text stringlengths 0 1.02k |
|---|
anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is sceptical of authority and rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of hierarchy. anarchism calls for the abolition of the state, which it holds to be unnecessary, undesirable, and harmful. as a historically left-wing movement, placed on the farthest left of the p... |
during the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for emancipation. various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. anarchists have taken part in several revolutions,... |
anarchist thought, criticism, and praxis have played a part in diverse areas of human society. criticism of anarchism include claims that it is internally inconsistent, violent, or utopian. etymology, terminology, and definition
the etymological origin of anarchism is from the ancient greek anarkhia, meaning "without... |
the first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist () was pierre-joseph proudhon (1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. since the 1890s and beginning in france, libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside t... |
anarchism is broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement. anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above. scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two. some... |
major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy. history
pre-modern era
before the establ... |
aeschylus and sophocles used the myth of antigone to illustrate the conflict between rules set by the state and personal autonomy. socrates questioned athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. cynics dismissed human law (nomos) and associated authorities while trying... |
renewed interest in antiquity during the renaissance and in private judgment during the reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, particularly in france. enlightenment challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and the revolutions of the 1790s and 1848 all spurred the ideological... |
this era of classical anarchism lasted until the end of the spanish civil war and is considered the golden age of anarchism. drawing from mutualism, mikhail bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the international workingmen's association, a class worker union later known as the first international that for... |
in response to their expulsion from the first international, anarchists formed the st. imier international. under the influence of peter kropotkin, a russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism. anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 paris commune, advocated for fre... |
the dismemberment of the french socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the paris commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy cam... |
with the anarchists being crushed in russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. the former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. seeing the victories of the bolsheviks... |
in response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of barcelona and of large areas of rural spain, where they collectivised the land. the soviet union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitt... |
anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as crass and the sex pistols. the established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism. black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a eurocentric ... |
other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet. a significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 seattle wto conference. anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the zapa... |
in a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents (anarcha-feminism, green anarchism, and post-anarchism) developed thereafter. beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophica... |
anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum. much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other... |
despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of uniform principles such as individual and local autonomy, mutual aid, network organisation, communal democracy, justified authority and decentralisa... |
mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. in what is property? (1840), proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property. " collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socia... |
anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations, workers' councils and worker cooperatives, with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "from each accord... |
the basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action, workers' solidarity and workers' self-management. individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants. early influences on indiv... |
as the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. the anti-cap... |
while theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple anarchisms, rather than a singular anarchism, in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each gro... |
the principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. this entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy. tactics
anarchists' tactics take ... |
anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches. classical era tactics
during the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. not only did they confront state armed forces, as in spain and ukraine, but some of them a... |
anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial. anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends. other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism. this attitude was quite prominent a century ago ... |
those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media. revolutionary tactics
in the current era, italian anarchist alfredo bonanno, a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the... |
they mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as canada, greece, and mexico. militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police; however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists ... |
contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. in contrast with the big-a anarchism of the classical era,... |
one way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. anarchists... |
anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. the way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance. anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spa... |
adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a carnivalesque atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity. key issues
as anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many d... |
phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e. g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. gender, sexuality, and free love
as gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists add... |
free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. the notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure. those free ... |
during the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. by the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers an... |
anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid. anarchist writers such as william godwin (political justice) and max stirner ("the false principle of our education") attacked both state education and private educa... |
nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world. christian anarchist leo tolstoy, who published the essay education and culture, also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free. " in a similar token, ... |
late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (paul goodman, herbert read, and colin ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumer... |
anarchism and the state
objection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism. anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are tak... |
robert paul wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be. " a. john simmons and leslie green, who leaned toward ph... |
anarchists such as leo tolstoy and herbert read stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life. other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to ach... |
it could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. as it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect. the 19th-century... |
philosopher bertrand russell supported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no centr... |
this line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. the third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory. while it advocates for no-one to archiei, if accepted by the many, then anarchism would turn into the ruling political theory. in this line of criticism also comes the... |
edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate. in the problem of political authority, michael huemer defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that "political authority is a m... |
anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively. classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human ... |
according to the marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. in the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolve... |
autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. parents often notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. these signs often develop gradually, though some autistic children experience regress... |
the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (dsm-5) combines forms of the condition, including asperger syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (pdd-nos) into the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (asd). several interventions have been shown to reduce symptoms and improve... |
in the 2000s, the number of autistic people worldwide was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people. in the developed countries, about 1. 5% of children are diagnosed with asd , up from 0. 7% in 2000 in the united states. it is diagnosed four to five times more often in males than females. the number of people diagnosed has in... |
it is distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction, impairments in communication, and repetitive behavior. other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis. individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not t... |
autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they have less eye contact and turn-taking, and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves,... |
children with high-functioning autism have more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that autistic children prefer to be alone. making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for autistic people. for them, the quality of friendships, not the number o... |
differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling, unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. in the second and third years, autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling,... |
in a pair of studies, high-functioning autistic children aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and as adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comp... |
compulsive behaviors: time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce the anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or handwashing. sameness: resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not ... |
other symptoms
autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family. an estimated 0. 5% to 10% of individuals with asd show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of ... |
an estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking; deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across asd and are greater in autism proper. unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with asd, to the extent that it was f... |
parents of children with asd have higher levels of stress. siblings of children with asd report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with down syndrome in these aspects of the sibling relationship. however, they r... |
autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether asd is explained more by rare mutations with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants. complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and epigenetic f... |
numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene. most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism. the large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous structural variation—such as deletions, duplication... |
maternal nutrition and inflammation during preconception and pregnancy influences fetal neurodevelopment. intrauterine growth restriction is associated with asd, in both term and preterm infants. maternal inflammatory and autoimmune diseases may damage fetal tissues, aggravating a genetic problem or damaging the nervou... |
this has led to unsupported theories blaming vaccine "overload", a vaccine preservative, or the mmr vaccine for causing autism. the latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud". although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are bi... |
there is evidence that gut–brain axis abnormalities may be involved. a 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation, gastrointestinal inflammation, malfunction of the autonomic nervous system, gut flora alterations, and food metabolites may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction. a 2016 review concludes that e... |
all known teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception, and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development. diagnos... |
the disturbance must not be better accounted for by rett syndrome, intellectual disability or global developmental delay. icd-10 uses essentially the same definition. several diagnostic instruments are available. two are commonly used in autism research: the autism diagnostic interview-revised (adi-r) is a semistructur... |
if warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from asd specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated medical conditions. a pediatric neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cogni... |
although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes, consensus guidelines in the us and uk are limited to high-resolution chromosome and fragile x testing. a genotype-first model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number... |
in the uk the national autism plan for children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. although the symptoms of autism and asd begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses... |
it is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired, partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or blindisms. classification
autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders (pdd), w... |
the terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, asperger syndrome and pdd-nos often called the autism spectrum disorders (asd) or sometimes the autistic disorders, whereas autism itself is often called autistic disorder, childhood autism, or infantile autism. in this article, autism refers to the classic aut... |
newer technologies such as fmri and diffusion tensor imaging can help identify biologically relevant phenotypes (observable traits) that can be viewed on brain scans, to help further neurogenetic studies of autism; one example is lowered activity in the fusiform face area of the brain, which is associated with impaired... |
screening
about half of parents of children with asd notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months. according to an article, failure to meet any of the following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. delay in referral for such... |
in contrast, in the uk, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. it is not known which approach is more effective. screening tools include the modified checklist for autism in toddlers (m-chat), the early screening of autistic traits questionnaire, and the first year inventory... |
although genetic screening for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and dysmorphic features. some authors suggest that automatic motor assessment could be useful to screen the children with asd for instance with behavioural motor and emot... |
services should be carried out by behavior analysts, special education teachers, speech pathologists, and licensed psychologists. studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. however, the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent year... |
while medications have not been found to help with core symptoms, they may be used for associated symptoms, such as irritability, inattention, or repetitive behavior patterns. education
educational interventions often used include applied behavior analysis (aba), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and la... |
two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include structured and naturalistic aba interventions, and developmental social pragmatic models (dsp). one interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model, which teaches parents how to implement various aba and dsp techniques, allowing for p... |
similarly, a teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes a more naturalistic form of aba combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be beneficial in improving social-communication skills in young children, although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms. neuropsycho... |
they may also be used for associated health problems, such as adhd or anxiety. more than half of us children diagnosed with asd are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics. the atypical antipsychotic drugs risperidone and ... |
no known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments. experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function, suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism. alternat... |
the preference that autistic children have for unconventional foods can lead to reduction in bone cortical thickness with this being greater in those on casein-free diets, as a consequence of the low intake of calcium and vitamin d; however, suboptimal bone development in asd has also been associated with lack of exerc... |
a 2018 review concluded that it may be a therapeutic option for specific groups of children with autism, such as those with known food intolerances or allergies, or with food intolerance markers. the authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to date that studied the efficacy of the gluten- and casein-free diet ... |
other problems documented in the trials carried out include transgressions of the diet, small sample size, the heterogeneity of the participants and the possibility of a placebo effect. in the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten-free diet may improve some a... |
the degree of symptoms can decrease, occasionally to the extent that people lose their diagnosis of asd; this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. it is not known how often this outcome happens; reported rates in unselected samples have ranged from 3% to 25%. most autistic children acquire lang... |
many autistic people face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood. compared to the general population autistic people are more likely to be unemployed and to have never had a job. about half of people in their 20s with autism are not employed. autistic people tend to face increased stress levels related to ... |
6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0. 02 per 1,000. cdc estimates about 1 out of 59 (1. 7%) for 2014, an increase from 1 out of every 68 children (1. 5%) for 2010. in the uk, from 1998 to 2018, the autism diagnoses increased by 787%. this increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic prac... |
the sex ratio averages 4. 3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5. 5:1 without. several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed; one theory is that females are un... |
several other conditions are common in children with autism. they include:
genetic disorders. about 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable mendelian (single-gene) condition, chromosome abnormality, or other genetic syndrome, and asd is associated with several genetic disorders. intellectual disability. the percen... |
epilepsy, with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder. several metabolic defects, such as phenylketonuria, are associated with autistic symptoms. minor physical anomalies are significantly increased in the autistic population. preempted diagnoses. although the dsm-iv r... |
history
a few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. the table talk of martin luther, compiled by his notetaker, mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. the earliest well-documented case of autism is that of hugh blair o... |
he derived it from the greek word autós (αὐτός, meaning "self"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance". a soviet child psychiatrist, grunya sukhareva, described a similar... |
almost all the characteristics described in kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. it is not known whether kanner derived the term independently of asperger. kanner's reuse of autism led to deca... |
although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood asd have affected how asd is viewed, parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively, and many primary care physicians and medical specialists express some beliefs consisten... |
the internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely. societal and cultural aspects of autism have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that auti... |
autism rights movement
the autism rights movement is a social movement within the context of disability rights that emphasizes the concept of neurodiversity, viewing the autism spectrum as a result of natural variations in the human brain rather than a disorder to be cured. the autism rights movement advocates for inc... |
employment
about half of autistic people are unemployed, and one third of those with graduate degrees may be unemployed. among those who find work, most are employed in sheltered settings working for wages below the national minimum. while employers state hiring concerns about productivity and supervision, experienced ... |
surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity je to the irradiance ee (flux per unit area) received by a surface. the proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface. these factors va... |
this spectrum includes visible light (0. 4–0. 7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e. g. , trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e. g. , snow reflects most radiation). albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental mana... |
when seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. most land areas are in an albedo range of 0. 1 to 0. 4. the average albedo of earth is about 0. 3. this is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the cont... |
End of preview. Expand in Data Studio
- Downloads last month
- 4