of traditional design to "big picture" systemic challenges like business growth, health care, education, and climate change. It redefines how problems are approached, identifies opportunities for action, and helps deliver more complete and resilient solutions." The traditional concept of design is mainly associated with artistic work. The addition of the term strategic expands such conception so that creativity is linked with innovation, allowing ideas to become practical and profitable applications "that can be managed effectively, acquired, used and/or consumed by target audiences." Strategic design draws from the body of literature that emerged in recent years, which outline strategic design principles that provide insights and new methods in the areas of merchandising, consuming, and ownership. There are at least four factors that demonstrate the value of strategic design and these are:
it affects consumer behavior through motivation by creating a perceptual value;
it offers a way for firms to differentiate their products and services from the competition;
it creates meaning, by effectively making the customer understand the product and its value; and,
it can be used to manage risks by providing a structure that offers opportunities for collaboration, innovation and the creation of a mechanism to meaningfully address problems.
== Applications ==
Businesses are the main consumers of strategic design, but the public, political and not-for-profit sectors are also making increasing use of the discipline. Its applications are varied, yet often aim to strengthen one of the following: product branding, product development, corporate identity, corporate branding, operating and business models, and service delivery.
Strategic design has become increasingly crucial in recent years, as businesses and organisations compete for a share of today's global and fast-paced marketplace.
"To survive in today’s rapidly changing world, products and services must not only anticipate change, but drive it. Businesses that won’t lose market share to those that do. There have been many examples of strategic design breakthroughs over the years and in an increasingly competitive global market with rapid product cycles, strategic design is becoming more important".
Examples
Strategic design can play a role in helping to resolve the following common problems:
Identifying the most important questions that a company's products and services should address (Example: John Rheinfrank of Fitch Design showed Kodak that its disposable cameras were not intended to replace traditional cameras, but instead to meet specific needs, like weddings, underwater photography and others)
Translating insights into actionable solutions (Example: Jump Associates helped Target turn an understanding of college students into a dorm room line designed by Todd Oldham)
Prioritizing the order in which a portfolio of products and services should be launched (Example: Apple Inc. laid out the iPod+iTunes ecosystem slowly over time, rather than launching all of its pieces at once)
Connecting design efforts to an organization's business strategy (Example: Hewlett-Packard's global design division is focused most intently on designs that simplify technology experiences. This leads to lower manufacturing costs at a time when CEO Mark Hurd is pushing for cost-cutting.) Mark Hurd discussed HP's design strategy for determining environmental footprint of their supply chain.
Integrating design as a fundamental aspect of strategic brand intent (Example: Tom Hardy, Design Strategist, developed the core brand-design principle ″Balance of Reason & Feeling″ for Samsung Electronics, together with rational and emotional attributes, to guide design language within a comprehensive brand-design program that inspired differentiation and elevated the company's global image.)
== See also ==
Experience design
Design management
Design methods
Design thinking
Industrial design
Instructional design
Product design
Service design
U.S. Army Strategist
User-centered design
== References ==
== External links ==
Strategic design as described by Tim Brown, CEO of IDEO
Definition of strategic design by INDEX:
Strategic Design MA course description, SRH Berlin University of Applied Science (former Design Akademie Berlin) | Wikipedia/Design_strategy |
An application programming interface (API) is a connection between computers or between computer programs. It is a type of software interface, offering a service to other pieces of software. A document or standard that describes how to build such a connection or interface is called an API specification. A computer system that meets this standard is said to implement or expose an API. The term API may refer either to the specification or to the implementation.
In contrast to a user interface, which connects a computer to a person, an application programming interface connects computers or pieces of software to each other. It is not intended to be used directly by a person (the end user) other than a computer programmer who is incorporating it into software. An API is often made up of different parts which act as tools or services that are available to the programmer. A program or a programmer that uses one of these parts is said to call that portion of the API. The calls that make up the API are also known as subroutines, methods, requests, or endpoints. An API specification defines these calls, meaning that it explains how to use or implement them.
One purpose of APIs is to hide the internal details of how a system works, exposing only those parts a programmer will find useful and keeping them consistent even if the internal details later change. An API may be custom-built for a particular pair of systems, or it may be a shared standard allowing interoperability among many systems.
The term API is often used to refer to web APIs, which allow communication between computers that are joined by the internet. There are also APIs for programming languages, software libraries, computer operating systems, and computer hardware. APIs originated in the 1940s, though the term did not emerge until the 1960s and 70s.
== Purpose ==
An API opens a software system to interactions from the outside. It allows two software systems to communicate across a boundary — an interface — using mutually agreed-upon signals. In other words, an API connects software entities together. Unlike a user interface, an API is typically not visible to users. It is an "under the hood" portion of a software system, used for machine-to-machine communication.
A well-designed API exposes only objects or actions needed by software or software developers. It hides details that have no use. This abstraction simplifies programming.
Building software using APIs has been compared to using building-block toys, such as Lego bricks. Software services or software libraries are analogous to the bricks; they may be joined together via their APIs, composing a new software product. The process of joining is called integration.
As an example, consider a weather sensor that offers an API. When a certain message is transmitted to the sensor, it will detect the current weather conditions and reply with a weather report. The message that activates the sensor is an API call, and the weather report is an API response. A weather forecasting app might integrate with a number of weather sensor APIs, gathering weather data from throughout a geographical area.
An API is often compared to a contract. It represents an agreement between parties: a service provider who offers the API and the software developers who rely upon it. If the API remains stable, or if it changes only in predictable ways, developers' confidence in the API will increase. This may increase their use of the API.
== History of the term ==
The term API initially described an interface only for end-user-facing programs, known as application programs. This origin is still reflected in the name "application programming interface." Today, the term is broader, including also utility software and even hardware interfaces.
The idea of the API is much older than the term itself. British computer scientists Maurice Wilkes and David Wheeler worked on a modular software library in the 1940s for EDSAC, an early computer. The subroutines in this library were stored on punched paper tape organized in a filing cabinet. This cabinet also contained what Wilkes and Wheeler called a "library catalog" of notes about each subroutine and how to incorporate it into a program. Today, such a catalog would be called an API (or an API specification or API documentation) because it instructs a programmer on how to use (or "call") each subroutine that the programmer needs.
Wilkes and Wheeler's book The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer contains the first published API specification. Joshua Bloch considers that Wilkes and Wheeler "latently invented" the API, because it is more of a concept that is discovered than invented.
The term "application program interface" (without an -ing suffix) is first recorded in a paper called Data structures and techniques for remote computer graphics presented at an AFIPS conference in 1968. The authors of this paper use the term to describe the interaction of an application—a graphics program in this case—with the rest of the computer system. A consistent application interface (consisting of Fortran subroutine calls) was intended to free the programmer from dealing with idiosyncrasies of the graphics display device, and to provide hardware independence if the computer or the display were replaced.
The term was introduced to the field of databases by C. J. Date in a 1974 paper called The Relational and Network Approaches: Comparison of the Application Programming Interface. An API became a part of the ANSI/SPARC framework for database management systems. This framework treated the application programming interface separately from other interfaces, such as the query interface. Database professionals in the 1970s observed these different interfaces could be combined; a sufficiently rich application interface could support the other interfaces as well.
This observation led to APIs that supported all types of programming, not just application programming. By 1990, the API was defined simply as "a set of services available to a programmer for performing certain tasks" by technologist Carl Malamud.
The idea of the API was expanded again with the dawn of remote procedure calls and web APIs. As computer networks became common in the 1970s and 80s, programmers wanted to call libraries located not only on their local computers, but on computers located elsewhere. These remote procedure calls were well supported by the Java language in particular. In the 1990s, with the spread of the internet, standards like CORBA, COM, and DCOM competed to become the most common way to expose API services.
Roy Fielding's dissertation Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures at UC Irvine in 2000 outlined Representational state transfer (REST) and described the idea of a "network-based Application Programming Interface" that Fielding contrasted with traditional "library-based" APIs. XML and JSON web APIs saw widespread commercial adoption beginning in 2000 and continuing as of 2021. The web API is now the most common meaning of the term API.
The Semantic Web proposed by Tim Berners-Lee in 2001 included "semantic APIs" that recast the API as an open, distributed data interface rather than a software behavior interface. Proprietary interfaces and agents became more widespread than open ones, but the idea of the API as a data interface took hold. Because web APIs are widely used to exchange data of all kinds online, API has become a broad term describing much of the communication on the internet. When used in this way, the term API has overlap in meaning with the term communication protocol.
== Types ==
=== Libraries and frameworks ===
The interface to a software library is one type of API. The API describes and prescribes the "expected behavior" (a specification) while the library is an "actual implementation" of this set of rules.
A single API can have multiple implementations (or none, being abstract) in the form of different libraries that share the same programming interface.
The separation of the API from its implementation can allow programs written in one language to use a library written in another. For example, because Scala and Java compile to compatible bytecode, Scala developers can take advantage of any Java API.
API use can vary depending on the type of programming language involved.
An API for a procedural language such as Lua could consist primarily of basic routines to execute code, manipulate data or handle errors while an API for an object-oriented language, such as Java, would provide a specification of classes and its class methods. Hyrum's law states that "With a sufficient number of users of an API, it does not matter what you promise in the contract: all observable behaviors of your system will be depended on by somebody." Meanwhile, several studies show that most applications that use an API tend to use a small part of the API.
Language bindings are also APIs. By mapping the features and capabilities of one language to an interface implemented in another language, a language binding allows a library or service written in one language to be used when developing in another language. Tools such as SWIG and F2PY, a Fortran-to-Python interface generator, facilitate the creation of such interfaces.
An API can also be related to a software framework: a framework can be based on several libraries implementing several APIs, but unlike the normal use of an API, the access to the behavior built into the framework is mediated by extending its content with new classes plugged into the framework itself.
Moreover, the overall program flow of control can be out of the control of the caller and in the framework's hands by inversion of control or a similar mechanism.
=== Operating systems ===
An API can specify the interface between an application and the operating system. POSIX, for example, specifies a set of common APIs that aim to enable an application written for a POSIX conformant operating system to be compiled for another POSIX conformant operating system.
Linux and Berkeley Software Distribution are examples of operating systems that implement the POSIX APIs.
Microsoft has shown a strong commitment to a backward-compatible API, particularly within its Windows API (Win32) library, so older applications may run on newer versions of Windows using an executable-specific setting called "Compatibility Mode".
An API differs from an application binary interface (ABI) in that an API is source code based while an ABI is binary based. For instance, POSIX provides APIs while the Linux Standard Base provides an ABI.
=== Remote APIs ===
Remote APIs allow developers to manipulate remote resources through protocols, specific standards for communication that allow different technologies to work together, regardless of language or platform.
For example, the Java Database Connectivity API allows developers to query many different types of databases with the same set of functions, while the Java remote method invocation API uses the Java Remote Method Protocol to allow invocation of functions that operate remotely, but appear local to the developer.
Therefore, remote APIs are useful in maintaining the object abstraction in object-oriented programming; a method call, executed locally on a proxy object, invokes the corresponding method on the remote object, using the remoting protocol, and acquires the result to be used locally as a return value.
A modification of the proxy object will also result in a corresponding modification of the remote object.
=== Web APIs ===
Web APIs are the defined interfaces through which interactions happen between an enterprise and applications that use its assets, which also is a Service Level Agreement (SLA) to specify the functional provider and expose the service path or URL for its API users. An API approach is an architectural approach that revolves around providing a program interface to a set of services to different applications serving different types of consumers.
When used in the context of web development, an API is typically defined as a set of specifications, such as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) request messages, along with a definition of the structure of response messages, usually in an Extensible Markup Language (XML) or JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) format. An example might be a shipping company API that can be added to an eCommerce-focused website to facilitate ordering shipping services and automatically include current shipping rates, without the site developer having to enter the shipper's rate table into a web database. While "web API" historically has been virtually synonymous with web service, the recent trend (so-called Web 2.0) has been moving away from Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) based web services and service-oriented architecture (SOA) towards more direct representational state transfer (REST) style web resources and resource-oriented architecture (ROA). Part of this trend is related to the Semantic Web movement toward Resource Description Framework (RDF), a concept to promote web-based ontology engineering technologies. Web APIs allow the combination of multiple APIs into new applications known as mashups.
In the social media space, web APIs have allowed web communities to facilitate sharing content and data between communities and applications. In this way, content that is created in one place dynamically can be posted and updated to multiple locations on the web. For example, Twitter's REST API allows developers to access core Twitter data and the Search API provides methods for developers to interact with Twitter Search and trends data.
== Design ==
The design of an API has significant impact on its usage. The principle of information hiding describes the role of programming interfaces as enabling modular programming by hiding the implementation details of the modules so that users of modules need not understand the complexities inside the modules. Thus, the design of an API attempts to provide only the tools a user would expect. The design of programming interfaces represents an important part of software architecture, the organization of a complex piece of software.
== Release policies ==
APIs are one of the more common ways technology companies integrate. Those that provide and use APIs are considered as being members of a business ecosystem.
The main policies for releasing an API are:
Private: The API is for internal company use only.
Partner: Only specific business partners can use the API. For example, vehicle for hire companies such as Uber and Lyft allow approved third-party developers to directly order rides from within their apps. This allows the companies to exercise quality control by curating which apps have access to the API, and provides them with an additional revenue stream.
Public: The API is available for use by the public. For example, Microsoft makes the Windows API public, and Apple releases its API Cocoa, so that software can be written for their platforms. Not all public APIs are generally accessible by everybody. For example, Internet service providers like Cloudflare or Voxility, use RESTful APIs to allow customers and resellers access to their infrastructure information, DDoS stats, network performance or dashboard controls. Access to such APIs is granted either by “API tokens”, or customer status validations.
=== Public API implications ===
An important factor when an API becomes public is its "interface stability". Changes to the API—for example adding new parameters to a function call—could break compatibility with the clients that depend on that API.
When parts of a publicly presented API are subject to change and thus not stable, such parts of a particular API should be documented explicitly as "unstable". For example, in the Google Guava library, the parts that are considered unstable, and that might change soon, are marked with the Java annotation @Beta.
A public API can sometimes declare parts of itself as deprecated or rescinded. This usually means that part of the API should be considered a candidate for being removed, or modified in a backward incompatible way. Therefore, these changes allow developers to transition away from parts of the API that will be removed or not supported in the future.
Client code may contain innovative or opportunistic usages that were not intended by the API designers. In other words, for a library with a significant user base, when an element becomes part of the public API, it may be used in diverse ways.
On February 19, 2020, Akamai published their annual “State of the Internet” report, showcasing the growing trend of cybercriminals targeting public API platforms at financial services worldwide. From December 2017 through November 2019, Akamai witnessed 85.42 billion credential violation attacks. About 20%, or 16.55 billion, were against hostnames defined as API endpoints. Of these, 473.5 million have targeted financial services sector organizations.
== Documentation ==
API documentation describes what services an API offers and how to use those services, aiming to cover everything a client would need to know for practical purposes.
Documentation is crucial for the development and maintenance of applications using the API.
API documentation is traditionally found in documentation files but can also be found in social media such as blogs, forums, and Q&A websites.
Traditional documentation files are often presented via a documentation system, such as Javadoc or Pydoc, that has a consistent appearance and structure.
However, the types of content included in the documentation differs from API to API.
In the interest of clarity, API documentation may include a description of classes and methods in the API as well as "typical usage scenarios, code snippets, design rationales, performance discussions, and contracts", but implementation details of the API services themselves are usually omitted. It can take a number of forms, including instructional documents, tutorials, and reference works. It'll also include a variety of information types, including guides and functionalities.
Restrictions and limitations on how the API can be used are also covered by the documentation. For instance, documentation for an API function could note that its parameters cannot be null, that the function itself is not thread safe. Because API documentation tends to be comprehensive, it is a challenge for writers to keep the documentation updated and for users to read it carefully, potentially yielding bugs.
API documentation can be enriched with metadata information like Java annotations. This metadata can be used by the compiler, tools, and by the run-time environment to implement custom behaviors or custom handling.
It is possible to generate API documentation in a data-driven manner. By observing many programs that use a given API, it is possible to infer the typical usages, as well the required contracts and directives. Then, templates can be used to generate natural language from the mined data.
== Dispute over copyright protection for APIs ==
In 2010, Oracle Corporation sued Google for having distributed a new implementation of Java embedded in the Android operating system. Google had not acquired any permission to reproduce the Java API, although permission had been given to the similar OpenJDK project. Judge William Alsup ruled in the Oracle v. Google case that APIs cannot be copyrighted in the U.S. and that a victory for Oracle would have widely expanded copyright protection to a "functional set of symbols" and allowed the copyrighting of simple software commands:
To accept Oracle's claim would be to allow anyone to copyright one version of code to carry out a system of commands and thereby bar all others from writing its different versions to carry out all or part of the same commands.
Alsup's ruling was overturned in 2014 on appeal to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, though the question of whether such use of APIs constitutes fair use was left unresolved.
In 2016, following a two-week trial, a jury determined that Google's reimplementation of the Java API constituted fair use, but Oracle vowed to appeal the decision. Oracle won on its appeal, with the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruling that Google's use of the APIs did not qualify for fair use. In 2019, Google appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States over both the copyrightability and fair use rulings, and the Supreme Court granted review. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the oral hearings in the case were delayed until October 2020.
The case was decided by the Supreme Court in Google's favor.
== Examples ==
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Taina Bucher (16 November 2013). "Objects of Intense Feeling: The Case of the Twitter API". Computational Culture (3). ISSN 2047-2390. Argues that "APIs are far from neutral tools" and form a key part of contemporary programming, understood as a fundamental part of culture.
What is an API? – in the U.S. Supreme Court opinion, Google v. Oracle 2021, pp. 3–7 – "For each task, there is computer code; API (also known as Application Program Interface) is the method for calling that 'computer code' (instruction – like a recipe – rather than cooking instruction, this is machine instruction) to be carry out"
Maury, Innovation and Change – Cory Ondrejka \ February 28, 2014 \ " ...proposed a public API to let computers talk to each other". (Textise URL)
== External links ==
Forrester : IT industry : API Case : Google v. Oracle – May 20, 2021 – content format: Audio with text – length 26:41 | Wikipedia/Application_programming_interface |
Active design is a set of building and planning principles that promote physical activity. Active design in a building, landscape or city design integrates physical activity into the occupants' everyday routines, such as walking to the store or making a photocopy. Active design involves urban planners, architects, transportation engineers, public health professionals, community leaders and other professionals in building places that encourage physical activity as an integral part of life. While not an inherent part of active design, most designers employing "active design" are also concerned with the productive life of their buildings and their building's ecological footprint.
== History ==
=== In England ===
Sport England considers that the built environment has a vital role to play to encourage people to be physically active as part of their daily lives, enabling communities to lead more active and healthy lifestyles. In 2007 Sport England and David Lock Associates published Active Design, which provided a set of design guidelines to help promote opportunities for sport and physical activity in the design and layout of new development. The guidance was developed in two phases. Phase one (2005) developed the three key active design objects of improving accessibility, enhancing amenity and increasing awareness ("the 3 A's"). Phase two included two stakeholder sessions (May and October 2006) which expanded "the 3 A's" into a criterion-based approach. These criteria formed the guidance which was published in 2007. The guidance was supported by CABE, Department of Health and Department for Culture Media and Sport.
In 2014, Sport England held a stakeholder session made up of a range of bodies and individuals including urban planning and public health professionals to discuss whether active design was still relevant in the current planning and health context, and they concluded that it was. The guide was revised, retaining "the 3 A's" and refining the criteria-based approach to the ten principles of active design. The revised Active Design was published in 2015, and was supported by Public Health England.
In 2016 Active Design: Planning for Health and Wellbeing through Sport and Physical Activity was shortlisted for an award at the Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI) Awards for Planning Excellence. Active Design was shortlisted in the category of "Excellence in Planning for Community and Wellbeing".
In 2017 Sport England prepared two animated films, Active Design by Sport England and The Ten Principles of Active Design, in addition to three further case studies.
The active design principles are becoming increasingly embedded into built environment practice and placemaking design, with a growing list of local authorities in England making reference to Sport England's active design guidance in planning policy. In 2018 active design was embedded into the principles of the revised "Essex Design Guide" (prepared by Essex County Council and supported by Sport England).
=== In New York ===
Recognizing that physical inactivity was a significant factor in decreased life spans, notably because it promoted obesity, high blood pressure and high blood glucose, all precursors of early death, those responsible for planning in New York City developed a set of guidelines that, inter alia, they hoped would promote health by promoting physical activity. They released these guidelines in January 2010. The guidelines were also based on concerns about building longevity and ecological costs, which is generally known as "sustainable design". Impetus for the guidelines began in 2006 with the NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DOHMH) who then partnered with the American Institute of Architects New York Chapter to hold a series of conferences known as the "Fit City" conferences.
Four key concepts came out of this process:
Buildings should encourages greater physical movement within them for users and visitors
Cities should provide recreational spaces that are accessible and encourage physical activity for a variety of ages, interests, and abilities
Transportation systems in cities should encourage physical activity and should protect non-motor vehicle use
Cities, market areas and buildings should provide ready access to food and healthy eating environments
From New York City the active design movement spread throughout the United States and the world.
== Goals ==
Sickness can lead to not working efficiently and effectively. Ineffective workers in the work force cause harm to the company and the people in the community. Active design strives to impact public health not only physically but also mentally and socially. For example, active design in transportation supports a safe and vibrant environment for pedestrians, cyclists and transit riders. It creates buildings that encourage greater physical movement within a building by both users and visitors. The active design of recreation sites shapes play and activity spaces for people of different ages, interests, and abilities. Also, improved food accessibility can improve nutrition in communities that need it the most.
== Effects ==
There are few studies of the effects of implementing active design concepts, but they are in general agreement that the physical activity of occupants is increased. Moving to an active design building seemed to have physical health benefits for workers, but workers' perceptions on productivity about the new work environment have varied. A study reported that staff moved into an active design building decreased the time spent sitting by 1.2 hours per day. There was no significant increase in self-rated quality of work or work related motivation but there was no negative feedback in these areas.
The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) has published a review of research on public health interventions to prevent obesity. The review covers interventions looking at active travel (including walk and cycle lanes), the impact of new roads, public transport, access to green spaces, blue spaces, and parks, and urban regeneration.
== Implementation ==
Active design concepts may be applied in remodeling or repurposing existing buildings and landscapes. Some elements include widening sidewalks and crosswalks; installing traffic calming elements that slow driving speeds; making stairs that are accessible, visible, attractive, and well-lit; making recreation areas, such as parks, plazas, and playgrounds, more accessible by pedestrians and cyclists. People would be more likely to be active if places for recreation were within walking distance.
There are a number of concerns with the adoption of active design programmes. Developing communities are not always accepting of new forms of architecture and living. Integration of active design may come in conflict with making sure historical culture survives. Vernacular architecture may be abandoned due to it being considered insufficient or uncomfortable.
== Future ==
The future of active design may be to further incorporate requirements into law, as in the city of New York which set active design guidelines to improve public health in the city.
== See also ==
Car-free movement
Cycling infrastructure
Street reclamation
Walkability
Walking audit
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bajracharya, Bhishna; Too, Linda; Khanjanasthiti, Isara (2014). "Supporting active and healthy living in master-planned communities: a case study". Australian Planner. 51 (4): 349–361. doi:10.1080/07293682.2014.901980. S2CID 109639377.
Park, S.; Choi, Y.; Seo, H.; Moudon, A.V.; Christine Bae, C.-H.; Baek, S.-R. (2016). "Physical activity and the built environment in residential neighborhoods of Seoul and Seattle: An empirical study based on housewives' GPS walking data and travel diaries". Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering. 15 (3): 471–478. doi:10.3130/jaabe.15.471. | Wikipedia/Active_design |
Environmental design is the process of addressing surrounding environmental parameters when devising plans, programs, policies, buildings, or products. It seeks to create spaces that will enhance the natural, social, cultural and physical environment of particular areas. Classical prudent design may have always considered environmental factors; however, the environmental movement beginning in the 1940s has made the concept more explicit.
Environmental design can also refer to the applied arts and sciences dealing with creating the human-designed environment. These fields include architecture, geography, urban planning, landscape architecture, and interior design. Environmental design can also encompass interdisciplinary areas such as historical preservation and lighting design. In terms of a larger scope, environmental design has implications for the industrial design of products: innovative automobiles, wind power generators, solar-powered equipment, and other kinds of equipment could serve as examples. Currently, the term has expanded to apply to ecological and sustainability issues.
== Core Principals ==
1. Sustainability - Minimizing the environmental impact of human activities through the use of renewable resources, energy-efficient technologies, and eco-friendly materials.
2. Functionality - Designing spaces that are practical, accessible, and tailored to the needs and behaviors of the people who will use them.
3. Aesthetics - Incorporating elements of visual appeal, sensory experience, and emotional connection into the design.
4. Holistic Approach - Considering the interconnected social, economic, and ecological factors that shape the environment.
== Modern Uses ==
Today, environmental design is applied across a wide range of scales, from small-scale residential projects to large-scale urban planning initiatives. Key areas of focus include:
- Sustainable architecture and green building
- Landscape architecture and urban planning
- Transportation design and infrastructure
- Industrial design and product development
- Interior design and space planning
Environmental designers often collaborate with experts from disciplines such as engineering, ecology, sociology, and public policy to create holistic solutions that address the complex challenges of modern environments.
== History ==
The first traceable concepts of environmental designs focused primarily on solar heating, which began in Ancient Greece around 500 BCE. At the time, most of Greece had exhausted its supply of wood for fuel, leading architects to design houses that would capture the solar energy of the sun. The Greeks understood that the position of the sun varies throughout the year. For a latitude of 40 degrees in summer the sun is high in the south, at an angle of 70 degrees at the zenith, while in winter, the sun travels a lower trajectory, with a zenith of 26 degrees. Greek houses were built with south-facing façades which received little to no sun in the summer but would receive full sun in the winter, warming the house. Additionally, the southern orientation also protected the house from the colder northern winds. This clever arrangement of buildings influenced the use of the grid pattern of ancient cities. With the north–south orientation of the houses, the streets of Greek cities mainly ran east–west.
The practice of solar architecture continued with the Romans, who similarly had deforested much of their native Italian Peninsula by the first century BCE. The Roman heliocaminus, literally 'solar furnace', functioned with the same aspects of the earlier Greek houses. The numerous public baths were oriented to the south. Roman architects added glass to windows to allow for the passage of light and to conserve interior heat as it could not escape. The Romans also used greenhouses to grow crops all year long and to cultivate the exotic plants coming from the far corners of the Empire. Pliny the Elder wrote of greenhouses that supplied the kitchen of the Emperor Tiberius during the year.
Along with the solar orientation of buildings and the use of glass as a solar heat collector, the ancients knew other ways of harnessing solar energy. The Greeks, Romans and Chinese developed curved mirrors that could concentrate the sun's rays on an object with enough intensity to make it burn in seconds. The solar reflectors were often made of polished silver, copper or brass.
Early roots of modern environmental design began in the late 19th century with writer/designer William Morris, who rejected the use of industrialized materials and processes in wallpaper, fabrics and books his studio produced. He and others, such as John Ruskin felt that the industrial revolution would lead to harm done to nature and workers.
The narrative of Brian Danitz and Chris Zelov's documentary film Ecological Design: Inventing the Future asserts that in the decades after World War II, "The world was forced to confront the dark shadow of science and industry." From the middle of the twentieth century, thinkers like Buckminster Fuller have acted as catalysts for a broadening and deepening of the concerns of environmental designers. Nowadays, energy efficiency, appropriate technology, organic horticulture and agriculture, land restoration, New Urbanism, and ecologically sustainable energy and waste systems are recognized considerations or options and may each find application.
By integrating renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaic, solar thermal, and even geothermal energy into structures, it is possible to create zero emission buildings, where energy consumption is self-generating and non-polluting. It is also possible to construct "energy-plus buildings" which generate more energy than they consume, and the excess could then be sold to the grid. In the United States, the LEED Green Building Rating System rates structures on their environmental sustainability.
== Environmental design and planning ==
Environmental design and planning is the moniker used by several Ph.D. programs that take a multidisciplinary approach to the built environment. Typically environmental design and planning programs address architectural history or design (interior or exterior), city or regional planning, landscape architecture history or design, environmental planning, construction science, cultural geography, or historic preservation. Social science methods are frequently employed; aspects of sociology or psychology can be part of a research program.
The concept of "environmental" in these programs is quite broad and can encompass aspects of the natural, built, work, or social environments.
=== Areas of research ===
=== Academic programs ===
The following universities offer a Ph.D. in environmental design and planning:
Clemson University, College of Architecture, Arts and Humanities (Now called "Planning, Design, and the Built Environment")
Arizona State University, College of Design
Kansas State University
University of Calgary Archived 2008-10-20 at the Wayback Machine (technically the Ph.D. is in "environmental design," but encompasses the same scope as the other programs)
Virginia Tech until recently offered the degree program, but has since replaced it with programs in "architecture and design research" and "planning, governance, and globalization".
Fanshawe College in London, Ontario Canada offers an honours bachelor's degree called "Environmental Design and planning.
=== Related programs ===
University of Missouri, Columbia: Ph.D. in Human Environmental Sciences (PDF file) with emphasis in Architectural Studies.
Texas A & M University offers a Ph.D. in architecture Archived 2007-01-25 at the Wayback Machine that emphasizes environmental design.
== Examples ==
Examples of the environmental design process include use of roadway noise computer models in design of noise barriers and use of roadway air dispersion models in analyzing and designing urban highways.
Designers consciously working within this more recent framework of philosophy and practice seek a blending of nature and technology, regarding ecology as the basis for design. Some believe that strategies of conservation, stewardship, and regeneration can be applied at all levels of scale from the individual building to the community, with benefit to the human individual and local and planetary ecosystems.
Specific examples of large scale environmental design projects include:
Boston Transportation Planning Review
BART – Bay Area Rapid Transit System Daly City Turn-back project and airport extension.
Metropolitan Portland, Oregon light rail system
== See also ==
Green building
Green development
Land recycling
Passive solar building design
Sustainable development
Ecological design
Bachelor of Environmental Design
== References ==
6.
== External links ==
"Sustainability Toolkit: Environmental Models". asla.org. Retrieved 2017-06-08. | Wikipedia/Environmental_design |
Game art design is a subset of game development involving the process of creating the artistic aspects of video games. Video game art design begins in the pre-production phase of creating a video game. Video game artists are visual artists involved from the conception of the game who make rough sketches of the characters, setting, objects, etc. These starting concept designs can also be created by the game designers before the game is moved into actualization. Sometimes, these concept designs are called "programmer art". After the rough sketches are completed and the game is ready to be moved forward, those artists or more artists are brought in to develop graphic designs based on the sketches.
The art design of a game can involve anywhere from two people and up. Small gaming companies tend to not have as many artists on the team, meaning that their artist must be skilled in several types of art development, whereas the larger the company, although an artist can be skilled in several types of development, the roles each artist plays becomes more specialized.
== Overview ==
A game's artwork included in media, such as demos and screenshots, has a significant impact on customers, because artwork can be judged from previews, while gameplay cannot.
Artists work closely with designers on what is needed for the game.
Tools used for art design and production are known as art tools. These can range from pen and paper to full software packages for both 2D and 3D digital art. A developer may employ a tools team responsible for art production applications. This includes using existing software packages and creating custom exporters and plug-ins for them.
== History ==
Early video games typically had very limited visuals, and were developed by sole programmers. Dedicated artists were however involved very early in video game history, for example for box art and promotional materials. In 1974, Maze Wars achieved rudimentary 3D graphics using wireframes, and more detailed pixel art emerged through the late 1970s. A notable early game artist was Shigeru Miyamoto, creator of Mario and Donkey Kong.
Visuals were offered more complexity by technological advances in the 1980s, including the addition of broader colour pallettes. Microprose hired its first dedicated artist, Michael Haire in 1985. Better colour depth came with the 16 bit generation in 1989, and the arrival of the CD in the 1990s increased storage space for games. This opened possibilities such as full motion video. 3D artwork became more common beginning in the early 1990s. Games in the 2010s pushed for increased realism, such as the use of photogrammetry and motion capture. The reduction of hardware limitations has continued to broaden possibilities for video game art, and larger art departments have become the norm.
== Disciplines ==
There are several roles under the game art umbrella. Depending on the size of the project, there may be anywhere from a single artist to an entire department. In smaller teams, individual artists will generally have to take on multiple responsibilities. AAA projects generally require large teams composed primarily of specialists in the different game art disciplines. Like any other kind of artist, game artists require an understanding of the artistic fundamentals.
A number of game art roles are listed below. Some of these are only applicable to certain kinds of projects, for example a 3D title may not require sprite work.
=== Lead artist / art director ===
The art director/lead artist is a person who monitor the progress of the other artists to make sure that the art for the game is staying on track. The art director is there to ensure that all the art created works cohesively. They manage their team of artists and distribute projects. The art director often works with other departments in the game and is involved from the conception of the game until the game is finished.
=== 2D artists ===
Concept artist: A video game artist who works with game designers to produce concept art (such as character and environment sketches) and shape the "look of the game". A concept artist's job is to follow the art director's vision. The produced art may be in traditional media, such as drawings or clay molds, or 2D software, such as Adobe Photoshop. Concept art produced in the beginning of the production serves as a guide for the rest of development. Concept art is used for demonstration to the art director, producers and stakeholders.
Storyboard artist or storyboarder: A concept artist who designs and articulates scene sequences for review before main art production. They work with the concept artists and designers of the game from conception, to create an outline for the rest of the artists to follow. Sometimes this is passed on to other departments, like game writers and programmers, for a base of their work. They develop the cinematics of the game. The storyboards that are created breakdown scenes and how the camera will move.
Texture artist: A video game artist who creates and applies textures (skins) to the work that has been created by the 3D modellers (polygon meshes). Often 2D/texture artists are the same people as the 3D modellers. The texture artist gives depth to the art in a video game, applying shading, gradients, and other classic art techniques through art development software.
Sprite artist: A video game artist who creates non-static characters and objects or sprites for 2D games. Each sprite may consist of several frames used for animation.
Map artist: A video game artist who creates static art assets for game levels and maps, such as environmental backdrops or terrain images for 2D games. Historically sometimes referred to as a background modeller.
UI artist: A video game artist who works with engineering and design to produce a game interface, such as menus, HUDs, etc. Historically sometimes referred to as an Interface artist.
=== 3D artists ===
3D modeller: A video game artist who uses digital software (e.g. Maya, 3ds Max, Blender) to create characters, environments (such as buildings), and objects such as weapons and vehicles. Any 3D component of a game is created by a 3D modeller.
Environmental artist: A 3D modeller who works specifically to model the environment of a game. They also work with texturing and colours. They create the terrain that is featured in a video game. Environmental artists build the world, the layout, and the landscapes of the video game.
Animator: A video game artist responsible for bringing life to the characters, the environment, and anything that moves in a game. They use 3D programs to animate these components to make the game as real as possible. The animators often work with technical artists who aid in making the characters able to move in a realistic way.
Lighting artist: A video game artist who works on the light dynamics of a video game. Lighting artists adjust colours and brightness to add mood to the game. The lighting changes made in a video game depends on the type of game being created. The goal of the lighting artist is to create a mood that suits the scene and the game.
=== Technical artists ===
Technical art is a cross-discipline profession, and technical artists act as a bridge between the programming team and art direction. The discipline requires a diverse range of skills including tools development and programming, specialist rigging and physics, rendering, materials and VFX. The technical artist (TA) is responsible for directing the course of development in these areas to achieve a particular visual or look. It is often described as a problem solving role. Given its breadth, it is sometimes broken down into more specialised roles:
Technical art director or lead technical artist: oversees a technical art team and also provides guidance to the rest of the art team. Provides direction for tools, techniques and workflow as well as technical standards for others.
Shader artist or material artist: A role involving the development of shaders and materials using either graph based solutions or scripting languages. They may also contribute to VFX, and are responsible for optimization of shaders.
Pipeline technical artist: A role which involves negotiation between technical and artistic disciplines, establishing working practices, building tools and ensuring that art content will meet the technical demands of the target platform.
Rigger: a role which involves the rigging and skinning of characters, preparing them for animation. It may also involve specialised systems such as physics.
VFX artist: a role which develops particle effects such as fire, splashes, lasers etc. This may also include creating cached simulations for expensive operations such as fluid work. By some definitions VFX is considered a separate role outside of the technical art discipline.
== Education ==
Many universities offer game art courses as a way to learn the profession in a formal setting. A few of these courses were available as early as the 1990s. However, more general art courses are also an avenue into the industry, and a number of professionals come from a more traditional art background. It is beneficial to seek out a game art degree for those intending to work in the industry, but it is not a requirement. Universities can offer tools and equipment, as well as offering an environment with other like-minded students. Princeton Review accredits games courses in the United States, while TIGA does this in the United Kingdom. TIGA also hosts an education conference annually for universities and game studios. University courses may also be required for artists who seek to work in another country. In the UK there are also BTECs available in game art for those seeking to move into a games course at university level. The Rookies maintains a global ranking of schools for the subject, though all games disciplines are considered a single category. The rankings are often dominated by for-profit organisations such as Gnomon School of Visual Effects.
Actually entering the industry is challenging even after completing a degree, due to a lack of sufficient entry level positions. Hiring a junior requires the studio to provide training to bring them up to speed, and this is a long term investment that studios are not typically willing to make. The proportion of junior jobs available was already low in 2022, but fell dramatically during the 2023-24 layoffs. In the UK, 9% of jobs available were junior level in 2022; this had fallen to under 3% by 2023 with only 34 junior jobs available nationwide over the entire year. Junior positions are often available only in outsourced roles, and even these can attract thousands of applications. This has contributed to structural issues with skills in the industry, as the focus on hiring only mid or senior positions for years has led to shortages of experienced staff. Additionally, many senior staff sought "greener pastures" in other creative industries amid the turmoil in games, and this further tightened the pool of available talent at the top end.
=== Technical artist shortage ===
There has been an industry wide shortage of technical artists since at least 2019, which is ongoing as of 2024. The shortage has been attributed to the difficulty of training them. The profession requires a broad set of skills, and training technical artists is "a long and time-consuming process". Dedicated technical arts courses do exist, though formal instruction through a specialised degree is not a common route for technical artists. Technical artist is not typically an entry level position at all; rather it is a role that an experienced artist or programmer will move towards later in their careers. In 2024 Skillfull called for the creation of an industry body to address skills shortages, particularly technical artists.
Technical artists are notoriously difficult to recruit due to the small candidate pool. A 2022 study found that technical art was the most in-demand art profession in the UK games industry. The shortage has also affected related industries such as animation, which are competing for the same pool of technical artists.
== Salary ==
There is a significant division among artist salaries based on discipline. Skillsearch found in 2024 that technical artists were paid more highly than any other art profession in the UK. At the mid level technical artists earn an average of over £60,000. At the senior level a technical artist can earn over £100,000. In the United States, the comparable figure for technical artists is $205,000 per year, rising to $297,000 at the higher end. This has been attributed to the hyper-competitive nature of acquiring a technical artist, given the shortage of them.
Bevan's salary data reports an average of £22,000 for 2D artists, rising to £37,500 at the senior level. For 3D artists the comparable figures are £28,000, rising to £35,000 at the senior level. The CEO of Silent Games Sally Blake has maintained a spreadsheet since 2022 which collates anonymously reported salaries from game developers in the UK and Ireland; the full data set is publicly available.
== See also ==
Game development
Video game design
Video game graphics
Texture artist
== Notes ==
== References ==
Bates, Bob (2004). Game Design (2nd ed.). Thomson Course Technology. ISBN 1-59200-493-8.
Bethke, Erik (2003). Game development and production. Texas: Wordware Publishing, Inc. ISBN 1-55622-951-8.
Chandler, Heather Maxwell (2009). The Game Production Handbook (2nd ed.). Hingham, Massachusetts: Infinity Science Press. ISBN 978-1-934015-40-7.
McGuire, Morgan; Jenkins, Odest Chadwicke (2009). Creating Games: Mechanics, Content, and Technology. Wellesley, Massachusetts: A K Peters. ISBN 978-1-56881-305-9.
Moore, Michael E.; Novak, Jeannie (2010). Game Industry Career Guide. Delmar: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-4283-7647-2. | Wikipedia/Game_art_design |
In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, reflect, and distribute solar energy, in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This is called passive solar design because, unlike active solar heating systems, it does not involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices.
The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate performing an accurate site analysis. Elements to be considered include window placement and size, and glazing type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and shading. Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing buildings can be adapted or "retrofitted".
== Passive energy gain ==
Passive solar technologies use sunlight without active mechanical systems (as contrasted to active solar, which uses thermal collectors). Such technologies convert sunlight into usable heat (in water, air, and thermal mass), cause air-movement for ventilating, or future use, with little use of other energy sources. A common example is a solarium on the equator-side of a building. Passive cooling is the use of similar design principles to reduce summer cooling requirements.
Some passive systems use a small amount of conventional energy to control dampers, shutters, night insulation, and other devices that enhance solar energy collection, storage, and use, and reduce undesirable heat transfer.
Passive solar technologies include direct and indirect solar gain for space heating, solar water heating systems based on the thermosiphon, use of thermal mass and phase-change materials for slowing indoor air temperature swings, solar cookers, the solar chimney for enhancing natural ventilation, and earth sheltering.
More widely, solar technologies include the solar furnace, but this typically requires some external energy for aligning their concentrating mirrors or receivers, and historically have not proven to be practical or cost effective for widespread use. 'Low-grade' energy needs, such as space and water heating, have proven over time to be better applications for passive use of solar energy.
== As a science ==
The scientific basis for passive solar building design has been developed from a combination of climatology, thermodynamics (particularly heat transfer: conduction (heat), convection, and electromagnetic radiation), fluid mechanics/natural convection (passive movement of air and water without the use of electricity, fans or pumps), and human thermal comfort based on heat index, psychrometrics and enthalpy control for buildings to be inhabited by humans or animals, sunrooms, solariums, and greenhouses for raising plants.
Specific attention is divided into: the site, location and solar orientation of the building, local sun path, the prevailing level of insolation (latitude/sunshine/clouds/precipitation), design and construction quality/materials, placement/size/type of windows and walls, and incorporation of solar-energy-storing thermal mass with heat capacity.While these considerations may be directed toward any building, achieving an ideal optimized cost/performance solution requires careful, holistic, system integration engineering of these scientific principles. Modern refinements through computer modeling (such as the comprehensive U.S. Department of Energy "Energy Plus" building energy simulation software), and application of decades of lessons learned (since the 1970s energy crisis) can achieve significant energy savings and reduction of environmental damage, without sacrificing functionality or aesthetics. In fact, passive-solar design features such as a greenhouse/sunroom/solarium can greatly enhance the livability, daylight, views, and value of a home, at a low cost per unit of space.
Much has been learned about passive solar building design since the 1970s energy crisis. Many unscientific, intuition-based expensive construction experiments have attempted and failed to achieve zero energy – the total elimination of heating-and-cooling energy bills.
Passive solar building construction may not be difficult or expensive (using off-the-shelf existing materials and technology), but the scientific passive solar building design is a non-trivial engineering effort that requires significant study of previous counter-intuitive lessons learned, and time to enter, evaluate, and iteratively refine the simulation input and output.
One of the most useful post-construction evaluation tools has been the use of thermography using digital thermal imaging cameras for a formal quantitative scientific energy audit. Thermal imaging can be used to document areas of poor thermal performance such as the negative thermal impact of roof-angled glass or a skylight on a cold winter night or hot summer day.
The scientific lessons learned over the last three decades have been captured in sophisticated comprehensive building energy simulation computer software systems (like U.S. DOE Energy Plus).
Scientific passive solar building design with quantitative cost benefit product optimization is not easy for a novice. The level of complexity has resulted in ongoing bad-architecture, and many intuition-based, unscientific construction experiments that disappoint their designers and waste a significant portion of their construction budget on inappropriate ideas.
The economic motivation for scientific design and engineering is significant. If it had been applied comprehensively to new building construction beginning in 1980 (based on 1970s lessons learned), The United States could be saving over $250,000,000 per year on expensive energy and related pollution today.
Since 1979, Passive Solar Building Design has been a critical element of achieving zero energy by educational institution experiments, and governments around the world, including the U.S. Department of Energy, and the energy research scientists that they have supported for decades. The cost effective proof of concept was established decades ago, but cultural change in architecture, the construction trades, and building-owner decision making has been very slow and difficult.
The new subjects such as architectural science and architectural technology are being added to some schools of architecture, with a future goal of teaching the above scientific and energy-engineering principles.
== The solar path in passive design ==
The ability to achieve these goals simultaneously is fundamentally dependent on the seasonal variations in the sun's path throughout the day.
This occurs as a result of the inclination of the Earth's axis of rotation in relation to its orbit. The sun path is unique for any given latitude.
In Northern Hemisphere non-tropical latitudes farther than 23.5 degrees from the equator:
The sun will reach its highest point toward the south (in the direction of the equator)
As winter solstice approaches, the angle at which the sun rises and sets progressively moves further toward the south and the daylight hours will become shorter
The opposite is noted in summer where the sun will rise and set further toward the north and the daylight hours will lengthen
The converse is observed in the Southern Hemisphere, but the sun rises to the east and sets toward the west regardless of which hemisphere you are in.
In equatorial regions at less than 23.5 degrees, the position of the sun at solar noon will oscillate from north to south and back again during the year.
In regions closer than 23.5 degrees from either north-or-south pole, during summer the sun will trace a complete circle in the sky without setting whilst it will never appear above the horizon six months later, during the height of winter.
The 47-degree difference in the altitude of the sun at solar noon between winter and summer forms the basis of passive solar design. This information is combined with local climatic data (degree day) heating and cooling requirements to determine at what time of the year solar gain will be beneficial for thermal comfort, and when it should be blocked with shading. By strategic placement of items such as glazing and shading devices, the percentage of solar gain entering a building can be controlled throughout the year.
One passive solar sun path design problem is that although the sun is in the same relative position six weeks before, and six weeks after, the solstice, due to "thermal lag" from the thermal mass of the Earth, the temperature and solar gain requirements are quite different before and after the summer or winter solstice. Movable shutters, shades, shade screens, or window quilts can accommodate day-to-day and hour-to-hour solar gain and insulation requirements.
Careful arrangement of rooms completes the passive solar design. A common recommendation for residential dwellings is to place living areas facing solar noon and sleeping quarters on the opposite side. A heliodon is a traditional movable light device used by architects and designers to help model sun path effects. In modern times, 3D computer graphics can visually simulate this data, and calculate performance predictions.
== Passive solar heat transfer principles ==
Personal thermal comfort is a function of personal health factors (medical, psychological, sociological and situational), ambient air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air movement (wind chill, turbulence) and relative humidity (affecting human evaporative cooling). Heat transfer in buildings occurs through convection, conduction, and thermal radiation through roof, walls, floor and windows.
=== Convective heat transfer ===
Convective heat transfer can be beneficial or detrimental. Uncontrolled air infiltration from poor weatherization / weatherstripping / draft-proofing can contribute up to 40% of heat loss during winter; however, strategic placement of operable windows or vents can enhance convection, cross-ventilation, and summer cooling when the outside air is of a comfortable temperature and relative humidity. Filtered energy recovery ventilation systems may be useful to eliminate undesirable humidity, dust, pollen, and microorganisms in unfiltered ventilation air.
Natural convection causing rising warm air and falling cooler air can result in an uneven stratification of heat. This may cause uncomfortable variations in temperature in the upper and lower conditioned space, serve as a method of venting hot air, or be designed in as a natural-convection air-flow loop for passive solar heat distribution and temperature equalization. Natural human cooling by perspiration and evaporation may be facilitated through natural or forced convective air movement by fans, but ceiling fans can disturb the stratified insulating air layers at the top of a room, and accelerate heat transfer from a hot attic, or through nearby windows. In addition, high relative humidity inhibits evaporative cooling by humans.
=== Radiative heat transfer ===
The main source of heat transfer is radiant energy, and the primary source is the sun. Solar radiation occurs predominantly through the roof and windows (but also through walls). Thermal radiation moves from a warmer surface to a cooler one. Roofs receive the majority of the solar radiation delivered to a house. A cool roof, or green roof in addition to a radiant barrier can help prevent your attic from becoming hotter than the peak summer outdoor air temperature (see albedo, absorptivity, emissivity, and reflectivity).
Windows are a ready and predictable site for thermal radiation.
Energy from radiation can move into a window in the day time, and out of the same window at night. Radiation uses photons to transmit electromagnetic waves through a vacuum, or translucent medium. Solar heat gain can be significant even on cold clear days. Solar heat gain through windows can be reduced by insulated glazing, shading, and orientation. Windows are particularly difficult to insulate compared to roof and walls. Convective heat transfer through and around window coverings also degrade its insulation properties. When shading windows, external shading is more effective at reducing heat gain than internal window coverings.
Western and eastern sun can provide warmth and lighting, but are vulnerable to overheating in summer if not shaded. In contrast, the low midday sun readily admits light and warmth during the winter, but can be easily shaded with appropriate length overhangs or angled louvres during summer and leaf bearing summer shade trees which shed their leaves in the fall. The amount of radiant heat received is related to the location latitude, altitude, cloud cover, and seasonal / hourly angle of incidence (see Sun path and Lambert's cosine law).
Another passive solar design principle is that thermal energy can be stored in certain building materials and released again when heat gain eases to stabilize diurnal (day/night) temperature variations. The complex interaction of thermodynamic principles can be counterintuitive for first-time designers. Precise computer modeling can help avoid costly construction experiments.
== Site specific considerations during design ==
Latitude, sun path, and insolation (sunshine)
Seasonal variations in solar gain e.g. cooling or heating degree days, solar insolation, humidity
Diurnal variations in temperature
Micro-climate details related to breezes, humidity, vegetation and land contour
Obstructions / Over-shadowing – to solar gain or local cross-winds
== Design elements for residential buildings in temperate climates ==
Placement of room-types, internal doors and walls, and equipment in the house.
Orienting the building to face the equator (or a few degrees to the East to capture the morning sun)
Extending the building dimension along the east–west axis
Adequately sizing windows to face the midday sun in the winter, and be shaded in the summer.
Minimising windows on other sides, especially western windows
Erecting correctly sized, latitude-specific roof overhangs, or shading elements (shrubbery, trees, trellises, fences, shutters, etc.)
Using the appropriate amount and type of insulation including radiant barriers and bulk insulation to minimise seasonal excessive heat gain or loss
Using thermal mass to store excess solar energy during the winter day (which is then re-radiated during the night)
The precise amount of equator-facing glass and thermal mass should be based on careful consideration of latitude, altitude, climatic conditions, and heating/cooling degree day requirements.
Factors that can degrade thermal performance:
Deviation from ideal orientation and north–south/east/west aspect ratio
Excessive glass area ("over-glazing") resulting in overheating (also resulting in glare and fading of soft furnishings) and heat loss when ambient air temperatures fall
Installing glazing where solar gain during the day and thermal losses during the night cannot be controlled easily e.g. West-facing, angled glazing, skylights
Thermal losses through non-insulated or unprotected glazing
Lack of adequate shading during seasonal periods of high solar gain (especially on the West wall)
Incorrect application of thermal mass to modulate daily temperature variations
Open staircases leading to unequal distribution of warm air between upper and lower floors as warm air rises
High building surface area to volume, e.g., too many corners
Inadequate weatherization leading to high air infiltration
Lack of, or incorrectly installed, radiant barriers during the hot season. (See also cool roof and green roof)
Insulation materials that are not matched to the main mode of heat transfer (e.g. undesirable convective/conductive/radiant heat transfer)
== Efficiency and economics of passive solar heating ==
Technically, PSH is highly efficient. Direct-gain systems can utilize (i.e. convert into "useful" heat) 65–70% of the energy of solar radiation that strikes the aperture or collector.
Passive solar fraction (PSF) is the percentage of the required heat load met by PSH and hence represents potential reduction in heating costs. RETScreen International has reported a PSF of 20–50%. Within the field of sustainability, energy conservation even of the order of 15% is considered substantial.
Other sources report the following PSFs:
5–25% for modest systems
40% for "highly optimized" systems
Up to 75% for "very intense" systems
In favorable climates such as the southwest United States, highly optimized systems can exceed 75% PSF.
For more information see Solar Air Heat
== Key passive solar building configurations ==
There are three distinct passive solar energy configurations, and at least one noteworthy hybrid of these basic configurations:
direct solar systems
indirect solar systems
hybrid direct/indirect solar systems
isolated solar systems
=== Direct solar system ===
In a direct-gain passive solar system, the indoor space acts as a solar collector, heat absorber, and distribution system. South-facing glass in the northern hemisphere(north-facing in the southern hemisphere) admits solar energy into the building interior where it directly heats (radiant energy absorption) or indirectly heats (through convection) thermal mass in the building such as concrete or masonry floors and walls. The floors and walls acting as thermal mass are incorporated as functional parts of the building and temper the intensity of heating during the day. At night, the heated thermal mass radiates heat into the indoor space.
In cold climates, a sun-tempered building is the most basic type of direct gain passive solar configuration that simply involves increasing (slightly) the south-facing glazing area, without adding additional thermal mass. It is a type of direct-gain system in which the building envelope is well insulated, is elongated in an east–west direction, and has a large fraction (~80% or more) of the windows on the south side. It has little added thermal mass beyond what is already in the building (i.e., just framing, wall board, and so forth). In a sun-tempered building, the south-facing window area should be limited to about 5 to 7% of the total floor area, less in a sunny climate, to prevent overheating. Additional south-facing glazing can be included only if more thermal mass is added. Energy savings are modest with this system, and sun tempering is very low cost.
In genuine direct gain passive solar systems, sufficient thermal mass is required to prevent large temperature fluctuations in indoor air; more thermal mass is required than in a sun tempered building. Overheating of the building interior can result with insufficient or poorly designed thermal mass. About one-half to two-thirds of the interior surface area of the floors, walls and ceilings must be constructed of thermal storage materials. Thermal storage materials can be concrete, adobe, brick, and water. Thermal mass in floors and walls should be kept as bare as is functionally and aesthetically possible; thermal mass needs to be exposed to direct sunlight. Wall-to-wall carpeting, large throw rugs, expansive furniture, and large wall hangings should be avoided.
Typically, for about every 1 ft2 of south-facing glass, about 5 to 10 ft3 of thermal mass is required for thermal mass (1 m3 per 5 to 10 m2). When accounting for minimal-to-average wall and floor coverings and furniture, this typically equates to about 5 to 10 ft2 per ft2 (5 to 10 m2 per m2) of south-facing glass, depending upon whether the sunlight strikes the surface directly. The simplest rule of thumb is that thermal mass area should have an area of 5 to 10 times the surface area of the direct-gain collector (glass) area.
Solid thermal mass (e.g., concrete, masonry, stone, etc.) should be relatively thin, no more than about 4 in (100 mm) thick. Thermal masses with large exposed areas and those in direct sunlight for at least part of the day (2 hour minimum) perform best. Medium-to-dark, colors with high absorptivity, should be used on surfaces of thermal mass elements that will be in direct sunlight. Thermal mass that is not in contact with sunlight can be any color. Lightweight elements (e.g., drywall walls and ceilings) can be any color. Covering the glazing with tight-fitting, moveable insulation panels during dark, cloudy periods and nighttime hours will greatly enhance performance of a direct-gain system. Water contained within plastic or metal containment and placed in direct sunlight heats more rapidly and more evenly than solid mass due to natural convection heat transfer. The convection process also prevents surface temperatures from becoming too extreme as they sometimes do when dark colored solid mass surfaces receive direct sunlight.
Depending on climate and with adequate thermal mass, south-facing glass area in a direct gain system should be limited to about 10 to 20% of the floor area (e.g., 10 to 20 ft2 of glass for a 100 ft2 floor area). This should be based on the net glass or glazing area. Note that most windows have a net glass/glazing area that is 75 to 85% of the overall window unit area. Above this level, problems with overheating, glare and fading of fabrics are likely.
=== Indirect solar system ===
In an indirect-gain passive solar system, the thermal mass (concrete, masonry, or water) is located directly behind the south-facing glass and in front of the heated indoor space and so there is no direct heating. The position of the mass prevents sunlight from entering the indoor space and can also obstruct the view through the glass. There are two types of indirect gain systems: thermal storage wall systems and roof pond systems.
==== Thermal Storage (Trombe) Walls ====
In a thermal storage wall system, often called a Trombe wall, a massive wall is located directly behind south-facing glass, which absorbs solar energy and releases it selectively towards the building interior at night. The wall can be constructed of cast-in-place concrete, brick, adobe, stone, or solid (or filled) concrete masonry units. Sunlight enters through the glass and is immediately absorbed at the surface of the mass wall and either stored or conducted through the material mass to the inside space. The thermal mass cannot absorb solar energy as fast as it enters the space between the mass and the window area. Temperatures of the air in this space can easily exceed 120 °F (49 °C). This hot air can be introduced into interior spaces behind the wall by incorporating heat-distributing vents at the top of the wall. This wall system was first envisioned and patented in 1881 by its inventor, Edward Morse. Felix Trombe, for whom this system is sometimes named, was a French engineer who built several homes using this design in the French Pyrenees in the 1960s.
A thermal storage wall typically consists of a 4 to 16 in (100 to 400 mm) thick masonry wall coated with a dark, heat-absorbing finish (or a selective surface) and covered with a single or double layer of high transmissivity glass. The glass is typically placed from 3⁄4 in to 2 in from the wall to create a small airspace. In some designs, the mass is located 1 to 2 ft (0.6 m) away from the glass, but the space is still not usable. The surface of the thermal mass absorbs the solar radiation that strikes it and stores it for nighttime use. Unlike a direct gain system, the thermal storage wall system provides passive solar heating without excessive window area and glare in interior spaces. However, the ability to take advantage of views and daylighting are eliminated. The performance of Trombe walls is diminished if the wall interior is not open to the interior spaces. Furniture, bookshelves and wall cabinets installed on the interior surface of the wall will reduce its performance.
A classical Trombe wall, also generically called a vented thermal storage wall, has operable vents near the ceiling and floor levels of the mass wall that allow indoor air to flow through them by natural convection. As solar radiation heats the air trapped between the glass and wall and it begins to rise. Air is drawn into the lower vent, then into the space between the glass and wall to get heated by solar radiation, increasing its temperature and causing it to rise, and then exit through the top (ceiling) vent back into the indoor space. This allows the wall to directly introduce heated air into the space; usually at a temperature of about 90 °F (32 °C).
If vents are left open at night (or on cloudy days), a reversal of convective airflow will occur, wasting heat by dissipating it outdoors. Vents must be closed at night so radiant heat from the interior surface of the storage wall heats the indoor space. Generally, vents are also closed during summer months when heat gain is not needed. During the summer, an exterior exhaust vent installed at the top of the wall can be opened to vent to the outside. Such venting makes the system act as a solar chimney driving air through the building during the day.
Vented thermal storage walls vented to the interior have proven somewhat ineffective, mostly because they deliver too much heat during the day in mild weather and during summer months; they simply overheat and create comfort issues. Most solar experts recommended that thermal storage walls should not be vented to the interior.
There are many variations of the Trombe wall system. An unvented thermal storage wall (technically not a Trombe wall) captures solar energy on the exterior surface, heats up, and conducts heat to the interior surface, where it radiates from the interior wall surface to the indoor space later in the day. A water wall uses a type of thermal mass that consists of tanks or tubes of water used as thermal mass.
A typical unvented thermal storage wall consists of a south facing masonry or concrete wall with a dark, heat-absorbing material on the exterior surface and faced with a single or double layer of glass. High transmission glass maximizes solar gains to the mass wall. The glass is placed from 3⁄4 to 6 in. (20 to 150 mm) from the wall to create a small airspace. Glass framing is typically metal (e.g., aluminum) because vinyl will soften and wood will become super dried at the 180 °F (82 °C) temperature that can exist behind the glass in the wall. Heat from sunlight passing through the glass is absorbed by the dark surface, stored in the wall, and conducted slowly inward through the masonry. As an architectural detail, patterned glass can limit the exterior visibility of the wall without sacrificing solar transmissivity.
A water wall uses containers of water for thermal mass instead of a solid mass wall. Water walls are typically slightly more efficient than solid mass walls because they absorb heat more efficiently due to the development of convective currents in the liquid water as it is heated. These currents cause rapid mixing and quicker transfer of heat into the building than can be provided by the solid mass walls.
Temperature variations between the exterior and interior wall surfaces drive heat through the mass wall. Inside the building, however, daytime heat gain is delayed, only becoming available at the interior surface of the thermal mass during the evening when it is needed because the sun has set. The time lag is the time difference between when sunlight first strikes the wall and when the heat enters the building interior. Time lag is contingent upon the type of material used in the wall and the wall thickness; a greater thickness yields a greater time lag. The time lag characteristic of thermal mass, combined with dampening of temperature fluctuations, allows the use of varying daytime solar energy as a more uniform night-time heat source. Windows can be placed in the wall for natural lighting or aesthetic reasons, but this tends to lower the efficiency somewhat.
The thickness of a thermal storage wall should be approximately 10 to 14 in (250 to 350 mm) for brick, 12 to 18 in (300 to 450 mm) for concrete, 8 to 12 in (200 to 300 mm) for earth/adobe, and at least 6 in (150 mm) for water. These thicknesses delay movement of heat such that indoor surface temperatures peak during late evening hours. Heat will take about 8 to 10 hours to reach the interior of the building (heat travels through a concrete wall at rate of about one inch per hour). A good thermal connection between the inside wall finishes (e.g., drywall) and the thermal mass wall is necessary to maximize heat transfer to the interior space.
Although the position of a thermal storage wall minimizes daytime overheating of the indoor space, a well-insulated building should be limited to approximately 0.2 to 0.3 ft2 of thermal mass wall surface per ft2 of floor area being heated (0.2 to 0.3 m2 per m2 of floor area), depending upon climate. A water wall should have about 0.15 to 0.2 ft2 of water wall surface per ft2 (0.15 to 0.2 m2 per m2) of floor area.
Thermal mass walls are best-suited to sunny winter climates that have high diurnal (day-night) temperature swings (e.g., southwest, mountain-west). They do not perform as well in cloudy or extremely cold climates or in climates where there is not a large diurnal temperature swing. Nighttime thermal losses through the thermal mass of the wall can still be significant in cloudy and cold climates; the wall loses stored heat in less than a day, and then leak heat, which dramatically raises backup heating requirements. Covering the glazing with tight-fitting, moveable insulation panels during lengthy cloudy periods and nighttime hours will enhance performance of a thermal storage system.
The main drawback of thermal storage walls is their heat loss to the outside. Double glass (glass or any of the plastics) is necessary for reducing heat loss in most climates. In mild climates, single glass is acceptable. A selective surface (high-absorbing/low-emitting surface) applied to the exterior surface of the thermal storage wall improves performance by reducing the amount of infrared energy radiated back through the glass; typically, it achieves a similar improvement in performance without the need for daily installation and removal of insulating panels. A selective surface consists of a sheet of metal foil glued to the outside surface of the wall. It absorbs almost all the radiation in the visible portion of the solar spectrum and emits very little in the infrared range. High absorbency turns the light into heat at the wall's surface, and low emittance prevents the heat from radiating back towards the glass.
==== Roof Pond System ====
A roof pond passive solar system, sometimes called a solar roof, uses water stored on the roof to temper hot and cold internal temperatures, usually in desert environments. It typically is constructed of containers holding 6 to 12 in (150 to 300 mm) of water on a flat roof. Water is stored in large plastic bags or fiberglass containers to maximize radiant emissions and minimize evaporation. It can be left unglazed or can be covered by glazing. Solar radiation heats the water, which acts as a thermal storage medium. At night or during cloudy weather, the containers can be covered with insulating panels. The indoor space below the roof pond is heated by thermal energy emitted by the roof pond storage above. These systems require good drainage systems, movable insulation, and an enhanced structural system to support a 35 to 70 lb/ft2 (1.7 to 3.3 kN/m2) dead load.
With the angles of incidence of sunlight during the day, roof ponds are only effective for heating at lower and mid-latitudes, in hot to temperate climates. Roof pond systems perform better for cooling in hot, low humidity climates. Not many solar roofs have been built, and there is limited information on the design, cost, performance, and construction details of thermal storage roofs.
=== Hybrid direct/indirect solar system ===
Kachadorian demonstrated that the drawbacks of thermal storage walls can be overcome by orienting the Trombe wall horizontally instead of vertically. If the thermal storage mass is constructed as a ventilated concrete slab floor instead of as a wall, it does not block sunlight from entering the home (the Trombe wall's most obvious disadvantage) but it can still be exposed to direct sunlight through double-glazed equator-facing windows, which can be further insulated by thermal shutters or shades at night. The Trombe wall's problematic delay in daytime heat capture is eliminated, because heat does not have to be driven through the wall to reach the interior air space: some of it reflects or re-radiates immediately from the floor. Provided the slab has air channels like the Trombe wall, which run through it in the north-south direction and are vented to the interior air space through the concrete slab floor just inside the north and south walls, vigorous air thermosiphoning through the slab still occurs as in the vertical Trombe wall, distributing the impounded heat throughout the house (and cooling the house in summer by the reverse process).
The ventilated horizontal slab is less expensive to construct than vertical Trombe walls, as it forms the foundation of the house which is a necessary expense in any building. Slab-on-grade foundations are a common, well-understood and cost-effective building component (modified only slightly by the inclusion of a layer of concrete-brick air channels), rather than an exotic Trombe wall construct. The only remaining drawback to this kind of thermal mass solar architecture is the absence of a basement, as in any slab-on grade design.
The Kachadorian floor design is a direct-gain passive solar system, but its thermal mass also acts as an indirect heating (or cooling) element, giving up its heat at night. It is an alternating cycle hybrid energy system, like a hybrid electric vehicle.
=== Isolated solar system ===
In an isolated gain passive solar system, the components (e.g., collector and thermal storage) are isolated from the indoor area of the building.
An attached sunspace, also sometimes called a solar room or solarium, is a type of isolated gain solar system with a glazed interior space or room that is part of or attached to a building but which can be completely closed off from the main occupied areas. It functions like an attached greenhouse that makes use of a combination of direct-gain and indirect-gain system characteristics. A sunspace may be called and appear like a greenhouse, but a greenhouse is designed to grow plants whereas a sunspace is designed to provide heat and aesthetics to a building. Sunspaces are very popular passive design elements because they expand the living areas of a building and offer a room to grow plants and other vegetation. In moderate and cold climates, however, supplemental space heating is required to keep plants from freezing during extremely cold weather.
An attached sunspace's south-facing glass collects solar energy as in a direct-gain system. The simplest sunspace design is to install vertical windows with no overhead glazing. Sunspaces may experience high heat gain and high heat loss through their abundance of glazing. Although horizontal and sloped glazing collects more heat in the winter, it is minimized to prevent overheating during summer months. Although overhead glazing can be aesthetically pleasing, an insulated roof provides better thermal performance. Skylights can be used to provide some daylighting potential. Vertical glazing can maximize gain in winter, when the angle of the sun is low, and yield less heat gain during the summer. Vertical glass is less expensive, easier to install and insulate, and not as prone to leaking, fogging, breaking, and other glass failures. A combination of vertical glazing and some sloped glazing is acceptable if summer shading is provided. A well-designed overhang may be all that is necessary to shade the glazing in the summer.
The temperature variations caused by the heat losses and gains can be moderated by thermal mass and low-emissivity windows. Thermal mass can include a masonry floor, a masonry wall bordering the house, or water containers. Distribution of heat to the building can be accomplished through ceiling and floor level vents, windows, doors, or fans. In a common design, thermal mass wall situated on the back of the sunspace adjacent to the living space will function like an indirect-gain thermal mass wall. Solar energy entering the sunspace is retained in the thermal mass. Solar heat is conveyed into the building by conduction through the shared mass wall in the rear of the sunspace and by vents (like an unvented thermal storage wall) or through openings in the wall that permit airflow from the sunspace to the indoor space by convection (like a vented thermal storage wall).
In cold climates, double glazing should be used to reduce conductive losses through the glass to the outside. Night-time heat loss, although significant during winter months, is not as essential in the sunspace as with direct gain systems since the sunspace can be closed off from the rest of the building. In temperate and cold climates, thermally isolating the sunspace from the building at night is important. Large glass panels, French doors, or sliding glass doors between the building and attached sunspace will maintain an open feeling without the heat loss associated with an open space.
A sunspace with a masonry thermal wall will need approximately 0.3 ft2 of thermal mass wall surface per ft2 of floor area being heated (0.3 m2 per m2 of floor area), depending on climate. Wall thicknesses should be similar to a thermal storage wall. If a water wall is used between the sunspace and living space, about 0.20 ft2 of thermal mass wall surface per ft2 of floor area being heated (0.2 m2 per m2 of floor area) is appropriate. In most climates, a ventilation system is required in summer months to prevent overheating. Generally, vast overhead (horizontal) and east- and west-facing glass areas should not be used in a sunspace without special precautions for summer overheating such as using heat-reflecting glass and providing summer-shading systems areas.
The internal surfaces of the thermal mass should be dark in color. Movable insulation (e.g., window coverings, shades, shutters) can be used help trap the warm air in the sunspace both after the sun has set and during cloudy weather. When closed during extremely hot days, window coverings can help keep the sunspace from overheating.
To maximize comfort and efficiency, the non-glass sunspace walls, ceiling and foundation should be well insulated. The perimeter of the foundation wall or slab should be insulated to the frost line or around the slab perimeter. In a temperate or cold climate, the east and west walls of the sunspace should be insulated (no glass).
== Additional measures ==
Measures should be taken to reduce heat loss at night e.g. window coverings or movable window insulation.
=== Heat storage ===
The sun doesn't shine all the time. Heat storage, or thermal mass, keeps the building warm when the sun can't heat it.
In diurnal solar houses, the storage is designed for one or a few days. The usual method is a custom-constructed thermal mass. This includes a Trombe wall, a ventilated concrete floor, a cistern, water wall or roof pond. It is also feasible to use the thermal mass of the earth itself, either as-is or by incorporation into the structure by banking or using rammed earth as a structural medium.
In subarctic areas, or areas that have long terms without solar gain (e.g. weeks of freezing fog), purpose-built thermal mass is very expensive. Don Stephens pioneered an experimental technique to use the ground as thermal mass large enough for annualized heat storage. His designs run an isolated thermosiphon 3 m under a house, and insulate the ground with a 6 m waterproof skirt.
=== Insulation ===
Thermal insulation or superinsulation (type, placement and amount) reduces unwanted leakage of heat. Some passive buildings are actually constructed of insulation.
=== Special glazing systems and window coverings ===
The effectiveness of direct solar gain systems is significantly enhanced by insulative (e.g. double glazing), spectrally selective glazing (low-e), or movable window insulation (window quilts, bifold interior insulation shutters, shades, etc.).
Generally, Equator-facing windows should not employ glazing coatings that inhibit solar gain.
There is extensive use of super-insulated windows in the German Passive House standard. Selection of different spectrally selective window coating depends on the ratio of heating versus cooling degree days for the design location.
=== Glazing selection ===
==== Equator-facing glass ====
The requirement for vertical equator-facing glass is different from the other three sides of a building. Reflective window coatings and multiple panes of glass can reduce useful solar gain. However, direct-gain systems are more dependent on double or triple glazing or even quadruple glazing in higher geographic latitudes to reduce heat loss. Indirect-gain and isolated-gain configurations may still be able to function effectively with only single-pane glazing. Nevertheless, the optimal cost-effective solution is both location and system dependent.
==== Roof-angle glass and skylights ====
Skylights admit harsh direct overhead sunlight and glare either horizontally (a flat roof) or pitched at the same angle as the roof slope. In some cases, horizontal skylights are used with reflectors to increase the intensity of solar radiation (and harsh glare), depending on the roof angle of incidence. When the winter sun is low on the horizon, most solar radiation reflects off of roof angled glass ( the angle of incidence is nearly parallel to roof-angled glass morning and afternoon ). When the summer sun is high, it is nearly perpendicular to roof-angled glass, which maximizes solar gain at the wrong time of year, and acts like a solar furnace. Skylights should be covered and well-insulated to reduce natural convection ( warm air rising ) heat loss on cold winter nights, and intense solar heat gain during hot spring/summer/fall days.
The equator-facing side of a building is south in the northern hemisphere, and north in the southern hemisphere. Skylights on roofs that face away from the equator provide mostly indirect illumination, except for summer days when the sun may rise on the non-equator side of the building (at some latitudes). Skylights on east-facing roofs provide maximum direct light and solar heat gain in the summer morning. West-facing skylights provide afternoon sunlight and heat gain during the hottest part of the day.
Some skylights have expensive glazing that partially reduces summer solar heat gain, while still allowing some visible light transmission. However, if visible light can pass through it, so can some radiant heat gain (they are both electromagnetic radiation waves).
You can partially reduce some of the unwanted roof-angled-glazing summer solar heat gain by installing a skylight in the shade of deciduous (leaf-shedding) trees, or by adding a movable insulated opaque window covering on the inside or outside of the skylight. This would eliminate the daylight benefit in the summer. If tree limbs hang over a roof, they will increase problems with leaves in rain gutters, possibly cause roof-damaging ice dams, shorten roof life, and provide an easier path for pests to enter your attic. Leaves and twigs on skylights are unappealing, difficult to clean, and can increase the glazing breakage risk in wind storms.
"Sawtooth roof glazing" with vertical-glass-only can bring some of the passive solar building design benefits into the core of a commercial or industrial building, without the need for any roof-angled glass or skylights.
Skylights provide daylight. The only view they provide is essentially straight up in most applications. Well-insulated light tubes can bring daylight into northern rooms, without using a skylight. A passive-solar greenhouse provides abundant daylight for the equator-side of the building.
Infrared thermography color thermal imaging cameras ( used in formal energy audits ) can quickly document the negative thermal impact of roof-angled glass or a skylight on a cold winter night or hot summer day.
The U.S. Department of Energy states: "vertical glazing is the overall best option for sunspaces." Roof-angled glass and sidewall glass are not recommended for passive solar sunspaces.
The U.S. DOE explains drawbacks to roof-angled glazing: Glass and plastic have little structural strength. When installed vertically, glass (or plastic) bears its own weight because only a small area (the top edge of the glazing) is subject to gravity. As the glass tilts off the vertical axis, however, an increased area (now the sloped cross-section) of the glazing has to bear the force of gravity. Glass is also brittle; it does not flex much before breaking. To counteract this, you usually must increase the thickness of the glazing or increase the number of structural supports to hold the glazing. Both increase overall cost, and the latter will reduce the amount of solar gain into the sunspace.
Another common problem with sloped glazing is its increased exposure to the weather. It is difficult to maintain a good seal on roof-angled glass in intense sunlight. Hail, sleet, snow, and wind may cause material failure. For occupant safety, regulatory agencies usually require sloped glass to be made of safety glass, laminated, or a combination thereof, which reduce solar gain potential. Most of the roof-angled glass on the Crowne Plaza Hotel Orlando Airport sunspace was destroyed in a single windstorm. Roof-angled glass increases construction cost, and can increase insurance premiums. Vertical glass is less susceptible to weather damage than roof-angled glass.
It is difficult to control solar heat gain in a sunspace with sloped glazing during the summer and even during the middle of a mild and sunny winter day. Skylights are the antithesis of zero energy building Passive Solar Cooling in climates with an air conditioning requirement.
==== Angle of incident radiation ====
The amount of solar gain transmitted through glass is also affected by the angle of the incident solar radiation. Sunlight striking a single sheet of glass within 45 degrees of perpendicular is mostly transmitted (less than 10% is reflected), whereas for sunlight striking at 70 degrees from perpendicular over 20% of light is reflected, and above 70 degrees this percentage reflected rises sharply.
All of these factors can be modeled more precisely with a photographic light meter and a heliodon or optical bench, which can quantify the ratio of reflectivity to transmissivity, based on angle of incidence.
Alternatively, passive solar computer software can determine the impact of sun path, and cooling-and-heating degree days on energy performance.
=== Operable shading and insulation devices ===
A design with too much equator-facing glass can result in excessive winter, spring, or fall day heating, uncomfortably bright living spaces at certain times of the year, and excessive heat transfer on winter nights and summer days.
Although the sun is at the same altitude 6-weeks before and after the solstice, the heating and cooling requirements before and after the solstice are significantly different. Heat storage on the Earth's surface causes "thermal lag." Variable cloud cover influences solar gain potential. This means that latitude-specific fixed window overhangs, while important, are not a complete seasonal solar gain control solution.
Control mechanisms (such as manual-or-motorized interior insulated drapes, shutters, exterior roll-down shade screens, or retractable awnings) can compensate for differences caused by thermal lag or cloud cover, and help control daily / hourly solar gain requirement variations.
Home automation systems that monitor temperature, sunlight, time of day, and room occupancy can precisely control motorized window-shading-and-insulation devices.
=== Exterior colors reflecting – absorbing ===
Materials and colors can be chosen to reflect or absorb solar thermal energy. Using information on a color for electromagnetic radiation to determine its thermal radiation properties of reflection or absorption can assist the choices.
In cold climates with short winter days direct-gain systems utilizing equator-facing windows may actually perform better when snow covers the ground, since reflected as well as direct sunlight will enter the house and be captured as heat.
== Landscaping and gardens ==
Energy-efficient landscaping materials for careful passive solar choices include hardscape building material and "softscape" plants. The use of landscape design principles for selection of trees, hedges, and trellis-pergola features with vines; all can be used to create summer shading. For winter solar gain it is desirable to use deciduous plants that drop their leaves in the autumn gives year round passive solar benefits. Non-deciduous evergreen shrubs and trees can be windbreaks, at variable heights and distances, to create protection and shelter from winter wind chill. Xeriscaping with 'mature size appropriate' native species of-and drought tolerant plants, drip irrigation, mulching, and organic gardening practices reduce or eliminate the need for energy-and-water-intensive irrigation, gas powered garden equipment, and reduces the landfill waste footprint. Solar powered landscape lighting and fountain pumps, and covered swimming pools and plunge pools with solar water heaters can reduce the impact of such amenities.
Sustainable gardening
Sustainable landscaping
Sustainable landscape architecture
== Other passive solar principles ==
=== Passive solar lighting ===
Passive solar lighting techniques enhance taking advantage of natural illumination for interiors, and so reduce reliance on artificial lighting systems.
This can be achieved by careful building design, orientation, and placement of window sections to collect light. Other creative solutions involve the use of reflecting surfaces to admit daylight into the interior of a building. Window sections should be adequately sized, and to avoid over-illumination can be shielded with a Brise soleil, awnings, well placed trees, glass coatings, and other passive and active devices.
Another major issue for many window systems is that they can be potentially vulnerable sites of excessive thermal gain or heat loss. Whilst high mounted clerestory window and traditional skylights can introduce daylight in poorly oriented sections of a building, unwanted heat transfer may be hard to control. Thus, energy that is saved by reducing artificial lighting is often more than offset by the energy required for operating HVAC systems to maintain thermal comfort.
Various methods can be employed to address this including but not limited to window coverings, insulated glazing and novel materials such as aerogel semi-transparent insulation, optical fiber embedded in walls or roof, or hybrid solar lighting at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Reflecting elements, from active and passive daylighting collectors, such as light shelves, lighter wall and floor colors, mirrored wall sections, interior walls with upper glass panels, and clear or translucent glassed hinged doors and sliding glass doors take the captured light and passively reflect it further inside. The light can be from passive windows or skylights and solar light tubes or from active daylighting sources. In traditional Japanese architecture the Shōji sliding panel doors, with translucent Washi screens, are an original precedent. International style, Modernist and Mid-century modern architecture were earlier innovators of this passive penetration and reflection in industrial, commercial, and residential applications.
=== Passive solar water heating ===
There are many ways to use solar thermal energy to heat water for domestic use. Different active-and-passive solar hot water technologies have different location-specific economic cost benefit analysis implications.
Fundamental passive solar hot water heating involves no pumps or anything electrical. It is very cost effective in climates that do not have lengthy sub-freezing, or very-cloudy, weather conditions. Other active solar water heating technologies, etc. may be more appropriate for some locations.
It is possible to have active solar hot water which is also capable of being "off grid" and qualifies as sustainable. This is done by the use of a photovoltaic cell which uses energy from the sun to power the pumps.
== Comparison to the Passive House standard in Europe ==
There is growing momentum in Europe for the approach espoused by the Passive House (Passivhaus in German) Institute in Germany. Rather than relying solely on traditional passive solar design techniques, this approach seeks to make use of all passive sources of heat, minimises energy usage, and emphasises the need for high levels of insulation reinforced by meticulous attention to detail in order to address thermal bridging and cold air infiltration. Most of the buildings built to the Passive House standard also incorporate an active heat recovery ventilation unit with or without a small (typically 1 kW) incorporated heating component.
The energy design of Passive House buildings is developed using a spreadsheet-based modeling tool called the Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) which is updated periodically. The current version is PHPP 9.6 (2018). A building may be certified as a "Passive House" when it can be shown that it meets certain criteria, the most important being that the annual specific heat demand for the house should not exceed 15kWh/m2a.
== Comparison to the Zero heating building ==
With advances in ultra low U-value glazing a Passive House-based (nearly) zero heating building is proposed to supersede the nearly-zero energy buildings in EU. The zero heating building reduces on the passive solar design and makes the building more opened to conventional architectural design.
The annual specific heat demand for the zero-heating house should not exceed 3 kWh/m2a. Zero heating building is simpler to design and to operate. For example: there is no need for modulated sun shading in zero-heating houses.
== Design tools ==
Traditionally a heliodon was used to simulate the altitude and azimuth of the sun shining on a model building at any time of any day of the year. In modern times, computer programs can model this phenomenon and integrate local climate data (including site impacts such as overshadowing and physical obstructions) to predict the solar gain potential for a particular building design over the course of a year. GPS-based smartphone applications can now do this inexpensively on a hand held device. These design tools provide the passive solar designer the ability to evaluate local conditions, design elements and orientation prior to construction. Energy performance optimization normally requires an iterative-refinement design-and-evaluate process. There is no such thing as a "one-size-fits-all" universal passive solar building design that would work well in all locations.
== Levels of application ==
Many detached suburban houses can achieve reductions in heating expense without obvious changes to their appearance, comfort or usability. This is done using good siting and window positioning, small amounts of thermal mass, with good-but-conventional insulation, weatherization, and an occasional supplementary heat source, such as a central radiator connected to a (solar) water heater. Sunrays may fall on a wall during the daytime and raise the temperature of its thermal mass. This will then radiate heat into the building in the evening. External shading, or a radiant barrier plus air gap, may be used to reduce undesirable summer solar gain.
An extension of the "passive solar" approach to seasonal solar capture and storage of heat and cooling. These designs attempt to capture warm-season solar heat, and convey it to a seasonal thermal store for use months later during the cold season ("annualised passive solar.") Increased storage is achieved by employing large amounts of thermal mass or earth coupling. Anecdotal reports suggest they can be effective but no formal study has been conducted to demonstrate their superiority. The approach also can move cooling into the warm season. Examples:
Passive Annual Heat Storage (PAHS) – by John Hait
Annualized Geothermal Solar (AGS) heating – by Don Stephen
Earthed-roof
A "purely passive" solar-heated house would have no mechanical furnace unit, relying instead on energy captured from sunshine, only supplemented by "incidental" heat energy given off by lights, computers, and other task-specific appliances (such as those for cooking, entertainment, etc.), showering, people and pets. The use of natural convection air currents (rather than mechanical devices such as fans) to circulate air is related, though not strictly solar design. Passive solar building design sometimes uses limited electrical and mechanical controls to operate dampers, insulating shutters, shades, awnings, or reflectors. Some systems enlist small fans or solar-heated chimneys to improve convective air-flow. A reasonable way to analyse these systems is by measuring their coefficient of performance. A heat pump might use 1 J for every 4 J it delivers giving a COP of 4. A system that only uses a 30 W fan to more-evenly distribute 10 kW of solar heat through an entire house would have a COP of 300.
Passive solar building design is often a foundational element of a cost-effective zero energy building. Although a ZEB uses multiple passive solar building design concepts, a ZEB is usually not purely passive, having active mechanical renewable energy generation systems such as: wind turbine, photovoltaics, micro hydro, geothermal, and other emerging alternative energy sources. Passive solar is also a core building design strategy for passive survivability, along with other passive strategies.
=== Passive solar design on skyscrapers ===
There has been recent interest in the utilization of the large amounts of surface area on skyscrapers to improve their overall energy efficiency. Because skyscrapers are increasingly ubiquitous in urban environments, yet require large amounts of energy to operate, there is potential for large amounts of energy savings employing passive solar design techniques. One study, which analyzed the proposed 22 Bishopsgate tower in London, found that a 35% energy decrease in demand can theoretically be achieved through indirect solar gains, by rotating the building to achieve optimum ventilation and daylight penetration, usage of high thermal mass flooring material to decrease temperature fluctuation inside the building, and using double or triple glazed low emissivity window glass for direct solar gain. Indirect solar gain techniques included moderating wall heat flow by variations of wall thickness (from 20 to 30 cm), using window glazing on the outdoor space to prevent heat loss, dedicating 15–20% of floor area for thermal storage, and implementing a Trombe wall to absorb heat entering the space. Overhangs are used to block direct sunlight in the summer, and allow it in the winter, and heat reflecting blinds are inserted between the thermal wall and the glazing to limit heat build-up in the summer months.
Another study analyzed double-green skin facade (DGSF) on the outside of high-rise buildings in Hong Kong. Such a green facade, or vegetation covering the outer walls, can combat the usage of air conditioning greatly - as much as 80%, as discovered by the researchers.
In more temperate climates, strategies such as glazing, adjustment of window-to-wall ratio, sun shading and roof strategies can offer considerable energy savings, in the 30% to 60% range.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== External links ==
www.solarbuildings.ca – Canadian Solar Buildings Research Network
www.eere.energy.gov – US Department of Energy (DOE) Guidelines
"Passive Solar Building Design". Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. U.S. Department of Energy. Archived from the original on 2011-04-06. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
www.climatechange.gov.au – Australian Dept of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency
www.ornl.gov – Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) Building Technology
www.FSEC.UCF.edu – Florida Solar Energy Center
Passive Solar Design Guidelines
www.PassiveSolarEnergy.info – Passive Solar Energy Technology Overview
www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/index.html – Your Home Technical Manual developed by the Commonwealth of Australia to provide information about how to design, build and live in environmentally sustainable homes.
amergin.tippinst.ie/downloadsEnergyArchhtml.html- Energy in Architecture, The European Passive Solar Handbook, Goulding J.R, Owen Lewis J, Steemers Theo C, Sponsored by the European Commission, published by Batsford 1986, reprinted 1993 | Wikipedia/Passive_solar_building_design |
Type design is the art and process of designing typefaces. This involves drawing each letterform using a consistent style. The basic concepts and design variables are described below.
A typeface differs from other modes of graphic production such as handwriting and drawing in that it is a fixed set of alphanumeric characters with specific characteristics to be used repetitively. Historically, these were physical elements, called sorts, placed in a wooden frame; modern typefaces are stored and used electronically. It is the art of a type designer to develop a pleasing and functional typeface. In contrast, it is the task of the typographer (or typesetter) to lay out a page using a typeface that is appropriate to the work to be printed or displayed.
Type designers use the basic concepts of strokes, counter, body, and structural groups when designing typefaces. There are also variables that type designers take into account when creating typefaces. These design variables are style, weight, contrast, width, posture, and case.
== History ==
The technology of printing text using movable type was invented in China, but the vast number of Chinese characters, and the esteem with which calligraphy was held, meant that few distinctive, complete typefaces were created in China in the early centuries of printing.
Gutenberg's most important innovation in the mid 15th century development of his press was not the printing itself, but the casting of Latinate types. Unlike Chinese characters, which are based on a uniform square area, European Latin characters vary in width, from the very wide "M" to the slender "l". Gutenberg developed an adjustable mold which could accommodate an infinite variety of widths. From then until at least 400 years later, type started with cutting punches, which would be struck into a brass "matrix". The matrix was inserted into the bottom of the adjustable meld and the negative space formed by the mold cavity plus the matrix acted as the master for each letter that was cast. The casting material was an alloy usually containing lead, which had a low melting point, cooled readily, and could be easily filed and finished. In those early days, type design had to not only imitate the familiar handwritten forms common to readers, but also account for the limitations of the printing process, such as the rough papers of uneven thicknesses, the squeezing or splashing properties of the ink, and the eventual wear on the type itself.
Beginning in the 1890s, each character was drawn in a very large size for the American Type Founders Corporation and a few others using their technology—over a foot (30 cm) high. The outline was then traced by a Benton pantograph-based engraving machine with a pointer at the hand-held vertex and a cutting tool at the opposite vertex down to a size usually less than a quarter-inch (6 mm). The pantographic engraver was first used to cut punches, and later to directly create matrices.
In the late 1960s through the 1980s, typesetting moved from metal to photo composition. During this time, type design made a similar transition from physical matrixes to hand drawn letters on vellum or mylar and then the precise cutting of "rubyliths". Rubylith was a common material in the printing trade, in which a red transparent film, very soft and pliable, was bonded to a supporting clear acetate. Placing the ruby over the master drawing of the letter, the craftsman would gently and precisely cut through the upper film and peel the non-image portions away. The resulting letterform, now existing as the remaining red material still adhering to the clear substrate, would then be ready to be photographed using a reproduction camera.
With the coming of computers, type design became a form of computer graphics. Initially, this transition occurred with a program called Ikarus around 1980, but widespread transition began with programs such as Aldus Freehand and Adobe Illustrator, and finally to dedicated type design programs called font editors, such as Fontographer and FontLab. This process occurred rapidly: by the mid-1990s, virtually all commercial type design had transitioned to digital vector drawing programs.
Each glyph design can be drawn or traced by a stylus on a digitizing board, or modified from a scanned drawing, or composed entirely within the program itself. Each glyph is then in a digital form, either in a bitmap (pixel-based) or vector (scalable outline) format. A given digitization of a typeface can easily be modified by another type designer; such a modified font is usually considered a derivative work, and is covered by the copyright of the original font software.
Type design could be copyrighted typeface by typeface in many countries, though not the United States. The United States offered and continues to offer design patents as an option for typeface design protection.
== Basic concepts ==
=== Stroke ===
The shape of designed letterforms and other characters are defined by strokes arranged in specific combinations. This shaping and construction has a basis in the gestural movements of handwriting. The visual qualities of a given stroke are derived from factors surrounding its formation: the kind of tool used, the angle at which the tool is dragged across a surface, and the degree of pressure applied from beginning to end. The stroke is the positive form that establishes a character's archetypal shape.: 49
=== Counter ===
The spaces created between and around strokes are called counters (also known as counterforms). These negative forms help to define the proportion, density, and rhythm of letterforms. The counter is an integral element in Western typography, however this concept may not apply universally to non-Western typographic traditions. More complex scripts, such as Chinese, which make use of compounding elements (radicals) within a single character may additionally require consideration of spacing not only between characters but also within characters.
=== Body ===
The overall proportion of characters, or their body, considers proportions of width and height for all cases involved (which in Latin are uppercase and lowercase), and individually for each character. In the former case, a grid system is used to delineate vertical proportions and gridlines (such as the baseline, mean line/x-height, cap line, descent line, and ascent line). In the latter case, letterforms of a typeface may be designed with variable bodies, making the typeface proportional, or they may be designed to fit within a single body measure, making the typeface fixed width or monospaced.
=== Structural groups ===
When designing letterforms, characters with analogous structures can be grouped in consideration of their shared visual qualities. In Latin, for example, archetypal groups can be made on the basis of the dominant strokes of each letter: verticals and horizontals (E F H L T), diagonals (V W X), verticals and diagonals (K M N Y), horizontals and diagonals (A Z), circular strokes (C O Q S), circular strokes and verticals (B D G P R U), and verticals (I J).
== Design variables ==
Type design takes into consideration a number of design variables which are delineated based on writing system and vary in consideration of functionality, aesthetic quality, cultural expectations, and historical context.: 48
=== Style ===
Style describes several different aspects of typeface variability historically related to character and function. This includes variations in:
Structural class (such as serif, sans serif, and script typefaces)
Historical class (such as oldstyle, transitional, neoclassical, grotesque, humanist, etc.)
Relative neutrality (ranging from neutral typefaces to stylized typefaces)
Functional use (such as text, display, and caption typefaces)
=== Weight ===
Weight refers to the thickness or thinness of a typeface's strokes in a global sense. Typefaces usually have a default medium, or regular, weight which will produce the appearance of a uniform grey value when set in text. Categories of weight include hairline, thin, extra light, light, book, regular/medium, semibold, bold, black/heavy, and extra black/ultra.
Variable fonts are computer fonts that are able to store and make use of a continuous range of weight (and size) variants of a single typeface.
=== Contrast ===
Contrast refers to the variation in weight that may exist internally within each character, between thin strokes and thick strokes. More extreme contrasts will produce texts with more uneven typographic color. At a smaller scale, strokes within a character may individually also exhibit contrasts in weight, which is called modulation.
=== Width ===
Each character within a typeface has its own overall width relative to its height. These proportions may be changed globally so that characters are narrowed or widened. Typefaces that are narrowed are called condensed typefaces, while those that are widened are called extended typefaces.
=== Posture ===
Letterform structures may be structured in a way that changes the angle between upright stem structures and the typeface's baseline, changing the overall posture of the typeface. In Latin script typefaces, a typeface is categorized as a Roman when this angle is perpendicular. A forward-leaning angle produces either an Italic, if the letterforms are designed with reanalyzed cursive forms, or an oblique, if the letterforms are slanted mechanically. A back-leaning angle produces a reverse oblique, or backslanted, posture.
=== Case ===
A proportion of writing systems are bicameral, distinguishing between two parallel sets of letters that vary in use based on prescribed grammar or convention. These sets of letters are known as cases. The larger case is called uppercase or capitals (also known as majuscule) and the smaller case is called lowercase (also known as minuscule). Typefaces may also include a set of small capitals, which are uppercase forms designed in the same height and weight as lowercase forms. Other writing systems are unicameral, meaning only one case exists for letterforms. Bicameral writing systems may have typefaces with unicase designs, which mix uppercase and lowercase letterforms within a single case.
== Principles ==
The design of a legible text-based typeface remains one of the most challenging assignments in graphic design. The even visual quality of the reading material being of paramount importance, each drawn character (called a glyph) must be even in appearance with every other glyph regardless of order or sequence. Also, if the typeface is to be versatile, it must appear the same whether it is small or large. Because of optical illusions that occur when we apprehend small or large objects, this entails that in the best fonts, a version is designed for small use and another version is drawn for large, display, applications. Also, large letterforms reveal their shape, whereas small letterforms in text settings reveal only their textures: this requires that any typeface that aspires to versatility in both text and display, needs to be evaluated in both of these visual domains. A beautifully shaped typeface may not have a particularly attractive or legible texture when seen in text settings.
Spacing is also an important part of type design. Each glyph consists not only of the shape of the character, but also the white space around it. The type designer must consider the relationship of the space within a letter form (the counter) and the letter spacing between them.
Designing type requires many accommodations for the quirks of human perception, "optical corrections" required to make shapes look right, in ways that diverge from what might seem mathematically right. For example, round shapes need to be slightly bigger than square ones to appear "the same" size ("overshoot"), and vertical lines need to be thicker than horizontal ones to appear the same thickness. For a character to be perceived as geometrically round, it must usually be slightly "squared" off (made slightly wider at the shoulders). As a result of all these subtleties, excellence in type design is highly respected in the design professions.
== Profession ==
Type design is performed by a type designer. It is a craft, blending elements of art and science. In the pre-digital era it was primarily learned through apprenticeship and professional training within the industry. Since the mid-1990s it has become the subject of dedicated degree programs at a handful of universities, including the MA Typeface Design at the University of Reading (UK) and the Type Media program at the KABK (Royal Academy of Art in the Hague). At the same time, the transition to digital type and font editors which can be inexpensive (or even open source and free) has led to a great democratization of type design; the craft is accessible to anyone with the interest to pursue it, nevertheless, it may take a very long time for the serious artist to master.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Stiebner, Erhardt D. & Dieter Urban. Initials and Decorative Alphabets. Poole, England: Blandford Press, 1985. ISBN 0-7137-1640-1 | Wikipedia/Type_design |
Color, Materials, Finish (CMF) is an area of industrial design that focuses on the chromatic, tactile and decorative identity of products and environments.
== Characteristics ==
CMF design uses metadesign logic, the simultaneous planning of the identity of entire ranges of products for a given brand. This makes it possible, for example, to adopt a single color matrix, instead of using a series of separate and different color cards for each line of products, as previously done. A contribution to the development of this approach to design was the impetus provided by the proliferation in the 1980s of complete ranges of new systemic products.
Brand products are often thought up by different designers who through the use of ad-hoc CMF design manuals can work together to ensure a unique but coordinated identity for the products. This working process is advantageous in terms of the choice of color base for systemic products that are either of heterogeneous origin or are considered OEM products. The latter, even if characterized by different forms, can be connoted with the base colors or materials that are representative of the brand due to CMF design. Since CMF design manuals and the color matrix have a prescriptive role, the designers who create them are rarely involved in the applicative distribution either of colors, materials or finishes of individual products.
== Bibliography ==
Hope, Augustine (Fall 1983). "Herman Miller: Color Systems for Systems Furniture". American Fabrics and Fashions (129): 43–50.
Marberry, Sarah O. (January 1985). "Compendium helps designers coordinate color program". Contract. p. 99.
Thomas, Mitchell C. (1996). New Thinking In Design. Conversations on Theory and Practice. Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 60–71. ISBN 9780442017330.
== References == | Wikipedia/CMF_design |
Traffic sign design involves any tasks in the process of designing traffic signage. Traffic signs may provide information about the law, warn about dangerous conditions and guide roadway users. Traffic signs vary depending upon their use, using different symbols, colors and shapes for easy identification.
== Types of signs ==
=== Regulatory signs on the road ===
Regulatory signs “give a direction that must be obeyed.” Often these signs show a content or action that is either mandatory or prohibited and these two modes are signified by colour (i.e. blue and red), orientation (i.e. a filled circle and an open circle with a diagonal line through the centre) and/or shape (i.e. a square and triangle). In the UK, positive upright signs are generally circular with a white border and symbol on a blue background. In Ontario, Canada, positive signs have a green circle. The colour red is used almost universally to prohibit a certain activity, however a vide variety of designs exist even for most stop signs. In the United States, regulatory signs usually have a white background.
=== Warning signs ===
Warning signs give a warning of that there are dangerous or unusual conditions ahead (a curve, turn, dip or sideroad). They are usually diamond-shaped and have a yellow background with black letters or symbols.
Often these signs have a greater more conspicuous presence than a regulatory sign. These signs often do not have much text on them, as they should be internationally understood due to the nature of the message that they are conveying.
=== Information/directional signs ===
Information signs give information about direction and distance, usually guiding drivers to destinations, facilities, services and attractions. Often these signs have names of locations with an arrow pointing towards the direction of the destination and a number giving the approximate distance.
In the United States, these signs typically have a green background. Signs giving direction to roadside services, such as rest areas and fuel stations, have blue backgrounds, while signs providing guidance to recreational locations have brown backgrounds.
=== Temporary condition signs ===
These non-permanent temporary signs are erected to warn drivers of unexpected conditions such as road work zones, diversions, detours, lane closures and traffic control.
Often these signs are portable and can also be digital variable message signs. In the United States, these signs are typically orange in color.
== Interaction design and traffic signs ==
When designing traffic signs it is recommended to follow the four basic steps of interaction design: Identifying needs and establishing user requirements, developing alternative designs, building interactive versions, evaluating the designs.
=== Identifying needs and establishing requirements ===
Drivers, cyclists, pedestrians and other types of pedestrians are the users that will be interacting with traffic signs. These users are using the roadways for transportation purposes and must receive information about the roadways and their destinations as they are traveling.
=== Developing alternative designs ===
This task is divided into two categories: conceptual design and physical design. Conceptual design will be the discussion of alternative traffic signs and ways of conveying information to the users. Physical design will be the discussion of what physical aspects (i.e. colour, shape, orientation) will be on the sign to convey the messages identified during the conceptual design.
=== Building interactive versions ===
This task is the actual building of traffic signs. These can be prototypes of a very low or very high fidelity.
=== Evaluating designs ===
This task is the testing of the prototypes and actual signs in order to determine if they convey the desired message in the desired time by the appropriate users. This will let the users know the usability of their signs.
== Design principles ==
Traffic sign comprehension and understandability are higher when the signs comply with ergonomic principles. It is recommended to follow the below principles in order to increase driver comprehension and understandability.
=== Spatial compatibility ===
The matching between the physical symbols on a sign with the literal directions/information the sign is trying to convey. “The physical arrangement in space, relative to the position of information and directions.” For example, a regulatory sign that informs a driver that they must turn right, should have an image of an arrow that curves to the right.
=== Conceptual compatibility ===
The correct association between the physical symbols on a sign and the information the sign is trying to convey. Good conceptual compatibility means that a driver will know the meaning of a symbol without having to reflect and interpret its meaning. For example, a sign with a picture of an airplane is a clear indication that the sign is providing direction to an airport.
=== Physical representation ===
The similarity between the information that is being represented and the actual content on a sign. Good physical representation means that a driver will experience what is shown on a sign. Signs for pedestrian crossings, for example, show an image of a person walking.
=== Frequency ===
The frequency that which a sign appears will determine how familiar it is to drivers. Good frequency means that the sign is used often and that the meaning of its contents is well known. As an example, speed limit signs need to be placed frequently enough that a driver will see a sign when they need to know the speed limit.
=== Standardization ===
The extent to which any sign can be grouped into a type of sign with similar or equal shape, colour and orientation. Good standardization means that all signs of the same type have the same template of shape, colour and orientation. Ideally standardization should be across cities, regions and countries. In the United States, the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) sets standard shapes and designs for signs throughout the United States to ensure that they are consistent. The Convention on Road Signs and Signals, commonly known as the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, is a multilateral treaty to standardize the signing system for road traffic in use internationally.
=== Singular functionality ===
The representation of only a single meaning for a single sign. Good singular functionality means that a sign that gives information should not also imply a regulatory meaning or another piece of related information. This means that a school zone warning sign only provides a warning that there is a school nearby. A change in speed limit would require a separate sign.
=== Visibility ===
The extent to which any sign can be seen. It should be visible by drivers of all age groups from an appropriate distance that will allow the driver to react to the signs contents. Visibility also means that the sign has enough contrast with the background to be conspicuous and that the contents on the sign have enough contrast with the background of the sign to be conspicuous. Most countries have regulatory manuals that specify the size of signs for roadways of certain speeds to ensure that signs are readable at the expected travel speed. Having contrasting colors, such as black on white, helps ensure visibility of signs, especially at night. Visibility can also be improved by lighting a sign, using either the power grid or solar power.
== References ==
== External links == | Wikipedia/Traffic_sign_design |
Corrugated box design is the process of matching design factors for corrugated fiberboard (sometimes called corrugated cardboard) or corrugated plastic boxes with the functional physical, processing and end-use requirements. Packaging engineers work to meet the performance requirements of a box while controlling total costs throughout the system. Corrugated boxes are shipping containers used for transport packaging and have important functional and economic considerations.
In addition to the structural design, printed bar codes, labels, and graphic design can also be important.
== Functions ==
Corrugated boxes are used frequently as shipping containers. Boxes need to contain the product from manufacturing through distribution to sale and sometimes end-use. Boxes provide some measure of product protection by themselves but often require inner components such as cushioning, bracing and blocking to help protect fragile contents. The shipping hazards depend largely upon the particular logistics system being employed. For example, boxes unitized into a unit load on a pallet do not encounter individual handling while boxes sorted and shipped through part of their distribution cycle as mixed loads or express carriers can receive severe shocks, kicks, and so forth.
Ordinary shipping containers require printing and labels to identify the contents, provide legal and regulatory information, and bar codes for routing. Boxes that are used for marketing, merchandising and point-of-sale often have high graphics to help communicate the contents. Some boxes are designed for the display of contents on the shelf known as "Retail Ready Packaging". Others are designed to help dispense the contents. Popular for their strength, durability, lightness, recyclability, and cost-effectiveness, corrugated boxes are used for the shipping of a variety of items. Due to the quality and safety of packaging items in corrugated boxes, they are used widely in the food industry. The boxes handle the pressure that comes with stacking, making them ideal for easy transporting.
More than 95% of all products in the United States are shipped in corrugated boxes. Corrugated paperboard accounts for more than half of all the paper recycled in the US.
=== Stacking strength ===
One of the important functions of a corrugated box is to provide crush resistance (product protection) and adequate strength for stacking in warehouses. If long-term storage of corrugated boxes in high humidity is expected, extra strength and moisture resistance is called for. The method of loading boxes on pallets strongly affects stacking. Vertical columns provide the best box performance while interlocking patterns of boxes significantly reduce performance. The interaction of the boxes and pallets is also important.
A box can be designed by optimizing the grade of corrugated board, box design, flute direction, and inner supports. Support from the product also provides "load sharing" and can be an important factor. Box closures sometimes can have effects on box stacking strength.
Box compression testing is a means of evaluating boxes, stacks of boxes, and unit loads under controlled conditions. Field conditions of stacking and dynamic compression do not have the same degree of control. Compression strength can be estimated based on container construction, size, and use parameters: actual package testing is often conducted to verify these estimates.
=== Handling strength ===
Many items are shipped individually (in part or entirely) by express carrier, mail, or other mixed logistics systems. The demands of multiple manual handlings, automated sortation, and uncontrolled stacking in trucks or air containers put severe stress on boxes, box closures, and the contents. Boxes designed for unit load handling and storage may not be suited to mixed logistics systems. Less than truckload shipping puts more stress on corrugated shipping containers than shipment by uniform pallet loads in trucks or intermodal containers. Boxes sometimes need to be heavier construction to match the needs of the distribution system. Package testing is often matched to the expected shipping hazards. ASTM International and the International Safe Transit Association test protocols reflect this.
=== Other factors ===
Several texts offer guidance on the box design process. The Wiley Handbook of Packaging Technology offers guidance on considerations and options. ASTM D5639 Standard Practice for Selection of Corrugated Fiberboard Materials and Box Construction Based on Performance Requirements discusses material choices and box structures which may be good options for specified package performance.
Depending on the contents, some corrugated boxes need extra stiffness or a heavier grade of board. Boxes with hand holes or handles sometimes need higher strength board, reinforcement attached with adhesives, or embedded fibers.
== Process ==
Several packaging texts discuss factors to consider in the design of packages. ASTM International has standards D6198, Standard Guide for Transport Packaging Design and D5639. Standard Practice for Selection of Corrugated Fiberboard Materials and Box Construction Based on Performance Requirements. These suggest factors including cost (materials, labor, capital), utility, package performance, machinability, marketing requirements, logistics factors, transport hazards (compression, impact, rupture, humidity, condensation, temperature, pilferage), regulations, and others.
Packaging engineers and designers start with the needs of the particular project: cost constraints, machinery capabilities, product characteristics, logistics needs, applicable regulations, consumer needs, etc. Often designs are made with Computer Aided Design programs for structural layout[ the files can be downloaded to automated sample-making tables. Several design and construction options might be considered.Samples are often submitted to package testing based on ASTM or other standard test protocols such as the International Safe Transit Association. Structural design is matched with graphic design. For consumer based designs, marketing personnel sometimes use Focus groups or more quantitative means of assessing acceptance. Test markets are employed for major programs.
The process starts by making corrugated board on a corrugating line, a long series of linked machines which may be the size of an (American) football field. A finished piece of single-wall corrugated board is a single corrugated layer sandwiched between two liners.
Skilled workers prepare job tickets for each stack of box blanks and route the blanks to fabrication machines. Printing dies and patterns are prepared on large, flexible, rubber or tin sheets. They are loaded onto rollers and the box blanks are fed through it, where each is trimmed, printed, cut, scored, folded, and glued to form a box. Finished boxes are then stacked and sent to a banding machine to be wrapped and shipped.
== Design ==
The most common box style is the Regular Slotted Container (RSC). All flaps are the same length from score to edge. Typically the major flaps meet in the middle and the minor flaps do not, unless the width is equal to the length. The size of a box can be measured for either internal (for product fit) or external (for handling machinery or palletizing) dimensions. The manufacturer's joint is most often joined with adhesive but may also be taped or stitched. The box is shipped flat (knocked down) to the packager who sets up the box, fills it, and closes it for shipment. Box closure may be by tape, adhesive, staples, strapping, etc.
Boxes are usually specified and ordered by the internal dimensions.Box styles in Europe are typically specified by a 4-digit code provided by the European Federation of Corrugated Board Manufacturers (FEFCO); an RSC is coded 0201.
Many other styles of corrugated boxes and structures are available. One common source is the Fibre Box Association:
FOL (Full Overlap): A Full Overlap Box is similar to an RSC except the major flaps fully overlap. Full-overlap flaps provide extra stacking strength and edge protection.
HSC (Half Slotted Container): Half-Slotted Containers (HSC) are similar to an RSC, but with only one set of flaps. They are useful when an open-top container is desired. HSCs can be used to create a telescope box.
A Full Telescope Box has two fully telescoping sections. The sections may be formed by staples, die-cut locks, adhesive, etc.
A Partial Telescope Box has two sections. The top telescopes partially over the bottom. Commonly used for holding printing paper.
A Bliss box is a three piece box, usually with flaps meeting on the top
A corrugated tray is often used for display purposes or used with a shrink wrap
Corrugated corner pads can be used for product support and cushioning
Special die-cut shapes have almost endless designs and uses.
etc.
=== Examples of container designs ===
== Retail display ==
Retailers often ask for merchandise to be delivered to them in shipping containers which allow the easy stocking of full caseloads. The goal is to put the case directly onto shelves and stocking locations without individually handling the unit packs or primary packages. Retailers often require products to come in shelf-ready packaging to reduce stocking costs and save labor expenses.
Several specialized box designs are available.
== Government, military, and export ==
Many items being supplied to governments are handled very well: boxes are unitized, shipped on covered trucks or intermodal containers, and storage is in warehouses. Normal "domestic boxes" and commercial packaging are acceptable.
Military materiel, field supplies, and humanitarian aid often encounter severe handling and uncontrolled storage. Special box specifications for government shipments are often applicable. Weather-resistant fiberboards, box construction, box closure, and unitizing are needed.
== Dangerous and hazardous goods ==
Shipment of dangerous goods or hazardous materials are highly regulated. Based on the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods model regulations, each country has coordinated design and performance requirements for shipment. For example, in the US, the Department of Transportation has jurisdiction and published requirements in Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Corrugated boxes are described in 4G requirements. Performance (severe drop test, etc.) needs to be certified for the box and contents.
Some carriers have additional requirements.
== Box closure ==
The means of closing a box is an important aspect of design. It is affected by the types of equipment available to production lines, the measured laboratory performance, the field performance, and the ability of end-users to easily and safely open the box.
Box closures include:
Adhesive, water-based or hot-melt adhesive – Adhesives are applied manually or by machine. Starch-based adhesives are the choice of a corrugator as it is economic. Starch works as a medium for molds, lichens, and fungus, so to prevent it, antifungals are added in it before use.
Staples – staples are used to attach the box flaps. Small (nominally 1⁄2 inch crown) staples can be applied to a box with a post stapler. Wider crown (nominally 1+1⁄4 inch) staples can be applied with a blind clincher
Box sealing tape, pressure-sensitive-tapes are available in various widths i.e. 36, 48, and 72 mm widths and several thicknesses. BOPP and PET are used as a backing. Taping is done either manually or by semi-automatic Case sealer.
Filament tape, reinforced pressure-sensitive tape used to close boxes.
Gummed paper tape – consists of a heavy paper in which adhesive is activated by water and bonds the tape to the box.
Reinforced water activated gummed tape. Two plies of paper with reinforcing filaments embedded between them.
Strapping – straps are generally used for unitizing, made up of plastic (PP, PE, PET, PVC), metal (SS steel) etc. and are available in various widths.
Shrink wrap – a thin film of LLDPE, LDPE, etc. which shrinks with the application of heat resulting in wrapping a box from all sides. Shrink wrapping is generally more expensive as it needs a hot tunnel and requires more material than the alternatives. However, the packed box will be better protected from the environment as the wrap works as a barrier.
== References ==
=== Books, general references ===
"Fibre Box Handbook", Fibre Box Association, Chicago IL
Koning, John W. (1995). Corrugated Crossroads: A Reference Guide for the Corrugated Containers Industry. TAPPI Press. ISBN 9780898522990.
European Corrugated Board Industry
Good Manufacturing Practices for Corrugated and Solid Board Packaging
Soroka, W, "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology", IoPP, 2002, ISBN 1-930268-25-4
"Guide for Packaging for Small Parcel Shipments", 2005, IoPP
Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6
=== ASTM standards ===
D642 Test Method for Determining Compressive Resistance of Shipping Containers, Components, and Unit Loads.
D1974 Standard Practice for Methods of Closing, Sealing and Reinforcing Fiberboard Boxes
D4577 Test Method for Compression Resistance of a Container Under Constant Load
D5118 Standard Practice for Fabrication of Fiberboard Shipping Boxes
D5168 Standard Practice for Fabrication and Closure of Triple-Wall Corrugated Fiberboard Containers
D5639 Standard Practice for Selection of Corrugated Fiberboard Materials and Box Construction Based on Performance Requirements
D6804 Standard Guide for Hand Hole Design in Corrugated Boxes | Wikipedia/Corrugated_box_design |
Protein design is the rational design of new protein molecules to design novel activity, behavior, or purpose, and to advance basic understanding of protein function. Proteins can be designed from scratch (de novo design) or by making calculated variants of a known protein structure and its sequence (termed protein redesign). Rational protein design approaches make protein-sequence predictions that will fold to specific structures. These predicted sequences can then be validated experimentally through methods such as peptide synthesis, site-directed mutagenesis, or artificial gene synthesis.
Rational protein design dates back to the mid-1970s. Recently, however, there were numerous examples of successful rational design of water-soluble and even transmembrane peptides and proteins, in part due to a better understanding of different factors contributing to protein structure stability and development of better computational methods.
== Overview and history ==
The goal in rational protein design is to predict amino acid sequences that will fold to a specific protein structure. Although the number of possible protein sequences is vast, growing exponentially with the size of the protein chain, only a subset of them will fold reliably and quickly to one native state. Protein design involves identifying novel sequences within this subset. The native state of a protein is the conformational free energy minimum for the chain. Thus, protein design is the search for sequences that have the chosen structure as a free energy minimum. In a sense, it is the reverse of protein structure prediction. In design, a tertiary structure is specified, and a sequence that will fold to it is identified. Hence, it is also termed inverse folding. Protein design is then an optimization problem: using some scoring criteria, an optimized sequence that will fold to the desired structure is chosen.
When the first proteins were rationally designed during the 1970s and 1980s, the sequence for these was optimized manually based on analyses of other known proteins, the sequence composition, amino acid charges, and the geometry of the desired structure. The first designed proteins are attributed to Bernd Gutte, who designed a reduced version of a known catalyst, bovine ribonuclease, and tertiary structures consisting of beta-sheets and alpha-helices, including a binder of DDT. Urry and colleagues later designed elastin-like fibrous peptides based on rules on sequence composition. Richardson and coworkers designed a 79-residue protein with no sequence homology to a known protein. In the 1990s, the advent of powerful computers, libraries of amino acid conformations, and force fields developed mainly for molecular dynamics simulations enabled the development of structure-based computational protein design tools. Following the development of these computational tools, great success has been achieved over the last 30 years in protein design. The first protein successfully designed completely de novo was done by Stephen Mayo and coworkers in 1997, and, shortly after, in 1999 Peter S. Kim and coworkers designed dimers, trimers, and tetramers of unnatural right-handed coiled coils. In 2003, David Baker's laboratory designed a full protein to a fold never seen before in nature. Later, in 2008, Baker's group computationally designed enzymes for two different reactions. In 2010, one of the most powerful broadly neutralizing antibodies was isolated from patient serum using a computationally designed protein probe. In 2024, Baker received one half of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his advancement of computational protein design, with the other half being shared by Demis Hassabis and John Jumper of Deepmind for protein structure prediction. Due to these and other successes (e.g., see examples below), protein design has become one of the most important tools available for protein engineering. There is great hope that the design of new proteins, small and large, will have uses in biomedicine and bioengineering.
== Underlying models of protein structure and function ==
Protein design programs use computer models of the molecular forces that drive proteins in in vivo environments. In order to make the problem tractable, these forces are simplified by protein design models. Although protein design programs vary greatly, they have to address four main modeling questions: What is the target structure of the design, what flexibility is allowed on the target structure, which sequences are included in the search, and which force field will be used to score sequences and structures.
=== Target structure ===
Protein function is heavily dependent on protein structure, and rational protein design uses this relationship to design function by designing proteins that have a target structure or fold. Thus, by definition, in rational protein design the target structure or ensemble of structures must be known beforehand. This contrasts with other forms of protein engineering, such as directed evolution, where a variety of methods are used to find proteins that achieve a specific function, and with protein structure prediction where the sequence is known, but the structure is unknown.
Most often, the target structure is based on a known structure of another protein. However, novel folds not seen in nature have been made increasingly possible. Peter S. Kim and coworkers designed trimers and tetramers of unnatural coiled coils, which had not been seen before in nature. The protein Top7, developed in David Baker's lab, was designed completely using protein design algorithms, to a completely novel fold. More recently, Baker and coworkers developed a series of principles to design ideal globular-protein structures based on protein folding funnels that bridge between secondary structure prediction and tertiary structures. These principles, which build on both protein structure prediction and protein design, were used to design five different novel protein topologies.
=== Sequence space ===
In rational protein design, proteins can be redesigned from the sequence and structure of a known protein, or completely from scratch in de novo protein design. In protein redesign, most of the residues in the sequence are maintained as their wild-type amino-acid while a few are allowed to mutate. In de novo design, the entire sequence is designed anew, based on no prior sequence.
Both de novo designs and protein redesigns can establish rules on the sequence space: the specific amino acids that are allowed at each mutable residue position. For example, the composition of the surface of the RSC3 probe to select HIV-broadly neutralizing antibodies was restricted based on evolutionary data and charge balancing. Many of the earliest attempts on protein design were heavily based on empiric rules on the sequence space. Moreover, the design of fibrous proteins usually follows strict rules on the sequence space. Collagen-based designed proteins, for example, are often composed of Gly-Pro-X repeating patterns. The advent of computational techniques allows designing proteins with no human intervention in sequence selection.
=== Structural flexibility ===
In protein design, the target structure (or structures) of the protein are known. However, a rational protein design approach must model some flexibility on the target structure in order to increase the number of sequences that can be designed for that structure and to minimize the chance of a sequence folding to a different structure. For example, in a protein redesign of one small amino acid (such as alanine) in the tightly packed core of a protein, very few mutants would be predicted by a rational design approach to fold to the target structure, if the surrounding side-chains are not allowed to be repacked.
Thus, an essential parameter of any design process is the amount of flexibility allowed for both the side-chains and the backbone. In the simplest models, the protein backbone is kept rigid while some of the protein side-chains are allowed to change conformations. However, side-chains can have many degrees of freedom in their bond lengths, bond angles, and χ dihedral angles. To simplify this space, protein design methods use rotamer libraries that assume ideal values for bond lengths and bond angles, while restricting χ dihedral angles to a few frequently observed low-energy conformations termed rotamers.
Rotamer libraries are derived from the statistical analysis of many protein structures. Backbone-independent rotamer libraries describe all rotamers. Backbone-dependent rotamer libraries, in contrast, describe the rotamers as how likely they are to appear depending on the protein backbone arrangement around the side chain. Most protein design programs use one conformation (e.g., the modal value for rotamer dihedrals in space) or several points in the region described by the rotamer; the OSPREY protein design program, in contrast, models the entire continuous region.
Although rational protein design must preserve the general backbone fold a protein, allowing some backbone flexibility can significantly increase the number of sequences that fold to the structure while maintaining the general fold of the protein. Backbone flexibility is especially important in protein redesign because sequence mutations often result in small changes to the backbone structure. Moreover, backbone flexibility can be essential for more advanced applications of protein design, such as binding prediction and enzyme design. Some models of protein design backbone flexibility include small and continuous global backbone movements, discrete backbone samples around the target fold, backrub motions, and protein loop flexibility.
=== Energy function ===
Rational protein design techniques must be able to discriminate sequences that will be stable under the target fold from those that would prefer other low-energy competing states. Thus, protein design requires accurate energy functions that can rank and score sequences by how well they fold to the target structure. At the same time, however, these energy functions must consider the computational challenges behind protein design. One of the most challenging requirements for successful design is an energy function that is both accurate and simple for computational calculations.
The most accurate energy functions are those based on quantum mechanical simulations. However, such simulations are too slow and typically impractical for protein design. Instead, many protein design algorithms use either physics-based energy functions adapted from molecular mechanics simulation programs, knowledge based energy-functions, or a hybrid mix of both. The trend has been toward using more physics-based potential energy functions.
Physics-based energy functions, such as AMBER and CHARMM, are typically derived from quantum mechanical simulations, and experimental data from thermodynamics, crystallography, and spectroscopy. These energy functions typically simplify physical energy function and make them pairwise decomposable, meaning that the total energy of a protein conformation can be calculated by adding the pairwise energy between each atom pair, which makes them attractive for optimization algorithms. Physics-based energy functions typically model an attractive-repulsive Lennard-Jones term between atoms and a pairwise electrostatics coulombic term between non-bonded atoms.
Statistical potentials, in contrast to physics-based potentials, have the advantage of being fast to compute, of accounting implicitly of complex effects and being less sensitive to small changes in the protein structure. These energy functions are based on deriving energy values from frequency of appearance on a structural database.
Protein design, however, has requirements that can sometimes be limited in molecular mechanics force-fields. Molecular mechanics force-fields, which have been
used mostly in molecular dynamics simulations, are optimized for the simulation of single sequences, but protein design searches through many conformations of many sequences. Thus, molecular mechanics force-fields must be tailored for protein design. In practice, protein design energy functions often incorporate both statistical terms and physics-based terms. For example, the Rosetta energy function, one of the most-used energy functions, incorporates physics-based energy terms originating in the CHARMM energy function, and statistical energy terms, such as rotamer probability and knowledge-based electrostatics. Typically, energy functions are highly customized between laboratories, and specifically tailored for every design.
==== Challenges for effective design energy functions ====
Water makes up most of the molecules surrounding proteins and is the main driver of protein structure. Thus, modeling the interaction between water and protein is vital in protein design. The number of water molecules that interact with a protein at any given time is huge and each one has a large number of degrees of freedom and interaction partners. Instead, protein design programs model most of such water molecules as a continuum, modeling both the hydrophobic effect and solvation polarization.
Individual water molecules can sometimes have a crucial structural role in the core of proteins, and in protein–protein or protein–ligand interactions. Failing to model such waters can result in mispredictions of the optimal sequence of a protein–protein interface. As an alternative, water molecules can be added to rotamers.
== As an optimization problem ==
The goal of protein design is to find a protein sequence that will fold to a target structure. A protein design algorithm must, thus, search all the conformations of each sequence, with respect to the target fold, and rank sequences according to the lowest-energy conformation of each one, as determined by the protein design energy function. Thus, a typical input to the protein design algorithm is the target fold, the sequence space, the structural flexibility, and the energy function, while the output is one or more sequences that are predicted to fold stably to the target structure.
The number of candidate protein sequences, however, grows exponentially with the number of protein residues; for example, there are 20100 protein sequences of length 100. Furthermore, even if amino acid side-chain conformations are limited to a few rotamers (see Structural flexibility), this results in an exponential number of conformations for each sequence. Thus, in our 100 residue protein, and assuming that each amino acid has exactly 10 rotamers, a search algorithm that searches this space will have to search over 200100 protein conformations.
The most common energy functions can be decomposed into pairwise terms between rotamers and amino acid types, which casts the problem as a combinatorial one, and powerful optimization algorithms can be used to solve it. In those cases, the total energy of each conformation belonging to each sequence can be formulated as a sum of individual and pairwise terms between residue positions. If a designer is interested only in the best sequence, the protein design algorithm only requires the lowest-energy conformation of the lowest-energy sequence. In these cases, the amino acid identity of each rotamer can be ignored and all rotamers belonging to different amino acids can be treated the same. Let ri be a rotamer at residue position i in the protein chain, and E(ri) the potential energy between the internal atoms of the rotamer. Let E(ri, rj) be the potential energy between ri and rotamer rj at residue position j. Then, we define the optimization problem as one of finding the conformation of minimum energy (ET):
The problem of minimizing ET is an NP-hard problem. Even though the class of problems is NP-hard, in practice many instances of protein design can be solved exactly or optimized satisfactorily through heuristic methods.
== Algorithms ==
Several algorithms have been developed specifically for the protein design problem. These algorithms can be divided into two broad classes: exact algorithms, such as dead-end elimination, that lack runtime guarantees but guarantee the quality of the solution; and heuristic algorithms, such as Monte Carlo, that are faster than exact algorithms but have no guarantees on the optimality of the results. Exact algorithms guarantee that the optimization process produced the optimal according to the protein design model. Thus, if the predictions of exact algorithms fail when these are experimentally validated, then the source of error can be attributed to the energy function, the allowed flexibility, the sequence space or the target structure (e.g., if it cannot be designed for).
Some protein design algorithms are listed below. Although these algorithms address only the most basic formulation of the protein design problem, Equation (1), when the optimization goal changes because designers introduce improvements and extensions to the protein design model, such as improvements to the structural flexibility allowed (e.g., protein backbone flexibility) or including sophisticated energy terms, many of the extensions on protein design that improve modeling are built atop these algorithms. For example, Rosetta Design incorporates sophisticated energy terms, and backbone flexibility using Monte Carlo as the underlying optimizing algorithm. OSPREY's algorithms build on the dead-end elimination algorithm and A* to incorporate continuous backbone and side-chain movements. Thus, these algorithms provide a good perspective on the different kinds of algorithms available for protein design.
In 2020 scientists reported the development of an AI-based process using genome databases for evolution-based designing of novel proteins. They used deep learning to identify design-rules. In 2022, a study reported deep learning software that can design proteins that contain prespecified functional sites.
=== With mathematical guarantees ===
==== Dead-end elimination ====
The dead-end elimination (DEE) algorithm reduces the search space of the problem iteratively by removing rotamers that can be provably shown to be not part of the global lowest energy conformation (GMEC). On each iteration, the dead-end elimination algorithm compares all possible pairs of rotamers at each residue position, and removes each rotamer r′i that can be shown to always be of higher energy than another rotamer ri and is thus not part of the GMEC:
E
(
r
i
′
)
+
∑
j
≠
i
min
r
j
E
(
r
i
′
,
r
j
)
>
E
(
r
i
)
+
∑
j
≠
i
max
r
j
E
(
r
i
,
r
j
)
{\displaystyle E(r_{i}^{\prime })+\sum _{j\neq i}\min _{r_{j}}E(r_{i}^{\prime },r_{j})>E(r_{i})+\sum _{j\neq i}\max _{r_{j}}E(r_{i},r_{j})}
Other powerful extensions to the dead-end elimination algorithm include the pairs elimination criterion, and the generalized dead-end elimination criterion. This algorithm has also been extended to handle continuous rotamers with provable guarantees.
Although the Dead-end elimination algorithm runs in polynomial time on each iteration, it cannot guarantee convergence. If, after a certain number of iterations, the dead-end elimination algorithm does not prune any more rotamers, then either rotamers have to be merged or another search algorithm must be used to search the remaining search space. In such cases, the dead-end elimination acts as a pre-filtering algorithm to reduce the search space, while other algorithms, such as A*, Monte Carlo, Linear Programming, or FASTER are used to search the remaining search space.
==== Branch and bound ====
The protein design conformational space can be represented as a tree, where the protein residues are ordered in an arbitrary way, and the tree branches at each of the rotamers in a residue. Branch and bound algorithms use this representation to efficiently explore the conformation tree: At each branching, branch and bound algorithms bound the conformation space and explore only the promising branches.
A popular search algorithm for protein design is the A* search algorithm. A* computes a lower-bound score on each partial tree path that lower bounds (with guarantees) the energy of each of the expanded rotamers. Each partial conformation is added to a priority queue and at each iteration the partial path with the lowest lower bound is popped from the queue and expanded. The algorithm stops once a full conformation has been enumerated and guarantees that the conformation is the optimal.
The A* score f in protein design consists of two parts, f=g+h. g is the exact energy of the rotamers that have already been assigned in the partial conformation. h is a lower bound on the energy of the rotamers that have not yet been assigned. Each is designed as follows, where d is the index of the last assigned residue in the partial conformation.
g
=
∑
i
=
1
d
(
E
(
r
i
)
+
∑
j
=
i
+
1
d
E
(
r
i
,
r
j
)
)
{\displaystyle g=\sum _{i=1}^{d}(E(r_{i})+\sum _{j=i+1}^{d}E(r_{i},r_{j}))}
h
=
∑
j
=
d
+
1
n
[
min
r
j
(
E
(
r
j
)
+
∑
i
=
1
d
E
(
r
i
,
r
j
)
+
∑
k
=
j
+
1
n
min
r
k
E
(
r
j
,
r
k
)
)
]
{\displaystyle h=\sum _{j=d+1}^{n}[\min _{r_{j}}(E(r_{j})+\sum _{i=1}^{d}E(r_{i},r_{j})+\sum _{k=j+1}^{n}\min _{r_{k}}E(r_{j},r_{k}))]}
==== Integer linear programming ====
The problem of optimizing ET (Equation (1)) can be easily formulated as an integer linear program (ILP). One of the most powerful formulations uses binary variables to represent the presence of a rotamer and edges in the final solution, and constraints the solution to have exactly one rotamer for each residue and one pairwise interaction for each pair of residues:
min
∑
i
∑
r
i
E
i
(
r
i
)
q
i
(
r
i
)
+
∑
j
≠
i
∑
r
j
E
i
j
(
r
i
,
r
j
)
q
i
j
(
r
i
,
r
j
)
{\displaystyle \ \min \sum _{i}\sum _{r_{i}}E_{i}(r_{i})q_{i}(r_{i})+\sum _{j\neq i}\sum _{r_{j}}E_{ij}(r_{i},r_{j})q_{ij}(r_{i},r_{j})\,}
s.t.
∑
r
i
q
i
(
r
i
)
=
1
,
∀
i
{\displaystyle \sum _{r_{i}}q_{i}(r_{i})=1,\ \forall i}
∑
r
j
q
i
j
(
r
i
,
r
j
)
=
q
i
(
r
i
)
,
∀
i
,
r
i
,
j
{\displaystyle \sum _{r_{j}}q_{ij}(r_{i},r_{j})=q_{i}(r_{i}),\forall i,r_{i},j}
q
i
,
q
i
j
∈
{
0
,
1
}
{\displaystyle q_{i},q_{ij}\in \{0,1\}}
ILP solvers, such as CPLEX, can compute the exact optimal solution for large instances of protein design problems. These solvers use a linear programming relaxation of the problem, where qi and qij are allowed to take continuous values, in combination with a branch and cut algorithm to search only a small portion of the conformation space for the optimal solution. ILP solvers have been shown to solve many instances of the side-chain placement problem.
==== Message-passing based approximations to the linear programming dual ====
ILP solvers depend on linear programming (LP) algorithms, such as the Simplex or barrier-based methods to perform the LP relaxation at each branch. These LP algorithms were developed as general-purpose optimization methods and are not optimized for the protein design problem (Equation (1)). In consequence, the LP relaxation becomes the bottleneck of ILP solvers when the problem size is large. Recently, several alternatives based on message-passing algorithms have been designed specifically for the optimization of the LP relaxation of the protein design problem. These algorithms can approximate both the dual or the primal instances of the integer programming, but in order to maintain guarantees on optimality, they are most useful when used to approximate the dual of the protein design problem, because approximating the dual guarantees that no solutions are missed. Message-passing based approximations include the tree reweighted max-product message passing algorithm, and the message passing linear programming algorithm.
=== Optimization algorithms without guarantees ===
==== Monte Carlo and simulated annealing ====
Monte Carlo is one of the most widely used algorithms for protein design. In its simplest form, a Monte Carlo algorithm selects a residue at random, and in that residue a randomly chosen rotamer (of any amino acid) is evaluated. The new energy of the protein, Enew is compared against the old energy Eold and the new rotamer is accepted with a probability of:
p
=
e
−
β
(
E
new
−
E
old
)
)
,
{\displaystyle p=e^{-\beta (E_{\text{new}}-E_{\text{old}}))},}
where β is the Boltzmann constant and the temperature T can be chosen such that in the initial rounds it is high and it is slowly annealed to overcome local minima.
==== FASTER ====
The FASTER algorithm uses a combination of deterministic and stochastic criteria to optimize amino acid sequences. FASTER first uses DEE to eliminate rotamers that are not part of the optimal solution. Then, a series of iterative steps optimize the rotamer assignment.
==== Belief propagation ====
In belief propagation for protein design, the algorithm exchanges messages that describe the belief that each residue has about the probability of each rotamer in neighboring residues. The algorithm updates messages on every iteration and iterates until convergence or until a fixed number of iterations. Convergence is not guaranteed in protein design. The message mi→ j(rj that a residue i sends to every rotamer (rj at neighboring residue j is defined as:
m
i
→
j
(
r
j
)
=
max
r
i
(
e
−
E
i
(
r
i
)
−
E
i
j
(
r
i
,
r
j
)
T
)
∏
k
∈
N
(
i
)
∖
j
m
k
→
i
(
r
i
)
{\displaystyle m_{i\to j}(r_{j})=\max _{r_{i}}{\Big (}e^{\frac {-E_{i}(r_{i})-E_{ij}(r_{i},r_{j})}{T}}{\Big )}\prod _{k\in N(i)\backslash j}m_{k\to i(r_{i})}}
Both max-product and sum-product belief propagation have been used to optimize protein design.
== Applications and examples of designed proteins ==
=== Enzyme design ===
The design of new enzymes is a use of protein design with huge bioengineering and biomedical applications. In general, designing a protein structure can be different from designing an enzyme, because the design of enzymes must consider many states involved in the catalytic mechanism. However protein design is a prerequisite of de novo enzyme design because, at the very least, the design of catalysts requires a scaffold in which the catalytic mechanism can be inserted.
Great progress in de novo enzyme design, and redesign, was made in the first decade of the 21st century. In three major studies, David Baker and coworkers de novo designed enzymes for the retro-aldol reaction, a Kemp-elimination reaction, and for the Diels-Alder reaction. Furthermore, Stephen Mayo and coworkers developed an iterative method to design the most efficient known enzyme for the Kemp-elimination reaction. Also, in the laboratory of Bruce Donald, computational protein design was used to switch the specificity of one of the protein domains of the nonribosomal peptide synthetase that produces Gramicidin S, from its natural substrate phenylalanine to other noncognate substrates including charged amino acids; the redesigned enzymes had activities close to those of the wild-type.
=== Semi-rational design ===
Semi-rational design is a purposeful modification method based on a certain understanding of the sequence, structure, and catalytic mechanism of enzymes. This method is between irrational design and rational design. It uses known information and means to perform evolutionary modification on the specific functions of the target enzyme. The characteristic of semi-rational design is that it does not rely solely on random mutation and screening, but combines the concept of directed evolution. It creates a library of random mutants with diverse sequences through mutagenesis, error-prone RCR, DNA recombination, and site-saturation mutagenesis. At the same time, it uses the understanding of enzymes and design principles to purposefully screen out mutants with desired characteristics.
The methodology of semi-rational design emphasizes the in-depth understanding of enzymes and the control of the evolutionary process. It allows researchers to use known information to guide the evolutionary process, thereby improving efficiency and success rate. This method plays an important role in protein function modification because it can combine the advantages of irrational design and rational design, and can explore unknown space and use known knowledge for targeted modification.
Semi-rational design has a wide range of applications, including but not limited to enzyme optimization, modification of drug targets, evolution of biocatalysts, etc. Through this method, researchers can more effectively improve the functional properties of proteins to meet specific biotechnology or medical needs. Although this method has high requirements for information and technology and is relatively difficult to implement, with the development of computing technology and bioinformatics, the application prospects of semi-rational design in protein engineering are becoming more and more broad.
=== Design for affinity ===
Protein–protein interactions are involved in most biotic processes. Many of the hardest-to-treat diseases, such as Alzheimer's, many forms of cancer (e.g., TP53), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection involve protein–protein interactions. Thus, to treat such diseases, it is desirable to design protein or protein-like therapeutics that bind one of the partners of the interaction and, thus, disrupt the disease-causing interaction. This requires designing protein-therapeutics for affinity toward its partner.
Protein–protein interactions can be designed using protein design algorithms because the principles that rule protein stability also rule protein–protein binding. Protein–protein interaction design, however, presents challenges not commonly present in protein design. One of the most important challenges is that, in general, the interfaces between proteins are more polar than protein cores, and binding involves a tradeoff between desolvation and hydrogen bond formation. To overcome this challenge, Bruce Tidor and coworkers developed a method to improve the affinity of antibodies by focusing on electrostatic contributions. They found that, for the antibodies designed in the study, reducing the desolvation costs of the residues in the interface increased the affinity of the binding pair.
==== Scoring binding predictions ====
Protein design energy functions must be adapted to score binding predictions because binding involves a trade-off between the lowest-energy conformations of the free proteins (EP and EL) and the lowest-energy conformation of the bound complex (EPL):
Δ
G
=
E
P
L
−
E
P
−
E
L
{\displaystyle \Delta _{G}=E_{PL}-E_{P}-E_{L}}
.
The K* algorithm approximates the binding constant of the algorithm by including conformational entropy into the free energy calculation. The K* algorithm considers only the lowest-energy conformations of the free and bound complexes (denoted by the sets P, L, and PL) to approximate the partition functions of each complex:
K
∗
=
∑
x
∈
P
L
e
−
E
(
x
)
/
R
T
∑
x
∈
P
e
−
E
(
x
)
/
R
T
∑
x
∈
L
e
−
E
(
x
)
/
R
T
{\displaystyle K^{*}={\frac {\sum \limits _{x\in PL}e^{-E(x)/RT}}{\sum \limits _{x\in P}e^{-E(x)/RT}\sum \limits _{x\in L}e^{-E(x)/RT}}}}
=== Design for specificity ===
The design of protein–protein interactions must be highly specific because proteins can interact with a large number of proteins; successful design requires selective binders. Thus, protein design algorithms must be able to distinguish between on-target (or positive design) and off-target binding (or negative design). One of the most prominent examples of design for specificity is the design of specific bZIP-binding peptides by Amy Keating and coworkers for 19 out of the 20 bZIP families; 8 of these peptides were specific for their intended partner over competing peptides. Further, positive and negative design was also used by Anderson and coworkers to predict mutations in the active site of a drug target that conferred resistance to a new drug; positive design was used to maintain wild-type activity, while negative design was used to disrupt binding of the drug. Recent computational redesign by Costas Maranas and coworkers was also capable of experimentally switching the cofactor specificity of Candida boidinii xylose reductase from NADPH to NADH.
=== Protein resurfacing ===
Protein resurfacing consists of designing a protein's surface while preserving the overall fold, core, and boundary regions of the protein intact. Protein resurfacing is especially useful to alter the binding of a protein to other proteins. One of the most important applications of protein resurfacing was the design of the RSC3 probe to select broadly neutralizing HIV antibodies at the NIH Vaccine Research Center. First, residues outside of the binding interface between the gp120 HIV envelope protein and the formerly discovered b12-antibody were selected to be designed. Then, the sequence spaced was selected based on evolutionary information, solubility, similarity with the wild-type, and other considerations. Then the RosettaDesign software was used to find optimal sequences in the selected sequence space. RSC3 was later used to discover the broadly neutralizing antibody VRC01 in the serum of a long-term HIV-infected non-progressor individual.
=== Design of globular proteins ===
Globular proteins are proteins that contain a hydrophobic core and a hydrophilic surface. Globular proteins often assume a stable structure, unlike fibrous proteins, which have multiple conformations. The three-dimensional structure of globular proteins is typically easier to determine through X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance than both fibrous proteins and membrane proteins, which makes globular proteins more attractive for protein design than the other types of proteins. Most successful protein designs have involved globular proteins. Both RSD-1, and Top7 were de novo designs of globular proteins. Five more protein structures were designed, synthesized, and verified in 2012 by the Baker group. These new proteins serve no biotic function, but the structures are intended to act as building-blocks that can be expanded to incorporate functional active sites. The structures were found computationally by using new heuristics based on analyzing the connecting loops between parts of the sequence that specify secondary structures.
=== Design of membrane proteins ===
Several transmembrane proteins have been successfully designed, along with many other membrane-associated peptides and proteins. Recently, Costas Maranas and his coworkers developed an automated tool to redesign the pore size of Outer Membrane Porin Type-F (OmpF) from E.coli to any desired sub-nm size and assembled them in membranes to perform precise angstrom scale separation.
=== Other applications ===
One of the most desirable uses for protein design is for biosensors, proteins that will sense the presence of specific compounds. Some attempts in the design of biosensors include sensors for unnatural molecules including TNT. More recently, Kuhlman and coworkers designed a biosensor of the PAK1.
In a sense, protein design is a subset of battery design.
== See also ==
Protein engineering – Bioengineering process
Molecular design software – CAD software for molecular-level engineering, modelling, and analysisPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling
Protein structure prediction software
Synthetic biology – Interdisciplinary branch of biology and engineering
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Donald, Bruce R. (2011). Algorithms in Structural Molecular Biology. Computational Molecular Biology. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 9780262015592. OCLC 1200909148.
Jin, Wenzhen; Kambara, Ohki; Sasakawa, Hiroaki; Tamura, Atsuo & Takada, Shoji (May 2003). "De Novo Design of Foldable Proteins with Smooth Folding Funnel: Automated Negative Design and Experimental Verification". Structure. 11 (5): 581–590. doi:10.1016/S0969-2126(03)00075-3. PMID 12737823.
Pokala, Navin & Handel, Tracy M. (2005). "Energy Functions for Protein Design: Adjustment with Protein–Protein Complex Affinities, Models for the Unfolded State, and Negative Design of Solubility and Specificity". Journal of Molecular Biology. 347 (1): 203–227. doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2004.12.019. PMID 15733929.
Sander, Chris; Vriend, Gerrit; Bazan, Fernando; Horovitz, Amnon; Nakamura, Haruki; Ribas, Luis; Finkelstein, Alexei V.; Lockhart, Andrew; Merkl, Rainer; et al. (February 1992). "Protein Design on Computers. Five New Proteins: Shpilka, Grendel, Fingerclasp, Leather and Aida". Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics. 12 (2): 105–110. doi:10.1002/prot.340120203. PMID 1603799. S2CID 38986245. | Wikipedia/Protein_design |
Regenerative design is about designing systems and solutions that work with or mimic the ways that natural ecosystems return energy from less usable forms to more usable forms. Regenerative design uses systems thinking and other approaches to create resilient and equitable systems that integrate the needs of society and the well-being of nature. Regenerative design is an active topic of discussion in engineering, economics, medicine, landscape design, food systems, and urban design & community development generally.
The regenerative design paradigm encourages designers to use systems thinking, applied permaculture design principles, and community development processes to design human and ecological systems. The development of regenerative design has been influenced by approaches found in biomimicry, biophilic design, net-positive design, ecological economics, circular economics, as well as social movements such as permaculture, transition and the new economy. Regenerative design can also refer to the process of designing systems such as restorative justice, rewilding and regenerative agriculture. In other words, regenerative refers to advances in Sustainable design since the 1990s, and the terms sustainable and regenerative are largely used interchangeably.
Regenerative design is increasingly being applied in such sectors as agriculture, architecture, community planning, cities, enterprises, economics and ecosystem regeneration. These designers are using green or sustainable design principles observed in systems ecology and recognize that ecosystems that are resilient typically operate in closed loop systems. Using such models, regenerative design seeks feedback at every stage of the design process. Feedback loops are integral to regenerative systems as understood by processes used in restorative practice and community development.
Regenerative design is interconnected with the approaches of systems thinking and with New Economy movement. The 'new economy' considers that the current economic system needs to be restructured. The theory is based on the assumption that people and the planet should come first, and that it is human well-being, not economic growth, which should be prioritized.
Whereas the weak definition of sustainable development was to satisfy fundamental human needs today without compromising the possibility of future generations to satisfy theirs, the goal of sustainable design was to develop restorative systems that are beneficial for humans and other species. Sustainable design is participatory, iterative and individual to the community and environment it is applied to. It intends to revitalize communities, human and natural resources, and society as a whole.
In recent years regenerative design is made possible on a larger scale using open source socio- technical platforms and technological systems as used in SMART cities. It includes community and city development processes like gathering feedback, participatory governance, sortition and participatory budgeting.
== History ==
=== Permaculture ===
The term permaculture was developed and coined by David Holmgren, then a graduate student at the Tasmanian College of Advanced Education's Department of Environmental Design, and Bill Mollison, senior lecturer in environmental psychology at University of Tasmania, in 1978. The word permaculture originally referred to "permanent agriculture", but was expanded to stand also for "permanent culture", as it was understood that social aspects were integral to a truly sustainable system as inspired by Masanobu Fukuoka's natural farming philosophy. Regenerative design is integral to permaculture design.
In 1974, David Holmgren and Bill Mollison first started working together to develop the theory and practice of permaculture. They met when Mollison spoke at a seminar at the Department of Environmental Design and began to work together. During their first three years together Mollison worked at applying their ideas, and Holmgren wrote the manuscript for what would become Permaculture One: a perennial agricultural system for human settlements as he completed his environmental design studies, and submitted it as the major reference for his thesis. He then handed the manuscript to Mollison for editing and additions, before it was published in 1978.
=== Regenerative organic agriculture ===
Robert Rodale, son of American organic pioneer and Rodale Institute founder J.I. Rodale, coined the term 'regenerative organic agriculture.' The term distinguished a kind of farming that goes beyond simply 'sustainable yield'. Regenerative organic agriculture "takes advantage of the natural tendencies of ecosystems to regenerate when disturbed. In that primary sense it is distinguished from other types of agriculture that either oppose or ignore the value of those natural tendencies." This type of farming is marked by "tendencies towards closed nutrient loops, greater diversity in the biological community, fewer annuals and more perennials, and greater reliance on internal rather than external resources."
John T. Lyle (1934–1998), a landscape architecture professor saw the connection between concepts developed by Bob Rodale for regenerative agriculture and the opportunity to develop regenerative systems for all other aspects of the world. While regenerative agriculture focused solely on agriculture, Lyle expanded its concepts and use to all systems. Lyle understood that when developing for other types of systems, more complicated ideas such as entropy and emergy must be taken into consideration.
=== In the built environment ===
In 1976, Lyle challenged his landscape architecture graduate students at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona to "envision a community in which daily activities were based on the value of living within the limits of available renewable resources without environmental degradation." Over the next few decades an eclectic group of students, professors and experts from around the world and crossing many disciplines developed designs for an institute to be built at Cal Poly Pomona. In 1994, the Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies opened after two years of construction. In that same year Lyle's book Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development was published by Wiley. In 1995 Lyle worked with William McDonough at Oberlin College on the design of the Adam Joseph Lewis Center for Environmental Studies completed in 2000. In 2002, McDonough's book, the more popular and successful, Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things was published reiterating the concepts developed by Lyle. Swiss architect Walter R. Stahel developed approaches entirely similar to Lyle's also in the late 1970s but instead coined the term cradle-to-cradle design made popular by McDonough and Michael Braungart.
Sim Van Der Ryn is an architect, author, and educator with more than 40 years of experience integrating ecological principles into the built environment. Author of eight publications, one of his most influential books titled Ecological Design, published in 1996, provides a framework for integrating human design with living systems. The book challenges designers to push beyond "green building" to create buildings, infrastructure and landscapes that truly restore and regenerative of the surrounding ecosystems.
The Living Building Challenge (LBC) is recognized as the most progressive green building standard that can be applied to any building type around the world. The goal is to create Living Buildings that incorporate regenerative design solutions that actually improve the local environment rather than simply reducing harm. LBC was created by Jason F. McLennan and administered by the non-profit International Living Future Institute (ILFI), a global network dedicated to creating a healthy future for all. In addition to the Living Building Challenge, ILFI runs the Living Community Challenge, Living Product Challenge, Net Zero Energy Certification, the Cascadia Green Building Council, Ecotone Publishing, Declare, JUST and other leading-edge programs.
"What if every single act of design and construction made the world a better place?" — The Living Building Challenge (LBC).
=== Regenerative Cultures ===
Regenerative design advocate and author Daniel Christian Wahl argues that regenerative design is about sustaining "the underlying pattern of health, resilience and adaptability that maintain this planet in a condition where life as a whole can flourish." In his book, Designing Regenerative Cultures, he argues that regeneration is not simply a technical, economic, ecological or social shift, but has to go hand-in-hand with an underlying shift in the way we think about ourselves, our relationships with each other and with life as a whole.
== Green vs. sustainable vs. regenerative vs net positive ==
There is an important distinction that should be made between the words 'green', 'sustainable', and 'regenerative' and how they influence design.
=== Green design ===
In the article Transitioning from green to regenerative design, Raymond J. Cole explores the concept of regenerative design and what it means in relation to 'green' and 'sustainable' design. Cole identifies eight key attributes of green buildings:
Reduces damage to natural or sensitive sites
Reduces the need for new infrastructure
Reduces the impacts on natural feature and site ecology during construction
Reduces the potential environmental damage from emissions and outflows
Reduces the contributions to global environmental damage
Reduces resource use – energy, water, materials
Minimizes the discomfort of building occupants
Minimizes harmful substances and irritants within building interiors
By these eight key attributes, 'green' design is accomplished by reducing the harmful, damaging and negative impacts to both the environment and humans that result from the construction of the built environment. Another characteristic that separates 'green' design is that it is aimed at broad market transformation and therefore green building assessment frameworks and tools are typically generic in nature.
=== Sustainable design ===
'Sustainable' and 'green' are for the most part used interchangeably; however, there is a slight distinction between them. 'Green' design is centralized around specifically decreasing environmental impacts from human development, whereas sustainability can be viewed through an environmental, economic or social lens. The implication is that sustainability can be incorporated into all three aspects of the Triple Bottom Line: people, planet, profit.
The definition of sustainable or sustainability has been widely accepted as the ability to meet the needs of the current generation without depleting the resources needed to meet the needs of future generations. It "promotes a bio-centric view that places the human presence within a larger natural context, and focuses on constraints and on fundamental values and behavioral change." David Orr defines two approaches to sustainability in his book Ecological Literacy: "technological sustainability" and "ecological sustainability." "Technological sustainability" emphasizes the anthropocentric view by focusing on making technological and engineering processes more efficient whereas "ecological sustainability" emphasizes the bio-centric view and focuses on enabling and maintaining the essential and natural functions of ecosystems.
The sustainability movement has gained momentum over the last two decades, with interest from all sectors increasing rapidly each year. In the book Regenerative Development and Design: A Framework for Evolving Sustainability, the Regenesis Group asserts that the sustainability "debate is shifting from whether we should work on sustainability to how we're going to get it done." Sustainability was first viewed as a "steady state of equilibrium" in which there was a balance between inputs and outputs with the idea that sustainable practices meant future resources were not compromised by current processes. As this idea of sustainability and sustainable building has become more widely accepted and adopted, the idea of "net-zero" and even "net-positive" have become topics of interest. These relatively newer concepts focus on positively impacting the surrounding environment of a building rather than simply reducing the negative impacts.
=== Regenerative design ===
J.T. Gibberd argued "a building is an element set within wider human endeavors and is necessarily dependent on this context. Thus, a building can support sustainable patterns of living, but in and of itself cannot be sustainable" Regenerative design goes a step further than sustainable design. In a regenerative system, feedback loops allow for adaptability, dynamism and emergence to create and develop resilient and flourishing eco-systems. Cole highlights a key distinction of regenerative design is the recognition and emphasis of the "co-evolutionary, partnered relationship between human and natural systems" and thus importance of project location and place. Bruno Duarte Dias asserts that regenerative design goes beyond the traditional weighing and measuring of various environmental, social and economic impacts of sustainable design and instead focuses on mapping relationships. Dias is in agreement with Cole stating three fundamental aspects of regenerative design which include: understanding place and its unique patterns, designing for harmony within place, and co-evolution.
Net-positive design
Positive Development (PD) theory and net-positive design emerged from 2002 as a critique of sustainable and regenerative design. It argued that buildings, landscapes and infrastructure that restore the damage they do over their lifecycle are, in reality, negative in the context of the overshoot of planetary boundaries. The thesis was that buildings could in fact have net positive (global) outcomes that reverse ecocide and environmental injustices. However, as the textbook Positive Development explained - current institutions of governance, planning, and decision-making, as well as design, must be redesigned and retrofitted on radically different premises.
A subsequent 2020 textbook, Net-Positive Design, detailed the theory and explained the 'STARfish' net-positive design app, a free online resource,[1] which guides (synergistic, adaptable and multi-functional) net-positive design. The app is also used for building assessment. The STARfish inverts three dozen fundamental flaws with both quantitative and qualitative green building certification or rating tools. In Positive Development, a building is not sustainable if it merely has more good than bad impacts. It must increase natural and social life-support systems in absolute (global) terms - sufficient to reverse its share of the cumulative and remote impacts of human expansion and consumption.
== Fundamental aspects ==
=== Co-evolution of humans and nature ===
Regenerative design is built on the idea that humans and the built environment exist within natural systems and thus, the built environment should be designed to co-evolve with the surrounding natural environment. Dias asserts that a building should serve as a "catalyst for positive change." The project does not end with the completion of construction and certificate of occupancy, instead the building serves to enhance the relationships between people, the built environment and the surrounding natural systems over a long period of time.
=== Designing in context of place ===
Understanding the location of the project, the unique dynamics of the site and the relationship of the project to the living natural systems is a fundamental concept in the regenerative design process. In their article Designing from place: a regenerative framework and methodology, Pamela Mang and Bill Reed define place as a "unique, multilayered network of living systems within a geographic region that results from the complex interactions, through time, of the natural ecology (climate, mineral and other deposits, soil, vegetation, water and wildlife, etc.) and culture (distinctive customs, expressions of values, economic activities, forms of association, ideas for education, traditions, etc.)" A systems-based approach to design in which the design team looks at the building within the larger system is crucial.
==== Gardener analogy ====
Beatrice Benne and Pamela Mang emphasize the importance of the distinction between working with a place rather than working on a place within the regenerative design process. They use an analogy of a gardener to re-define the role of a designer in the building process. "A gardener does not 'make' a garden. Instead, a skilled gardener is one who has developed an understanding of the key processes operating in the garden" and thus the gardener "makes judicious decisions on how and where to intervene to reestablish the flows of energy that are vital to the health of the garden." In the same way a designer does not create a thriving ecosystem rather they make decisions that indirectly influence whether the ecosystem degrades or flourishes over time. This requires designers to push beyond the prescriptive and narrow way of thinking they have been taught and use complex systems thinking that will be ambiguous and overwhelming at times. This includes accepting that the solutions do not exclusively lie in technological advancements and are instead a combination of sustainable technologies and an understanding of the natural flow of resources and underlying ecological processes. Benne and Mang identify these challenges and state the most difficult of these will be shifting from a mechanistic to an ecological worldview. The tendency is to view building as the physical processes of the structure rather than the complex network of relationships the building has with the surrounding environment including the natural systems and the human community.
=== Conservation vs. preservation ===
Regenerative design places more importance on conservation and biodiversity rather than on preservation. It is recognized in regenerative design that humans are a part of natural ecosystems. To exclude people is to create dense areas that destroy pockets of existing ecosystems while preserving pockets of ecosystems without allowing them to change naturally over time.
== Regenerative design frameworks ==
There are a few regenerative design frameworks that have been developed in recent years. Unlike many green building rating systems, these frameworks are not prescriptive checklists. Instead they are conceptual and meant to guide dialogue throughout the design process. They should not be used exclusively rather in conjunction with existing green building rating systems such as LEED, BREEAM or Living Building Challenge.
=== REGEN ===
The regenerative design framework REGEN was proposed by Berkebile Nelson Immenschuh McDowell (BNIM), a US architectural firm, for the US Green Building Council (USGBC). The tool was intended to be a web-based, data-rich framework to guide dialogue between professionals in the design and development process as well as "address the gap in information and integration of information." The framework has three components:
Framework – the framework encourages systems thinking and collaboration as well as linking individual strategies to the goals of the project as a whole
Resources – the framework includes place-based data and information for project teams to use
Projects – the framework includes examples of successful projects that have incorporated regenerative ideas into the design as models for project teams
=== LENSES ===
Living Environments in Natural, Social and Economic Systems (LENSES) was created by Colorado State University's Institute for the Built Environment. The framework is intended to be process-based rather than product-based. The goals of the framework include:
to direct the development of eco-regional guiding principles for living built environments
to illustrate connections and relationships between sustainability issues
to guide collaborative dialogue
to present complex concepts quickly and effectively to development teams and decision-makers
The framework consists of three "lenses": Foundational Lens, Aspects of Place Lens and Flows Lens. The lenses work together to guide the design process, emphasizing the guiding principles and core values, understanding the delicate relationship between building and place and how elements flow through the natural and human systems.
==== Case study – VanDusen Botanical Garden ====
The Visitor Centre at the VanDusen Botanical Garden in Vancouver, British Columbia was designed in parallel with the regenerative design framework developed by Perkins+Will. The site of the new visitor center was 17,575 m2 and the building itself 1,784 m2. A four stage process was identified and included: education and project aspirations, goal setting, strategies and synergies, and whole systems approaches. Each stage raises important questions that require the design team to define place and look at the project in a much larger context, identify key resources flows and understand the complex holistic systems, determine synergistic relationships and identify approaches that provoke the coevolution of both humans and ecological systems. The visitor centre was the first project that Perkins+Will worked on in collaboration with an ecologist. Incorporating an ecologist on the project team allowed the team to focus on the project from a larger scale and understand how the building and its specific design would interact with the surrounding ecosystem through its energy, water and environmental performance.
== For retrofitting existing buildings ==
=== Importance and implications ===
It is said that the majority of buildings estimated to exist in the year 2050 have already been built. Additionally, current buildings account for roughly 40 percent of the total energy consumption within the United States. This means that in order to meet climate change goals – such as the Paris Agreement on Climate Change – and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, existing buildings need to be updated to reflect sustainable and regenerative design strategies.
=== Strategies ===
Craft et al. attempted to create a regenerative design model that could be applied to retrofitting existing buildings. This model was prompted by the large number of currently existing buildings projected to be present in 2050. The model presented in this article for building retrofits follows a 'Levels of Work' framework consisting of four levels that are said to be pertinent in increasing the "vitality, viability and capacity for evolution" which require a deep understanding of place and how the building interacts with the natural systems. These four levels are classified as either proactive or reactive and include regenerate, improve, maintain and operate.
=== Case study ===
==== University of New South Wales ====
Craft et al. present a case study in which the chemical science building at the University of New South Wales was retrofitted to incorporate these regenerative design principles. The strategy uses biophilia to improve occupants health and wellbeing by strengthening their connection to nature. The facade acts as a "vertical ecosystem" by providing habitats for indigenous wildlife to increase biodiversity. This included the addition of balconies to increase the connection between humans and nature.
== Regenerative agriculture ==
Regenerative farming or 'regenerative agriculture' calls for the creation of demand on agricultural systems to produce food in a way that is beneficial to the production and the ecology of the environment. It uses the science of systems ecology, and the design and application through permaculture. As understanding of its benefits to human biology and ecological systems that sustain us is increased as has the demand for organic food. Organic food grown using regenerative and permaculture design increases the biodiversity and is used to develop business models that regenerate communities. Whereas some foods are organic some are not strictly regenerative because it is not clearly seeking to maximize biodiversity and the resilience of the environment and the workforce. Regenerative agriculture grows organic produce through ethical supply chains, zero waste policies, fair wages, staff development and wellbeing, and in some cases cooperative and social enterprise models. It seeks to benefit the staff along the supply chain, customers, and ecosystems with the outcome of human and ecological restoration and regeneration.
== Size of regenerative systems ==
The size of the regenerative system affects the complexity of the design process. The smaller a system is designed the more likely it is to be resilient and regenerative. Multiple small regenerative systems that are put together to create larger regenerative systems help to create supplies for multiple human-inclusive-ecological systems.
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Design for Human Ecosystems
Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development | Wikipedia/Regenerative_design |
Design research was originally constituted as primarily concerned with ways of supporting and improving the process of design, developing from work in design methods. The concept has been expanded to include research embedded within the process of design and research-based design practice, research into the cognitive and communal processes of designing, and extending into wider aspects of socio-political, ethical and environmental contexts of design. It retains a sense of generality, recognising design as a creative act common to many fields, and aimed at understanding design processes and practices quite broadly.
== Origins ==
Design research emerged as a recognisable field of study in the 1960s, initially marked by a conference on Design methods at Imperial College London, in 1962. It led to the founding of the Design Research Society (DRS) in 1966. John Christopher Jones (one of the initiators of the 1962 conference) founded a postgraduate Design Research Laboratory at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, and L. Bruce Archer supported by Misha Black founded the postgraduate Department of Design Research at the Royal College of Art, London, becoming the first Professor of Design Research.
The Design Research Society has always stated its aim as: ‘to promote the study of and research into the process of designing in all its many fields’. Its purpose therefore is to act as a form of learned society, taking a scholarly and domain independent view of the process of designing.
Some of the origins of design methods and design research lay in the emergence after the 2nd World War of operational research methods and management decision-making techniques, the development of creativity techniques in the 1950s, and the beginnings of computer programs for problem solving in the 1960s. A statement by Bruce Archer encapsulated what was going on: ‘The most fundamental challenge to conventional ideas on design has been the growing advocacy of systematic methods of problem solving, borrowed from computer techniques and management theory, for the assessment of design problems and the development of design solutions.’ Herbert A. Simon established the foundations for ‘a science of design’, which would be ‘a body of intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical, teachable doctrine about the design process.’
== Early work ==
Early work was mainly within the domains of architectural design and industrial design. Research in engineering design developed strongly in the 1980s, for example, through ICED—the series of International Conferences on Engineering Design, now run by The Design Society. These developments were especially strong in Germany and Japan. In the USA there were also some important developments in design theory and methodology, including the publications of the Design Methods Group and the series of conferences of the Environmental Design Research Association. The National Science Foundation initiative on design theory and methods led to substantial growth in engineering design research in the late-1980s. A particularly significant development was the emergence of the first journals of design research: Design Studies in 1979, Design Issues in 1984, and Research in Engineering Design in 1989.
== Development ==
The development of design research has led to the establishment of design as a coherent discipline of study in its own right, based on the view that design has its own things to know and its own ways of knowing them. Bruce Archer again encapsulated the view in stating his new belief that ‘there exists a designerly way of thinking and communicating that is both different from scientific and scholarly ways of thinking and communicating, and as powerful as scientific and scholarly methods of enquiry when applied to its own kinds of problems’. This view was developed further in a series of papers by Nigel Cross, collected as a book on 'Designerly Ways of Knowing'.
Significantly, Donald Schön promoted the new view within his book The Reflective Practitioner, in which he challenged the technical rationality of Simon and sought to establish ‘an epistemology of practice implicit in the artistic, intuitive processes which [design and other] practitioners bring to situations of uncertainty, instability, uniqueness and value conflict’.
Design research ‘came of age’ in the 1980s, and has continued to expand. This was helped by the development of a research base, including doctoral programmes, within many of the design schools located within new institutions that were previously art colleges, and the emergence of new areas such as interaction design. More new journals have appeared, such as The Design Journal, the Journal of Design Research, CoDesign and more recently Design Science. There has also been a major growth in conferences, with not only a continuing series by DRS, but also series such as Design Thinking, Doctoral Education in Design, Design Computing and Cognition, Design and Emotion, the European Academy, the Asian Design Conferences, etc. Design research now operates on an international scale, acknowledged in the cooperation of DRS with the Asian design research societies in the founding in 2005 of the International Association of Societies of Design Research.
== Further reading ==
Bayazit, N (2004). "Investigating design: a review of forty years of design research". Design Issues, 20(1), 16–29. doi:10.1162/074793604772933739
Blessing, L. T. M. & Chakrabarti, A. (2009). DRM, a Design Research Methodology. London: Springer.
Baxter, K., & Courage, C. (2005). Understanding Your Users: A Practical Guide to User Requirements Methods, Tools, and Techniques. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
Cross, N. (ed.) (1984). Developments in Design Methodology. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Curedale, R. (2013). Design Research Methods: 150 Ways to Inform Design. Topanga, CA: Design Community College Inc.
Faste, T., & Faste, H. (2012). "Demystifying 'design research': design is not research, research is design". In IDSA Education Symposium (Vol. 2012, p. 15).
Höger, H. (ed.) (2008). Design Research: Strategy Setting to Face the Future. Milan: Abitare Segesta.
Koskinen, I., Zimmerman, J., Binder, T., Redstrom, J., & Wensveen, S. (2011). Design Research Through Practice: From the Lab, Field, and Showroom. Waltham, MA: Morgan Kaufmann.
Krippendorff, K. (2006). The Semantic Turn: A New Foundation for Design. Boca Raton, FA: CRC Press.
Kumar, V. (2012). 101 Design Methods: A Structured Approach for Driving Innovation in Your Organization. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Laurel, B. (2003). Design Research: Methods and Perspectives. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Sanders, E. B. N., & Stappers, P. J. (2014). "Probes, toolkits and prototypes: three approaches to making in codesigning". CoDesign: International Journal of CoCreation in Design and the Arts, 10(1), 5–14. doi:10.1080/15710882.2014.888183
== See also ==
Action research
Contextual inquiry
Design Research Society
Design science
Design studies
Design theory
Reflective practice
User-centered design
== References == | Wikipedia/Design_research |
A constraint in computer-aided design (CAD) software is a limitation or restriction imposed by a designer or an engineer upon geometric properties: 203 of an entity of a design model (i.e. sketch) that maintains its structure as the model is manipulated. These properties can include relative length, angle, orientation, size, shift, and displacement. The plural form constraints refers to demarcations of geometrical characteristics between two or more entities or solid modeling bodies; these delimiters are definitive for properties of theoretical physical position and motion, or displacement in parametric design. The exact terminology, however, may vary depending on a CAD program vendor.
Constraints are widely employed in CAD software for solid modeling, computer-aided architectural design such as building information modeling, computer-aided engineering, assembly modeling, and other CAD subfields. Constraints are usually used for the creation of 3D assemblies and multibody systems.
A constraint may be specified for two or more entities at once. For instance, two lines may be constrained to have equal length or diameter of circles can be set to have the same dimension (e.g., radius or length). Moreover, the constraint may be applied to solid models to be locked or fixed in a specified space. Concept of constraints is applicable for both two- (2D) three-dimensional (3D) sketches (including the ones used to create extrusions and solid bodies).
The concept of constraints initially emerged in the 1960s and were further developed in the 1970-80s.
== History ==
The original idea of "constraints" was introduced by Ivan Sutherland in 1975. It is derived from ideas employed in Sketchpad system made in 1963.: 29 In his work he argued that the usefulness of a technical drawing made by a computer program relied on their structured nature. Compared to traditional drawings that lack this feature the virtual ones had advantages in keeping track of and recalculating dimensions of entities (lines, angles, areas etc.). These ideas were integrated into a CAD system that maintained this structure as a designer manipulated geometric model.: 29
In the 1970s the idea was further extended into three-dimensional space. In the 80s, a more generalized constraint-based programming language approach emerged and found some application in CAD software. At least one conceptual prototype was built in 1989.: 29
== Overview ==
The purpose of constraints in a design is to control and limit the behavior of the entities and bodies in relation to another entity, plane or body.: 203 Effective constraints or mates between two or more bodies may exist at the assembly level of these or between two or more entities in defining a sketch, but adding conflicting, unnecessary or redundant constraints may result in an overdefined sketch and an error message.
=== Degrees of freedom ===
Development of a good constraining system might be a time-consuming process.: 206 One approach to this situation may be referred as removing degrees of freedom (DOF). The latter are often represented by (X,Y,Z) coordinates in space.: 206 The designer may quickly figure out whether an entity is constrained or not by counting the number of DOFs removed from it.: 206
== Types ==
=== Geometric constraints ===
There are several constraints that may be applied between entities or bodies depending on their actual natural geometry (may also be referred to as ’’mates’’): collinearity, perpendicularity, tangency, symmetry, coincidency, and parallelism are ways of establishing the orientation of the entity.: 203
=== Parametrics ===
More advanced 2D/3D CAD systems may allow application of mathematical relationships between constraints that help to save time on reshaping a model.: 212 By way of parametrics a complicated sketch can be adjusted in matters of seconds in predictable ways by only changing one or a few basic dimensions saving a fair amount of working time. Such systems are usually referred as parametric as they create parametric models. Parametrics may also be referred as a design intent, varying geometry, family tables, or as driving dimensions.: 213
=== Assembly constraints ===
In assembly modeling, constraints are widely used to control or restrict design parts movements or relationships between each other. Some constraints forces models to respond to changes made in a separate part of a designed product. This enables the design to be responsive as a whole.: 251
== Implementations ==
Implementation of constraints functionality vary with given CAD system and may respond differently to how user applies them. When constraints are added into a sketch some system may be smart enough to apply additional ones based on pre-existing entities automatically. For instance, if the line is drawn next to another one the system may figure to constrain them into being in parallel relative to each other. This sometimes, however, may lead to unexpected results.: 206
=== Geometric constraint solving ===
Constraint solver is a dedicated software that calculates positions of points of the 2D sketch based on geometric constraint specified by the user. The purpose of the constraint solver is to find all points' positions with respect to the said constraints. It also usually helps with identifying issues with constraining such as over-constraining etc. so the entire sketch is stable.: 209–2013
== Example ==
Ideally, a rod will need to be concentric to a hole drilled through the plate where it will be inserted, so the constraint "concentric" guarantees that the diameter of the rod and the diameter of the hole maintain a common centerline, thus "locking" the manner the rod relates to the hole in the plate; this means that the rod could still slide on either direction since the position of its ends has not been limited. Instance 2 illustrates that the rod may still rotate along its centerline while it slides up or down.
== See also ==
Constraint (classical mechanics)
Geometric constraint solving
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing
Parametric modeling
Preliminary design & detailed design
== References ==
== Sources ==
Introducing AutoCAD 2010 and AutoCAD LT 2010 (pages 117-122), by George Omura. 2009; 1st. Edition. Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana. ISBN 978-0-470-43867-1 Hard Cover; 384 pages.
Autodesk® Inventor® 2011 Essentials Plus (pages 312-341), by Daniel T. Banach; Travis Jones; Alan J. Kalameja. 2011; Delmar/Cengage Learning, Autodesk Press. Printed in the United States of America. ISBN 978-1-1111-3527-0; ISBN 1-1111-3527-4. New York. | Wikipedia/Constraint_(computer-aided_design) |
Design technology, or D.T., (also Digital Delivery (DD)) is the study, design, development, application, implementation, support and management of computer and non-computer based technologies for the express purpose of communicating product design intent and constructability. Design technology can be applied to the problems encountered in construction, operation and maintenance of a product.
At times there is cross-over between D.T. and Information Technology, whereas I.T. is primarily focused on overall network infrastructure, hardware and software requirements, and implementation, D.T. is specifically focused on supporting, maintaining and training design and engineering applications and tools and working closely with I.T. to provide necessary infrastructure, for the most effective use of these applications and tools.
Within the building design, construction and maintenance industry (also known as AEC/O/FM), the product is the building and the role of D.T., is the effective application of technologies within all phases and aspects of building process. D.T. processes have adopted Building Information Modeling (BIM) to quicken construction, design and facilities management using technology. So though D.T. encompasses BIM and Integrated Project Delivery, I.P.D., it is more overarching in its directive and scope and likewise looks for ways to leverage and more effectively utilize C.A.D., Virtual Design & Construction, V.D.C., as well as historical and legacy data and systems.
D.T. is applicable to industrial design and product design and the manufacturing and fabrication processes therein.
There are formal courses of study in some countries known as design and technology that focus on particular areas. In this case, the above definition remains valid, if for instance one takes the subject textiles technology and replace the product in the above definition with textile.
== See also ==
Automation
Process simulation/Design
System/Process Engineering/Design
Computer-aided design (CAD)
Building Information Modeling (BIM)
Integrated Project Delivery (IPD)
Virtual Design and Construction (VDC)
Information Technology (IT)
== References == | Wikipedia/Design_technology |
Open Design Alliance is a nonprofit organization creating software development kits (SDKs) for engineering applications. ODA offers interoperability tools for CAD, BIM, and Mechanical industries including .dwg, .dxf, .dgn, Autodesk Revit, Autodesk Navisworks, and .ifc files and additional tools for visualization, web development, 3D PDF publishing and modeling.
== History ==
=== 1998-2014 ===
The Alliance was formed in February 1998 as the OpenDWG Alliance, with its initial release of code based on the AUTODIRECT libraries written by Matt Richards of MarComp. In 2002, the OpenDWG library was renamed to DWGdirect, and the same year, the alliance was renamed to Open Design Alliance.
On November 22, 2006, Autodesk sued the Open Design Alliance alleging that its DWGdirect libraries infringed Autodesk's trademark for the word "Autodesk", by writing the TrustedDWG code (including the word "AutoCAD") into DWG files it created. In April 2007, the suit was dropped, with Autodesk modifying the warning message in AutoCAD 2008 (to make it more benign), and the Open Design Alliance removing support for the TrustedDWG code from its DWGdirect libraries.
In 2008, support was added for .dgn files with DGNdirect. In April 2010, DWGdirect was renamed to Teigha for .dwg files, OpenDWG was renamed to Teigha Classic and DGNdirect was renamed to Teigha for .dgn files.
=== 2015-2024 ===
Since August 2017 (v. 4.3.1), Teigha contains production support for version 2018 .dwg files, including architectural, civil and mechanical custom objects. In February 2018 (v. 4.3.2), support for STL and OBJ files was announced.
In September 2018 Teigha brand was removed.
In October 2018 ODA started work on IFC Solutio.
In January 2019 Drawings 2019.2 introduced extrude and revolve 3d solid modeling operations as part of the standard SDK. Also that month, ODA announced the release of its new BimNv SDK.
In May 2020 ODA switched to monthly releases. In June 2020 ODA released its free Open IFC Viewer, and in July 2021 ODA started development for STEP Support. In October 2021 ODA released its IFC validation engine. In January 2022 ODA started Scan-to-BIM development. In September 2022 ODA started MCAD SDK development, and in October 2022 ODA released STEP SDK for production use.
In September 2024 ODA removed the free trial downloads of the ODAFileConverter.
== ODA products and supported file formats ==
=== CAD ===
Drawings SDK is a development toolkit that provides access to all data in .dwg and .dgn through an object-oriented API, allows creating and editing any type of .dwg or .dgn drawing file, and can be extended with custom .dwg objects. (Old names: Teigha Drawings, Teigha for .dwg files and Teigha for .dgn files; OpenDWG and DWGdirect; DGNdirect.)
Drawings SDK also provides exchange of the following file formats to and from .dwg and .dgn:
Architecture SDK is a development toolkit for building .dwg-based architectural design applications. It offers interoperability with Autodesk Architecture files (old name: Teigha Architecture).
Civil SDK is a development toolkit for working with Autodesk Civil 3D files. The Civil API provides read/write access to data in civil custom objects (old name: Teigha Civil).
Map SDK is a development toolkit for working with Autodesk® Map 3D custom objects in any ODA-based application.
=== BIM ===
BimRv SDK is a development toolkit for reading, writing, and creating .rvt and .rfa files.
IFC SDK is a development toolkit featuring 100% compatibility with the buildingSMART IFC standard. It offers a geometry building module for creating IFC geometry, which includes the ODA facet modeler and B-Rep modeler.
BimNv is a development toolkit for reading, visualizing and creating Autodesk Navisworks files.
Scan-To-BIM is a development toolkit for converting point cloud data to 3D BIM models.
=== Mechanical ===
Mechanical SDK is a development toolkit for working with Autodesk Mechanical files.
STEP SDK is one of the newest ODA development toolkits; it provides access to STEP model data. In production since October 2022.
MCAD SDK is an open exchange platform for 3D MCAD file formats such as Inventor, IGES, Rhino, CATIA V4, CADDS, 3Shape DCM, CATIA V5, PLMXML, Parasolid, SolidWorks, Creo, STEP, SolidEdge, ProE, UG NX, CGR, CATIA V6, JT, and Procera.
=== ODA Core Platform Technologies ===
Visualize SDK is a graphics toolkit designed for engineering applications development.
Web SDK uses Visualize SDK to embed engineering models into web pages and create web/SaaS applications.
Publish SDK is a development toolkit for creating 2D and 3D .pdf and .prc models. All PDFs are compatible with ISO standards and Adobe tools. Publish SDK can create PRC-based 3D PDF documents that contain full B-Rep models and can include animation, interactive views, part lists, etc.
== Membership ==
There are six types of ODA membership:
Educational: qualified university use only, 1 year limit
Non-commercial: any kind of internal automation for in-house use and R&D, 2 year limit
Commercial: limited commercial use (sell up to 100 copies), web/SaaS use not allowed
Sustaining: unlimited commercial use, web/SaaS use allowed
Founding: unlimited commercial use with full source code
Corporate: unlimited commercial use across multiple business units
There is also a free trial period.
== Releases ==
Open Design Alliance provides monthly production releases.
== Annual ODA conference ==
Open Design Alliance holds an ODA conference every year in September. The two-day conference includes presentations from directors and developers and face-to-face meetings for non-members, members, ODA developers, and ODA executives. Anyone who is interested can register and attend the conference.
== Member organizations of the ODA ==
The following is an incomplete list of members of the Open Design Alliance.
=== Corporate members ===
=== Founding members ===
The following is an incomplete list of founding member organizations of the Open Design Alliance.
== ODA developers in Ukraine ==
Since 2016 ODA has a 30-person development team in Chernihiv, Ukraine (almost students of Chernihiv Polytechnic National University).
Ukrainian engineers play an important role in developing ODA technologies, including our interoperability toolkits for DWG and Autodesk® Revit® files, and many other areas.
On 4 April 2022 in a response to full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine and continuous shelling of Chernihiv Neil Peterson, ODA President, announced a campaign for collecting money to donate Ukrainian team members and their families, and stated that help with relocation and temporary housing being provided.
== See also ==
AutoCAD DWG
Digital modeling and fabrication
Open Cascade Technology
Building Information Modeling
Industry Foundation Classes
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website | Wikipedia/Open_Design_Alliance |
In 3D computer graphics, 3D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical coordinate-based representation of a surface of an object (inanimate or living) in three dimensions via specialized software by manipulating edges, vertices, and polygons in a simulated 3D space.
Three-dimensional (3D) models represent a physical body using a collection of points in 3D space, connected by various geometric entities such as triangles, lines, curved surfaces, etc. Being a collection of data (points and other information), 3D models can be created manually, algorithmically (procedural modeling), or by scanning. Their surfaces may be further defined with texture mapping.
== Outline ==
The product is called a 3D model, while someone who works with 3D models may be referred to as a 3D artist or a 3D modeler.
A 3D model can also be displayed as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena.
3D models may be created automatically or manually. The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. The 3D model can be physically created using 3D printing devices that form 2D layers of the model with three-dimensional material, one layer at a time. Without a 3D model, a 3D print is not possible.
3D modeling software is a class of 3D computer graphics software used to produce 3D models. Individual programs of this class are called modeling applications.
== History ==
3D models are now widely used anywhere in 3D graphics and CAD but their history predates the widespread use of 3D graphics on personal computers.
In the past, many computer games used pre-rendered images of 3D models as sprites before computers could render them in real-time. The designer can then see the model in various directions and views, this can help the designer see if the object is created as intended to compared to their original vision. Seeing the design this way can help the designer or company figure out changes or improvements needed to the product.
=== Representation ===
Almost all 3D models can be divided into two categories:
Solid – These models define the volume of the object they represent (like a rock). Solid models are mostly used for engineering and medical simulations, and are usually built with constructive solid geometry
Shell or boundary – These models represent the surface, i.e., the boundary of the object, not its volume (like an infinitesimally thin eggshell). Almost all visual models used in games and film are shell models.
Solid and shell modeling can create functionally identical objects. Differences between them are mostly variations in the way they are created and edited and conventions of use in various fields and differences in types of approximations between the model and reality.
Shell models must be manifold (having no holes or cracks in the shell) to be meaningful as a real object. In a shell model of a cube, the bottom and top surfaces of the cube must have a uniform thickness with no holes or cracks in the first and last layers printed. Polygonal meshes (and to a lesser extent, subdivision surfaces) are by far the most common representation. Level sets are a useful representation for deforming surfaces that undergo many topological changes, such as fluids.
The process of transforming representations of objects, such as the middle point coordinate of a sphere and a point on its circumference, into a polygon representation of a sphere is called tessellation. This step is used in polygon-based rendering, where objects are broken down from abstract representations ("primitives") such as spheres, cones etc., to so-called meshes, which are nets of interconnected triangles. Meshes of triangles (instead of e.g., squares) are popular as they have proven to be easy to rasterize (the surface described by each triangle is planar, so the projection is always convex). Polygon representations are not used in all rendering techniques, and in these cases the tessellation step is not included in the transition from abstract representation to rendered scene.
== Process ==
There are three popular ways to represent a model:
Polygonal modeling – Points in 3D space, called vertices, are connected by line segments to form a polygon mesh. The vast majority of 3D models today are built as textured polygonal models because they are flexible and because computers can render them so quickly. However, polygons are planar and can only approximate curved surfaces using many polygons.
Curve modeling – Surfaces are defined by curves, which are influenced by weighted control points. The curve follows (but does not necessarily interpolate) the points. Increasing the weight for a point pulls the curve closer to that point. Curve types include nonuniform rational B-spline (NURBS), splines, patches, and geometric primitives
Digital sculpting – There are three types of digital sculpting: Displacement, which is the most widely used among applications at this moment, uses a dense model (often generated by subdivision surfaces of a polygon control mesh) and stores new locations for the vertex positions through use of an image map that stores the adjusted locations. Volumetric, loosely based on voxels, has similar capabilities as displacement but does not suffer from polygon stretching when there are not enough polygons in a region to achieve a deformation. Dynamic tessellation, which is similar to voxel, divides the surface using triangulation to maintain a smooth surface and allow finer details. These methods allow for artistic exploration as the model has new topology created over it once the models form and possibly details have been sculpted. The new mesh usually has the original high-resolution mesh information transferred into displacement data or normal map data if it is for a game engine.
The modeling stage consists of shaping individual objects that are later used in the scene. There are a number of modeling techniques, including:
Constructive solid geometry
Implicit surfaces
Subdivision surfaces
Modeling can be performed by means of a dedicated program (e.g., 3D modeling software like Adobe Substance, Blender, Cinema 4D, LightWave, Maya, Modo, 3ds Max, SketchUp, Rhinoceros 3D, and others) or an application component (Shaper, Lofter in 3ds Max) or some scene description language (as in POV-Ray). In some cases, there is no strict distinction between these phases; in such cases, modeling is just part of the scene creation process (this is the case, for example, with Caligari trueSpace and Realsoft 3D).
3D models can also be created using the technique of Photogrammetry with dedicated programs such as RealityCapture, Metashape and 3DF Zephyr. Cleanup and further processing can be performed with applications such as MeshLab, the GigaMesh Software Framework, netfabb or MeshMixer. Photogrammetry creates models using algorithms to interpret the shape and texture of real-world objects and environments based on photographs taken from many angles of the subject.
Complex materials such as blowing sand, clouds, and liquid sprays are modeled with particle systems, and are a mass of 3D coordinates which have either points, polygons, texture splats or sprites assigned to them.
== 3D modeling software ==
There are a variety of 3D modeling programs that can be used in the industries of engineering, interior design, film and others. Each 3D modeling software has specific capabilities and can be utilized to fulfill demands for the industry.
=== G-code ===
Many programs include export options to form a g-code, applicable to additive or subtractive manufacturing machinery. G-code (computer numerical control) works with automated technology to form a real-world rendition of 3D models. This code is a specific set of instructions to carry out steps of a product's manufacturing.
=== Human models ===
The first widely available commercial application of human virtual models appeared in 1998 on the Lands' End web site. The human virtual models were created by the company My Virtual Mode Inc. and enabled users to create a model of themselves and try on 3D clothing. There are several modern programs that allow for the creation of virtual human models (Poser being one example).
=== 3D clothing ===
The development of cloth simulation software such as Marvelous Designer, CLO3D and Optitex, has enabled artists and fashion designers to model dynamic 3D clothing on the computer.
Dynamic 3D clothing is used for virtual fashion catalogs, as well as for dressing 3D characters for video games, 3D animation movies, for digital doubles in movies, as a creation tool for digital fashion brands, as well as for making clothes for avatars in virtual worlds such as SecondLife.
== Comparison with 2D methods ==
3D photorealistic effects are often achieved without wire-frame modeling and are sometimes indistinguishable in the final form. Some graphic art software includes filters that can be applied to 2D vector graphics or 2D raster graphics on transparent layers.
Advantages of wireframe 3D modeling over exclusively 2D methods include:
Flexibility, ability to change angles or animate images with quicker rendering of the changes;
Ease of rendering, automatic calculation and rendering photorealistic effects rather than mentally visualizing or estimating;
Accurate photorealism, less chance of human error in misplacing, overdoing, or forgetting to include a visual effect.
Disadvantages compared to 2D photorealistic rendering may include a software learning curve and difficulty achieving certain photorealistic effects. Some photorealistic effects may be achieved with special rendering filters included in the 3D modeling software. For the best of both worlds, some artists use a combination of 3D modeling followed by editing the 2D computer-rendered images from the 3D model.
== 3D model market ==
A large market for 3D models (as well as 3D-related content, such as textures, scripts, etc.) exists—either for individual models or large collections. Several online marketplaces for 3D content allow individual artists to sell content that they have created, including TurboSquid, MyMiniFactory, Sketchfab, CGTrader, and Cults. Often, the artists' goal is to get additional value out of assets they have previously created for projects. By doing so, artists can earn more money out of their old content, and companies can save money by buying pre-made models instead of paying an employee to create one from scratch. These marketplaces typically split the sale between themselves and the artist that created the asset, artists get 40% to 95% of the sales according to the marketplace. In most cases, the artist retains ownership of the 3d model while the customer only buys the right to use and present the model. Some artists sell their products directly in their own stores, offering their products at a lower price by not using intermediaries.
The architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry is the biggest market for 3D modeling, with an estimated value of $12.13 billion by 2028. This is due to the increasing adoption of 3D modeling in the AEC industry, which helps to improve design accuracy, reduce errors and omissions and facilitate collaboration among project stakeholders.
Over the last several years numerous marketplaces specializing in 3D rendering and printing models have emerged. Some of the 3D printing marketplaces are a combination of models sharing sites, with or without a built in e-com capability. Some of those platforms also offer 3D printing services on demand, software for model rendering and dynamic viewing of items.
== 3D printing ==
The term 3D printing or three-dimensional printing is a form of additive manufacturing technology where a three-dimensional object is created from successive layers of material. Objects can be created without the need for complex expensive molds or assembly with multiple parts. 3D printing allows ideas to be prototyped and tested without having to go through a production process.
3D models can be purchased from online markets and printed by individuals or companies using commercially available 3D printers, enabling the home-production of objects such as spare parts and even medical equipment.
== Uses ==
3D modeling is used in many industries.
The medical industry uses detailed models of organs created from multiple two-dimensional image slices from an MRI or CT scan. Other scientific fields can use 3D models to visualize and communicate information such as models of chemical compounds.
The movie industry uses 3D models for computer-generated characters and objects in animated and real-life motion pictures. Similarly, the video game industry uses 3D models as assets for computer and video games. The source of the geometry for the shape of an object can be a designer, industrial engineer, or artist using a 3D CAD system; an existing object that has been reverse engineered or copied using a 3D shape digitizer or scanner; or mathematical data based on a numerical description or calculation of the object.
The architecture industry uses 3D models to demonstrate proposed buildings and landscapes in lieu of traditional, physical architectural models. Additionally, the use of Level of Detail (LOD) in 3D models is becoming increasingly important in architecture, engineering, and construction.
Archeologists create 3D models of cultural heritage items for research and visualization. For example, the International Institute of MetaNumismatics (INIMEN) studies the applications of 3D modeling for the digitization and preservation of numismatic artifacts.
In recent decades, the earth science community has started to construct 3D geological models as a standard practice.
3D models are also used in constructing digital representations of mechanical parts before they are manufactured. Using CAD- and CAM-related software, an engineer can test the functionality of assemblies of parts then use the same data to create toolpaths for CNC machining or 3D printing.
3D modeling is used in industrial design, wherein products are 3D modeled before representing them to the clients.
In media and event industries, 3D modeling is used in stage and set design.
The OWL 2 translation of the vocabulary of X3D can be used to provide semantic descriptions for 3D models, which is suitable for indexing and retrieval of 3D models by features such as geometry, dimensions, material, texture, diffuse reflection, transmission spectra, transparency, reflectivity, opalescence, glazes, varnishes and enamels (as opposed to unstructured textual descriptions or 2.5D virtual museums and exhibitions using Google Street View on Google Arts & Culture, for example). The RDF representation of 3D models can be used in reasoning, which enables intelligent 3D applications which, for example, can automatically compare two 3D models by volume.
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to 3D modeling at Wikimedia Commons | Wikipedia/3D_modeling |
Design culture is an organizational culture focused on approaches that improve customer experiences through design. In every firm, the design culture is of significance as it allows the company to understand users and their needs. Integration of design culture in any organization aims at creating experiences that add value to their respective users. In general, design culture entails undertaking design as the forefront of every operation in the organization, from strategy formulation to execution. Every organization is responsible for ensuring a healthy design culture through the application of numerous strategies. For instance, an organization should provide a platform that allows every stakeholder to engage in design recesses. Consequently, employees across the board need to incorporate design thinking, which is associated with innovation and critical thinking.
Moreover, design culture has many characteristics that create a conducive integration within the work environment. It offers freedom for design experimentation through course corrections. Therefore, individuals involved in design processes learn from their mistakes and eventually develop innovative solutions. Proactivity in design culture has a positive impact on the organization, specifically on decision-making and problem-solving. Design culture allows designers to engage in constructive tasks. In the process, designers can solve problems in an organization and make crucial decisions towards innovations of the organization. Design culture is concerned with the human side of the respective organization. In the recent past, organizations adopted a data-driven mentality with the success of the organization being measured through the level of efficiency in the operations. In contrast, design culture is interested in the participation of humans in determining the success of the organization through the level of innovation facilitated by their involvement. In return, design culture is concerned with improving an organization's culture into a pleasant and change-driven culture.
In the Fourth-Order of Design: A Practical Perspective, Tony Golsby-Smith states that design culture expands beyond physical objects, which makes design humanistic rather than mechanistic. Furthermore, within the context of design culture, Richard Buchanan describes culture as a verb, it can be expressed as an activity, not a “thing.” Therefore, culturing is an activity of ordering, disordering and reordering that everyone can do.
== Developing a design culture ==
Creation of a design culture for an organization leads to a better transformation of the organisation. According to a study conducted by Forrester Research Consulting in the year 2016 to investigate whether the design-led cultures gave companies a significant advantage over their contemporaries. The results showed evidence that most of the enterprises that were analyzed during the research had digital experiences that outpaced the competition. The study proved that focusing on design strengthens an organization from the inside as well as from the outside.
In a design-led enterprise, the design permeates the organisation beyond the product teams that are embedded in the culture and in such organizations, there is always an ambition to do better.
These companies typically support a variety of skills from the more oriented designers to the junior designers or the more tactical designers. The teams use collaborative processes and tools to unify the working groups of the organization. An organization driven by design is more proactive rather than reactive, and it tends to confirm the next challenge rather than wait until the challenge presents itself. This is made possible by the values that are built based on, which is done through collaboration, experimentation, empathy as well as user research.
Furthermore, developing a design culture requires a definition of the design and the necessary resources that will facilitate its integration into the organization. This follows an evaluation of the organisation's stakeholders who will be involved in the design process. The evaluation depends on the organisation's culture, which is the defining aspect of an organization's life. Consequently, identifying the designers to be involved in the designing process requires an in-depth understanding of the purpose of the design towards the organisation's culture and innovation as well.
Additionally, building a design culture entails creating an environment that presents a platform that ensures that every individual obtains solutions to some problems present in the organisation. There exist several factors necessary for developing a design culture in any organisation. Cultivating culture is the first approach to developing design culture. This step entails identifying individuals, and their characters, and including them in the design process. The management involved in the design process needs to set the tone for the organisation's culture. Besides, design culture needs to develop an organisation's value in line with the design and ensure that every member of the design team incorporates them in the field of interest.
Developing a design culture requires the incorporation of skilled personnel, alongside innovative and creative individuals as well. However, identifying such individuals is a process in itself. Therefore, the management needs to integrate an effective interview process that will help in the selection of the best skills. Also, it will require motivation for the personnel involved and alignment with the organisation's values. The design culture needs to foster social capital that is responsible for higher information flow, effective collaboration, and collective action of the team. Therefore, building a design culture should facilitate the creation of employee values, recognition of their achievements, enhance communication in the organisation and establish a firm organisation.
== Addressing markets and society ==
Design culture plays a significant role in marketing systems and the surrounding society. It addresses market externalities and internalizes association with the overall performance of the organisations. In addition, design culture allows an organisation to understand users in society and their needs, hence playing a significant role in shaping the product offering. Through design culture, the organisation supports more strategically oriented designers from the society that ensure effective operation in the business. A design-driven organisation tends to be more proactive in the market by defining challenges and strategically working to improve its overall performance. Design culture facilitates the growth of a firm from tiny startups to legacy enterprises. Therefore, in markets and societies, design culture aims at improving an organisation's output to the excellent quality of products, services, and overall societal relationships.
Additionally, design culture needs to consider the aspects of the surrounding society and ensure that the design process is incorporative of the values and culture that is in sync with the surrounding community. The society plays a significant role in the design culture by presenting skilled personnel who can be recruited into the design process. In relation to society, design culture aims at designing a brand for everyone. I. Moreover, the community presents a ready market for the brands designed by the organisation. Consequently, the branding process should consider all the necessary qualities that will maintain the brand in the market. This is enhanced through consideration of the values defining the surrounding society. Moreover, the organisation's culture should be at par with the societal culture to promote collaboration.
Design culture aims at enhancing collaboration in the market with the respective stakeholders. Therefore, introducing design into the market requires intensive research and planning that will facilitate the production of a brand that fits the requirements for all. The design process needs to be aware of the market trends and branded products to solve an existing problem in the market. In addition, the design process should involve designing a brand that provides a solution to various situations in the society. Addressing the market, design culture is concerned about developing a brand that meets the best competitive qualities. Through innovation, the organisation involved in the design process conducts research on different market trends and comes up with refined approaches to be integrated into the design process. Moreover, the organisation needs to maintain its culture that uniquely defines its operations and products in the market. Concerned about the future trend of the design, the management responsible for the design process need to ensure that necessary qualities are met in the design process.
== Positioning design professions ==
As a guiding truth towards the successful firm organisation, design culture takes a psychological approach to different operations of the business. Positioning design professions entails defining numerous approaches necessary for building a healthy design culture. In addition, it focuses on professional strategies that get prospects and customers preferences that enable a business to stand firm in a competitive market. A design-centric organisation is usually biased against leaving anything to chance. A healthy design culture applies not only to the product but also to the organisation itself. Products usually reflect the structure as well as the character of the organisation that is responsible for their production. A well-designed enterprise is capable of producing well-designed products and services. In a healthy design culture, everyone has a feeling of empowerment towards participation in the design process. Employees are usually encouraged to carry out experimentations with the understanding that they will often lead to mistakes, and this should not be a hindrance.
Design culture has innovation as one of its core components. Therefore, the design profession is crucial in the design process as it incorporates necessary branding skills, design skills and knowledge of the design process. The process of cultivating culture requires skills necessary for analysing the surrounding society and determining the required skills for the design process. Setting the tone for an organisation is a professional approach that requires the development of an organisation's values. The design management needs to demonstrate knowledge and an understanding of the conduct of the design team and the level of innovation necessary for the design process.
Furthermore, positioning the design profession requires increased diversity that facilitates innovation. Gender diversity should be maintained in determining the team that will be involved in the design process. In addition, diversity brings heterogenous individuals together who have varying skills, creativity and knowledge that help in branding different products. Branding a product for everyone in society requires extensive research. As a result, the research requires a professional approach that will help in identifying the cultural aspects defining the society. Moreover, identification of the market trends requires in-depth analysis approaches that are in line with design professions. Therefore, the design management team need to ensure an effective and strong position in the design culture that enhances innovation in the design process
== Locating design culture ==
Effective design culture has to be made with intention and put into practice consistently. This requires the definition of approaches necessary for locating design culture. Discovering design culture is facilitated by the need to obtain a solution to a given challenge or the need to champion problem-solving approaches. Locating design culture is done through experimentation, collaboration, user research and empathy. It is a common characteristic for many companies to build a third design culture through trial and error. For example, a company such as Apple has been fine-tuning its design culture for about three decades. Locating design culture require an effective definition of the characteristics of a robust design culture. It requires frequent experimentation that allow individuals to explore as many solutions as possible that result in successful launches. In addition, locating design culture entails implementation of a system that provides answers for questions raised concerning the design culture. Moreover, it involves locating different tools that encourage collaboration allowing a given team to formulate plans, design presentations and work together for successful design culture. Concerning idea generation, it is a norm for every organisation to keep coming up with new ideas now and then, and this allows the organisation to iterate and even receive feedback more efficiently and in a short time
== References == | Wikipedia/Design_culture |
Design thinking refers to the set of cognitive, strategic and practical procedures used by designers in the process of designing, and to the body of knowledge that has been developed about how people reason when engaging with design problems.
Design thinking is also associated with prescriptions for the innovation of products and services within business and social contexts.
== Background ==
Design thinking has a history extending from the 1950s and '60s, with roots in the study of design cognition and design methods. It has also been referred to as "designerly ways of knowing, thinking and acting" and as "designerly thinking". Many of the key concepts and aspects of design thinking have been identified through studies, across different design domains, of design cognition and design activity in both laboratory and natural contexts.
The term design thinking has been used to refer to a specific cognitive style (thinking like a designer), a general theory of design (a way of understanding how designers work), and a set of pedagogical resources (through which organisations or inexperienced designers can learn to approach complex problems in a designerly way). The different uses have given rise to some confusion in the use of the term.
== As a process of designing ==
An iterative, non-linear process, design thinking includes activities such as context analysis, user testing, problem finding and framing, ideation and solution generating, creative thinking, sketching and drawing, prototyping, and evaluating.
Core features of design thinking include the abilities to:
deal with different types of design problems, especially ill-defined and 'wicked' problems
adopt solution-focused strategies
use abductive and productive reasoning
employ non-verbal, graphic/spatial modelling media, for example, sketching and prototyping.
=== Wicked problems ===
Designing deals with design problems that can be categorized on a spectrum of types of problems from well-defined problems to ill-defined ones to problems that are wickedly difficult.: 39 In the 2010s, the category of super wicked global problems emerged as well. Wicked problems have features such as no definitive formulation, no true/false solution, and a wide discrepancy between differing perspectives on the situation. Horst Rittel introduced the term in the context of design and planning, and with Melvin Webber contrasted this problem type with well-defined or "tame" cases where the problem is clear and the solution available through applying rules or technical knowledge. Rittel contrasted a formal rationalistic "first generation" of design methods in the 1950s and 1960s against the need for a participatory and informally argumentative "second generation" of design methods for the 1970s and beyond that would be more adequate for the complexity of wicked problems.
=== Problem framing ===
Rather than accept the problem as given, designers explore the given problem and its context and may re-interpret or restructure the given problem in order to reach a particular framing of the problem that suggests a route to a solution.
=== Solution-focused thinking ===
In empirical studies of three-dimensional problem solving, Bryan Lawson found architects employed solution-focused cognitive strategies, distinct from the problem-focused strategies of scientists. Nigel Cross suggests that "Designers tend to use solution conjectures as the means of developing their understanding of the problem".
=== Abductive reasoning ===
In the creation of new design proposals, designers have to infer possible solutions from the available problem information, their experience, and the use of non-deductive modes of thinking such as the use of analogies. This has been interpreted as a form of Peirce's abductive reasoning, called innovative abduction.
=== Co-evolution of problem and solution ===
In the process of designing, the designer's attention typically oscillates between their understanding of the problematic context and their ideas for a solution in a process of co-evolution of problem and solution. New solution ideas can lead to a deeper or alternative understanding of the problematic context, which in turn triggers more solution ideas.
=== Representations and modelling ===
Conventionally, designers communicate mostly in visual or object languages to translate abstract requirements into concrete objects. These 'languages' include traditional sketches and drawings but also extend to computer models and physical prototypes. The use of representations and models is closely associated with features of design thinking such as the generation and exploration of tentative solution concepts, the identification of what needs to be known about the developing concept, and the recognition of emergent features and properties within the representations.
== As a process for innovation ==
A five-phase description of the design innovation process is offered by Plattner, Meinel, and Leifer as: (re)defining the problem, needfinding and benchmarking, ideating, building, and testing. Plattner, Meinel, and Leifer state: "While the stages are simple enough, the adaptive expertise required to choose the right inflection points and appropriate next stage is a high order intellectual activity that requires practice and is learnable."
The process may also be thought of as a system of overlapping spaces rather than a sequence of orderly steps: inspiration, ideation, and implementation. Projects may loop back through inspiration, ideation, and implementation more than once as the team refines its ideas and explores new directions.
=== Inspiration ===
Generally, the design innovation process starts with the inspiration phase: observing how things and people work in the real world and noticing problems or opportunities. These problem formulations can be documented in a brief which includes constraints that gives the project team a framework from which to begin, benchmarks by which they can measure progress, and a set of objectives to be realized, such as price point, available technology, and market segment.
=== Empathy ===
In their book Creative Confidence, Tom and David Kelley note the importance of empathy with clients, users, and customers as a basis for innovative design. Designers approach user research with the goal of understanding their wants and needs, what might make their life easier and more enjoyable and how technology can be useful for them. Empathic design transcends physical ergonomics to include understanding the psychological and emotional needs of people—the way they do things, why and how they think and feel about the world, and what is meaningful to them.
=== Ideation: divergent and convergent thinking ===
Ideation is idea generation. The process is characterized by the alternation of divergent and convergent thinking, typical of design thinking process.
To achieve divergent thinking, it may be important to have a diverse group of people involved in the process. Design teams typically begin with a structured brainstorming process of "thinking outside the box". Convergent thinking, on the other hand, aims for zooming and focusing on the different proposals to select the best choice, which permits continuation of the design thinking process to achieve the final goals.
After collecting and sorting many ideas, a team goes through a process of pattern finding and synthesis in which it has to translate ideas into insights that can lead to solutions or opportunities for change. These might be either visions of new product offerings, or choices among various ways of creating new experiences.
=== Implementation and prototyping ===
The third space of the design thinking innovation process is implementation, when the best ideas generated during ideation are turned into something concrete.
At the core of the implementation process is prototyping: turning ideas into actual products and services that are then tested, evaluated, iterated, and refined. A prototype, or even a rough mock-up helps to gather feedback and improve the idea. Prototypes can speed up the process of innovation because they allow quick identification of strengths and weaknesses of proposed solutions, and can prompt new ideas.
== Applications ==
In the 2000s and 2010s there was a significant growth of interest in applying design thinking across a range of diverse applications—for example as a catalyst for gaining competitive advantage within business or for improving education, but doubts around design thinking as a panacea for innovation have been expressed by some critics (see § Criticisms).
=== In business ===
Historically, designers tended to be involved only in the later parts of the process of new product development, focusing their attention on the aesthetics and functionality of products. Many businesses and other organisations now realise the utility of embedding design as a productive asset throughout organisational policies and practices, and design thinking has been used to help many different types of business and social organisations to be more constructive and innovative. Designers bring their methods into business either by taking part themselves from the earliest stages of product and service development processes or by training others to use design methods and to build innovative thinking capabilities within organisations.
=== In education ===
All forms of professional design education can be assumed to be developing design thinking in students, even if only implicitly, but design thinking is also now explicitly taught in general as well as professional education, across all sectors of education. Design as a subject was introduced into secondary schools' educational curricula in the UK in the 1970s, gradually replacing and/or developing from some of the traditional art and craft subjects, and increasingly linked with technology studies. This development sparked related research studies in both education and design.
In the primary/secondary K–12 education sector, design thinking is used to enhance learning and promote creative thinking, teamwork, and student responsibility for learning. A design-based approach to teaching and learning has been developed more widely throughout education.
New courses in design thinking have also been introduced at the university level, especially when linked with business and innovation studies. A notable early course of this type was introduced at Stanford University in 2003, the Hasso Plattner Institute of Design, known as the d.school. Design thinking can now be seen in International Baccalaureate schools across the world, and in Maker Education organizations.
=== In computer science ===
Design thinking has been central to user-centered design and human-centered design—the dominant methods of designing human-computer interfaces—for over 40 years. Design thinking is also central to recent conceptions of software development in general.
=== Criticisms ===
Some of the diverse and popularized applications of design thinking, particularly in the business/innovation fields, have been criticized for promoting a very restricted interpretation of design skills and abilities. Lucy Kimbell accused business applications of design thinking of "de-politicizing managerial practice" through an "undertheorized" conception of design thinking. Lee Vinsel suggested that popular purveyors of design consulting "as a reform for all of higher education" misuse ideas from the fields that they purport to borrow from, and devalue discipline-specific expertise, giving students "'creative confidence' without actual capabilities".
Natasha Iskander criticized a certain conception of design thinking for reaffirming "the privileged role of the designer" at the expense of the communities that the designer serves, and argued that the concept of "empathy" employed in some formulations of design thinking ignores critical reflection on the way identity and power shape empathetic identification. She claimed that promoting simplified versions of design thinking "makes it hard to solve challenges that are characterized by a high degree of uncertainty—like climate change—where doing things the way we always have done them is a sure recipe for disaster". Similarly, Rebecca Ackermann said that radical broadening of design thinking elevated the designer into "a kind of spiritual medium" whose claimed empathy skills could be allowed to supersede context-specific expertise within professional domains, and suggested that "many big problems are rooted in centuries of dark history, too deeply entrenched to be obliterated with a touch of design thinking's magic wand".
== History ==
Drawing on psychological studies of creativity from the 1940s, such as Max Wertheimer's "Productive Thinking" (1945), new creativity techniques in the 1950s and design methods in the 1960s led to the idea of design thinking as a particular approach to creatively solving problems. Among the first authors to write about design thinking were John E. Arnold in "Creative Engineering" (1959) and L. Bruce Archer in "Systematic Method for Designers" (1963–64).
In his book "Creative Engineering" (1959) Arnold distinguishes four areas of creative thinking: (1) novel functionality, i.e. solutions that satisfy a novel need or solutions that satisfy an old need in an entirely new way, (2) higher performance levels of a solution, (3) lower production costs or (4) increased salability. Arnold recommended a balanced approach—product developers should seek opportunities in all four areas of design thinking: "It is rather interesting to look over the developmental history of any product or family of products and try to classify the changes into one of the four areas ... Your group, too, might have gotten into a rut and is inadvertently doing all of your design thinking in one area and is missing good bets in other areas."
Although L. Bruce Archer's "Systematic Method for Designers" (1963–64) was concerned primarily with a systematic process of designing, it also expressed a need to broaden the scope of conventional design: "Ways have had to be found to incorporate knowledge of ergonomics, cybernetics, marketing and management science into design thinking". Archer was also developing the relationship of design thinking with management: "The time is rapidly approaching when design decision making and management decision making techniques will have so much in common that the one will become no more than the extension of the other".
Arnold initiated a long history of design thinking at Stanford University, extending through many others such as Robert McKim and Rolfe Faste, who taught "design thinking as a method of creative action", and continuing with the shift from creative engineering to innovation management in the 2000s. Design thinking was adapted for business purposes by Faste's Stanford colleague David M. Kelley, who founded the design consultancy IDEO in 1991.
Bryan Lawson's 1980 book How Designers Think, primarily addressing design in architecture, began a process of generalising the concept of design thinking. A 1982 article by Nigel Cross, "Designerly Ways of Knowing", established some of the intrinsic qualities and abilities of design thinking that also made it relevant in general education and thus for wider audiences. Peter G. Rowe's 1987 book Design Thinking, which described methods and approaches used by architects and urban planners, was a significant early usage of the term in the design research literature. An international series of research symposia in design thinking began at Delft University of Technology in 1991. Richard Buchanan's 1992 article "Wicked Problems in Design Thinking" expressed a broader view of design thinking as addressing intractable human concerns through design, reprising ideas that Rittel and Webber developed in the early 1970s.
=== Timeline ===
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Brooks, Frederick. The Design of Design. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley, Pearson Education, 2010.
Cross, Nigel (ed.). Developments in Design Methodology. Chichester, UK; New York: Wiley, 1984.
Curedale, Robert. Design Thinking Process and Methods. 5th Edition. Design Community College Press, CA, 2019 ISBN 978-1940805450
Kelly, Tom. Ten Faces of Innovation. London: Profile, 2006.
Lawson, Bryan. Design in Mind. Oxford, UK: Butterworth, 1994.
Lewrick, Michael, Patrick Link, Larry Leifer. The Design Thinking Playbook. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2018.
Liedtka, Jeanne. Designing for Growth: A Design Thinking Tool Kit For Managers. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011. ISBN 0-231-15838-6
Liedtka, Jeanne. Solving Problems with Design Thinking: Ten Stories of What Works. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013. ISBN 0-231-16356-8
Lupton, Ellen. Graphic Design Thinking: Beyond Brainstorming. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1-56898-760-6.
Martin, Roger L. The Design of Business: Why Design Thinking is the Next Competitive Advantage. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press, 2009.
Mootee, Idris. Design Thinking for Strategic Innovation. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2013.
Nelson, George. How to See: a Guide to Reading Our Man-made Environment. San Francisco, CA: Design Within Reach, 2006.
Schön, Donald. Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987. | Wikipedia/Design_thinking |
In theatre, a lighting designer (or LD) works with the director, choreographer, set designer, costume designer, and sound designer to create the lighting, atmosphere, and time of day for the production in response to the text while keeping in mind issues of visibility, safety, and cost. The LD also works closely with the stage manager or show control programming, if show control systems are used in that production. Outside stage lighting, the job of a lighting designer can be much more diverse, and they can be found working on rock and pop tours, corporate launches, art installations, or lighting effects at sporting events.
== During pre-production ==
The role of the lighting designer varies greatly within professional and amateur theater. For a Broadway show, a touring production and most regional and small productions the LD is usually an outside freelance specialist hired early in the production process. Smaller theater companies may have a resident lighting designer responsible for most of the company's productions or rely on a variety of freelance or even volunteer help to light their productions. At the off-Broadway or off-off-Broadway level, the LD will occasionally be responsible for much of the hands-on technical work (such as hanging instruments, programming the light board, etc.) that would be the work of the lighting crew in a larger theater.
The LD will read the script carefully and make notes on changes in place and time between scene—and will have meetings (called design or production meetings) with the director, designers, stage manager, and production manager to discuss ideas for the show and establish budget and scheduling details. The LD will also attend several later rehearsals to observe the way the actors are being directed to use the stage area ('blocking') during different scenes and will receive updates from the stage manager on any changes that occur. The LD will also ensure that they have an accurate plan of the theatre's lighting positions and a list of their equipment, as well as an accurate copy of the set design, especially the ground plan and section. The LD must consider the show's mood and the director's vision in creating a lighting design.
To help the LD communicate artistic vision, they may employ renderings, storyboards, photographs, reproductions of artwork, or mockups of effects to help communicate how the lighting should look. Various forms of paperwork are essential for the LD to successfully communicate their design to various production team members. Examples of typical paperwork include cue sheets, light plots, instrument schedules, shop orders, and focus charts. Cue sheets communicate the placement of cues that the LD has created for the show, using artistic terminology rather than technical language, and information on exactly when each cue is called so that the stage manager and the assistants know when and where to call the cue. Cue sheets are of the most value to stage management.
The light plot is a scale drawing that communicates the location of lighting fixtures and lighting positions so a team of electricians can independently install the lighting system. Next to each instrument on the plan will be information for any color gel, gobo, or other accessories that need to go with it, and its channel number. Often, paperwork listing all of this information is also generated by using a program such as Lightwright. The lighting designer uses this paperwork to aid in the visualization of not only ideas but also simple lists to assist the master electrician during load-in, focus, and technical rehearsals. Professional LDs generally use special computer-aided design packages to create accurate and easily readable drafted plots that can be swiftly updated as necessary. The LD will discuss the plot with the show's production manager and the theatre's master electrician or technical director to make sure there are no unforeseen problems during load-in.
The lighting designer is responsible, in conjunction with the production's independently hired production electrician, who will interface with the theater's master electrician, for directing the theater's electrics crew in the realization of their designs during the technical rehearsals. After the Electricians have hung, circuited, and patched the lighting units, the LD will direct the focusing (pointing, shaping and sizing of the light beams) and gelling (coloring) of each unit.
After focus has occurred the LD usually sits at a temporary desk (tech table) in the theater (typically on the center line in the middle of the house) where they have a good view of the stage and work with the light board operator, who will either be seated alongside them at a portable control console or talk via headset to the control room. At the tech table, the LD will generally use a Magic Sheet, which is a pictorial layout of how the lights relate to the stage, so they can have quick access to channel numbers that control particular lighting instruments. The LD may also have a copy of the light plot and channel hookup, a remote lighting console, a computer monitor connected to the light board (so they can see what the board op is doing), and a headset, though in smaller theatres this is less common. There may be a time allowed for pre-lighting or "pre-cueing", a practice that is often done with people known as Light Walkers who stand in for performers so the LD can see what the light looks like on bodies. At an arranged time, the performers arrive and the production is worked through in chronological order, with occasional stops to correct sound, lighting, entrances, etc.; known as a "cue-to-cue" or tech rehearsal. The lighting designer will work constantly with the board operator to refine the lighting states as the technical rehearsal continues, but because the focus of a "tech" rehearsal is the production's technical aspects, the LD may require the performers to pause ("hold") frequently. Nevertheless, any errors of focusing or changes to the lighting plan are corrected only when the performers are not onstage. These changes take place during 'work' or 'note' calls. The LD only attends these notes calls if units are hung or rehung and require additional focusing. The LD or assistant lighting director (also known as the ALD, see below for description) will be in charge if in attendance. If the only work to be done is maintenance (i.e. changing a lamp or burnt out gel) then the production or master electrician will be in charge and will direct the electrics crew.
After the tech process, the performance may (or may not, depending on time constraints) go into dress rehearsal without a ticketed audience or previews with a ticketed audience. During this time, if the cueing is finished, the LD will sit in the audience and take notes on what works and what needs changing. At this point, the stage manager will begin to take over the work of calling cues for the light board op to follow. Generally, the LD will stay on the headset, and may still have a monitor connected to the light board in case of problems, or will be in the control booth with the board operator when a monitor is not available. Changes will often occur during notes call, but if serious problems occur, the performance may be halted and the issue will be resolved.
Once the show is open to the public, the lighting designer will often stay and watch several performances of the show, making notes each night and making desired changes the next day during notes call. If the show is still in previews, then the LD will make changes, but once the production officially opens, normally, the lighting designer will not make further changes.
Changes should not be made after the lighting design is finished, and never without the LD's approval. There may be times when changes are necessary after the production has officially opened. Reasons for changes after opening night include: casting changes; significant changes in blocking; addition, deletion or rearrangement of scenes; or the tech and/or preview period (if there was a preview period) was too short to accommodate as thorough a cueing as was needed (this is particularly common in dance productions). If significant changes need to be made, the LD will come in and make them, however, if only smaller changes are needed, the LD may opt to send the ALD. If a show runs for a particularly long time then the LD may come in periodically to check the focus of each lighting instrument and if they are retaining their color (some gel, especially saturated gel, loses its richness and can fade or 'burn out' over time). The LD may also sit in on a performance to make sure that the cues are still being called at the right place and time. The goal is often to finish by the opening of the show, but what is most important is that the LD and the directors believe that the design is finished to each's satisfaction. If that happens to be by opening night, then after opening no changes are normally made to that particular production run at that venue. The general maintenance of the lighting rig then becomes the responsibility of the master electrician.
== In small theatres ==
It is uncommon for a small theatre to have a very large technical crew, as there is less work to do. Many times, the lighting crew of a small theater will consist of a single lighting designer and one to three people, who collectively are in charge of hanging, focusing, and patching all lighting instruments. The lighting designer, in this situation, commonly works directly with this small team, fulfilling the role of both master electrician and lighting designer. Many times the designer will directly participate in the focusing of lights. The same crew will generally also program cues and operate the light board during rehearsals and performances. In some cases, the light board and sound board are operated by the same person, depending on the complexity of the show. The lighting designer may also take on other roles in addition to lights when they are finished hanging lights and programming cues on the board.
== Advances in visualization and presentation ==
As previously mentioned, it is difficult to fully communicate the intent of a lighting design before all the lights are installed and all the cues are written. With the advancement in computer processing and visualization software, lighting designers are now able to create computer-generated images (CGI) that represent their ideas. The lighting designer enters the light plot into the visualization software and then enters the ground plan of the theater and set design, giving as much three-dimensional data as possible (which helps in creating complete renderings). This creates a 3D model in computer space that can be lit and manipulated. Using the software, the LD can use the lights from his plot to create actual lighting in the 3D model with the ability to define parameters such as color, focus, gobo, beam angle etc. The designer can then take renderings or "snapshots" of various looks that can then be printed out and shown to the director and other members of the design team.
== Mockups and lighting scale models ==
In addition to computer visualization, either full-scale or small-scale mockups are a good method for depicting a lighting designer's ideas. Fiber optic systems such as LightBox or Luxam allow a users to light a scale model of the set. For example, a set designer can create a model of the set in 1/4" scale, and the lighting designer can then take the fiber optic cables and attach them to scaled-down lighting units that can accurately replicate the beam angles of specified lighting fixtures. These 'mini lights' can then be attached to cross pieces simulating different lighting positions. Fiber optic fixtures have the capacity to simulate attributes of full scale theatrical lighting fixtures including; color, beam angle, intensity, and gobos. The most sophisticated fiber optic systems are controllable through computer software or a DMX controlled Light board. This gives the lighting designer the ability to mock up real-time lighting effects as they will look during the show.
== Additional members of the lighting design team ==
If the production is large or especially complex, the lighting designer may hire additional lighting professionals to help execute the design.
=== Associate lighting designer ===
The associate lighting designer (associate LD) will assist the lighting designer in creating and executing the lighting design. While the duties that an LD may expect the associate LD to perform may differ from person to person, usually the Ass't LD will do the following:
Attend design and production meetings with or in place of the LD
Attend rehearsals with or in place of LD and take notes of specific design ideas and tasks that the lighting department needs to accomplish
Assist the LD in generating the light plot, channel hookup and sketches
If needed, the Associate may need to take the set drawings and put them into a CAD program to be manipulated by the LD (however, this job is usually given to the assistant LD if there is one).
The assistant LD may be in charge of running focus, and may even direct where the lights are to be focused.
The associate is generally authorized to speak on behalf of the LD and can make creative and design decisions when needed (and when authorized by the LD). This is one of the biggest differences between the Associate and the Assistant.
=== Assistant lighting designer ===
The assistant lighting designer (assistant LD) assists the lighting designer and associate lighting designer. Depending on the particular arrangement the ALD may report directly to the LD, or they may in essence be the Associate's assistant. There also may be more than one assistant on a show depending on the size of the production. The ALD will usually:
Attend design and production meetings with the LD or the associate LD
Attend rehearsals with the LD or the associate LD
Assist the LD in generating the light plot and channel hookup. If the plot is to be computer generated, the ALD is the one who physically enters the information into the computer.
The ALD may run errands for the LD such as picking up supplies or getting the light plot printed in large format.
The ALD will help the Associate LD in running focus.
The ALD may take Focus Charts during focus.
Track and coordinate followspots (if any exist for the production) and generate paperwork to aid in their cueing and color changes.
In rare instances the ALD may be the light board operator.
== See also ==
List of lighting designers
Architectural lighting design
Landscape lighting
Master electrician
Professional Lighting and Sound Association
== References ==
Stage Lighting Design: The Art, the Craft, the Life, by Richard Pilbrow on books.google.com
Stage Lighting Design: A Practical Guide, Neil Fraser, on books.google.com
A Practical Guide to Stage Lighting, By Steven Louis Shelley, on books.google.com
The Lighting Art: The Aesthetics of Stage Lighting Design, by Richard H. Palmer, on books.google.com
Stage lighting design in Britain: the emergence of the lighting designer, 1881-1950, by Nigel H. Morgan, on books.google.com
Scene Design and Stage Lighting By R. Wolf, Dick Block, on books.google.com
== External links ==
stagelightingprimer.com,Stage Lighting for Students
northern.edu, A brief history of stage lighting | Wikipedia/Lighting_design |
Electrical system design is the design of electrical systems. This can be as simple as a flashlight cell connected through two wires to a light bulb or as involved as the Space Shuttle. Electrical systems are groups of electrical components connected to carry out some operation. Often the systems are combined with other systems. They might be subsystems of larger systems and have subsystems of their own. For example, a subway rapid transit electrical system is composed of the wayside electrical power supply, wayside control system, and the electrical systems of each transit car. Each transit car’s electrical system is a subsystem of the subway system. Inside of each transit car there are also subsystems, such as the car climate control system.
== Design ==
The following would be appropriate for the design of a moderate to large electrical system.
A specification document is written. It probably would have been written by the customer. The specification document states in plain language and numerical detail what the customer expects. If it is well written, it will be used as a reference throughout the electrical system design.
A functional specification (design) document that goes into more technical details may be created. It uses the specification document as its basis. Here calculations may be used or referenced to support design decisions.
Functional diagrams may be made. These use block diagrams indicating information and electrical power flow from component to component. They are similar to the functional flow block diagrams used with computer programs.
Schematic diagrams showing the electrical interconnections between the components are made. They may not show all the conductors and termination points. Except for one-line diagrams, this should show all the circuit nodes. One-line diagrams represent the three or four conductors of three-phase power circuits with one line.
Wiring diagrams are sometimes made. These show and name the termination points and names of each conductor. In some systems, enough information can be put onto the schematics so that wiring diagrams are not needed.
Physically smaller systems that are built many times may use a cable harness. A full-sized to-scale wiring diagram can be made of a cable harness. This wiring diagram can then be laid on a peg board and used to guide the construction of more cable harnesses. Harnesses can be inserted into their equipment as an assembly. Cable harnesses that are reused many times, like automobile wiring harnesses, are created with automated machinery.
A wire list is made in spreadsheet or list format. It shows the electrical assembly people what wires are to be connected and to where. When it is printed out on paper, it is easy for the assembly people to check off conductors as they are connected. The wire list contains at a minimum each wire name, terminal name, and wire model number or gage. It may also contain the wire termination device model numbers, voltage classes, conductor class (high-voltage, medium voltage, or control wiring), etc.
== References ==
Bosela, Ayanda Voyi, Theodore R.(2002). Electrical Systems Design, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-975475-3, 542 pages. | Wikipedia/Electrical_system_design |
The design of photographic lenses for use in still or cine cameras is intended to produce a lens that yields the most acceptable rendition of the subject being photographed within a range of constraints that include cost, weight and materials. For many other optical devices such as telescopes, microscopes and theodolites where the visual image is observed but often not recorded the design can often be significantly simpler than is the case in a camera where every image is captured on film or image sensor and can be subject to detailed scrutiny at a later stage. Photographic lenses also include those used in enlargers and projectors.
== Design ==
=== Design requirements ===
From the perspective of the photographer, the ability of a lens to capture sufficient light so that the camera can operate over a wide range of lighting conditions is important. Designing a lens that reproduces colour accurately is also important as is the production of an evenly lit and sharp image over the whole of the film or sensor plane.
For the lens designer, achieving these objectives will also involve ensuring that internal flare, optical aberrations and weight are all reduced to the minimum whilst zoom, focus and aperture functions all operate smoothly and predictably.
However, because photographic films and electronic sensors have a finite and measurable resolution, photographic lenses are not always designed for maximum possible resolution since the recording medium would not be able to record the level of detail that the lens could resolve. For this, and many other reasons, camera lenses are unsuited for use as projector or enlarger lenses.
The design of a fixed focal length lens (also known as prime lenses) presents fewer challenges than the design of a zoom lens. A high-quality prime lens whose focal length is about equal to the diameter of the film frame or sensor may be constructed from as few as four separate lens elements, often as pairs on either side of the aperture diaphragm. Good examples include the Zeiss Tessar or the Leitz Elmar.
==== Design constraints ====
To be useful in photography any lens must be able to fit the camera for which it is intended and this will physically limit the size where the bayonet mounting or screw mounting is to be located.
Photography is a highly competitive commercial business and both weight and cost constrain the production of lenses.
Refractive materials such as glass have physical limitations which limit the performance of lenses. In particular the range of refractive indices available in commercial glasses span a very narrow range. Since it is the refractive index that determines how much the rays of light are bent at each interface and since it is the differences in refractive indices in paired plus and minus lenses that constrains the ability to minimise chromatic aberrations, having only a narrow spectrum of indices is a major design constraint.
=== Lens elements ===
Except for the most simple and inexpensive lenses, each complete lens is made up from a number of separate lens elements arranged along a common axis. The use of many lens elements serves to minimise aberrations and to provide a sharp image free from visible distortions. To do this requires lens elements of different compositions and different shapes. To minimise chromatic aberrations, e.g., in which different wavelengths of light are refracted to different degrees, requires, at a minimum, a doublet of lens elements with a positive element having a high Abbe number matched with a negative element of lower Abbe number. With this design one can achieve a good degree of convergence of different wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Most lens designs do not attempt to bring infrared wavelengths to the same common focus and it is therefore necessary to manually alter the focus when photographing in infrared light. Other kinds of aberrations such as coma or astigmatism can also be minimized by careful choice of curvature of the lens faces for all the component elements. Complex photographic lenses can consist of more than 15 lens elements.
Most lens elements are made with curved surfaces with a spherical profile. That is, the curved shape would fit on the surface of a sphere. This is partly to do with the history of lens making but also because grinding and manufacturing of spherical surface lenses is relatively simple and cheap. However, spherical surfaces also give rise to lens aberrations and can lead to complicated lens designs of great size. Higher-quality lenses with fewer elements and lower size can be achieved by using aspheric lenses in which the curved surfaces are not spherical, giving more degrees of freedom to correct aberrations.
==== Lens glass ====
The majority of photographic lenses have the lens elements made from glass although the use of high-quality plastics is becoming more common in high-quality lenses and has been common in inexpensive cameras for some time. The design of photographic lenses is very demanding as designers push the limits of existing materials to make more versatile, better-quality, and lighter lenses. As a consequence many exotic glasses have been used in modern lens manufacturing. Caesium and lanthanum glass lenses are now in use because of their high refractive index and very low dispersion properties. It is also likely that a number of other transition element glasses are in use but manufacturers often prefer to keep their material specification secret to retain a commercial or performance edge over competitors.
=== Focus ===
Until recent years, focusing of a camera lens to achieve a sharp image on the film plane was achieved by means of a very shallow helical thread in the lens mount through which the lens could be rotated, moving it closer or further from the film plane. This arrangement, while simple to design and construct, has some limitations, not least the rotation of the greater part of the lens assembly including the front element. This could be problematic if devices such as polarising filters are used that require accurate rotational orientation irrespective of focus distance.
Later developments adopted designs in which internal elements were moved to achieve focus without affecting the outer barrel of the lens or the orientation of the front element.
Many modern cameras now use automatic focusing mechanisms which use ultrasonic motors to move internal elements in the lens to achieve optimum focus.
=== Aperture control ===
The aperture control, usually a multi-leaf diaphragm, is critical to the performance of a lens. The role of the aperture is to control the amount of light passing through the lens to the film or sensor plane. An aperture placed outside of the lens, as in the case of some Victorian cameras, risks vignetting of the image in which the corners of the image are darker than the centre. A diaphragm too close to the image plane risks the diaphragm itself being recorded as a circular shape or at the very least causing diffraction patterns at small apertures. In most lens designs the aperture is positioned about midway between the front surface of the objective and the image plane. In some zoom lenses it is placed some distance away from the ideal location in order to accommodate the movement of floating lens elements needed to perform the zoom function.
Most modern lenses for 35mm format rarely provide a stop smaller than f/22 because of the diffraction effects caused by light passing through a very small aperture. As diffraction is based on aperture width in absolute terms rather than the f-stop ratio, lenses for very small formats common in compact cameras rarely go above f/11 (1/1.8") or f/8 (1/2.5"), while lenses for medium- and large-format provide f/64 or f/128.
Very-large-aperture lenses designed to be useful in very low light conditions with apertures ranging from f/1.2 to f/0.9 are generally restricted to lenses of standard focal length because of the size and weight problems that would be encountered in telephoto lenses and the difficulty of building a very wide aperture wide angle lens with the refractive materials currently available. Very-large-aperture lenses are commonly made for other types of optical instruments such as microscopes but in such cases the diameter of the lens is very small and weight is not an issue.
Many very early cameras had diaphragms external to the lens often consisting of a rotating circular plate with a number of holes of increasing size drilled through the plate. Rotating the plate would bring an appropriate sized hole in front of the lens. All modern lenses use a multi-leaf diaphragm so that at the central intersection of the leaves a more or less circular aperture is formed. Either a manual ring, or an electronic motor controls the angle of the diaphragm leaves and thus the size of the opening.
The placement of the diaphragm within the lens structure is constrained by the need to achieve even illumination over the whole film plane at all apertures and the requirement to not interfere with the movement of any movable lens element. Typically the diaphragm is situated at about the level of the optical centre of the lens.
=== Shutter mechanism ===
A shutter controls the length of time light is allowed to pass through the lens onto the film plane. For any given light intensity, the more sensitive the film or detector or the wider the aperture the shorter the exposure time need to be to maintain the optimal exposure.
In the earliest cameras, exposures were controlled by moving a rotating plate from in front of the lens and then replacing it. Such a mechanism only works effectively for exposures of several seconds or more and carries a considerable risk of inducing camera shake. By the end of the 19th century spring tensioned shutter mechanisms were in use operated by a lever or by a cable release. Some simple shutters continued to be placed in front of the lens but most were incorporated within the lens mount itself.
Such lenses with integral shutter mechanisms developed in the current Compur shutter as used in many non-reflex cameras such as Linhof. These shutters have a number of metal leaves that spring open and then close after a pre-determined interval. The material and design constraints limit the shortest speed to about 0.002 second. Although such shutters cannot yield as short an exposure time as focal-plane shutter they are able to offer flash synchronisation at all speeds.
Incorporating a commercial made Compur type shutter required lens designers to accommodate the width of the shutter mechanism in the lens mount and provide for the means of triggering the shutter on the lens barrel or transferring this to the camera body by a series of levers as in the Minolta twin-lens cameras.
The need to accommodate the shutter mechanism within the lens barrel limited the design of wide-angle lenses and it was not until the widespread use of focal-plane shutters that extreme wide-angle lenses were developed.
== Types of lenses ==
The type of lens being designed is significant in setting the key parameters.
Prime lens - a photographic lens whose focal length is fixed, as opposed to a zoom lens, or that is the primary lens in a combination lens system.
Zoom lenses - variable focal length lenses. Zoom lenses cover a range of focal lengths by utilising movable elements within the barrel of the lens assembly. In early varifocal lens lenses, the focus also shifted as the lens focal length was changed. Varifocal lenses are also used in many modern autofocus cameras as the lenses are cheaper and simpler to construct and the autofocus can take care of the re-focussing requirements. Many modern zoom lenses are now confocal, meaning that the focus is maintained throughout the zoom range. Because of the need to operate over a range of focal lengths and maintain confocality, zoom lenses typically have very many lens elements. More significantly, the front elements of the lens will always be a compromise in terms of its size, light-gathering capability and the angle of incidence of the incoming rays of light. For all these reasons, the optical performance of zoom lenses tends to be lower than fixed-focal-length lenses.
Normal lens - a lens with a focal length about equal to the diagonal size of the film or sensor format, or that reproduces perspective that generally looks "normal" to a human observer.
Wide angle lens - a lens that reproduces perspective that generally looks "wider" than a normal lens. The problem posed by the design of wide-angle lenses is to bring to an accurate focus light from a wide area without causing internal flare. Wide-angle lenses therefore tend to have more elements than a normal lens to help refract the light sufficiently and still minimise aberrations whilst adding light-trapping baffles between each lens element.
Extreme or ultra-wide-angle lens - a wide-angle lens with an angle of view above 90 degrees. Extreme-wide-angle lenses share the same issues as ordinary wide-angle lenses but the focal length of such lenses may be so short that there is insufficient physical space in front of the film or sensor plane to construct a lens. This problem is resolved by constructing the lens as an inverted telephoto, or retrofocus with the front element having a very short focal length, often with a highly exaggerated convex front surface and behind it a strongly negative lens grouping that extends the cone of focused rays so that they can be brought to focus at a reasonable distance.
Fisheye lens - an extreme wide-angle lens with a strongly convex front element. Spherical aberration is usually pronounced and sometimes enhanced for special effect. Optically designed as a reverse telephoto to enable the lens to fit into a standard mount as the focal length can be less than the distance from lens mount to focal plane.
Long-focus lens - a lens with a focal length greater than the diagonal of the film frame or sensor. Long focus lenses are relatively simple to design, the challenges being comparable to the design of a prime lens. However, as the focal length increases the length of the lens and the size of the objective increase in size and length and weight quickly become significant design issues in retaining utility and practicality for the lens in use. In addition because the light path through the lens is long and glancing, baffles to control flare become more important.
Telephoto lens - an optically compressed version of the long-focus lens. The design of telephoto lenses reduces some of the problems encountered by designers of long-focus lenses. In particular, telephoto lenses are typically much shorter and may be lighter for equivalent focal length and aperture. However telephoto designs increase the number of lens elements and can introduce flare and exacerbate some optical aberrations.
Catadioptric lens - catadioptric lenses are a form of telephoto lens but with a light path that doubles back on itself and with an objective that is a mirror combined with some form of aberration correcting lens (a catadioptric system) rather than just a lens. A centrally-placed secondary mirror and usually an additional small lens group bring the light to focus. Such lenses are very lightweight and can easily deliver very long focal lengths but they can only deliver a fixed aperture and have none of the benefits of being able to stop down the aperture to increase depth of field.
Anamorphic lenses are used principally in cinematography to produce wide-screen films where the projected image has a substantially different ratio of height to width than the image recorded on the film plane. This is achieved by the use of a specialised lens design which compresses the image laterally at the recording stage and the film is then projected through a similar lens in the cinema to recreate the wide-screen effect. Although in some cases the anamorphic effect is achieved by using an anamorphising attachment as a supplementary element on the front of a normal lens, most films shot in anamorphic formats use specially designed anamorphic lenses, such as the Hawk lenses made by Vantage Film or Panavision's anamorphic lenses. These lenses incorporate one or more aspheric elements in their design.
Periscope lens - uses a prism or mirror to redirect the light through the lenses with a 90° angle to the optical axis, like the half of a periscope.
=== Enlarger lenses ===
Lenses used in photographic enlargers are required to focus light passing through a relatively small film area on a larger area of photographic paper or film. Requirements for such lenses include
the ability to record even illumination over the whole field
to record fine detail present in the film being enlarged
to withstand frequent cycles of heating and cooling as the illumination lamp is turned on and off
to be able to be operated in the dark - usually by means of click stops and some luminous controls
The design of the lens is required to work effectively with light passing from near focus to far focus - exactly the reverse of a camera lens. This demands that internal light baffling within the lens is designed differently and that the individual lens elements are designed to maximize performance for this change of direction of incident light.
=== Projector lenses ===
Projector lenses share many of the design constraints as enlarger lenses but with some critical differences. Projector lenses are always used at full aperture and must produce an acceptably illuminated and acceptably sharp image at full aperture.
However, because projected images are almost always viewed at some distance, lack of very fine focus and slight unevenness of illumination is often acceptable. Projector lenses have to be very tolerant of prolonged high temperatures from the projector lamp and frequently have a focal length much longer than the taking lens. This allows the lens to be positioned at a greater distance from the illuminated film and allows an acceptable sized image with the projector some distance from the screen. It also permits the lens to be mounted in a relatively coarsely threaded focusing mount so that the projectionist can quickly correct any focusing errors.
== History ==
The lenses of the very earliest cameras were simple meniscus or simple bi convex lenses. It was not until 1840 that Chevalier in France introduced the achromatic lens formed by cementing a crown glass bi-convex lens to a flint glass plano-concave lens.
By 1841 Voigtländer using the design of Joseph Petzval manufactured the first commercially successful two element lens.
Carl Zeiss was an entrepreneur who needed a competent designer to take his firm beyond just another optical workshop. In 1866, the service of Dr Ernst Abbe was enlisted. From then on novel products appeared in rapid succession which brought the Zeiss company to the forefront of optical technology.
Abbe was instrumental in the development of the famous Jena optical glass. When he was trying to eliminate astigmatism from microscopes, he realised that the range of optical glasses available was insufficient. After some calculations, he realised that performance of optical instruments would dramatically improve, if optical glasses of appropriate properties were available. His challenge to glass manufacturers was finally answered by Dr Otto Schott, who established the famous glassworks at Jena from which new types of optical glass began to appear from 1888, and employed by Zeiss and other makers.
The new Jena optical glass also opened up the possibility of increased performance of photographic lenses. The first use of Jena glass in a photographic lens was by Voigtländer, but as the lens was an old design its performance was not greatly improved. Subsequently, the new glasses would demonstrate their value in correcting astigmatism, and in the production of achromatic and apochromatic lenses. Abbé started the design of a photographic lens of symmetrical design with five elements, but went no further.
Zeiss' innovative photographic lens design was due to Dr Paul Rudolph. In 1890, Rudolph designed an asymmetrical lens with a cemented group at each side of the diaphragm, and appropriately named "Anastigmat". This lens was made in three series: Series III, IV and V, with maximum apertures of f/7.2, f/12.5, and f/18 respectively. In 1891, Series I, II and IIIa appeared with respective maximum apertures of f/4.5, f/6.3, and f/9 and in 1893 came Series IIa of f/8 maximum aperture. These lenses are now better known by the trademark "Protar" which was first used in 1900.
At the time, single combination lenses, which occupy one side of the diaphragm only, were still popular. Rudolph designed one with three cemented elements in 1893, with the option of fitting two of them together in a lens barrel as a compound lens, but it was found to be the same as the Dagor by C.P. Goerz, designed by Emil von Höegh. Rudolph then came up with a single combination with four cemented elements, which can be considered as having all the elements of the Protar stuck together in one piece. Marketed in 1894, it was called the Protarlinse Series VII, the most highly corrected single combination lens with maximum apertures between f/11 and f/12.5, depending on its focal length.
But the important thing about this Protarlinse is that two of these lens units can be mounted in the same lens barrel to form a compound lens of even greater performance and larger aperture, between f/6.3 and f/7.7. In this configuration it was called the Double Protar Series VIIa. An immense range of focal lengths can thus be obtained by the various combination of Protarlinse units.
Rudolph also investigated the Double-Gauss concept of a symmetrical design with thin positive menisci enclosing negative elements. The result was the Planar Series Ia of 1896, with maximum apertures up to f/3.5, one of the fastest lenses of its time. Whilst it was very sharp, it suffered from coma which limited its popularity. However, further developments of this configuration made it the design of choice for high-speed lenses of standard coverage.
Probably inspired by the Stigmatic lenses designed by Hugh Aldis for Dallmeyer of London, Rudolph designed a new asymmetrical lens with four thin elements, the Unar Series Ib, with apertures up to f/4.5. Due to its high speed it was used extensively on hand cameras.
The most important Zeiss lens by Rudolph was the Tessar, first sold in 1902 in its Series IIb f/6.3 form. It can be said as a combination of the front half of the Unar with the rear half of the Protar. This proved to be a most valuable and flexible design, with tremendous development potential. Its maximum aperture was increased to f/4.7 in 1917, and reached f/2.7 in 1930. It is probable that every lens manufacturer has produced lenses of the Tessar configuration.
Rudolph left Zeiss after the First World War, but many other competent designers such as Merté, Wandersleb, etc. kept the firm at the leading edge of photographic lens innovations. One of the most significant designer was the ex-Ernemann man Dr Ludwig Bertele, famed for his Ernostar high-speed lens.
With the advent of the Contax by Zeiss-Ikon, the first serious challenge to the Leica in the field of professional 35 mm cameras, both Zeiss-Ikon and Carl Zeiss decided to beat the Leica in every possible way. Bertele's Sonnar series of lenses designed for the Contax were the match in every respect for the Leica for at least two decades. Other lenses for the Contax included the Biotar, Biogon, Orthometar, and various Tessars and Triotars.
The last important Zeiss innovation before the Second World War was the technique of applying anti-reflective coating to lens surfaces invented by Olexander Smakula in 1935. A lens so treated was marked with a red "T", short for "Transparent". The technique of applying multiple layers of coating was also described in the original patent writings in 1935.
After the partitioning of Germany, a new Carl Zeiss optical company was established in Oberkochen, while the original Zeiss firm in Jena continued to operate. At first both firms produced very similar lines of products, and extensively cooperated in product-sharing, but they drifted apart as time progressed. Jena's new direction was to concentrate on developing lenses for the 35 mm single-lens reflex camera, and many achievements were made, especially in ultra-wide angle designs. In addition to that, Oberkochen also worked on designing lenses for large format cameras, interchangeable front element lenses such as for the 35 mm single-lens reflex Contaflex, and other types of cameras.
Since the beginning of Zeiss as a photographic lens manufacturer, it has had a licensing programme which allows other manufacturers to produce its lenses. Over the years its licensees included Voigtländer, Bausch & Lomb, Ross, Koristka, Krauss, Kodak. etc. In the 1970s, the western operation of Zeiss-Ikon got together with Yashica to produce the new Contax cameras, and many of the Zeiss lenses for this camera, among others, were produced by Yashica's optical arm, Tomioka. Yashica's owner Kyocera ended camera production in 2006. Yashica lenses were then made by Cosina, who also manufactured most of the new Zeiss designs for the new Zeiss Ikon coupled rangefinder camera. Another licensee active today is Sony who uses the Zeiss name on lenses on its video and digital still cameras.
== See also ==
Camera lens
== References == | Wikipedia/Photographic_lens_design |
Responsibility-driven design is a design technique in object-oriented programming, which improves encapsulation by using the client–server model. It focuses on the contract by considering the actions that the object is responsible for and the information that the object shares. It was proposed by Rebecca Wirfs-Brock and Brian Wilkerson.
Responsibility-driven design is in direct contrast with data-driven design, which promotes defining the behavior of a class along with the data that it holds. Data-driven design is not the same as data-driven programming, which is concerned with using data to determine the control flow, not class design.
In the client–server model they refer to, both the client and the server are classes or instances of classes. At any particular time, either the client or the server represents an object. Both the parties commit to a contract and exchange information by adhering to it. The client can only make the requests specified in the contract and the server must answer these requests. Thus, responsibility-driven design tries to avoid dealing with details, such as the way in which requests are carried out, by instead only specifying the intent of a certain request. The benefit is increased encapsulation, since the specification of the exact way in which a request is carried out is private to the server.
To further the encapsulation of the server, Wirfs-Brock and Wilkerson call for language features that limit outside influence to the behavior of a class. They demand that the visibility of members and functions should be finely grained, such as in Eiffel programming language. Even finer control of the visibility of even classes is available in the Newspeak programming language.
== Overview ==
Responsibility-driven design focuses on the objects as behavioral abstractions which are characterized by their responsibilities. The CRC-card modelling technique is used to generate these behavioral abstractions. The rest of the object structure including data attributes are assigned later, as and when required. This makes the design follow type hierarchy for inheritance which improves encapsulation and makes it easier to identify abstract classes. It can also group the classes together based on their clients which is considered a unique ability.
A good object-oriented design involves an early focus on behaviors to realize the capabilities meeting the stated requirements and a late binding of implementation details to the requirements. This approach especially helps to decentralize control and distribute system behavior which can help manage the complexities of high-functionality large or distributed systems. Similarly, it can help to design and maintain explanation facilities for cognitive models, intelligent agents, and other knowledge-based systems.
== Building blocks ==
In their book Object Design: Roles, Responsibilities and Collaborations, the authors describe the following building blocks that make up responsibility-driven design.
Application: A software application is referred to as a set of interacting objects.
Candidates: Candidates or candidate objects are key concepts in the form of objects described on CRC cards. They serve as initial inventions in the process of object design.
Collaborations: A collaboration is defined as an interaction of objects or roles (or both).
CRC Cards: CRC stands for Candidates, Responsibilities, Collaborators. They are index cards used in early design for recording candidates. These cards are split up into an unlined and a lined side.
Content of lined side: On this side the candidate's name, its responsibilities and its collaborators are recorded.
Content of unlined side: On this side the candidate's name, its purpose in the application, stereotype roles and anything worthwhile such as the names of roles in patterns it participates in are recorded.
Hot Spots: Hot Spots are points in the application where variations occur. They are recorded using Hot Spot Cards.
Hot Spot Cards: Hot Spot Cards are used for recording variations with just enough detail so you can discriminate important difference. Similar to CRC cards, these are also created from index cards. These cards consist of:
Hot Spot Name
General description of the variation
At least two specific examples where the variation occurs
=== Objects ===
Objects are described as things that have machine-like behaviors that can be plugged together to work in concert. These objects play well-defined roles and encapsulate scripted responses and information.
Object Neighborhoods: Another term for subsystem. It is a logical grouping of collaborators.
Responsibilities: A responsibility is an obligation to perform a task or know information. These are further categorized according to their usage scenario.
Public Responsibilities: Public responsibilities are the responsibilities an object offers as services to others and the information it provides to others.
Private Responsibilities: Private responsibilities are the actions an object takes in support of public responsibilities.
Subresponsibilities: Sometimes, a large or complicated responsibility is split up into smaller ones called subresponsibilities. They are further categorized based on what they do.
Subordinate Responsibilities: These include the major steps in each subresponsibility.
Sequencing Responsibilities: These refer to the sequencing of the execution of subordinate responsibilities.
=== Roles ===
Object role refers to an exterior view of what general service is offered by the object. It is a set of related responsibilities. It can be implemented as a class or an interface. Interface, however, is the preferred implementation as it increases flexibility by hiding the concrete class which ultimately does the work.
Role Stereotypes: Role stereotypes are simplified roles that come with predefined responsibilities. There are several categories.
Controller: Object implementing this role makes decisions and closely directs the action of other objects.
Coordinator: This role reacts to events by delegating tasks to others.
Information Holder: Information holder knows and provides information.
Information Provider: A slight variation of an information holder is the information provider, which takes a more active role in managing and maintaining information. This distinction can be used if a designer needs to get more specific.
Interfacer: This role transforms information and requests between distinct parts of an application. It is further divided into more specific roles.
External Interfacer: External interfacer communicates with other applications rather than its own. It is mainly used for encapsulating non-object-oriented APIs and does not collaborate a lot.
Internal Interfacer: Also called intersystem interfacer. It act as a bridge between object neighborhoods.
User Interfacer: User interfacer communicates with users by responding to events generated in the UI and then passing them on to more appropriate objects.
Service Provider: This role performs work and offers computing services.
Structurer: This role maintains relationships between objects and information about those relationships.
== Control style ==
An important part in the responsibility-driven design process is the distribution of control responsibilities that results in developing a control style. A control style is concerned about the control flow between subsystems.
Concept of Control : The responsibilities and collaborations among the classes.
Control Centers : An important aspect of developing a control style is the invention of so-called control centers. These are places where objects charged with controlling and coordinating reside.
Control Style Variations : A control style comes in three distinct variations. These are not precise definitions though since a control style can be said to be more centralized or delegated than another.
=== Centralized control style ===
This control style inflicts a procedural paradigm on the structure of the application and places major-decision making responsibilities in only a few objects or a single object.
Types
Call-return model : The control of the objects in the application is in hierarchical way. Control starts at root and moves downwards. It is used in a sequential model.
Manager model : The control of the objects in the application is in with only one object. Generally, it is implemented in concurrent models. It can also be implemented in sequential model using case statement.
Advantages
Application logic is in one place.
Disadvantages
Control logic can get overly complex
Controllers can become dependent on information holders' contents
Objects can become coupled indirectly through the actions of their controller
The only interesting work is done in the controller
When to use
When decisions to be made are few, simple, and related to a single task.
=== Delegated control style ===
A delegated control style lies in between a centralized and dispersed control style. It passes some of the decision making and much of the action to objects surrounding a control center. Each neighboring object has a significant role to play. It can also be called as event driven model, where the control is delegated to the object requesting it to process the event.
Types[reference]
Broadcast model : An event is broadcast to all objects in the application. The object which can handle the event can acquire the control.
Interrupt-driven model : There will be the interrupt handler to process the interrupt and passes to some object to process it.
Advantages
It is easy to understand.
Though there is an external coordinator, Objects can be made smarter to know what they are supposed to do and can be reused in other applications.
Delegating coordinators tend to know about fewer objects than dominating controllers.
Dialogs are higher-level.
It is easy to change as changes typically affect fewer objects.
It is easier to divide design work among team members.
Disadvantages
Too much distribution of responsibility can lead to weak objects and weak collaborations
When to use
When one wants to delegate work to objects that are more specialized.
=== Clustered control style ===
This control style is a variation of the centralized control style wherein control is factored among a group of objects whose actions are coordinated. The main difference between a clustered and delegated control style is that in a clustered control style, the decision making objects are located within a control center whereas in a delegated control style they are mostly outside.
=== Dispersed control style ===
A dispersed control style does not contain any control centers. The logic is spread across the entire population of objects, keeping each object small and building in as few dependencies among them as possible.
Advantages
None
Disadvantages
When you want to find out how something works, you must trace the sequence of requests for services across many objects
Not very reusable because no single object contributes much
When to use
Never.
=== Preferred control style ===
After extensive results of experiments conducted, only the senior management has the necessary skills to make use of delegated control style and centralized control style benefits programmers. There is no context mentioned about the mid-level employees.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Object-oriented design: a responsibility-driven approach. In Conference Proceedings on Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages and Applications (New Orleans, Louisiana, United States, October 2–06, 1989). OOPSLA '89. ACM Press, New York, NY, 71-75.
Wirfs-Brock, Rebecca; McKean, Alan (November 2002). Object Design: Roles, Responsibilities, and Collaborations. Addison Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-37943-3. | Wikipedia/Responsibility-driven_design |
The design life of a component or product is the period of time during which the item is expected by its designers to work within its specified parameters; in other words, the life expectancy of the item. Engineers follow a theory to calculate the life expectancy from expected conditions, uses and physical properties. It is not always the actual length of time between placement into service of a single item and that item's onset of wearout.
Another use of the term design life deals with consumer products. Many products employ design life as one factor of their differentiation from competing products and components. A disposable camera is designed to withstand a short life, whilst an expensive single-lens reflex camera may be expected to have a design life measured in years or decades.
== Long design lives ==
Some products designed for heavy or demanding use are so well-made that they are retained and used well beyond their design life. Some public transport vehicles come into this category, as do a number of artificial satellites and spacecraft. In general, entry-level products—those at the lowest end of the price range fulfilling a certain specification—will tend to have shorter design lives than more expensive products fulfilling the same function, since there are savings to be made in using designs that are cheaper to implement, or, conversely, costs to be passed onto the customer in engineering to provide a safe margin leading to an increased working life. This economic truism leads to the phenomenon of products designed (or appearing to be designed) to last only so long as their warranty period.
== Obsolescence ==
Design life is related to but distinct from the concept of planned obsolescence. The latter is the somewhat more nebulous notion that products are designed so as to become obsolete—at least in the eyes of the user—before the end of their design life. Two classic examples here are digital cameras, which become genuinely obsolete as a result of the very rapid rate of technological advances, although still in perfect working order; and non-digital cameras, which are perceived as obsolete after a year or so as they are no longer "the latest design" although actually capable of years of useful service.
== See also ==
Availability
Circular economy
Disposable product
Durability
Interchangeable parts
Maintainability
Repairability
Source reduction
Throwaway society
ISO 15686
== References == | Wikipedia/Design_life |
Immersive design (Experimental Design) describes design work which ranges in levels of interaction and leads users to be fully absorbed in an experience. This form of design involves the use of virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR) that creates the illusion that the user is physically interacting with a realistic digital atmosphere.
== Overview ==
Alex McDowell coined the phrase 'immersive design' in 2007 in order to frame a discussion around a design discipline that addresses story-based media within the context of digital and virtual technologies. Together McDowell and museum director Chris Scoates co-directed 5D | The Future of Immersive Design conference in Long Beach 2008, laying some groundwork for immersive design to be a distinct design philosophy. 5D has become a forum and community representing a broad range of cross-media designers with its intent based in education, cross-pollination and the development of an expanding knowledge base.
In recent years, immersive design has been promoted as a design philosophy where it has been appropriated for the purposes of describing design for narrative media and the process of Worldbuilding.
With immersive design being applied to a variety of topics and discussions, there is great benefit to how immersive design can benefit the future of technology. Topics and discussions include, mental health and personal medicine, gaming, journalism, and education. Although immersive design is still maturing, it has served a great benefit to these fields, providing a unique learning experience for those involved.
== Characteristics ==
In order for an experience to be considered 'immersive', it needs to incorporate multiple characteristics that help generate the altered illusionary experience.
Audio
Sight
Touch
Multimedia
Multi-format
Projection Mapping
LED
== See also ==
Narrative
Human-centered computing
Immersion (virtual reality)
Gesamtkunstwerk
== References == | Wikipedia/Immersive_design |
Behavioural design is a sub-category of design, which is concerned with how design can shape, or be used to influence human behaviour. All approaches of design for behaviour change acknowledge that artifacts have an important influence on human behaviour and/or behavioural decisions. They strongly draw on theories of behavioural change, including the division into personal, behavioural, and environmental characteristics as drivers for behaviour change. Areas in which design for behaviour change has been most commonly applied include health and wellbeing, sustainability, safety and social context, as well as crime prevention.
== History ==
Design for behaviour change developed from work on design psychology (also: behavioural design) conducted by Don Norman in the 1980s. Norman’s ‘psychology of everyday things’ introduced concepts from ecological psychology and human factors research to designers, such as affordances, constraint feedback and mapping. They have provided guiding principles with regard to user experience and the intuitive use of artefacts, although this work did not yet focus specifically on influencing behavioural change.
The models that followed Norman’s original approach became more explicit about influencing behaviour, such as emotion design and persuasive technology. Perhaps since 2005, a greater number of theories have developed that explicitly address design for behaviour change. These include a diversity of theories, guidelines and toolkits for behaviour change (discussed below) covering the different domains of health, sustainability, safety, crime prevention and social design.
With the emergence of the notion of behaviour change, a much more explicit discussion has also begun about the deliberate influence of design although a review of this area from 2012 has identified that a lack of common terminology, formalized research protocols and target behaviour selection are still key issues. Key issues are the situations in which design for behaviour change could or should be applied; whether its influence should be implicit or explicit, voluntary or prescriptive; and of the ethical consequences of one or the other.
== Issues of behaviour change ==
In 1969, Herbert Simon's understanding of design as "devising courses of action to change existing situations into preferred ones" acknowledged its capacity to create change. Since then, the role of design in influencing human behaviour has become much more widely acknowledged. It is further recognised that design in its various forms, whether as objects, services, interiors, architecture and environments, can create change that is both desirable as well as undesirable, intentional and unintentional.
Desirable and undesirable effects are often closely intertwined whereby the first is usually intentionally designed, while the latter might be an unintentional effect. For example, the impact of cars has been profound in enhancing social mobility on the one hand, while transforming cities and increasing resource demand and pollution on the other. The first is generally regarded as a positive effect. The impact of associated road building on cities, however, has largely had a detrimental impact on the living environment. Furthermore, resource use and pollution associated with cars and their infrastructure have prompted a rethinking of human behaviour and the technology used, as part of the sustainable design movement, resulting for example in schemes promoting less travel or alternative transport such as trains and bike riding. Similar effects, sometimes desirable, sometimes undesirable can be observed in other areas including health, safety and social spheres. For example, mobile phones and computers have transformed the speed and social code of communication, leading not only to an increased ability to communicate, but also to an increase in stress levels with a wide range of health impacts and to safety issues.
Taking lead from Simon, it could be argued that designers have always attempted to create "preferable" situations. However, recognising the important but not always benevolent role of design, Jelsma emphasises that designers need to take moral responsibility for the actions which take place with artefacts as a result of humans interactions:
"artefacts have a co-responsibility for the way action develops and for what results. If we waste energy or produce waste in routine actions such as in the household practices, that has to do with the way artefacts guide us"
In response, design for behaviour change acknowledges this responsibility and seeks to put ethical behaviour and goals higher on the agenda. To this end, it seeks to enable consideration for the actions and services associated with any design, and the consequences of these actions, and to integrate this thinking into the design process.
== Approaches ==
To enable the process of behavioural change through design, a range of theories, guidelines and tools have been developed to promote behaviour change that encourages pro-environmental and social actions and lifestyles from designers as well as user.
=== Theories ===
Persuasive technology: how computing technologies can be used to influence or change the performance of target behaviours or social responses.
Research at Loughborough Design School which collectively draws on behavioural economics, using mechanisms such as feedback, constraints and affordances and persuasive technology, to promote sustainable behaviours.
Design for healthy behaviour: drawing on the trans-theoretical model, this model offers a new framework to design for healthy behaviour, which contends that designers need to consider the different stages of decision making which people go through to durably change their behaviour.
Mindful design: based on Langer's theory of mindfulness mindful design seeks to encourage responsible user action and choice. Mindful design seeks to achieve responsible action through raising critical awareness of the different options available in any one situation.
Socially responsible design: this framework or map takes the point of the intended user experience, which distinguishes four categories of product influences: decisive, coercive, persuasive and seductive to encourage desirable and discourage undesirable behaviour.
Community based social marketing with design: this model seeks to intervene in shared social practices by reducing barriers and amplifying any benefits. To facilitate change, the approach draws on psychological tools such as prompts, norms, incentives, commitments, communication and the removal of barriers. Online social marketing emerged out of traditional social marketing, with a focus on developing scalable digital behavior change interventions.
Practice orientated product design: This applies the understanding of social practice theory – that material artefacts (designed stuff) influence the trajectory of everyday practices – to design. It does so on the premise that this will ultimately shift everyday practices over time
Modes of transitions framework: The framework draws on human-centered design methods to analyze and comprehend transitions as a way for designers to understand people that go through a process of change (a transition). It combines these with scenario-based design to provide a means of action.
== Critical discussion ==
Design for behaviour change is an openly value-based approach that seeks to promote ethical behaviours and attitudes within social and environmental contexts.
This raises questions about whose values are promoted and to whose benefit. While intrinsically seeking to promote socially and environmentally ethical practices, there are two possible objections:
The first is that such approaches can be seen a paternalistic, manipulative and disenfranchising where decisions about the environment are being made by one person or group for another with or without consultation.
The second objection is that this approach can be abused, for example in that apparently positive goals of behaviour change might be made simply to serve commercial gain without regard for the envisaged ethical concerns.
The debate about the ethical considerations of design for behaviour change is still emerging, and will develop with the further development of the field.
When designing for behavior change, the misapplication of behavioral design can trigger backfires, when they accidentally increasing the bad behavior they were originally designed to reduce. Given the stigma of triggering bad outcomes, researchers believe that persuasive backfires effects are common but rarely published, reported, or discussed.
=== Artificial intelligence in behavior change ===
The use of 3rd wave AI techniques to achieve behavior change, intensifies the debate over behavior change. These technologies are more effective than previous techniques, but like AI in other fields it is also more opaque to both users and designers. As the field of behavioral design continues to evolve, the role of AI is becoming increasingly prominent, offering new opportunities to create desirable behavioral outcomes across various contexts. In healthcare, innovative methods like PROLIFERATE_AI exemplify a powerful approach to influencing human behavior in targeted and measurable ways. These strategies leverage AI-driven and person-centered feedback mechanisms, such as participatory design, to enhance the evaluation and implementation of health innovations.
== See also ==
Behavior modification
Person–situation debate
Structural fix
Systems thinking
Workaround
== References == | Wikipedia/Behavioural_design |
Design Web Format (DWF) is a file format developed by Autodesk for the efficient distribution and communication of rich design data to anyone who needs to view, review, or print design files. Because DWF files are highly compressed, they are smaller and faster to transmit than design files, without the overhead associated with complex CAD drawings (or the management of external links and dependencies). With DWF functionality, publishers of design data can limit the specific design data and plot styles to only what they want recipients to see and can publish multisheet drawing sets from multiple AutoCAD drawings in a single DWF file. They can also publish 3D models from most Autodesk design applications.
DWF files are not a replacement for native CAD formats such as AutoCAD drawings (DWG). The sole purpose of DWF is to allow designers, engineers, project managers, and their colleagues to communicate design information and design content to anyone needing to view, review, or print design information – without these team members needing to know AutoCAD or other design software.
An Autodesk DWF advocate blog cites as DWF's strengths over alternatives that the files have very high mathematical precision, and contain meta-data for sheets, objects and markup data. Another significant strength is that comments and markup can be reintroduced to, and edited in, some Autodesk products, such as Revit and AutoCAD.
The AutoCAD file format (.dwfx) is based on ISO/IEC 29500-2:2008 Open Packaging Conventions.
== Technology ==
DWF is a file format developed by Autodesk for representing design data in a manner that is independent of the original application software, hardware, and operating system used to create that design data. A DWF file can describe design data containing any combination of text, graphics, and images in a device independent and resolution independent format. These files can be one sheet or multiple sheets, very simple or extremely complex with a rich use of fonts, graphics, color, and images. The format also includes intelligent metadata that captures the design intent of the data being represented.
The DWF technology centers on three components:
C++ libraries for developers
a viewer for project team members who wish to view design data without knowing AutoCAD
a writer that allows anyone to create a DWF file from any application
=== DWF Toolkit ===
DWF is an open file format. Autodesk publishes the DWF specification and makes available C++ libraries (not available anymore) for any developer who wants to build applications around the DWF format, with the DWF Toolkit. Furthermore, DWF is based on other industry standards such as ZLIB, XML, and common image formats.
DWF files (since version 6.0) are a ZIP-compressed container for the drawing files; despite the first few bytes of the file containing a DWF header, renaming a .dwf file to .zip will allow the component files inside to be viewed with archive compression software. Amongst various XML and binary files, is a PNG format thumbnail preview.
DWF can be interfaced with .NET Libraries.
=== Design Review ===
Autodesk Design Review is a free viewing application that enables all members of the project team to easily view, measure, markup and print designs shared electronically. Built around the DWF file format, Design Review enables users to view and print complex 2D and 3D drawings, maps, and models published from Autodesk design applications or from the DWF Writer.
Also, all Markups and Annotations created in Design Review can be imported to the original file when using Autodesk applications, such as AutoCAD, Inventor or Revit Architectural. This feature makes DWF the ideal format for design reviewing and collaboration processes.
Although an Autodesk representative stated on the Official Autodesk user Forums in September 2013 that the application would be discontinued, an update to Autodesk Design Review was released in 2017.
=== DWF Writer ===
Autodesk DWF Writer software publishes the DWF format from CAD applications that do not offer built-in DWF publishing, such as Bentley MicroStation or Dassault's Solidworks software. Autodesk DWF Writer is a Windows printer driver that converts files to DWF format. The result is that the entire project team can standardize on a common file format to exchange and review designs and sheet sets, at no additional cost.
=== Freewheel ===
In 2007, Autodesk introduced an online translator for DWFs called Freewheel. Freewheel was a way to view a DWF file without downloading software. It was also a web service which offered developers a web-based interface for viewing, querying, and manipulating DWF files.
Freewheel has been replaced by the web based viewing and editing web service Autodesk 360.
=== Platforms ===
Autodesk's DWF viewers (except for Freewheel) are all based on Microsoft Windows.
The DWF Toolkit is available on Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X.
== History ==
The DWF format first appeared in 1995 as part of the unveiling of Autodesk's "WHIP!" Netscape Navigator plug-in. The format was originally referred to as the Drawing Web Format, since DWF files were generated by the Autodesk Internet Publishing Kit. As the format grew in use beyond just AutoCAD, it was renamed to Design Web Format. Although originally a 2D-only format, DWF has evolved to include 3D. Today DWF files are generated by all Autodesk products. In addition, there are a variety of third-party applications that make use of the format.
== Alternatives ==
PDF is an internationally recognized open file format developed by Adobe Systems to allow electronic exchange of any printable document, independent of the source application software, hardware and operating system. PDF/E is a subset of v1.6 of the PDF specification specifically designed for engineering use.
SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) is an open, XML based file format. It is suitable for use both as a format for creating and editing drawings and as a format for viewing and publication. For instance, Inkscape uses SVG as its native format, and both the Firefox and Opera browsers natively display SVG.
== See also ==
Computer-aided design (CAD)
DWG
DXF
PDF
PDF/E
Electronic paper (Epaper: Portable Drawing)
Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG)
== References ==
== External links ==
New format DWFx based on XML Paper Specification
Web Design Company | Wikipedia/Design_Web_Format |
Clean-room design (also known as the Chinese wall technique) is the method of copying a design by reverse engineering and then recreating it without infringing any of the copyrights associated with the original design. Clean-room design is useful as a defense against copyright infringement because it relies on independent creation. However, because independent invention is not a defense against patents, clean-room designs typically cannot be used to circumvent patent restrictions.
The term implies that the design team works in an environment that is "clean" or demonstrably uncontaminated by any knowledge of the proprietary techniques used by the competitor.
Typically, a clean-room design is done by having someone examine the system to be reimplemented and having this person write a specification. This specification is then reviewed by a lawyer to ensure that no copyrighted material is included. The specification is then implemented by a team with no connection to the original examiners.
== Examples ==
Phoenix Technologies sold its clean-room implementation of the IBM-compatible BIOS to various PC clone manufacturers. American Megatrends also sold its clean-room implementation of the IBM-compatible BIOS to various PC clone manufacturers.
Several other PC clone companies, including Corona Data Systems, Eagle Computer, and Handwell Corporation, were litigated by IBM for copyright infringement, and were forced to re-implement their BIOS in a way which did not infringe IBM's copyrights. The legal precedent for firmware being protected by copyright, however, hadn't been established until
Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp., 714 F.2d 1240 (3rd Circuit Court 1983).
The three settlements by IBM, and the legal clean-room PC BIOS designs of Compaq and Columbia Data Products, happened before Phoenix announced, in July 1984, that they were licensing their own BIOS code. Phoenix expressly emphasized the clean-room process through which their BIOS code had been written by a programmer who did not even have prior exposure to Intel microprocessors, himself having been a TMS9900 programmer beforehand. As late as the early 1990s, IBM was winning millions of dollars from settling BIOS copyright infringement lawsuits against some other PC clone manufacturers like Matsushita/Panasonic (1987) and Kyocera (1993–1994), although the latter suit was for infringements between 1985 and 1990.
Another clean-room design example is VTech's successful clones of the Apple II ROMs for the Laser 128, the only computer model, among dozens of Apple II compatibles, which survived litigation brought by Apple Computer. The "Laser 128 story" is in contrast to the Franklin Ace 1000, which lost in the 1983 decision, Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corporation. The previous PC "clone" examples are notable for not daring to fight IBM in court, even before the legal precedent for copyrighting firmware had been made.
Other examples include ReactOS, an open-source operating system made from clean-room reverse-engineered components of Windows, and Coherent operating system, a clean-room re-implementation of version 7 Unix. In the early years of its existence, Coherent's developer Mark Williams Company received a visit from an AT&T delegation looking to determine whether MWC was infringing on AT&T Unix property. It has been released as open source.
== Case law ==
Clean-room design is usually employed as best practice, but not strictly required by law. In NEC Corp. v Intel Corp. (1990), NEC sought declaratory judgment against Intel's charges that NEC's engineers simply copied the microcode of the 8086 processor in their NEC V20 clone. A US judge ruled that while the early, internal revisions of NEC's microcode were indeed a copyright violation, the later one, which actually went into NEC's product, although derived from the former, were sufficiently different from the Intel microcode it could be considered free of copyright violations. While NEC themselves did not follow a strict clean-room approach in the development of their clone's microcode, during the trial, they hired an independent contractor who was only given access to specifications but ended up writing code that had certain similarities to both NEC's and Intel's code. From this evidence, the judge concluded that similarity in certain routines was a matter of functional constraints resulting from the compatibility requirements, and thus were likely free of a creative element. Although the clean-room approach had been used as preventative measure in view of possible litigation before (e.g. in the Phoenix BIOS case), the NEC v. Intel case was the first time that the clean-room argument was accepted in a US court trial. A related aspect worth mentioning here is that NEC did have a license for Intel's patents governing the 8086 processor.
Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp. was a 1999 lawsuit which established an important precedent in regard to reverse engineering. Sony sought damages for copyright infringement over Connectix's Virtual Game Station emulator, alleging that its proprietary BIOS code had been copied into Connectix's product without permission. Sony won the initial judgment, but the ruling was overturned on appeal. Sony eventually purchased the rights to Virtual Game Station to prevent its further sale and development. This established a precedent addressing the legal implications of commercial reverse engineering efforts.
During production, Connectix unsuccessfully attempted a Chinese wall approach to reverse engineer the BIOS, so its engineers disassembled the object code directly. Connectix's successful appeal maintained that the direct disassembly and observation of proprietary code was necessary because there was no other way to determine its behavior. From the ruling:
Some works are closer to the core of intended copyright protection than others. Sony's BIOS lay at a distance from the core because it contains unprotected aspects that cannot be examined without copying. The court of appeal therefore accorded it a lower degree of protection than more traditional literary works.
== In popular culture ==
In the first season of the 2014 TV show Halt and Catch Fire, a key plot point from the second episode is how the fictional Cardiff Electric computer company placed an engineer in a clean room to reverse engineer a BIOS for its PC clone, to provide cover and protection from IBM lawsuits for a previous probably-illegal hacking of the BIOS code others at the company had performed. It reminded many critics of Compaq's million dollar clean-room engineering, but a contemporary, but far less successful company, Columbia Data Products, also used such an approach. The reaction of IBM's legal department, like other plot points, echoed the experiences of Corona Data Systems more closely.
== See also ==
Code morphing
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Rachel Parker (28 September 1987). "'Secured Facility' Solves Compatibility Conflicts". InfoWorld: The Newspaper for the Microcomputing Community. InfoWorld: 41. ISSN 0199-6649.
Peter Groves (2011). A Dictionary of Intellectual Property Law. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-84980-778-4.
Lee Burgunder (2010). Legal Aspects of Managing Technology (5th ed.). Cengage Learning. pp. 281–285. ISBN 978-1-4390-7981-2.
Jonathan Band; Masanobu Katoh (2011). Interfaces on Trial 2.0. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-29446-1. | Wikipedia/Clean-room_design |
In chemical engineering, process design is the choice and sequencing of units for desired physical and/or chemical transformation of materials. Process design is central to chemical engineering, and it can be considered to be the summit of that field, bringing together all of the field's components.
Process design can be the design of new facilities or it can be the modification or expansion of existing facilities. The design starts at a conceptual level and ultimately ends in the form of fabrication and construction plans.
Process design is distinct from equipment design, which is closer in spirit to the design of unit operations. Processes often include many unit operations.
== Documentation ==
Process design documents serve to define the design and they ensure that the design components fit together. They are useful in communicating ideas and plans to other engineers involved with the design, to external regulatory agencies, to equipment vendors, and to construction contractors.
In order of increasing detail, process design documents include:
Block flow diagrams (BFD): Very simple diagrams composed of rectangles and lines indicating major material or energy flows.
Process flow diagrams (PFD): Typically more complex diagrams of major unit operations as well as flow lines. They usually include a material balance, and sometimes an energy balance, showing typical or design flowrates, stream compositions, and stream and equipment pressures and temperatures. It is the key document in process design.
Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID): Diagrams showing each and every pipeline with piping class (carbon steel or stainless steel) and pipe size (diameter). They also show valving along with instrument locations and process control schemes.
Specifications: Written design requirements of all major equipment items.
Process designers typically write operating manuals on how to start-up, operate and shut-down the process. They often also develop accident plans and projections of process operation on the environment.
Documents are maintained after construction of the process facility for the operating personnel to refer to. The documents also are useful when modifications to the facility are planned.
A primary method of developing the process documents is process flowsheeting.
== Design considerations ==
Design conceptualization and considerations can begin once objectives are defined and constraints identified.
Objectives that a design may strive to meet include:
Throughput rate
Process yield
Product purity
Constraints include:
Capital cost: investment required to implement the design including cost of new equipment and disposal of obsolete equipment.
Available space: the area of land or room in building to place new or modified equipment.
Safety concerns: risk of accidents and posed by hazardous materials.
Environmental impact and projected effluents, emissions, and waste production.
Operating and maintenance costs.
Other factors that designers may include are:
Reliability
Redundancy
Flexibility
Anticipated variability in feed stock and allowable variability in product.
== Sources of design information ==
Designers usually do not start from scratch, especially for complex projects. Often the engineers have pilot plant data available or data from full-scale operating facilities. Other sources of information include proprietary design criteria provided by process licensors, published scientific data, laboratory experiments, and suppliers of feedstocks and utilities.
== Design process ==
Design starts with process synthesis - the choice of technology and combinations of industrial units to achieve goals. More detailed design proceeds as other engineers and stakeholders sign off on each stage: conceptual to detailed design.
Simulation software is often used by design engineers. Simulations can identify weaknesses in designs and allow engineers to choose better alternatives. However, engineers still rely on heuristics, intuition, and experience when designing a process. Human creativity is an element in complex designs.
== See also ==
== Recommended chemical engineering books ==
Sinnott and Towler (2009). Chemical Engineering Design: Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design (5th ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0750685511.
Ullmann's (2004). Chemical Engineering and Plant Design. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-31111-8.
Moran, Sean (2015). An Applied Guide to Process and Plant Design (1st ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0128002421.
Moran, Sean (2016). Process Plant Layout (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0128033555.
Peter, Frank (2008). Process Plant Design. Wiley. ISBN 9783527313136.
Kister, Henry Z. (1992). Distillation Design (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-034909-6.
Perry, Robert H. & Green, Don W. (1984). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-049479-7.
Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N. (August 2001). Transport Phenomena (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-41077-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
McCabe, W., Smith, J. and Harriott, P. (2004). Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering (7th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-284823-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Seader, J. D. & Henley, Ernest J. (1998). Separation Process Principles. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-58626-9.
Chopey, Nicholas P. (2004). Handbook of Chemical Engineering Calculations (3rdEdition ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-136262-2.
Himmelbau, David M. (1996). Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering (6th ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-305798-4.
Editors: Jacqueline I. Kroschwitz and Arza Seidel (2004). Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0-471-48810-0. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
King, C.J. (1980). Separation Processes (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-034612-7.
Peters, M. S. & Timmerhaus K. D. (1991). Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-100871-3.
J. M. Smith, H. C. Van Ness and M. M. Abott (2001). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics (6th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-240296-2.
== References ==
== External links ==
Chemical Process Design Open Textbook (Northwestern University by Fengqi You)
A General Framework for Process Synthesis, Integration, and Intensification (OSTI / Texas A&M University) | Wikipedia/Process_design |
Interior design is the art and science of enhancing the interior of a building to achieve a healthier and more aesthetically pleasing environment for the people using the space. With a keen eye for detail and a creative flair, an interior designer is someone who plans, researches, coordinates, and manages such enhancement projects. Interior design is a multifaceted profession that includes conceptual development, space planning, site inspections, programming, research, communicating with the stakeholders of a project, construction management, and execution of the design.
== History and current terms ==
In the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building.
The profession of interior design has been a consequence of the development of society and the complex architecture that has resulted from the development of industrial processes.
The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the contemporary interior design profession. The profession of interior design is separate and distinct from the role of interior decorator, a term commonly used in the US; the term is less common in the UK, where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking, not yet officially a profession.
In ancient India, architects would also function as interior designers. This can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma the architect—one of the gods in Indian mythology. In these architects' design of 17th-century Indian homes, sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen inside the palaces, while during the medieval times wall art paintings were a common feature of palace-like mansions in India commonly known as havelis. While most traditional homes have been demolished to make way to modern buildings, there are still around 2000 havelis in the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan that display wall art paintings.
In ancient Egypt, "soul houses" (or models of houses) were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. From these, it is possible to discern details about the interior design of different residences throughout the different Egyptian dynasties, such as changes in ventilation, porticoes, columns, loggias, windows, and doors.
Painting interior walls has existed for at least 5,000 years, with examples found as far north as the Ness of Brodgar, as have templated interiors, as seen in the associated Skara Brae settlement. It was the Greeks, and later Romans who added co-ordinated, decorative mosaics floors, and templated bath houses, shops, civil offices, Castra (forts) and temple, interiors, in the first millennia BC. With specialised guilds dedicated to producing interior decoration, and formulaic furniture, in buildings constructed to forms defined by Roman architects, such as Vitruvius: De architectura, libri decem (The Ten Books on Architecture).
Throughout the 17th and 18th century and into the early 19th century, interior decoration was the concern of the homemaker, or an employed upholsterer or craftsman who would advise on the artistic style for an interior space. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete interior design for their buildings.
=== Commercial interior design and management ===
In the mid-to-late 19th century, interior design services expanded greatly, as the middle class in industrial countries grew in size and prosperity and began to desire the domestic trappings of wealth to cement their new status. Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management, offering full house furnishings in a variety of styles. This business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the professional interior design in the mid-20th century.
In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits. They framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. To meet the growing demand for contract interior work on projects such as offices, hotels, and public buildings, these businesses became much larger and more complex, employing builders, joiners, plasterers, textile designers, artists, and furniture designers, as well as engineers and technicians to fulfil the job. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes.
As department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up model rooms at national and international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the pioneering firms in this regard were Waring & Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons, and Holland & Sons. These traditional high-quality furniture making firms began to play an important role as advisers to unsure middle class customers on taste and style, and began taking out contracts to design and furnish the interiors of many important buildings in Britain.
This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War. The Herter Brothers, founded by two German émigré brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior decorators. With their own design office and cabinet-making and upholstery workshops, Herter Brothers were prepared to accomplish every aspect of interior furnishing including decorative paneling and mantels, wall and ceiling decoration, patterned floors, and carpets and draperies.
A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the middle class was the architect Owen Jones, one of the most influential design theorists of the nineteenth century. Jones' first project was his most important—in 1851, he was responsible for not only the decoration of Joseph Paxton's gigantic Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition but also the arrangement of the exhibits within. He chose a controversial palette of red, yellow, and blue for the interior ironwork and, despite initial negative publicity in the newspapers, was eventually unveiled by Queen Victoria to much critical acclaim. His most significant publication was The Grammar of Ornament (1856), in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design and decoration.
Jones was employed by some of the leading interior design firms of the day; in the 1860s, he worked in collaboration with the London firm Jackson & Graham to produce furniture and other fittings for high-profile clients including art collector Alfred Morrison as well as Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt.
In 1882, the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators. Some of the most distinguished companies of the period were Crace, Waring & Gillowm and Holland & Sons; famous decorators employed by these firms included Thomas Edward Collcutt, Edward William Godwin, Charles Barry, Gottfried Semper, and George Edmund Street.
=== Transition to professional interior design ===
By the turn of the 20th century, amateur advisors and publications were increasingly challenging the monopoly that the large retail companies had on interior design. English feminist author Mary Haweis wrote a series of widely read essays in the 1880s in which she derided the eagerness with which aspiring middle-class people furnished their houses according to the rigid models offered to them by the retailers. She advocated the individual adoption of a particular style, tailor-made to the individual needs and preferences of the customer:One of my strongest convictions, and one of the first canons of good taste, is that our houses, like the fish's shell and the bird's nest, ought to represent our individual taste and habits.
The move toward decoration as a separate artistic profession, unrelated to the manufacturers and retailers, received an impetus with the 1899 formation of the Institute of British Decorators; with John Dibblee Crace as its president, it represented almost 200 decorators around the country. By 1915, the London Directory listed 127 individuals trading as interior decorators, of which 10 were women. Rhoda Garrett and Agnes Garrett were the first women to train professionally as home decorators in 1874. The importance of their work on design was regarded at the time as on a par with that of William Morris. In 1876, their work – Suggestions for House Decoration in Painting, Woodwork and Furniture – spread their ideas on artistic interior design to a wide middle-class audience.
By 1900, the situation was described by The Illustrated Carpenter and Builder:Until recently when a man wanted to furnish he would visit all the dealers and select piece by piece of furniture ....Today he sends for a dealer in art furnishings and fittings who surveys all the rooms in the house and he brings his artistic mind to bear on the subject.In America, Candace Wheeler was one of the first woman interior designers and helped encourage a new style of American design. She was instrumental in the development of art courses for women in a number of major American cities and was considered a national authority on home design. An important influence on the new profession was The Decoration of Houses, a manual of interior design written by Edith Wharton with architect Ogden Codman in 1897 in America. In the book, the authors denounced Victorian-style interior decoration and interior design, especially those rooms that were decorated with heavy window curtains, Victorian bric-a-brac, and overstuffed furniture. They argued that such rooms emphasized upholstery at the expense of proper space planning and architectural design and were, therefore, uncomfortable and rarely used. The book is considered a seminal work, and its success led to the emergence of professional decorators working in the manner advocated by its authors, most notably Elsie de Wolfe.
Elsie De Wolfe was one of the first interior designers. Rejecting the Victorian style she grew up with, she chose a more vibrant scheme, along with more comfortable furniture in the home. Her designs were light, with fresh colors and delicate Chinoiserie furnishings, as opposed to the Victorian preference of heavy, red drapes and upholstery, dark wood and intensely patterned wallpapers. Her designs were also more practical; she eliminated the clutter that occupied the Victorian home, enabling people to entertain more guests comfortably. In 1905, de Wolfe was commissioned for the interior design of the Colony Club on Madison Avenue; its interiors garnered her recognition almost over night. She compiled her ideas into her widely read 1913 book, The House in Good Taste.
In England, Syrie Maugham became a legendary interior designer credited with designing the first all-white room. Starting her career in the early 1910s, her international reputation soon grew; she later expanded her business to New York City and Chicago. Born during the Victorian Era, a time characterized by dark colors and small spaces, she instead designed rooms filled with light and furnished in multiple shades of white and mirrored screens. In addition to mirrored screens, her trademark pieces included: books covered in white vellum, cutlery with white porcelain handles, console tables with plaster palm-frond, shell, or dolphin bases, upholstered and fringed sleigh beds, fur carpets, dining chairs covered in white leather, and lamps of graduated glass balls, and wreaths.
=== Expansion ===
The interior design profession became more established after World War II. From the 1950s onwards, spending on the home increased. Interior design courses were established, requiring the publication of textbooks and reference sources. Historical accounts of interior designers and firms distinct from the decorative arts specialists were made available. Organisations to regulate education, qualifications, standards and practices, etc. were established for the profession.
Interior design was previously seen as playing a secondary role to architecture. It also has many connections to other design disciplines, involving the work of architects, industrial designers, engineers, builders, craftsmen, etc. For these reasons, the government of interior design standards and qualifications was often incorporated into other professional organisations that involved design. Organisations such as the Chartered Society of Designers, established in the UK in 1986, and the American Designers Institute, founded in 1938, governed various areas of design.
It was not until later that specific representation for the interior design profession was developed. The US National Society of Interior Designers was established in 1957, while in the UK the Interior Decorators and Designers Association was established in 1966. Across Europe, other organisations such as The Finnish Association of Interior Architects (1949) were being established and in 1994 the International Interior Design Association was founded.
Ellen Mazur Thomson, author of Origins of Graphic Design in America (1997), determined that professional status is achieved through education, self-imposed standards and professional gate-keeping organizations. Having achieved this, interior design became an accepted profession.
== Interior decorators and interior designers ==
Interior design is the art and science of understanding people's behavior to create functional spaces, that are aesthetically pleasing, within a building. Decoration is the furnishing or adorning of a space with decorative elements, sometimes complemented by advice and practical assistance. In short, interior designers may decorate, but decorators do not design.
=== Interior designer ===
Interior designer implies that there is more of an emphasis on planning, functional design and the effective use of space, as compared to interior decorating. An interior designer in fine line design can undertake projects that include arranging the basic layout of spaces within a building as well as projects that require an understanding of technical issues such as window and door positioning, acoustics, and lighting. Although an interior designer may create the layout of a space, they may not alter load-bearing walls without having their designs stamped for approval by a structural engineer. Interior designers often work directly with architects, engineers and contractors.
Interior designers must be highly skilled in order to create interior environments that are functional, safe, and adhere to building codes, regulations and ADA requirements. They go beyond the selection of color palettes and furnishings and apply their knowledge to the development of construction documents, occupancy loads, healthcare regulations and sustainable design principles, as well as the management and coordination of professional services including mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and life safety—all to ensure that people can live, learn or work in an innocuous environment that is also aesthetically pleasing.
Someone may wish to specialize and develop technical knowledge specific to one area or type of interior design, such as residential design, commercial design, hospitality design, healthcare design, universal design, exhibition design, furniture design, and spatial branding.
Interior design is a creative profession that is relatively new, constantly evolving, and often confusing to the public. It is not always an artistic pursuit and can rely on research from many fields to provide a well-trained understanding of how people are often influenced by their environments.
=== Color in interior design ===
Color is a powerful design tool in decoration, as well as in interior design, which is the art of composing and coordinating colors together to create a stylish scheme on the interior architecture of the space.
It can be important to interior designers to acquire a deep experience with colors, understand their psychological effects, and understand the meaning of each color in different locations and situations in order to create suitable combinations for each place. Color is something that an interior design needs to understand. Color can affect the way that humans think, feel, or look at space. Color can have a major effect on human behavior through all ages. An interior designer must understand that different colors can easily overstimulate people depending on the environment. Color can also have effects on a room. For example, if someone is claustrophobic then painting a room in darker colors could make the room feel smaller therefore the person could feel trapped.
Combining colors together could result in creating a state of mind as seen by the observer, and could eventually result in positive or negative effects on them. Colors can make the room feel either more calm, cheerful, comfortable, stressful, or dramatic. Color combinations can make a tiny room seem larger or smaller. So it is for the Interior designer to choose appropriate colors for a place towards achieving how clients would want to look at, and feel in, that space.
In 2024, red-colored home accessories were popularized on social media and in several design magazines for claiming to enhance interior design. This was coined the Unexpected Red Theory.
== Lighting ==
Lighting is very important when designing a space. Lighting in a room can affect the way that a room is shown. By adding natural and artificial lighting a designer can enhance the features in space and make it more pleasing. When an interior designer places lighting in a home it is important to know what lighting to put where and how to use lighting to highlight important places in the room. Lighting can enhance the aesthetic appeal of a place, setting the mood for the room. For example, when putting lighting into an office you want tp make sure there is overhead lighting, task/ desk lighting and natural lighting. Making sure there is enough lighting in a workspace is important so the person using the place does not strain their eyesight.
== Specialties ==
=== Residential ===
Residential design is the design of the interior of private residences. As this type of design is specific for individual situations, the needs and wants of the individual are paramount in this area of interior design. The interior designer may work on the project from the initial planning stage or may work on the remodeling of an existing structure. It is often a process that takes months to fine-tune and create a space with the vision of the client.
=== Commercial ===
Commercial design encompasses a wide range of subspecialties.
Retail: includes malls and shopping centers, department stores, specialty stores, visual merchandising, and showrooms.
Visual and spatial branding: The use of space as a medium to express a corporate brand.
Corporate: office design for any kind of business such as banks.
Healthcare: the design of hospitals, assisted living facilities, medical offices, dentist offices, psychiatric facilities, laboratories, medical specialist facilities.
Hospitality and recreation: includes hotels, motels, resorts, cruise ships, cafes, bars, casinos, nightclubs, theaters, music and concert halls, opera houses, sports venues, restaurants, gyms, health clubs and spas, etc.
Institutional: government offices, financial institutions (banks and credit unions), schools and universities, religious facilities, etc.
Industrial facilities: manufacturing and training facilities as well as import and export facilities.
Exhibition: includes museums, gallery, exhibition hall, specially the design for showroom and exhibition gallery.
Traffic building: includes bus station, subway station, airports, pier, etc.
Sports: includes gyms, stadiums, swimming rooms, basketball halls, etc.
Teaching in a private institute that offer classes of interior design.
Self-employment.
Employment in private sector firms.
=== Other ===
Other areas of specialization include amusement and theme park design, museum and exhibition design, exhibit design, event design (including ceremonies, weddings, baby and bridal showers, parties, conventions, and concerts), interior and prop styling, craft styling, food styling, product styling, tablescape design, theatre and performance design, stage and set design, scenic design, and production design for film and television. Beyond those, interior designers, particularly those with graduate education, can specialize in healthcare design, gerontological design, educational facility design, and other areas that require specialized knowledge. Some university programs offer graduate studies in theses and other areas. For example, both Cornell University and the University of Florida offer interior design graduate programs in environment and behavior studies.
== Profession ==
=== Education ===
There are various paths that one can take to become a professional interior designer. All of these paths involve some form of training. Working with a successful professional designer is an informal method of training and has previously been the most common method of education. In many states, however, this path alone cannot lead to licensing as a professional interior designer. Training through an institution such as a college, art or design school or university is a more formal route to professional practice.
In many countries, several university degree courses are now available, including those on interior architecture, taking three or four years to complete.
A formal education program, particularly one accredited by or developed with a professional organization of interior designers, can provide training that meets a minimum standard of excellence and therefore gives a student an education of a high standard. There are also university graduate and Ph.D. programs available for those seeking further training in a specific design specialization (i.e. gerontological or healthcare design) or those wishing to teach interior design at the university level.
=== Working conditions ===
There are a wide range of working conditions and employment opportunities within interior design. Large and tiny corporations often hire interior designers as employees on regular working hours. Designers for smaller firms and online renovation platforms usually work on a contract or per-job basis. Self-employed designers, who made up 32% of interior designers in 2020, usually work the most hours. Interior designers often work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and meet clients' needs and wishes.
In some cases, licensed professionals review the work and sign it before submitting the design for approval by clients or construction permitting. The need for licensed review and signature varies by locality, relevant legislation, and scope of work. Their work can involve significant travel to visit different locations. However, with technology development, the process of contacting clients and communicating design alternatives has become easier and requires less travel.
== Styles ==
=== Art Deco ===
The Art Deco style began in Europe in the early years of the 20th century, with the waning of Art Nouveau. The term "Art Deco" was taken from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes, a world's fair held in Paris in 1925. Art Deco rejected many traditional classical influences in favour of more streamlined geometric forms and metallic color. The Art Deco style influenced all areas of design, especially interior design, because it was the first style of interior decoration to spotlight new technologies and materials.
Art Deco style is mainly based on geometric shapes, streamlining, and clean lines. The style offered a sharp, cool look of mechanized living utterly at odds with anything that came before.
Art Deco rejected traditional materials of decoration and interior design, opting instead to use more unusual materials such as chrome, glass, stainless steel, shiny fabrics, mirrors, aluminium, lacquer, inlaid wood, sharkskin, and zebra skin. The use of harder, metallic materials was chosen to celebrate the machine age. These materials reflected the dawning modern age that was ushered in after the end of the First World War. The innovative combinations of these materials created contrasts that were very popular at the time – for example the mixing together of highly polished wood and black lacquer with satin and furs. The barber shop in the Austin Reed store in London was designed by P. J. Westwood. It was soon regarded as the trendiest barber shop in Britain due to its use of metallic materials.
The color themes of Art Deco consisted of metallic color, neutral color, bright color, and black and white. In interior design, cool metallic colors including silver, gold, metallic blue, charcoal grey, and platinum tended to predominate. Serge Chermayeff, a Russian-born British designer made extensive use of cool metallic colors and luxurious surfaces in his room schemes. His 1930 showroom design for a British dressmaking firm had a silver-grey background and black mirrored-glass wall panels.
Black and white was also a very popular color scheme during the 1920s and 1930s. Black and white checkerboard tiles, floors and wallpapers were very trendy at the time. As the style developed, bright vibrant colors became popular as well.
Art Deco furnishings and lighting fixtures had a glossy, luxurious appearance with the use of inlaid wood and reflective finishes. The furniture pieces often had curved edges, geometric shapes, and clean lines. Art Deco lighting fixtures tended to make use of stacked geometric patterns.
=== Modern art ===
Modern design grew out of the decorative arts, mostly from the Art Deco, in the early 20th century. One of the first to introduce this modernist style was Frank Lloyd Wright, who had not become hugely popularized until completing the house called Fallingwater in the 1930s. Modern art reached its peak during the 1950s and '60s, which is why designers and decorators today may refer to modern design as being "mid-century". Modern art does not refer to the era or age of design and is not the same as contemporary design, a term used by interior designers for a shifting group of recent styles and trends.
=== Arab materials ===
"Majlis painting", also called nagash painting, is the decoration of the majlis, or front parlor of traditional Arabic homes, in the Asir province of Saudi Arabia and adjoining parts of Yemen. These wall paintings, an arabesque form of mural or fresco, show various geometric designs in bright colors: "Called 'nagash' in Arabic, the wall paintings were a mark of pride for a woman in her house."
The geometric designs and heavy lines seem to be adapted from the area's textile and weaving patterns. "In contrast with the sobriety of architecture and decoration in the rest of Arabia, exuberant color and ornamentation characterize those of Asir. The painting extends into the house over the walls and doors, up the staircases, and onto the furniture itself. When a house is being painted, women from the community help each other finish the job. The building then displays their shared taste and knowledge. Mothers pass these on to their daughters. This artwork is based on a geometry of straight lines and suggests the patterns common to textile weaving, with solid bands of different colors. Certain motifs reappear, such as the triangular mihrab or 'niche' and the palmette. In the past, paint was produced from mineral and vegetable pigments. Cloves and alfalfa yielded green. Blue came from the indigo plant. Red came from pomegranates and a certain mud. Paintbrushes were created from the tough hair found in a goat's tail. Today, however, women use modern manufactured paint to create new looks, which have become an indicator of social and economic change."
Women in the Asir province often complete the decoration and painting of the house interior. "You could tell a family's wealth by the paintings," Um Abdullah says: "If they didn't have much money, the wife could only paint the motholath, the basic straight, simple lines, in patterns of three to six repetitions in red, green, yellow and brown." When women did not want to paint the walls themselves, they could barter with other women who would do the work. Several Saudi women have become famous as majlis painters, such as Fatima Abou Gahas.
The interior walls of the home are brightly painted by the women, who work in defined patterns with lines, triangles, squares, diagonals and tree-like patterns. "Some of the large triangles represent mountains. Zigzag lines stand for water and also for lightning. Small triangles, especially when the widest area is at the top, are found in pre-Islamic representations of female figures. That the small triangles found in the wall paintings in 'Asir are called banat may be a cultural remnant of a long-forgotten past."
"Courtyards and upper pillared porticoes are principal features of the best Nadjdi architecture, in addition to the fine incised plaster wood (jiss) and painted window shutters, which decorate the reception rooms. Good examples of plasterwork can often be seen in the gaping ruins of torn-down buildings- the effect is light, delicate and airy. It is usually around the majlis, around the coffee hearth and along the walls above where guests sat on rugs, against cushions. Doughty wondered if this "parquetting of jis", this "gypsum fretwork... all adorning and unenclosed" originated from India. However, the Najd fretwork seems very different from that seen in the Eastern Province and Oman, which are linked to Indian traditions, and rather resembles the motifs and patterns found in ancient Mesopotamia. The rosette, the star, the triangle and the stepped pinnacle pattern of dadoes are all ancient patterns, and can be found all over the Middle East of antiquity. Al-Qassim Province seems to be the home of this art, and there it is normally worked in hard white plaster (though what you see is usually begrimed by the smoke of the coffee hearth). In Riyadh, examples can be seen in unadorned clay.
=== Sustainable Design ===
Sustainable Design is becoming more important today. This type of style includes eco-friendly, energy efficient, and sustainable design while keeping the space functional. Modern design prioritizes energy efficient design styles and eco-friendly design styles.
== Media popularization ==
Interior design has become the subject of television shows. In the United Kingdom, popular interior design and decorating programs include 60 Minute Makeover (ITV), Changing Rooms (BBC), and Selling Houses (Channel 4). Famous interior designers whose work is featured in these programs include Linda Barker and Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen. In the United States, the TLC Network aired a popular program called Trading Spaces, a show based on the UK program Changing Rooms. In addition, both HGTV and the DIY Network also televise many programs about interior design and decorating, featuring the works of a variety of interior designers, decorators, and home improvement experts in a myriad of projects.
Fictional interior decorators include the Sugarbaker sisters on Designing Women and Grace Adler on Will & Grace. There is also another show called Home MADE. There are two teams and two houses and whoever has the designed and made the worst room, according to the judges, is eliminated. Another show on the Style Network, hosted by Niecy Nash, is Clean House where they re-do messy homes into themed rooms that the clients would like. Other shows include Design on a Dime, Designed to Sell, and The Decorating Adventures of Ambrose Price. The show called Design Star has become more popular through the five seasons that have already aired. The winners of this show end up getting their own TV shows, of which are Color Splash hosted by David Bromstad, Myles of Style hosted by Kim Myles, Paint-Over! hosted by Jennifer Bertrand, The Antonio Treatment hosted by Antonio Ballatore, and finally Secrets from a Stylist hosted by Emily Henderson. Bravo also has a variety of shows that explore the lives of interior designers. These include Flipping Out, which explores the life of Jeff Lewis and his team of designers; Million Dollar Decorators explores the lives of interior designers Nathan Turner, Jeffrey Alan Marks, Mary McDonald, Kathryn Ireland, and Martyn Lawrence Bullard.
Interior design has also become the subject of radio shows. In the U.S., popular interior design & lifestyle shows include Martha Stewart Living and Living Large featuring Karen Mills. Famous interior designers whose work is featured on these programs include Bunny Williams, Barbara Barry, and Kathy Ireland, among others.
Many interior design magazines exist to offer advice regarding color palette, furniture, art, and other elements that fall under the umbrella of interior design. These magazine often focus on related subjects to draw a more specific audience. For instance, architecture as a primary aspect of Dwell, while Veranda is well known as a luxury living magazine. Lonny Magazine and the newly relaunched, Domino Magazine, cater to a young, hip, metropolitan audience, and emphasize accessibility and a do-it-yourself (DIY) approach to interior design.
== Gallery ==
== Notable interior decorators ==
Other early interior decorators:
Sibyl Colefax
Dorothy Draper
Pierre François Léonard Fontaine
Syrie Maugham
Margery Hoffman Smith
Elsie de Wolfe
Arthur Stannard Vernay
Frank Lloyd Wright
Many of the most famous designers and decorators during the 20th century had no formal training. Some examples include Sister Parish, Robert Denning and Vincent Fourcade, Kerry Joyce, Kelly Wearstler, Stéphane Boudin, Georges Geffroy, Emilio Terry, Carlos de Beistegui, Nina Petronzio, Lorenzo Mongiardino, Mary Jean Thompson and David Nightingale Hicks.
Notable interior designers in the world today include Scott Salvator, Troy Adams, Jonathan Adler, Michael S. Smith, Martin Brudnizki, Mary Douglas Drysdale, Kelly Hoppen, Kelly Wearstler, Nina Campbell, David Collins, Nate Berkus, Sandra Espinet, Jo Hamilton and Nicky Haslam.
== See also ==
1960s decor
American Society of Interior Designers
Blueprint
British Institute of Interior Design
Chartered Society of Designers
Environmental psychology
Experiential interior design
Fuzzy architectural spatial analysis
Interior architecture
Interior design psychology
Interior design regulation in the United States
Japanese interior design
Primitive decorating
Wall decals
Window treatment
== References ==
== External links ==
Candace Wheeler: The Art and Enterprise of American Design, 1875–1900, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which includes a great deal of content about early interior design | Wikipedia/Interior_design |
Spatial design is a relatively new conceptual design discipline that crosses the boundaries of traditional design specialisms such as architecture, landscape architecture, landscape design, interior design, urban design and service design as well as certain areas of public art.
It focuses upon the flow of people between multiple areas of interior and exterior environments and delivers value and understanding in spaces across both the private and public realm. The emphasis of the discipline is upon working with people and space, particularly looking at the notion of place, also place identity and genius loci. As such, the discipline covers a variety of scales, from detailed design of interior spaces to large regional strategies, and is largely found within the UK. As a discipline, it uses the language of architecture, interior design and landscape architecture to communicate design intentions. Spatial design uses research methods often found in disciplines such as product and service design, identified by IDEO, as well as social and historical methods that help with the identification and determination of place.
As a growth area of design, the number of spatial design practitioners work within existing disciplines or as independent consultants.
The subject is studied at a number of institutions within the UK, Denmark, Switzerland, and Italy though, as with any new field of study, these courses differ in their scope and ambition.
Ultimately it can be seen as "the glue that joins traditional built environment disciplines together with the people they are designed to serve".
During the COVID-19 pandemic, spatial design became an important aspect of reshaping collective use of urban space and thinking about access and egress.
== References == | Wikipedia/Spatial_design |
Design tools are objects, media, or computer programs, which can be used to design. They may influence the process of production, expression and perception of design ideas and therefore need to be applied skillfully.
== Objects ==
New ideas can come by way of experimenting with tools and methods. Some designers explore ideas using pencil and paper. Others use many different mark-making tools and resources from computers to sculpture as a means of inspiring creativity. Traditionally, objects like pencil, compass, ruler, drawing triangle have been considered design tools and have been used to characterize design and designers. One reason for the success of traditional design tools such as pencil and paper is that these tools can be used without any special knowledge and their usage facilitates a continuous flow of thoughts.
== Media ==
The appropriate development and presentation tools can substantially change how an audience perceives a project. The media used for design can be divided in two categories, visual and verbal. Conventionally, in areas like architecture, industrial design, or graphic design, visual media are considered more important than verbal media. In other areas like engineering, the use of verbal design media may be prevalent.
=== Visual ===
Visual design tools are, for example, gesture, sketch, drawing, scale model, perspective drawing, photograph, film, video. Eugene S. Ferguson's 1977 paper in Science, entitled "The mind's eye: Nonverbal thought in technology", is credited for clarifying the role of visual reasoning in the thinking process. In this article he reasoned that "Thinking with pictures is an essential strand in the intellectual history of technological development." He concludes his article with the following statement:
Much of the creative thought of the designers of our technological world is nonverbal, not easily reducible to words; its language is an object or a picture or a visual image in the mind. It is out of this kind of thinking that the clock, printing press, and snowmobile have arisen. Technologists, converting their nonverbal knowledge into objects directly (as when an artisan fashioned an American ax) or into drawings that have enabled others to build what was in their minds, have chosen the shape and many of the qualities of our man-made surroundings. This intellectual component of technology, which is non-literary and non-scientific, has been generally unnoticed because its origins lie in art and not in science.As the scientific component of knowledge in technology has increased markedly in the 19th and 20th centuries, the tendency has been to lose sight of the crucial part played by nonverbal knowledge in making the "big" decisions of form, arrangement, and texture, that determine the parameters within which a system will operate.
In his work claims Ferguson that visual reasoning is a widely used tool used in creating technological artefacts. There is ample evidence that visual methods, particularly drawing, play a central role in creating artefacts.
=== Verbal ===
Verbal design tools are, for example, metaphor, description, discussion, critique, theory, algorithm, calculation, program.
== Computer programs ==
Computer programs have many functions which can be discussed in terms of design tools. One of the most widely used design tools is computer-aided design (CAD) software like Autodesk Inventor, DSS SolidWorks, or Pro Engineer which enables designers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with Digital Mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method analysis or analytic element method allows designers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.
There is some debate whether computers enhance the creative process of design. Rapid production from the computer allows many designers to explore multiple ideas quickly with more detail than what could be achieved by traditional hand-rendering or paste-up on paper, moving the designer through the creative process more quickly. However, being faced with limitless choices does not help isolate the best design solution and can lead to endless iterations with no clear design outcome. A designer may use sketches to explore multiple or complex ideas quickly without the distractions and complications of software.
== See also ==
Design method
Design strategy
Reflective practice
Computer-aided design
== Bibliography ==
Design - Creativity and Materialization. Cottbus, 1999, ISSN 1434-0984, online at: http://www.cloud-cuckoo.net/openarchive/wolke/eng/Subjects/subject991.html
Elke Krasny: Architektur beginnt im Kopf - The Making of Architecture. Basel, Boston, Berlin: Birkhäuser, 2008, ISBN 978-3764389796
== References == | Wikipedia/Design_tool |
The Proteus Design Suite is a proprietary software tool suite used primarily for electronic design automation. The software is used mainly by electronic design engineers and technicians to create schematics and electronic prints for manufacturing printed circuit boards.
It was developed in Yorkshire, England by Labcenter Electronics Ltd and is available in English, French, Spanish and Chinese languages.
== History ==
The first version of what is now the Proteus Design Suite was called PC-B and was written by the company chairman, John Jameson, for DOS in 1988. Schematic Capture support followed in 1990, with a port to the Windows environment shortly thereafter. Mixed mode SPICE Simulation was first integrated into Proteus in 1996 and microcontroller simulation then arrived in Proteus in 1998. Shape based autorouting was added in 2002 and 2006 saw another major product update with 3D Board Visualisation. More recently, a dedicated IDE for simulation was added in 2011 and MCAD import/export was included in 2015. Support for high speed design was added in 2017. Feature led product releases are typically biannual, while maintenance based service packs are released as it is required.
== Product Modules ==
The Proteus Design Suite is a Windows application for schematic capture, simulation, and PCB (Printed Circuit Board) layout design. It can be purchased in many configurations, depending on the size of designs being produced and the requirements for microcontroller simulation. All PCB Design products include an autorouter and basic mixed mode SPICE simulation capabilities.
=== Schematic Capture ===
Schematic capture in the Proteus Design Suite is used for both the simulation of designs and as the design phase of a PCB layout project. It is therefore a core component and is included with all product configurations.
=== Microcontroller Simulation ===
The micro-controller simulation in Proteus works by applying either a hex file or a debug file to the microcontroller part on the schematic. It is then co-simulated along with any analog and digital electronics connected to it. This enables its use in a broad spectrum of project prototyping in areas such as motor control, temperature control and user interface design. It also finds use in the general hobbyist community and, since no hardware is required, is convenient to use as a training or teaching tool. Support is available for co-simulation of:
Microchip Technologies PIC10, PIC12, PIC16, PIC18, PIC24, dsPIC33 microcontrollers
Atmel AVR (and Arduino), 8051 and ARM Cortex-M3 microcontrollers
NXP 8051, ARM7, ARM Cortex-M0 and ARM Cortex-M3 microcontrollers
Texas Instruments MSP430, PICCOLO DSP and ARM Cortex-M3 microcontrollers
Parallax Basic Stamp, Freescale HC11, 8086 microcontrollers
=== PCB Design ===
The PCB Layout module is automatically given connectivity information in the form of a netlist from the schematic capture module. It applies this information, together with the user specified design rules and various design automation tools, to assist with error free board design. PCB's of up to 16 copper layers can be produced with design size limited by product configuration.
=== 3D Verification ===
The 3D Viewer module allows the board under development to be viewed in 3D together with a semi-transparent height plane that represents the boards enclosure. STEP output can then be used to transfer to mechanical CAD software such as Solidworks or Autodesk for accurate mounting and positioning of the board.
== See also ==
Comparison of EDA software
List of free electronics circuit simulators
== References ==
== External links ==
Official site
Discussion Forums | Wikipedia/Proteus_Design_Suite |
Design leadership is a concept complementary to design management. In practice, design managers within companies often operate in the field of design leadership and design leaders in the field of design management. However, the two terms are not interchangeable; they are interdependent. In essence, design leadership aims to define future strategies, and design management is responsible for implementation. Both are critically important to business, government, and society, and both are necessary in order to maximize value from design activity and investment.
Design leadership can be described as leadership that generates innovative design solutions. Turner defines design leadership by adding three additional aspects for design leadership:
the difference in leading through design,
the sustaining design leadership over time
the gaining of acknowledgment for achievements through design.
Turner separates the core responsibilities of design leadership into the following six activities:
envisioning of the future
manifesting strategic intent
directing design investment
managing corporate reputation
creating and nurturing an environment of innovation
training for design leadership
Design Leadership is a growing professional practice and the value of such specialization is proven through the appointment of executive leadership roles, such that of Chief Design officer, Chief Creative officer, or similar roles and titles.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Turner, R.: Design Leadership: Securing the Strategic Value of Design. (Routledge) 2013. ISBN 1409463230
Goleman, D.: What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review 1998, Vol.76, No.9
McBride, M.: Design Management: Future Forward. Design Management Review, Summer 2007
Mullins, L.J.: Management and organisational behavior. (Pitman Publishing) 2004. ISBN 0-273-60039-7
Turner, R., Topalian, A.: Core responsibilities of design leaders in commercially demanding environments. 2002, Inaugural presentation at the Design Leadership Forum.
Zaleznik, A.: Managers and Leaders: Are They Different?. Harvard Business Review 2000, Vol. 82, No.1
== See also ==
Corporate Identity
Design management
Design
Leadership
Reputation management | Wikipedia/Design_leadership |
Mentor Graphics Corporation was a US-based electronic design automation (EDA) multinational corporation for electrical engineering and electronics, headquartered in Wilsonville, Oregon. Founded in 1981, the company distributed products that assist in electronic design automation, simulation tools for analog mixed-signal design, VPN solutions, and fluid dynamics and heat transfer tools. The company leveraged Apollo Computer workstations to differentiate itself within the computer-aided engineering (CAE) market with its software and hardware.
Mentor Graphics was acquired by Siemens in 2017. The name was retired in 2021 and renamed Siemens EDA, a segment of Siemens Digital Industries Software.
== History ==
Mentor Graphics was founded in 1981 by Tom Bruggere, Gerry Langeler, and Dave Moffenbeier, all formerly of Tektronix. The company raised $55 million in funding through an initial public offering in 1984.
Mentor initially wrote software that ran only in Apollo workstations.
When Mentor entered the CAE market the company had two technical differentiators: the first was the software – Mentor, Valid, and Daisy each had software with different strengths and weaknesses. The second, was the hardware – Mentor ran all programs on the Apollo workstation, while Daisy and Valid each built their own hardware. By the late 1980s, all EDA companies abandoned proprietary hardware in favor of workstations manufactured by companies such as Apollo and Sun Microsystems.
After a frenzied development, the IDEA 1000 product was introduced at the 1982 Design Automation Conference, though in a suite and not on the floor.
Mentor Graphics was purchased by Siemens in 2017. The name was retired in 2021 and renamed Siemens EDA, a segment of Siemens Digital Industries Software.
== Acquisitions ==
=== Timeline ===
=== Related ===
In June 2008, Cadence Design Systems offered to acquire Mentor Graphics in a leveraged buyout. On 15 August 2008, Cadence withdrew this offer quoting an inability to raise the necessary capital and the unwillingness of Mentor Graphics' Board and management to discuss the offer.
In February 2011, activist investor Carl Icahn offered to buy the company for about $1.86 billion in cash.
In November 2016, Mentor Graphics announced that it was to be acquired by Siemens for $4.5 billion, at $37.25 per share, a 21% premium on Mentor's closing price on the previous Friday. The acquisition was completed in March 2017. At the time, this represented Siemens' biggest deal in the industrial software sector. Mentor Graphics started to operate as "Mentor, a Siemens Business". Under the terms of the acquisition, Mentor Graphics kept its headquarters in Wilsonville with workforce intact, and operated as an independent subsidiary.
In January 2021, Mentor became a division of Siemens and was renamed as Siemens EDA.
== Locations ==
Mentor product development was located in the US, Taiwan, Egypt, Poland, Hungary, Japan, France, Canada, Pakistan, UK, Armenia, India and Russia.
== Products ==
Mentor offered the following tools:
=== Electronic design automation ===
Integrated circuit layout full-custom and schematic-driven layout (SDL) tools such as IC Station or Memory Builder, a first industry tool for rapid embedded memory design that helped to develop single- or dual-port RAM (synchronous and asynchronous), as well as diffusion and metal read only memories (ROM)
IC place and route tool: Aprisa
IC Verification tools such as Calibre nmDRC, Calibre nmLVS, Calibre xRC, Calibre xACT 3D, Calibre xACT
IC Design for Manufacturing tools such as Calibre LFD, Calibre YieldEnhancer, Calibre, and YieldAnalyzer
Schematic capture editors for electronic schematics such as Xpedition Designer
Layout and design tools for printed circuit boards with programs such as PADS, Xpedition Layout, HyperLynx and Valor NPI
Falcon Framework, software application framework
Component library management tools
IP cores for ASIC and FPGA designs
=== Embedded systems ===
Mentor Embedded Linux for ARM, MIPS, Power, and x86 architecture processors
Real-time operating systems:
Nucleus OS (acquired in 2002 when Mentor acquired Accelerated Technology, Inc.)
VRTX (acquired in 1995 when Mentor bought Microtec Research)
AUTOSAR implementation:
Embedded implementation VSTAR in part acquired from Mecel in 2013
Configuration tooling Volcano Vehicle Systems Builder (VSB)
Development Tools:
Sourcery CodeBench and Sourcery GNU toolchains (acquired in 2010 when Mentor acquired CodeSourcery)
Inflexion UI – (Next Device was acquired by Mentor in 2006)
xtUML Design Tools: BridgePoint (acquired in 2004 when Mentor acquired Project Technology)
VPN Solutions:
Nucleus Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) software
Nucleus NET networking stack
Nucleus implementation of the Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE) protocol
Nucleus PPP software
=== FPGA synthesis ===
Precision Synthesis – Advanced RTL & physical synthesis for FPGAs
=== Electrical systems, cabling, and harness ===
Capital – a suite of integrated tools for the design, validation and manufacture of electrical systems and harnesses
VeSys – a mid-market toolset for vehicle electrical system and harness design
=== Simulation ===
ModelSim is a hardware simulation and debug environment primarily targeted at smaller ASIC and FPGA design
QuestaSim is a simulator with advanced debug capabilities targeted at complex FPGA's and SoC's. QuestaSim can be used by users who have experience with ModelSim as it shares most of the common debug features and capabilities. One of the main differences between QuestaSim and Modelsim (besides performance/capacity) is that QuestaSim is the simulation engine for the Questa Platform which includes integration of Verification Management, Formal based technologies, Questa Verification IP, Low Power Simulation and Accelerated Coverage Closure technologies. QuestaSim natively supports SystemVerilog for Testbench, UPF, UCIS, OVM/UVM where ModelSim does not.
Eldo is a SPICE simulator
Xpedition AMS is a virtual lab for mechatronic system design and analysis
ADiT is a Fast-SPICE simulator
Questa ADMS is a mixed-signal verification tool
=== Emulation ===
The Veloce product family enables SoC emulation and transaction-based acceleration to verify and rectify issues on HDL designs prefabrication.
=== Mechanical design ===
Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer tools:
Simcenter Flotherm is a Computational Fluid Dynamics tool dedicated to electronics cooling using parameterized 'SmartParts' for common electronic components such as fans, heatsinks, and IC packages.
Simcenter Flotherm XT is an electronics cooling CFD tool incorporating a solid modeler for manipulating MCAD parts.
Simcenter FLOEFD is a 'design concurrent' CFD tool for use in early-stage product design and is embedded within MCAD systems such as Solidworks, Creo Elements/Pro, CATIA V5 and Siemens NX.
Thermal Characterization and Thermal Interface Material (TIM) Measurement equipment:
Simcenter T3STER is a hardware product that embodies an implementation of the JEDEC JESD51-1 standard for IC package thermal characterization and is compliant with JESD51-14 for Rth-JC measurement.
Simcenter TERALED provides automation of the CIE 127:2007 standard providing total flux, chromaticity and correlated color temperature (CCT) for power LEDs. With T3Ster it provides thermal resistance metrics for LEDs based on the real dissipated heating power.
Simcenter DYNTIM extends T3Ster, providing a dynamic thermal test station for thermal conductivity measurements of thermal interface materials (TIMs), thermal greases and gap pads.
Simcenter Flomaster is a 1D or system-level CFD solution for analyzing fluid mechanics in complex pipe flow systems (from the acquisition of Flowmaster Ltd in 2012).
CADRA Design Drafting is a 2-1/2D mechanical drafting and documentation package specifically designed for drafting professionals. It provides the tools needed to develop complex drawings quickly and easily (from the acquisition of the CADRA product in 2013).
== See also ==
List of EDA companies
Comparison of EDA software
== References == | Wikipedia/Mentor_Graphics |
A design is the concept or proposal for an object, process, or system. The word design refers to something that is or has been intentionally created by a thinking agent, and is sometimes used to refer to the inherent nature of something – its design. The verb to design expresses the process of developing a design. In some cases, the direct construction of an object without an explicit prior plan may also be considered to be a design (such as in arts and crafts). A design is expected to have a purpose within a specific context, typically aiming to satisfy certain goals and constraints while taking into account aesthetic, functional and experiential considerations. Traditional examples of designs are architectural and engineering drawings, circuit diagrams, sewing patterns, and less tangible artefacts such as business process models.
== Designing ==
People who produce designs are called designers. The term 'designer' usually refers to someone who works professionally in one of the various design areas. Within the professions, the word 'designer' is generally qualified by the area of practice (for example: a fashion designer, a product designer, a web designer, or an interior designer), but it can also designate other practitioners such as architects and engineers (see below: Types of designing). A designer's sequence of activities to produce a design is called a design process, with some employing designated processes such as design thinking and design methods. The process of creating a design can be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design.
Designing is also a widespread activity outside of the professions of those formally recognized as designers. In his influential book The Sciences of the Artificial, the interdisciplinary scientist Herbert A. Simon proposed that, "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones." According to the design researcher Nigel Cross, "Everyone can – and does – design," and "Design ability is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a natural cognitive function."
== History of design ==
The study of design history is complicated by varying interpretations of what constitutes 'designing'. Many design historians, such as John Heskett, look to the Industrial Revolution and the development of mass production. Others subscribe to conceptions of design that include pre-industrial objects and artefacts, beginning their narratives of design in prehistoric times. Originally situated within art history, the historical development of the discipline of design history coalesced in the 1970s, as interested academics worked to recognize design as a separate and legitimate target for historical research. Early influential design historians include German-British art historian Nikolaus Pevsner and Swiss historian and architecture critic Sigfried Giedion.
== Design education ==
In Western Europe, institutions for design education date back to the nineteenth century. The Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry was founded in 1818, followed by the United Kingdom's Government School of Design (1837), and Konstfack in Sweden (1844). The Rhode Island School of Design was founded in the United States in 1877. The German art and design school Bauhaus, founded in 1919, greatly influenced modern design education.
Design education covers the teaching of theory, knowledge, and values in the design of products, services, and environments, with a focus on the development of both particular and general skills for designing. Traditionally, its primary orientation has been to prepare students for professional design practice, based on project work and studio, or atelier, teaching methods.
There are also broader forms of higher education in design studies and design thinking. Design is also a part of general education, for example within the curriculum topic, Design and Technology. The development of design in general education in the 1970s created a need to identify fundamental aspects of 'designerly' ways of knowing, thinking, and acting, which resulted in establishing design as a distinct discipline of study.
== Design process ==
Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs. Design researchers Dorst and Dijkhuis acknowledged that "there are many ways of describing design processes," and compare and contrast two dominant but different views of the design process: as a rational problem-solving process and as a process of reflection-in-action. They suggested that these two paradigms "represent two fundamentally different ways of looking at the world – positivism and constructionism." The paradigms may reflect differing views of how designing should be done and how it actually is done, and both have a variety of names. The problem-solving view has been called "the rational model," "technical rationality" and "the reason-centric perspective." The alternative view has been called "reflection-in-action," "coevolution" and "the action-centric perspective."
=== Rational model ===
The rational model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon, an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz. It posits that:
Designers attempt to optimize a design candidate for known constraints and objectives.
The design process is plan-driven.
The design process is understood in terms of a discrete sequence of stages.
The rational model is based on a rationalist philosophy and underlies the waterfall model, systems development life cycle, and much of the engineering design literature. According to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner.
Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following:
Pre-production design
Design brief – initial statement of intended outcome.
Analysis – analysis of design goals.
Research – investigating similar designs in the field or related topics.
Specification – specifying requirements of a design for a product (product design specification) or service.
Problem solving – conceptualizing and documenting designs.
Presentation – presenting designs.
Design during production.
Development – continuation and improvement of a design.
Product testing – in situ testing of a design.
Post-production design feedback for future designs.
Implementation – introducing the design into the environment.
Evaluation and conclusion – summary of process and results, including constructive criticism and suggestions for future improvements.
Redesign – any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any time before, during, or after production.
Each stage has many associated best practices.
==== Criticism of the rational model ====
The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds:
Designers do not work this way – extensive empirical evidence has demonstrated that designers do not act as the rational model suggests.
Unrealistic assumptions – goals are often unknown when a design project begins, and the requirements and constraints continue to change.
=== Action-centric model ===
The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model. It posits that:
Designers use creativity and emotion to generate design candidates.
The design process is improvised.
No universal sequence of stages is apparent – analysis, design, and implementation are contemporary and inextricably linked.
The action-centric perspective is based on an empiricist philosophy and broadly consistent with the agile approach and methodical development. Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers. Like the rational model, the action-centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge.
At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve these three basic activities:
In the reflection-in-action paradigm, designers alternate between "framing", "making moves", and "evaluating moves". "Framing" refers to conceptualizing the problem, i.e., defining goals and objectives. A "move" is a tentative design decision. The evaluation process may lead to further moves in the design.
In the sensemaking–coevolution–implementation framework, designers alternate between its three titular activities. Sensemaking includes both framing and evaluating moves. Implementation is the process of constructing the design object. Coevolution is "the process where the design agent simultaneously refines its mental picture of the design object based on its mental picture of the context, and vice versa".
The concept of the design cycle is understood as a circular time structure, which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas.
== Philosophies ==
Philosophy of design is the study of definitions, assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or preferred approaches.
=== Approaches to design ===
Some of these values and approaches include:
Critical design uses designed artefacts as an embodied critique or commentary on existing values, morals, and practices in a culture. Critical design can make aspects of the future physically present to provoke a reaction.
Ecological design is a design approach that prioritizes the consideration of the environmental impacts of a product or service, over its whole lifecycle. Ecodesign research focuses primarily on barriers to implementation, ecodesign tools and methods, and the intersection of ecodesign with other research disciplines.
Participatory design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is the practice of collective creativity to design, attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g. employees, partners, customers, citizens, end-users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable. Recent research suggests that designers create more innovative concepts and ideas when working within a co-design environment with others than they do when creating ideas on their own.
Scientific design refers to industrialised design based on scientific knowledge. Science can be used to study the effects and need for a potential or existing product in general and to design products that are based on scientific knowledge. For instance, a scientific design of face masks for COVID-19 mitigation may be based on investigations of filtration performance, mitigation performance, thermal comfort, biodegradability and flow resistance.
Service design is a term that is used for designing or organizing the experience around a product and the service associated with a product's use. The purpose of service design methodologies is to establish the most effective practices for designing services, according to both the needs of users and the competencies and capabilities of service providers.
Sociotechnical system design, a philosophy and tools for participative designing of work arrangements and supporting processes – for organizational purpose, quality, safety, economics, and customer requirements in core work processes, the quality of peoples experience at work, and the needs of society.
Transgenerational design, the practice of making products and environments compatible with those physical and sensory impairments associated with human aging and which limit major activities of daily living.
User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end-user of the designed artefact. One aspect of user-centered design is ergonomics.
== Relationship with the arts ==
The boundaries between art and design are blurry, largely due to a range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'. Applied arts can include industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, and the decorative arts which traditionally includes craft objects. In graphic arts (2D image making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial art, based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded.
== Types of designing ==
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Margolin, Victor. World History of Design. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015. (2 vols) ISBN 9781472569288.
Raizman, David Seth (12 November 2003). The History of Modern Design. Pearson. ISBN 978-0131830400. | Wikipedia/Design_firm |
Bottom-up and top-down are strategies of composition and decomposition in fields as diverse as information processing and ordering knowledge, software, humanistic and scientific theories (see systemics), and management and organization. In practice they can be seen as a style of thinking, teaching, or leadership.
A top-down approach (also known as stepwise design and stepwise refinement and in some cases used as a synonym of decomposition) is essentially the breaking down of a system to gain insight into its compositional subsystems in a reverse engineering fashion. In a top-down approach an overview of the system is formulated, specifying, but not detailing, any first-level subsystems. Each subsystem is then refined in yet greater detail, sometimes in many additional subsystem levels, until the entire specification is reduced to base elements. A top-down model is often specified with the assistance of black boxes, which makes it easier to manipulate. However, black boxes may fail to clarify elementary mechanisms or be detailed enough to realistically validate the model. A top-down approach starts with the big picture, then breaks down into smaller segments.
A bottom-up approach is the piecing together of systems to give rise to more complex systems, thus making the original systems subsystems of the emergent system. Bottom-up processing is a type of information processing based on incoming data from the environment to form a perception. From a cognitive psychology perspective, information enters the eyes in one direction (sensory input, or the "bottom"), and is then turned into an image by the brain that can be interpreted and recognized as a perception (output that is "built up" from processing to final cognition). In a bottom-up approach the individual base elements of the system are first specified in great detail. These elements are then linked together to form larger subsystems, which then in turn are linked, sometimes in many levels, until a complete top-level system is formed. This strategy often resembles a "seed" model, by which the beginnings are small but eventually grow in complexity and completeness. But "organic strategies" may result in a tangle of elements and subsystems, developed in isolation and subject to local optimization as opposed to meeting a global purpose.
== Computer science ==
=== Software development ===
In the software development process, the top-down and bottom-up approaches play a key role.
Top-down approaches emphasize planning and a complete understanding of the system. It is inherent that no coding can begin until a sufficient level of detail has been reached in the design of at least some part of the system. Top-down approaches are implemented by attaching the stubs in place of the module. But these delay testing of the ultimate functional units of a system until significant design is complete.
Bottom-up emphasizes coding and early testing, which can begin as soon as the first module has been specified. But this approach runs the risk that modules may be coded without having a clear idea of how they link to other parts of the system, and that such linking may not be as easy as first thought. Re-usability of code is one of the main benefits of a bottom-up approach.
Top-down design was promoted in the 1970s by IBM researchers Harlan Mills and Niklaus Wirth. Mills developed structured programming concepts for practical use and tested them in a 1969 project to automate the New York Times morgue index. The engineering and management success of this project led to the spread of the top-down approach through IBM and the rest of the computer industry. Among other achievements, Niklaus Wirth, the developer of Pascal programming language, wrote the influential paper Program Development by Stepwise Refinement. Since Niklaus Wirth went on to develop languages such as Modula and Oberon (where one could define a module before knowing about the entire program specification), one can infer that top-down programming was not strictly what he promoted. Top-down methods were favored in software engineering until the late 1980s, and object-oriented programming assisted in demonstrating the idea that both aspects of top-down and bottom-up programming could be used.
Modern software design approaches usually combine top-down and bottom-up approaches. Although an understanding of the complete system is usually considered necessary for good design—leading theoretically to a top-down approach—most software projects attempt to make use of existing code to some degree. Pre-existing modules give designs a bottom-up flavor.
=== Programming ===
Top-down is a programming style, the mainstay of traditional procedural languages, in which design begins by specifying complex pieces and then dividing them into successively smaller pieces. The technique for writing a program using top-down methods is to write a main procedure that names all the major functions it will need. Later, the programming team looks at the requirements of each of those functions and the process is repeated. These compartmentalized subroutines eventually will perform actions so simple they can be easily and concisely coded. When all the various subroutines have been coded the program is ready for testing. By defining how the application comes together at a high level, lower-level work can be self-contained.
In a bottom-up approach the individual base elements of the system are first specified in great detail. These elements are then linked together to form larger subsystems, which in turn are linked, sometimes at many levels, until a complete top-level system is formed. This strategy often resembles a "seed" model, by which the beginnings are small, but eventually grow in complexity and completeness. Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a paradigm that uses "objects" to design applications and computer programs. In mechanical engineering with software programs such as Pro/ENGINEER, Solidworks, and Autodesk Inventor users can design products as pieces not part of the whole and later add those pieces together to form assemblies like building with Lego. Engineers call this "piece part design".
=== Parsing ===
Parsing is the process of analyzing an input sequence (such as that read from a file or a keyboard) in order to determine its grammatical structure. This method is used in the analysis of both natural languages and computer languages, as in a compiler. Bottom-up parsing is parsing strategy that recognizes the text's lowest-level small details first, before its mid-level structures, and leaves the highest-level overall structure to last. In top-down parsing, on the other hand, one first looks at the highest level of the parse tree and works down the parse tree by using the rewriting rules of a formal grammar.
== Natural sciences ==
=== Nanotechnology ===
Top-down and bottom-up are two approaches for the manufacture of products. These terms were first applied to the field of nanotechnology by the Foresight Institute in 1989 to distinguish between molecular manufacturing (to mass-produce large atomically precise objects) and conventional manufacturing (which can mass-produce large objects that are not atomically precise). Bottom-up approaches seek to have smaller (usually molecular) components built up into more complex assemblies, while top-down approaches seek to create nanoscale devices by using larger, externally controlled ones to direct their assembly. Certain valuable nanostructures, such as Silicon nanowires, can be fabricated using either approach, with processing methods selected on the basis of targeted applications.
A top-down approach often uses the traditional workshop or microfabrication methods where externally controlled tools are used to cut, mill, and shape materials into the desired shape and order. Micropatterning techniques, such as photolithography and inkjet printing belong to this category. Vapor treatment can be regarded as a new top-down secondary approaches to engineer nanostructures.
Bottom-up approaches, in contrast, use the chemical properties of single molecules to cause single-molecule components to (a) self-organize or self-assemble into some useful conformation, or (b) rely on positional assembly. These approaches use the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or molecular recognition. See also Supramolecular chemistry. Such bottom-up approaches should, broadly speaking, be able to produce devices in parallel and much cheaper than top-down methods but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases.
=== Neuroscience and psychology ===
These terms are also employed in cognitive sciences including neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience and cognitive psychology to discuss the flow of information in processing. Typically, sensory input is considered bottom-up, and higher cognitive processes, which have more information from other sources, are considered top-down. A bottom-up process is characterized by an absence of higher-level direction in sensory processing, whereas a top-down process is characterized by a high level of direction of sensory processing by more cognition, such as goals or targets (Biederman, 19).
According to college teaching notes written by Charles Ramskov, Irvin Rock, Neiser, and Richard Gregory claim that the top-down approach involves perception that is an active and constructive process. Additionally, it is an approach not directly given by stimulus input, but is the result of stimulus, internal hypotheses, and expectation interactions. According to theoretical synthesis, "when a stimulus is presented short and clarity is uncertain that gives a vague stimulus, perception becomes a top-down approach."
Conversely, psychology defines bottom-up processing as an approach in which there is a progression from the individual elements to the whole. According to Ramskov, one proponent of bottom-up approach, Gibson, claims that it is a process that includes visual perception that needs information available from proximal stimulus produced by the distal stimulus. Theoretical synthesis also claims that bottom-up processing occurs "when a stimulus is presented long and clearly enough."
Certain cognitive processes, such as fast reactions or quick visual identification, are considered bottom-up processes because they rely primarily on sensory information, whereas processes such as motor control and directed attention are considered top-down because they are goal directed. Neurologically speaking, some areas of the brain, such as area V1 mostly have bottom-up connections. Other areas, such as the fusiform gyrus have inputs from higher brain areas and are considered to have top-down influence.
The study of visual attention is an example. If your attention is drawn to a flower in a field, it may be because the color or shape of the flower are visually salient. The information that caused you to attend to the flower came to you in a bottom-up fashion—your attention was not contingent on knowledge of the flower: the outside stimulus was sufficient on its own. Contrast this situation with one in which you are looking for a flower. You have a representation of what you are looking for. When you see the object, you are looking for, it is salient. This is an example of the use of top-down information.
In cognition, two thinking approaches are distinguished. "Top-down" (or "big chunk") is stereotypically the visionary, or the person who sees the larger picture and overview. Such people focus on the big picture and from that derive the details to support it. "Bottom-up" (or "small chunk") cognition is akin to focusing on the detail primarily, rather than the landscape. The expression "seeing the wood for the trees" references the two styles of cognition.
Studies in task switching and response selection show that there are differences through the two types of processing. Top-down processing primarily focuses on the attention side, such as task repetition. Bottom-up processing focuses on item-based learning, such as finding the same object over and over again. Implications for understanding attentional control of response selection in conflict situations are discussed.
This also applies to how we structure these processing neurologically. With structuring information interfaces in our neurological processes for procedural learning. These processes were proven effective to work in our interface design. But although both top-down principles were effective in guiding interface design; they were not sufficient. They can be combined with iterative bottom-up methods to produce usable interfaces .
Undergraduate (or bachelor) students are taught the basis of top-down bottom-up processing around their third year in the program. Going through four main parts of the processing when viewing it from a learning perspective. The two main definitions are that bottom-up processing is determined directly by environmental stimuli rather than the individual's knowledge and expectations.
=== Public health ===
Both top-down and bottom-up approaches are used in public health. There are many examples of top-down programs, often run by governments or large inter-governmental organizations; many of these are disease-or issue-specific, such as HIV control or smallpox eradication. Examples of bottom-up programs include many small NGOs set up to improve local access to healthcare. But many programs seek to combine both approaches; for instance, guinea worm eradication, a single-disease international program currently run by the Carter Center has involved the training of many local volunteers, boosting bottom-up capacity, as have international programs for hygiene, sanitation, and access to primary healthcare.
=== Ecology ===
In ecology top-down control refers to when a top predator controls the structure or population dynamics of the ecosystem. The interactions between these top predators and their prey are what influences lower trophic levels. Changes in the top level of trophic levels have an inverse effect on the lower trophic levels. Top-down control can have negative effects on the surrounding ecosystem if there is a drastic change in the number of predators. The classic example is of kelp forest ecosystems. In such ecosystems, sea otters are a keystone predator. They prey on urchins, which in turn eat kelp. When otters are removed, urchin populations grow and reduce the kelp forest creating urchin barrens. This reduces the diversity of the ecosystem as a whole and can have detrimental effects on all of the other organisms. In other words, such ecosystems are not controlled by productivity of the kelp, but rather, a top predator. One can see the inverse effect that top-down control has in this example; when the population of otters decreased, the population of the urchins increased.
Bottom-up control in ecosystems refers to ecosystems in which the nutrient supply, productivity, and type of primary producers (plants and phytoplankton) control the ecosystem structure. If there are not enough resources or producers in the ecosystem, there is not enough energy left for the rest of the animals in the food chain because of biomagnification and ecological efficiency. An example would be how plankton populations are controlled by the availability of nutrients. Plankton populations tend to be higher and more complex in areas where upwelling brings nutrients to the surface.
There are many different examples of these concepts. It is common for populations to be influenced by both types of control, and there are still debates going on as to which type of control affects food webs in certain ecosystems.
== Management and organization ==
In the fields of management and organization, the terms "top-down" and "bottom-up" are used to describe how decisions are made and/or how change is implemented.
A "top-down" approach is where an executive decision maker or other top person makes the decisions of how something should be done. This approach is disseminated under their authority to lower levels in the hierarchy, who are, to a greater or lesser extent, bound by them. For example, when wanting to make an improvement in a hospital, a hospital administrator might decide that a major change (such as implementing a new program) is needed, and then use a planned approach to drive the changes down to the frontline staff.
A bottom-up approach to changes is one that works from the grassroots, and originates in a flat structure with people working together, causing a decision to arise from their joint involvement. A decision by a number of activists, students, or victims of some incident to take action is a "bottom-up" decision. A bottom-up approach can be thought of as "an incremental change approach that represents an emergent process cultivated and upheld primarily by frontline workers".
Positive aspects of top-down approaches include their efficiency and superb overview of higher levels; and external effects can be internalized. On the negative side, if reforms are perceived to be imposed "from above", it can be difficult for lower levels to accept them. Evidence suggests this to be true regardless of the content of reforms. A bottom-up approach allows for more experimentation and a better feeling for what is needed at the bottom. Other evidence suggests that there is a third combination approach to change.
=== Corporate environment (Performance management) ===
Top-down and bottom-up planning are two fundamental approaches in enterprise performance management (EPM), each offering distinct advantages. Top-down planning begins with senior management setting overarching strategic goals, which are then disseminated throughout the organization. This approach ensures alignment with the company's vision and facilitates uniform implementation across departments.
Conversely, bottom-up planning starts at the departmental or team level, where specific goals and plans are developed based on detailed operational insights. These plans are then aggregated to form the organization's overall strategy, ensuring that ground-level insights inform higher-level decisions.
Many organizations adopt a hybrid approach, known as the countercurrent or integrated planning method, to leverage the strengths of both top-down and bottom-up planning. In this model, strategic objectives set by leadership are informed by operational data from various departments, creating a dynamic and iterative planning process. This integration enhances collaboration, improves data accuracy, and ensures that strategies are both ambitious and grounded in operational realities.
Financial planning & analysis (FP&A) teams play a crucial role in harmonizing these approaches, utilizing tools like driver-based planning and AI-assisted forecasting to create flexible, data-driven plans that adapt to changing business conditions.
=== Product design and development ===
During the development of new products, designers and engineers rely on both bottom-up and top-down approaches. The bottom-up approach is being used when off-the-shelf or existing components are selected and integrated into the product. An example includes selecting a particular fastener, such as a bolt, and designing the receiving components such that the fastener will fit properly. In a top-down approach, a custom fastener would be designed such that it would fit properly in the receiving components. For perspective, for a product with more restrictive requirements (such as weight, geometry, safety, environment), such as a spacesuit, a more top-down approach is taken and almost everything is custom designed.
== Architecture ==
Often the École des Beaux-Arts school of design is said to have primarily promoted top-down design because it taught that an architectural design should begin with a parti, a basic plan drawing of the overall project.
By contrast, the Bauhaus focused on bottom-up design. This method manifested itself in the study of translating small-scale organizational systems to a larger, more architectural scale (as with the wood panel carving and furniture design).
== Philosophy and ethics ==
Top-down reasoning in ethics is when the reasoner starts from abstract universalizable principles and then reasons down them to particular situations. Bottom-up reasoning occurs when the reasoner starts from intuitive particular situational judgements and then reasons up to principles. Reflective equilibrium occurs when there is interaction between top-down and bottom-up reasoning until both are in harmony. That is to say, when universalizable abstract principles are reflectively found to be in equilibrium with particular intuitive judgements. The process occurs when cognitive dissonance occurs when reasoners try to resolve top-down with bottom-up reasoning, and adjust one or the other, until they are satisfied, they have found the best combinations of principles and situational judgements.
== See also ==
Formal concept analysis
Pseudocode
The Cathedral and the Bazaar
== References ==
=== Sources ===
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
"Program Development by Stepwise Refinement", Communications of the ACM, Vol. 14, No. 4, April (1971)
Integrated Parallel Bottom-up and Top-down Approach. In Proceedings of the International Emergency Management Society's Fifth Annual Conference (TIEMS 98), May 19–22, Washington DC, USA (1998).
Changing Your Mind: On the Contributions of Top-Down and Bottom-Up Guidance in Visual Search for Feature Singletons, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Vol. 29, No. 2, 483–502, 2003.
K. Eric Drexler and Christine Peterson, Nanotechnology and Enabling Technologies, Foresight Briefing No. 2, 1989.
Empowering sustained patient safety: the benefits of combining top-down and bottom-up approaches | Wikipedia/Top-down_and_bottom-up_design |
Dominant design is a technology management concept introduced by James M. Utterback and William J. Abernathy in 1975, identifying key technological features that become a de facto standard. A dominant design is the one that wins the allegiance of the marketplace, the one to which competitors and innovators must adhere if they hope to command significant market following.
When a new technology emerges (e.g. computer GUI operating systems) – often firms will introduce a number of alternative designs (e.g. Microsoft – Windows, Apple Inc. – Mac OS and IBM – OS/2). Updated designs will be released incorporating incremental improvements. At some point, an architecture that becomes accepted as the industry standard may emerge, such as Microsoft Windows. The dominant design has the effect of enforcing or encouraging standardization so that production or other complementary economies can be sought. Utterback and Suarez (1993) argue that the competitive effects of economies of scale only become important after the emergence of a dominant design, when competition begins to take place on the basis of cost and scale in addition to product features and performance.
Dominant designs may not be better than other designs; they simply incorporate a set of key features that sometimes emerge due to technological path dependence and not necessarily strict customer preferences. An often cited, albeit incorrect, example is the QWERTY keyboard, supposedly designed to overcome operative limitations on the mechanical typewriter but now almost universally preferred over other keyboard designs. Dominant designs end up capturing the allegiance of the marketplace; this can be due to network effects, technological superiority, or strategic manoeuvering by the sponsoring firms.
Dominant designs are often only identified after they emerge. Some authors consider the dominant design as emerging when a design acquires more than 50% of the market share. A more promising approach is to study the specific product innovations introduced by different firms over time to determine which ones are retained.
== Origins of the theory ==
Utterback and Abernathy first introduced the concept of "dominant design" in 1975. They proposed that the emergence of a dominant design is a major milestone in an industry evolution and changed the way firms compete in an industry and thus, the type of organizations that succeed and prevail. A dominant design can be a new technology, product or a set of key features incorporated from different distinct technological innovations introduced independently in prior product variants. Their 1975 paper, however, never uses the term "dominant design". It does refer to "dominant strategy" and "dominant type of innovations". Yet, in their 1993 work, Suarez and Utterback reference the 1975 paper as the source of the concept of "Dominant design". David Teece, of later fame for the theory of dynamic capabilities, overtly develops the concept of dominant design in his 1984 paper on Profiting from technological innovation, in which he acknowledges the contribution of Utterback and Abernathy in their conceptual treatment of the evolution of technology in an industry.
== Dominant theory process ==
The process by which a specific design achieves dominance consists of a few characteristic milestones:
A pioneer firm or research organization begins conducting R&D with the intention of creating a new commercial product or improving an existing design.
The first working prototype of the new product/ technology is introduced, sending a signal to competitors to review the feasibility of their research programs.
The first commercial product is launched, connecting consumers to this new architecture for the first time. It is usually directed at a small group of customers. This milestone acts as a “last minute call” for competitors to review and speed up their research efforts.
A clear front-runner emerges from the early market. For example, in the personal computer industry, Apple Computers dominated after the introduction of their Apple I in 1976.
Finally, at some point in time, a particular technological trajectory achieves dominance and this marks the final milestone in the dominance process.
== Evidence and examples ==
Dominant design milestones have been identified in many product lines. The emergence of a dominant design typically coincides with the point at which the number of firms competing in the industry peaks. Once it emerges, it implicitly sends a message to producers and consumers that its key features is a "must have" by future products. Examples of a dominant design include the simple four function calculator and the iPod and iPhone. Other examples include:
War of the currents between alternating- and direct-current electricity in the late 1800s.
The videotape format war between Betamax and VHS, when VHS became the de facto video tape standard.
The desktop metaphor introduced by Xerox's Alto became the dominant design in PC operating systems.
A review of the Samsung Z5 MP3 player articulated the Apple/iPod dominant design
Many industry examples are included in Utterback's book Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation (see references below)
Douglas DC-3, considered a dominant airplane design consisting of variable-pitch propeller, retractable landing gear, monocoque, radial air-cooled engine, and wing flaps. (Peter Senges book The Fifth Discipline on p. 6)
== Implications for innovation and competitive dynamics ==
Utterback and Suarez propose that once a dominant design emerges, it can have a profound impact on both the direction of further technical advance, on the rate of that advance, and on the resulting industry structure and competitive dynamics. Prior to the creation of the dominant design, firms are constantly experimenting and therefore cannot enjoy economies of scale. After the emergence of the dominant design, some firms accumulate complementary assets and exploit possible economies of scale, which in turn raises entry and mobility barriers in the industry. Firms that enter the industry during a period of experimentation risk choosing the wrong technological path, but have high upside if they choose the right one. Pre-dominant design entrants have been shown to have a higher chance of survival than those that enter after the emergence of the dominant design. Utterback and Kim (1985) and Anderson and Tushman (1990) considered the effect of a disruption that invades a mature industry and thus starts a new cycle. In each cycle, the number of firms increases in the early ("fluid" or "ferment") period, reaches a peak with the emergence of the dominant design, decreases until a few firms dominate the industry, and then restarts again when a disruption creates the conditions for a new wave of entry and the re-enactment of the industry life cycle.
== See also ==
Monopoly
== References ==
Changing the Dominant Design (Gary S Vasilash) [1]
Invention and innovation: an introduction – Open University – [2]
Innovations and Dominant Design in Mobile Telephony from The Research Institute of the Finnish Economy – Koski and Kretschmer [3]
Why the World Went Windows [4]
Environment: Opportunity or Threat? – Clive Savory
The Curse of Qwerty Jared Diamond [5]
Role of universities in the product development process: strategic considerations for the telecommunications industry, Alok K Chakrabati [6]
Dominant Designs and the Survival of Firms – Utterback and Suarez [7] Archived 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine
Utterback, J. M. and F. F. Suarez (1993). 'Innovation, competition, and industry structure', Research Policy, 22 (1), pp. 1–2. | Wikipedia/Dominant_design |
Design controls designates the application of a formal methodology to the conduct of product development activities.
It is often mandatory (by regulation) to implement such practice when designing and developing products within regulated industries (e.g. medical devices).
== Medical devices ==
Since 1990, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has required that medical device manufacturers that want to market certain categories of medical devices in the USA follow Design Control requirements (21 CFR 820.30). At a high level, this regulation requires:
Design and development planning
Design input, including intended use and user needs (also known as customer attributes)
Design output, including evaluation of conformance to design input requirements through:
Design verification confirming that the design output meets the design input requirements ("did we design the device right?")
Design validation ensuring that the devices conform to defined user needs and intended uses ("did we design the right device?")
Design review
Design transfer ensuring that the device design is correctly translated into production specifications
Design changes
Design history file, a demonstration that the design was developed according to the approved design plan and 21 CFR 820.30.
The Medical Devices Directive (MDD 93/42/EEC) similarly lists several requirements regarding the design of a medical device. The Medical Devices Regulation (MDR (EU) 2017/745), replacing the MDD from 2021, requires information to allow the design stages applied to the device to be understood as part of the design and manufacturing information of a technical documentation for a medical device.
ISO 13485 is a voluntary standard that contains section 7.3 Design and Development recommending which procedures should be put in place by manufacturers in order to have a quality system that will comply with MDD 93/42/EEC and the MDR.
The objective of Design Controls, in this context, is to require that manufacturers follow a methodologically-sound process to develop a medical device, with the intent of improving the probability that the device will reach an acceptable level of efficacy and safety.
== Design input ==
Examples of design input:
== References and external links ==
21 CFR 820.30 on the FDA website [1]
MDD 93/42/EEC [2]
== References == | Wikipedia/Design_controls |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.