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text_id stringlengths 22 22 | page_url stringlengths 31 389 | page_title stringlengths 1 250 | section_title stringlengths 0 4.67k | context_page_description stringlengths 0 108k | context_section_description stringlengths 1 187k | media list | hierachy list | category list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
projected-56565025-006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirstie%20Clements | Kirstie Clements | Dismissal from Vogue | Kirstie Clements (born 23 March 1962) is an Australian author, editor, journalist and speaker. Clements served as editor-in-chief of Vogue Australia for thirteen years from 1999 to 2012. She has previously acted as director and chief creative officer for luxury lingerie brand Porte-á-Vie and features editor for Harpers Bazaar Australia. | In November 2006, Australian media mogul Rupert Murdoch's News Limited (rebranded as News Corp on 1 July 2013) acquired Independent Print Media Group's FPC Magazines which included Vogue Australia. News Limited placed management of the newly acquired FPC magazines (Notebook, Delicious, Super Food Ideas, & Vogue Australia) under its NewsLifeMedia branch.
Clements was fired from her position as editor-in-chief six years after the News Limited acquisition, on 16 May 2012. She was called into a meeting with NewsLifeMedia CEO Nicole Sheffield who directed her to collect her belongings and depart the Vogue Australia offices immediately without offering an explanation as to why she was being fired. Clements left the office and went to have a drink at Bondi's Icebergs bar while news of her departure was announced.
Clements was succeeded by Edwina McCann, former editor-in-chief of rival magazine Harper’s Bazaar Australia. | [] | [
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"Fashion editors",
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"Living people",
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"Australian magazine editors",
"Australian women journalists",
"Writers from Sydney",
"20th-century Australian women"
] |
projected-56565025-007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirstie%20Clements | Kirstie Clements | Current career | Kirstie Clements (born 23 March 1962) is an Australian author, editor, journalist and speaker. Clements served as editor-in-chief of Vogue Australia for thirteen years from 1999 to 2012. She has previously acted as director and chief creative officer for luxury lingerie brand Porte-á-Vie and features editor for Harpers Bazaar Australia. | The day after her firing from Vogue Australia, Clements received a phone call from Louise Adler of Melbourne University Press who invited her to write a book about her career. Clements soon after signed a book publishing deal with Melbourne University Press to publish an auto-biography titled The Vogue Factor. The book was published in February 2013 and detailed Clements memoirs of her 25-year career at Vogue Australia. The book went on to become a bestseller in a number of markets worldwide, and Clements made an appearance on US talk show The View which was hosted by Barbara Walters to discuss the book. The Vogue Factor was released in the UK by Faber and Faber in July 2013, with a US edition following in February 2014 published by Chronicle.
Clements described writing the book as a cathartic experience which encouraged her to look back at her time with Vogue Australia with fondness despite the way she was let go.
Following the release of The Vogue Factor, Clements wrote the novel Tongue in Chic, which was published in November 2013 by Victory Books and is described as a behind-the-scenes exposé of the fashion and luxury magazine industries. Clements also co-authored Fashion, The First Fifty Years from The Australian Women’s Weekly, which was published by the National Library Australia in 2014.
From 2014 to 2017, Clements worked as a creative consultant and editorial ambassador for Australian department store chain Myer and contributed to its Myer Emporium Magazine, a custom magazine owned by Bauer Media Australia. During this time, Clements also launched an independent publishing house and content production company, Imprint Agency. She currently serves as its director.
In March 2017, Clements co-launched luxury lingerie brand Porte-á-Vie with former colleague Lisa Hili. She serves as the company's director and chief creative officer.
Clements often makes public speaking appearances and contributes to a number of fashion and beauty publications such as The New Daily. She is a board director for FARE (Foundation for Alcohol Research and Education) and an ambassador for Australian children's cancer charity Camp Quality.
Clements appeared on Australian TV show Australia’s Next Top Model Cycle 4 which aired from 22 April – 1 July 2008. She served as a guest judge on a panel alongside Alex Perry and Charlotte Dawson. | [] | [
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"Women magazine editors",
"Fashion editors",
"20th-century Australian journalists",
"Living people",
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"Australian women journalists",
"Writers from Sydney",
"20th-century Australian women"
] |
projected-56565025-008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirstie%20Clements | Kirstie Clements | Personal life | Kirstie Clements (born 23 March 1962) is an Australian author, editor, journalist and speaker. Clements served as editor-in-chief of Vogue Australia for thirteen years from 1999 to 2012. She has previously acted as director and chief creative officer for luxury lingerie brand Porte-á-Vie and features editor for Harpers Bazaar Australia. | In June 1992, while Clements was working as a freelance journalist in Paris she married French-Algerian nightclub bouncer Mourad Ayat. Clements met Ayat while covering collections and moved to Paris in 1994. Following their marriage and a stint working in Paris, the couple moved back to Australia in late 1997 with their two sons.
Clements is a mother to twin sons, Sam and Joseph Ayat (born 1995). Clements and her family reside in Sydney's eastern suburbs. | [] | [
"Personal life"
] | [
"Vogue (magazine) people",
"Women magazine editors",
"Fashion editors",
"20th-century Australian journalists",
"Living people",
"1962 births",
"Australian magazine editors",
"Australian women journalists",
"Writers from Sydney",
"20th-century Australian women"
] |
projected-56565025-009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirstie%20Clements | Kirstie Clements | Bibliography | Kirstie Clements (born 23 March 1962) is an Australian author, editor, journalist and speaker. Clements served as editor-in-chief of Vogue Australia for thirteen years from 1999 to 2012. She has previously acted as director and chief creative officer for luxury lingerie brand Porte-á-Vie and features editor for Harpers Bazaar Australia. | In Vogue: 50 Years of Australian Style (Harper Collins, 2009)
The Vogue Factor (Melbourne University Press, 2013)
Tongue in Chic (Victory Books, 2013)
Impressive, How to Have a Stylish Career (Melbourne University Press, 2015) | [] | [
"Bibliography"
] | [
"Vogue (magazine) people",
"Women magazine editors",
"Fashion editors",
"20th-century Australian journalists",
"Living people",
"1962 births",
"Australian magazine editors",
"Australian women journalists",
"Writers from Sydney",
"20th-century Australian women"
] |
projected-26720723-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serai%20Lashkari%20Khan | Serai Lashkari Khan | Introduction | Serai Lashkari Khan located near Gurdwara Manji Sahib, Kotan (near Doraha) in Ludhiana District, Punjab, India is a historical inn built by Mughal military general Lashkari Khan, in the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1667 CE. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Ludhiana district",
"Tourism in Punjab, India",
"Mughal caravanserais",
"Monuments and memorials in Punjab, India",
"Ruins in India",
"Caravanserais in India"
] | |
projected-26720723-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serai%20Lashkari%20Khan | Serai Lashkari Khan | History | Serai Lashkari Khan located near Gurdwara Manji Sahib, Kotan (near Doraha) in Ludhiana District, Punjab, India is a historical inn built by Mughal military general Lashkari Khan, in the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1667 CE. | A specimen of major structural types of Islamic architecture, this is one of many Carvanserais meant to be halting places along the old Mughal highway connecting Agra, Delhi and Lahore. These caravanserais played an important role in economic, cultural and political life but gradually fell in disuse with shifting routes and advent of railroads in the nineteenth century. Many of these disappeared altogether due to modernization and urban expansion.
The historic inn, though, declared as a protected monument has largely been neglected and has been in a dilapidated condition. | [] | [
"History"
] | [
"Ludhiana district",
"Tourism in Punjab, India",
"Mughal caravanserais",
"Monuments and memorials in Punjab, India",
"Ruins in India",
"Caravanserais in India"
] |
projected-26720723-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serai%20Lashkari%20Khan | Serai Lashkari Khan | In popular media | Serai Lashkari Khan located near Gurdwara Manji Sahib, Kotan (near Doraha) in Ludhiana District, Punjab, India is a historical inn built by Mughal military general Lashkari Khan, in the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1667 CE. | This Serai was made popular after it was featured in the popular movie Rang De Basanti referred to by its acronym RDB. Some tourists started referring to it the RDB fort after that. | [] | [
"In popular media"
] | [
"Ludhiana district",
"Tourism in Punjab, India",
"Mughal caravanserais",
"Monuments and memorials in Punjab, India",
"Ruins in India",
"Caravanserais in India"
] |
projected-26720723-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serai%20Lashkari%20Khan | Serai Lashkari Khan | See also | Serai Lashkari Khan located near Gurdwara Manji Sahib, Kotan (near Doraha) in Ludhiana District, Punjab, India is a historical inn built by Mughal military general Lashkari Khan, in the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1667 CE. | Mughal Serai, Doraha
Tourism in Punjab, India | [] | [
"See also"
] | [
"Ludhiana district",
"Tourism in Punjab, India",
"Mughal caravanserais",
"Monuments and memorials in Punjab, India",
"Ruins in India",
"Caravanserais in India"
] |
projected-26720723-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serai%20Lashkari%20Khan | Serai Lashkari Khan | References | Serai Lashkari Khan located near Gurdwara Manji Sahib, Kotan (near Doraha) in Ludhiana District, Punjab, India is a historical inn built by Mughal military general Lashkari Khan, in the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1667 CE. | Category:Ludhiana district
Category:Tourism in Punjab, India
Category:Mughal caravanserais
Category:Monuments and memorials in Punjab, India
Category:Ruins in India
Category:Caravanserais in India | [] | [
"References"
] | [
"Ludhiana district",
"Tourism in Punjab, India",
"Mughal caravanserais",
"Monuments and memorials in Punjab, India",
"Ruins in India",
"Caravanserais in India"
] |
projected-26720724-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi%20Cuomo | Luigi Cuomo | Introduction | Luigi Cuomo (18 February 1901 – 22 June 1993) was an Italian fencer. He competed in the team foil competition at the 1924 Summer Olympics. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"1901 births",
"1993 deaths",
"Italian male fencers",
"Olympic fencers of Italy",
"Fencers at the 1924 Summer Olympics"
] | |
projected-06900456-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guruceta%20Trophy | Guruceta Trophy | Introduction | In Spanish football, the Guruceta trophy is awarded by Spanish sports newspaper MARCA to the best referee for each season. It is named in honour of the famous Spanish referee, Emilio Guruceta. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"La Liga trophies and awards",
"Segunda División trophies and awards",
"Spanish football trophies and awards"
] | |
projected-06900456-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guruceta%20Trophy | Guruceta Trophy | Rules | In Spanish football, the Guruceta trophy is awarded by Spanish sports newspaper MARCA to the best referee for each season. It is named in honour of the famous Spanish referee, Emilio Guruceta. | After every match the MARCA journalist covering the match will evaluate the referees performance with a score out of 3 - 3 being the best and 0 the worst. At the end of the season a coefficient will be calculated between the number of matches refereed and the number of points awarded. The referee with the highest coefficient wins the trophy. | [] | [
"Rules"
] | [
"La Liga trophies and awards",
"Segunda División trophies and awards",
"Spanish football trophies and awards"
] |
projected-26720735-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotellneset | Hotellneset | Introduction | Hotellneset ("Hotel Point") is a peninsula north-west of Longyearbyen in Svalbard, Norway, sticking out into Adventfjorden. It is the location of Svalbard Airport, Longyear and the port for shipping of coal from Longyearbyen. Above Hotellneset is Platåberget, which is the location for Svalbard Satellite Station. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Longyearbyen",
"Peninsulas of Spitsbergen"
] | |
projected-26720735-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotellneset | Hotellneset | References | Hotellneset ("Hotel Point") is a peninsula north-west of Longyearbyen in Svalbard, Norway, sticking out into Adventfjorden. It is the location of Svalbard Airport, Longyear and the port for shipping of coal from Longyearbyen. Above Hotellneset is Platåberget, which is the location for Svalbard Satellite Station. | Category:Longyearbyen
Category:Peninsulas of Spitsbergen | [] | [
"References"
] | [
"Longyearbyen",
"Peninsulas of Spitsbergen"
] |
projected-56565030-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena%20Cooper-Thomas | Helena Cooper-Thomas | Introduction | Helena D. Cooper-Thomas (born 1970) is a New Zealand organisational behaviour academic. She is currently a full professor at the Auckland University of Technology. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Living people",
"1970 births",
"Auckland University of Technology faculty",
"New Zealand women academics",
"New Zealand women writers"
] | |
projected-56565030-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena%20Cooper-Thomas | Helena Cooper-Thomas | Academic career | Helena D. Cooper-Thomas (born 1970) is a New Zealand organisational behaviour academic. She is currently a full professor at the Auckland University of Technology. | After a Masters at the University of Saskatchewan, she completed a PhD at Goldsmith College, University of London and then worked in industry for Shell. She rejoined academia at the University of Auckland before moving to Auckland University of Technology.
Her work on topics such as work hours, workplace bullying and burnout is covered regularly in the New Zealand media. | [] | [
"Academic career"
] | [
"Living people",
"1970 births",
"Auckland University of Technology faculty",
"New Zealand women academics",
"New Zealand women writers"
] |
projected-56565030-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena%20Cooper-Thomas | Helena Cooper-Thomas | Selected works | Helena D. Cooper-Thomas (born 1970) is a New Zealand organisational behaviour academic. She is currently a full professor at the Auckland University of Technology. | Chen, Gilad, Robert E. Ployhart, Helena Cooper-Thomas, Neil Anderson, and Paul D. Bliese. "The power of momentum: A new model of dynamic relationships between job satisfaction change and turnover intentions." Academy of Management Journal 54, no. 1 (2011): 159–181.
Cooper-Thomas, Helena D, and Neil Anderson. "Changes in newcomers' psychological contracts during organizational socialization: A study of recruits entering the British Army." Journal of Organizational Behavior (1998): 745–767.
Cooper‐Thomas, Helena, and Neil Anderson. "Newcomer adjustment: The relationship between organizational socialization tactics, information acquisition and attitudes." Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 75, no. 4 (2002): 423–437.
Cooper-Thomas, Helena D., and Neil Anderson. "Organizational socialization: A new theoretical model and recommendations for future research and HRM practices in organizations." Journal of Managerial Psychology 21, no. 5 (2006): 492–516.
Cooper-Thomas, Helena D., Annelies Van Vianen, and Neil Anderson. "Changes in person–organization fit: The impact of socialization tactics on perceived and actual P–O fit." European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 13, no. 1 (2004): 52–78. | [] | [
"Selected works"
] | [
"Living people",
"1970 births",
"Auckland University of Technology faculty",
"New Zealand women academics",
"New Zealand women writers"
] |
projected-26720736-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asaf%20Bimro | Asaf Bimro | Introduction | Asaf Bimro (, born 1 January 1969) is a retired Israeli long-distance runner who specialized in the marathon.
He was an Ethiopian citizen until 1984 when he emigrated to Israel. His best finishes at the European or World Championships has been a 20th place at the 2002 European Championships, an 18th place at the 2001 World Championships and a 25th place at the 2006 European Championships. He also competed at the 1995 World Championships (without finishing the race), the 1997 World Championships, the 2003 World Championships, the 2004 Olympic Games, the 2005 World Championships, the 2005 World Half Marathon Championships and the 2007 World Championships.
His personal best times are 29:49.85 minutes in the 10,000 metres, achieved in May 1992 in Tel Aviv; 1:04:47 hours in the half marathon, achieved in March 1997 in Tel Aviv; and 2:14:52 hours in the marathon, achieved at the 2003 World Championships in Paris. | [] | [
"Introduction"
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"1969 births",
"Living people",
"Ethiopian Jews",
"Ethiopian emigrants to Israel",
"Citizens of Israel through Law of Return",
"Israeli male long-distance runners",
"Israeli male marathon runners",
"Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics",
"Olympic athletes of Israel",
"Jewish Isra... | |
projected-26720737-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly%20of%20Believers%27%20Church%20In%20India | Assembly of Believers' Church In India | Introduction | The Assembly of Believers' Church In India (also known as ABC in India) is a neocharismatic Episcopal denomination in India, rooted in the Saint Thomas Christian tradition and history of Christianity in India. It was established in 1973 by Rev. Reginald Burney Clifford and now contains more than 450 churches with around 40000 members.
Assembly of Believers' Church in India is not to be confused with Believers Church, a separate church entity in Asia. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Christian denominations in India",
"Christian organizations established in 1973",
"Charismatic denominations"
] | |
projected-26720737-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly%20of%20Believers%27%20Church%20In%20India | Assembly of Believers' Church In India | Proposal | The Assembly of Believers' Church In India (also known as ABC in India) is a neocharismatic Episcopal denomination in India, rooted in the Saint Thomas Christian tradition and history of Christianity in India. It was established in 1973 by Rev. Reginald Burney Clifford and now contains more than 450 churches with around 40000 members.
Assembly of Believers' Church in India is not to be confused with Believers Church, a separate church entity in Asia. | There is a proposal to unite to form Church of India, comprising following churches:
Orthodox Catholic Church (India)
Church of South India
Church of North India
St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India
Believers Eastern Church, of Metropolitan Bishop K. P. Yohannan
Life Boat Church, of Rev. P. Sumit Joshi, Life Boat Foundation India
Assembly of Believers' Church In India, of Bishop Rev. Bishop Augustus Anthony
Anglican Church of India, of Bishop Stephen Vattapara
Anglican Catholic Church (Church of India, Pakistan, Burma & Ceylon / CIPBC), of Bishop John Augustine
The Traditional Anglican Church of India, of Bishop Bishop Hepworth and Bishop Samuel. P. Prakash
Anglican National Church of India, of Bishop Jonathan Anzar
United Church of India, of Bishop Sunny Abraham Panachamootil | [] | [
"Proposal"
] | [
"Christian denominations in India",
"Christian organizations established in 1973",
"Charismatic denominations"
] |
projected-56565032-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Negron | Steve Negron | Introduction | Steve Negron is an American politician from Nashua, New Hampshire who served in the New Hampshire House of Representatives. He was the Republican nominee for the United States Congress in in 2018 and 2020, but lost the election to Democratic incumbent Ann McLane Kuster. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"American politicians of Cuban descent",
"Candidates in the 2018 United States elections",
"Living people",
"Members of the New Hampshire House of Representatives",
"New Hampshire Republicans",
"People from Nashua, New Hampshire",
"Texas Christian University alumni",
"United States Air Force officers"... | |
projected-56565032-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Negron | Steve Negron | Early life | Steve Negron is an American politician from Nashua, New Hampshire who served in the New Hampshire House of Representatives. He was the Republican nominee for the United States Congress in in 2018 and 2020, but lost the election to Democratic incumbent Ann McLane Kuster. | Negron received his bachelor's degree in criminal justice from Texas Christian University in 1983. Later, he received his Masters in Business Administration from Western New England College.
Negron served in the United States Air Force for fifteen years, joining shortly after college and serving until 1998. While in the Air Force, he worked as an intercontinental ballistic missile combat crew member in Missouri and at Air Force Space Command in Colorado Springs, Colorado. At the time of his retirement in 1998 he was the director of requirements with the Air Force Space Command.
After retiring from the military, Negron worked for defense contractors Lockheed Martin and General Dynamics before founding his own contracting firm Integron LLC in 2005. | [] | [
"Early life"
] | [
"American politicians of Cuban descent",
"Candidates in the 2018 United States elections",
"Living people",
"Members of the New Hampshire House of Representatives",
"New Hampshire Republicans",
"People from Nashua, New Hampshire",
"Texas Christian University alumni",
"United States Air Force officers"... |
projected-56565032-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Negron | Steve Negron | Politics | Steve Negron is an American politician from Nashua, New Hampshire who served in the New Hampshire House of Representatives. He was the Republican nominee for the United States Congress in in 2018 and 2020, but lost the election to Democratic incumbent Ann McLane Kuster. | He was first elected as a Republican to the New Hampshire House of Representatives in November 2016 to represent District Hillsborough 32 for a two-year term. He came in third in the three-member district with 2,346 votes equal to 17.13% of the popular vote. Upon his election, he was named to the Election Law Committee in the legislature.
in 2016 he hosted a house party for Carly Fiorina and was endorsed by her top supporters.
Since being elected to the State legislature, Negron has not sponsored any legislation. According to other sources, he has served as a cosponsor on other pieces of legislation, but these bills were largely vetoed or died in committee. The one successful piece of legislation sponsored by Negron involved removing the limitation on a charter schools incurring long term debt.* | [] | [
"Politics"
] | [
"American politicians of Cuban descent",
"Candidates in the 2018 United States elections",
"Living people",
"Members of the New Hampshire House of Representatives",
"New Hampshire Republicans",
"People from Nashua, New Hampshire",
"Texas Christian University alumni",
"United States Air Force officers"... |
projected-56565032-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Negron | Steve Negron | Congressional run | Steve Negron is an American politician from Nashua, New Hampshire who served in the New Hampshire House of Representatives. He was the Republican nominee for the United States Congress in in 2018 and 2020, but lost the election to Democratic incumbent Ann McLane Kuster. | Midway into his first term in the state legislature, Negron announced a 2018 run as a Republican candidate for Congress in New Hampshire's 2nd congressional district. As of February 8, 2018, Negron was one of five remaining Republican candidates vying for their party's nomination.
His campaign raised just over $12,000, but he loaned his campaign an additional $130,000. He had given his campaign $21,000 and loaned it an additional $95,000.
In 2020, Negron gained the Republican nomination and in a rematch ran against Democratic representative Ann McLane Kuster. | [] | [
"Politics",
"Congressional run"
] | [
"American politicians of Cuban descent",
"Candidates in the 2018 United States elections",
"Living people",
"Members of the New Hampshire House of Representatives",
"New Hampshire Republicans",
"People from Nashua, New Hampshire",
"Texas Christian University alumni",
"United States Air Force officers"... |
projected-56565032-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Negron | Steve Negron | Personal life | Steve Negron is an American politician from Nashua, New Hampshire who served in the New Hampshire House of Representatives. He was the Republican nominee for the United States Congress in in 2018 and 2020, but lost the election to Democratic incumbent Ann McLane Kuster. | Negron lives in Nashua with his wife Theresa (Terry). They have three children. He remains active in the community as well as his local Catholic Church. He is of Mexican and Puerto Rican ancestries. | [] | [
"Personal life"
] | [
"American politicians of Cuban descent",
"Candidates in the 2018 United States elections",
"Living people",
"Members of the New Hampshire House of Representatives",
"New Hampshire Republicans",
"People from Nashua, New Hampshire",
"Texas Christian University alumni",
"United States Air Force officers"... |
projected-56565032-005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Negron | Steve Negron | References | Steve Negron is an American politician from Nashua, New Hampshire who served in the New Hampshire House of Representatives. He was the Republican nominee for the United States Congress in in 2018 and 2020, but lost the election to Democratic incumbent Ann McLane Kuster. | The information here is disputed. The website of the New Hampshire House of Representatives lists no legislation sponsored by Negron, while the website Bill Track 50 mentions at least four pieces of legislation. However, links from Bill Track 50 lead back to the New Hampshire House of Representatives website, which does not list Negron as a sponsor or cosponsor on the legislation in question.
Category:American politicians of Cuban descent
Category:Candidates in the 2018 United States elections
Category:Living people
Category:Members of the New Hampshire House of Representatives
Category:New Hampshire Republicans
Category:People from Nashua, New Hampshire
Category:Texas Christian University alumni
Category:United States Air Force officers
Category:Western New England University alumni
Category:Year of birth missing (living people) | [] | [
"References"
] | [
"American politicians of Cuban descent",
"Candidates in the 2018 United States elections",
"Living people",
"Members of the New Hampshire House of Representatives",
"New Hampshire Republicans",
"People from Nashua, New Hampshire",
"Texas Christian University alumni",
"United States Air Force officers"... |
projected-06900464-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara%20%28Israel%29 | Tara (Israel) | Introduction | Tara () is an agricultural cooperative (co-op) in Israel specializing in milk and dairy products. It is the leading private dairy producer in Israel and the second largest dairy processor after Tnuva.
Tara was created in 1942 by dairy farmers from the Tel Aviv neighbourhood of Nahalat Yitzhak and the surrounding area, in order to unite under one organization that would represent them with regard to the British mandatory authorities and concentrated purchasing of fodder rations as well as selling the agricultural produce. The name apparently was decided by the British clerk when the co-op representative came to register the firm did not have a name. A warehouse for fodder as well as a refrigeration room to keep milk on the Shabbat was built on a half-dunam (500 m²) plot of land. The increase in productivity as well as quantities of milk provided a surplus that led the co-op to begin producing cream and cheeses.
With the establishment of the State of Israel, a dairy department was created in the new Ministry of Agriculture, and with it new regulations with regard to production including required pasteurization, a standard 3.5% level of fat, and that dairy farmers work from concentrated areas and independently. This led to more dairy farmers to join from Giv'atayim, Jaffa, and Petah Tikva as well as production expanding to hard cheeses.
At the beginning of the 1960s, during the period that Moshe Dayan was Minister of Agriculture, the government decided to change the zoning of the Nahalat Yitzhak neighbourhood from agricultural to urban-industrial. Subsequently, the local farmers were forced to move their enterprises elsewhere. The elimination of its main source of milk required Tara to purchase milk from new farmers as well as Tnuva.
Until the late 1990s, Tara was still run by representatives of the original owners. In 1997, it was decided to hire 'professional' management. In 2004, the Central Bottling Company Ltd., the local licensee of Coca-Cola, purchased the company for $39 million.
In 2006, Tara signed a licensing and know-how deal with Müller of a European dairy product manufacturer based in Germany.
As of 2006, Tara employs over 360 workers and produces about 135 million liters of milk yearly, which is about 450,000 liters of milk daily on average, with a market share of 10-13%. Estimated revenues in 2005 were 500 million NIS, with a loss of about $10 million.
In August 2007, the Gilead Dairy owned by Tara, acquired Tzuriel Farm for under NIS 20 million. The 'Tzuriel Farm' dairy, specializing in hard-cheese, goat-cheeses, and other semi-firm cheeses was established in 1986 and since 1999 has operated a unique line of soy-based products. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Dairy products companies of Israel",
"Israeli brands"
] | |
projected-26720744-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoon%20Network%20%28Spanish%20TV%20channel%29 | Cartoon Network (Spanish TV channel) | Introduction | Cartoon Network was a Spanish pay television channel operated by Warner Bros. Discovery under its International division. Launched on 4 March 1994, it is a Spanish equivalent to the original American network, the channel primarily airs animated programming.
Besides being available in Castilian Spanish, most shows were also available in English via a secondary audio feed. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Cartoon Network",
"Turner Broadcasting System Spain",
"Defunct television channels in Spain",
"Television channels and stations established in 1994",
"Television channels and stations disestablished in 2013",
"1994 establishments in Spain",
"2013 disestablishments in Spain"
] | |
projected-26720744-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoon%20Network%20%28Spanish%20TV%20channel%29 | Cartoon Network (Spanish TV channel) | History | Cartoon Network was a Spanish pay television channel operated by Warner Bros. Discovery under its International division. Launched on 4 March 1994, it is a Spanish equivalent to the original American network, the channel primarily airs animated programming.
Besides being available in Castilian Spanish, most shows were also available in English via a secondary audio feed. | In 1993, Cartoon Network had a single European signal distributed via the Astra satellite, and already had five audios in different languages. On 4 March 1994 (although Turner initially said it would happen before the end of 1993) the sixth language of the channel was incorporated: Spanish. Later, the channel was also incorporated into Spanish cable networks. In 1997, Canal Satélite Digital signed an agreement with Time Warner in which, apart from obtaining rights from the production company, it also benefited from the entry of Cartoon Network and TNT in its offer. The channel was broadcast in the majority of pay TV companies, in some including the Cartoon Network +1 channel, with the same programming, but one hour later. In addition, a magazine called Cartoon Network Magazine was published, but it did not manage the channel, since the license belonged to another owner. | [] | [
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] |
projected-26720744-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoon%20Network%20%28Spanish%20TV%20channel%29 | Cartoon Network (Spanish TV channel) | Channel shutdown | Cartoon Network was a Spanish pay television channel operated by Warner Bros. Discovery under its International division. Launched on 4 March 1994, it is a Spanish equivalent to the original American network, the channel primarily airs animated programming.
Besides being available in Castilian Spanish, most shows were also available in English via a secondary audio feed. | Turner Broadcasting System Europe announced on 14 June 2013 that Cartoon Network and Cartoonito would close in Spain on 30 June 2013. On 20 June, it was published on the blog of the Cartoon Network website the cessation of its television broadcasts, but nothing that the website would remain active, as it came to have a television on demand (VOD) service for tablets, smartphones or televisions connected to the Internet in which viewers could watch the series and content of the channel. It was also explained that these contents would also be available on the channel's website, and that Turner would increase its presence in Boing, the children's thematic channel of the audiovisual group Mediaset España Comunicación, with which it has a joint venture in the aforementioned station.
Shortly before midnight on 1 July 2013, the channel ceased broadcasting in Spain after 20 years, with the last programme to be aired being an episode of Star Wars: The Clone Wars. The channel then displayed a filler ident, and after a few minutes, each operator that distributed the signal replaced it with an information screen informing customers that the channel stopped broadcasting in Spain. Months later, at the end of August, the channel Boing announced that from 14 September every weekend the station would broadcast a block of content called "Findes Cartoon Network" which would broadcast new episodes of Adventure Time and new episodes of Regular Show from 10:30. | [] | [
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projected-06900467-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivers%20Access%20Campaign | Rivers Access Campaign | Introduction | The Rivers Access Campaign is an ongoing initiative by the British Canoe Union (BCU) to open up the inland waterways of England and Wales to the public. Under current English and Welsh law, public access to rivers is restricted, and only 2% of all rivers in England and Wales have public access rights. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Canoeing in the United Kingdom",
"Freedom to roam"
] | |
projected-06900467-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivers%20Access%20Campaign | Rivers Access Campaign | Current access situation | The Rivers Access Campaign is an ongoing initiative by the British Canoe Union (BCU) to open up the inland waterways of England and Wales to the public. Under current English and Welsh law, public access to rivers is restricted, and only 2% of all rivers in England and Wales have public access rights. | There are of inland river and canal in England and Wales with navigation rights, and over of inland rivers with no access.
England and Wales are unusual in the level of restriction upon their waterways and are considered two of the most difficult places in the world to gain access to rivers. The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 grants a "Right to Roam" specifically to areas of open land comprising:
mountain (land over 600 metres)
moorland
heathland
downland
registered common land
In England and Wales there is no blanket right of access to non-agricultural land, unlike Scotland, where the Scottish Parliament passed the 2003 Land Reform (Scotland) Act granting access for both land and inland waterways to the public.
The UK government has encouraged canoeists to seek negotiations and create access agreements for privately owned water with land owners throughout England and Wales. For over 50 years both the BCU and WCA have been working to seek these agreements for access, which has resulted in , a total 4% of all privately owned linear waterways in England and Wales being opened up with some form of public access agreement.
The Welsh Canoeing Association estimate that there are around 300 rivers in Wales suitable for kayaking, only 13 of which have any form of legal access agreement.
Most of these agreements permit access only on certain days of the year or for short sections of the river. The government has decided to pursue further agreements in 4 study areas, over a 2-year trial period. However, there is no guarantee that this trial will grant further access, with recent government studies showing that access agreements are unlikely to be able to provide the necessary resources needed for water sports. | [] | [
"Current access situation"
] | [
"Canoeing in the United Kingdom",
"Freedom to roam"
] |
projected-06900467-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivers%20Access%20Campaign | Rivers Access Campaign | The law | The Rivers Access Campaign is an ongoing initiative by the British Canoe Union (BCU) to open up the inland waterways of England and Wales to the public. Under current English and Welsh law, public access to rivers is restricted, and only 2% of all rivers in England and Wales have public access rights. | Legally the water itself is not owned, but ownership of the lands include stream bed ownership. Under common law, the presence of water does not provide a right to use the space occupied by, or immediately above the water. This is a civil offence , and may incur a fine or possibly a court injunction to prevent further trespassing. This applies to any member of the public, be they canoeists, rowers, swimmers, or anglers.
It has been suggested that a "common-law" right of navigation exists on any navigable water in England and Wales: however, this has been refuted by legal experts.
The only arrestable offence is aggravated trespass, under the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, where a criminal offence is committed whilst trespassing. There must also be intent to disrupt or intimidate those engaged in lawful activities. | [] | [
"Current access situation",
"The law"
] | [
"Canoeing in the United Kingdom",
"Freedom to roam"
] |
projected-56565036-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabetta%20Cocciaretto | Elisabetta Cocciaretto | Introduction | Elisabetta Cocciaretto (born 25 January 2001) is a tennis player from Italy.
She has a career-high singles ranking of world No. 90, achieved on 3 October 2022.
On the ITF Junior Circuit, Cocciaretto had a career-high combined ranking of 17, achieved on 5 February 2018. She reached the semifinals of the 2018 Australian Open girls' singles tournament, losing to eventual champion Liang En-shuo.
Cocciaretto made her Billie Jean King Cup debut for Italy in 2018.
She qualified for the first Grand Slam tournament main-draw in her career at the 2020 Australian Open. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"2001 births",
"Living people",
"Italian female tennis players",
"Tennis players at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics"
] | |
projected-56565036-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabetta%20Cocciaretto | Elisabetta Cocciaretto | Performance timeline | Elisabetta Cocciaretto (born 25 January 2001) is a tennis player from Italy.
She has a career-high singles ranking of world No. 90, achieved on 3 October 2022.
On the ITF Junior Circuit, Cocciaretto had a career-high combined ranking of 17, achieved on 5 February 2018. She reached the semifinals of the 2018 Australian Open girls' singles tournament, losing to eventual champion Liang En-shuo.
Cocciaretto made her Billie Jean King Cup debut for Italy in 2018.
She qualified for the first Grand Slam tournament main-draw in her career at the 2020 Australian Open. | Only main-draw results in WTA Tour, Grand Slam tournaments, Fed Cup/Billie Jean King Cup and Olympic Games are included in win–loss records. | [] | [
"Performance timeline"
] | [
"2001 births",
"Living people",
"Italian female tennis players",
"Tennis players at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics"
] |
projected-56565036-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabetta%20Cocciaretto | Elisabetta Cocciaretto | Singles | Elisabetta Cocciaretto (born 25 January 2001) is a tennis player from Italy.
She has a career-high singles ranking of world No. 90, achieved on 3 October 2022.
On the ITF Junior Circuit, Cocciaretto had a career-high combined ranking of 17, achieved on 5 February 2018. She reached the semifinals of the 2018 Australian Open girls' singles tournament, losing to eventual champion Liang En-shuo.
Cocciaretto made her Billie Jean King Cup debut for Italy in 2018.
She qualified for the first Grand Slam tournament main-draw in her career at the 2020 Australian Open. | Current through the 2022 Guadalajara Open. | [] | [
"Performance timeline",
"Singles"
] | [
"2001 births",
"Living people",
"Italian female tennis players",
"Tennis players at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics"
] |
projected-56565036-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabetta%20Cocciaretto | Elisabetta Cocciaretto | Doubles | Elisabetta Cocciaretto (born 25 January 2001) is a tennis player from Italy.
She has a career-high singles ranking of world No. 90, achieved on 3 October 2022.
On the ITF Junior Circuit, Cocciaretto had a career-high combined ranking of 17, achieved on 5 February 2018. She reached the semifinals of the 2018 Australian Open girls' singles tournament, losing to eventual champion Liang En-shuo.
Cocciaretto made her Billie Jean King Cup debut for Italy in 2018.
She qualified for the first Grand Slam tournament main-draw in her career at the 2020 Australian Open. | Current after the 2022 Guadalajara Open. | [] | [
"Performance timeline",
"Doubles"
] | [
"2001 births",
"Living people",
"Italian female tennis players",
"Tennis players at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics"
] |
projected-56565039-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan%20John | Ryan John | Introduction | Ryan John (born 25 September 1997) is a West Indian cricketer. He made his List A debut for the Windward Islands in the 2017–18 Regional Super50 on 11 February 2018. Prior to his List A debut, he was named in the West Indies' squad for the 2016 Under-19 Cricket World Cup. In October 2019, he was named in the Windward Islands' squad for the 2019–20 Regional Super50 tournament. He made his first-class debut on 27 February 2020, for the Windward Islands in the 2019–20 West Indies Championship. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"1997 births",
"Living people",
"Place of birth missing (living people)",
"Windward Islands cricketers"
] | |
projected-56565055-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Roodhouse%20Gloyne | Stephen Roodhouse Gloyne | Introduction | Stephen Roodhouse Gloyne (24 December 1882 – 25 September 1950) was an English pathologist who worked at the London Chest Hospital from 1911 to 1948. There he built up the pathology department almost from scratch. He kept a large animal house, was director of the Barnes Research Department, and expanded the specimen collection started by Peacock. In 1941, during the Second World War, all but 18 of the 400 specimens in the collection were destroyed, causing Gloyne to comment that his life's work had gone up in smoke.
He wrote a biography of the Scottish surgeon John Hunter. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"1882 births",
"1950 deaths",
"English pathologists",
"English biographers",
"20th-century English writers",
"20th-century English scientists"
] | |
projected-56565055-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Roodhouse%20Gloyne | Stephen Roodhouse Gloyne | Selected publications | Stephen Roodhouse Gloyne (24 December 1882 – 25 September 1950) was an English pathologist who worked at the London Chest Hospital from 1911 to 1948. There he built up the pathology department almost from scratch. He kept a large animal house, was director of the Barnes Research Department, and expanded the specimen collection started by Peacock. In 1941, during the Second World War, all but 18 of the 400 specimens in the collection were destroyed, causing Gloyne to comment that his life's work had gone up in smoke.
He wrote a biography of the Scottish surgeon John Hunter. | John Hunter. E. & S. Livingstone, Edinburgh and London, 1950. | [] | [
"Selected publications"
] | [
"1882 births",
"1950 deaths",
"English pathologists",
"English biographers",
"20th-century English writers",
"20th-century English scientists"
] |
projected-56565055-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Roodhouse%20Gloyne | Stephen Roodhouse Gloyne | References | Stephen Roodhouse Gloyne (24 December 1882 – 25 September 1950) was an English pathologist who worked at the London Chest Hospital from 1911 to 1948. There he built up the pathology department almost from scratch. He kept a large animal house, was director of the Barnes Research Department, and expanded the specimen collection started by Peacock. In 1941, during the Second World War, all but 18 of the 400 specimens in the collection were destroyed, causing Gloyne to comment that his life's work had gone up in smoke.
He wrote a biography of the Scottish surgeon John Hunter. | Category:1882 births
Category:1950 deaths
Category:English pathologists
Category:English biographers
Category:20th-century English writers
Category:20th-century English scientists | [] | [
"References"
] | [
"1882 births",
"1950 deaths",
"English pathologists",
"English biographers",
"20th-century English writers",
"20th-century English scientists"
] |
projected-56565058-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serhat%20Kot | Serhat Kot | Introduction | Serhat Kot (born 12 August 1997) is a Turkish professional footballer who most recently played as a midfielder for Dutch club MVV Maastricht in the Eerste Divisie. | [] | [
"Introduction"
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"Living people",
"Sportspeople from Bielefeld",
"Turkish footballers",
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"German footballers",
"German people of Turkish descent",
"Fenerbahçe S.K. footballers",
"Altay S.K. footballers",
"1. FC Nürnberg II players",
"MVV Maastricht players"... | |
projected-56565058-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serhat%20Kot | Serhat Kot | Professional career | Serhat Kot (born 12 August 1997) is a Turkish professional footballer who most recently played as a midfielder for Dutch club MVV Maastricht in the Eerste Divisie. | A youth product of Borussia Dortmund, Kot begun his senior career with the Turkish club Altay S.K., before moving back to Germany with 1. FC Nürnberg II. He joined Fenerbahçe in the summer of 2017, joining their youth side. Kot made his professional debut with Fenerbahçe in a 2-0 Süper Lig win over İstanbul Başakşehir F.K. on 11 February 2018.
On 24 August 2019, Kot signed a one-year contract with Dutch club MVV Maastricht competing in the second-tier Eerste Divisie. He left the club when his contract expired in July 2020. | [] | [
"Professional career"
] | [
"1997 births",
"Living people",
"Sportspeople from Bielefeld",
"Turkish footballers",
"Turkey youth international footballers",
"German footballers",
"German people of Turkish descent",
"Fenerbahçe S.K. footballers",
"Altay S.K. footballers",
"1. FC Nürnberg II players",
"MVV Maastricht players"... |
projected-56565058-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serhat%20Kot | Serhat Kot | International career | Serhat Kot (born 12 August 1997) is a Turkish professional footballer who most recently played as a midfielder for Dutch club MVV Maastricht in the Eerste Divisie. | Kot represented the Turkey U16s at the 2013 Montaigu Tournament. | [] | [
"International career"
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"1997 births",
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"Sportspeople from Bielefeld",
"Turkish footballers",
"Turkey youth international footballers",
"German footballers",
"German people of Turkish descent",
"Fenerbahçe S.K. footballers",
"Altay S.K. footballers",
"1. FC Nürnberg II players",
"MVV Maastricht players"... |
projected-56565061-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20Purple%20Rage | Minnesota Purple Rage | Introduction | The Minnesota Purple Rage were a professional indoor American football team based in Mankato, Minnesota. They were members of the original Indoor Football League founded in 1999 and began play in 2000. They competed in the Southern Division of the Eastern Conference and played their home games at the Verizon Center. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Mankato, Minnesota",
"Indoor Football League (1999–2000) teams",
"American football teams in Minnesota"
] | |
projected-56565061-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20Purple%20Rage | Minnesota Purple Rage | History | The Minnesota Purple Rage were a professional indoor American football team based in Mankato, Minnesota. They were members of the original Indoor Football League founded in 1999 and began play in 2000. They competed in the Southern Division of the Eastern Conference and played their home games at the Verizon Center. | The Purple Rage were founded as an expansion team in 1999 and joined the original incarnation of the Indoor Football League along with several others expansion franchises. In the only season in the IFL, the team compiled a 5-9 record finishing in fourth place in the Eastern Conference. After the IFL was bought out by af2, the Purple Rage were not among the many teams that moved to the new league and subsequently folded.
Years later in 2016, the Minnesota Havoc was set to begin play in the new Indoor Football League, but quickly folded after not being able to meet the newer league's requirements. | [] | [
"History"
] | [
"Mankato, Minnesota",
"Indoor Football League (1999–2000) teams",
"American football teams in Minnesota"
] |
projected-56565061-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20Purple%20Rage | Minnesota Purple Rage | References | The Minnesota Purple Rage were a professional indoor American football team based in Mankato, Minnesota. They were members of the original Indoor Football League founded in 1999 and began play in 2000. They competed in the Southern Division of the Eastern Conference and played their home games at the Verizon Center. | Category:Mankato, Minnesota
Category:Indoor Football League (1999–2000) teams
Category:American football teams in Minnesota | [] | [
"References"
] | [
"Mankato, Minnesota",
"Indoor Football League (1999–2000) teams",
"American football teams in Minnesota"
] |
projected-06900474-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20City%20Fire%20Department | Orange City Fire Department | Introduction | The Orange Fire Department (OFD) provides fire protection and emergency medical services for the city of Orange, California. The department is responsible for a population of approximately 140,000 people spread across . Along with their standard firefighting apparatus, the department also has a Swiftwater rescue team that is available for deployment anywhere in Orange County. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Fire departments in California",
"Emergency services in Orange County, California",
"Ambulance services in the United States",
"Medical and health organizations based in California",
"1905 establishments in California"
] | |
projected-06900474-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20City%20Fire%20Department | Orange City Fire Department | History | The Orange Fire Department (OFD) provides fire protection and emergency medical services for the city of Orange, California. The department is responsible for a population of approximately 140,000 people spread across . Along with their standard firefighting apparatus, the department also has a Swiftwater rescue team that is available for deployment anywhere in Orange County. | The Orange Fire Department came into existence on December 14, 1905 at a meeting between the city's Fire and Water Committees. Twenty-nine men signed up to join the all volunteer fire department. New volunteers were required to purchase shares of the "Company" for $100. The volunteers were paid 50 cents a call if they didn't have to use water, $1 if they did and were also paid $1 per false alarm. Early on, there were often fights between the volunteers when an alarm went off, as they battled to see which would be the ones to pull the ladder wagon or hose cart to the fire, thus earning the pay for the call.
In 1906, the volunteers repurposed an 1874 building that had been moved rearward off Glassell Street in 1905, during construction of the Edwards Block Building. That old building would serve as the volunteers first fire hall from 1906 to 1910 and was located in the northeast corner of Plaza Square. The little fire hall had a 30-foot tower with a fire bell adjacent to the building to sound fire alarms. The original apparatus was a hand-drawn hook and ladder wagon and two-hand drawn carts. In July 1910 the volunteers moved to their first purpose-built fire station at 122 south Olive Street. The total cost of the new fire station was $465, including lumber, plumbing, fixtures and nails. It wasn't until 1912 that the department acquired its first motor-driven equipment, a Seagrave fire truck and chemical engine.. The first paid firefighter, William Vickers, was hired by the Department in 1914 and he lived upstairs at the fire hall for an $8-a-month rent. This Fire Hall acted as OFD's headquarters until March 1935, when the department moved into another facility across the street on Olive. Incidentally, that 1935 facility eventually burned down.
An American LaFrance fire truck capable of pumping 1,000 gallons a minute was purchased for $13,000 in 1921, making the Orange Fire Department the first firefighting agency in Orange County to purchase and utilize a motorized fire engine.
By 1966 the department had fully transitioned from a volunteer department, to full-time career.
In 1973, the department became one of the first in Orange County to provide paramedic rescue service.
On October 6, 2022, the Grand Opening of the department's latest headquarters was held at 1176 East Chapman Avenue. The structure sits on a 1.5 acre, city-owned site on East Chapman Avenue at Water Street. The new building replaces a 50-year-old fire headquarters at 176 south Grand Street. The new facility provides for increased administrative and training space, as well as increased room for fire apparatus. The total cost of the project, including design, construction, and outfitting, is estimated at 24.9 million USD$. | [] | [
"History"
] | [
"Fire departments in California",
"Emergency services in Orange County, California",
"Ambulance services in the United States",
"Medical and health organizations based in California",
"1905 establishments in California"
] |
projected-06900474-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20City%20Fire%20Department | Orange City Fire Department | Stations and apparatus | The Orange Fire Department (OFD) provides fire protection and emergency medical services for the city of Orange, California. The department is responsible for a population of approximately 140,000 people spread across . Along with their standard firefighting apparatus, the department also has a Swiftwater rescue team that is available for deployment anywhere in Orange County. | The department has 8 stations spread across the city. There are 2 Engine Companies at Stations 1 and 7. | [
"Updated.Fire.Stations.png"
] | [
"Stations and apparatus"
] | [
"Fire departments in California",
"Emergency services in Orange County, California",
"Ambulance services in the United States",
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"1905 establishments in California"
] |
projected-06900474-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20City%20Fire%20Department | Orange City Fire Department | Metro Cities Fire Authority | The Orange Fire Department (OFD) provides fire protection and emergency medical services for the city of Orange, California. The department is responsible for a population of approximately 140,000 people spread across . Along with their standard firefighting apparatus, the department also has a Swiftwater rescue team that is available for deployment anywhere in Orange County. | The Orange City Fire Department is part of the Metro Cities Fire Authority which provides emergency communications for multiple departments in and around Orange County. The call center, known as Metro Net Fire Dispatch, is located in Anaheim and provides 9-1-1 fire and EMS dispatch to over 1.2 million residents covering an area of . Other departments included in Metro Net include Anaheim Fire & Rescue, Brea Fire Department, Fountain Valley, Fullerton Fire Department, Huntington Beach Fire Department, and Newport Beach Fire Department. | [] | [
"Metro Cities Fire Authority"
] | [
"Fire departments in California",
"Emergency services in Orange County, California",
"Ambulance services in the United States",
"Medical and health organizations based in California",
"1905 establishments in California"
] |
projected-06900474-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20City%20Fire%20Department | Orange City Fire Department | References | The Orange Fire Department (OFD) provides fire protection and emergency medical services for the city of Orange, California. The department is responsible for a population of approximately 140,000 people spread across . Along with their standard firefighting apparatus, the department also has a Swiftwater rescue team that is available for deployment anywhere in Orange County. | Category:Fire departments in California
Category:Emergency services in Orange County, California
Category:Ambulance services in the United States
Category:Medical and health organizations based in California
Category:1905 establishments in California | [] | [
"References"
] | [
"Fire departments in California",
"Emergency services in Orange County, California",
"Ambulance services in the United States",
"Medical and health organizations based in California",
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] |
projected-26720753-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20L.%20Simpson%20Jr. | Robert L. Simpson Jr. | Introduction | Dr. Robert L. Simpson Jr. is a computer scientist whose primary research interest is applied artificial intelligence. He served as Chief Scientist at Applied Systems Intelligence, Inc. (ASI) working with Dr. Norman D. Geddes, CEO. Dr. Simpson was responsible for the creation of the ASI core technology PreAct. ASI has since changed its name to Veloxiti Inc. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Living people",
"Year of birth missing (living people)",
"Artificial intelligence researchers",
"American scientists"
] | |
projected-26720753-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20L.%20Simpson%20Jr. | Robert L. Simpson Jr. | Background | Dr. Robert L. Simpson Jr. is a computer scientist whose primary research interest is applied artificial intelligence. He served as Chief Scientist at Applied Systems Intelligence, Inc. (ASI) working with Dr. Norman D. Geddes, CEO. Dr. Simpson was responsible for the creation of the ASI core technology PreAct. ASI has since changed its name to Veloxiti Inc. | Before joining ASI, Simpson was the principal investigator (PI) at IET for a DARPA-sponsored project evaluating cognitive systems under the Personalized Assistants that Learn program. Before joining IET, Simpson worked at the Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI) as a principal research scientist. He was Co-PI on an ARDA-funded GTRI research project called “Case-Based Reasoning for Knowledge Discovery". This project discovered and made explicit in software the knowledge discovery plans and meta-information about those plans that intelligence analysts implicitly use in performing their analysis tasks. Another project at GTRI was a study of Internet Voting that included technical as well as policy issues such as data privacy and security.
Simpson also investigated the representation and use of meta-data in a DARPA interoperability program called FastC2AP. The Fast Connectivity for Coalition and Agents Project (FastC2AP) proved that agent-based technology can provide key capabilities identified by users as critical for dynamic interoperability in military architectures.
Simpson is often credited with the primary original research and development for Case Based Reasoning (CBR), a class of artificial intelligence. | [] | [
"Background"
] | [
"Living people",
"Year of birth missing (living people)",
"Artificial intelligence researchers",
"American scientists"
] |
projected-26720753-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20L.%20Simpson%20Jr. | Robert L. Simpson Jr. | Time with NCR Corp | Dr. Robert L. Simpson Jr. is a computer scientist whose primary research interest is applied artificial intelligence. He served as Chief Scientist at Applied Systems Intelligence, Inc. (ASI) working with Dr. Norman D. Geddes, CEO. Dr. Simpson was responsible for the creation of the ASI core technology PreAct. ASI has since changed its name to Veloxiti Inc. | During his ten years with NCR Corporation, Simpson served as a member of NCR’s Corporate Technology staff focused on strategic technology investments. Simpson was also the Director at NCR’s Human Interface Technology Center (HITC). From 1998-2000, Simpson participated on the NCR Privacy Steering Committee, was chairman of the NCR technical workshop on security, privacy and trust as well as NCR representative to the World-Wide Web Standards Committee Privacy Outreach Committee.
Simpson was also instrumental in the formation of the International Security Trust and Privacy Alliance a global alliance of companies and technology providers working together to clarify and resolve existing and evolving issues related to security, trust, and privacy. His key technical accomplishments while at the NCR HITC were establishing technical initiatives in intelligent software agents, image understanding, case-based reasoning, and spoken language. His key business accomplishments were in establishing customer relationships with AT&T Health Informatics and Telemedicine as well as internal NCR retail and financial business units. In addition, Simpson was able to establish the national technical reputation of the NCR HITC by successfully competing for three large national research and development contracts totaling over $90M. The most significant of these was the award of two DARPA Technology Reinvestment Projects and one National Institutes of Standards and Technology, Advanced Technology Program grant. | [] | [
"Background",
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projected-26720753-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20L.%20Simpson%20Jr. | Robert L. Simpson Jr. | USAF | Dr. Robert L. Simpson Jr. is a computer scientist whose primary research interest is applied artificial intelligence. He served as Chief Scientist at Applied Systems Intelligence, Inc. (ASI) working with Dr. Norman D. Geddes, CEO. Dr. Simpson was responsible for the creation of the ASI core technology PreAct. ASI has since changed its name to Veloxiti Inc. | During his USAF career Simpson participated in and directed a broad range of computer related projects spanning research, data processing, and personnel development. Between 1985 and 1990, he was the Program Manager for Machine Intelligence at DARPA. He was responsible for research investment decisions within DARPA's basic science and Strategic Computing programs. Specifically he was responsible for developing the national technology base in knowledge-based systems, image understanding, automated planning/design, and machine learning technologies. Some of the results of these research and development activities were highlighted in a series of articles in the June and August, 1991 and February, 1992 issues of IEEE Expert.
Simpson retired from the USAF as a Lieutenant Colonel in 1990. | [] | [
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projected-26720753-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20L.%20Simpson%20Jr. | Robert L. Simpson Jr. | Major publications | Dr. Robert L. Simpson Jr. is a computer scientist whose primary research interest is applied artificial intelligence. He served as Chief Scientist at Applied Systems Intelligence, Inc. (ASI) working with Dr. Norman D. Geddes, CEO. Dr. Simpson was responsible for the creation of the ASI core technology PreAct. ASI has since changed its name to Veloxiti Inc. | 1. Simpson, Robert; Rouff, Christopher; Roberts, Joe and Edwards, Gary. “An Autonomic System for Close Air Support.” In Proceedings of Sixth IEEE Conference and Workshops on Engineering of Autonomic and Autonomous Systems, San Francisco, CA. April 14–16, 2009.
2. Simpson, Robert and Twardy, Charles. “Refining the Cognitive Decathlon.” In Proceedings of Performance Evaluation of Intelligent Systems – PerMIS08. Aug 19-21, 2008, NIST, Bethesda, MD.
3. Whitaker, Elizabeth and Simpson, Robert. “The Evolution and Evaluation of an Internet Search Tool for Information Analysts,” In Proceedings of 20th Annual FLAIRS Conference, Key West, FL., 7–9 May 2007.
4. Whitaker, Elizabeth; Simpson, Robert; Burkhart, Laura; MacTavish, Reid and Lobb, Collin. “Cognitive Factors in Homeland Defense: Reusing Intelligence Analysts’ Search Plans.” In Proceedings of Human Factors and Ergonomics '04, New Orleans, LA., 20–24 September 2004.
5. Whitaker, Elizabeth and Simpson, Robert. “Case-Based Reasoning in Support of Intelligence Analysis,” In Proceedings of 17th Annual FLAIRS Conference, Miami, FL., 17–19 May 2004.
6. Whitaker, Elizabeth and Simpson, Robert. “Case-Based Reasoning for Knowledge Discovery,” In Proceedings of Human Factors and Ergonomics '03, Denver, CO., 13–17 October 2003.
7. Mark, William and Simpson, Robert L. “Knowledge-Based Systems: An Overview,” IEEE Expert, Vol. 6 Number 3, June 1991; pp. 12–17.
8. Simpson, Robert L. “Computer Vision: An Overview,” IEEE Expert, Vol. 6 Number 4, August 1991; pp. 11–15.
9. Barber, J., Bhatta, S., Goel, A., Jacobson, M., Pearce, M., Penberthy, L., Shankar, M., Simpson, R. & Stroulia, E. 1992 AskJef: Integration of case-based and multimedia technologies for interface design support. In Gero, J. S., editor, Artificial Intelligence in Design ’92, pp. 457–474. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
10. Griffith, A, Simpson, R. and Blatt, L. “Interface Lab: A Case-Based Interface Design Assistant,” In Proceedings of CAIA '94, San Antonio, 1–4 March. 1994, IEEE Computer Society Press.
11. Simpson, Robert L., “DOD Applications of Artificial Intelligence: Success and Prospects,” Proceedings of the SPIE Conference on Applications of Artificial Intelligence VI, Vol. 937, 1988.
12. Simpson, Robert L., “Applications of AI Capability,” SIGNAL, 1986.
13. Simpson, Robert L., “A Computer Model of Case-Based Reasoning in Problem Solving: An Investigation in the Domain of Dispute Mediation,” Report #GIT-ICS-85/18, School of Information and Computer Science, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, June, 1985.
14. Kolodner, J.; Simpson, R; and Sycara, K., “A Process Model of Case-Based Reasoning in Problem Solving,” Proceedings of the Ninth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, pp. 284–290; Morgan Kaufmann Publisher, Inc., August, 1985.
15. Kolodner, J.; Simpson, R., “The MEDIATOR: Analysis of an Early Case-Based Problem Solver,” Cognitive Science, Vol. 13, Number 4, October–December, 1989, pp. 507–549.
16. Kolodner, J.; Simpson, R., “Experience and Problem Solving: A Framework.” In Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Boulder, CO, 1984. | [] | [
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projected-26720753-005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20L.%20Simpson%20Jr. | Robert L. Simpson Jr. | References | Dr. Robert L. Simpson Jr. is a computer scientist whose primary research interest is applied artificial intelligence. He served as Chief Scientist at Applied Systems Intelligence, Inc. (ASI) working with Dr. Norman D. Geddes, CEO. Dr. Simpson was responsible for the creation of the ASI core technology PreAct. ASI has since changed its name to Veloxiti Inc. | Category:Living people
Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
Category:Artificial intelligence researchers
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projected-20465358-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Introduction | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | [] | [
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projected-20465358-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Non-hereditary royal succession | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | The death of Sigismund II Augustus in 1572 ended the nearly two centuries of the rule of the Jagiellon dynasty in Poland. It was followed by a three-year interregnum period, during which the Polish nobility (szlachta) was searching for ways to continue the governance process and elect a new monarch. Lower szlachta was now included in the selection process and adjustments were made to the constitutional system. The power of the monarch was further circumscribed in favor of the expanding noble class, which sought to ensure its future domination.
Each king had to sign the so-called Henrician Articles (named after Henry of Valois, the first post-Jagiellon king), which were the basis of the political system of Poland, and the pacta conventa, which were various further personal obligations of the chosen king. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the nobility, a top member of the diet (sejm), and was constantly supervised by a group of upper-rank nobles, senators from sejm's upper chamber.
The disappearance of the ruling dynasty and its replacement with a non-hereditary elective monarchy made the constitutional system much more unstable. With each election the noble electors wanted more power for themselves and less for the monarch, although there were practical limits to how much the kings could be constrained. A semi-permanent power struggle resulted, to which the magnates and lesser szlachta added their own constant manipulations and bickering and authority eroded from the government's center. Eventually foreign states had taken advantage of the vacuum and replaced the nobility of the Commonwealth as the real arbiter of royal elections and of overall power in Poland-Lithuania.
In its periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong dynasty. This policy produced monarchs who were either ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. The kings of alien origin were initially unfamiliar with the internal dynamics of the Commonwealth, had remained distracted by the politics of their native countries, and often inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. | [
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projected-20465358-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Henry of Valois (1573–1574) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | In April 1573, Sigismund's sister Anna, the sole heir to the crown, convinced the Sejm to elect the French prince Henry of Valois as king. Her marriage with Henry was to further legitimize Henry's rule, but less than a year after his coronation, Henry fled Poland to succeed his brother Charles IX as King of France. | [] | [
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projected-20465358-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Stephen Báthory (1576–1586) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | The able and militarily as well as domestically assertive Transylvanian Stephen Báthory (1576–1586) counts among the few more highly regarded elective kings.
During the Livonian War (1558–1582), fought between Ivan the Terrible of Russia and Poland-Lithuania, Pskov was besieged by Polish forces. The city was not captured, but Báthory, with his Chancellor Jan Zamoyski, led the Polish army in a decisive campaign and forced Russia to return territories previously taken, gaining Livonia and Polotsk. In 1582, the war ended with the Truce of Jam Zapolski.
The Commonwealth forces retrieved most of the lost provinces. At the end of Báthory's reign, Poland ruled two main Baltic Sea ports: Danzig (Gdańsk), controlling the Vistula River trade and Riga, controlling the Daugava River trade. Both cities were among the largest in the country. | [
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projected-20465358-005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | War of the Polish Succession | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Stephen Báthory planned a Christian alliance against the Islamic Ottomans. He proposed an anti-Ottoman alliance with Russia, which he considered necessary for his anti-Ottoman crusade. Russia however was heading for its Time of Troubles and he could not find a partner there. When Báthory died, there was a year-long interregnum. Emperor Mathias' brother, Archduke Maximilian III, tried to claim the Polish throne, but was defeated at Byczyna during the War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588). Sigismund III Vasa became the Commonwealth's next king, the first of the three rulers from the Swedish House of Vasa. | [] | [
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projected-20465358-007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Sigismund III Vasa (1587–1632) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Sigismund III Vasa was King of Poland 1587–1632 and King of Sweden 1592–1599. He was the son of John III Vasa of Sweden and Catherine, the daughter of Sigismund I the Old of Poland. He annoyed the Polish nobles by deliberately dressing in Spanish and other Western European styles (including French hosiery). An ardent Catholic, Sigismund III was determined to win the Swedish crown and bring Sweden back to Catholicism. Subsequently, Sigismund III involved Poland in unnecessary and unpopular wars with Sweden during which the diet refused him money and soldiers and Sweden seized Livonia and Prussia.
The first few years of Sigismund's reign (until 1598) saw Poland and Sweden united in a personal union that made the Baltic Sea an internal lake. However, a rebellion in Sweden started the chain of events that would involve the Commonwealth in more than a century of warfare with Sweden.
The Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The Union of Brest split the Eastern Christians of the Commonwealth. In order to further Catholicism, the Uniate Church (acknowledging papal supremacy but following Eastern ritual and Slavonic liturgy) was created at the Synod of Brest in 1596. The Uniates drew many followers away from the Orthodox Church in the Commonwealth's eastern territories.
Sigismund's attempts to introduce absolutism, then becoming prevalent in the rest of Europe, and his goal of reacquiring the throne of Sweden for himself, resulted in a rebellion of the szlachta (gentry). In 1607, the Polish nobility threatened to suspend the agreements with their elected king but did not attempt his overthrow.
For ten years between 1619 and 1629, the Commonwealth was at its greatest geographical extent in history. In 1619, the Russo-Polish Truce of Deulino came into effect, whereby Russia conceded Commonwealth control over Smolensk and several other border territories. In 1629, the Swedish-Polish Truce of Altmark took place; the Commonwealth ceded to Sweden most of Livonia, which the Swedes had invaded in 1626.
Sigismund III Vasa failed to strengthen the Commonwealth or to solve its internal problems; he concentrated on futile attempts to regain his former Swedish throne. | [
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projected-20465358-008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Commonwealth wars with Sweden and Moscow | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Sigismund desire to reclaim the Swedish throne drove him into prolonged military adventures waged against Sweden under Charles IX and later also Russia. In 1598, Sigismund tried to defeat Charles with a mixed army from Sweden and Poland, but was defeated in the Battle of Stångebro.
As the Tsardom of Russia went through its "Time of Troubles," Poland failed to capitalize on the situation. Military campaigns undertaken brought Poland at times close to a conquest of Russia and the Baltic coast during the Time of Troubles and False Dimitris, but military burden imposed by the ongoing rivalry also along other frontiers (the Ottoman Empire and Sweden) prevented this from being accomplished. After prolonged war with Russia, Polish forces occupied Moscow in 1610. The office of tsar, then vacant in Russia, was offered to Sigismund's son, Władysław. Sigismund, however, opposed his son's accession as tsar, as he hoped to obtain the Russian throne for himself. Two years later the Poles were driven out of Moscow and Poland lost an opportunity for a Polish-Russian union.
Poland escaped the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which ravaged everything to the west, especially Prussia. In 1618, the Elector of Brandenburg became hereditary ruler of the Duchy of Prussia on the Baltic coast. From then on, Poland's link to the Baltic Sea was bordered on both sides by two provinces of the same German state. | [
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projected-20465358-009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Southern wars | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | The Commonwealth viewed itself as the "bulwark of the Christendom" and together with the Habsburgs and the Republic of Venice stood in the way of the Ottoman plans of European conquests. Since the second half of the 16th century, the Polish-Ottomans relations were worsened by the escalation of Cossack-Tatar border warfare, which turned the entire border region between the Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire into a semi-permanent warzone. A constant threat from Crimean Tatars supported the appearance of Cossackdom.
In 1595, magnates of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth intervened in the affairs of Moldavia. This started a series of conflicts that would soon spread to Transylvania, Wallachia and Hungary, when the forces of the Polish magnates clashed with the forces backed by the Ottoman Empire and occasionally the Habsburgs, all competing for the domination over that region.
With the Commonwealth engaged on its northern and eastern borders with nearly constant conflicts against Sweden and Russia, its armies were spread thin. The southern wars culminated in the Polish defeat at the Battle of Cecora in 1620. The Commonwealth was forced to renounce all claims to Moldavia, Transylvania, Wallachia and Hungary. | [
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projected-20465358-010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Religious and social tensions | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | The population of Poland-Lithuania was neither overwhelmingly Roman Catholic nor Polish. This circumstance resulted from the federation with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where East Slavic Ruthenian populations predominated. In the days of the "Republic of Nobles", to be Polish was much less an indication of ethnicity than of rank; it was a designation largely reserved for the landed noble class, which included members of Polish and non-Polish origin alike. Generally speaking, the ethnically non-Polish noble families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania gradually adopted the Polish language and culture.
As a result, in the eastern territories of the Kingdom the Polish-speaking landed nobility dominated over the peasantry, whose great majority was neither Polish nor Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge colonization efforts to Ukraine, which heightened tensions between peasants, Jews and nobles. The tensions were aggravated by the conflicts between the Orthodox and Greek Catholic (both Church Slavonic liturgy) churches following the Union of Brest and by several Cossack uprisings. In the west and north of the country, cities had large German minorities, often of reformed beliefs. According to the Risāle-yi Tatar-i Leh (an account of the Lipka Tatars written for Suleiman the Magnificent by an anonymous Polish Muslim during a stay in Istanbul in 1557–8, on his way to Mecca) there were 100 Lipka Tatar settlements with mosques in Poland. In 1672, the Tatar subjects rose up in an open rebellion against the Commonwealth. | [
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projected-20465358-011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Władysław IV Vasa (1632–1648) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | During the reign of Sigismund's son, Władysław IV Vasa, the Cossacks in Ukraine revolted against Poland; wars with Russia and Turkey weakened the country; and szlachta obtained new privileges, mainly exemption from income tax.
Władysław IV aimed to achieve many military goals, including conquests of Russia, Sweden and Turkey. His reign is that of many small victories, few of them bringing anything worthwhile to the Commonwealth. He was once elected a Russian tsar, but never had any control over Russian territories. Like his father, Władysław was involved in Swedish dynastic ambitions. He failed to strengthen the Commonwealth or prevent the crippling events of the Khmelnytsky Uprising and the Deluge that devastated the Commonwealth from 1648 onward. | [] | [
"Władysław IV Vasa (1632–1648)"
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"Early Modern history of Poland",
"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth",
"History of Poland by period",
"16th century in Poland",
"17th century in Poland",
"18th century in Poland"
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projected-20465358-012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | John Casimir Vasa (1648–1668) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | The reign of Władysław's brother John Casimir, the last of the Vasas, was dominated by the culmination in the war with Sweden, the groundwork for which was laid down by the two previous Vasa kings. In 1660, John Casimir was forced to renounce his claims to the Swedish throne and acknowledge Swedish sovereignty over Livonia and city of Riga.
Under John Casimir, the Cossacks grew in power and at times were able to defeat the Poles; the Swedes occupied much of Poland, including Warsaw, the capital; and the King, abandoned or betrayed by his subjects, had to seek temporary refuge in Silesia. As a result of the wars with the Cossacks and Russia, the Commonwealth lost Kiev, Smolensk, and all the areas east of the Dnieper River by the Treaty of Andrusovo (1667). During John Casimir's reign, East Prussia successfully renounced its formal status as a fief of Poland. Internally, the process of disintegration started. The nobles, making their own alliances with foreign powers, pursued independent policies; the rebellion of Jerzy Lubomirski shook the throne.
John Casimir, a broken, disillusioned man, abdicated the Polish throne on 16 September 1668 amid internal anarchy and strife and returned to France, where he joined the Jesuit order and became a monk. He died in 1672. | [
"Matejko Khmelnytsky with Tugay Bey.jpg"
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"John Casimir Vasa (1648–1668)"
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"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth",
"History of Poland by period",
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projected-20465358-013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648–1654) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | The Khmelnytsky Uprising, by far the largest of the Cossack uprisings, proved disastrous for the Commonwealth. The Cossacks, allied with the Tatars, defeated the forces of the Commonwealth in several battles, the Commonwealth scored a major victory at Berestechko, but the Polish-Lithuanian empire ended up "fatally wounded". The easternmost parts of its territory were effectively lost to Russia, which resulted in a long-term shift in the balance of power. In the short-term the country was weakened at the moment of the invasion by Sweden. | [] | [
"John Casimir Vasa (1648–1668)",
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"Early Modern history of Poland",
"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth",
"History of Poland by period",
"16th century in Poland",
"17th century in Poland",
"18th century in Poland"
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projected-20465358-014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | The Deluge (1648–1667) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Although Poland-Lithuania was unaffected by the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), the following two decades subjected the nation to one of its worst trials ever. This colorful but ruinous interval, the stuff of legend and popular historical novels of Nobel laureate Henryk Sienkiewicz, became known as potop, or the Deluge, for the magnitude and suddenness of its hardships. The emergency began when the Ukrainian Cossacks rose in revolt and declared an independent state based in the vicinity of Kiev, allied with the Crimean Tatars and the Ottoman Empire. Their leader Bohdan Khmelnytsky defeated Polish armies in 1648 and 1652, and after the Cossacks concluded the Treaty of Pereyaslav with Russia in 1654, Tsar Alexis overran the entire eastern part of the Commonwealth (Ukraine) to Lwów (Lviv). Taking advantage of Poland's preoccupation in the east and weakness, Charles X Gustav of Sweden intervened. Most of the Polish nobility along with the Polish vassal Frederick William of Brandenburg-Prussia agreed to recognize him as king after he promised to drive out the Russians. However, the Swedish troops embarked on an orgy of looting and destruction, which caused the Polish populace to rise up in revolt. The Swedes overran the remainder of Poland except for Lwów and Danzig (Gdańsk).
Poland-Lithuania rallied to recover most of its losses from the Swedes. In exchange for breaking the alliance with Sweden, Frederick William, the ruler of Ducal Prussia, was released from his vassalage and became a de facto independent sovereign, while much of the Polish Protestant nobility went over to the side of the Swedes. Under Hetman Stefan Czarniecki, the Poles and Lithuanians had driven the Swedes from the Commonwealth's territory by 1657. The armies of Frederick William intervened and were also defeated. Frederick William's rule over East Prussia was recognized, although Poland retained the right of succession until 1773.
The thirteen-year struggle over control of Ukraine included an attempted formal union of Ukraine with the Commonwealth as an equal partner (1658) and Polish military successes in 1660–1662. This was not enough to keep eastern Ukraine. Under the pressure of continuing Ukrainian unrest and the threat of a Turkish-Tatar intervention, the Commonwealth and Russia signed in 1667 an agreement in the village of Andrusovo near Smolensk, according to which eastern Ukraine (left bank of the Dnieper River) now belonged to Russia. Kiev was also leased to Russia for two years, but never returned and eventually Poland recognized Russian control of the city.
The potop wars episode inflicted irremediable damage and contributed heavily to the ultimate demise of the state. Held responsible for the greatest disaster in Polish history, John Casimir abdicated in 1668. The population of the Commonwealth had been reduced by a staggering 1/3, by military casualties, slave raids, plague epidemics, and mass murders of civilians. Most of Poland's cities were reduced to rubble, and the nation's economic base was decimated. The war had been paid for by large-scale minting of worthless currency, causing runaway inflation. Religious feelings had also been inflamed by the conflict, ending tolerance of non-Catholic beliefs. Henceforth, the Commonwealth would be on the strategic defensive facing hostile and increasingly more powerful neighbors. | [
"Rzeczpospolita Potop.png",
"Truce of Andrusovo 1667.PNG"
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projected-20465358-015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Commonwealth after the Deluge | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | In the Treaty of Oliva in 1660, John Casimir finally renounced his claims to the Swedish crown, which ended the feud between Sweden and the Commonwealth and the accompanying string of wars between those countries (War against Sigismund (1598–1599), Polish–Swedish wars (1600–1629) and the Northern War (1655–1660)).
After the Truce of Andrusovo of 1667 and the Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686, the Commonwealth lost left-bank Ukraine to Russia.
Polish culture and the Uniate East Slavic Greek Catholic Church gradually advanced. By the 18th century, the populations of Ducal Prussia and Royal Prussia were a mixture of Catholics and Protestants and used both the German and Polish languages. The rest of Poland and most of Lithuania remained overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, while Ukraine and some parts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Belarus) were Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic (both Church Slavonic liturgy). The society consisted of the upper stratum (8% nobles, 1% clergy), townspeople and the peasant majority. Various nationalities/ethnicities or linguistic groups were present, including Poles, Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Lithuanians, Armenians and Tatars, among others. | [] | [
"John Casimir Vasa (1648–1668)",
"Commonwealth after the Deluge"
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projected-20465358-017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki (1669–1673) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Following the abdication of King John Casimir Vasa and the end of the Deluge, the Polish nobility (szlachta), disappointed with the rule of the Vasa dynasty monarchs, elected Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki as king, believing that as a non-foreigner he would further the interests of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was the first ruler of Polish origin since the last of Jagiellon dynasty, Sigismund II Augustus, died in 1572. Michael was a son of a controversial but popular with szlachta military commander Jeremi Wiśniowiecki, known for his actions during the Khmelnytsky Uprising.
His reign was not successful. Michael lost a war against the Ottoman Empire, with the Turks occupying Podolia and most of Ukraine from 1672–1673. Wiśniowiecki was a passive monarch who readily played into the hands of the Habsburgs. He was unable to cope with his responsibilities and with the different quarreling factions within Poland. | [
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projected-20465358-018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | John III Sobieski (1674–1696) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Hetman John Sobieski was the Commonwealth's last great military commander; he was active and effective in the continuing warfare with the Ottoman Empire. Sobieski was elected as another "Piast" (of Polish family) king. John III's most famous achievement was the decisive contribution by the Commonwealth's forces led by him to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire's army in 1683, at the Battle of Vienna.
The Ottomans, if victorious, would have likely become a threat to Western Europe, but the successful battle eliminated that possibility and marked the turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. Over the 16 years following the battle (the Great Turkish War), the Turks would be permanently driven south of the Danube River, never to threaten Central Europe again.
For the Commonwealth there was no big payoff for the Turkish victories and the rescuer of Vienna had to cede territories to Russia in return for promised aid against the Crimean Tatars and Turks. Poland had previously formally relinquished all claims to Kiev in 1686. On other fronts John III was even less successful, including agreements with France and Sweden in a failed attempt to regain the Duchy of Prussia. Only when the Holy League concluded peace with the Ottomans in 1699, Poland recovered Podolia and parts of Ukraine. | [
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projected-20465358-019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Decay of the Commonwealth | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Beginning in the 17th century, because of the deteriorating state of internal politics and government and destructive wars, the nobles' democracy gradually declined into anarchy, making the once powerful Commonwealth vulnerable to foreign interference and intervention. In the late 17th century Poland-Lithuania had virtually ceased to function as a coherent and genuinely independent state.
During the 18th century, the Polish-Lithuanian federation became subject to manipulations by Sweden, Russia, the Kingdom of Prussia, France and Austria. Poland's weakness was exacerbated by an unworkable parliamentary rule which allowed each deputy in sejm to use his vetoing power to stop further parliamentary proceedings for the given session. This greatly weakened the central authority of Poland and paved the way for its destruction.
The decline leading to foreign domination had begun in earnest several decades after the end of the Jagiellon dynasty. Insufficient and ineffective taxation, virulently contested by the szlachta whenever it impinged on their perceived interests, was another contributor to the downfall. There were two kinds of taxes, those levied by the Crown and those levied by legislative assemblies. The Crown raised both customs duties and taxes on land, transportation, salt, lead, and silver. Sejm raised a land tax, a city tax, a tax on alcohol, and a poll tax on Jews. The exports and imports by the nobility were tax-free. The disorganized and increasingly decentralized nature of tax gathering and the numerous exceptions from taxation meant that the king and the state had insufficient revenue to perform military or civilian functions. At one point the king secretly and illegally sold crown jewels.
The nobles or szlachta became increasingly focused on guarding their own "liberties" and blocked any policies designed to strengthen the nation or build a powerful army. Beginning in 1652, the fatal practice of liberum veto was their basic tool. It required unanimity in sejm and permitted even a single deputy not only to block any measure but to cause dissolution of a sejm and submission of all measures already passed to the next sejm. Foreign diplomats, using bribery or persuasion, routinely caused the dissolution of inconvenient sessions of sejm. Of the 37 sejms in 1674–96, only 12 were able to enact any legislation. The others were dissolved by the liberum veto of one person or another.
The Commonwealth's last martial triumph occurred in 1683 when King John III Sobieski drove the Turks from the gates of Vienna with a heavy cavalry charge. Poland's important role in aiding the European alliance to roll back the Ottoman Empire was rewarded with some territory in Podolia by the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699). This partial success did little to mask the internal weakness and paralysis of the Polish–Lithuanian political system.
For the next quarter century, Poland was often a pawn in Russia's campaigns against other powers. When John III died in 1697, 18 candidates vied for the throne, which ultimately went to Frederick Augustus of Saxony, who then converted to Catholicism. Ruling as Augustus II, his reign presented the opportunity to unite Saxony (an industrialized area) with Poland, a country rich in mineral resources. The King however lacked skill in foreign policy and became entangled in a war with Sweden. His allies, the Russians and the Danes, were repelled by Charles XII of Sweden, beginning the Great Northern War. Charles installed a puppet ruler in Poland and marched on Saxony, compelling Augustus to give up his crown and turning Poland into a base for the Swedish army. Poland was again devastated by the armies of Sweden, Russia, and Saxony. Its major cities were destroyed and a third of the population killed by the war and a plague outbreak in 1702-13. The Swedes finally withdrew from Poland and invaded Ukraine, where they were defeated by the Russians at Poltava. Augustus was able to reclaim his throne with Russian support, but Tsar Peter the Great decided to annex Livonia in 1710. He also suppressed the Cossacks, who had been in revolt against Poland since 1699. Later on, the Tsar frustrated an attempt by Prussia to gain territory from Poland (despite Augustus' approval of this). After the Great Northern War, Poland became an effective protectorate of Russia for the rest of the 18th century. The wide-ranging European War of the Polish Succession, named after the conflict over the succession to Augustus II, was fought from 1733–1735.
In the 18th century, the powers of the monarchy and the central administration became mostly formal. Kings were denied opportunity to provide for elementary requirements of defense and finance, and aristocratic clans made treaties directly with foreign sovereigns. Attempts at reform were stymied by the determination of szlachta to preserve their "golden freedoms", most notably the liberum veto. Because of the chaos sown by the veto provision, under Augustus III (1733–63) only one of the thirteen sejm sessions ran to an orderly adjournment.
Unlike Spain and Sweden, great powers that were allowed to settle peacefully into secondary status at the periphery of Europe at the end of their time of glory, Poland endured its decline at the strategic crossroads of the continent. Lacking central leadership and impotent in foreign relations, Poland-Lithuania became a chattel of the ambitious kingdoms that surrounded it, an immense but feeble buffer state. During the reign of Peter the Great (1682–1725), the Commonwealth fell under the dominance of Russia, and by the middle of the 18th century Poland-Lithuania had been made a virtual protectorate of its eastern neighbor, retaining only a theoretical right to self-rule.
By the 18th century, outside commentators routinely ridiculed the ineffectiveness of sejms, blaming the liberum veto. Throughout Europe political commentators unanimously called it a terrible failure. Many Polish nobles regarded the veto as a constructive instrument, to be used as a weapon against the presumably tyrannical aspirations of the monarchy. The long-term result was a weak state that could not compete with its neighbors, especially Prussia and Russia. Inevitably Poland was partitioned among them and the nobles lost all their political rights as well as their nation state.
Several decades before the loss independence, intellectuals began to reconsider the role of the veto and the nature of Polish liberty, arguing that Poland had not been progressing as fast as the rest of Europe because of a lack of political stability. The exposure to Enlightenment ideas gave Poles further reason to reconsider concepts such as society and equality, and this led to discovery of the idea of the naród, or nation; a nation in which all people, not just the nobility, should enjoy the rights of political liberty. The reform movement came too late to save the state, but helped to form the coherent nation, able to survive the long period of Partitioned Poland. | [
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projected-20465358-020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Commonwealth–Saxony personal union | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | After John III Sobieski's death, the Polish-Lithuanian throne was occupied for seven decades by the German Prince-elector of Saxony, Augustus II the Strong, and his son, Augustus III, of the House of Wettin. | [] | [
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projected-20465358-021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Augustus II the Strong (1697–1706, 1709–1733) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Augustus II the Strong, also known as Frederick Augustus I, was an over-ambitious ruler. In the contest for the crown of the Commonwealth he defeated his main rival, François Louis, Prince of Conti, who was supported by France, and King John III's son, Jakub. To ensure his success in becoming the Polish king he converted from Lutheranism to Roman Catholicism. Augustus II virtually bought the election. Augustus hoped to make the Polish throne hereditary for the House of Wettin, and to use his resources as Elector of Saxony to impose some order on the chaotic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, he was soon distracted from his internal reform projects and became preoccupied by the possibility of external conquests.
In alliance with Peter the Great of Russia, Augustus won back Podolia and western Ukraine and concluded the long series of Polish-Turkish wars by the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699). A Cossack revolt that had begun in 1699 was suppressed by the Russians. Augustus tried unsuccessfully to regain the Baltic coast from Charles XII of Sweden. He allied with Denmark and Russia, provoking a war with Sweden. After Augustus' allies were defeated, Sweden's king Charles XII marched from Livonia into Poland, using it then as the base of his operations. Installing a puppet ruler (King Stanisław Leszczyński) in Warsaw, he occupied Saxony and drove Augustus II from the throne. Augustus was forced to cede the crown from 1704 to 1709, but regained it when Tsar Peter defeated Charles XII at the Battle of Poltava (1709). Poland, which after having suffered extensive damages from wars had only recently returned to its 1650 population level, was once again completely razed to the ground by the armies of Sweden, Saxony, and Russia. Two million people died as a result of the war and disease epidemics. Cities were reduced to rubble, and cultural losses were immense. After the Swedish defeat Augustus II regained the throne with Russian backing, but the Russians proceeded to annex Livonia after driving the Swedes from it.
Augustus II was helpless when, in 1701, the Elector of Brandenburg proclaimed himself sovereign "King in Prussia," as Frederick I and founded the aggressive, militaristic Prussian state, which would eventually form nucleus of a united Germany. The victor from Poltava, Tsar Peter the Great declared Russia to be the guardian of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic's territorial integrity. This effectively meant that the Commonwealth became a Russian protectorate; it had remained in this condition for the duration of its existence (until 1795). The policy of Russia was to exercise political control over Poland in cooperation with Austria and Prussia. | [
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projected-20465358-022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Stanisław Leszczyński (1706–1709, 1733–1736) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Seen as a puppet of Sweden during his first stint on the throne, Stanisław Leszczyński ruled in times of turmoil, and Augustus II soon recovered the throne, forcing him into exile. He was elected king again following the death of Augustus in 1733, with the support of France and Polish nobles, but not of Poland's neighbors. After the military intervention by Russian and Saxon troops, he was besieged in Danzig (Gdańsk), and again forced to leave the country. For the rest of his life Leszczyński became a successful and popular ruler in the Duchy of Lorraine. | [
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projected-20465358-023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | August III (1733–1763) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Also Elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus II), Augustus III inherited Saxony after his father's death, and was elected King of Poland by a minority sejm with the support of Russian troops. Augustus III was a puppet of Russia, and during his reign foreign armies criss-crossed the land. He was uninterested in the affairs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which he viewed mostly as a source of funds and resources for strengthening his power in Saxony. During his 30-year reign, he spent less than 3 years in Poland, delegating most of his powers and responsibilities to Count Heinrich von Brühl. Augustus III's uninvolved reign facilitated political anarchy and further weakened the Commonwealth, while the neighboring Prussia, Austria and especially Russia were becoming increasingly dominant in its affairs. | [] | [
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projected-20465358-024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Reforms and partitions during the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski (1764–1795) | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | From the early years of the reign of Empress Catherine the Great (1762–1796), Russia intensified its manipulation of Polish affairs. Prussia and Austria, the other powers surrounding the Republic, also took advantage of internal religious and political bickering. The neighboring states divided up the country in three partition stages. The third one in 1795 wiped Poland-Lithuania from the map of Europe. | [] | [
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projected-20465358-025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Russian protectorate and First Partition | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | More enlightened Poles realized by now that reforms were necessary. One faction, led by the Czartoryski family, sought to abolish the fatal liberum veto and promoted a broad reform program; their main rivals were the Potocki family faction. The Czartoryskis entered into collaboration with the Russians, and in 1764 Empress Catherine II of Russia dictated the election of a member of the Czartoryski clan, her former favorite and lover, Stanisław August Poniatowski, as king of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Partially confounding expectations that he would be an obedient servant of his former mistress, Stanislaw August encouraged a modernization of his realm's dysfunctional political system and achieved a temporary moratorium on use of the liberum veto in sejm (1764–1766). This threatened to increase the strength of central government and brought displeasure in the foreign capitals that preferred an inert, pliable Poland. Displeased Catherine encouraged religious dissension in Poland-Lithuania's substantial Eastern Orthodox population, which had lost the rights guaranteed to them in the 16th century.
Under heavy Russian pressure, the unhappy sejm introduced religious toleration and Orthodox and Protestant equality with Catholics in 1767. Through the Polish nobles that Russia controlled (the Confederation of Radom) and Russian Minister to Warsaw Prince Nicholas Repnin, Catherine forced a sejm constitution (comprehensive legislation), which undid Poniatowski's reforms of 1764. The liberum veto and other old abuses of szlachta power were guaranteed as unalterable parts of this new constitution.
Poland was however also compelled to sign a treaty of guarantee with Russia, where Catherine was imposed as protector (guarantor) of the Polish political system. The system could not be changed without Russia's approval, and thus the Commonwealth became de facto a Russian protectorate. The real power in Poland lay with the Russian ambassadors, and the Polish king became to a significant degree an executor of their will.
This situation provoked in 1768 a Catholic uprising and civil war known as the Confederation of Bar. The Confederation was a league of Polish nobles that fought against the King and Russian forces until 1772, to revoke the Empress' mandate. The Confederation's warfare and defeat provoked in part a partition of the Commonwealth (seizure of its outer territories) by its neighbors. Although Catherine initially opposed partition, King Frederick II of Prussia, interested in territorial gains and in neutralizing Austria's threatening military position, promoted a partition scheme that would be favorable to the interests of all three partitioning states. Emperor Joseph II of the Habsburg monarchy and then Empress Catherine agreed, and in 1772 Russia, Prussia, and Austria forced the terms of partition upon the helpless Commonwealth, under the pretext of quelling anarchy and restoring order. | [
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projected-20465358-026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | National revival | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | The first partition in 1772 did not directly threaten the stability of the Polish-Lithuanian state. Poland still retained extensive territory that included the Polish heartlands. Moreover, the shock of the annexations made clear the dangers of decay in government institutions, creating a body of opinion favorable to reform along the lines of the European Enlightenment. King Stanisław August supported the progressive elements in the government and promoted the ideas of foreign political figures such as Edmund Burke and George Washington.
Polish intellectuals studied and discussed Enlightenment philosophers such as Montesquieu and Rousseau. During the period of Enlightenment in Poland, the concept of democratic institutions for all classes was accepted in the more progressive circles of Polish society. Education reform included the establishment of the first ministry of education in Europe (the Commission of National Education). Taxation and the army underwent thorough reform, and central executive government was established as the Permanent Council. Landholders emancipated large numbers of peasants, although there was no official government decree. Polish cities and business enterprises, in decline for many decades, were revived by the influence of the Industrial Revolution, especially in mining and textiles.
Stanisław August's process of renovation reached its climax when, after three years of intense debate, the "Great Sejm" produced the Constitution of May 3, 1791, which historian Norman Davies called "the first constitution of its kind in Europe". Conceived in the liberal spirit of the contemporaneous document in the United States, the constitution recast Poland-Lithuania as a hereditary monarchy and got rid of many of the eccentricities and antiquated features of the old system of government. The new constitution abolished the individual veto in parliament; provided a separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government; and established "people's sovereignty" (for the noble and bourgeois classes). Although never fully implemented, the Constitution of May 3 gained a cherished position in the Polish political heritage; tradition marks the anniversary of its passage as the country's most important civic holiday. | [
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projected-20465358-027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Destruction of Poland-Lithuania | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | Passage of the constitution alarmed many nobles, some of whom would lose considerable stature under the new order. In autocratic states such as Russia, the democratic ideals of the new constitution also threatened the existing order, and the prospect of Polish recovery threatened to end domination of Polish affairs by Poland's neighbors. In 1792, Polish conservative factions formed the Confederation of Targowica and appealed for Russian assistance in restoring the status quo. Empress Catherine was happy to use this opportunity; enlisting Prussian support, she invaded Poland under the pretext of defending Poland's ancient liberties. A defensive war against powerful Russian armies was fought in 1792 with some measure of success, but the irresolute Stanislaw August, who did not believe in the possibility of defeating the Russian Empire, capitulated, defecting to the Targowica Confederation. Arguing that Poland had fallen prey to radical Jacobinism, then at high tide in France, Russia and Prussia abrogated the Constitution of May 3, carried out the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, and placed the remainder of the country under occupation by Russian troops.
The Second Partition was far more injurious than the first. Russia received a vast area of eastern Poland, extending southward nearly to the Black Sea. To the west, Prussia received an area that became known as South Prussia, nearly twice the size of its First Partition gains along the Baltic, as well as the port of Danzig (Gdańsk). Poland's neighbors thus reduced the Commonwealth to a rump state and signaled their intention to abolish it altogether at their convenience.
The Kościuszko Uprising, a great Polish revolt, broke out in 1794 under the leadership of Tadeusz Kościuszko, a military officer who had rendered notable service in the American Revolution. Kościuszko's ragtag insurgent armies won some initial successes, but they eventually fell before the superior forces of Russian General Alexander Suvorov. In the wake of the insurrection of 1794, Russia, Prussia, and Austria carried out the third and final partition of Poland-Lithuania in 1795, erasing the Commonwealth of Two Nations from the map and pledging to never allow its return.
Much of Europe condemned the dismemberment as an international crime without historical parallel. Amid the distractions of the French Revolution and its attendant wars however, no state actively opposed the final annexations. In the long term, the dissolution of Poland-Lithuania upset the traditional European balance of power, dramatically magnifying the influence of Russia and paving the way for the powerful Germany that would emerge in the nineteenth century with Prussia at its core. For the Poles, the Third Partition began a period of continuous foreign rule that would endure for well over a century. | [
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"Destruction of Poland-Lithuania"
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"Early Modern history of Poland",
"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth",
"History of Poland by period",
"16th century in Poland",
"17th century in Poland",
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projected-20465358-028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | See also | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)
History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)
History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–1795)
List of Polish rulers
List of Polish nobles
Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794) | [] | [
"See also"
] | [
"Early Modern history of Poland",
"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth",
"History of Poland by period",
"16th century in Poland",
"17th century in Poland",
"18th century in Poland"
] |
projected-20465358-029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | References | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | - Poland. | [] | [
"References"
] | [
"Early Modern history of Poland",
"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth",
"History of Poland by period",
"16th century in Poland",
"17th century in Poland",
"18th century in Poland"
] |
projected-20465358-030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29 | History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795) | Further reading | The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages. Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800.
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta, albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings.
The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward.
Following the Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious Union of Brest. On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place.
The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory, suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV. It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.
The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom's dependency. John III Sobieski, fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught.
The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations), corrupted legislative processes (liberum veto) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty, Augustus II and Augustus III, brought the Commonwealth further disintegration.
The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great. This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great, and involved at that time also the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski.
The Bar Confederation of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth, a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II.
The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence.
Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko, chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in Cracow (Kraków) declared a national uprising. Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers, and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. | The Cambridge History of Poland (two vols., 1941–1950) online edition vol 1 to 1696
Butterwick, Richard, ed. The Polish-Lithuanian Monarchy in European Context, c. 1500-1795. Palgrave, 2001. 249 pp. online edition
Davies, Norman. Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland. Oxford University Press, 1984. 511 pp. excerpt and text search
Davies, Norman. God's Playground: A History of Poland. 2 vol. Columbia U. Press, 1982. 1,189 pp.; highly detailed, well-written narrative but criticized by some specialists online excerpts and search at Amazon.com; vol 1 to 1795
Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian. Poland: A Historical Atlas. Hippocrene, 1987. 321 pp.
Sanford, George. Historical Dictionary of Poland. Scarecrow Press, 2003. 291 pp.
Stone, Daniel. The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386-1795. U. of Washington Press, 2001. 374 pp. | [] | [
"Further reading"
] | [
"Early Modern history of Poland",
"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth",
"History of Poland by period",
"16th century in Poland",
"17th century in Poland",
"18th century in Poland"
] |
projected-06900492-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBL%20Pipeline | BBL Pipeline | Introduction | The BBL Pipeline (Balgzand Bacton Line, BBL) is a natural gas interconnector between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Energy infrastructure completed in 2006",
"Natural gas pipelines in the Netherlands",
"Natural gas pipelines in the United Kingdom",
"Netherlands–United Kingdom relations",
"North Sea energy",
"Pipelines under the North Sea",
"Uniper",
"2006 establishments in England",
"2006 establishments in the N... | |
projected-06900492-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBL%20Pipeline | BBL Pipeline | History | The BBL Pipeline (Balgzand Bacton Line, BBL) is a natural gas interconnector between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. | Laying the pipeline between the compressor station at the Balgzand Gas Plant at Grasweg in Anna Paulowna (province of North Holland) and Bacton Gas Terminal started on 14 July 2006. The pipeline became operational on 1 December 2006. | [] | [
"History"
] | [
"Energy infrastructure completed in 2006",
"Natural gas pipelines in the Netherlands",
"Natural gas pipelines in the United Kingdom",
"Netherlands–United Kingdom relations",
"North Sea energy",
"Pipelines under the North Sea",
"Uniper",
"2006 establishments in England",
"2006 establishments in the N... |
projected-06900492-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBL%20Pipeline | BBL Pipeline | Technical description | The BBL Pipeline (Balgzand Bacton Line, BBL) is a natural gas interconnector between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. | The overall length of pipeline is of which around is offshore. The pipeline's diameter is and working pressure is . The initial capacity is 16 billion cubic meters (bcm) per year, which will be increased to 19.2 bcm by the end of 2010 by installing a fourth compressor at the compressor station at Anna Paulowna. The pipeline has a regulatory exemption from the two-ways gas flow until October 2018. Until this, the direction of gas flow is from the Netherlands to the UK. The overall cost of the project was around €500 million. | [] | [
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"Natural gas pipelines in the United Kingdom",
"Netherlands–United Kingdom relations",
"North Sea energy",
"Pipelines under the North Sea",
"Uniper",
"2006 establishments in England",
"2006 establishments in the N... |
projected-06900492-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBL%20Pipeline | BBL Pipeline | Operating company | The BBL Pipeline (Balgzand Bacton Line, BBL) is a natural gas interconnector between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. | The BBL was developed and operated by the BBL Company. The main shareholder of the company is Gasunie with 60% of the shares, and Uniper (through Uniper Ruhrgas BBL B.V.) and Fluxys both own 20%. Russian Gazprom had an option for 9%, in exchange for a 9% share of Nord Stream AG. The BBL Pipeline would allow Gazprom to supply additional gas to the British market through the Nord Stream 1 pipeline. | [] | [
"Operating company"
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"Natural gas pipelines in the Netherlands",
"Natural gas pipelines in the United Kingdom",
"Netherlands–United Kingdom relations",
"North Sea energy",
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"Uniper",
"2006 establishments in England",
"2006 establishments in the N... |
projected-06900492-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBL%20Pipeline | BBL Pipeline | See also | The BBL Pipeline (Balgzand Bacton Line, BBL) is a natural gas interconnector between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. | Interconnector (North Sea) | [] | [
"See also"
] | [
"Energy infrastructure completed in 2006",
"Natural gas pipelines in the Netherlands",
"Natural gas pipelines in the United Kingdom",
"Netherlands–United Kingdom relations",
"North Sea energy",
"Pipelines under the North Sea",
"Uniper",
"2006 establishments in England",
"2006 establishments in the N... |
projected-20465372-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauri%20Asikainen | Lauri Asikainen | Introduction | Lauri Asikainen (born 28 May 1989) is a Finnish Nordic combined athlete. He was born in Savonlinna, and made his senior Nordic combined debut in 2009, at the world championships in Liberec. He was previously a ski jumper, winning team bronze in 2007 at the World Junior Championships in Tarvisio. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"1989 births",
"Living people",
"People from Savonlinna",
"Finnish male ski jumpers",
"Finnish male Nordic combined skiers",
"Sportspeople from South Savo",
"21st-century Finnish people"
] | |
projected-06900512-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlene%20Croce | Arlene Croce | Introduction | Arlene Louise Croce (born May 5, 1934) founded Ballet Review magazine in 1965. She was a dance critic for The New Yorker magazine from 1973 to 1998. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"1934 births",
"Living people",
"American dance critics",
"The New Yorker people",
"Dance writers",
"American women journalists",
"American women critics",
"20th-century American journalists",
"20th-century American women",
"21st-century American women"
] | |
projected-06900512-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlene%20Croce | Arlene Croce | Career | Arlene Louise Croce (born May 5, 1934) founded Ballet Review magazine in 1965. She was a dance critic for The New Yorker magazine from 1973 to 1998. | Prior to Croce’s long career as a dance writer, she also wrote film criticism for Film Culture and other magazines. The keynote of her criticism can be grasped from her ability to evoke kinesthetic movement and expressive images in her writing. Although she considers ballet to epitomize the highest form of dance, she has also written extensively on the topic of popular and filmed dance, and is a recognized authority on the Astaire and Rogers musical films.
In 1994, she courted controversy with her stance on Bill T. Jones's Still/Here, a work about terminal illness. In an article called "Discussing the Undiscussable," she dubbed the work "victim art" and refused to attend any performances, claiming that it was "unreviewable." The article was reprinted in her 2000 book, Writing in the Dark.
Her writings on dance are available in several books, and a sampling of her film criticism can be found in the anthology American Movie Critics: An Anthology From the Silents Until Now. A review of her The Fred Astaire & Ginger Rogers Book can be found in Pauline Kael's collection of movie reviews, Reeling. | [] | [
"Career"
] | [
"1934 births",
"Living people",
"American dance critics",
"The New Yorker people",
"Dance writers",
"American women journalists",
"American women critics",
"20th-century American journalists",
"20th-century American women",
"21st-century American women"
] |
projected-06900512-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlene%20Croce | Arlene Croce | Bibliography | Arlene Louise Croce (born May 5, 1934) founded Ballet Review magazine in 1965. She was a dance critic for The New Yorker magazine from 1973 to 1998. | Incomplete - to be updated | [] | [
"Bibliography"
] | [
"1934 births",
"Living people",
"American dance critics",
"The New Yorker people",
"Dance writers",
"American women journalists",
"American women critics",
"20th-century American journalists",
"20th-century American women",
"21st-century American women"
] |
projected-06900512-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlene%20Croce | Arlene Croce | Books | Arlene Louise Croce (born May 5, 1934) founded Ballet Review magazine in 1965. She was a dance critic for The New Yorker magazine from 1973 to 1998. | The Fred Astaire & Ginger Rogers Book (1972)
Afterimages (1978)
Going to the Dance (1982)
Sight Lines (1987)
Writing in the Dark, Dancing in 'The New Yorker''' (2000)American Movie Critics: An Anthology From the Silents Until Now (2006), edited by Phillip Lopate — contains her reviews on the films Pather Panchali and Aparajito as well as a selection from The Fred Astaire & Ginger Rogers Book.
Articles
Gail Conrad and The Tap Dance Theatre; American Ballet Theatre's performance of Field, Chair and Mountain by David Gordon.
About Arlene Croce (in Spanish). La crítica en la danza. "Discussing the indiscussable". By Patricia Roldán
The Dance Criticism of Arlene Croce'' (2005) by Marc Raymond Strauss, McFarland & Co, | [] | [
"Bibliography",
"Books"
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"1934 births",
"Living people",
"American dance critics",
"The New Yorker people",
"Dance writers",
"American women journalists",
"American women critics",
"20th-century American journalists",
"20th-century American women",
"21st-century American women"
] |
projected-17328710-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan%20Limestone%20and%20Chemical%20Company | Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company | Introduction | The Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company (a.k.a. Michigan Limestone) operates the world's largest limestone quarry, which is located near Rogers City, Michigan. It was formed and organized in 1910; however, production did not begin until 1912. Ownership of the quarry has changed a number of times, but it is still one of the country's largest producers of limestone.
The deposits mined at the quarry are underground in the northeastern part of Northern Michigan near Alpena and south of Rogers City along the shore of Lake Huron. The raw material is essential to a variety of industries; the major uses are for various aggregates, road-base stone cement, flux for iron and steel production, railroad ballast, mine dusting, and agricultural lime. | [] | [
"Introduction"
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"Limestone industry",
"Mines in Michigan",
"Mining companies of the United States",
"Chemical companies of the United States",
"Companies based in Michigan",
"Chemical companies established in 1910",
"1910 establishments in Michigan",
"Michigan State Historic Sites",
"Buildings and structures in Pre... | |
projected-17328710-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan%20Limestone%20and%20Chemical%20Company | Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company | History | The Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company (a.k.a. Michigan Limestone) operates the world's largest limestone quarry, which is located near Rogers City, Michigan. It was formed and organized in 1910; however, production did not begin until 1912. Ownership of the quarry has changed a number of times, but it is still one of the country's largest producers of limestone.
The deposits mined at the quarry are underground in the northeastern part of Northern Michigan near Alpena and south of Rogers City along the shore of Lake Huron. The raw material is essential to a variety of industries; the major uses are for various aggregates, road-base stone cement, flux for iron and steel production, railroad ballast, mine dusting, and agricultural lime. | The mining engineer and geologist Henry H. Hindshaw, of New York City, started the analysis to established the commercial value of limestone in Northern Lower Michigan in January 1909. He looked over and evaluated certain properties in the northeastern part of Michigan, between the small lumbering community of Rogers City and the nearby open pit mine of Crawford's Quarry. In February, Hindshaw first drilled samples for the Solvay Process Company of Syracuse, New York. The limestone samples were found to be of commercially usable quality, so the company took an option to purchase all the surrounding land by the Lake Huron shore south of Rogers City. Hindshaw then returned to New York City and got in contact with William F. White of the White Investing Company. The investor showed an interest in commercial development of the limestone.
Limestone is a raw material essential in industry. Major uses are for various aggregates, road-base stone cement, manufacture flux for iron and steel production, railroad ballast, mine dusting, and lime manufacture. Hindshaw determined the value was high due to the unusually high grade and purity of the limestone deposit underground in the northeastern region of Lower Michigan along the shore of Lake Huron, near Alpena and south of Rogers City. The quality and size of the limestone deposit at Rogers City, and the availability of easy water transportation, led to the development of the quarry and a port. Both quarry and port are named Calcite, after the principal ingredient of limestone. | [
"Bradley, Carl and W. F. White at Calcite, 1919.jpg",
"First shovel and locomotive 6-6-1911.jpg",
"Trains, Crusher, Screen House, Powerhouse 5-8-1914.jpg",
"Original MLCC Main Office at Calcite 8-6-1918.jpg",
"Opening of 42-inch crusher 5-7-1912.jpg"
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"1910 establishments in Michigan",
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"Buildings and structures in Pre... |
projected-17328710-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan%20Limestone%20and%20Chemical%20Company | Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company | Company | The Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company (a.k.a. Michigan Limestone) operates the world's largest limestone quarry, which is located near Rogers City, Michigan. It was formed and organized in 1910; however, production did not begin until 1912. Ownership of the quarry has changed a number of times, but it is still one of the country's largest producers of limestone.
The deposits mined at the quarry are underground in the northeastern part of Northern Michigan near Alpena and south of Rogers City along the shore of Lake Huron. The raw material is essential to a variety of industries; the major uses are for various aggregates, road-base stone cement, flux for iron and steel production, railroad ballast, mine dusting, and agricultural lime. | Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company was created in 1910 by White and a few of his investor capitalist colleagues, who purchased a parcel of land of prime limestone deposits from the Rogers City Land Company. It was the lumber industry that had brought the first settlers to the northern area of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, around the time of the Civil War. The first pioneer settlers arrived in the Rogers City vicinity in 1869, and they started the Rogers-Molitor Lumber Company. The lumber industry was the backbone of the economy in Rogers City, and Presque Isle County, until the second decade of the 20th century. By that time, most of the forests had been cut down, and the major lumber companies were moving their camps to fresh forests in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan (and into the nearby states of Wisconsin and Minnesota). Around this time Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company began construction of facilities for mining limestone.
White, whose residence was in New York City, served as president of Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company when he filed Articles of Association in the Presque Isle County Clerk's office at Rogers City making the company official on May 26, 1910. The Calcite port and quarry plant started operations in June 1910 and maintained offices in New York City and Rogers City. Hindshaw was the first general manager and was paid $3,500 per year. He was replaced in October by Joseph Jenkins of Alpena, Michigan, who was paid $3,000 a year. Carl D. Bradley of Chicago replaced Jenkins on October 12, 1911.
Bradley managed construction of the limestone processing factory, which included a powerhouse, stone crusher, screen-house, conveyor power distribution system, a harbor with loading slip, ship loader, repair shop, and executive office building. Steam shovels were purchased for use in mining, and steam locomotives and dump cars were used to move the stone from the quarry to the crusher. A steam locomotive was purchased to haul the limestone from the quarry.
There was a spur track built by the company that led into the Calcite operations from the Detroit & Mackinac Railroad main line just west of Posen, Michigan. Production at the quarry began in early 1912 and the first cargoes of stone were shipped by steamer freighters in June of that year. The company received orders for limestone that far exceeded the most optimistic expectations.
Most of the stone mined at the Rogers City quarry was shipped on lake freighters to steel mills located along the lower Great Lakes at places like Detroit, Cleveland, Gary, and South Chicago. For most of the plant's history, its biggest customer was United States Steel (also known as U.S. Steel.), the world's largest producer of steel products. Eventually, additional markets were found for the limestone in the agricultural, construction, chemical, and cement industries. The Rogers City area continued to develop and grow as the Calcite plant facilities grew. Within 20 years, the quarry at Rogers was the world's largest producer of limestone. | [] | [
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"Mines in Michigan",
"Mining companies of the United States",
"Chemical companies of the United States",
"Companies based in Michigan",
"Chemical companies established in 1910",
"1910 establishments in Michigan",
"Michigan State Historic Sites",
"Buildings and structures in Pre... |
projected-17328710-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan%20Limestone%20and%20Chemical%20Company | Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company | U.S. Steel | The Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company (a.k.a. Michigan Limestone) operates the world's largest limestone quarry, which is located near Rogers City, Michigan. It was formed and organized in 1910; however, production did not begin until 1912. Ownership of the quarry has changed a number of times, but it is still one of the country's largest producers of limestone.
The deposits mined at the quarry are underground in the northeastern part of Northern Michigan near Alpena and south of Rogers City along the shore of Lake Huron. The raw material is essential to a variety of industries; the major uses are for various aggregates, road-base stone cement, flux for iron and steel production, railroad ballast, mine dusting, and agricultural lime. | United States Steel Corporation was the first customer of the company. White and his partners were in contact with potential major consumers of limestone even before the company was officially formed. They were in negotiations with several steel companies and other companies that used quantities of limestone and concluded that if they built a massive quarry that they would have potential consumers immediately. US Steel signed a contract within months of when the company was officially formed and a year before limestone was actually produced. Iroquois Iron Company of Chicago signed a contract with Michigan Limestone for the purchase of 50,000 tons of limestone. The limestone company was created, at least in part, with the idea that there was a waiting market for their product. US Steel later purchased a controlling interest in Michigan Limestone in 1920 when the company was producing 1,000 tons of crushed limestone a day.
Bradley was promoted from general manager to president of Michigan Limestone. He also served as president of Michigan Limestone's fleet of self-unloading ships used to deliver the stone. Those ships were operated as the Bradley Transportation Company. Michigan Limestone and Bradley Transportation came under the full ownership of U.S. Steel upon Bradley's death in 1928. At that time U.S. Steel purchased all of the stock of both Michigan Limestone and the associated shipping concern, Bradley Transportation, and made both these companies subsidiaries of U.S. Steel. The company became a division in 1951 when the operations at Rogers City became U.S. Steel's "Northern District", since the main offices were moved to Detroit. The operation is still a major employer in northern Michigan. Its ownership has changed several times in recent years. | [] | [
"History",
"U.S. Steel"
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"Limestone industry",
"Mines in Michigan",
"Mining companies of the United States",
"Chemical companies of the United States",
"Companies based in Michigan",
"Chemical companies established in 1910",
"1910 establishments in Michigan",
"Michigan State Historic Sites",
"Buildings and structures in Pre... |