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Does boiling water really kill bacteria? Answer Yes it does, For bacteria to actually die, the hot water would have to be at a temperature above what your skin could tolerate. Most people can tolerate a temperature of 110 degrees for little bits... Read More » Top Q&A For: Does boiling water really kill bacteria Can you kill plant roots off with boiling water? Can reverse osmosis systems kill bacteria in water? Reverse osmosis systems are not designed to kill bacteria in water. Although they may kill some bacteria, manufacturers of the systems do not recommend them for this use. The process uses a membran... Read More » Why does boiling milk overflow but boiling water does not? Probably due to the fat molecules in milk. The fat separates from the thinner, watery liquid and as the water in the milk boils the steam rises and this milk fat layer moves up. You can prevent th... Read More » How to Kill Crabs by Boiling? In recent years the traditional practice of killing crustaceans, like lobsters and crabs, by immersing them in boiling water has come under fire. Many animal-rights activists and consumers who feel... Read More »
HomeAbout UsIncorporating T.T.InformationContact usRegistrationReferences Did you Know? Tumbling and movement education is directly contributed to develping neurological pathways in students and promoting reading readiness. Children who have participated in early physcial education activities have longer attention spans, general problem solving skills and improved self-esteem. What do the children learn? Emphasis is on motor skills, tumbling, movement education, hand-eye coordination, and large muscle control. We teach many important skills and words that are essential to a child's development. Such skills include respecting others, waiting their turn, praising others, being rewarded for good behavoir, and following directions. We not only introduce them to tumbling, but we also get children excited about exercise while teaching them the basic skills of everyday life. How long are the sessions? The "Tiny Tumblers" classes are held year round. Fees are paid in advance on a monthly basis. Classes are held once each week. Four times a month, for a half hour at your preschool or daycare facility. What is Tiny Tumblers? We utilize a variety of preschool fun shaped mats, incline mats, trapezoids, mailbox, octagon barrels and a springboard used for vaulting. Thus we are able to teach Balance beam, Floor (tumbling), Vaulting. Our colorful "Fun Shaped Mats" are designed to teach and excite students while learning the concepts of tumbling. Preschoolers will develop strength, coordination and self-confidence.
bob.sacamento bob.sacamento - 11 months ago 75 Linux Question Bash arrays and negative subscripts, yes or no? The GNU bash manual tells me An indexed array is created automatically if any variable is assigned to using the syntax The subscript is treated as an arithmetic expression that must evaluate to a number. If subscript evaluates to a number less than zero, it is used as an offset from one greater than the array’s maximum index (so a subcript of -1 refers to the last element of the So I figure I will give it a try and get the following result: $ muh=(1 4 'a' 'bleh' 2) $ echo $muh $ echo ${muh[]} 1 4 a bleh 2 # so far so good so now I'll try a negative ... $ echo ${muh[-1]} -bash: muh: bad array subscript # didn't go as planned! Did I do something wrong, or is the website wrong, or is gnu bash that different from the bash I am running under CentOS? Thanks! Answer Source If you just want the last element $ echo ${muh[]: -1} If you want next to last element $ echo ${muh[*]: -2:1}
Tuesday, November 18, 2014 Aleida Assmann - Reflections on 1914 // 2014: A year of commemoration Memories of World War I are being recycled, restaged and transformed for the future. And a common historical frame allowing European nations to remember their stories collectively is within reach: an opportunity we cannot afford to squander Since January 2014 European nations have been exhorted by the media and their cultural institutions to remember World War I. For some countries with continuous commemorative traditions of 1914/18 such as France, England, Belgium, Australia and New Zealand, this reminder may have seemed superfluous. In Russia, on the other hand, World War I remains a silent event that has been erased from schoolbooks and public memory. However, for other countries like Germany or Austria, where World War I has virtually no presence in collective memory, this prescribed focus of public and political attention was a real wake-up call, stirring public interest, personal empathy and heated intellectual debates. 1. One hundred years: A watershed in the history of memory We often hear critical voices questioning the general prescription of a year of commemoration as an artificial construct. It has nothing to do, it is argued, with an inherent psychic inclination, but follows the abstract magic of numbers and is therefore considered to be a problematic external imposition on society. After ten months experience of the current year of commemoration, however, we can say that the stipulation of this artificial memory was very successful; it was widely embraced and attracted an extraordinarily high level of attention and interest. We may say that this lively response has transformed media offerings into real media events. No one could have predicted this "commemorative avalanche" (as Jay Winter has called it) and the enormous public resonance with which it was met across many European borders. I would like to add that the time span of a hundred years does not only have an arbitrary numerical value but also marks an important biological, social and cultural caesura. After 80-100 years, events sink back into the depth of history as the living ties of embodied and embedded memories are gradually dissolved. To use the suggestive language of Pierre Nora we may say that after three generations, the milieu of a memory is about to be dissolved – if it is not re-inscribed into the lieux (i.e. sites and symbols) of a more stable cultural memory.[1] This means that with respect to World War I, we have arrived at a temporal watershed, where the event will recede into the past. Thereafter, either it will be of interest only to historians, or it will have to be actively reconstructed and supported along new lines. After 100 years, in other words, we are not only looking back at the history of the events, but we are also looking into the future of their memory, considering the possibility of their reconstruction and perpetuation. This future-oriented aspect of memory is more than the mere preservation and continuation of what has been transmitted. It involves a new interpretation of historic events together with new social emotions and political commitment in the present. Moving from short-term communicative memory to long-term cultural memory urges states and nations to rethink practices, to re-establish standards and to construct new foundations for the future. This is exactly what is happening in the commemoration year: we are witnessing a temporal watershed at which memories of World War I are recycled, restaged, probed, reconstructed and transformed for the future. 2. The temporal and spatial extension of European memory Within the memory frame of the European Union, the new focus and emphasis on World War I effected an important prolongation of the horizon of the common European past. The shots in Sarajevo triggered what is commonly referred to as the "great seminal catastrophe" (or Urkatastrophe) of the twentieth century (George Kennan).[2] It started a traumatic concatenation of cataclysmic events unleashing unprecedented violence involving the Russian Revolution, another World War and the Holocaust. A new discourse about Europe started only after World War II... read more: See also Bridge on the River Kwai by Kim Hyo Soon and Kil Yun Hyung By Kinue Tokudome One of the most extraordinary engineering achievements of World War II was the construction of the Burma-Thailand railway. With unbelievably primitive tools for such a project and a total disregard for human life and suffering, the Japanese built a railway 415 km long through one of most rugged and pestilence-ridden areas of the world in the incredibly short span of 12 months. The cost was a life for every sleeper laid over its most difficult sections. Dead were 13,000 British, Australian, American and Dutch prisoners of war and an estimated 70,000 Asian civilian laborers. The military spending map of the world Paul Fussell, ex-soldier, literary Scholar & critic
An Exploratory Perspective of American and Ethnic Literature Why do writers write? Many writers write to share their and others stories. Writers write to provide their perspective of society, religion, politics, education, art, music, and philosophies. Literature is an interest of mine. While American literature is another interest because it provides the tapestry which our country is founded, I favor Ethnic Literature. Ethnic literature offers the diversity necessary to reflect the perspectives of all cultures. Although there are many other forms of literature, I will address American literature and Ethnic literature and describe their similarities and differences. American literature is a plethora of literature that provides different authors interpretation of the social, political, and cultural aspects of society. American Literature is the core of literary works and reveals America’s traditions and beliefs, and it has many branches- one of the branches extends to Ethnic literature. Ethnic literature is the key to seeing the world from a realistic perspective. The benefits of Ethnic literature is this type of literature adds depth and insight into to the diversity of America. It represents a modern society steadily evolving into a mixture of multiculturalism. Ethnic literature addresses the reality of socialism, racism, politics, religion, and philosophies. American literature is transcendental. While American literature speaks of the core of America’s existence- the civil wars, post-war experiences, life on the frontier, the revolutionary, industrialization, and the colonization eras, Ethnic literature is more reflective of modern society. Ethnic literature adds richness to literature by providing the substance which validates the core values, principles, and reasons for establishing this country. Ethnic literature’s content is composed of heritage, diversity, and multiculturalism- all are characteristics that reflect the American dream. Subsequently, like American literature, Ethnic literature is transcendental. Readers of both forms of literature have the opportunity to view democracy from a global perspective. Therefore, both offers readers the inspiration needed to reconnect, reflect, and renew their connection to their rich heritage. ~Yvonne L Photo Credits – 2 thoughts on “An Exploratory Perspective of American and Ethnic Literature 1. SonniQ I shared your post on my social media. My family became multi cultural, as well as diverse religions. We need to understand and practice tolerance with people unlike ourselves and learn why these things are important or we will continue to rip our society into shreds. I, too, spend much of my time writing – and reading the blogs of others. it’s been a wonderful way to get to know other cultures and talk to people from all over the world. Liked by 1 person 1. Creative Expressions Post author Thanks for taking time to read my blog and share on social media. I appreciate that you understand the heart of this message, and you also understand the importance of learning others cultural differences. This is important in a diverse society. It helps dispel myths and misinformation. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s
IJSRD - International Journal for Scientific Research & Development\| Vol. 2, Issue 07, 2014 \| ISSN (online): 2321-0613 A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areas Abhishek Sharma1 Shri Ram2 Scholar Student 2Associate Professor Department of Civil Engineering Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, India Abstract— Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Deforestation includes conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. Since the industrial age, about half of world's original forests have been destroyed and millions of animals and living things have been endangered. Despite the improvements in education, information and general awareness of the importance of forests, deforestation has not reduced much, and there are still many more communities and individuals who still destroy forest lands for personal gains. Deforestation also provides stability to slope through which mass movement of rocks, debris could not occur. As the plant or tree roots provides some reinforcement and also remove groundwater. On hilly areas vegetation can stabilize steep slopes and if the cutting of trees continues it would result in a drastic change in the atmosphere or in the environment. In this paper there is summarization of cause of deforestation, deforestation causes, environment changes i.e. loss of biodiversity and how deforestation is related to Key words: Deforestation, Landslide, Hill Areas The year 2011 is ‘The International Year of Forests’. This designation has generated momentum bringing greater to the forests worldwide. Forests cover almost a third of the earth’s land surface many environmental benefits including s major role in the hydrologic cycle, soil conservation, prevention of climate change and preservation of biodiversity. Forest resources can provide long-term national economic benefits. For example, at least 145 countries of the world are currently involved in wood production. Sufficient evidences are available that the whole world is facing an environmental crisis on account of heavy deforestation. For years remorseless destruction of forests has been going on and we have not able to comprehend the dimension until now. Nobody knows exactly how much of the world’s rainforests have already been destroyed and continue to be razed each year. Data is often imprecise and subject to differing interpretations. However, it is obvious that the area of tropical rainforest is diminishing and the rate of tropical rain forest destruction is escalating worldwide, despite increased environmental activism and awareness. Forests cover 31% of the land area on our planet. They produce vital oxygen and provide homes for people and wildlife. Many of the world’s most threatened and endangered animals live in forests, and 1.6 billion people rely on benefits forests offer, including food, fresh water, clothing, traditional medicine and shelter. But forests around the world are under threat from deforestation, jeopardizing these benefits. Deforestation comes in many forms, including fires, clear-cutting for agriculture, ranching and development, unsustainable logging for timber, and degradation due to climate change. This impacts people’s livelihoods and threatens a wide range of plant and animal each year—equivalent to 36 football fields every minute. India’s Forest faces heavy pressure of human and livestock population. The total forest cover in the country is only about 69 million hectares whereas human population is 1210 million, hence per capita forests are as low as 0.06 hectares. About 69 percent of India’s population i.e. 833 million live in rural areas and most of them have land based economy and use forest resources one way or the other . It is estimated that about 200 million people live in and around forests, and fully depend for their livelihood on forest resources. Further, of the 530 million livestock population in India, about 190 million fully depends on forests either by direct grazing or by harvesting of fodder causing additional burdens on the forests. Despite this heavy pressure, the forest cover in the country has not declined, but rather improved in the last one and half decades Ranging from areas under a permanent snow cover and bleak, dry, windy areas to the hot sub-tropical jungles of the foothills, the Himalaya presents diverse habitats with levels of variation that are perhaps unequalled elsewhere in the world. Figure.1 shows statistical percentile data per area of each state in India under wildlife sanctuaries. They are the home of a wide variety of mammals, reptiles and birds. These range from the wild asses of the cold deserts of Ladakh and Lahul to the rhinoceros, a relict of the ancient dinosaurs, now living in the swampy foot hills of the eastern Fig. 1: Statistical data shows percent area of each state in India under wildlife sanctuaries. Numbers on top of each bar is the actual percentage. Data was obtained from India Statistical Report, 2011. Over the year, many case studies have proven that clear cutting of large trees and other vegetation has had a drastic impact on the stability of the land. The frequency of landslides is increasing and the probability of them occurring in logged areas is high. These studies have laid out several mechanisms of clear cutting that have contributed to the increase: All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areas (IJSRD/Vol. 2/Issue 07/2014/011) Large trees provide strong root structures that penetrate fragile cracks in the underlying bedrock and anchor the soil. Old growth trees natural have large leaf structure areas which cause much water transfer. The water is drawn up from the soil and eventually transpired back to the atmosphere. Forests create a canopy of foliage high up in the air to help dissipate rain fall over large areas. Heavy logging machinery damages precious top soil and decreases its ability to absorb water. Logging slashes (leftover tree limbs) or debris blocks natural drainage basins. Anytime large amounts of vegetation are removed from an area of the root system eventually die off, which leaves the soil vulnerable to over saturation. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of deforestation and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation. Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation. Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labor needed to clear forest. One study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% cases. Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of Government institutions, the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation and urbanization. Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery. In 2000 the United Nation food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that “the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible” and that deforestation can result from “a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions.” The degradation of forest ecosystem has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forest’s owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being. From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services. Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forest centuries ago and benefited greatly from this deforestation, and that is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities: that the poor should not have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem. Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the last past 30 Years. Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects like transmigration in countries like Indonesia and colonization in Latin America, India, Java and so on, during late 19th century and the earlier half of the 20th century. By the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching and extensive agriculture. In table.1 there is analysis of forest cover based on satellite imageries done by forest survey of India. A. Expansion of Farming Land About 60% of the clearing of tropical moist forests is for agricultural settlement (Myers, 1994; Anon., 1991) with logging and other reasons like roads, urbanization and Fuelwood accounting for the rest (Anon; 1994b) However, as the land degrades people are forced to migrate, exploring new forest frontiers increasing deforestation (Willkie et al., 2000; Amor, 2008; Amor and Pfaff, 2008). Deforestation is proxied by the expansion of agricultural land. This is because agricultural land expansion is generally viewed as the main source of deforestation contributing around 60% of total tropical deforestation. Shifting agriculture also called slash and burn agriculture is the clearing of forested land for raising or growing the crops until the soil is exhausted of nutrients or the site is overtaken by weeds and then moving on to clear more forest. It is been often reported as the main agent of deforestation. Small holder production in deforestation and the growing number of such producers notably shifting cultivators were the main cause of deforestation (Anon., 1990b;c; Dick, 1991; Anon., 1992a;b; Barbeir et al., 1993; Ascher, 1993; Dove, 1993; 1996; Dauvergne, 1994; Porter, 1994; Thiele, 1994; Anon., 1994c; Angelsen 1995; Ross, 1996). Mostly all reports indicate shifting agriculture as responsible for about one half of tropical deforestation and some put it up to two-thirds. Shifting agriculture was greatest in Asia (about 30%) but only about 15% over the whole tropical world. It appears that the proportion of direct conversion of forest to agriculture is increasing and the proportion of shifting agriculture is decreasing with time. B. Overgrazing Overgrazing is more common in drier areas of the tropics. Overgrazing is subjected to soil erosion. Stripping trees to provide fodder for grazing animals can also be a problem in some dry areas of the tropics but is probably not a major cause of deforestation. Animals remove the vegetation and winds finished the job by blowing away the top soil, transforming grasslands into desert. Overgrazing of forest and pasture lands leads to the following problems: Gullies form in tracks frequented by cattle. These are very common in the Siwalik Hills where the formation of gullies is aided by the weak nature of the country rocks, zones of disturbance and highly erosive streams. The grasses growing on the pasture are adversely affected. Over-grazing keeps them below the optimum height for metabolic activity. All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areas Due to selective grazing of young and succulent grasses, only coarse and poor grasses are left. Cattle hooves damage young regeneration, seedlings and even saplings. They render the soil more prone to erosion. forest. As a result causes accelerated erosion, hamper regeneration, and destroy valuable vegetative growth and Fig. 2: Forest fires affected area in Hectares from last ten Table. 1: Analysis of Forest Cover Based on the Satellite Imageries done by Forest Survey of India C. Urabanization/ Industralization and Infrastructure Expanding cities and towns require land to establish the infrastructures necessary to support growing population which is done by clearing the forests. Tropical forests are a major target of infrastructure developments for oïl exploitation, logging concessions or hydro power dam construction which inevitably conveys the expansion of the road network and the construction of roads in pristine areas. The construction of roads, railways, bridges and air ports open up the land to development and brings increasing numbers of people to the Forest frontier. D. Forest and Other Plantations Plantations are a positive benefit and should assist in reducing the rate of deforestation. The fact is that plantations remove the timber pressure on natural forests does not translate eventually into less, but rather into more deforestation. Unfortunately about one-half of the plantations in the tropics are established on native forest cleared for the purpose. More over plantations can promote deforestation by constructing roads that improve access of the shifting cultivators and others to the forest frontier. E. Forest Fires Fires are a major tool used in clearing the forest for shifting and permanent agriculture and for developing pastures as shown in Fig. Fire is a good servant but has a poor master. Fire used responsibly can be a valuable tool in agricultural and forest management but if abused it can be a significant cause of deforestation (Repetto, 1980; Rowe et al., 1992). Forest fires in the Himalaya may be of two categories i.e. 1) Intentional Fires- It includes forest fires that are set intentionally. When miscreants set fire to the forest with a specific intention of damaging the forest wealth. The local people may set fire to the forest floor just before the onset of the monsoon season so as to induce a good growth of grass. 2) Unintentional Fires- Accidental fires may be caused by picnickers, treakers and travelers who may leave unextinguished cigarette butts, matches, camp fires etc. in the F. Mining Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, usually from an ore limestone, oil shale, rock salt, potash and diamonds. Any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially in laboratory or factory, is usually mined. Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction or even water). The nature of mining processes creates a potential negative impact on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after the mine is closed. This impact has led to most of the world’s nations adopting regulations to moderate the negative effects of mining operations. Safety has long been a concern as well, though modern practices have improved safety in mines significantly. Mining is a very profitable business and it also creates employment opportunities. It benefits everyone including the government and that is why the mining industry is widely supported. There are several negative effects of mining for the environment. To make mining possible, several forests are cleared and this leads to deforestation. The vegetation is cleared in order to build the mining facility and laying roads. Several organisms and animals live in these forests. With the deforestation, these organisms and animals lose their natural habitat. So, they were looking for a new habitat in order to survive. A. Hydrological The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue. Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape’s capacity to intercept, retain and transpire precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areas groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into flash flooding and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased evapo-transpiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. B. Soil Undisturbed forests have a very low rate of soil loss, approximately 2metric tons per square kilometer (6 short tons per square mile). Deforestation generally increases rates of soil-erosion, by increasing the amount of runoff and reducing the protection of the soil from tree litter. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forests soils. Forestry Operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of roads and the use of mechanized Removal of trees does not always increase erosion rates. In certain regions of southwest US, shrubs and trees have been encroaching on grassland. The trees themselves enhance the loss of grass between tree canopies. The bare inter canopy areas become highly erodible. Tree roots bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep the soil in place by also binding with underlying bedrock. Trees removal on steep slopes with shallow soil thus increases the risk of landslides, which can threaten people living nearby. C. Atmospheric Deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography. Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately panel on climate change deforestation, total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. But recent calculations suggest that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding peat land emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions with range from 6 to 17%. Deforestation causes carbon dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide accrues, it produces a layer in the atmosphere that traps radiation from the sun. The radiation converts to heat which causes global warming, which is better known as the greenhouse effect. D. Accelerated Erosion Degraded forests lands causes accelerated erosion. It is a well-known fact that leaves break the force of the falling rain water. Negi (1981) states,” The many tiered canopy of the Himalayan Forests act as a brake on the force of the rain drops. The drops hit the crown of the topmost tree, than fall on the herbs and shrubs below. By the times the precipitation reaches the forest floor, the force is greatly reduced.” In fact, in a dense forest a large part of the rain water trickles down along the stems of trees shrubs and In areas, having little or no vegetative cover, the raindrops fall directly onto the forest floor. The raindrop causes splash erosion due to this kinetic energy. These drops combine together to form small channels which in turn give way to finger-like features known as rills. These ultimately lead to the formation of gullies. Such gullies are more likely to be formed in tectonically affected zones and in areas where the soil is more prone to erosion. Vegetation helps to keep the soil together. The root, with its network of countless root hairs, binds the soil together. Devoid of this, the top soil is quickly washed away by the rain water. Huge quantities of unprotected soil give way to the force of the falling rain water and soil slumping results. Very often, the unprotected soil acts as a catalyst in the formation of massive landslides. Himalayan forests also provide protection from snow erosion. The tree canopy reduces the quantity of snow falling onto the ground. Snowmelt water causes soil erosion. However, the thick layer of humus on the top-soil provides protection against it. Hence, in the absence of a proper vegetative cover, accelerated erosion plays havoc. Very soon no top-soil is left on the mountain slopes. Debris brought down from the uplands is deposited over cultivated fields, houses, roads, bridges and canals. The life of a river4 valley projects has thus been reduced. A landslide is the gravitational movement of a mass of rock, debris or soil down a slope. Landslides occur when the condition of a slope changes from being unstable. Such changes can be caused by a range of triggering factors, acting together or alone. Landslides are usually classified on the basis of the type of material involved (rock, debris, earth, mud) and the type of movement (fall, topple, slide, flow, spread). Landslides can be slow moving or very rapid. Landslides occur more frequently in areas with steep slopes and highly erodible soils, clayey sub-soils or weathered and jointed bedrock, usually following intense and prolonged precipitation or earthquakes. Landslides threaten soil function in two ways:  Removal of soil from its in situ position.  Covering the soil down-slope from the area where the slope has failed. Where a landslide removes all soil material, all functions will be lost and weathering processes of the hard rock or sediment now exposed at the surface need to operate for hundreds if not thousands of years to produce enough material for soil functions to resume. When only a part of soil profile is removed by a landslide, some soil functions may remain, although most are likely to be impaired. Landslides are a major hazard in most mountainous and hilly regions as well as in steep river banks and coastlines. Their impact depends mainly on their size and speed, the elements at risk in their path and the vulnerability of these elements. Although landslides usually occur at steep slopes, they may also occur in areas with low relief or slope gradient. Listed below are some examples. Cutting failures can occur during highway excavations, building construction, etc. River bank failures. Lateral spreading of soil material. Collapse of mines, waste piles and garbage fills. All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areas Slope failures associated with quarries and open-pit Underwater landslides on the floors of lakes of reservoirs and offshore marine settings. A. Causes of Landslides The basic causes of slope instability can be: Weakness in the composition, material or geological structure of rock or soil formation  External factors, which impact the ground water regimes. For examples heavy rain, snowmelt and changes in ground water level etc.  Earthquakes or volcanic activities  Creation of new site conditions such as changes to natural slope due to construction activities. Natural and manmade changes to such unstable slopes can trigger landslides. 1) Man-Made Causes Activities made by human on slopes such as: Construction done without proper engineering  Farming practices.  Removal of vegetation cover and deforestation, etc. Excavations or cut increase the slope angle fill operations carried out without specialist advice. Mining, blasting rock or reclamation of land can also destabilize slopes. Farming activities on slopes involve removal of vegetation cover usually followed by terracing. Sometimes, farmers burn down vegetation as a convenient method of clearing land for cultivation. Commercial logging results in deforestation. These activities increase surface run-off of rainwater and expose the soil to erosion. Changes in water regime results from raising or lowering of ground water table. Alteration of surface drainage can also be a contributory factor. Irrigation alters natural surface drainage. Surface run-off of irrigated water on slopes exposes soil under cultivation to erosion. Part of this water is absorbed by soil increasing its weight, which can put an additional load on the slope. Seepage and accumulation of irrigated water on slopes can raise the ground water table. This can also result from wastewater discharge, water pipe leakage from permanent and temporary storage facilities such as ponds and sub surface irrigation facilities. Human activity can also lead to the lowering of the water table. Pumping from underlined water supply well, rapid lowering of water level in rivers, lakes or reservoirs can bring about lowering of the water table under soil. 2) Natural Factors There are several natural factors that can cause slope failures Intense rainfall or deposition of snow will raise the ground water table: decrease the soil strength and increases weight of associated material. Rapid snowmelt in mountains- rapid melting of snow adds water to soil mass on slopes. Fluctuation of water levels due to the tidal action. Lowering of the water levels in rivers, reservoirs, Erosion caused by continuous runoff over a slope. The removal of toe and lateral support of a soil mass by flow of water in streams, rivers, wave action etc. can bring about instability of the soil Deposition of loose sediments in delta areas. Decomposition of rocks. Ground vibrations created during earthquakes. Volcanic activity- In areas where there is an existing volcano, volcanic ash deposits (also known as lahar deposits) are prone to erosion and subjected to mud flows due to intense rainfall. 3) Combination Factors There is the possibility that several natural factors occur simultaneously. In some case, one hazard triggers another. For example, an earthquake may trigger a landslide, which in turn may dam a valley causing upstream flooding and subsequent dam burst. This will led to flooding in lower catchments areas. Another example can be where heavy rainfall is accompanied by cyclonic wind. This can be cause wind debris flow and flooding in the same area. Interactive events that occur in sequence may produce cumulative effects that are significantly different from those expected from any single event. Landslides occur as a consequence of various triggering factors. Rainfall is one such factor. But the human intervention like deforestation may cause the soil to lose its capacity and ultimately lead to landslides during heavy rainfall. Hill slopes in the Himalaya or known for instability due to ongoing tectonic activity. However, increasing anthropogenic intervention in the recent time appear to be contributing to terrain instability in addition to natural factors, has observed by increasing frequency and magnitude of landside since 1970. During August and September 2010, Uttarakhand Himalaya witness large scale slope destabilization, particularly along the roads where widening works was in progress. The cause of regional-scale landslides has been attributed to exceptionally high rainfall in the region during September. Our observations suggest that in adequate consideration of geology and geomorphology during the road alignment and poor, faulty engineering technique were measure factors responsible for the recent landslides. Slope movements increase due to deforestation, as the roots provide some reinforcement and also remove groundwater. On the other hand, addition of vegetation to slopes can cause slope movement, because the vegetative mass increases the weight of the slope in terms of moisture Vegetation growing on slopes has traditionally been considered to have an indirect or minor effect on stability, and it is usually neglected in stability analysis. This assumption is not always correct, as proved by commercial harvesting activities in mountainous regions of the U.S.A., Canada, and Japan, which resulted in an increase in landslide problems. The following effects of vegetation should be considered for assessing its impact on slope stability:  Evaporative and Absorptive losses reduce All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areas Roots absorb water from soil for transpiration and reduce pore water pressure, Roots reinforce the soil increasing its shear Tree roots may also anchor into firm strata providing support to the slope and Roots and soil particles on ground surfaces reduce their susceptibility to erosion. move down to the plains or bigger cities to look for work or remain behind and indulge in illicit damage to forests. Due to deforestation and loss of grazing grounds, soil erosion increases, resulting in slope instability or landslides. Legal deforestation for timber production and use in industry also adversely affects slope stability because of poor planning, creating an imbalance. Presently, the need for more timber for industry is causing deforestation and landslides. Socioeconomic conditions in mountainous areas have played a significant role in deforestation. Because of the agricultural and pastoral communities in these areas, the needs of the local inhabitants and the pressures or requirements of forest conservation departments have always clashed. The rights given to these people about 100 years ago (when population was much less than today) permit grazing, grass-cutting, storing of firewood and trees for their houses at concessional rates. Due to faulty agricultural practices, e.g. excessive grazing and felling of trees, soil erosion and landslides have increased. Because of illiteracy, ignorance and tendency to stick to old traditions and convictions, they still seek to make a living from their limited agricultural and pastoral resources. Because of their limited resources, which last for few months, they either A. Influence of Vegetation on Slope Stability It is widely recognized that vegetation can stabilize steep slopes (Rickli and Graf, 2009). Vegetation cover has an impact on slope stability by:  Influencing the physical stability of slopes by root arming, weight of trees and wind induced forces (Ziemer, 1981 a/b; Beinsteiner, 1981; Tsukamoto, 1990; Sidle, 1991; Bischetti et al., 2004; Medicus,  Influencing the hydrology by reducing the physical force of rain drops, interception, evapotranspiration, pore pressures, suction power, quantity and volume of pores (Markart et al., 2004; Markart et al., 2006; Thielen, 2007; Tobias, 2003). Fig. 3: Schematic drawing showing the interactions of vegetation, soil, rock and water However, the quantification of these processes is very difficult. In Table.2 and figure.3 relevant interactions between vegetation cover and the basement are demonstrated. Four possible interactions of tree roots and basement can be distinguished (Tsukamoto and Kusabe, 1984; Tsukamoto and Minematsu, 1987; Rickli, 2001). These four possible interactions are further influenced by biological parameters like number and variety of species, age of trees, the density of trees and treetops, depth range of tree root system and healthiness of the forest (e.g. Rickli, 2001; Foetzki et al., 2004; Gaertner, 2004). For instance Rickli et al. (2001) find that areas with medium to mature trees and very few clearance show minimum sliding activity, whereas sites with very young trees and many clearances or storm damaged sites show the highest (Rickli, 2001; Markart et al.,2007). All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areas Shallow seated soil cover, reinforced by roots, below: compact, for roots not penetrable rock Similar to Tree 1, but rock is slightly disintegrated and can be penetrated by tree Friction Angle If Saturated with water decreases of φ and initiation of slides. If Saturated with water decrease of φ but roots reinforce slope, minor surface Medium to deep seated soil cover with If Forests is a transitional layer, Unhealthy or if which is more dense roots tend to and has a greater friction angle, to penetrate this layer there may be increases slope The soil cover is If Saturated greater than root with water length, roots may decreases of φ influence hydrology and possibly but do not increases initiation of mechanical slope Table. 2: Four possible interactions between tree roots and B. Shear Strength Landslides occur only if the driving forces exceed the resisting forces in the critical slip surface of a slope. Wu et al. (1979) introduced by the term “cr” called “root cohesion” to calculate the soil-root composite shear strength T with the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria. Root cohesion is the apparent cohesion provided by the roots: τ= (c’ + cr) + (σn - u) tan φ’…….. (1) whereas T= shear strength; c’=soil cohesion; cr=root cohesion; σn=total normal stress; u=pore pressure; tan φ’=angle of internal friction; Relevant factors for calculating shear strength are cohesion, normal stress and the angle of internal friction. Cohesion can act in different ways:  Cohesion between particles (finer grained material: plasticity, clay content, moisture).  Suction power (“Capillarity cohesion”, Tobias  Arming of particles by roots (Wu et al. 1979) Normal Stress on the slip is influenced by  Pore pressure (buoyant force, weight of water)  The unit weight of soil and trees  Density of soil  Soil depth and Slope gradient. The angle of internal friction is a parameter of the degree of interlocking of individual grains or which itself depends on shape, roundness, size and packing arrangement of the particles. The main parameters influenced by vegetation cover and their roots are given in Root Cohesion Cr Arming by roots Normal Stress σn Unit weight of trees Normal Stress σn Reducing weight by Pore pressure u increase of suction Table. 3: Parameters of Shear Strength influenced by Vegetation (Beinsteiner, 1981; Sidle, 1991; Medicus, 2009). Fig. 4: Distribution of shear and normal stresses for tree and soil weights (from O’ Loughlin, 1974), stresses in a depth of 1m, weight of soil: 20kN/m3, bulk density of tress: 2.5kPa. The weight of the trees influences the slope stability in a positive way if the driving force due to the tree weight does not exceed the resisting force due to tree weight and vice versa. Thus the weight of the trees is not per negative for slope stability. Figure.4 shows the distribution of shear and normal stresses for tree and soil weights in a slope (O’ Loughlin, 1974). As expected in slopes with sliding planes much deeper than the depth of the root system neither the tree weight nor the root cohesion has a significant impact on slope stability. The roots do not reach deep enough to stabilize the slope and the weight of trees is marginal in comparison to the weight of soil or pore water. C. Mechanical Reinforcementn By Roots Roots reinforce slopes by three mechanisms i.e. anchoring, lateral support by crossing zones of weakness, and acting as long fibrous binders within a weak soil mass (Zeimer, 1981b).Roots withstand shearing by tensile strength under the fiber cracks. This depends on diameter and strength individual roots (Wu et al., 1979) as well as concentration of roots (Abe and Ziemer, 1991). Tobias (2003) shows by shear experiments that extraction of roots (skin friction) is another important failure mechanism influencing not only cohesion but also the friction angle of the soil. Katzenbach and Werner (2006) give the following parameters to assess All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areas the influence of roots on slope stability: tensile strength of roots, compound strength between roots and soil (extraction), shear strength of roots as well as length and branching of roots. According to Abe and Zeimer (1991) soil shear strength increases with increasing root concentration and and increasing displacement at the shear Rickli and Bucher (2003) state that mainly wooden roots (mature roots) may act as stabilizers and give depths of the main root system of 5 to 140 cm for forests and 30 to 100 cm for open land. Maximum potential root cohesion for different species is given with 2-22 K Pa by Sidle (1991). Root Cohesion seems to be very high in the upper 30 cm of soil (38 to 47kPa), dropping linearly to values of 10kPa at 100 cm depth (Bischetti et al., 2004). Katzenbach and Werner (2006) present shearing tests measuring soil before and after root growth. The internal friction angle increased slightly by 0.7o to 1.7o the cohesion by 1.1 to 4kN/m2 after root growth. Buchanan and Savigny (1990) identify four groups of vegetation cover featuring different root cohesion values. Understory vegetation like grasses, sedges and shrubs show cr, values between 1.6 to 2.1 K Pa (Group I). For a scrub Forest (understory with single trees, Group II) they calculate cr values between 2.1 to 2.5kPa. A mixture of understory vegetation and healthy forest to approximately 15m in height (Group III) show cr values between 2.5 to 3.0 kPa. Group IV, an old growth forest shows values of root cohesion bigger than 3.0kPa. The appearance and depth of root system depend on species and soil development. D. Sloping Terraces and Landslides An increase in steepness or slope gradient leads to an increase in shear stress on the potential failure plane and a decrease in normal stress on both natural and man-made slopes. On the other, hand, gentler slopes, particularly with pervious soil covers are more prone to absorption and percolation of water than steep slopes. Natural terraces with steep angles and less vegetation, having pervious soil cover, proved to be the most unstable areas. The relationship of slope angles to the factors of safety of such terraces is given in figure.5 It is clear from this figure that there is substantial decrease in factors of safety of slopes where there are increases in the water content of terrace materials. Fig. 5: Relationship of Angle of slope (Terraces) with stability number Similarly, the safety factor decreases with an increase in slope angles. Natural terraces where there is a lot of cultivation are found to be stable, but ploughing these terraces causes some degree of instability. Man-made cultivated terraces and having, along with their approach roads, are contributing to slope instability due to changes caused in the geometry and configuration of the morphological features. Such terraces also change the surface and groundwater conditions. Vegetation cover influences slopes physically and hydro logically. The hydrological influence is mostly positive by reducing the overall amount of water infiltrating into the soil or acting as surface runoff. Plant roots do act, apart from giving physical stability, as water consumers extracting water from soils and increasing suction power, which additionally improves shear strength and reduces overall weight acting on the slope. Physical impact is more complicated to assess as many different parameters are involved. In simple terms, the depth of the sliding plane is the crucial factor. Forested areas are mostly effective in preventing shallow seated slides. Slides presenting deep seated sliding planes, the effect of vegetation fall off (Moser,1980). In Figure.6 Ziemer (1981 a) Shows a decrease in relative root reinforcement after deforestation by decaying roots within 10 years to about 20%. Upcoming new trees, if planted, regain 20% of relative reinforcement in the same time. A significant trough in root reinforcement within this time span of nearly 10 years makes a slope vulnerable for mass movements. Fig. 6: Development of slope stability by living and dead roots after deforestation (From Zeimer, 1981a) Complete deforestation as a mitigation measure (“weight release”) for slopes being prone to sliding is common in alpine regions. Beinsteiner (1981) quantified the relationship between weight of trees, pore water and soil, weight i.e. in Table.4. The weight for the Forest stand ranges between 2 and 8 percent of the total weight for one hectare of Forest and 0.25-1m soil thickness. Taking this into account, deforestation as a mitigation measure for mass movements should be carefully scrutinized and numerical analyses should be carried out for every endangered slope before ed (1m) Weight of All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areas Table. 4: Quantification of soil, water and tree weights for 1 hectare (Beinsteiner, 1981) Deforestation is the conversion of forest to an alternative permanent non-forested land use such as agriculture, grazing or urban development. Deforestation is primarily a concern for the developing countries of the tropics as it is shrinking areas of the tropical forests causing loss of biodiversity and enhancing the greenhouse effect. FAO considers a plantation of trees established primarily for timber production to be Forest and therefore, does not classify natural forest conversion to plantation as deforestation. However, FAO does not consider tree plantations that provide non-timber products to be forest although they do classify rubber plantations as forest. Forest degradation occurs when the ecosystem functions of the forest are degraded but where the area remains forested rather cleared. We all know that the colossal cause of deforestation is people’s needs from the Forests. Even though we depend on the forests, we should learn to lessen our dependency on the forests and their environment. So we need to use a little of them as possible and wisely. Afforestation is the conversion from other land uses into forest, or the increase of the canopy cover to above the 10% threshold. Afforestation is the reverse of deforestation and includes areas that are actively converted from outer land uses into forest through silvicultural measures. Afforestation also includes natural transitions into forests, for example on abandoned agricultural land or in burnt over areas that have not been classified as forest during the barren period. As for deforestation, the conversion should be long-term, that is areas where the transition into forest is expected to last than ten years, for example due to recurring fires, should not be classified as afforestation areas. The concept “long-term” is central in this definition and is defined as ten years. Local climatological conditions, land use contexts or the purpose of the analysis may however justify that a longer time frame is used.Paper is one of the most important things in the world without it we can’t do almost anything. We cannot study, write, learn and a lot of stuff which is impossible to without paper, but many of the forests are destroyed just to make paper out of them. So lessen your dependency on the paper and try to use as less as possible and recycle them. Reforestation is the re-establishment of forest formations after a temporary condition with less than 10% canopy cover due to human-induced or natural perturbations. The definitions of forest clearly states that forests under regeneration are considered as forests even if the canopy cover is temporarily below 10%. Many forest management regimes include clear-cutting followed by regeneration, and several natural processes, notably forest fires and windfalls, may lead to a temporary situation with less than 10% canopy cover. In these cases, the area is considered as forest, provided that the re-establishment (i.e. reforestation) to above 10% canopy cover takes place within the relatively near future. As for deforestation, the time frame is central. The concept “temporary” is central in this definition and is defined as less than ten years. Local land use contexts, or the purpose of the analysis, may however justify that a longer time frame is used. Recycling of products which are made up of tree can also reduce deforestation process for example bags, furniture, etc. Those factories that cut down trees in excessive amount to make beneficial products for human resources should be banned or sealed by the Government. [1]. Abe, K. and Ziemer, R.R., 1991. Effect of tree roots on a shear zone: modeling reinforced shear stress. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 21, [2]. Anonymous. 1992a. Forest Products: Yearbook 1991. FAO, Rome. [3]. Anonymous. 1992b. Violated Trust: Disregard for the Forests and Forests Laws of Indonesia. [4]. Anonymous. 1994a. Deforestation Technical Support Package. Third International [5]. Conference on Environment Enforcement, Oaxaca Mexico April 25-28, 1994. World Wildlife Fund; U .S. Environmental Protection Agency and U. S. Agency for International [6]. Anonymous 2001c. Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. Contribution of working groups I, II, III to the 3rd assessment report of the IPCC. IPCC, Cambridge University Press, [7]. Anonymous. 2002. Forest certification and biodiversity: opposites or complements? Discussion paper prepared for the GEF, International Tropical Timber Organization, Yokohama Japan. [8]. Anonymous. 2005. Ecosystems and Human well-being: synthesis. Millennium ecosystem Assessment. Island Press, Washington DC. [9]. Bischetti, G.B., Chiaradia, E.A. and Simonato, T., 2004. The role of root reinforcement on May 2002 slope failure in St. Giulio creek catchment (Northern Italy). Internationals Symposium Tagungspublikation, Thema IV, Band 2, 57-67. Bischetti, G.B. and Chiaradia, E.A., 2004. Evaluation of the effect of root cohesion on slope failures St. Giulio creek catchment. Book of Abstracts- International Conference on ECOENGINEERING “The use of vegetation to improve slope stability”. 13-17. Sept.2004, Thessaloniki, Greece. All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areas [10]. Effects of mining on Environment in the state of Jharkhand, India by Dr. Nitish Priyadarshi. [11]. Forest Survey of India (2001) state of Forest report 2001. Ministry of Environment and forest, Government of India Dehradun. Website: [12]. Guidelines for construction in landslide prone areas, Sri Lanka Urban Multi-Hazard Disaster Mitigation Project (SLUMDMP); (2003) [13]. Indonesian Environmental Forum (WALHI), Jakarta Indonesia. [14]. List of Publications/Research paper prepared by the landslide studies and Services Division of [15]. Landslides in focus, Volume I-IV, National Building Research Organization (2000). [16]. NBRO Landslide Studies and Research Division: Landslide history of Sri Lanka- Major events and disasters due to landslides in Sri Lanka. [17]. O’ Loughlin, C., 1974. The effect of timber removal in the stability of forest soils. Journal of Hydrology, 13 (2), 121-134. [18]. Reinhold Steinacher1, Gertraud medicus2, Wolfgang Fellin2 and Christian Zangerl1 1. Consulting Geologist, alps- Center for Natural Hazard Management –Gmbh, Grabenweg 3, Innsbruck, Austria; 2. Department for infrastructure, Division of Geotechnical and Tunneling, University of Innsbruck, Austria; [19]. Rickli, C., Zimmerli, P. and Boll, A., 2001. Effects of vegetation on Shallow Landslides: An Analysis of the events of August 1997 in Sachseln, Switzerland. In M.Kunhe (ed.), Proceedings International Conference on Landslides Davos 2001, pp 575-584. [20]. Rickli, C and Graf, F., 2009. Effects of forest on shallow landslides- case studies in Switzerland. Forest, Snow and landscape Research, 82 (1), [21]. Tsukamoto, Y. and Minematsu, H., 1987. Evaluation of the effect of deforestation on slope stability and its application to watershed management. Forest hydrology and Watershed Management- Proceedings of the Vancouver Symposium, International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication, 167, 181189. [22]. Tsukamoto, Y. and Kusabe, O., 1984. Vegetative Influences on debris slide occurrences on steep slopes in Japan. Proceedings of Symposium on effect of forest land use on erosion and slope stability in Honolulu, Hawaii, 63-72. [23]. Ziemer, R.R., 1981a. Roots and Stability of forested slopes. In: T.R.H. Davies and A.J. Pearce (eds.), Erosion and sediment transport in Publication 132, 343-361. [24]. Ziemer, R.R., 1981b. The role of Vegetation in the stability of forested slopes. Proceedings of the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations, XVII World Congree, Japan, 1, [25]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining. All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com Sign up to vote on this title UsefulNot useful
This Happens To Your Body When You Eat Oatmeal Everyday The breakfast is the most important meal of the day, as it prepares the body for the following daily activities, stimulating proper digestion, and providing the important nutrients and body energy. However, if you choose to start your day with oatmeal, you will definitely gain numerous health benefits! Due to its rich nutritional profile, it has been consumed for more than 2 thousand years, and its medicinal properties have been of great help in the treatment of nerve issues, intestinal problems, skin conditions, and other ailments. A small serving of this full grain will provide 13gr of protein and sufficient amounts of manganese for the entire day. It is also rich in antioxidants, phytic acid, selenium, phenolic acid, vitamin E, tocotrienols, copper, magnesium, phosphorus, vitamin B1, biotin, Molybdenum. This is what will happen to your body if you consume oatmeal every morning on a daily basis: It is a great source of energy and fiber, and it will also boost digestion. The low-glycemic index will provide enough body energy but will help you prevent sugar drops, as it will regulate insulin use and reduce the sugar cravings. If you have oatmeal for breakfast, you can effectively reduce the calorie intake by up to 81%, and it will help you avoid overeating during the rest of the day. Additionally, if you consume oatmeal for breakfast, due to its satiating properties, you will successfully prevent weight gain and obesity. These are some other health benefits of oatmeal: • Whole grains prevent childhood asthma • Improves immune response • It is high in fiber which prevents breasts cancer • Reduces cholesterol • Lowers the risk of heart failure • Its regular use can prevent gout • It is a completely safe grain alternative for people suffering from celiac disease or gluten intolerance • Regulates blood sugar levels and lowers the risk of type 2 diabetes • Reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases • Supports longevity Therefore, oats are an excellent choice for breakfast. However, it is always better to choose the less processed kinds. We recommend that beginners start with steel-cut oats, and add them to your favorite smoothies, yogurts, cookies, of muffins. Here are some important facts about oat processing: 1.Instant oatmeal They have been partially cooked before being rolled thinly. 2. Old-fashioned oats Steaming and rolling have resulted into the flat shape of these oats. 3.Oat groats These unrefined kernels are great for stuffing or in your morning smoothie. 4.Quick –cooking oats Their process of preparation is the same like in the case of the old-fashioned oats, but these oats are cut before rolling. 5.Oat bran Oat bran actually involves only the outer part of the oat grain, which is located beneath the hull. 6.Steel-cut oats The grains are being placed between running steel blades, and they have dense and chewy texture. Yet, remember that you can replace any meal with oatmeal and enjoy its benefits. You can choose your favorite combinations and stay healthy in a delicious way! From Around the Web From Around the Web new Addvertise
Mystery meat. Is schoolchildren's cafeteria food out to lunch? `WHAT IS IT TODAY?' AS school cafeterias gear up for the new year, the Public Voice for Food and Health Policy has issued a report aimed at improving the quality of the National School Lunch Program. ``Many schools around the country continue to serve lunches loaded with saturated fat, while the surgeon general has stated that reducing intake of fat is the most significant change Americans can make in eating a more healthful diet,'' says Ellen Haas, executive director of Public Voice, in Washington. ``We're concerned that the main courses are often full of fat and too often fried. This is discouraging, since many schoolchildren eat little more than the main course,'' Ms. Haas comments. ``Although the United States Department of Agriculture issued the Dietary Guidelines in 1980, it has done little to ensure that they are followed in one of the critical programs that it oversees - the National School Health Program,'' Haas continues. ``Not only has USDA not seen to it that schools cut back on fat, but many of the foods provided to the schools under the commodity purchase program contribute to the high-fat menus served.'' Haas noted that a number of school districts have used some creativity in providing a complete menu that meets the spirit of the US Dietary Guidelines, while at the same time serving foods that are popular with the students. ``We found that many schools are making changes for the better, particularly in side dishes and desserts, often including vegetables or fresh fruits,'' she reports. The school lunch program has a lot going for it. It provides food at a reasonable price, or even at no cost, for those who can't afford it. For many children, it is the only healthful food they get all day. A number of schools have been cited for making innovative strides in providing better menus, according to the Public Voice report. For example, instead of topping a hot dog with chili, some schools are topping a single baked potato with chili. The group applauded the choice of chili as a topping, over the often-served ham and cheese topping, which is high in fat and sodium. Eileen Kugler, also of Public Voice, gives an example of a traditional school lunch: chicken, fried with skin on and with a bread coating, potato with fatty gravy, a cheese biscuit, and pudding with whipped cream. ``A healthfully modified lunch would include the same basic chicken, but broiled with lemon and garlic or ginger or other interesting seasoning, steamed vegetables on the side, whole grain bread baked on premises, and an apple dessert,'' says Ms. Kugler. ``One question that always comes up is whether kids will eat the vegetables even if you do add an interesting seasoning,'' Kugler comments. ``The answer is, of course, some just won't touch vegetables. Many just eat the main course. ``We looked at lunches all over the United States. By and large, most main courses are too fatty - lots of hot dogs and lots of ground beef. Here are some of the good ones: ``Spaghetti with tomato sauce and ground beef [not more than 20 percent fat], steamed broccoli, freshly baked bread, and grapes served in the Portland, Ore., district. ``Baked potato topped with chili, raw broccoli and carrots, and sweet potato pie as served in the Denver school district. ``Homemade pizza with cheese and tomato sauce, tossed salad of lettuce, cabbage, tomato, and dressing; homemade oatmeal-raisin cookies from the Boston school district.'' Here are some tips for preparing school lunches that ``make the grade'': Increase fruits and vegetables, particularly vegetables in main-course offerings. Whenever possible, bake or oven-fry instead of frying in deep fat. Offer skim or 1 percent milk. Serve more fiber-rich whole grain breads and pastas. Substitute whole grain flour for half the amount of white flour in quick breads and cookies. Skim fat from soups and stews. Cool canned meats in the refrigerator so that the congealed fat can be removed. Substitute lentils for all or part of the meat in dishes like chili or Sloppy Joes. Use plain low-fat or nonfat yogurt or low-fat cottage cheese in place of sour cream or mayonnaise. Prepare your own salad dressing, cutting down on the amount of oil and salt. Serve less dressing on salads. Offer pre-packaged low-fat dressings.
Tuesday, December 20, 2011 Religion First, Then The Plow Anyone interested in the evolution of man and his ancient roots, especially those wanting to understand the psychology of a person and society, must look into the recent archaeological findings in Anatolia, written about recently by National Geographic magazine and The New Yorker. This site contains what appears to be religious structures obviously requiring large groups of people but occurring before agriculture. They are over 11,000 years old, over 6,000 years older than the Great Pyramid! What is remarkable is that these religious structures were built before man took up the plow, which means that (at least in this location) organized religion came before large, organized, hierarchical, and agricultural societies. Consequently, we must update our assessment about the importance of organized religion in the homo sapien species. —Elif Batuman. December 19 & 26, 2011. “The Sanctuary.” The New Yorker magazine. In The New Yorker article I learned that the term "Neolithic Revolution" (the transition from hunter-gatherer to livestock-farming )was coined in the 1920s by a [disillusioned] Stalinist named V. Gorden Childe, who committed suicide in 1957 after an uprising in Hungary. Blog Archive
South Africa Capital: Pretoria Population: 50,586,757 (2011 estimate) Location: Southern Africa National Parks Flora and fauna South Africa is ranked sixth out of the world’s seventeen megadiverse countries, with more than 20,000 different plants, or about 10% of all the known species of plants on Earth, making it particularly rich in plant biodiversity. Numerous mammals are found in the bushveld including lions, leopards, white rhinos, blue wildebeest, kudus, impalas, hyenas, hippopotamus and giraffes. A significant extent of the bushveld exists in the north-east including Kruger National Park and the Mala Mala Reserve, as well as in the far north in the Waterberg Biosphere. South Africa is a popular tourist destination, and a substantial amount of revenue comes from tourism. Principal international trading partners of South Africa—besides other African countries—include Germany, the United States, China, Japan, the United Kingdom and Spain. The nation’s rich variety of historically significant sites lends itself to tourist interest. Four of eight of South Africa’s Unesco World Heritage sites are cultural sites, and one is a mixed natural/cultural site. The remaining three Unesco World Heritage sites are natural sites, and draw visitors to the country’s world renowned eco-tourism sector. External links: Department of Tourism
By Sean Leaver In humans we see lekking behaviour in the general rule that people like being around successful people. This is why social A-lists exist. More generally as animal behaviour, a lek is a gathering of individuals for the purposes of competitive display - competitive signalling. For universities, A-list researchers attract other high quality researchers and also crucially high quality teachers. Why is this important for attracting high quality teachers? Academics themselves are generally seen to be sensitive to reputational influences of their peer group. High quality teachers will be hesitant to join to a university who's reputation is ambiguous (uncertainty as to rank). The solution is to have an unambiguous reputational signal. However, the signal needs to overcome the problems of asymmetric information associated with the observation ('measurement') of quality. It is for this reason that research reputation trumps teaching reputation. Research reputation is a less ambiguous signal as a result of the strength of external validation - active peer review in both academic and public domains (media). Teaching reputation is harder to validate outside the university in which it occurs, leading to the problem of asymmetric information. Please log in to add a comment. Sean Leaver Published: 15 Feb, 2015 Cc by
Tuesday, December 15, 2015 Each Night a Child Is Born Is a Holy Night Children in the Discovery class act out the story of Jesus' birth Sophia Fahs, a Unitarian religious educator, wrote: "Each night a child is born is a holy night A time for singing, A time for wondering, A time for worshipping. Each night a child is born is a holy night. No angels herald their beginnings No prophets predict their future course No wise men see a star to show where to find the babe that will save humankind Yet each night a child is born is a holy night." Explores make clay for ornaments, while talking about the story of Jesus' birth. Sunday, December 6, 2015 Learning About Hannuakah This time of the year is a special time when some families all over the world celebrate freedom, miracles, and love. This wonderful celebration is called Hanukkah. Today, the children in our youngest classes learned about the celebration of Hannukah. On Hannukah, Jewish people celebrate this miracle of the light that lasted eight days and their freedom to believe and worship as they choose. They bring out their Menorahs, a beautiful candleholder with room for nine candles. The extra candle is called the “shammash”, a candle to light all the other candles. Each night for eight nights, they light the candles adding one each night until the last night. And they do things together on each of the nights. They gather family together. They play dreidel (a spinning top) together. They eat potato latkes together. They sing songs together. They share simple gifts together. They eat jelly donuts together. They find chocolate gelt together. They say blessings together. On the eighth night, all the candles burn brightly. Everyone remembers the story of the fight for freedom and of the miracle of the lights. Everyone is happy to be with people who love them. Sunday, November 29, 2015 5 Questions This year our classes for children and youth are learning stories from Jewish and Christian scriptures, and thinking about the stories in terms of five questions that can be asked about any religion. The Authority question: Who decides what is right and true in life? Whose ideas are right? Who can we learn from? The Cosmology question: What is the universe like and where did it come from? What is sacred or holy? What is God? The Anthropology question: What are people like? Are we good or are we evil? How should we treat one another? The Sociology question: How should we live our lives? How should we treat the world? The Ecclesiology question: What is church for? What do people in our church believe? Why do we go to church? Today the Treasure Hunters class reviewed five of the stories we have read this year, and related them to the five questions. Noah's Ark by Jerry Pinkney This story reminds us that it is a blessing that we were born. Knowing that each one of us is a blessing can help us to answer some big questions, such as “What are people like?” “Are we good, or are we evil?” and “How should we treat one another?” When people ask “What are people like?” they are asking the anthropology question. Unitarian Universalists believe that all people are good. People may do bad things, or make bad choices, but they are not bad people. All people deserve respect and to be treated with fairness and kindness. This is what we mean when we say we are the church of the loving hearts. Cain and Abel by Sandy Eisenberg Sasso This story reminds us that it matters what we do. Knowing that what we do matters can help us to answer some big questions, such as “How should we live our lives?” and “How should we treat the world?” When people ask “How should we live our lives?” they are asking the sociology question. Unitarian Universalists believe that we should each work to make the world a better place. All people deserve peace and freedom. We believe in taking care of the earth and all living things. This is what we mean when we say we are the church of the helping hands. Jonah and the Great Fish by Warwick Hutton This story reminds us that what each of us knows about God is a piece of the truth. Knowing that what each of us knows about the mystery is a piece of the truth can help us to answer some big questions, such as “Who decides what is right and true in life?” “Whose ideas are right?” and “Who can we learn from?” When people ask “Who decides what is right and true?” they are asking the authority question. Unitarian Universalists believe that we are always learning and growing. We believe that each person has the right to decide what is right and true and that we can all learn from each other. This is what we mean when we say we are the church of the open minds. Adam and Eve's First Sunset by Sandy Eisenberg Sasso This story reminds us to let the beauty that we love be what we do. This can be a very hard idea to understand, even for grown ups! How can what we love be what we do? Remember how we are always learning and growing, and how we can learn from each other? We can also learn by paying attention to our world, to everything we see and hear and smell and touch and taste. When we find something beautiful—when we small a beautiful flower, or hear beautiful music, or see a beautiful sunset, or eat delicious food, or enjoy a snuggly hug from someone we love – we can take the good feelings we get from that beauty, and that can help us remember that we believe that people are good and that the world is good. It can help us remember that god is good, for those of us that believe in god. Knowing that the beauty that we love can be what we do can help us to answer some big questions, such as “What is the universe like?” “What is God?” and “What is sacred or holy?” When people ask “What is sacred or holy?” they are asking the cosmology question. Unitarian Universalists believe that the world, that the whole universe and everything in it, is a wonderful and creative place, filled with all sorts of things to explore and learn from. Our task is to pay attention to the beauty in the world, and to make more beauty. How can we make more beauty? By treating each other with kindness, by caring for each other and for the earth, by learning and growing, and by creating beautiful things and beautiful ideas that help other people find the beauty in the world and in their lives. Unitarian Universalists believe we are all connected to each other and to everything, and there is beauty to be found everywhere. This is also what we mean when we say we are the church of the open minds, and the loving hearts, and the helping hands. Joseph by Brian Wildsmith This story reminds us that we are not alone, that we have friends at church that will help us when we need help. This is a very easy idea, but it is also easy to forget! Knowing that we have help, that we “don’t have to do it alone” can help us to answer some big questions, such as “What is church for?” “What do people in our church believe?” and “Why do we go to church?” When people ask “What is church for?” they are asking the ecclesiology question. Unitarian Universalists believe that we can do more if we work together. We can learn from each other. We can help each other realize that we each are good and worthy of love. We can work together for peace and justice in the world. We can help each other speak up for what is true and rightWe can help each other find the beauty in the world. We can create more beauty together. This is also what we mean when we say we are the church of the open minds, and the loving hearts, and the helping hands. Monday, October 12, 2015 Playing and Learning Together Discovery class enjoyed playing together with blocks and paints . . . . . . after hearing the story of the Fox and The Stork, about offering help that is needed. The Treasure Hunters class heard a story about Noah and the Ark . . . . . . and acted it out with lots of stuffed animals. The Explorers class learned about Jesus' early life, and examined a map to see where Jesus lived. The middle school youth group created an interpretive dance to act out the story of Creation. Monday, October 5, 2015 In Another's Shoes This month's lessons in the Explorers class focus on the question "Who decides what is right and true in life?" People's lives are in part determined by the things they experience; but we each have a choice in how we will respond to the negative experiences, whether they will break our spirits or build our character. Today's goal in the Explorer's class was to better understand the culture Jesus was born into, and to notice the similarities and differences with our world today. The children watched an excerpt from the Reader's Digest film "Jesus Among the People" to show some images of what life may have looked like in Palestine during the time of Jesus. The children made sandals similar in style to those worn at that time (although ours were made from cardboard and ribbon, rather than leather). We tried to "put ourselves in the shoes" of people in another place and time. Throughout the year, we will be asking our young people to "put themselves in another's shoes" by seeing things from other people's perspectives. As we study stories from the Bible this year, we will talk about what they may have meant to the people telling and writing them many years ago, what they might have meant to our Unitarian and Universalist ancestors, and what they mean to us today. Sunday, September 6, 2015 Best Seller for the Ages Have you ever seen in the bookstore or library a list of “Best Sellers?” It is a list of books that people are currently buying and reading. Who remembers people standing in lines to purchase the Harry Potter books when they were first coming out? Did you know that there is not just one “best seller list” in the publishing world? There are lists for the best selling fiction (made up stories) and best selling non-fiction (true stories or informational). There are lists of hard cover books, paperback books, children’s books, and I think now even electronic books! But there a book that has been a best seller for AGES--the Bible. The Bible is actually a collection of smaller “books” without their separate covers. There were written by different people, at different times, and for different groups of people. They all have their special point of view about God and how people live in light of that. There is a Hebrew Bible. The first five books are called the Torah that is read during Jewish Shabbat services. And there is a Christian Bible with some of the same books, but more too. A group of Christians met together at the First Council of Nicaea in the year 325! and they decided which books would make up the Christian Bible. Even today different Christian Bibles aren’t all the same. Inside the Bible's smaller “books” are so many stories! You will find stories of brave and foolish people, of wars and long journeys in the desert, kings and queens, beggars and thieves. There is trickery and family arguments, but there is also poetry and rules to live by. There are stories of miracles happening (when something happens that is amazing or hard to explain). Stories of something bigger, a mystery some call Yahweh or God. People have been telling these stories for a VERY LONG TIME. Whether you think the stories are possible in the real world or not, you might be surprised by the “truth” in them. People always have questions, fears, hopes and dreams no matter where or when they have lived. People always have had trouble getting along 100 percent of the time. Many people today like to read and discuss these stories and remember them to each other. Over the year we will be exploring the characters and ideas in the Hebrew and Christian Bibles AND as Unitarian Universalists we will ask questions, compare them to our lives and other stories, traditions, myths. (from: Our Roots and Perennial Questions: Important Names, Stories and Ideas from the Hebrew and Christian Bibles by Mary B. Collins, Director of Religious Education, UU Congregation of Danbury, CT) Friday, September 4, 2015 Creating Space Part Two Our Lighthouse renovations are nearly complete! We now have beautiful new flooring in the hallway. Our front desk area has been removed . . . . . . . and will soon be replaced with a welcoming seating area, a place to visit and find information. Here's what the floors looked like when the carpet was up and before the new flooring was put down. Our youth group did touch up painting in the hallways They added a new mural to their classroom . . . and beautified this bookshelf space. The Dutch door on the nursery has also been repaired and improved. Watch for more improvements over the next few weeks, and join us for the "housewarming" party on September 20 after the service to celebrate all the physical improvements that have been done this year. Celebrating Ourselves as Super Heroes Today's class was a celebration of all the superheroes we have learned about this summer. We also celebrated our own superpowers: Being kind to friends Noticing things Finding things that are missing Learning new things Running really fast Creating new things and having interesting ideas Talk with your child about the "superpowers" each of you have. How do you use your superpowers to make the world a better place? We also made super hero capes! If you'd like to make your own no-sew cape from an old t-shirt, you can find instructions here: http://www.clumsycrafter.com/2012/05/t-shirt-super-hero-capes-no-sew/ We learned about superhero Christopher Reeve who played superman in the movies. We talked about the accident that changed his life, and how he was a superhero because he never gave up. If your child is interested in learning more about Christopher Reeve, you might like to watch this video of Christopher Reeve on Sesame Street talking about using a wheelchair: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OzHvVoUGTOM It's been a great super hero summer! I'm excited for a super fall together as well. Monday, August 24, 2015 The Greatest Show on Earth Today's theme was the circus! We dressed up in costumes, tried magic tricks and juggling, and enjoyed face painting and making balloon animals! Our guest, P.T. Barnum, grew up in a church where he heard stories about an angry God who wanted to punish people. At 15, he and his family began attending a Universalist Church. The God he learned about there forgave rather than punished, and thought that all people deserved to be happy and be valued. Barnum liked those ideas and became a Universalist for the rest of his life. He tried to bring excitement and joy to other's lives, and worked to make the world a fairer place. Tuesday, August 11, 2015 Love Is Something If You Give it Away Malvina Reynolds was a Unitarian Universalist singer and songwriter. Once of her best known songs is "Magic Penny": Love is something if you give it away, Give it away, give it away. Love is something if you give it away, You end up having more. We talked about the lyrics of the song magic penny, and watched videos of Malvina performing some of her other songs. We also made stepping stones as a gift to our church, to be sold at the church auction in October. Tuesday, July 28, 2015 Sophia Fahs Our guest today was Sophia Lyon Fahs. As a teacher, writer, editor, and advocate, Sophia Lyon Fahs (1876-1978) helped to revolutionize American children's religious education—and played a major role in what is often called the "Unitarian renaissance" of the 1940s. She believed children had the capacity to ask big religious questions, and to begin to understand big religious concepts. Largely because of her influence, Unitarian religious education moved from a model of memorizing religious doctrine, to exploring religious questions together. Sophia recognized the power of children's creativity, and used their own curiosity as much as possible in designing religious education experiences for children. Our children explored their creativity today by creating a fort and other objects from cardboard. On their own the came up with the list of rules posted on the fort. I think Sophia would be proud! Creating Space Our Lighthouse building has undergone some major rennovations over the past month, with more to come! Our front doors now have windows, to be more inviting as you approach the building (and to cut down on the possibility of smashing an unseen child as you are exiting!) Rotted foundation under the nursery floor was replaced . . . . . . . and a new Dutch Door added During construction our new front doors were unusable because the entire front deck was removed to access the foundation! Each classroom now has a window in the door. Our new front doors and our finished nursery! Monday, July 20, 2015 Lewis Latimer's Bright Idea You've probably heard of Thomas Edison, the man who invented the lightbulb? People wanted that kind of magic in their own homes. They wanted to be able to flip a switch and have light, just like that! But, there was one problem. Thomas Edison's lightbulb used carbon thread for a filament—that little curly line inside the lightbulb—and the carbon thread lasted only about forty hours before it burned out. Once the filament burned out, the lightbulb would never work again. People would have to buy a new lightbulb. Nobody wanted to buy new lightbulbs all the time. They were expensive. So people gave up on the idea of having electric lightbulbs in their homes, and kept on using candles an kerosene lamps. But I didn't give up on the idea of electric lightbulbs. I was sure there was a way to make it work. I decided I would find a way to make a longer-lasting light, a light that people could afford to buy for their homes. I knew it wouldn't be easy. I'd only been to a few years of elementary school before I had to get a job to help support my family, when I was only ten. Life was hard for my family. I figured out that whatever I wanted to learn, I could find out from books or by teaching myself what I wanted to know. I worked in a patent office, a company that helps inventors. The company I worked for drew the pictures for the patents. I helped Alexander Graham Bell draw diagrams of the telephone and get the patent on that. I liked to do experiments, and I had also invented some things myself. Even though I didn't have a college degree or a high school education, I was a scientist and an inventor and an engineer. So I decided I could figure out how to make a longer lasting lightbulb. And I did it! I designed a carbon filament that was baked in a special way and so lasted for a long, long time, hundreds of hours. I received a patent for my carbon filament, which means the United States government recognized that I was the inventor, the very first person to create that carbon filament. Electricity wasn't the only type of light I helped to create. I loved leaning new things and teaching others. I believed in sharing the light of truth. I helped people who were hungry or were poor, just like my family had been. I knew that helping others was another way of sharing light. In one of my poems I wrote: To love while we live And give aid to each other Is the sunshine of life That turns night into day. In 1908 I helped to start a Unitarian church in New York. People still go to that church, over a hundred years later. That Unitarian Universalist church—just like this Unitarian Universalist church—gives a long and lasting light. I knew of Unitarians all my life. My parents had been helped by Unitarians, and the Unitarian beliefs in the importance of character, the toleration of different views, and the enthusiastic approach to learning matched my own views well. My wife and children and I were all active Unitarians. I'm proud of the things I created that made a difference in the world. I wonder what you might create that will also help to make a difference? (Adapted from A Lamp in Every Corner by Janeen K Grohsmeyer). Monday, June 22, 2015 Norbert Capek: The Man Who Loved Beauty The children's class enjoyed a visit from Norbert Capek, the creator of the flower communion. We made musical instruments from recycled materials. Norbert Capek had a large, musical family. They had enough musicians to make their own family orchestra. We made tissue paper flowers and celebrated our own flower communion. Norbert described the first flower communion, held at his church in Prague, "We put a big table in the middle of the worship space, and on it a large vase. The vase represented the Unitarian church, which helps everyone in the congregation share the beauties in life. Each person had been told to bring a flower along that Sunday, and each put his or her flower in the vase. In my sermon, I talked about how each and every flower was different and important, just like every person in my congregation. And yet they all belonged together in one community, as sisters and brothers. In this Unitarian community, when they gave their best that was in them for the good of everyone, they were able to do together what no one person can do alone."
Local Time Sunday, March 20, 2005 Youth and interpersonal conflicts Youth and interpersonal conflicts Interpersonal conflict,i.e.,a conflict between individuals, is of a great concern today.The reason of such attention is due to the rise of violence among youth as the consequence to the conflicts. Here we are trying to examine the precursors and correlated of youth violence and possible ways to deal with it. Youth violence is a complex problem, and prevention efforts must be multifaceted and creative if they are to have a strong impact. Why youth? Youth is a valuable asset to the country. At this particular stage of life, they are having what some may say as the most critical time of their growing years where their nafs as well as their conscience having a fight, causing a great inner turmoil inside them. Their young creative mind combine with their youthful energy that they posses always produce a good outcome. Still, more than they should realize and contrary to their own believe of"freedom"and "independence", they need guidance or support from others as well. Young people need caring adults to be actively involved in their lives. They need help with homework, technology, arts, recreation, and character development. Sometimes they just need a caring adult to take the time to listen to what's on their mind and model responsible behaviour. And this is where adults especially parents should play their roles. Parents should take this opportunity to introduce to them the beauty of Islam, show them how the religion can help them to overcome their problems, or relate to them the stories of the prophets and other muslim figures as examples. What is interpersonal conflict? Life is getting more and more challenging. Young people have already experiencing adult-size problems. Conflict is a part of most interpersonal relationship. Managing conflict,then, is important if the relationship is to be long-lasting and rewarding such as that between a child and his/her family. Learn how to manage the conflict in relationships and then complete the activity. Conflict has been defined as: "an expressedstruggle between at least two interdependent parties who Important conceptin this definition includes "expressed struggle" which means the two sides must communicate about the problem for there to be a conflict. Another important idea is that conflict often involves perceptions. The two sides may only perceive that their goals, resources, and interference is incompatible with each other's. Conflicts can appear because of difference in interests, desires, values or by scarce resources such as time, space, job or family position; or can reflect a rivality when a person is trying to be outstanding or is trying to disallow another person. Our major interest here is that all of these interpersonal conflicts the youth are facing would develope into something bigger, something that would bring harm not only to themselves but also to the society. More than often violence would take place as a result to these turbulence in them. Studies has proven that such negative behaviour would ruin them, destructing the youth's future as well as current well being; predicting future problems ranging from that of school achievement, juvenile delinquency to employment, marriage life,and general health. The world remains a threatening, often dangerous place for children and youths. And the greatest threat to the lives of children and adolescents is not disease or starvation or abandonment, but the terrible reality of violence, something which should not be associated with the lives of these innocent souls. Why does it happen? Interpersonal conflicts may occur due to a lot of causes. Among them are... substance abuse easy access to weapons inadequate or abusive parenting practices frequent exposure to violence through the media family dysfunction, divorce learning disabilities, low IQ, poor academic achievement inability to control anger lack of communication skills lack of empathy sense of insecurity are some of the things that are highly likely to be responsible for the increase in violent behaviour in young people. In addition, they are getting huge amounts of data that are uncensored and not monitored by adults. Some believe that the collision between raging hormones and the urge to be"unique" and "individual" and to have their "freedom" has been the culprit of such behaviour which, unfortunately, often resulted to earning themselves a bad name. Too many youth today practice behaviours that place them at risk for serious injuries, sexually transmitted diseases(STD), other preventable health problems and even premature death. This piece of literature here is not to condemn not to punish the troubled youth but more about to find and understand the reason(s) of their behaviour for we believe in the importance of youth in the society. If we are to reach real peace in this world...we shall have to begin with the children.; --Mahatma Gandhi-- How does it start? People holds different expectations about what is important, what is to be valued, and how we should behave. Some people take all of these lightly and there are some who take it very seriously. This particular group of people let others control them by putting the unnecessary (not to say unIslamic) standard for them to follow. Most of the time the conflict arises when there is pressure among the youth to follow others of whom they believe are worth followed and idolized. It is most unfortunate that the things or people that they followed are that of the negative western cultures (thanks to the Hollywood so-called superstars). Somehow they have this notion that to live like the western people is the right way of living. When the pressure to be what they wanted to be clashes with reality (facts pertaining to cultures and religious concerns) would result to the enormous anger and dissaticfaction in them. This should not take place in the first place. The one thing that anger is good at is to create chaos and anything in between. Anger is not the way to vent out one's emotion. There is no need to smash everything that is within one's reach and to rehearse using the foulest of language to everyone you meet.NO. That is not the way, in fact, it would only bring on more problem rather than solving it. Why is anger? Allah wants Muslims to restrain themselves during their rage and replace it with love and benevolence.Fearing Allah also works in this field, providing similar motives and leaving similar effects. Anger is a human reaction, which is normally combined or followed by heated blood and flight of temper. It is both natural and essential to man. It can, however, be overcome only through that higher perception made possible by the positive effects of fearing Allah and the spiritual strength which man achieves through looking up to horizons which are far more superior and sublime than man’s own needs and interests. Restraining anger is only the first stage, which is not sufficient by itself. A person may restrain his anger, but harbours a grudge. His outward fury becomes a deeply seated, inward rancour. It is needless to say that anger and fury are cleaner and more preferable feelings than grudge and rancour. The Qur’anic verse emphasizes that the God-fearing do not allow their anger to become a grudge. They forgive others and do not harbour any ill feelings. When anger is deliberately restrained, it becomes a burden, a fire that burns internally sending its smoke over man’s conscience in order to blur its vision. Forgiveness, however, ensures release from that burden, gives peace of heart and conscience as well as an easy movement in a more sublime world. The solution Our communication with others is central to us leading towards a healthy fulfilling lives. The meetings and interactions we have with people not only provide us with the necessary physical resources for living such as food, water, and shelter, but also nourish our social well-being. Parents, teachers, co-workers, classmates, and friends provide the necessary encouragement and support to build our self-esteem and help us develop strong personal and working relationships with others. Without the help of others, it would be difficult to sustain our growth and development in our intellectual, physical, social, and spiritual lives. Schools and college students are routinely exposed in their classroom to new information and opinions, hence they tend to be more receptive to new beliefs and ideas. Learning institutions are therefore fertile grounds where the seeds of Islam can be sowed inside the hearts of non-Muslim students. Muslim students should take ample advantage of this opportunity and expose their schoolmates to the beautiful beliefs of Islam. Communities do better when young people are engaged in enriching, supervised activities after-school, especially between the hours of 2:00 to 8:00 p.m. That's when juvenile crime triples, when more teenagers become pregnant, it is the time when there is more gang-related activity, and when young people abuse alcohol and other drugs. The after-school hours are the most dangerous for young people because of the lack of supervision. Youth who participate in after-school activities demonstrate enhanced interpersonal relationships, ability to handle conflicts, and improved self-confidence. Youth also demonstrate better achievement in math, reading, and other core academic subjects. Often, people whose anger erupts in violence are unable to talk about their feelings and lack the skills to resolve interpersonal conflicts peaceably. Such deficits may leave them especially vulnerable to media messages that encourage using violence to settle disagreements. It's not surprising that 41% of respondents in the Harvard survey agreed with the statement "If I am challenged, I am going to fight." Guns and other weapons are easily available, and young people don't have a good sense of the consequences of their actions. So, they may think that an easy way to win an argument is to threaten opponents, which can lead to accidental injury or death, or even to the intentional use of a weapon. Youth who learn to solve problems fairly and nonviolently are respected by others, make friends more easily, and become role models for others. Youth who use violence may die young or spend their lives in prison. In communities where youth witness a great deal of violence, they may grow up thinking that using violence is the best or only way to end a disagreement, unless they are shown other equally effective methods. Think beforehand what the consequences of different actions will be: anger and violence versus walking away from a dispute or compromise. Use humor to cool hostility. Never fight with anyone using drugs or alcohol, or likely to have a weapon. Get as much information about a disagreement as possible, to help solve it and to head off feelings of uncontrollable anger. Try to think of solutions to a dispute that will give both sides something, and try to understand an opponent's point of view. Show respect for an opponent's rights and position Don't make bias against an opponent's race, religion, sex, or sexual orientation as a reason for a dispute. Show character by rejecting the bait for a fight, or accepting a compromise to a dispute, rather than responding with violence. Don't coerce a partner or be violent in a relationship; this behavior causes distance, loss of respect and love, and feelings of fear and guilt, in addition to the more obvious consequences of physical harm to the victim and arrest of the abuser. Show that people like and respect nonviolent problem-solvers more than bullies, and be a nonviolent problem-solver yourself. Communication between parents and children strengthens family bonds and is crucial in helping children understand and coping with their frustrations. But when children become teenagers, there is less willingness on their part to open up to their parents. At around age 13 they begin to pull back, become more independent, and talk less, creating a communications gap that can cause parents to feel frustrated, especially parents who find it uncomfortable to talk to their children about family conflicts. Yet parents need to know what's going on with their children, and they need to make sure their children know that they are always available to talk to. Where youth violence is concerned, the effectiveness of a parent's communication skills can mean the difference between life and death. Enduring solutions must include efforts to help young people at risk develop a high regard for human life — to help them develope a strong moral character. Again, using the public-health model, there are three approaches to violence prevention: 1. Primary violence prevention — making nonviolence popular: teaching and encouraging nonviolent problem solving; redefining the “hero” and role models (through peer leadership and mediation; mass media messages, classroom education and community training programs) 2.Secondary violence prevention — counseling victims and “at-risk” youth: Mentoring programs; special counseling for children who have witnessed violent incidents; “in-school” suspension; “first offender” programs 3.Tertiary violence prevention — punishing and correcting violent behavior: Arrest, prosecution and incarceration. And whatever the Messenger gives you, take it, and whatever he forbids you , leave it. And fear Allah: truly Allah is severe in punishment. " [Qur'an 59:7]#message #supertext {xposition:absolute;left:0;top:0;visibility:hide;visibility:hidden;}/* Bouncy message script- By Dynamicdrive.com Code based on Lloyd Hassell's, at http://www.dynamicdrive.com/dynamicindex4/bounceimage.htm For full source, TOS, and 100s DTHML scripts, visit http://dynamicdrive.com */ //Configure the below three variables //1) Set message to display (HTML accepted) var thecontent=' English to Arabic to English Dictionary Find word: Exact Word / Starting Word Sub Word Please Feel Free to Donate
Refugees and Visas to the United States and Treaties There were no treaties regarding the number of visas the United States grants to a particular country, although the United States has agreed to the United Nations charter on refugees. In this charter, the U.S. agreed to accept refugees, but the number of refugees accepted can be limited and changed by the executive branch. While there is a duty to at least look at refugees, we anticipate that the President will make lateral decisions that are most likely going to be upheld in Congress to severely limit the number of refugees we take in. I would hope that the president doesn’t do that because that is antithetical to the UNHCR, and all of our commitments to global human rights. UNHCR is the United Nation High Command for Refugees. It’s the group that travels around the world and helps designate countries where there is strife or oppression and they put together refugee camps. The United States has treaties that allow for specific types of visas for certain countries. For example, in Australia we have the E-3 visa, which is a work visa similar to the H-1B. That visa allows Australians to not use the H-1B program if possible, which is limited to only 65,000 visa’s for the rest of the world, unless they went to school here and received a master’s degree. There may be some fears about restricting work visas. The President can restrict work visas by terminating those classifications or those treaties. It’s unclear how easy that would be for Trump to do, but that would certainly be one way that he could curtail work visas for individuals coming into the United States.
Re: question Some facilities that electrolyze brine to make chlorine and caustic soda use mercury electrodes. About 14% of the capacity in the US is this way, a larger percentage in Europe. Some chlorine made over mercury electrodes probably goes into production of ethylene dichloride (EDC). When EDC is made in the balanced process from ethylene and chlorine (97% of US capacity) then cracked to vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), and then the VCM is purified, if there were any mercury left from chlorine made in this process, it would not distill over. Thus, with very little to no mercury in the VCM there would be very little to no mercury in the PVC resin. For the acetylene process used by Borden the same holds true about distillation of the monomer. To my knowledge there are no additives currently in use with PVC that contain However, Sam is right. 80+ percent of the mercury in the environment arises from combustion of fossil fuels. Thus, there is mercury all around you, and most things are likely to contain a little from this source. Bill Carroll Chlorine Chemistry Council
Delicacy or Distaste: Are Insects the Food of the Future? Browse By Thinking of consuming an insect may make Westerners cringe but in other areas of the world it is commonplace to eat insects as both a delicacy and a source of protein. Although the future of protein may not look exactly like a Survivor food eating challenge, the appearance of various insects as part of a daily diet is not out of the picture. Insects offer an alternative source of protein with a lower fat content than traditional meats, fewer calories, and a lower feed-to-meat ratio. All of this implies that insects could very well be an economical and eco-friendly option to traditional meats. The Western world has already seen a rise in dietary specialities ranging from gluten-free products to veganism. Many of these self-imposed restrictions are in an effort to know where one’s food comes from or to oppose the often harmful meat industry. This interest in sustainability is on the rise as the population on Earth continues to grow. In only a few years an additional two billion people will live on the planet and the current food supply will not be able to feed everyone. Thus, insect consumption has become a more realistic protein option for nourishing the growing population. Economists have predicted that by 2050 traditional meat will be treated as a luxury product and beef may be likened to caviar (Dicke & Huis). If this occurs, traditional meat will be unattainable to not only those in developing countries but also to the impoverished living in many developed Western countries. To combat this phenomenon, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) released a report explaining that insects may be part of the answer to food sustainability. The reason that insects are looked at as a sustainable food source is due to their nutritional content; they contain numerous healthy fats, vitamins and minerals, as well a protein serving of 70 grams per cup that is proportionate to beef. They also require little land and water to produce meaning that by investing in crickets and other insects as an alternative food source, it would allow us to cut down on land allocated to livestock and reduce greenhouse gasses. For insects to become a staple in the Western world however, a change in perception is required to eradicate the cultural taboos associated with insects. In other parts of the world insects are consumed for their taste and not because they are the only option. It was not long ago that consuming raw fish as with sushi was considered abhorrent and now it is a popular cuisine in many developed countries. As various societies take steps towards ensuring a more sustainable source of protein for future years and work on diminishing disapproval, the appearance of insects in diets will likely increase. Cricket Flour Insects have made their way back into top restaurant Noma’s plates in Copenhagen inciting the sentiment that eating insects is part of a trend trend. However, as top restaurants are pioneering in insect consumption as a delicacy, the use of cricket flower in other goods has yet to enter the mainstream consumption market. The Western world may not be ready and may never fully accept eating a cricket roasted on a kebab, but many companies are taking steps to making cricket protein accessible to anyone. This is accomplished by eliminating the appearance and texture of crickets and instead by roasting and grinding them into a flour. In 2014 American company Chapul pitched their high protein bars made from cricket flours to the panel on reality TV show Shark Tank. Mark Cuban decided to invest in this innovative food product and with the help of the show, has been able to show millions of Western families that consuming insects does not have to involve a cringe factor. Many other companies are now using cricket flour in baked goods like cookies, brownies, and muffins. This endeavour provides a high protein product in a form that goes undetected. The addition of cricket flour has proven that consuming insects need not be the spectacle it is on Fear Factor and can instead gradually infiltrate “normal” lifestyles. Developing World While many developing countries already consume insects as part of their diet, efforts are being made to feed less developed and malnourished populations. Currently approximately three million children are dying per year due to malnutrition; insects could procure a solution. Demand for animal products is on the rise in low and middle-income countries but unfortunately production of livestock is unable to keep up with the demand. This results in a population that may strive to acquire protein from alternative sources. The proposition is of course insects, which will provide protein in addition to mitigating environmental damage. By switching to an insect heavy diet the feed previously used to nourish livestock will be freed up and can be offered to other populations. Therefore, not only are insects a possibility for solving aspects of malnutrition but they will also increase other agricultural options. The Democratic Republic of Congo in conjunction with the United Nations are hoping to capitalize on insect consumption by creating a new program that will promote their cultivation. This program would result in lowered prices, increased availability, and jobs. Previously, insects were collected by harvesting from trees and digging through soil. With the new initiative insects could be farmed and would avoid the seasonal limitations currently imposed on various species. This would aid in the supply struggle endured by traditional meat and would provide for a growing population. A few studies argue that crickets are not as sustainable as perceived. The argument stems from the perception that insects can be raised on manure and compost. However, a study conducted by Mark Lundy and Michael P. Parrella from the University of California shows that crickets raised on this kind of feed do not have as high a protein count than if they were raised on a feed similar to that of poultry. Despite these facts, the authors do not rule out insects as a possible alternative and state that more research is needed to prove that insects are the future of food. Additionally, due to limited production of insects intended for Western consumption, they are priced similarly to caviar. Consequently, despite being paraded as an economical and environmental solution the insect revolution will require large scale production to cut costs. Theoretically if the Western world can overcome the aversion to insect consumption, a new market for their consumption can certainly form. This in part can lead to more investment opportunities and the ability for expressed sustainability claims to be achieved on a global scale. The insect industry depends on acceptance into the mainstream so that individual companies can grow products with a demand-rich market for commodities, such as cricket flour. Overall, crickets among other insects may be the ideal future food but it is not a simple route to achieve a global food revolution. Written By: Michayla Wolfe Works Cited: Dicke, Marcel, and Arnold Van Huis. “The Six-Legged Meat of the Future.”WSJ. The Wall Street Journal, 19 Feb. 2011. Web. 25 Mar. 2016. <>. Howard, Emma. “Insects Should Be Part of a Sustainable Diet in Future, Says Report.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 05 Nov. 2015. Web. 25 Mar. 2016. <>. Huis, Arnold Van, Joost Van Itterbeeck, Harmke Klunder, Esther Mertens, Afton Halloran, Giulia Muir, and Paul Vantomme. “Molecular Genetic Characterization of Animal Genetic Resources. FAO Animal Production and Health Guidelines. No. 9. FAO. Published in 2011, 85 Pp. ISBN: 978-92-5-107032-1. Available at Http://” Animal Genetic Resources/Ressources Génétiques Animales/Recursos Genéticos Animales Anim. Genet. Resour. 49 (2011): 114+. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Web. 25 Mar. 2015. Lundy, Mark E., and Michael P. Parrella. “Shaping Our Food – an Overview of Crop and Livestock Breeding.” Animal Genetic Resources/Ressources Génétiques Animales/Recursos Genéticos Animales Anim. Genet. Resour. 55 (2014). PLOS One. PLOS One, 15 Apr. 2015. Web. 25 Mar. 2016. <>. Miller, Megan. “Are Insects the Future of Food? \| Megan Miller \| TEDxManhattan.” YouTube. TEDx Talks, 10 Mar. 2014. Web. 25 Mar. 2016. <>. Mills, Eliza. “How Bug Farming Is Changing the Food Economy.” Marketplace. American Public Media, 25 Nov. 2014. Web. 25 Mar. 2016. Love what you read? Share it! Leave a Reply
Print Friendly Imagine you are a Jewish slave, and you are so excited about Moshe’s plan to take you out of Egypt in 2 weeks! Moshe explains all of the rules for the Pascal lamb sacrifice (has to be done on the 14th of Nissan, roasted whole, blood painted on the doorposts, etc.) and then he mentions that you cannot break the bones (to suck marrow or lick every inch) as you eat it. That seems very specific! Why is there such a prohibition? What would you think is the significance of that detail? One commentator, Sefer HaChinuch, explains that breaking bones as you eat is the mark of a poor and starving man. Think of a homeless beggar who receives food and licks the last morsel and drop – that kind of desperation is forbidden the night the Jewish people leave the land of Egypt. The Sefer HaChinuch writes that God was trying to show them that they are different now – free people and God’s chosen nation, and as such that type of behavior is beneath them. Do you think just saying it or behaving that way will change the way they feel? Can one night and one dignified meal change a slave into a free man? The Sefer HaChinuch writes that a person’s thoughts and feelings are influenced by how they act and what they say. We usually think that we won’t act a certain way or do something unless “we really feel like it” – but sometimes we must act a certain way IN ORDER to feel it. By eating the sacrifice this way – like free and dignified people – the Jews would internalize that and become a free and dignified people! Where/when have you felt that behaving a certain way changed the way you thought and felt? Why is this true? How do our actions influence our emotions?
music theory online : words & musiclesson 32 Dr. Brian Blood Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) French musician and philosopher - Letter on French Music (1753) The Voice :: Words & Meaning :: Tonal Languages and Music :: Words & Syncopation :: Words & Phrasing :: Scoring for Voices :: Wordless Singing The Voice :: top Key word: the voice The Voice We quote below from the excellent resource Physics in Speech: The voice makes sounds in (at least) two different ways. You can make a wide range of hissing or wind noises by passing air through a small aperture between the lips, teeth, etc. When you make such a sound using a small aperture between your 'vocal cords', it's called whispering. These sounds are all caused by the turbulent flow of the air, and they contain a wide range of different frequencies. A second way of making sound uses your 'vocal cords', which are technically called vocal folds, because they are more like folds of flesh than cords. These can vibrate at a frequency determined largely by the tension in the muscles that control them (high tension makes the frequency and therefore the pitch high) and by the mass of the tissue (post-pubescent males usually have larger folds and therefore deeper voices). The vibration releases pulses of air into the vocal tract. Informally, the vocal tract may be thought of as a megaphone that transmits sound from the 'voice box' into the air outside the speaker's or singer's mouth. The tract has several resonances -- i.e., the air in the tract vibrates more readily at some frequencies than others. You can vary these resonances by moving tongue and lips, and this variation has a lot to do with the different speech sounds produced. One important categorization that can be applied to the sounds singers make relates to the register or the "voice" that is used. Singers refer to these registers according to the part of the body in which the sound most generally resonates, and which have correspondingly different tonal qualities. There are widely differing opinions and theories about what a register is, how they are produced and how many there are. The following definitions of vocal or voice registers, registros vocal (Spanish), registres de voix (French), Gesangsregister (German), registri della voce (Italian) may be helpful vocal fry, Strohbassregister (German), Schnarrregister (German), Pulsregister (German), friture (French)a very low register employed in Untertongesang and the throat singing of Mongolia, Tuva, Tibetan lamas, etc. chest voice, long voice, registro de pecho (Spanish), registre de poitrine (French), voix de poitrine (French), registre lourd (French), Bruststimmregister (German), Vollstimme (German), Modalstimme (German), registro di petto (Italian), voce di petto (Italian)the register typically used in everyday speech. It is so called because it can produce the sensation of the sound coming from the upper chest. This is because lower frequency sounds have longer wavelengths, and resonate mostly in the larger cavity of the chest. A person uses the chest voice when singing in the majority of his or her range. In the musical theatre, the voice may be pushed to the top of the chest voice, and even beyond the upper passaggio, leading to a frontal or nasal tone. This style of singing is known as 'belting', 'open voice' singing, voce aperta (Italian) or voix ouverte (French) middle voice, registro medio (Spanish), voix mixte appuyée (French), voix mixte (French), registre mixte (French), Mittelstimme (German), mezza voce (Italian)also known as the "blend", the term used to describe the range of notes which marks the crossover between the chest and head, or falsetto voice. It may be a distinct change (a passage, passaggio or ponticello) or a more gradual blending. With training, many singers can choose whether to sing notes in this range in the head or chest voice. In the male baritone this range falls between G3-E4, typically head voice, short register, registro de cabeza (Spanish), registre de tête (French), registre léger (French), voix de tête (French), Kopfstimme (German), registro di testa (Italian)different from falsetto in that it is connected to the chest voice, that is, the singer's head voice & chest voice are linked and sound bridged; in transition the voice doesn't cut out or make any audible changes in harmonics. The tonal qualities of the head voice are usually described as being sweet, balladic, lilting, lyrical, or pure. On the negative side, especially in men, on very high notes this register may sound light, squeaky, or breathy whistle register, flageolet register, registro de silbido (Spanish), Pfeifregister (German) Flageolettregister (German), registre de sifflet (French), registre de flageolet (French), voix de sifflet (French), voix de flageolet (French)the very highest notes in the range of a female voice, those employed in coloratura roles such as that of the Queen of the Night in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute falsete (Spanish), fausett (French), voix de fausset (French), Falsett (German), falsetto (Italian)a higher range than the head voice, although the only difference between the two is the force with which air is pushed through the folds, as anatomically they are produced in the same way. It relies on completely relaxed vocal folds and may sound breathy. In yodelling, the voice switches rapidly between the chest and falsetto registers. The terms feigned voice, voce finta and voix feinte are applied to a weak unsteady falsetto voice clear voice, white voice, voce chiara (Italian), voce bianca (Italian), voix claire (French), voix blanche (French)a clear open timbre in which the tongue retracts and blocks the pharynx closed voice, voce coperta (Italian), voix couverte (French)a voice in which the timbre is dark but brilliant with a homogeneity prevailing over the complete range full voice, voce piena (Italian), voix pleine (French)a voice, with an intense, well-supported timbre, that combines the qualities of chest and head voice Voice may also be characterised in terms of range and quality, particularly as regards power, timbre, suitability for different roles in opera or operetta, etc. extended classification of voices: coloratura-sopranohighest female voice, that has to reach f''' (Queen of the night in Die Zauberflöte)Erna Sack, Mado Robin, Ellen Beach Yaw and Miliza Korjus coloratura-soubrette or soprano lirico leggieroreaches about d''', usually singing youthful rolesLouise de Vries, Adèle Kern, Elisabeth Schumann and Erna Berger at the start of her career soprano leggieroalso called a coloratura-singer, but only reaching e'''Galli-Gurci, Dal Monte, Lily Pons, Erna Spoorenberg, Cato Engelen-Sewing, Erna Berger lyric sopranosinging up to c''', the most versatile soprano (Mimi in La Bohème)Victoria de los Angeles, Grace Moore, Greet Koeman, Irmgard Seefried soprano lirico spinto (jugendlich-dramatisch)the voice that lies over parts of the lyric and dramatic soprano ranges, with a fine full voice up to c'''Gré Brouwenstijn, Renata Tebaldi, Elisabeth Rethberg dramatic sopranosinging up to c''' or d''', in Italian repertoire (Turandot and Aida) where the sound is more darkly-coloured than the high-romantic German repertoire (Isolde in Tristan und Isolde)Maria Callas, Rosa Ponselle, Elisabeth Ohms, Kirsten Flagstad high mezzo-sopranomezzo-sopranos singing up to b'' are named after famous singers, for example Dugazon and Galli-MariéCora Canne Meijer dramatic mezzo-sopranoa light contralto-voice up to a'', who, in some cases, may also perform dramatic-soprano roles (Amneris in Aida) Ebe Stignani, Giulietta Simionato lyric-colorata altosinging up to about b''-flat and special the alto roles of Rossiniusually these parts are sung by mezzo-sopranos contraltosings particular roles such as Azucena (Trovatore), Ulrica (Un ballo), DalilaMaartje Offers dramatic altomore darkly-coloured than a mezzo, singing up to a''-flat (Dalila in Samson et Dalila)Annie Delorie contraltoa very dark voice, very seldom found in operaClara Butt, Kathleen Ferrier countertenora special male-voice singing falsetto in the female contralto range, now often used for roles originally written for eighteenth-century castrati, but with a very different timbreAlfred Deller, Sytze Buwalda lyric tenorthe male alternative to the lyric soprano who like the tenore leggiero and the tenore di grazia (Ottavio in Don Giovanni) can reach up to about c''Gigli, Richard Tauber, Anton de Ridder tenore lirico-spintonow called a dramatic tenor, singing up to c'' (Lohengrin)Del Monaco, Caruso tenore drammatico or Heldentenorin Italian operas, famous for his 'high C' (c''). In German repertoire the voice tends to be a little darker reaching down into the baritone voice (Otello)Jacques Urlus, Hans Kaart, Lauri-Volpi, Tamagno tenore buffoa flexible clear voice, up to about a', used for acting roles (Jaquino in Fidelio)Chris Taverne baryton-Martinthe highest baritone-voice, named after the French singer, Martin, and found only in French repertoire (Faust and many French operetta-heroes) lyric baritonewith a range up to about a'-flat (Figaro in Il barbiere di Siviglia)Tito Gobbi, Schlusnus bass-baritone or character-baritonemore serious roles and a singing range up to g' (Figaro in Le Nozze)Siemen Jongsma Heldenbaritonea dark, wide ranged voice up to g' (Boris in Boris Godoenov)Casper Broecheler, Jos Orelio baritono brillante or Spielbaritona baritone voice with buffo character (Gianni Schicchi)Jos Burcksen basso buffo or Spiel-bassa voice with a reach up to f' (Mefisto in Faust)Guus Hoekman basso serioso or basso profundoa voice that can reach to about e' and, at the lower end, capable down to low E (Sarastro in Die Zauberflöte)Arnold van Mill, Boris Christoff, Feodor Chaliapine Additional References: Words & Meaning :: top Key word: words and meaning Words & Meaning Spoken language has features that, through the quality or character of the voice, can convey emotional or intentional cues distinct from the lexical and grammatical aspects of language. Prosodic elements are usually considered to include variations in the pitch, amplitude, and tempo of the speech. Prosodic features include raising the pitch of the voice to express surprise, signal uncertainty, or designate a question; lowering the pitch of the voice to stress significant words or convey seriousness of purpose; increasing the amplitude to signal anger; decreasing the amplitude to suggest intimacy; increasing the tempo to convey excitement; or decreasing the tempo to imply lethargy or depression, etc. Indeed prosody is often called the 'music' of speech. Between 1915 and 1920 the American poet Conrad Aitken (1889-1973) composed a unified sequence of poems that is regarded as the major work of his early career. These long pieces, which he called "symphonies," strive to achieve the contrapuntal effects of music by juxtaposing patterns of narrative repetition and variation. In the 1930s Aiken published another major sequence of music-based poems which he called "preludes". That the text of a poem might convey more than the words on the page was an important element in a disagreement between T.S. Eliot and Matthew Arnold. Eliot wrote: 'What I call the "auditory imagination" is the feeling for syllable and rhythm, penetrating far below the conscious levels of thought and feeling, invigorating every word; sinking to the most primitive and forgotten, returning to the origin and bringing something back, seeking the beginning and the end. It works through meanings, certainly, or not without meanings in the ordinary sense ...' ('Matthew Arnold', in The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism; Studies in the Relation of Criticism to Poetry in England [London, 1933], pp. 118-9). And about Milton, Eliot commented: 'I am not suggesting that Milton had no idea to convey which he regards as important: only that the syntax is determined by the musical significance, by the auditory imagination, rather than by the attempt to follow actual speech or thought' ('Milton I' [1936], in On Poetry and Poets [London, 1957], p. 142). Ezra Pound, who like W. B. Yeats worked with and admired the work of Arnold Dolmetsch and made reference in their own works to his search for the lost art of performing 'early music', believed that the auditory powers of poetic language are elements in intelligence and understanding, rather than lying deeper down below them. Pound believed in 'absolute rhythm' and composition 'in the sequence of the musical phrase' (Literary Essays, e.g. pp. 9, 3), but this was associated more with his ideas on performance. Overall, he preferred to remember Thomas Campion's opinion, expressed in his Observations in the Art of English Poesie [1602] that: 'The eare is a rationall sence and a chiefe judge of proportion' (Campion, Works, ed. W.R. Davis [London, 1969], p. 294). [the paragraph above is a paraphrase of part of http://www.cai.cam.ac.uk/students/study/english/pound/pound7.pdf] Music too has ways of representing mood and the successful matching of text to musical line relies to some degree on a matching of cues. One important detail is matching the rhythm of the music to the meter of the text. We have already seen how some terms have found their way from poetry into music theory - anacrusis and syncopation, for example. The stresses in the musical line, identified by the placement of barlines, might be expected to match the stresses in the text, called verbal accents. So the phrase "We must speak" might be spoken in three different ways, with the stress on 'We', on 'must' or on 'speak'. By placing the stressed word on the first beat of the bar, that is after a barline '\|', the different stress patterns can be made clear. So Ex. 1: \| We must speak Ex. 2: We \| must speak Ex. 3: We must \| speak Poetry, when set to song, is particularly sensitive to how the music incorporates the metre of the words although it would be wrong to assume that the metre of the poem has to impose itself on the rhythm of the melodic line. Indeed, as the article A mangled chime: the accidental death of the opera libretto in Civil War England by Andrew Pinnock and Bruce Wood illustrates, it was likely to have been the introduction of a French taste for triple-time dance music into the English musical consciousness that saw a move away from settings wedded to an English poetic preference for duple metre. Consider, for example, the duple metre of "When I \| am laid \| in earth" and the wonderful three-in-a-bar setting by Henry Purcell in Dido and Aeneas - known as Dido's Lament. Those seeking to set poetry to music are well advised to look at some of the finest composers of English song including Henry Lawes, Henry Purcell or more recently, Benjamin Britten or, in the field of popular music, the American song-writers Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, Ira and George Gershwin. The musical line should point to, even accentuate, the meaning behind the words and should not obscure it. The problem with the meaning of words and the structure of the music associated with them, comes to the fore when translating opera, oratorio or song libretti from one language to another. Invariably, the musical line cannot be changed, particularly in a work as complicated as a large opera. The translator has to find new language that 'both' fits the meaning and, to a large extent, the rhythmic structure of the original text and therefore of the unchangeable musical line. For this reason, translations of opera libretti are rarely 'literal'. • A Deconstructive Postscript:Reading Libretti and Misreading Opera by Paul Robinson • Glossary of Poetic Terms • Rhythm and Meter • A mangled chime: the accidental death of the opera libretto in Civil War England by Andrew Pinnock and Bruce Wood (Early Music Vol XXXVI, No. 2 2008) • Tonal Languages and Music :: top Key word: tonal languages Tonal Languages and Music The article entitled Tone (linguistics) has some interesting things to say about the relationship between pitch in language and pitch in music. Speakers of non-tonal languages (such as English) often perceive tonality in musical terms, based on notes, when in fact it is based on tone contour. Tonal languages are relatively pitched, and not absolutely pitched. A listener interprets the tone of a syllable not based on the "note" in which it is "sung", but rather based on how the tonal contour of the syllable varies with respect to the base intonation of the utterance as a whole. Because many speakers of non-tonal languages confuse musical tone with tone contour, it may be assumed (incorrectly) that a tonal language is incompatible with singing. If the word 'love', for example, must be pronounced as a B flat, how could one write a song that uses both the word 'love' and a corresponding note different from B flat? While English is not a tonal language, it does incorporate tone. The canonical example is generally one that demonstrates the use of tone to confer the speaker's emotion or attitudes ("The blackboard's painted ORANGE?!" -- shock and surprise), but there is another, more subtle example that is worth considering, especially in the context of music: stress. English, like most Indo-European languages, is stress-based. The nature of stress varies between languages, but in the case of English, it could be thought of as variations in speech volume, vowel length, and most importantly, tonal contour, that serve to distinguish a particular syllable in a word as being the one that is "stressed". English is particularly interesting because it has phonemic stress: a change in a stress point can change the meaning of a word (record (noun) and record (verb) being a simple example). Careful attention to the pronunciation of such words and how they differ from each other will illustrate that a difference in intonational contour over the word is not a small part of what makes the words different. In this sense, English speakers have been incorporating tone as an aid in distinguishing certain pairs of words all their lives without knowing it. This is important because no English speaker would ever suggest that "stress is dropped or ignored by English speaking singers to make their language compatible with music". It is, however, very common to hear this same assertion with regard to say, Mandarin pop music. As any speaker of Mandarin will tell you, the idea of Mandarin "with tones dropped" is as non-sensical as English "with stress dropped." Just as English poets make use of meter to ensure that their poetry fits a particular rhythm, Chinese musicians choose lyrics that "fit" with the tune of the music. Sometimes (as is the case in Beijing opera), the intonation of individual syllables is exaggerated a great deal and music is composed to follow the intonation rather than the other way around, but this is rarely the case in popular music. Words & Syncopation :: top Key word: words and syncopation Words & Syncopation Verbal accent can also be 'mirrored' in a musical line by placing important words over extended notes which may or may not lie on the strong beats in a bar. If these notes start on beats that, because of the barline structure, are 'weak', the rhythmic effect is called a 'syncopation'. Syncopation can be found in non-vocal music too, where the accents in one line do not correspond to the pattern that in another line matches that identified by the placement of the bar lines. For more detail go to lesson 20 Words & Phrasing :: top Key word: words and syncopation Words & Phrasing We met earlier, in lesson 21, the concept of 'phrase' and 'phrasing' in music, where the music line is broken up into shorter sections that encompass a single idea. Text too, can be structured in the same way - maybe through the individual lines of a poem, or by using commas or other punctuation signs. The way the tension in a musical line relaxes at cadences, or the way the musical flow is stopped or paused at the end of a section - these are both examples of how music can complement the text it accompanies. The effect can be be explicit, in the vocal line itself, or may be implicit in the way the composer alternates accompanied vocal line with purely instrumental passages. Sometimes, one has to draw back from the detail of individual notes on a single vocal line to see how the architecture of the whole score projects the 'meaning' within the text. Scoring for Voices :: top Key word: scoring for voice Scoring for Voices The aim of any composer of vocal music should be to make the music as easy for the singers to read as possible. For example, each vocal line in a vocal score should be written on a separate line and if voices divide they should also be printed on separate lines for greater clarity. It is difficult enough to have to read both music and words at the same time without having extraneous notes from another musical line on the same stave. During the twentieth century, a 'convention' was adopted to make vocal music much clearer than it had been only a hundred years or so earlier. For example, the breaking up of the musical line so that single unbeamed notes lie above each syllable in the text made the music much more difficult to read. Today, the musical line follows the standard 'conventions' we discussed earlier. Polysyllabic words will be hyphenated and spread out below the musical line to show how each syllable matches the note or notes above. Where two or more notes are sung during a single syllable, known a melisma, the notes may be marked with a 'slur' and a matching horizontal line shown extending from the right of the text lying below the group. A melismatic text setting has several (sometimes many) notes per syllable of text. Although the words set to music might be referred to simply as 'the words' there are more particular terms available which should be used where relevant: textsparticularly, words employed in liturgical works lyricswords set in popular songs, stage shows and other popular music genres librettowords of an opera vocalsthe parts sung by voices in pop music (not usually a reference to the words themselves) sopranosoprano, dessusSopransopranosoprano male alto (falsettist)/low sopranobas-dessus/fausset (male-voice singing in the female contralto range)falsettista, male-voice singing in the female contralto rangeFalsettfalsetista mezzo sopranomezzo-sopranoMezzosopranmezzosopranomezzo-soprano alto; contraltoalto; contraltoAltcontraltocontralto tenorténor, tailleTenortenoretenor baritone baryton, bariton Bariton baritono barítono bass baritone basse taille bass basse Bass basso bajo counter tenor contre-ténor, Contratenor controtenore contratenor high voice haut hohe acuto agudo medium voice médium, moyen mittlere medio medio low voice grave tiefe grave grave Fach systemthe German Fach (pl. Fächer) system is a method of classifying singers, primarily opera singers, by the range, weight, and colour of their voices. It is primarily used in Europe, especially in German-speaking countries and in repertory opera houses • Fach from which this short extract has been taken, and where a complete listing of voice types is given • Vocal Ensembles English French German Italian Spanish vocal ensembles ensembles vocaux chorus choeur Chor coro coro mixed voices voix mixtes Stimmen gemischte, gemischter Chor voci miste voces mixtas women's voices choeur de femmes Frauenchor, coro femminile coro femenino men's voices choeur d'homme Männerchor, coro maschile coro masculino, choro de hombres children's voices choeur d'enfants Kinderchor voci bianche coro infantil, coro de niños equal voices voix égales Stimmen gleiche voci pari voces iguales Wordless Singing :: top Key word: wordless singing Wordless Singing Wordless singing is a term that covers various song forms from a wide range of cultures. The simplest form of 'wordless singing' is that associated with those who sing a song but don't know the words. Where the singer's mouth is closed and the tone is small, it is called 'humming'. The effect is used in the Humming Chorus from Puccini's opera Madame Butterfly. Forms where the mouth is open, and that use various syllables, vowels or consonants, include 'vocalise' (or 'vocalize'), vocable, niggun (or nigun) (Hasidic or Chassidic chant), vuelie (Sami story-telling songs that can include passages of wordless singing), and similar wordless-chanting of the North American Indian and certain African cultures, often associated with 'shamanism'. Finally there is a long tradition of singing that uses 'nonsense' words, among which 'scat singing' and 'mouth music' are the best known. A Canadian filmmaker, John Bertram, has enquired whether there is a generic term for singing that does not use words, as such. Of course, the general term 'singing' means 'to use the voice for musical purposes'. Since singing without words is still singing, words like 'avocal', 'nonvocal' or 'unvocal', seem to be inappropriate. 'Speechless', which generally implies silence, seems no better. One could create a word that describes onomatopoeically the sound being used, for example, la-la-ing or ooo-ing, but these would not meet the need for a general term covering all possibilities. John Bertram had enquired of other musical collegues whether they could make any suggestions and we summarise and comment upon those below. We have also added other 'used terms' for the many forms of wordless singing. various terms related to wordless singingcomment 'Song without words' chant sans paroles chanson sans paroles romance sans paroles romanza senza paroles Lied ohne Worte a song-like instrumental piece with a singing (but not sung) melody line a cappellaunaccompanied, usually polyphonic, singing hummingspecifically singing with the mouth closed vox humana (Latin, literally 'human voice') used for an organ stop that has some of the qualities of the human voice melisma or melismatic chantmelisma means several notes for a single syllable singing to vowel sounds, a term generally applied to vocal exercises, but also used for concert works, for example Vocalise for voice and piano (1975) by the Danish composer Gunnar Johansen (1906-1991) which calls for wordless singing or any suitable solo instrument-oboe preferred vocal instrumental scat singing mouth music using the voice to mimic the sounds of musical instruments (for example, Bobby McFerrin is an exemplar of this type of singing). Adelaide Hall (1901-1993), whose wordless singing is to be heard on Duke Ellington's recording of Creole Love Call, prefigured the scat singing later made famous by Ella Fitzgerald. A Nissan Civic TV advert. uses a choir to mimic car, road and weather noises : see Nissan Civic: 'The Choir' vocal percussion mouth drumming creating sounds with one's mouth that approximate, imitate, or otherwise serve the same purpose as a percussion instrument, whether in a group of singers, an instrumental ensemble, or solo. The term 'beatboxing' is often used as a synonym for vocal percussion, but in fact it is just one type of percussion, often used to accompany hip-hop music Air Drums + Chorus: Rockin_Rickie_Web.zip boula djel mizik djel vocalized percussion songs (i.e. mouth music) from Martinique and Guadeloupe which, while associated with traditional wakes, are not considered sacred music forms of vocal or verbal percussion from two of the world music traditions, in particular, the traditions of North India (bols) and South India (solkattu or konnakol). Syllables are used to learn percussion compositions, and each syllable signifies what stroke or combination of strokes the percussionist must use. Verbal percussion is a common feature, too, in the performance of the Alarippu, the first full dance piece that most Bharatanatyam dancers learn mouth music Gaelic song-form in which the lyrics are only of secondary importance - the dance rhythm is the most important aspect and the rhythm takes precedence over the rhythm and stresses of the Gaelic. The lyrics in puirt (plural of the word port, literally 'dance tune') are generally meaningless or nonsensical. Many Gaelic singers therefore do not believe in publishing translations of puirt-a-beul mouth music (Gaelic, literally 'lament') until recently, it was traditional in many parts of Ireland and Scotland for mourners to caoine at a graveside, or in the home of the deceased person to mourn their passing. Often an older woman in the community was hired to lead the dirge, joined by other family members and friends who were grieving. The sound of this mourning wail is a particularly solemn type of mouth music sean nos mouth music (Irish, literally 'old style') a musical tradition of stylized ornamentation, very specific to Irish songs and mouth music. The three classifications are goltrai (sad songs, laments) geantrai (songs with a happy or silly theme, work songs, and mouth music for dance tunes) and suantrai (lullabies). If a dance tune is sung by mouth music in the sean nos style, it will be both strongly rhythmic and highly ornamented. This is often referred to as 'lilting' or 'diddling' a tune. The most careful lilters use extraordinary breath control to keep exact rhythm in the tune, although many field recordings have been made of folks taking a more casual approach that allows them to breathe where it's convenient, then resume the melody of the mouth music. Vocables associated with 'diddling' or 'lilting' are those which help to provide the essential rhythm or lift to the tune mouth music a Scottish system of bagpipe notation in which syllables stand for recognized groups of notes and ornaments on the bagpipe. Using this complex type of 'mouth music', pipers could preserve tunes by passing them on even when the instruments were banned or unavailable reel à bouche mouth music (French, literally 'mouth reel') from the Cajun tradition of singing dance tunes. Since vocables reflect the language of the singer, a great deal of French influence is found among the vocable tradition in reel à bouche. The Acadian migration includes influences from Celtic Brittany, Nova Scotia, and the Appalachian mountains of N. America, all the way down to the Louisiana coast, where African, Indian and Caribbean influences can be heard in this rhythmic, often syncopated form of mouth music mouth music (Quebecois, probably from the Breton tuilage, see kan ha diskan below) closely related to reel à bouche, in which percussive foot-stamping is a regular accompaniment to dance tunes sung by mouth. In both cultures, the lack of instruments during times of poverty or migration led to a strong culture of singing for dancers which continues today. When instruments are added to the performance now, singing the dance tune is still very common kan ha diskan mouth music (Breton, literally 'sing and respond') this form of mouth music comes from the tradition of Celtic Brittany in Western France. It is music to accompany dance, but with a special twist-- it uses two singers overlapping their voices in a way that allows for a continuous stream of music for the dancer, and small intervals for resting or breathing by the singers. The singer (kaner) sings the first line, and near the end of that line the responder (diskaner) joins in, then repeats the whole line again while the kaner drops out. The kaner doubles on the last notes, then begins the second line, and so on. The song is sung in turns, only the end of each line being doubled. This technique is called the tuilage, and can be practiced by two singers, or two groups of singers. These songs are often sung high so that the sound carries best, so they can be heard over the sound of dancing wordless chorusas for example the Coro a bocca chiusa (Humming Chorus) from Puccini's Madame Butterfly alyrical chantan alternative to the somewhat more easily understood 'wordless chant' (chant has religous connotations and might seem inappropriate in secular situations), including niggun vocable musica vocable is a meaningless syllable that fits really well in representing a sound in mouth music. It can be a sound that imitates an instrument (like a bagpipe or drum) or a traditional syllable used in rhythmic combination to carry a tune. In all cultures where vocables are used in singing, the sounds used are bits of syllables found in the language of the song. Certain 'vocables' are closely associated with the type of song being sung type of wordless singing usually associated with the Swiss • Article on Gaelic puirt-a-beul (mouth music) • Mouth Music • top :: next lesson
Free Republic Browse · Search Topics · Post Article Skip to comments. Nineteen Neglected Consequences of Income Redistribution ^ \| December, 1994 \| Robert Higgs Posted on 08/21/2004 8:34:37 PM PDT by Remember_Salamis Nineteen Neglected Consequences of Income Redistribution Robert Higgs Virtually every government action changes the personal distribution of income, but some government programs, which give money, goods, or services to individuals who give nothing in exchange, represent income redistribution in its starkest form. Until the twentieth century, American governments steered pretty clear of such "transfer payments." The national government gave pensions and land grants to veterans, and local governments provided food and shelter to the destitute. But the transfers to veterans can be viewed as deferred payments for military services, and local relief never amounted to much. Since the creation of the Social Security system in 1935, especially during the past 30 years, the amount of income overtly transferred by governments has risen dramatically. In 1960 government transfer payments to persons amounted to $29 billion, or 7 percent of personal income. In 1993 the total came to $912 billion, or nearly 17 percent of personal income.' In other words, one dollar out of every six received as personal income now takes the form of old-age, survivors, disability, and health insurance benefits ($438 billion), unemployment insurance benefits ($34 billion), veterans' benefits ($20 billion), government employees' retirement benefits ($115 billion), aid to families with dependent children ($24 billion), and miscellaneous other government transfer payments ($280 billion) such as federal subsidies to farmers and state and local public assistance to poor people. Myth versus Reality It is tempting to think about government transfers in a simple way: one person, taxpayer T, loses a certain amount of money; another person, recipient R, gains the same amount; and everything else remains the same. When people look at income redistribution in this way, they tend to make a judgment about the desirability of the transfer simply by considering whether T or R is the more deserving. Commonly, especially when the issue is discussed in the news media or by left-liberal politicians, R is portrayed as a representative of the poor and downtrodden and T as a wealthy person or a big corporation. Opponents of the transfers then appear callous and lacking in compassion for the less fortunate. In fact, the overwhelming portion-more than 85 percent-of all government transfer payments is not "means-tested," that is, not reserved for low-income recipients. 2The biggest share goes to the elderly as pensions and Medicare benefits, and anyone over 65 years old, rich and poor alike, can receive these benefits. Today people over 65 have the highest income per person and the highest wealth per person of any age group in the United States. Federal transfer payments to farmers present an even more extreme case of giving to those who are already relatively well off. In 1989, for example, the federal government paid about $15 billion to farmers in direct crop subsidies, and 67 percent of the money went to the owners of the largest 17 percent of the farms-in many cases payments to farmers are literally welfare for millionaires . 3 It is simply a hoax that, as a rule, government is taking from the rich for the benefit of the poor. Even people who believe in the rectitude of redistribution à la Robin Hood ought to be troubled by the true character of the redistribution being effected by governments in America today. But apart from the troubling moral questions raised by redistribution, the issue is far more complicated than ordinarily considered. Beyond the naked fact that T pays taxes to the government and the government gives goods, services, or money to R, at least 19 other consequences occur when the government redistributes income. Neglected Consequences 1. Taxes for the purpose of income redistribution discourage the taxpayers from earning taxable income or raising the value of taxable property through investment. People who stand to lose part of their earnings respond to the altered personal payoff. As a result, they produce fewer goods and services and accumulate less wealth than they otherwise would. Hence the society is poorer, both now and later. 2. Transfer payments discourage the recipients from earning income now and from investing in their potential to earn future income. People respond to a reduced cost of idleness by choosing to be idle more often. When they can get current income without earning it, they exert less effort to earn income. When they expect to get future income without earning it, they invest less in education, training, job experience, personal health, migration, and other forms of human capital that enhance their potential to earn income in the future. Hence the society is even poorer, both now and later, than it would have been merely because taxes discourage current production and investment by the taxpayers who fund the transfers. 3. Recipients of transfers tend to become less self-reliant and more dependent on government payments. When people can get support without exercising their own abilities to discover and respond to opportunities for earning income, those abilities atrophy. People forget-or never learn in the first place-how to help themselves, and eventually some of them simply accept their helplessness. It is no accident that both material privation and lassitude distinguish individuals accustomed to living on payments such as Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). 4. Recipients of transfers set a bad example for others, including their children, other relatives, and friends, who see that one can receive goods, services, or money from the government without earning them. The onlookers easily adopt an attitude that they, too, are entitled to such transfers. They have fewer examples of hardworking, self-reliant people in their families or neighborhoods. Hence a culture of dependency on government transfers can become pervasive when many people in a neighborhood rely on such transfers for life's essentials or - where the recipients are better off - its comforts. 5. Because some transfers are more generous than others, some classes of recipients come to resent the "injustice" of the distribution of the largess. Hence arise political conflicts. Representatives of discontented groups politicize the determination of the amounts to be transferred and engage in continual jockeying to increase certain kinds of transfers, at the expense of others if necessary. Note, for example, the ceaseless activities of the American Association of Retired Persons, perhaps the most powerful lobby in Washington, striving to increase old-age pensions and Medicare benefits, or the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, seeking to increase transfers that benefit blacks in particular. Such political maneuvering creates or exacerbates conflicts among groups defined by their eligibility to receive particular kinds of transfers: old against young, black against white, rural against urban, female against male, Northern against Southern, homeowner against renter, and so forth without visible limit. Society becomes more contentious. 6. Just as recipients engage in internecine warfare, so do taxpayers, who resent disproportionate burdens in funding the transfers. For instance, young people now learn that their Social Security taxes are going straight into the pockets of retired people who as a group are better off. Young taxpayers also learn that they probably will never recoup their own contributions, unlike the present-day elderly, who have realized an extraordinarily high effective rate of return on their contributions. (Currently the average married couple gets back everything ever paid in, with interest, in just over four years. ) 4 Black Social Security taxpayers learn that, because of their lower life expectancy, they cannot expect to receive as much retirement income as the average white person can expect. Taxpayers who consider themselves disproportionately burdened grow to resent their exploitation by the tax-and-transfer system. Therefore they give more support to politicians who promise to defend their pocketbooks against legislative marauders, and they strive harder to avoid or evade taxes. 7. As a result of the preceding two consequences, the entire society grows more divided and pugnacious. Less and less does the society constitute a genuine community. Rather, it becomes balkanized into bellicose subgroups regarding one another as oppressors and oppressed. People lose their sense of belonging to a common political community with collective interests and joint responsibilities. Instead, fellow citizens regard each other as either patsies or moochers and feel personal hostility toward those who appear to be net gainers from the system. Some actually come to hate the perceived moochers. Witness the palpable hostility when shoppers paying cash wait in the check-out line at the grocery store while someone uses food stamps to make purchases. 8. Among the recipients of transfers, self-help institutions languish. In olden days the burden of caring for the less fortunate outside the family was borne mainly by friends and neighbors acting jointly through churches, lodges, unions, clubs, and other voluntary associations. When individuals can receive assistance directly from the government, competing private associations tend to wither and eventually die-at least their functions as helping institutions disappear. When they are gone, people who need help have nowhere to turn except to the government, which is unfortunate in many ways, because what the government does is not really the same. Nor is it as effective, especially in the long run, when private associations have much greater success in making sure that people who recover their capacities then resume taking care of themselves. An observer noted that in the aftermath of the big Los Angeles earthquake, "Thousands of forlorn, atomized individuals did nothing but wait for a centralized savior, the federal government. America has been diminished by a system of compulsory compassion that simply wants true communities out of the way so that altruism can be left to the experts." 5 9. Just as self-help institutions wither among the needy, so do charitable institutions among those who are better off. When government agencies stand ready to attend to every conceivable problem in society, people whose sensibilities incline them toward helping the less fortunate have less incentive to organize themselves for doing so. It is easy to say, "I pay my taxes, and plenty of them. Let the government take care of the problem." If one contributes charitably, it is as if one were paying twice to accomplish the same objective. Hence, government transfers crowd out private transfers. Coercion, in the form of the tax system, displaces the voluntary provision of assistance, and private charitable institutions wane. 10. As citizens drop out of their involvement in charitable and helping institutions, letting the government take over, they become less self-directing and more accepting of all kinds of government activity. So when someone proposes that the government undertake a function previously carried out exclusively within the private sphere, people are not shocked; they are not even very suspicious of the government's ability to carry out the task. After all, governments now do all sorts of things, from socializing preschoolers to feeding the poor to insuring the medical expenses of the elderly. So what if the government takes on still another responsibility? What was once a prevailing suspicion of the enlargement of government becomes a resignation to or an acceptance of its continuing expansion into new areas. In the nineteenth century, opponents of proposed new government programs would commonly protest: "The government has no business doing that." Nowadays we rarely hear anyone oppose a government initiative on these grounds. That there is a private sphere into which government ought never to intrude has become a nearly extinct species of thought as governments have spread their programs and activities, not to mention their regulations of "private" life, into almost every cranny of society. 11. Hence people do not mobilize political opposition so readily when new government programs are proposed. Facing less opposition, those who support the new programs are more likely to triumph politically. New government programs proliferate quicker, restrained somewhat by budgetary limitations but not much by fundamental ideological objections. According to a recent Wall Street Journal/NBC poll, "when Americans were asked whether 'entitlements' should be cut to reduce the deficit, 61% said yes. But when they were asked whether 'programs such as Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid and farm subsidies' should be cut, 66% said no." 6 Evidently most people resent paying for the programs, but they have no objection to the programs themselves. 12. Redistribution involves more than T who pays and R who receives. In between stands B, the bureaucracy that determines eligibility, writes the checks, keeps the records, and often does much more, sometimes intruding into the personal lives of the clients. The mediating bureaucracies consume vast resources of labor and capital, accounting for much of the gross expense of the transfer system. For the government to transfer a dollar to R, it is never sufficient to take just a dollar from T. In addition a hefty "commission" must be paid to support B. From a societal perspective, one must recognize that labor and capital employed by the bureaucracies cannot be used to produce goods and services valued by consumers. Again, society is poorer. 13. Once a bureau is created, its personnel become a tenacious political interest group, well placed to defend its budget and make a case for expanding its activities. After all, who knows more about the urgent necessity of increasing a bureau's budget and staff than those who carry out its activities? The bureaucrats have a close hold on the relevant data and the ostensible expertise with respect to whatever problem they treat. Therefore they have potent advantages in the political process when they seek to augment the resources placed at their command. Agency experts will testify that outsiders "just don't know how serious the problem is." A bureau often constitutes one side of a political "iron triangle," joined with the organized client groups that form the second side and the congressional committees with legislative jurisdiction or oversight responsibility that form the third side. When the bureau becomes politically embedded in this way, as most do, its impoverishment of society can continue indefinitely without serious political challenge. 14. Taxpayers do not simply cough up money to fund the transfers without resistance. Many of them devote time, effort, and money to minimizing their legal tax liability or evading taxes. They buy books and computer software. They employ financial advisers, lawyers, and accountants. From time to time they organize political movements to campaign for tax relief à la California's Proposition 13. All the labor and capital employed in connection with tax resistance are unavailable to produce goods and services valued by consumers. Society is poorer, and will remain poorer as long as people continue to devote resources to tax resistance. (However, to the extent that tax resistance succeeds in making tax rates lower than they otherwise would have been, it promotes greater wealth creation in the longer run.) 15. In the end many citizens will pay taxes to finance the transfers. Even if no one tries to resist the taxes or alters his behavior in supplying labor and capital, the cost to taxpayers will be more than one dollar for each dollar taken by the government, because it is costly just to comply with the tax laws. Taxpayers must keep records, research the tax rules, fill out forms, and all the rest. These activities require time and effort withdrawn from valuable alternative uses. Many people, even though they intend nothing more than full compliance with the law, hire the expert assistance of accountants and tax preparers - the tax rules are so complicated that mere mortals cannot cope. Use of resources to comply with tax laws makes the society poorer. According to a study by James L. Payne, just the private compliance expense of taxpayers plus the budgetary and enforcement expense of the IRS add $270,000,000 to the tab for each billion dollars of spending by the federal government. 16. Just as taxpayers do not passively submit to being taxed, recipients and potential recipients of transfers do not just sit quietly waiting for their ship to come in. They also act politically. They form organizations, attend meetings, employ publicists and lobbyists, and campaign for political candidates who support their objectives. All the labor and capital employed in transfer-seeking activities are unavailable to produce goods and services valued by consumers. Society is poorer and will remain poorer as long as people continue to devote resources to seeking transfers. 17. Just as taxpayers must employ resources to comply with the tax laws, so recipients of transfers must employ resources to establish and maintain their eligibility to receive the transfers. For example, recipients of unemployment insurance benefits must visit the department of employment security and wait in long lines to certify that they are indeed unemployed. Sometimes they must go from place to place applying for jobs, which they may have no intention of accepting, in order to demonstrate that they are "seeking employment." Recipients of disability insurance benefits must visit doctors and other health professionals to acquire certification that they are indeed disabled. In each case, more resources are squandered, and society is that much poorer. 18. By adopting programs to redistribute substantial amounts of income, a nation guarantees that its government will become more powerful and invasive in other ways. Because government itself is the most menacing interest group in society, nothing good can come of this development, and much evil may come of it. As James Madison remarked more than two centuries ago, "one legislative interference is but the first link of a long chain of repetitions, every subsequent interference being naturally produced by the effects of the preceding."' When the government created Medicare and Medicaid in 1965, for example, it set in motion a train of events that led inexorably to the subsequent "crisis" of escalating health-care costs and thence to the bigger government now being wrought by congressional efforts to deal with this artificial crisis. 19. Creating a more powerful and invasive government means that the liberties of citizens will be diminished. Rights previously enjoyed will be set aside. For a long time American citizens enjoyed extensive rights in the negative sense-rights to be left alone by governments or other people as they went about their lives. All individuals could enjoy such rights simultaneously. With the growth of the transfer society, American citizens have gravitated away from negative rights and toward positive rights, also known as welfare rights, which are in effect claims on the resources of other people. One person's welfare right entails a corresponding duty of other people to provide the resources necessary to satisfy the claim. As such entitlements have grown, therefore, liberties in the sense of negative rights have necessarily diminished. Culmination Ironically, in the full-fledged transfer society, where governments busy themselves redistributing income by means of hundreds of distinct programs, hardly anyone is better off as a result. Those who get something of value from the system frequently give up even more in taxes. Further, because many of the consequences of government income redistribution share the common aspect of impoverishing the society, even those who get a bigger slice than they surrender are cutting into a smaller pie. Only the ruling class-those who constitute the government-can confidently expect to gain, as each new program enlarges the number of official jobs and the bureaucracy's budget. In the transfer society the general public is not only poorer but less contented, less autonomous, more rancorous, and more politicized. Individuals take part less often in voluntary community activities and more often in belligerent political contests. Genuine communities cannot breathe in the poisonous atmosphere of redistributional politics. Most importantly, the society that allows its government to redistribute income on a wide scale necessarily sacrifices much of its liberty. Finally, one must recognize that, notwith standing what some regard as the institutiona-lization of compassion, the transfer society quashes genuine virtue. Redistribution of income by government coercion is a form of theft. Its supporters attempt to disguise its essential character by claiming that democratic procedures give it legitimacy, but this justification is specious. Theft is theft whether it be carried out by one thief or by 100 million thieves acting in concert. And it is impossible to found a good society on the institutionalization of theft. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- At the time of the original publication, Dr. Higgs, this month's guest editor, was Research Director for the Independent Institute and a contributing editor of The Freeman. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. U.S. Council of Economic Advisers, Annual Report 1994, p. 299. 2. James D. Gwartncy and Richard L. Stroup, Microeconomics: Private and Public Choice, 6th ed. (Fort Worth: Dryden Press, 1992), pp. 409-410. 3. Ibid., pp. 488-489. 4. Paulette Thomas, "BiPartisan Panel Outlines Evils of Entitlements, But Hint of Benefit Cuts Spurs Stiff Opposition " Wall Street Journal, August 8, 1994. 5. Arianna Huffington as quoted by John H. Fund, "A Spiritual Manifesto for a New Political Age," Wall Street Journal, July 13, 1994. 6. Thomas, "Bipartisan Panel." 7. James L. Payne, "Inside the Federal Hurting Machine," The Freeman, March 1994, p. 127. 8. "The Federalist No. 44," in The Federalist (New York: Modem Library, n.d.), p. 291. Reprinted with permission from The Freeman, a publication of The Foundation for Economic Education, Inc., December 1994, Vol. 44, No. 12. KEYWORDS: 1foru15forme; income; iwilltaxyourfeet; lalaland; liberals; redistribution; socialism; tax; taxachoosetts; taxes; taxreform; welfare Navigation: use the links below to view more comments. first 1-2021-35 next last 1 posted on 08/21/2004 8:34:38 PM PDT by Remember_Salamis [ Post Reply \| Private Reply \| View Replies] To: Remember_Salamis Income redistribution is right up the wicked witch of the north's alley. Remember about two months in San Francisco when Hitlery was up at the podium giving speech and told the San Franciscans, who paid up to $10,000 a plate to be in attendance, that they made too much money. Further, when the demoncRATS take control of the White House, she's going to make sure that she and other demoncRATS like Barbara Boxer, Ted Kennedy, John Kerry, Richard Gephardt, etal, take their money away from them and redistribute it for the common good. And these same San Franciscans loved it for her. 2 posted on 08/21/2004 8:43:27 PM PDT by lilylangtree (Veni, Vidi, Vici) To: Remember_Salamis Thanks. This is so true and those who need to see it do not. 3 posted on 08/21/2004 8:59:45 PM PDT by jimfree (Focus on the mission.) To: Remember_Salamis As Alvin Lee once sang, "Tax the rich, feed the poor, 'til there are no rich no more - tell me, where is sanity?" 4 posted on 08/21/2004 9:01:54 PM PDT by austingirl To: lilylangtree Income distribution isn't only welfare, it's FREE TRADE as well. They're taking our incomes and moving them overseas. 5 posted on 08/21/2004 9:07:13 PM PDT by ETERNAL WARMING (He is faithful!) To: Remember_Salamis Good post! 6 posted on 08/21/2004 9:19:43 PM PDT by Frank_2001 To: Remember_Salamis Socialism has never worked long term to any acceptable degree, but Dems say "this time it will be different". 7 posted on 08/21/2004 9:22:07 PM PDT by BipolarBob (Yes I backed over the vampire, but I swear I didn't see it in my rearview mirror.) To: Remember_Salamis I'm no fan of income redistribution, but I'm against means testing for Social Security benefite - if a person has money confiscated throughout their working life, they must get it back when they reach the eligible age. 8 posted on 08/21/2004 9:23:22 PM PDT by Gigantor (Por favor, mantengase alejado de las puertas...) To: Remember_Salamis Thanks for the post. Good article. (I'm not surprised the author is affiliated with The Freeman; he has that dry, Freeman style.) I have only two minor beefs with him: I've never witnessed what he describes; I have, however, witnessed a Hispanic customer just in front of me in line at the supermarket paying with food stamps shoot hateful stares MY way. Wrong. "Private" companies that live off of government contracts gain more than anyone else. 9 posted on 08/21/2004 10:20:36 PM PDT by mrustow ("And when Moses saw the golden calf, he shouted out to the heavens, 'Jesus, Mary, and Joseph!'") To: Remember_Salamis aid to families with dependent children ($24 billion), P.S. Since the 1996 Personal Responsibility Act, it's been known as TANF -- Temporary Assistance to Needy Families. 10 posted on 08/21/2004 10:24:32 PM PDT by mrustow ("And when Moses saw the golden calf, he shouted out to the heavens, 'Jesus, Mary, and Joseph!'") To: Remember_Salamis Oops! I just noticed that the piece was published in 1994, before the PRA was enacted. 11 posted on 08/21/2004 10:26:28 PM PDT by mrustow ("And when Moses saw the golden calf, he shouted out to the heavens, 'Jesus, Mary, and Joseph!'") To: mrustow save...for later 12 posted on 08/21/2004 10:30:00 PM PDT by rolling_stone To: rolling_stone If the money paid into S/S had been invested at even a low rate of interest, say 4% for all of the years that people paid it in, it would have been worth a million dollars per retiree. But the Washington Gangsters saw that big pile of money and could not keep their hands off of it. The biggest offender was LBJ when he wanted to fight in Viet Nam, and underwrite the Great Society at one time. That started the raid of S/S funds. 13 posted on 08/21/2004 10:36:29 PM PDT by BooBoo1000 To: rolling_stone Interesting, but I'm not going to give up my federal pension to make the writer of the article feel better. 14 posted on 08/21/2004 10:37:33 PM PDT by Ciexyz ("FR, best viewed with a budgie on hand") To: Remember_Salamis Hey, the Republicans are in charge. Government spending increases and sharing the loot in exchange for votes is now acceptable. 15 posted on 08/21/2004 10:57:09 PM PDT by Moonman62 To: BooBoo1000 Enron accountants couldn't have cooked up a bigger scam. And the government is immune from prosecution or any sort of accountability. 16 posted on 08/21/2004 11:00:15 PM PDT by Moonman62 To: dakine 17 posted on 08/21/2004 11:55:11 PM PDT by codyjacksmom ("Tereeza Pleease...I need more allowance so I can hire someone to teach me how to throw like a boy") To: Remember_Salamis So that's where all that money from my paycheck goes before I even see it... 18 posted on 08/22/2004 12:17:52 AM PDT by RockinRight (Liberalism IS the status quo) To: Moonman62 Why don't we band together, and nominate one FReeper from every state to run for either the House or Senate, and do it every election year until we can infiltrate... I'd run for the US House, but I'd have to move 10 miles south so I'd be in a district that has at least a reasonable chance to elect a conservative. Any district that elects Tim Ryan (D-Parts of Akron and Youngstown, OH) is a futile attempt... 19 posted on 08/22/2004 12:30:00 AM PDT by RockinRight (Liberalism IS the status quo) "They're taking our incomes and moving them overseas." -- Are you a Buchananite protectionist? Protectionism is a form of incoem redistribution and and the protection of "mature" insustries is truly despotic. Take the steel industry for example: Why should Every American consumer, along with every american business that uses steel, pay MORE so that one small political constituency gets more? That's income redistribution as well. If you're talking about "off-shoring" money, I see tax AVOIDANCE as one's patriotic duty to starve the beast. 20 posted on 08/22/2004 1:22:37 AM PDT by Remember_Salamis (Freedom is Not Free) Navigation: use the links below to view more comments. first 1-2021-35 next last Free Republic Browse · Search Topics · Post Article
Electronic Recyclables Some of the most commonly asked questions we get at Legacy are “What items do you take?” and “What happens to all this stuff once it leaves our office?”. Both are excellent questions that essentially deal with the same basic issue of keeping as much hazardous material out of the consumer waste stream as possible. Research shows that extracting raw materials from the earth takes up more energy than utilizing recycled commodities. So to help with this issue and to help answer these commonly asked questions we try and take as many different types of electronics as possible out of the waste stream. What we generally say in the industry is that if it plugs into an outlet or runs on batteries we can recycle it for you. Now, what happens to these items once they get to our warehouse is a pretty simple process but it is an essential step in the recycling chain of custody. The recyclables get separated and categorized based on factors like size or commodity variation. Items that are large have to get broken down further and items that consist of many different commodities have to get dismantled into their basic parts, such as, glass, plastic, copper, aluminum, etc. Once the electronics have been broken down the commodities are then shipped to various processors and refineries around the Midwest. At the refineries they get refined and purified into reusable raw materials where they can then be used to make new products. These products then enter the consumer stream where they begin the cycle all over again. What We RecycleDellComputer • Desktop PCs/Network Servers /Laptops • CRT/LCD Monitors and Televisions • Peripherals (Printers, Scanners, Keyboards, etc) • Office Equipment (Copiers, FAX Machines, Phones, etc.) • Cables, Connectors and Adapters • Media (CDs, Floppy/Encased Diskettes, Storage Tape, etc.) • All types of batteries (NiCd, Pb acid, Li ion, Alkaline) • Small appliances (microwaves, toasters, vacuums, etc.) • Consumer electronics (VCR’s, stereos, DVD players, cell phones, etc.)
Bringing Yesterday's Classics to Today's Children @mainlesson.com Search This Site Only Stories of Great Americans for Little Americans by Edward Eggleston His father made soap and candles. Little Ben Franklin had to cut wicks for the candles. He also filled the candle molds. He also sold soap and candles, and ran on errands. But when he was not at work he spent his time in reading good books. What little money he got he used to buy books with. He read the old story of Pilgrim's Progress, and liked it so well that he bought all the other stories by the same man. But as he wanted more books, and had not money to buy them, he sold [27] all of these books. The next he bought were some little history books. These were made to sell cheaply, and they were sold by peddlers. He managed to buy forty or fifty of these little books of history. Another way he had of learning was by seeing things with his own eyes. His father took him to see carpenters at work with their saws and planes. He also saw masons laying bricks. And he went to see men making brass and copper kettles. And he saw a man with a turning lathe making the round legs of chairs. Other men were at work making knives. Some things people learn out of books, and some things they have to see for themselves. as Franklin at Study It was part of the bargain that Ben's brother [28] should pay his board. The boy offered to board himself if his brother would give him half what it cost to pay for his board. His brother was glad to do this, and Ben saved part of the money and [29] bought books with it. He was a healthy boy, and it did not hurt him to live mostly on bread and butter. Sometimes he bought a little pie or a handful of raisins. He did not waste his time. He read good books. He saw things for himself. Table of Contents \| Index \| Previous: The Story of a Wise Woman \| Next: How Franklin Found Out Things
Jean-Baptiste Colbert, French statesman Jean-Baptiste Colbert, French statesman H403/0316 Rights Managed Request low-res file 530 pixels on longest edge, unwatermarked Request/Download high-res file Uncompressed file size: 31.1MB Downloadable file size: 3.8MB Price image Pricing Please login to use the price calculator Caption: Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683), French economic statesman. He was appointed comptroller general of finances (1665) by King Louis XIV. Colbert scaled down public debt, successfully increasing French exports in exchange for precious metals, a policy known as mercantalism. He encouraged the growth of industry, oversaw the construction of shipyards, arsenals and harbours, and began the construction of a large navy. He also patronized the arts and sciences, founding the Paris Observatory and the Academy of Sciences. He had to raise taxes to fund the wars waged by Louis XIV, causing Colbert great unpopularity. Artwork from The Gallery of Portraits with Memoirs, London, 1835. Keywords: 17, 17th century, 1835, academy of science, artwork, civil servant, colbert, coloured, comptroller, dead, economics, economist, founder, french, government, historical, history, illustration, jean baptiste, jean-baptiste, london, male, man, paris observatory, politician, portraits, seventeenth, statesman, surname c, the gallery of portraits, with memoirs
Herschel Telescope shows galactic star formation is slowing The formation of new stars in galaxies like the Milky Way has declined five-fold in the last 3bn years. Last Updated: May 07, 2010, 18:29 PM IST Noordwijk, Netherlands: The formation of new stars in galaxies like the Milky Way has declined five-fold in the last three billion years, initial findings of the European Space Agency`s Herschel telescope showed Thursday. While scientists already knew that star formation was more prolific billions of years ago, the Herschel telescope has for the first time been able to start measuring the rate of decline, scientist Steve Eales said at the launch. Three billion years ago "galaxies were forming stars at ... five times the rate we know today," he told at the agency`s offices in Noordwijk in the western Netherlands. Eales said the Herschel telescope`s infrared technology allowed scientists to see galaxies, mainly spiral ones like the Milky Way, that were previously hidden from scientists` view by cosmic dust clouds. The telescope, launched a year ago to study star formation, is the biggest ever sent into space, orbiting at a distance of 1.5 million kilometres (932,000 miles) from the Earth. Scientists already knew that 10 billion years ago "there were these galaxies that were forming stars really fast," said Eales, but previous telescopes were unable to see up to a distance of 10 billion light years. "We haven`t been able to fill that gap until today. "What Herschel has been able to do because of the wave length it is observing at, it can suddenly see lots of galaxies in the nearby universe, up to about the last three or four billion light years. It can fill the gap in cosmic history," Eales said. The findings suggested, he said, that "at some point stars will stop forming" altogether, unless solar conditions changed. Scientists did not know the reasons for the decline. Researchers also told the launch that Herschel had managed to spot an embryonic "massive star" -- a celestial object more than eight times the size of our sun. "Massive stars are rare and short-lived," said an ESA statement. "To catch one during formation presents a golden opportunity to solve a long-standing paradox in astronomy." Scientist Annie Zavagno said that radiation emitted by massive stars should destroy them at some point -- instead they continue to grow. According to accepted scientific principles, stars should not be able to become more than eight times bigger than our sun. Understanding how these "impossible" stars were formed was critical because they "control the dynamical and chemical evolution of galaxies," said Zavagno. The ESA`s director of science and robotic exploration, David Southwood, said "a new universe" was emerging from Herschel`s findings. "We can look at the complex chemistry that goes on in space that ultimately has created the things that we are made of," he said. Bureau Report
Victoriano Huerta Victoriano Huerta Victoriano Huerta Victoriano Huerta seized power to become the second president of postrevolutionary Mexico, serving from 1913 to 1914. These two years witnessed the most violent stage of the revolution and its downward spiral into full civil war. Huerta was born in Colotlán, Jalisco, in 1845. With a limited education, he had few prospects in life until he became the personal secretary of General Donato Guerra. During the Mexican Revolution of 1910, the besieged president Porfirio Díaz dispatched Huerta to the south to quell Emiliano Zapata's revolt, but the general was called back to Mexico City before engaging the rebels in combat when Díaz fell from power. Huerta then served as the military escort for the ousted Díaz from Mexico City to Veracruz. Francisco Léon de la Barra, the interim president, sent Huerta south again to disarm and defeat Zapata's forces, a mission in which he failed. When Francisco Madero took office he expressed disappointment in Huerta's inability to defeat Emiliano Zapata and in his connections with Bernardo Reyes, Madero's only serious political opponent in the 1911 election. In 1912 Madero grudgingly sent Huerta to suppress a revolt initiated by Pascual Orozco in the north. Huerta defeated Orozco and almost put Pancho Villa, then serving under Huerta, before the firing squad for theft. Only Madero's intervention saved Villa, and the incident strained relations between the two men. Stationed in Mexico City, Huerta knew of the growing conspiracy to oust Madero headed by Generals Bernardo Reyes and Félix Días, the nephew of the former dictator. Huerta declined to join the rebels, but as they attacked the National Palace in February 1913 and the tide of the battle increasingly pointed toward a successful rebellion, Huerta saw an opportunity for personal political gain. Victoriano Huerta with José C. Delgado and Abraham F. Ratner Victoriano Huerta with José C. Delgado and Abraham F. Ratner The United States, under the leadership of Woodrow Wilson, took offense to Huerta's violent seizure of power and attempted to convince him to hold elections and declare peace with the his internal adversaries, the Constitutionalists. Huerta ignored these requests, and the United States actively assisted his opponents by supplying them with arms. The northern states of Coahuila, Chihuahua, and Sonora refused to recognize Huerta's presidency, and their leader, Venustiano Carranza, declared himself president of Mexico. At the same time Alvaro Obregón, also from the north, led forces south toward Mexico City to force Huerta's surrender.
Where to store wireless credential on Raspbian Image result for raspbian ssid=”wireless ID” ssid=”wireless ID” Class-D amplifier class-D amplifier or switching amplifier is an electronic amplifierin which the amplifying devices (transistors, usually MOSFETs) operate as electronic switches, and not as linear gain devices as in other amplifiers. They are rapidly switching back and forth between the supply rails, being fed by a modulator using pulse width, pulse density, or related techniques to encode the audio input into a pulse train. The audio escapes through a simple low-pass filter into the loudspeaker. The high-frequency pulses, which can be as high as 6 MHz, are blocked. Since the pairs of output transistors are never conducting at the same time, there is no other path for current flow apart from the low-pass filter/loudspeaker. For this reason, efficiency can exceed 90%. Block diagram of a basic switching or PWM (class-D) amplifier. Note: For clarity, signal periods are not shown to scale. Basic operation Class-D amplifiers work by generating a train of square pulses of fixed amplitude but varying width and separation, or varying number per unit time, representing the amplitude variations of the analog audio input signal. It is also possible to synchronize the modulator clock with an incoming digital audio signal, thus removing the necessity to convert it to analog, The output of the modulator is then used to gate the output transistors on and off alternately. Great care is taken to ensure that the pair of transistors are never allowed to conduct together. This would cause a short circuit between the supply rails through the transistors. Since the transistors are either fully “on” or fully “off”, they spend very little time in the linear region, and dissipate very little power. This is the main reason for their high efficiency. A simple low-pass filter consisting of an inductor and a capacitor are used to provide a path for the low-frequencies of the audio signal, leaving the high-frequency pulses behind. In cost sensitive applications the output filter is sometimes omitted. The circuit then relies on the inductance of the loudspeaker to keep the HF component from heating up the voice coil. The structure of a class-D power stage is somewhat comparable to that of a synchronously rectified buck converter (a type of non-isolated switched-mode power supply (SMPS)), but works backwards. Whereas buck converters usually function as voltage regulators, delivering a constant DC voltage into a variable load and can only source current (one-quadrant operation), a class-D amplifier delivers a constantly changing voltage into a fixed load, where current and voltage can independently change sign (four-quadrant operation). A switching amplifier must not be confused with linear amplifiers that use an SMPS as their source of DC power. A switching amplifier may use any type of power supply (e.g., a car battery or an internal SMPS), but the defining characteristic is that the amplification process itself operates by switching. Unlike a SMPS, the amplifier has a much more critical job to do, to keep unwanted artifacts out of the output. Feedback is almost always used, for the same reasons as in traditional analog amplifiers, to reduce noise and distortion. Theoretical power efficiency of class-D amplifiers is 100%. That is to say, all of the power supplied to it is delivered to the load, none is turned to heat. This is because an ideal switch in its on state would conduct all the current but have no voltage loss across it, hence no heat would be dissipated. And when it is off, it would have the full supply voltage across it but no leak current flowing through it, and again no heat would be dissipated. Real-world power MOSFETs are not ideal switches, but practical efficiencies well over 90% are common. By contrast, linear AB-class amplifiers are always operated with both current flowing through and voltage standing across the power devices. An ideal class-B amplifier has a theoretical maximum efficiency of 78%. Class A amplifiers (purely linear, with the devices always “on”) have a theoretical maximum efficiency of 50% and some versions have efficiencies below 20%. Signal modulation The 2-level waveform is derived using pulse-width modulation (PWM), pulse density modulation (sometimes referred to as pulse frequency modulation), sliding mode control (more commonly called “self-oscillating modulation” in the trade.) or discrete-time forms of modulation such as delta-sigma modulation. The most basic way of creating the PWM signal is to use a high speed comparator (“C” in the block-diagram above) that compares a high frequency triangular wave with the audio input. This generates a series of pulses of which the duty cycle is directly proportional with the instantaneous value of the audio signal. The comparator then drives a MOS gate driver which in turn drives a pair of high-power switches (usually MOSFETs). This produces an amplified replica of the comparator’s PWM signal. The output filter removes the high-frequency switching components of the PWM signal and recovers the audio information that the speaker can use. Design challenges Switching speed Two significant design challenges for MOSFET driver circuits in class-D amplifiers are keeping dead times and linear mode operation as short as possible. “Dead time” is the period during a switching transition when both output MOSFETs are driven into Cut-Off Mode and both are “off”. Dead times need to be as short as possible to maintain an accurate low-distortion output signal, but dead times that are too short cause the MOSFET that is switching on to start conducting before the MOSFET that is switching off has stopped conducting. The MOSFETs effectively short the output power supply through themselves in a condition known as “shoot-through”. Meanwhile, the MOSFET drivers also need to drive the MOSFETs between switching states as fast as possible to minimize the amount of time a MOSFET is in Linear Mode—the state between Cut-Off Mode and Saturation Mode where the MOSFET is neither fully on nor fully off and conducts current with a significant resistance, creating significant heat. Driver failures that allow shoot-through and/or too much linear mode operation result in excessive losses and sometimes catastrophic failure of the MOSFETs. There are also problems with using PWM for the modulator; as the audio level approaches 100%, the pulse width can get so narrow as to challenge the ability of the driver circuit and the MOSFET to respond. These pulses can get down to just a few nanoseconds and can result in the above undesired conditions of shoot-through and/or Linear mode. This is why other modulation techniques such as Pulse Density can get closer to the theoretical 100% efficiency than PWM. Electromagnetic interference • Avoid capacitive coupling from switching signals into the wiring. Power supply design Error control The major advantage of a class-D amplifier is that it can be more efficient than an analog amplifier, with less power dissipated as heat in the active devices. Given that large heat sinks are not required, Class-D amplifiers are much lighter weight than analog amplifiers, an important consideration with portable sound reinforcement system equipment and bass amplifiers. Output stages such as those used in pulse generators are examples of class-D amplifiers. However, the term mostly applies to power amplifiers intended to reproduce audio signals with a bandwidth well below the switching frequency. Despite the complexity involved, a properly designed class-D amplifier offers the following benefits: • Reduced power waste as heat dissipation and hence: • Very high power conversion efficiency, usually better than 90% above one quarter of the amplifier’s maximum power, and around 50% at low power levels. • Home theatre in a box systems. These economical home cinema systems are almost universally equipped with class-D amplifiers. On account of modest performance requirements and straightforward design, direct conversion from digital audio to PWM without feedback is most common. • Hearing aids. The miniature loudspeaker (known as the receiver) is directly driven by a class-D amplifier to maximise battery life and can provide saturation levels of 130 dB SPL or more. • Powered speakers • High-end audio is generally conservative with regards to adopting new technologies but class-D amplifiers have made an appearance • Active subwoofers • Sound Reinforcement and Live Sound. For very high power amplification the powerloss of AB amplifiers are unacceptable. Amps with several kilowatts of output power are available as class-D. The Crest Audio CD3000, for example, is a class-D power amplifier that is rated at 1500 W per channel, yet it weighs only 21 kg (46 lb). Similarly, the Powersoft K20 is a class-D power amplifier that is rated at 9000 W per 2-Ohm channel, yet it weighs only 12 kg (26.5 lb). • Bass amplifiers. Again, an area where portability is important. Example: Yamaha BBT500H bass amplifier which is rated at 500 W, and yet it weighs less than 5 kg (11 lb). The Promethean P500H by Ibanez is also capable of delivering 500 W into a 4 Ohm load, and weighs only 2.9 kg (6.4 lb). Gallien Krueger MB500 and Eden WTX500, also rated at 500 W weighs no more than 2 kg (4.4 lb). • Vacuum Tube-based Class-D Amplifier. By means of a suitable grid polarization technique and connections through controlled impedance and length equalized transmission lines, vacuum tubes can be used as power switching devices in Class-D power audio amplifiers in full-bridge and half bridge configurations. See also Frozen connection using ssh over Amazon EC2 using Ubuntu When I am connected to Amazon EC2 using the secure shell and don’t type anything for a few minutes, everything freezes. I can’t type anything or exit. After a few minutes I get a message from the server… Last login: Fri Dec 6 23:21:28 2013 from pool-173-52-249-158.nycmny.east.verizon.net ubuntu@ip-172-31-31-33:~$ Write failed: Broken pipe Some of you have had to have this problem before. If you could shed some light on the situation for a newb using the cloud. ry below options: Explore ServerAliveCountMax and ServerAliveInterval. These settings are set in /etc/ssh/ssh_config on SSH client side. from man ssh_config: knowing when a connection has become inactive. ServerAliveCountMax is left at the default, if the server becomes unresponsive, ssh will disconnect after approximately 45 seconds. This option applies to protocol version 2 only; in protocol version 1 there is responsibility of the TCP stack. This option applies to protocol version 2 only. ProtocolKeepAlives and SetupTimeOut are Debian-specific compatibility aliases for this option. Also similar settings are available from the server side which are ClientAliveInterval and ClientAliveCountMax. These settings palced in /etc/ssh/sshd_config on Server side. from man sshd_config: knowing when a connection has become inactive. option applies to protocol version 2 only. Jawbone’s demise heralds the end of the wearables industry Micro:bit Small-board Computer Launches in U.S. & Canada to Inspire Next Generation of Students The Micro:bit Foundation aims to put the device into the hands of 2 million children in the U.S. & Canada by 2020 The Micro:bit Educational Foundation announced today the micro:bit is now available to schools, clubs and families across the U.S. and Canada. The micro:bit is a credit card-sized, programmable device designed to teach the next generation of children fundamental critical thinking skills through computer programming. The goal of the micro:bit is to give educators and parents an easy-to-use tool to teach the basics of computer programming and inspire students to imagine, invent and innovate, said Hal Speed, Head of North America at the Micro:bit Foundation. Our goal is to put this device into the hands of 2 million elementary and middle school students in the U.S. and Canada by 2020, in an effort to ensure all children have the opportunity to learn these valuable skills. In the digital age, computer science is a foundational skill vital for every student to learn. It’s a skill that applies to many different subjects, including math, science, art and music. A recent study conducted by Gallup found that while 90 percent of parents in the U.S. want their child to learn computer science, only 40 percent of schools offer computer programming or coding classes. Additionally, the diversity problem in STEM fields starts in elementary school. Girls, students of color and lower-income students are all less likely to have access to computer science learning in K-12 schools. schoolchildren working with microbit The Micro:bit Foundation hopes to address these disparities by integrating the micro:bit device into elementary and middle school curricula throughout the U.S. and Canada. As part of this effort, the Foundation has partnered with a number of organizations that specialize in the development of curricula including, Project Lead The Way in the U.S. and Fair Chance Learning in Canada. Microsoft has also developed its own curriculum for the micro:bit and a wide-range of lesson plans are available on the micro:bit website The micro:bit is incredibly powerful, not only for getting students excited about computer science, but also for teaching the critical thinking skills necessary to solve complex problems, said Heather Koleszar, an elementary STEAM teacher at the Union School District in San Jose that recently participated in a micro:bit pilot study. The pilot study focused on pinpointing the most effective ways to integrate the micro:bit into existing curricula and on identifying new opportunities for teachers and educators to use the device to fulfill their digital education goals. code blocks The micro:bit includes 25 LEDs to display simple images and text, two programmable buttons, a variety of sensors and can connect to other devices via Bluetooth. Additionally, the pins on the edge of the device allow for easy expansion to other hardware modules and broadens the creative options for students. The micro:bit can be programmed using the popular block-based coding language Scratch. The micro:bit Scratch extension is available at scratchx.org. Students can also program the device using Microsoft MakeCode, which allows them to switch back and forth between block-based and text-based coding. The Micro:bit Foundation aims to put the device in the hands of 2 million children across the U.S. and Canada by 2020 and hopes to eventually reach more than 100 million kids around the world. The device starts at $14.95 USD and authorized resellers include Adafruit, CanaKit, Fair Chance Learning, Fry’s, MCM Electronics, Micro Center, SparkFun and others. For more information about the micro:bit or to find the nearest reseller, visit the Foundation resellers list. For those attending, the micro:bit will be on display at ISTE 2017 in booth 3241. About the Micro:bit Educational Foundation The Micro:bit Foundation is enabling children around the world to get creative with technology and invent in school, in clubs and at home. A micro:bit was given to every year 7 student in the UK in 2016 and is now starting to be used around the world. Started by the BBC and a great team of partners, the Micro:bit Foundation is an international nonprofit organization. Amazon Greengrass launches as a snap on Ubuntu Personal note: Take a look at Ubuntu Core with Qt for Internet of Things development (6/25/2017) Last week, Amazon launched Greengrass, their new IoT platform allowing developers to create intelligent edge software. Amazon is collaborating with a variety of manufacturers to make Greengrass available on as many devices as possible from home gateways, industrial gateways to smart microphones. This is a reflection of the increased appetite from hardware vendors and developers to bring software definable devices to market, where third party developers can add new functionalities to existing devices and get rewarded for it. By deploying more intelligence at the edge, developers can build devices with more offline functions, faster responses that are cheaper for them to operate and give users an improved experience. By offering software definable devices they also give themselves the opportunity to offer a continuously improving experience but also new paid services that help them monetise their device even after they’ve been purchased. Image result for ubuntu AWS Greengrass is a step in this direction and solves one of the major problems associated with the software definable internet of things, namely how to give developers a simple and familiar development experience on edge devices by letting them re-use their backend code. With AWS Greengrass developers can now use the same skills and code they use in the cloud to write Lambda functions of MQTT based rules to write internet of things applications right at the edge of the network. For device makers, building a software definable device using AWS Greengrass is, therefore, the guarantee of building an attractive option for developers. To facilitate this process Amazon has collaborated to make Greengrass available as a snap – the universal Linux packaging format. Snaps allow software companies like Amazon to distribute their software in immutable packages that will run consistently across hardware independent of the operating system they use and regardless of the state of that OS. This makes it simple for device manufacturers like Advantech to include Amazon Greengrass in their devices and thus propose a certified Greengrass device for developers to use. Combined with Ubuntu Core, the all snap version of Ubuntu for IoT devices, Greengrass as a snap also offers an opportunity for device makers and developers to monetise their software by building an app store for things. Where is Java used in Real World? If you are a beginner and just started learning Java, you might be thinking where exactly Java is used? You don’t see many games written in Java except Minecraft, desktop tools like Adobe Acrobat, Microsoft Office are not written in Java, neither is your operating systems like Linux or Windows, so where exactly people use Java? Does it have any real-world application or not? Well, you are not alone, many programmers ask this question before starting with Java, or after picking Java is one of the programming language of choice at graduate level. By the way, you can get a clue of where Java is used by installing Java at your desktop, Oracle says more than 3 billion devices run Java, that’s huge number, isn’t it? Most major companies use Java in one way or other. Many server side applications are written in Java to process tens of millions of requests per day, high frequency trading applications are also written in Java e.g. LMAX trading applications, which is built over their path breaking inter-thread communication library, Disruptor. In this article, we will see more precisely, what kind of projects are done in Java, which domain or sector Java is dominating and where exactly Java is useful in real-world? Real World Java Applications There are many places where Java is used in real world, starting from commercial e-commerce website to android apps, from scientific application to financial applications like electronic trading systems, from games like Minecraft to desktop applications like Eclipse, Netbeans and IntelliJ, from open source library to J2ME apps etc. Let’s see each of them in more detail. 1) Android Apps If you want to see where Java is used, you are not too far away. Open your Android phone and any app, they are actually written in Java programming language, with Google’s Android API, which is similar to JDK. Couple of years back Android has provided much needed boost and today many Java programmer are Android App developer. By the way android uses different JVM and different packaging, but code is still written in Java. 2) Server Apps at Financial Services Industry 3) Java Web applications Real world application of Java 4) Software Tools 5) Trading Application 6) J2ME Apps 7) Embedded Space Java is also big in the embedded space. It shows how capable the platform is, you only need 130 KB to be able to use Java technology (on a smart card or sensor). Originally Java was designed for embedded devices. In fact, this is the one area, which was part of Java’s initial campaign of “write once, run anywhere” and looks like it is paying up now. 8) Big Data technologies Hadoop and other big data technologies are also using Java in one way or other e.g. Apache’s Java-based HBase and Accumulo (open source), and ElasticSearch as well. By the Java is not dominating this space, as there are technologies like MongoDB which is written in C++. Java has potential to get major share on this growing space if Hadoop or ElasticSearch goes big. 9) High Frequency Trading Space 10) Scientific Applications In 1990s Java was quite big on Internet due to Applet, but over the years, Applet’s lost its popularity, mainly due to various security issues on Applet’s sand boxing model. Today desktop Java and Applets is almost dead. Java is by default Software industries darling application development language, and given its heavy usage in financial services industry, Investment banks and E-commerce web application space, any one learning Java has bright future ahead of him. Java 8 has only reinforced the belief that Java will continuing dominating software development space for years to come.
About Tom Reestman Read about me here. Why Did Steve Jobs Think a Stylus Meant They Blew It? Many people that follow technology know of Jobs’ famous line “if you see a stylus, they blew it” regarding modern device input. But I wonder how many of them know Jobs’ reasoning behind it. This was not some throw-away line to disparage other device makers, it was a fundamental philosophy behind the development of iOS. Jobs explained it during his interview with Walt Mossberg at the D8 conference when they were discussing the difference between Microsoft and Apple tablets. It begins at ~35:00 in this video (emphasis mine). Jobs: What I remember telling you on the tablet was that handwriting was probably the slowest input method ever invented, and it was doomed to failure. Well, what we tried to do was re-imagine the tablet. In other words I think Microsoft did a lot of interesting work on the tablet, what we’ve done is not compete with what they did. We re-imagined it, and what we’re doing is completely different than what they did. You know, they’re completely stylus-based. We… Mossberg (interrupting): Their tablet PC that they have now… Jobs: For 10 years. You know, and what we said at the very beginning was if you need a stylus you’ve already failed. Mossberg: So, let’s talk about tablets… Jobs (continuing): And that drove everything, that drove everything. Their tablet PC was based on a PC. Had all the expense of a PC. Had the battery life of a PC. Had the weight of a PC. It used a PC operating system that really needed the precision of the tip of an arrow of a cursor. Well, the minute you throw a stylus out you cannot get that precision. You have the precision of a finger, which is much cruder. Therefore you need to have totally different software, so you can’t use a PC operating system, and you have to bite the bullet and say we’re gonna have to create this from scratch because all the PC apps won’t work without being rewritten anyway. And so we built a very different animal. Put simply, Bill Gates’ mandate that “you can’t come up with a new OS” for a tablet required that Microsoft use a stylus. We may never know whether the rest of Microsoft thought a stylus was ideal, or practical, or even a good user experience, they were bound to use it because of Gates’ “gospel” that the device had to run their desktop OS. Jobs’ vision was different: since desktop OS’s would force the use of a stylus, a new OS should be written that wouldn’t. Who in their right mind would argue he wasn’t 100% correct? Can you imagine requiring a stylus on smartphones and tablets today? I’ll go further and posit that had the iPhone required a stylus in 2007, there’s no way it takes off like it did. Steve Jobs and Constraints Nice article by Matt Gemmell regarding constraints in today’s technology products. As I read it I was reminded of Steve Jobs’ similar philosophy as he described it at the AllThingsDigital D8 conference. For example, after discussing Flash, Jobs was asked what Apple’s “ultimate goal” is in not using it for the iPhone/iPad. Jobs: You see our goal’s really easy. We didn’t start off to have a war with Flash or anything else, we just made a technical decision that we weren’t gonna put the energy into getting Flash on our platform… and that was it. “We just made a technical decision.” A simple statement, but when Gemmell describes the plethora of ports, switches, jacks and other “choices that weren’t made by the designers”, it’s clear those designers should’ve made technical decisions, too. Later, Jobs was asked what would happen if customers insisted on Flash and thought the iPad was “crippled” in this respect. Jobs: Well I’d say two things. Number one, things are packages of emphasis. Some things are emphasized in a product, some things are not done as well in a product, some things are chosen not to be done at all in a product. And so different people make different choices… “Packages of emphasis.” Another simple statement, and when Gemmell discusses various factors — “Performance and power consumption. Size and weight. Noise and heat. Beauty, durability, and portability” and others — he’s listing opposing points of emphasis. Many designers try to cram them all in one box, Apple chooses an emphasis then designs a package for it. Jobs continues: We’re trying to make great products for people, and so we have at least the courage of our convictions to say we don’t think this is part of what makes a great product, we’re gonna leave it out… we’re gonna take the heat because we want to make the best product in the world for customers. And we’re gonna instead focus our energy on these technologies which we think are… gonna be the right technologies for customers and—you know what?—they’re paying us to make those choices. That’s what a lot of customers pay us to do, is to try to make the best products we can… “They’re paying us to make those choices.” This is perhaps my favorite statement. When other firms toss every feature into a product and call it choice, what they’re really saying is “here, you figure it out.” But Jobs believed customers expected Apple to make the choices required to build the best product Apple can in a given category. As Gemmell puts it, not doing so results in compromises that “illustrate not only a damaged assessment of the choice that was made, but also a failure to grasp the product’s vision and intended usage scenarios.” I think Jobs would agree. Google Hard at Work Unlike the last time Google handed out goody bags, there was no mention of a loan agreement, or any pretense that these things would be “reviewed.” This was a straight-up giveaway. Free shit. Delighted writers crowded in line to exchange their name tag for a valuable gratis thing. It’s like one Google rep said, “We’ll take care of you!.” Just what I want, a weather app that deceives me Clear Day – (Formerly Weather HD) I guess some app updates aren’t supposed to make sense. Oh Joy, A Firefox Tablet The Taipei-based Mozilla spokeswoman declined to provide details on the device that the companies plan to unveil on June 3, but Focus Taiwan, citing an “industry insider”, reported that it would likely be a tablet. Just a couple weeks away. What’s Firefox OS like? No one really knows. What’s the “tablet” design? No one knows. Battery life? Hardware? Apps? Size/weight? Price? No one has a clue. I’m buying two. Dear WordPress Matt Mullenweg Apple becomes latest target of the Beltway Shakedown Washington Examiner This is no surprise. PACs are becoming little more than legalized bribery. Not sure how long Apple can go without playing at some level.
What Are Meta Tags In Html? Here is a quick overview of the power of meta tags and what they are. Hello everyone! Today we will discuss about an abstract part of Html! It can be hard to understand at the beginning but you will quickly get the feel of it and discover the power of meta tags! Meta tags are tags from the HTML language and go into the <head></head> tags. They are very interesting because they have nothing to do with what appears on your website. It is more about giving information about your website to search engines than anything else. You can do lots of different things with them and they are all optional! Meta tags are mainly used for SEO but you can also use them to give other types of information to search engines. Today we generally use meta tags to give a description about your website when your link appears on the search results and to give keywords about your website to search engines. Although it is mainly used for SEO, there are a lot of different meta tags and we will not go into detail about all of them in this post. I will only give you an overview of the most important ones. I might talk about more abstract tags in future posts. Some of the most important meta tags: • <meta name=”description” content=”text“> => This is the description that will appear under your link in the search results. • <meta name=”keywords” content=”words“> => These are the keywords that represent your website. Separate them with a coma and do not put more than 10 (it could be sanctioned by search engines). • <title>text</title> => This is the clickable text right above your link in search results. • <meta name=”language” content=”language“> => This tag tells the search engines what language your website is in. You would replace the “language” in content by the language of your website. • <meta name=”web_author” content=”text“> => This tag is used to tell the name of the company that created your website. • <meta name=”robots” content=”selection“> => This tag tells search engines how many pages of your website you want their spiders to index. I will go into more detail about search engine spiders in a future post. Stay tuned! These are some of the most used meta tags. There are other very relevant ones but more complicated. I just wanted to give you an overview but I will post future articles about these more abstract meta tags! Don’t hesitate to follow the blog if you learnt something in this post! What are the different text types with Html? Hello everyone! Today we will start with the very basics of Html! You will learn how to create text items on your beautiful webpages. Firstly, you need to know that the main text items on HTML are paragraphs and titles. As HTML is very intuitive, the tags have a lot in common with the real words. For normal text paragraphs on your webpage, you should use the <p> tag. It is very easy to use. You open it like this: <p> and close it like this </p>. This tag is used for any text items that are not important lines of your webpage or titles. Example: <p>This is a paragraph</p>. For titles or important parts of your webpage, you should use the <h> tag. This tag goes from <h1> up to <h6>. <h1> is the biggest title and <h6> the smallest. You do not need to assign a size to one of these tags as they already come with their own size. If you want to keep the same size but want your text to be an <h1> or <h2> for example, you can do it. This can be useful if you want to write everything in the same size but want your website to be SEO friendly. Effectively, <h1> and <h2> are the first tags being read by search engines. This is why you want to put your important keywords and titles in these tags. Example: <h1>This is the most important title</h1>. Capture d’écran 2017-04-19 à 15.44.40.png That is pretty much it about text items in Html! As you can see it is very easy to make text appear on your webpage. You just need to know the tag names and be careful in closing every tag you opened with a backslash before the tag name. I will talk about more complex Html tags in upcoming posts. If you want to be updated, follow the blog! How and What Meta Tags to use for SEO? Hi everyone! Today we will talk about something that every website owner wants to master: Meta Tags. You will need them for SEO on your website in order to be easily found on search engines. Let’s get into the work! Meta tags are code tags that you might want to add to your website code. If you did not code your website but used a CMS, you will always find a place in which to write the content for the main meta tags. Meta tags help search engines get information about your website so that they can show your website for relevant searches. They will also help your website get into top rankings because the more information search engines have about your website, the more chances you have to be found. However you need to be very careful on what you write in these meta tags because they can have an influence on your ranking. They were extremely useful a few years ago but they now lost a bit of importance. However they are still a bit useful for SEO but also to give information about your website to the people who search for websites like yours. Here is a list of the most important meta tags and what you should use them for: • Meta charset: {<meta charset=”UTF-8″>}. This tells search engines that they need to read all the letters that you wrote on your website as they are. For example, depending on the language, if you do not use this tag letters with accents will become other letters. • Meta description: {meta name=”description” content=”This description will show up in search results.”>}. This is the description that appears on search engines when people search for something. Your URL will appear with a small description of your website under it. This is the description you wrote in this tag. If you do not have any description meta tag, search engine will automatically write a description for your website according to the information your website gives. • Meta keywords: {<meta name=”keywords” content=”HTML,CSS,PHP,PYTHON”>}. These are all the keywords of your website. This tag was extremely important before but has lots a bit of importance now. However it will do nothing bad to your website if you use it. • Language tag: {<html lang=”en”>}. This tag is used to tell search engines the language of the content on your website. It used to be a meta tag but is now counted as an attribute as you can see in this case. • Meta device: {<meta name=”viewport” content=”width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0″>}. This tag is used to change the height and width of your website depending on the device used by the visitor. This is due to the fact that a website is shown differently on a desktop and a phone screen for example. There are lots of other meta tags but the most important are here. I will describe more specific meta tags in future posts. I will also get into robot tags in the future. If you want me to talk about a tag in particular, just leave a like and a comment! What is Html? What do we use it for? Have you ever wondered what Html actually is? You might have already come across this word hundreds of times on the internet without even knowing what it is! Come on, read this post and you’ll feel a lot more clever! Capture d_écran 2017-03-13 à 15.35.36 Html is the Hypertext Markup Language. Now, you might be thinking what you’re reading is not for you because of that strange name but actually, this language is ONE OF THE simplest coding languages you will ever find! And guess what? It is super powerful! It’s easy to learn, intuitive and powerful. Html is the base of a website. You need it if you want to write text, display images, videos, sounds, colors…Together with CSS(mettre css en lien avec le post css dans brouillons), they are the basis of websites and web applications. If you want to learn coding, you NEED to start with Html. There is no choice. Without it, you’re lost. There are many free tutorials to learn this language on the internet and I will start posting tutorials too! So, follow the blog and wait for new tutorials on it! For more infos on Html , you can visit their official website. Was this post useful? Follow our blog and share it! Leave a comment for any question or suggestion! We will post tutorials for Html later on and will start talking about CSS too! What’s coding all about? Discover what coding is all about. First thing first! Coding is everywhere around you when surfing on the web. Every single letter and image you see on google is a piece of code. There are many programming languages like Html, CSS, Python, Javascript, PHP… All these languages are used by developers to create webpages, video games… Capture d_écran 2017-03-12 à 19.00.06 A line of code is basically an order given to the computer. The coding vocabulary is specific as the computer can only interpret certain things. Your computer’s job is to transform your code or the code written by developers into understandable and beautiful things. There are two types of code: – Front-End code – Back-End code The Front-End code is all you see. It can be text, hyperlinks, images, videos, buttons, colors….The most popular languages for Front-End coding are Html and CSS. In contrary, the Back-End code is all you don’t see. This is all the stuff that has to do with keeping and using data, asking something to the user… For example, the fact of sending data using a form in Back-End coding. Examples of languages used for Back-End coding are PHP and Javascript.
A team of researchers led by Stanford’s Mohamed M. Sabry Aly, Subhasish Mitra, and H.-S. Philip Wong want to put a “skyscraper” of computer chips in your next PC. The idea is to stack application processors, memory modules, and other components one on top of the other in “a revolutionary new high-rise architecture for computing,” according to the Stanford News Service. Such an “electronic super-device” using the team’s Nano-Engineered Computing Systems Technology, or N3XT, could power a computer which combines “higher speed with lower energy use [to] outperform conventional approaches by a factor of a thousand,” Wong told Stanford’s news journal. Stacking chips has long been seen as a viable path towards building a more efficient, powerful computing architecture than the current template, which lays out and connects components on a flat board, like “single-story structures in a suburb,” as the researchers put it. But building a “skyscraper” of chips has thus far proven difficult using silicon-based integrated circuits (ICs), which are tough to connect reliably in a stacked structure. Sabry Aly, Mitra, Wong, and their colleagues believe they’ve figured out a way around such issues using “new nano-materials” to construct stacked computer chips in place of traditional silicon ICs. Dubbed Nano-Engineered Computing Systems Technology, or N3XT, the process involves building carbon nanotube transistors (CNTs) in a stacked arrangement. The upshot is that instead of the relatively limited number of wires connected stacked silicon chips, a N3XT device could employ “millions of electronic elevators that can move more data over shorter distances that traditional wire, using less energy,” per the researchers. Instead of adding traditional wires to connect stacked chips in a N3XT system, communication between components is built in during the actual process of fabrication. Since CNTs can be created at much lower temperatures than silicon-based transistors, it’s possible to build components on top of each other, like a processor on a memory module, while maintaining the integrity of those tiny “electronic elevators,” the researchers noted. Silicon ICs, on the other hand, have to be fabricated separately from each other and then stacked in “3D” arrangements later, which precludes integrating those interconnects from the get-go. The team is also incorporating cooling in its N3XT devices, just as traditional two-dimensional computing architectures must have their thermals kept in check to prevent overheating. Stanford mechanical engineers Kenneth Goodson and Mehdi Asheghi are leading the effort to “incorporate thermal cooling layers” in the stacked chips, according to Stanford News Service. The team has published its findings in a recent special issue of IEEE Computer. One major roadblock to the adoption of N3XT or chip-stacking technologies like it? The global semiconductor industry is massively invested in silicon-based process technology, the researchers noted. “Shifting electronics from a low-rise to a high-rise architecture will demand huge investments from industry,” they were quoted as saying. Still, the incentive to do so is compelling, said N3XT article co-author Chris Re, a Stanford computer scientist and MacArthur Foundation “genius grant” winner. “There are huge volumes of data that sit within our reach and are relevant to some of society’s most pressing problems from health care to climate change, but we lack the computational horsepower to bring this data to light and use it,” Re told Stanford News Service. “As we all hope in the N3XT project, we may have to boost horsepower to solve some of these pressing challenges.”
Dismiss Notice Dismiss Notice Join Physics Forums Today! Ideal gas law and pressure 1. Jun 3, 2005 #1 hello all. I'm trying to figure out this problem and it's bugging me because it's soooo simple yet i keep getting the wrong answer. here's the problem: If 1.00 mol of carbon dioxide gas at 350 K is confined to a volume of 400 cubic centimeters, find the pressure of the gas using the ideal-gas equation. Okay.. I know that the ideal gas equation will look like this if I am solving for pressure: p = (nRT)/V since I want pressure in pascals, then I will convert volume V to cubic meters, and for R constant I will use R = 8.3145 J/mol K so far this is the information I have: R = 8.3145 J/mol K T = 350 K n = 1.00 mol V = 4 cubic meters When I try and solve for pressure, I get 727.5 pascals. I did this 5 times, and I keet getting the same answer. however the book is telling me I'm wrong. Am I not understanding this correct? could this be one of those times the book is wrong? I hope someone can help! 2. jcsd 3. Jun 3, 2005 #2 Your conversion into cubic metres is incorrect, remember it is cubic: Use that value for volume and you should calculate the correct answer, which is 7275187Pa or 7.3MPa. Last edited: Jun 3, 2005 4. Jun 3, 2005 #3 V = 400 cm^3 = 400 * (10^-2 m)^3 = 400 * 10^-6 m^3 = 0.0004 m^3 I think this is correct value of the volume and if you put it into ideal gas equation you'll get the right answer (i think). 5. Jun 3, 2005 #4 thanks to the both of you for your help. i was able to figure it out.. silly mistake. =) night!
It’s big. Really, really big. Too many planets One of the stranger arguments against counting Pluto as a planet is that if we were to include any object of its size and mass that doesn’t orbit a bigger planet, then our solar system would just have too many planets in it for our brains to handle. The idea got a lot of play back when the International Astronomical Union was debating whether Pluto should be considered a planet. But evidently it’s become so widespread that even critics of the IAU’s decision are buying it: In a sense, the IAU chose to cauterize a wound, a weakness in the definitions, that if left unchanged, would have led to who knows how many planets in our Solar System. Mostly, that article goes to argue for a new set of definitions for celestial bodies that isn’t just haphazardly tailored to produce a specific set of planets in our solar system. But it still doesn’t explain how the discovery of a new planet would constitute a wound. Evidently, without official intervention, we should fear that a bunch of fuzzy pictures of small planets might start spilling onto high school astronomy charts, and freak out our impressionable youths who need to be able to count everything using their fingers. Black holes and the trouble with science fiction I should be really excited for the movie Interstellar. I think part of why I’m not has to do with my growing skepticism about movie plots in general, which I’ll have to get into later. But regardless, this sort of thing is really impressive: In short, in order to accurately create a visual for the story’s black hole, Kip Thorne produced an entirely new set of equations which guided the special effects team’s rendering software. The end result was a visual representation that accurately depicts what a wormhole/black hole would look like in space. What really impressed me, though, is that apparently nobody thought to do this before. And that kind of says a lot about the state of both science and science fiction. Our solar system is huge In 1990, Voyager 1 used its camera for the last time and took a panoramic photo of the solar system, including that famous photo of the Earth as a tiny, pale blue dot caught in a sunbeam. (Or, technically, a lens flare.) At the time, the probe was about six billion kilometers away, or 40 times the distance between the Earth and the sun. Now, after covering another 12 billion kilometers, it may have become the first human-made object to leave the solar system in early September. And despite moving faster (on average) than any other object we’ve ever built, it took 35 years to get that far. I was born almost four years after Voyager 1’s flyby of Saturn, when its primary mission ended, so I spent my childhood assuming it was long gone already. The fact that it’s still racking up milestones well into my adulthood is a pretty good example of how hard it is to comprehend the scale of the universe we live in. Dragon stares down Congress? I spent way too much time trying to come up with a clever dragon title. Even spent a couple seconds thinking about Photoshopping a screenshot from this week’s Game of Thrones. You know, the one with the dragons? While I was busy not seeing the transit of Venus, apparently Congress was actually seeing the light coming to its senses, sort of, when it comes to the space program. Rep. Frank Wolf, R-VA and the chairman of the House committee that oversees NASA’s budget, has reached a truce over Commercial Crew development program, in which he stops trying to gut the program and NASA agrees to do a bunch of stuff it was probably going to do anyway. The fact that it comes a week after one of the Commercial Crew contractors, SpaceX, successfully sent a spaceship (the Dragon) to resupply the International Space Station, probably isn’t a coincidence. I’ll take good space news where I can get it, and this seems kind of overdue. Commercial Crew was such an obvious idea that I never really got why it was controversial in the first place. (more…)
Winchester Model 1892 Lever Action Rifle Aspect: How the Waste was won. Ammo: Various, but most surviving guns are in .357 Magnum or .44 Magnum Damage: +1 for .44 Magnum When asked by Winchester to design an improved pistol caliber lever action, John Browning said he would have the prototype completed in under a month or it would be free. Within 2 weeks later, Browning had a functioning prototype of the 92.2 Calibers for the rifle vary and some are custom-chambered. The original rounds were the .32-20, .38-40, and .44-40 Winchester centerfire rounds, followed in 1895 by the new .25-20.3 A few Model 92’s chambered for .218 Bee were produced in 1936-38.3 The Winchester Models 53 (1924) and 65 (1933) were relabeled Model 1892’s. Admiral Robert E. Peary carried an 1892 on his trips to the North Pole.,3 and Secretary of War Patrick Hurley was presented with the one millionth rifle on December 13, 1932. 1,007,608 Model 1892 rifles were made by Winchester, and although the company phased them out by 1945, they are still being made under the Puma label by the Brazilian arms maker, Rossi, and by Chiappa Firearms, an Italian factory and Browning in Japan. In its modern form, using updated materials and production techniques, the Model 1892’s action is strong enough to chamber high pressure handgun rounds, such as .357 Magnum, .44 Magnum, and .454 Casull. Despite being designed for smaller cartridges, the 1892’s dual forward locking-block action is actually stronger than Browning’s rear-locked Model 1894. Winchester Model 1892 Fallout: Crescent City lazepoo
The Astonishing Link Between Quantum Physics & The Human Mind The connection between human consciousness, or factors associated with human consciousness such as intention, thoughts, feelings, and emotions, and the physical realm is fascinating. This is precisely why nearly all of the founding fathers of quantum physics were so preoccupied with learning more about consciousness, and “non-material” science in general. The theoretical physicist who originated quantum theory, Max Planck, for instance, regarded “consciousness as fundamental” and matter as “derivative from consciousness.” Eugene Wigner, another famous theoretical physicist and mathematician, also emphasized how “it was not possible to formulate the laws of quantum mechanics in a fully consistent way without reference to consciousness.” Fast forward to today, and we now have strong empirical evidence showing that the mind does indeed influence matter, both at the subatomic quantum scale, and at scales consistent with classical physics. Although many mainstream physicists would disagree, many wouldn’t, and don’t. The classic example to illustrate how factors associated with consciousness are directly linked with the physical world comes from the “double slit experiment.” A paper published in the peer-reviewed journal Physics Essays by Dean Radin, PhD, explains how this experiment has been used multiple times to explore the role of consciousness in shaping the nature of physical reality. The meditators were the “observer” in this case. Radin’s work is a great place to start if you’re curious about this, and probably one of the most well-researched and knowledgable scientists in the field. He’s published two groundbreaking books that deal with this phenomenon, something Einstein referred to as “spooky action at a distance.” Action at a distance is the idea that physical systems can be moved, changed, or influenced without being physically touched by anything else. It refers to the nonlocal interaction of objects that are separated in space. See his works: The Conscious University: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena Entangled Minds: Extrasensory Experiences in a Quantum Reality In fact, quantum entanglement was just achieved in space, as illustrated by a fairly recent study published in the journal Science that showed how scientists were able to produce entangled photons on a satellite orbiting 300 miles above the planet. They beamed the particles into two different ground-based labs that were 750 miles apart, all without losing the particles’ strange linkage. You can read more about that here. The truth is, the current scientific worldview is heavily predicated on assumptions that are associated with classical physics, assumptions that have turned into scientific dogma, despite the fact that, at the end of the nineteenth century, physicists discovered empirical phenomena that could not be explained by classical physics. This led to the development, during the 1920s and early 1930s, of a revolutionary new branch of physics called quantum mechanics (QM). – From the Manifesto For a Post-Materialist Science It’s Not Just at the Quantum Scale Where We See Mind/Matter Interaction The Manifesto linked above also says: As an avid researcher of non-material science, I find it odd that these phenomena are still so heavily ridiculed, yet have been studied and demonstrated at the highest levels of government, with successful results, for decades. Stargate included successful examples of telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, remote viewing, and more. As the research points out: To summarize, over the years the back-and-forth criticism of protocols, refinement of methods, and successful replication of this type of remote viewing in independent laboratories (Bisaha & Dunne, 1979; Dunne & Bisaha, 1979; Jahn, 1982; and Jahn & Dunne, 1986), has yielded considerable scientific evidence for the reality of the phenomenon. Adding to the strength of these results was the discovery that a growing number of individuals could be found to demonstrate high-quality remote viewing, often to their own surprise, such as the talented Hella Hammid. Individuals were able to identify objects in hidden locations in great distances, and there are several examples in the declassified literature. Declassified documents also show that that the CIA kept tabs on other country’s developments with regards to individuals who could work with or break the mind/matter barrier. This document, titled “Research into Paranormal Ability To Break Through Spatial Barriers” is one such example. It states, “A total of 50 experiments in the ability to break through of spatial obstacles were conducted. . . . Of the 50 experiments, 25 were successful, 17 were videotaped and high speed photography were used in 6,” and goes into more detail about these individuals. The point is, there are no shortage of individuals who are able to do this, as well as mainstream scientific examinations under strict protocols where mind has been shown to influence matter at all levels, not just the quantum level. This is precisely why the American Institutes for Research concluded: Even as far back as 1985, a report prepared by the Army Research Institute disclosed that “the data reviewed in this report constitute genuine scientific anomalies for which no one has an adequate explanation for.” Another “proof,” for lack of a better term, is the mind-body connection. The results in this area are just as strong as those in the “hard sciences.” The placebo effect is another great example. As reported in Scientific American: The effectiveness of placebo has been proven time and time again, such as this Baylor School of Medicine study, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2002. It looked at surgery for patients with severe and debilitating knee pain. Many surgeons know there is no placebo effect in surgery, or so most of them believe. The patients were divided into three groups. The surgeons shaved the damaged cartilage in the knee of one group. For the second group they flushed out the knee joint, removing all of the material believed to be causing inflammation. Both of these processes are the standard surgeries for people who have severely arthritic knees. The third group received a “fake” surgery; the patients were only sedated and tricked into believing they had had the knee surgery. Doctors simply made the incisions and splashed salt water on the knee as they would in normal surgery. They then sewed up the incisions like the real thing and the process was complete. All three then groups went through the same rehab process, with astonishing results: The placebo group improved just as much as the other two groups who had surgery. You can read more about the mind-body connection in this CE article: This Is How Powerful The Mind-Body Connection Really Is As you can see, the link between the human mind and quantum physics is quite strong. Leave a Reply
The sermon at Benares Ans. When her son dies, Kisa Gotami goes from house to house asking for medicine which could make her son alive. She does not get such a medicine because there is no medicine which can bring a dead man back to life. 2. Kisa Gotami again goes from house to house after she speaks with the Buddha. What does she ask /Pr, the second time around? Does she get it? Why not? Ans. Buddha had asked Kisa Gotami to bring a handful of mustard seed from a house where no one had died. She does not get it because there was no house where somebody had not died. Ans. Kisa Gotami now understands that death is inevitable. Just as the lights in city flicker up and get extinguished again, so is human life. Similarly, earthen vessels made by a potter end in being broken. Ripe fruits are always in danger of falling. Such is the life of mortals. No one can escape death. This is what Buddha wanted Kisa Gotami to understand. Ans. Kisa Gotami understood this a second time because she found no house where someone had not died. She sat by the wayside and saw the city lights flickering and gettingextinguished again. Buddha changed her understanding by comparing the life of earthen vessels and ripe fruits. Earthen vessels made by the poor get broken. Similarly ripe fruits are always in danger of falling. So man is always in danger of death. This is how Buddha changed her understanding. 5. How do you usually understand the idea of ‘Selfishness’? Do you agree with Kisa Gotami that she was being ‘selfish in her grief? Ans. ‘Selfishness’ usually means thinking of one’s own interests, need, etc. without concern for others. Kisa Gotami lost her only son and wanted to make him live again. She was ignorant enough to understand that death is inevitable and a dead man could not be brought to life. But if she wanted to make her alive, it was not at the cost of others. Every mother would like her dead son to be alive. So Kisa Gotami was not at all selfish. She only failed to understand that death was common to all. • give thee medicine for thy child. • Pray tell me. • Kisa repaired to the Buddha. • there was no house but someone had died in it. • kinsmen • Mark! Ans. • I give you medicine for your child. • Please tell me. • Kisa went to the Buddha. • There was no house in which someone had not died. • relatives • Listen!/look! II. You know that we can combine sentences using words like and, or, but, yet and then. But sometimes no such word seems appropriate. In such a case we can use a semicolon (;) or a dash (—) to combine two clauses. The second clause here gives speaker’s opinion on the first clause. For there is not any means by which those who have been born can avoid dying, after reaching old age there is death; of such a nature are living beings. Ans. (i) For there is not any means by which those who have been born can avoid dying. (ii) After reaching old age there is death. (iii) Such is the nature of living beings. The first sentence with semicolons has a better rhythm. The Buddha’s sermon is over 2500 years old. Given below are two recent texts on the topic of grief. Read the texts, comparing them with each other and with the Buddha’s sermon. Do you think the Buddha’s ideas and way of teaching continue to hold meaning for us? Or have we found better ways to deal with grief? Discuss this in groups or in class. Ans. Classroom activity. Write a page (about three paragraphs) on one of the following topics. You can think about the ideas inthe text that are relevant to these topics, and add your own ideas and experiences to them. 1. Teaching someone to understand a new or difficult idea 2. Helping each other to get over difficult times 3. Thinking about oneself as unique, or as one among billions of others. Ans. Helping each other to get over Difficult Times No man is an island. Man is a social animal and he has to live in society. As such he has some duties to others. Every man has to depend upon one another, especially in times of difficulties. So it is our foremost duty to help others. I expect to pass through this world but once. Any good thing therefore that I can do, or any kindness that I can show to any fellow creature, let me do it now. Let me not defer it or neglect it. This is because I may also need the help of others. We must give some time to our fellowmen. Sometimes when we are generous in small ways, it can change someone’s life for ever. Our small help can do wonders for a man who is in difficulty. We expect others to help us when we need such help. So we should always be ready to lend our hand to others. There is no greater reward than to be the giver than the receiver. When we give someone our time, talent and love, in return we shall get more than we give. Helping others should mean a lot to us. Just because some people were not grateful does not mean that I shall stop helping others. We should be willing to help people in difficult times. Do something for others for which you get no pay but, the privilege of doing it. Leave A Reply Your email address will not be published.
NANFA-- Are lampreys fishes? Christopher Scharpf ( Wed, 12 Jan 2000 09:58:01 -0400 I believe Dave was being a little facetious, but he raises a valid point. Lampreys are not TRUE fishes.Sticklers for such distinctions would rather they be called "fishlike vertebrates." Lacking paired fins, bones, and jaws, but possessing a crude cartilaginous skeleton and a primitive spinelike structure called a notochord, lampreys are the most primitive freshwater vertebrates in existence. But since they have gills, live in water, and are often collected with other fishes, lampreys are called fishes in the broadest sense and fall under the watch of ichthyologists. In addition, there are some ichthyology textbooks and surveys (e.g., Jordan and Evermann, 1896) that include lancelets, which are not even vertebrates (but they are chordates). You must also remember that the term "fish" in itself has no phylogenetic meaning. Lampreys are as different from sharks and true fishes as they are from humans. Heck, even lungfishes are more closely related to mammals than they are to other fishes. So while a lamprey may not be a "true" fish, fish people get to study them for one very important reason: They are too cool to give to anyone else! Chris Scharpf Subject: Re: NANFA-- OT: African Butterfly Fish Date: Wed, 12 Jan 2000 03:37:34 EST In a message dated 1/11/00 11:12:49 PM Eastern Standard Time, writes: << Glad to hear the lampreys are doing well... although does that mean that we're going to have to change the name of the organization to NANFFLVA (North American Native Fishes and Fish-Like Vertebrate Association)? I always used to think that lampreys were technically fish (albeit primitive as hell ). So what disqualifies this from this category? Is it their lack of actual backbone vertebrae substituted by cartilage? Isn't their brain unproteced by an actual skull? And/or (less likely to me) is it because they are jawless? / reflect the beliefs or goals of the North American Native Fishes / Association" / For a digest version, send the command to / instead. / For more information about NANFA, visit our web page,
Chapter 11 The Garden Fly: Protoparce Carolina Protoparce Carolina is a 'cousin' of Celeus, and so nearly its double that the caterpillars and moths must be seen together to be differentiated by amateurs; while it is doubtful if skilled scientists can always identify the pupa cases with certainty. Carolina is more common in the south, but it is frequent throughout the north. Its caterpillars eat the same food as Celeus, and are the same size. They are a dull green, while Celeus is shining, and during the succession of moults, they show slight variations in colour. They pupate in a hole in the ground. The moths on close examination show quite a difference from Celeus. They are darker in colour. The fore-wings lack the effect of being laid off in lines. The colour is a mottling of almost black, darkest grey, lighter grey, brown, and white. The back wings are crossed by wavy bands of brownish grey, black, and tan colour, and the yellow markings on the abdomen are larger. In repose, these moths fold the front wings over the back like large flies. In fact, in the south they are called the `Tobacco Fly' ; and we of the north should add the `Tomato and Potato Fly.' Because I thought such a picture would be of interest, I reproduced a pair---the male as he clung to a piece of pasteboard in the `fly' attitude. Celeus and Carolina caterpillars come the nearest being pests of those of any large moths, because they feed on tomato, potato, and tobacco, but they also eat jimson weed, ground cherry, and several vines that are of no use to average folk. The Carolina moths come from their pupa cases as featherweights step into the sparring. They feed partially by day, and their big eyes surely see more than those of most other moths, that seem small and deepset in comparison. Their legs are long, and not so hairy as is the rule. They have none of the blind, aimless, helpless appearance of moths that do not feed. They exercise violently in the pupa cases before they burst the shields, and when they emerge their eyes glow and dilate. They step with firmness and assurance, as if they knew where they wanted to go, and how to arrive. They are of direct swift flight, and much experience and dexterity are required to take them on wing. Both my Carolina moths emerged in late afternoon, about four o'clock, near the time their kind take flight to hunt for food. The light was poor in the Cabin, so I set up my camera and focused on a sweetbrier climbing over the back door. The newly emerged moth was travelling briskly in that first exercise it takes, while I arranged my camera; so by the time I was ready, it had reached the place to rest quietly until its wings developed. Carolina climbed on my finger with all assurance, walked briskly from it to the roses, and clung there firmly. The wet wings dropped into position, and the sun dried them rapidly. I fell in love with my subject. He stepped around so jauntily in comparison with most moths. The picture he made while clinging to the roses during the first exposure was lovely. His slender, trim legs seemed to have three long joints, and two short in the feet. In his sidewise position toward the lens, the abdomen showed silver-white beneath, silvery grey on the sides, and large patches of orange surrounded by black, with touches of white on top. His wings were folded together on his back as they drooped, showing only the under sides, and on these the markings were more clearly defined than on top. In the sunlight the fore pair were a warm tan grey, exquisitely lined and shaded. They were a little more than half covered by the back pair, that folded over them. These were a darker grey, with tan and almost black shadings, and crossed by sharply zig-zagging lines of black. The grey legs were banded by lines of white. The first pair clung to the stamens of the rose, the second to the petals, and the third stretched out and rested on a leaf. There were beautiful markings of very dark colour and white on the thorax, head, shoulders, and back wings next the body. The big eyes, quite the largest of any moth I remember, reminded me of owl eyes in the light. The antennae, dark, grey-brown on top, and white on the under side, turned back and drooped beside the costa, no doubt in the position they occupied in the pupa case. The location was so warm, and the moth dried so rapidly, that by the time two good studies were made of him in this position, he felt able to step to some leaves, and with no warning whatever, reversed his wings to the `fly' position, so that only the top side of the front pair showed. The colour was very rich and beautiful, but so broken in small patches and lines, as to be difficult to describe. With the reversal of the wings the antennae flared a little higher, and the exercise of the sucking tube began. The moth would expose the whole length of the tube in a coil, which it would make larger and contract by turns, at times drawing it from sight. When it was uncoiled the farthest, a cleft in the face where it fitted could be seen. The next day my second Carolina case produced a beautiful female. The history of her emergence was exactly similar to that of the male. Her head, shoulders, and abdomen seemed nearly twice the size of his, while her wings but a trifle, if any larger. As these moths are feeders, and live for weeks, I presume when the female has deposited her eggs, the abdomen contracts, and loses its weight so that she does not require the large wings of the females that only deposit their eggs and die. They are very heavy, and if forced to flight must have big wings to support them. I was so interested in this that I slightly chloroformed the female, and made a study of the pair. The male was fully alive and alert, but they had not mated, and he would not take wing. He clung in his natural position, so that he resembled a big fly, on the smooth side of the sheet of corrugated paper on which I placed the female. His wings folded over each other. The abdomen and the antennae were invisible, because they were laid flat on the costa of each wing. The female clung to the board, in any position in which she was placed. Her tongue readily uncoiled, showing its extreme length, and curled around a pin. With a camel'shair brush I gently spread her wings to show how near they were the size of the male's, and how much larger her body was. Her fore-wings were a trifle lighter in colour than the male's, and not so broken with small markings. The back wings were very similar. Her antennae stood straight out from the head on each side, of their own volition and differed from the male's. It has been my observation that in repose these moths fold the antennae as shown by the male. The position of the female was unnatural. In flight, or when feeding, the antennae are raised, and used as a guide in finding food flowers. A moth with broken antennae seems dazed and helpless, and in great distress. I have learned by experience in handling moths, that when I induce one to climb upon bark, branch, or flower for a study, they seldom place their wings as I want them. Often it takes long and patient coaxing, and they are sensitive to touch. If I try to force a fore-wing with my fingers to secure a wider sweep, so that the markings of the back wings show, the moths resent it by closing them closer than before, climbing to a different location or often taking flight. But if I use a fine camel's-hair brush, that lacks the pulsation of circulation, and gently stroke the wing, and sides of the abdomen, the moths seems to like the sensation and grow sleepy or hypnotized. By using the brush I never fail to get wing extension that will show markings, and at the same time the feet and body are in a natural position. After all is said there is to say, and done there is to do, the final summing up and judgment of any work on Natural History will depend upon whether it is true to nature. It is for this reason I often have waited for days and searched over untold miles to find the right location, even the exact leaf, twig or branch on which a subject should be placed. I plead guilty to the use of an anesthetic in this chapter only to show the tongue extension of Carolina, because it is the extremest with which I am acquainted; and to coaxing wide wing sweep with the camel'shair brush; otherwise either the fact that my subjects are too close emergence ever to have taken flight, or sex attraction alone holds them. If you do not discover love running through every line of this text and see it shining from the face of each study and painting, you do not read aright and your eyes need attention. Again and again to the protests of my family, I have made answer-- "To work we love we rise betimes, and go to it with delight." From the middle of May to the end of June of the year I was most occupied with this book, my room was filled with cocoons and pupa cases. The encased moths I had reason to believe were on the point of appearing lay on a chair beside my bed or a tray close my pillow. That month I did not average two hours of sleep in a night, and had less in the daytime. I not only arose `betimes,' but at any time I heard a scratching and tugging moth working to enter the world, and when its head was out, I was up and ready with note-book and camera. Day helped the matter but slightly, for any moth emerging in the night had to be provided a location, and pictured before ten o'clock or it was not safe to take it outside. Then I had literally 'to fly' to develop the plate, make my print and secure exact colour reproduction while the moth was fresh. For this is a point to remember in photographing a moth. A FREE LIVING MOTH NEVER RAISES ITS WINGS HIGHER THAN A STRAIGHT LINE FROM THE BASES CROSSING THE TOP OF THE THORAX. It requires expert and adept coaxing to get them horizontal with their bases. If you do, you show all markings required; and preserve natural values, quite the most important things to be considered. I made a discovery with Carolina. Moths having digestive organs and that are feeders are susceptible to anaesthetics in a far higher degree than those that do not feed. Many scientific workers confess to having poured full strength chloroform directly on nonfeeders, mounted them as pinned specimens and later found them living; so that sensitive lepidopterists have abandoned its use for the cyanide or gasoline jar. I intended to give only a whiff of chloroform to this moth, just enough that she would allow her tongue to remain uncoiled until I could snap its fullest extent, but I could not revive her. The same amount would have had no effect whatever on a non-feeder, Gene Stratton-Porter Sorry, no summary available yet.
Characters Discussed Count Malte Moritz von Putbus Count Malte Moritz von Putbus (MAHL-teh MOH-rihtz fon POOT-buhs), known as Mignon (mee-NYOHN), a callow Swedish aristocrat who both relates the story and serves as its protagonist. A self-professed idealist and political visionary, this naif has embraced the liberal creed of the Enlightenment and dedicated himself to extending the effects of the French Revolution. The novel consists entirely of his diary, which, after summarizing the inept radical activism and erotic misadventure that have led his parents to exile the young man to the New World, reflects on events during his journey aboard the Speranza, a slaver vessel. In effect, Mignon’s mind, not the ship itself, is the story’s stage, and the drama is defined through his transition from the presumption of his own goodness and a delusive faith in humankind to the realization that human corruption is complete and unredeemable. Roustam (rew-STAHM), the count’s black valet. Dressed in European finery and displaying European manners, he is regarded as no more than an entertaining clown by the court at Putbus, but on the Speranza he quickly tests his master’s egalitarian posture and eventually emerges as the leader of the slaves during their insurrection. The... (The entire section is 562 words.) The Characters The nondramatic presentation dictated by the diary form virtually prevents an evolution of characters in the conventional sense. Every element of the story reflects Mignon’s mind—a very restricted consciousness in which to operate, not only because of the young man’s impercipience but also because the events unfolded through him are intended to promote an examination of ideas rather than to exercise sensibilities. Within these limits, however, the reader can infer the narrator’s personality. As his nickname suggests, Mignon is a mama’s boy. Once he is expelled from his protected childhood because he has gratified a sexual itch, the weight of evidence indicating human depravity steadily crushes his naive confidence in humans as rational beings. The worst moment in this process of discovery comes with the recognition that evil is not an aberration but a fundamental part of human nature—indeed, that Mignon himself surpasses the vileness of those he once contemned. Except in the respect that the doctor is never guilty of fatuous self-deception, Rouet’s course in the story parallels Mignon’s. Although he cannot rescue the slaves from their circumstances, he visits them in the hold to try to alleviate their suffering; although he believes every man’s psychosexual being conceals a “penchant for cruelty” which is expressed in a “magical desire to see a woman begging for mercy,” he chooses to act as though a “sense of innate... (The entire section is 574 words.) Booklist. Review. LXXXIX (August, 1983), p. 1447. Books Abroad. Review. XLVIII (1974). Germanic Review. Review. XLIX (1974). Kirkus Review. Review. LI (July 1, 1983), p. 712. Library Journal. Review. CVIII (August, 1983), p. 1501. Publishers Weekly. Review. CCXXIV (July 15, 1983), p. 42. Sweden Now. Review. II (1983).
W. P. Kinsella American Literature Analysis Kinsella turned to writing late in life, publishing his first story collection at the age of forty-two. Since then, however, he has become one of North America’s most prolific authors, winning numerous awards and receiving critical acclaim for his stories about western Canadian Cree Indians and the mystical and magical realms of baseball. Still, he is probably best known for the 1989 film adaption of his novel Shoeless Joe, which was released as Field of Dreams, an apt and telling title. Kinsella’s first literary success came in 1974, when he started publishing the stories that would appear in Dance Me Outside, pieces that dealt predominantly with a young Cree Indian named Silas Ermineskin. Silas is the character that Kinsella comes back to most in his stories about the Cree Nation, but he has assembled quite a cast of characters on the reserve, and he tells their tales in more than one hundred stories, which are collected in Dance Me Outside; Scars; Born Indian; The Moccasin Telegraph, and Other Stories; The Fencepost Chronicles; Brother Frank’s Gospel Hour, and Other Stories; and several other books. In his tales about the Cree Nation, Kinsella focuses on issues of truth and hypocrisy, frustration and endurance, love and hatred. The stories are hard-edged yet sensitive, and they are often very comical. Though Kinsella is not a Canadian Indian, he has been widely praised for his portrayal of the western Canadian Cree Nation. It has often been said that Kinsella’s vision of contemporary Canadian Indian life is authentic and accurate, though he certainly has his detractors. One of the stylistic marks that sets Kinsella’s work about the Cree Nation apart is the voice that he adapts. Silas, for instance, tells his tales in broken English that provides vivid imagery and recalls the tone of Silas’s literary ancestor, Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn. The grimness of the subject matter is often complemented by the lightheartedness of Silas’s tone. In The Moccasin Telegraph, and Other Stories, Silas tells eighteen tales set on the Ermineskin Reservation that revolve around attempts by his friends and family to reconcile traditional customs with modern innovations. Again, Silas’s voice and vision allow for an interesting take on everyday absurdities. In The Fencepost Chronicles, Silas is back as the narrator, but his best friend, Fencepost Frank, is the main character of the stories; in Brother Frank’s Gospel Hour, and Other Stories, Kinsella closely considers the growing relationship between Silas and Frank. Again, Kinsella utilizes Silas’s unworried tone to relate stories that range from witty to weighty. Kinsella’s other major works deal predominantly with the game of baseball. While his work about Canadian Indians has garnered him critical attention, his stories and novels with baseball as their dominant motif have gained Kinsella his most considerable recognition. Shoeless Joe, probably Kinsella’s best-known and most-enduring work, blends comic fantasy and Magical Realism in a story that deals with issues of faith, belief, dreams, innocence, and human communion. Its success is evidence that these timeless themes make the work appealing to a wide audience. In Shoeless Joe, Ray Kinsella, the Iowa farmer at the center of the novel, is thrust into a supernatural situation where he encounters the ghost of Shoeless Joe Jackson, the famous ballplayer who was banned from baseball for his involvement in the Chicago Black Sox scandal of 1919. While other writers might allow the fantastic elements of the story to overwhelm the reader, the author never loses sight of the book’s major theme: the loss of youthful innocence. The Iowa Baseball Confederacy also deals with youthful ideals and explores human relationships in the light of a mystical baseball experience. The same elements that have allowed for Kinsella’s success, however, have caused others to respond negatively to his work. In his baseball books especially, Kinsella has been accused of extreme sentimentality. Even critics who have acknowledged Shoeless Joe as a great baseball book complain that Kinsella’s later baseball writing is overly nostalgic and highly derivative of his best early work. In the end, though, the measure of what readers gets out of Kinsella’s work will be determined by what they bring to it. The baseball fiction will be exceptionally easy for avid baseball fans to swallow, while others may reject the saccharine vision of the sport as pure and awe-inspiring. Similarly, Kinsella’s books about the Cree Nation are also the subject of mixed criticism. While the majority of critics have praised Kinsella for his daring and accurate portrayal of Canadian Indians, others have dismissed his attempts at writing about Canadian Indian culture as arrogant and unnecessary. Interestingly, some commentators have criticized Kinsella’s Ermineskin books for being overly sympathetic toward Canadian Indians and blatantly unfair to Caucasians. In any case, Kinsella’s literary reputation continues to grow, and he is often the subject of heated critical debates. Shoeless Joe First published: 1982 Type of work: Novel A comic fantasy about an Iowa farmer who builds a ballpark in his cornfield and summons the spirit of baseball legend Shoeless Joe Jackson. (The entire section is 2243 words.)
The Gluttons Cutthroat join Steelhead in representing the trout strain to the Pacific salmon population in BC and the Pacific Northwest. There are two variations of Cutthroat: the first is the anadromous coastal Cutthroat (the subject here), while the second is the non-marine (or interior) Cutthroat, which is much more yellow in overall hue than the silvery coastal variety. Big eaters, Cutthroat enjoy everything from salmon fry, sculpins, stickleback, and even smaller trout. When they have to, they rely on simpler fare like insects and leeches. They can weigh up to 40 lbs. and measure up to 30 inches. Red-throated trout, Short-tailed trout, Tinsel trout, Cutts. Spotting a Cutthroat Sportfishers sometimes get confused as to whether they're looking at a Rainbow or Cutthroat trout. Distinguishing features of the Cutthroat include: a blunt head, a large mouth that extends beyond the eye, red-orange slashes just beneath the jawline, heavy spots across the sides and even the belly, and a silvery overall colour. As they move through their migratory cycle, their colours change, and their characteristic slash diminishes, making it easier to confuse them with Rainbow trout. They have lots of sharp little teeth, all the better to catch salmon fry with! Habits and Habitat Ocean-run Cutthroat, like Steelhead, can live for many years (up to 10), provided a predator or other challenge doesn't cut things short. They spend up to three or four years in freshwater before swimming for the ocean in the late-spring and early-summer. They tend not to swim out very far in the ocean, sticking close to the shore and to the estuaries they came from. The time they spend in the ocean is unpredictable - from a couple of weeks to half a year. They are considered mature at five to seven years of age. Like Steelhead, Cutthroat like dark, cool pools and are therefore very sensitive to the state of the riparian zone around their natal stream. Their streams are often close to lakes, but they are highly adaptable and they can also be found in fast-flowing major rivers like the Skeena and Fraser. Other Facts About Cutthroat: • Cutthroat are very similar to Rainbow trout and do interbreed (the hybrid is called Cutt-bow). • Cutthroat have been overharvested in the past, and can be hard to find. • Cutthroat are a major recreational sport fish beloved of fly-fishers everywhere. • The Cutts homing instincts are legendary; they spawn eerily close to where they were born.
Adult correctional education: Historical development, programming in the state of Mississippi, and contemporary research findings Wiley Zachariah Jenkins Although the Constitution of the United States does not specifically mention education of the populace, it does provide that such powers not specifically assigned to the federal government are reserved to the states, or to the people (U.S. Constitution, Amendment X). Neff (1972) and Kozel (1985) agreed that state and federal legislators realized there were adults who had missed out on educational opportunities and, as a consequence, were unable to make economic progress. In 1972, adult illiteracy in America cost adult men aged 24 to 34 years old $237 billion in unrealized lifetime earnings (Kozel, 1985). Although they represented the single highest concentration of adult illiterates, incarcerated adults were not being afforded the opportunity for an education in most states (Kozel, 1985). The state of Mississippi has made policy changes that reflect public philosophy and court decisions concerning inmates and how their time of incarceration should be spent. This study discusses the issue of correctional education as it pertains to adult penal institutions, the state of Mississippi, and the influence of history.
Home > Industry/Domain > Biology; Medical > Human genome Human genome The human genome consists of 23 chromosome and the small mitochondrial DNA. 22 of the 23 chromosomes are autosomal chromosome pairs and the last one being a gender-determining pair. In total, the human genome contains the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA and approximately 20,000-25,000 genes. By understanding human genome, scientists are able to develop new medical applications that can significantly advance the state of health care. Contributors in Human genome Human genome Biology; Human genome Eugenics is a bio-social movement which advocates the practice that very talented people should spread their genes by having more children, and less talented people should be discouraged from ... celiac disease Medical; Human genome Medical; Human genome Medical; Human genome bone marrow transplantation Medical; Human genome The transference of bone marrow from one human or animal to another. Medical; Human genome 1) Having caverns or cavities. 2) Of tissue: composed largely of vascular sinuses and capable of dilating with blood to bring about the erection of a body part. carpal bones Medical; Human genome Featured blossaries Modern Science Category: Science 1 10 Terms Coffee beans Category: Food 1 6 Terms
Friday, October 8, 2010 When It's Twilight Time One of the biggest concerns (and physical drains) of caregiving is sleep. Much like newborns and infants, elderly dementia patients can wake frequently in the middle of the night and prevent everyone in the house from getting a good night's sleep. This places a huge burden on their caregivers, who must also remain awake for their safety. Over time, the lack of sufficient sleep can greatly impact a caregiver's health. There are ways to help simulate the natural environment that prompts someone to slumber. We've already mentioned in an earlier blog post that you should limit caffeine intake and make sure the person doesn't doze on and off during the day (at least for long stretches). Staying physically and mentally alert is key. But when night falls, there are things you can do in your home to signal it's twilight time. Here are some suggestions from To create better sleep, a home needs to recreate natural twilight. To do this, the indoor lights need to be turned down or off at least a half hour to an hour before sleep. Cover windows so that ambient light from the street will not filter in. The darker your bedroom, the better. Filtering noise is also important. Do not watch television for an hour before bed. Any light will stimulate the pineal gland and upset the sleep rhythms. It is also advised to go to sleep at the same time each night, or within one hour of the same time, year round. The more that a home is in synch with the natural levels of light outside, the better the conditions for sleep become. Stimulating an indoor twilight will help provide better sleep, preventing insomnia and other sleep disturbances.
Thursday, September 25, 2008 How do people walk? Part II "How do people walk?" The biological answer. (I will only discuss the muscle contraction part. I'm not a biologist, and there is a HUGE body of research on the biomechanics of walking; I couldn't do it justice.) When you decide to pick up your foot and move it forward, the brain stimulates a neuron called an alpha motor neuron. This in turn sends a signal down its axon to stimulate the release of calcium (hey, that's from rocks!), which binds to troponin. This chemical reaction causes protiens on the actin (tropomyosin) to change their configuration slightly, exposing a site on the actin to which the myosin head binds. So, now the muscle is in a configuration such that a thick filament is bound through the myosin heads to a thin filament. The thin filaments are more dynamic than the thick filaments and with the application of a little energy, the thin filament will be "walked" back toward the thick filament. The energy comes from hydrolysis of ATP, which basically transports chemical energy throughout the body. All of this happens many, many times just to cause your muscles to contract a little bit. To walk, you do this (with many different muscles) over and over and over again. So, here's a nice little animation of muscle contraction. 1 comment: Grumpator said... So, how did Garion do with this answer?
Mozarts musikaliska retorik: en studie av musikaliskt avbildande element i Mozarts operor Marianne Tråvén Full Text: W. A. Mozart; opera; musical rhetoric This article investigates and describes the components of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's musical rhetoric as they are visible in his operas from Zaide (1780) to Die Zauberflöte (1791). The relationship between verbal text and musical text is in these operas especially intimate, and Mozart used the musical text to illustrate, paint and comment the verbal text. Mozart's views on the compositional process, visible in his letters, rested on the notion that music should portray the characters, emotional content and action of the play, all within the harmonic laws of the time. To achieve that he used a combination of traditional musical rhetoric figures, conventions understood by his contemporaries, paralinguistic elements such as emotional prosody, and extralinguistic elements such as musical gesture, to portray actions and objects as well as concepts. • There are currently no refbacks. License URL:
Tuesday, 21 March 2017 Interstellar Trade Is Possible In this post, we will detail a method for developing interstellar trade using near-future technologies and commercially realistic requirements. We will then look at the various outcomes, challenges and development models that will follow the first interstellar operation. There is now a Summary at the end of the post. A tough task Travel between stars is hard. The distances are measured in trillions of kilometers and the space between destinations is not really empty. Attempting the crossing at interplanetary speeds is ludicrously slow; the only way is to reach velocities measured in percentages of the speed of light. Even then, travel times might measure decades to centuries. Our nearest interstellar neighbour is Proxima Centauri, at 4.2 light years (40 trillion kilometers). Then it is Barnard's Star at 5.9 light years and Luhman 16 at 6.6 light years. There are thirty-six stars within 12 light years, in twenty-three systems, of which only seventeen are not brown dwarfs. These will be targets of our discussion. The distances are, again, extreme. They are a significant hindrance to travel, but even more so for trade. This is because we expect returns on investment to match the time we are separated from our money. If I put $10000 and want to earn $1000, I can put it into a fund that pays me back in one year. If I want my money back sooner, I'll accept a lower return. If the fund asks to keep the money for 10 years, they better double my money. How to calculate how much a 'promised' amount is worth today. Discount rate is how much the investor want to earn per year. These expectations are problematic for interstellar trade, as there is an lower limit on how quickly your money can be returned to you. The initial investment is great: pushing an all-in-one spaceship (can depart and return from a star, set up its own profit-making base, maintain it long enough to make a profit without any external help) to most of the speed of light is done at enormous cost. The biggest cost is propulsion. Lowering the propulsion cost means longer travel times. Some designs go all the way and turn the spaceship into an Ark where humans grown and die with the task to increase the chance of success of the mission... these designs are frequently measured in thousands of tons of the most advantaged technologies. This also disregards the problem of finding competent engineers willing to die halfway to the destination in a tin can. Sorry, human travel to other stars will have to wait. Just what special product extracted or produced around another star can justify such extreme waiting times and investments? Even if the operation makes a profit overall, leaving my money in a fund at home could turn my money over several times and become a more interesting option. Why should I bother? At least, that is the common understanding of the matter. Here is another perspective. Problem bounding How long would you be willing to give up your money for an interstellar operation? Merchants willingly spent years on the Silk Road. The longest modern delay between paying for something and getting it is 100 years: certain bonds issued by governments or large corporations have a very long maturity date. 10 and 50 years bonds are much more common. Even so, there are options to get back some of the money paid for the bonds in shorter-term increments. More substantial operations, such as the construction of certain canals, walls or historical monuments, have taken even longer to complete. Some projects spanned centuries. However, they offered intermediary benefits or had non-commercial goals. The Great Wall of China took thousands of years to complete, but the completed sections served their purpose in the meantime. The Great Pyramid of Giza took 20 years, but it was mostly a funerary decoration. They are not a good comparison to interstellar travel, as there is nothing to 'reach' between destinations, and no benefit from being 'halfway there'. Its an all-or-nothing endeavour with few current comparisons. 1.12km wide, 175m tall. A more appropriate example is the Three Gorges Dam in China. It took 17 years to complete, with no intermediary benefit. Although, it was a state-run operation and mostly funded by the country's Central Bank, not private investors. So, if we want to trade across interstellar distances, we want to do so on timescales investors will agree to. This means that the return on investment must be made before 50 years. We will also look at 20 and 10 year options. Within this timescale, the spaceship must reach the target, conduct its activities and deliver goods. Travel times If we want to reach Proxima Centauri and return within 50 years, we'd need a spaceship that travels at a minimum of 16.8% of the speed of light. To do so in 10 years, you need an average velocity of 0.84C. To reach the furthest star on our list, Gliese 1016, withing 50 years, a minimum velocity of 0.48 C is required. Attempting to arrive and return on shorter timescales requires proportionally larger velocities. Some destinations have minimum travel times imposed by the speed of light. You cannot reach Barnard's Star and return in less than 11.8 years, for example. Travelling closer to the speed of light to shorter travel times is necessary to trade at more human timescales. However, approaching the speed of light has a hidden cost: relativity. At 10% the speed of light, the relativistic effects are negligible and the kinetic energy equation (1/2mv^2) accurately describes the propulsive power required. However, the closer you get to the speed of light, the apparent mass of the spaceship will increase. This is described by the Lorentz Factor. At 10% of the speed of light, the Lorentz factor is a negligible 1.005: the spaceship would only require 0.0005% more energy than expected to reach that velocity. At 20%, it s still only 0.002%. At 80%, it is 1.667. At 90% it is 2.29. At 99%, a Lorentz Factor of 7.089 means that the spaceship requires more than seven times more energy than indicated by the kinetic energy equation. It is therefore evident that there are quickly diminishing returns for trying to travel faster. A spaceship that travels at 90% of the speed of light instead of 80% only reaches its destination 10% faster, at the cost of twice the kinetic energy. We also have to consider the Time Value of Money. Lowering the travel velocity lowers the initial cost but extends the duration of the trip. The longer the trip takes, the less the promised amounts of revenue are worth. If you want to earn $1000 out of your $10000 investment next year, then your Required Rate of Return is 10%. If the investment takes 2 years, then you'd want 100001.1^2: $12100 in money back. Three years, and you'd want an extra $3310 instead of just $1000. In other words, the longer it takes to complete the trip, the more money that has to be promise to investors. One way to reduce travel times is to fit bigger engines or use more powerful propulsion systems. This costs more money, right from the start. If you want to travel 20% faster, you might need a 20% bigger initial investment. An investor would have to put in $12000 instead of $10000. He'd want $3200 more after the first year, instead of just $1000. A balance has to be struck between the motivation to reduce travel time and the larger up-front costs. • Time cost of travel: RR ^ ((2 x Distance + CDT )/ Velocity) Initial Investment • Propulsion cost of travel: 0.5 * CJ * Mass * Lorentz Factor * Velocity ^2 RR is the required rate of return. CDT is the Colony Development Time, which is the delay between the seed arriving and the first payloads returning home. CJ is the Cost per Joule delivered the the spaceship. It is calculated differently for external propulsion systems or propellant-consuming rockets. Lorentz Factor is as was explained above. Here is a simple example: Imagine the fixed cost for the operation is 10 million units of currency. Distance is 5 light years. Spaceship is a laser sail of mass 1kg. Cost per joule 0.5 million units per terajoule (roughly running a 10GW laser for 1 month). RR is 10%. CDT is 1 year. Using those equations, we find that the optimal velocity is 0.22C. For a ten times high initial investment, the optimal velocity is increased to 0.32C. For a ten times higher cost per joule, the optimal velocity is 0.16C. The solution If we want to go fast, we would need investors to accept huge up-front costs. If we want to go slow, investors will give up in favour of more immediate sources of income. On top of that, long travel times increase the chance of failure, such as radiation degrading electronics or collisions poking holes in the spaceship. Compensating for failures with a human crew rapidly makes the spaceship an Ark massing thousands of tons, possibly as expensive to launch as a fast probe. The StarWisp concept. Instead, we should go small. A tiny micro-spaceship is cheaper to accelerate to large fractions of C. Because it is small, we can afford to build many of them. Sheer numbers and short travel times compensate for the failure rate. There is also a hidden advantage: micro-spaceships can piggy-back on existing infrastructure or use off-the-shelf technologies. After all, investors are unlikely to wait through years of R&D and testing cycles before anything happens. A small spaceship will reach the destination star-system, enter orbit and latch onto an asteroid or comet. It will use the resources available to build more copies of itself. Once a critical number of components is reached, it will start specializing the members of the 'colony' into roles such as energy collection, resource collection, communications, propulsion and so on. This colony continues to grow at exponential rates. It quickly reaches the size of the 'all-in-one' spaceship designs mentioned above, with similar functionality. This ability to self-replicate and then specialize takes cues from the natural world. It can beat the time/velocity constraints set by traditional modes of interstellar travel. How small are we talking? A few grams at most! Three main versions could exist. Binary fission of bacteria The first is based on bio-technology. Literally taking from nature, we could engineer hardened bacteria with data encoded into their DNA. These bacteria are frozen and vacuum packed into a nutrient jelly and incubator. Upon arrival, the hardened bacteria are unfrozen to produce the bio-tech cell-based replicators. These can afford to be much more vulnerable to damage if it allows them to consume local resources (water, rock) using sunlight for energy. Specialization requires a 'trigger' that switches the replicators from building more of themselves to building artifical machines out of cellular products such as muscle fibres, cytoskeletons and plastics. Some might be able to etch microprocessors out of silicon and create electronic machines. Bacteria forming 2D crystalline structures Bacteria forming honeycombs At a rate of one division per hour, with external mechanisms clearing out waste products and supplying fresh resources, a 1 gram 'colony' can reach 1 ton in 19 hours, 1000 tons in 29 hours and 1 million tons in 39 hours. Bacteria consume about 1kW/kg when growing rapidly. The energy requirements of such a colony grow from 1W to 1TW. This would require that the colony slow down its growth to dedicate specialized to cells to producing a solar panel. Some techniques, such as detaching part of the colony to orbit the star closer and beam the energy back, or ejecting part of the comet/asteroid as propellant for propulsing the colony to a more favourable orbit, can help reduce the non-replication fraction of the colony. Nonetheless, the expansion of a gram-sized colony of replicators under favourable conditions taken an insignificant fraction of the interstellar travel time. The second is based on micro/nano-technology. Very small machines contain all the data electronically. They are currently outside the reach of modern technology, but it is not a far stretch. They would be more vulnerable to damage than self-repairing bio-technologies, but are more efficient and develop faster on the same energy and resources than cells. The third is theoretical atomic machines. Smaller than even nanomachines, these can manipulate matter at the atomic level. The advantage is that the 'spaceship' can be nothing more than a handful of molecules massing less than a milligram. The disadvantage is that it would be very difficult to store data on what the machines should do in a few molecules. For the rest of this post, the cells or machines will be referred to as the 'seed'. This seed 'grows' and produces an 'ecosystem'. This ecosystem eventually returns products to the home system. Examples of such an approach to interstellar travel do exist. Robert L. Forwards' StarWisp. It involves a 1 kilogram laser sail, propelled by microwaves to 10%c. Another is Geoffrey Landis's one-ton probe that uses a laser dish to power an ion engine to high exhaust velocities. To return products to the home system, the ecosystem produces a replica of the propulsion method that propelled it in the first place, but at a larger scale and dedicated only to interstellar travel. How it works We will now look at the entire operation as a series of steps to take. Step zero is to assess the current situation. As time goes on, humanity's economic, technologic and politico-legal status become more or less favorable for interstellar operations. They are best attempted when it is easy, affordable and profitable to do so. The first step would be to find money for setting up the first operation. This is different from interstellar exploration, which would be funded mainly by governments and research bodies, and hampered by the fact that it is much easier to just build a bigger telescope than to send a probe to another star. Funding interstellar operations involves attracting investors and laying out a plan that produces tangible results at minimal cost and short timescales. Next, the interstellar operation delivers the 'seed' to its destination. Interstellar travel is explored more in depth in the next part of this topic. This is the most 'hands-off' part of the interstellar operation. It ends when the self-replicating colony has grown to the point where it can divert resources to sending a signal back home. The third step requires tough decisions to be made regarding the colony's future. With a several-year time lag, the investors can order the colony to concentrate on growing, on industrial production, on spreading across the system, on building a propulsion system to return products to the home system or sending copies of itself to other star systems. The tactics, strategies and competition the colony faces will be detailed in the third part of this topic. The fourth step is critical. It involves receiving actual tangible products from another star system and turning a profit. How to do this and how it will affect the wider economy are critical. In the case of a 10 year mission, we want returns higher than even the riskiest governments bonds, and equal to the corporate investment rates. This means a 10% return per year or better. If investors hand the company $10000, they want $25900 or more. This is not an extreme requirement, considering that the investors only send out a gram-sized seed and get back tons of rare elements on their doorstep at no extra cost. Our situation Could we even fit a spaceship on something the size of a microchip? Today, we are unable to mount an interstellar operation. Although we have the bare minimum of propulsion technology to send gram-sized payloads to another star, the cost of doing so is several times the world's GDP. There's also the matter of creating a workable, reliable self-replicating technology. The biggest hindrance to the project, however, is that the money required to mount an interstellar operation gives much better returns staying at home. Nothing, absolutely nothing, that comes from another star system is cheaper than what can be extracted or made on Earth. Schemes to build massive solar power stations to fund interstellar travel by selling electricity misinterpret the nature of Supply and Demand That statement will likely remain true for a very long time. Centuries, likely. The development of more advanced technologies does not necessarily mean that a profit can be made on interstellar operations. Self-replicating seeds can be 'planted' right here on Earth to provide inexpensive exploitation of even the most recalcitrant mineral vein or most rarefied elements from air and oceans. Energy can be provided from uranium extracted from ocean-water uranium or orbital solar satellites using the same construction techniques required to build self-replicating colonies on other star systems. Cheaper, more powerful propulsion technologies will open up the resources of the solar system before making interstellar travel accessible. At current rates, it will be tens of thousands of years before humanity lacks the raw resources to continue expanding. Whether it is the billions of tons of uranium, the trillions of tons of heavy and rare metals in asteroids and the practically infinite amounts of iron, silicon and carbon on the planets, our needs are covered! This is a false view of the realities of humanity's growth. The energy and resource consumption rates are not being driven by population growth anymore; more precisely, they exceed what can be explained by larger populations. Developed countries are competing by producing for ever more energy-demanding markets, such as smartphone factories and computing. Developing countries are doing the same in voracious industries such as steel, bulk chemicals or food production. Today's 'under-developed' countries are starting their way up a mountain with an ever growing peak titled 'kWh per capita'. The fastest growing economies are based on the most energy-intensive industries Our need for energy increases every year, and the rate of increase is also growing. We currently need about 15TW of power to fuel the planet. This has increased five times since the end of WWII, twenty-five times since the start of the 20th century. It will likely increase by as much or more by the next century, to 100TW. Coal and other fossil fuels have historically absorbed most of the increases in energy demand. Renewables (solar and wind) are the fastest growing energy sector. A significant portion of today's energy demand is produced by nuclear power stations. Efforts by the China Atomic Energy Authority are a major contributor to this development. Will we have enough? Fossil fuel reserves in Zettajoules. 1ZJ powers a 100TW civilization for 31 years. That is not a good question. We will always have enough energy. 'Peak oil' is a long way off, if we consider the massive reserves held in oil shales and other unrecoverable sources. If it is not oil, nuclear energy will last for thousands of years. If we convert reactors to use thorium, there is enough for tens of thousands of years. Then, there is the Sun. It will always be there! Also, energy alone is a rather useless measure for our purposed. What matters is costs. The cost of producing energy is related to the cost of making power stations. The billions of dollars required for a nuclear reactor or the thousands per solar kWh are an addition of material, financial, human and legal (insurance/safety) costs. All are variable except for material costs. We can be certain that these can only increase over time relative to the others. Whatever the production method, they cannot compensate for the fact that there will be less raw resources over time, held in deeper and harder-to-reach locations. The most important of these raw resources are rarer elements, such as chromium for stainless steel turbines, cadmium in nuclear control rods, indium for solar panels. Many, such as copper, are majoritarily met by recycling. Recycling allows us to forever have some production capacity, but it cannot compensate for increases in demand. The next step is moving into space. Solar power stations, rare elements mined from asteroids, lunar industries. We won't use them because we have completely run out of power or rare elements on Earth. We won't even wait for them to be significantly cheaper options than building another nuclear power station or platinum mine. No, they are viable as soon as they can make a better profit than their equivalents on Earth. Making a profit can be done at higher overall costs, through cheaper cost per ton or kWh output. An example is oil. It cost on average $60 to $80 per barrel over the past ten years, despite the recently artificially lowered prices. It cost less than $10 per barrel 30 years ago, less than $3 dollar per barrel 50 years ago. Despite producing much more than before, the increased energy consumption and the fears of oil running out has made prices skyrocket. This will happen to all energy sectors: wind, solar, nuclear... Even if the cost of increasing the surface area of a solar panel installation becomes dirt cheap, or if nuclear fuels become as widely available as gasoline, the price of electricity will still have to reflect the increasing value of rare metals and elements they are made of, and the cost of opportunity cost in covering arable land and habitable spaces with power stations. But what about going interstellar? In macroeconomics, there is the concept of the 'long run'. Simply, it is looking at industries and companies over time periods long enough that even fixed costs become variables. Long Run Average Cost curves allow us to explore the concept of diseconomies of scale too. Using Long Run Average Cost, we can look at resource consumption, energy production and economy growth at all scales and over long time periods. For example, it allows us to disregard the effects renewable energy replacing fossil fuels, or a move away from rare and hard to find metals towards common but hard to make graphene in electronics. We know that the cost per kilo in orbit will fall. The cost per solar satellite kWh will become lower than the same kWh on the ground, because it will not have the same restrictions. The profit margin on space-based industries and interplanetary operations will increase. In the long run, the entire Solar System is one big competing economy where growth equals cheaper prices, due to economies of scale. It would not cost much more to invest in an asteroid mining operation than to build a lunar factory or send robots to Uranus, relative to the output. But, even on the level of a Solar System, humanity will meet diseconomies of scale. The number of asteroids with rare elements is limited. Mining planetary surfaces will reach profitability ceilings quickly, much faster than on Earth due to higher base costs. Advances in propulsion technology will help to match prices across the Solar System but only slow down the relative scaling of resource consumption. So when will interstellar operations become viable? Is it when they start being profitable compared to opening up another mining operation on Venus or extracting tons of copper from an asteroid for the next solar power station? Even earlier! Property claims travel faster than rockets. The domains of states and nations travel faster than the speed of light! If, say in 100 years, the United States establishes an inhabited colony on Callisto, will it not claim the entire moon for itself? If China invests several billions in automated mining machines around Neptune and its moon Triton, and protects them with warships, will it not consider it part of its sphere of influence? Building artificial islands to secure your claim on the area sounds a lot like ringing space stations around the moon you're interested it. The Outer Space Treaty does not allow anyone to 'own' planetary bodies. It doesn't say anything about owning the space around them. Even if that loophole is ratified, you can prevent anyone else from entering your orbit for 'safety reasons'. You can ask anyone to stay outside of a certain radius of your position due to a 'risk of collision' or simply apply a version of the exclusive economic zone to space settlements. Depending on how the law is re-worded or clarified in the future, the entirety of the Solar System, out to the Oort cloud and the Kuiper belt will be divided between corporations, nations and states and 'owned', either as property, exclusive economic domain or through less legal bullying or loophole regulation enforcing. For example, if I shoot out a micro-sized spaceship, like the seed described above, at an icy Trans-Neptunian object, and turn it into a flying rocket fuel depot, I would have enough rights to the object and its use to prevent anyone else from settling a second colony on it. This level of appropriation means that most of the Solar System can be 'tagged' by tiny spaceships, quickly, with the most powerful actors taking the lion's share. How does this relate to interstellar operations? Well, if the entire Solar System is owned by somebody or another, and the growth limits imposed by finite resources encourage state and private actors to bully new entrants out of the game, the only way is out. A group of investors trying to beat the market in a fully owned Solar System will have a hard time trying to do so while paying rent and fees to existing market players. A company trying to expand vertically cannot fully control its suppliers. If a monopoly is put into place on a specific resource, it cannot be broken from the inside. Nonetheless, these conditions might take centuries to appear. This is a difficult truth for science fiction writers, as all of technology, science, culture, social norms, politics and even languages change considerably. Trying to recreate their movements and still relating it to a modern audience is a very, very difficult task. Most of them want to write a story with a science fictional setting, not a setting where things happen. As reader, you want to learn the characters, not try to decipher the setting through the eyes of someone who finds it normal. Making money The interstellar operation's biggest variable, upon which depends profitability, cost and everything else, is time: t ime spent travelling to another star, time spent developing an industrial ecosystem, the time it takes to receive interstellar products. Taking longer to complete objectives has to be compensated by higher or more reliable output. The output of an ecosystem set up in another star system is very likely to be proportional to the size of the colony and the fraction of its mass dedicated to non-replication roles. This means, that unless specific instructions are given to prioritize industrial production or colony expansion, the output will start small and increase quickly. With the small initial output, it is best to prioritize what products are returned home. It has to be easy to make, so no complex microprocessors. It has to have a high value per kilo, as the output will depend on mass and the energy cost is fixed. The first returns from an interstellar operation will be bulk quantities of the rarest elements. It will be whatever the Solar System was running out of when the seed was launched, whatever high-priced item that was expected to continue increasing in price. The ISV Venture Star is an example of an interstellar vehicle using a combination of lasers and nuclear engines. Due to the relatively smaller quantities involved, the products will likely depart and stop at our Solar System using the same nuclear-powered engine. This minimizes the cost of capturing the products into a planetary orbit for sale. Later, larger quantities of material would need much bigger engines. It might not be feasible for a self-replicating colony that started out of a 1 gram mass of cells to produce reliable uranium centrifuges en masse a few months later. It would lack the ability to fuel up goods-laden spaceships for the a return journey. Accelerating them outwards can done with local solar-powered lasers and it becomes cheaper to build a laser around the Sun and brake the spaceships in the same way on our end. Discussion of interstellar travel methods in part 2 will cover the topic of returning products home. As the products start returning home, and the interstellar operation starts making outrageous profits by breaking monopolies or crashing price bubbles on scarce resources, a certain dynamic process has to be initiated to continue making profits. This process is the slow communications between the investors and the seed colony. Communications are done at light speed, so it takes between 4.2 to 12 years for a message to arrive at the colony. The same delay is required for a 'message read' confirmation to return. What do the investors do with these communications? Everyone hears the colony's signals... but it might be encrypted. Well, they dynamically compare the colony's output and growth reports to how the market is evolving back home. They update it on what to stop collecting and what to focus on. At a certain point, it would make sense to start developing the colony's complexity than its size. If it can process ores into finished chemical products, or even shapes and machines, then it can increase the value of its output without increasing the size of the payloads returned to Earth or the energy consumption of its launch apparatus. New information can be sent, allowing the colony to follow technological trends and continue producing relevant components. When the highest value asteroid resource of the colony's star system are nearing exhaustion, investors might point the colony towards the planetary bodies. It would have grown large enough to compensate for the energy cost of moving supplies up and down the gravity well. The reward would be elements that are rare even on asteroids, such as uranium and other fissile fuels. Some industrial processes require gravity, other are extremely polluting to the environment or plain unacceptable on inhabited surfaces. These can performed without care. The difficulty would lie in anticipating the market trends and compensating for its movements in expectation of an interstellar delivery. For example, if indium is in demand, its price might drop in response to an interstellar colony announcing a delivery of several thousand tons of it. The investors can try to trick the market by labelling the delivery as something else. Or, they could have looked ahead and understood that indium flooding the market would make solar panels cheaper to make, which actually increases demand for selenium. So they sent instructions to the colony 4 years ago to closely follow up the delivery of indium with a big ball of pure selenium 20m across. Thankfully, trends over 4-12 years are considered 'long term'. They move much more slowly than spot prices. Their volatility is further reduced by the fact that interstellar operations deliver products at a rough price of zero above amortisation and product recovery cost. Since the useful life of an interstellar operation is nearly infinite, and it can boosted every few years with new seeds like a shot of corrective vaccine, the amortisation cost is purely arbitrary. The recovery costs are drawn from the profits made from the deliveries. Since the majority of these costs are spaceships that go and dock with the payload or an array of lasers that brake it into the solar system, they can be considered investments. The operation is investing in an increased capacity for handling larger payloads. An investment model Do the investors sit doing nothing in between payload deliveries? Are physical products the only thing they have to sell? Not at all! In a modern economy, the investors will be able to make money before the first signal arrives from the colony and have profits that far exceed their sales revenue. Bonds, futures and intangible assets are vital to an interstellar operation. First of all, consider the steps involved in mounting an interstellar operation. While many will hear of the attempt, only a fraction of people will have money available for investing in the project. A small percentage of those people will actually put money on the table. Will that percentage not increase once the probe is on its way? Will it not increase with every year the seed spends in space not getting destroyed? Will the number not explode once an 'A-OK' signal arrives from another star? Attracting investors and obtaining their money by selling shares in the company is called equity financing. When the interstellar operation shoots out its first spaceship, it can perform an IPO and become a publicly traded company on the wave of news hype. As good news arrives, it issues shares and sells them at increasing prices. Debt funding, which is taking out loans for a bank, is not recommended here as the company does not have the cash to pay back interest. Equity investors, now called shareholders, can be asked to wait for the first dividends. Basically, the company can make money out of pure hype. This is similar to how tech start-ups operate. The second source of income, before any product has arrived, is data. Beyond instructions and reports, investors in the interstellar operation have no need of the data sent back by the colony. It costs nothing, however, to keep the dishes transmitting scientific and prospecting data. This data is sold to research bodies such as Universities for an additional revenue stream. The company might even convince a University to divert some of its astronomy budget towards helping the company along, in return for guarantees on delivering future data. Another source of income is futures. These are agreement where the client agrees to buy a certain quantity of a certain product from the supplier at an agreed-upon price, in the future. The client pays now, and receives the products later. There are variations, such as the client allowing themselves to buy less than the expected amount, or the supplier offering prices that change with the future market, but the principle is the same: I get money now for something I'll do in the future. In the case of an interstellar operation, investors can sell portions of their expected output to interested clients, and gain money in return. The clients will be happy that they'll get products at lower-than-market or even post-crash prices, while investors are happy to get money in return for something that cost them nothing to deliver. Futures are involved in every step of the operation, from selling and negotiating the price of products during the long journey back home, to trading in percentage outputs of the entire colony for the next 100 years. After the first delivery has arrived, there are many money-making opportunities for the operation's investors. They can set up an artificial scarcity, where the massive amount of items delivered are sold slowly, over time, at higher prices than just dumping them in the market. They can offer specific items at the clients' demand in the next delivery, at a premium. Using their demonstrated success, they can ask for funding towards a second interstellar operation, headed towards another star system. These will take the form of bonds. A certain amount of money is contracted towards the operation, to be returned at a future date. In the mean time, the interstellar company pays out interest. This interest is equal to the client's Required Rate of Return, and is called a coupon payment. Low returns on government bonds makes corporate bonds attractive. Interstellar Bonds are necessarily long-term financial products. They match the 10 year treasury notes and 30 year TIPS (treasury inflation-protected securities) from the US government, or the long and ultra-long Gilts of the UK government. Unlike them, the interstellar operation can offer incredible coupon payments. If multiple product deliveries succeed, the first clients that bought Interstellar Bonds will sell their contracts on the bond market, known as the secondary debt market. Successive high-profit events, such as the delivery of tons of rare material, are extremely useful for increasing the value of bonds. Once the bond price has reached a certain level, the operation can issue new bonds, at higher face values (contracted initial amounts) and lower coupon rates, and still be popular. A consistently well-performing bond market can become the company's primary source of revenue! The company can also offer indefinite bonds, which pay out a consistent 'rent', or short-term bonds just before a payload arrives. As mentioned above, the company is not limited to how much profit it makes off selling physical products. It can sell intangibles such as growth. The Dividend Discount model for stock valuation. More growth means more valuable stock. For example, 10% of each payload's revenue is put towards an investment fund. That fund is used to increase the company's capacity for handling larger and larger payloads. By using a large array of lasers, the fraction of payload that can be sold is increased by 10 to 100 times or more compared to nuclear rockets. In the company's report, this is written down as 'growth is 10%'. It can then advertise a 10% increase in share value to potential investors. This can go even further. Imagine it puts 1% of its profits towards a 'Second Interstellar Seed' fund. That 1% could open up an entire star system, with an entirely new stream of revenue. The actual value of the fund is dwarfed by its potential value... but what does the company sell? It sells potential value, of course. Human travel to the stars is not going to be possible for a very long time due to the deltaV requirements. A small 'seed' of self-replicating components can cheat the rocket equation. The seed produces a colony through exponential growth. A portion of the components are specialized into various units with specifc roles. Eventually, it can start exploiting local resources to send valuable products back to Earth. Interstellar operations need the following three criteria to happen: -A sufficient technological basis for fraction-C travel and reliable self-replicating machines (Realisable) -A growth in resource consumption that increases costs to the point where interstellar alternatives are viable and/or (Profitable) -An interplanetary presence and a Solar System closed to newcomers or legally or de-facto hostile to free-for-all investment makes such investments necessary (Affordable) These conditions might take several centuries or more to come together. Having the technological ability to travel to other stars is not a guarantee of regular interstellar travel. Not having enough resources to continue growing will not push humanity to the stars, but into space, the asteroids and the moons of our Solar System. The best method of considering interstellar travel is from a financial and economic standpoint. We do not invest in projects because we can or because we want to, but because they are better to the existing alternatives. Money can be made from interstellar travel before a single kilo of precious metal is sold on the markets. Financial products can allow a company that invests in interstellar operations to produce a cash flow greater than just what is sold on the market, by selling intangibles such as rights, data, growth and investor confidence. By looking at interstellar operations as just another investment model that justifies the set-up cost with huge profit margins, we can realistically fit it into a setting where humanity has not yet left the solar system. Feel free to ask questions and discuss the topic. 1. Really interesting article. I always thought shipping of bulk goods on an interstellar scale would be unprofitable, but this article convinced me I was just not looking far enough in the future. But aren't there a several articles on how exotic materials can often be replaced with less exotic element (but in a rare configuration, like graphene, or carbon nanotubes filed with zinc)? I think bulk shipping of rare goods will happen in the long run, as well as information (one of the few things that can travel at 1c), but it migh actually be slowed by advancing material sciences (really, with carbon fibre, diamond, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanotubes filled with a conducter, graphene, vitreous carbon, etc. I am surprised how versatile some very common elements like carbon or sulphur are). 1. Thanks! I'm glad you liked it. The trick is to off-load the cost of interstellar travel to a colony that doesn't work on money. You are correct about materials sciences advancing towards using more common materials... but there are some properties that cannot be replicated. These include resistance to corrosion, catalytics, high temperature conductivity, special electronic properties such as germanium in lasers... Basically, the combination of rarity and usefulness means that such elements will always be in high demand. 2. Can the AIs running things at the colony be kept from developing their own agendas so Sol system has to send things or data the AIs want to keep the goods coming? Jim Baerg 1. I don't think any level of AI is needed beyond simple autonomous programs. If everything can be packed into the DNA encoding, then the colony knows how to do everything it needs to know how to do. No smart selection or reasoning or anything like that, just trigger certain reactions following critical points or data. For example, it can be told to eject a part of itself towards the nearest landmass as soon as it can afford to do so. This helps is spread throughout the solar system. It can deduct which are precious metals and what is useless ore through a chemical analysis. Higher concentrations of platinum for example could attract more mining components than other sites, helping it focus on higher value output. If the data is hard to fit in the seed, it can be sent later, like sending instructions of how to find Earth in the sky and how to shoot a big laser in that direction so that outbound payloads can hitch a ride. Over time, of course, the colony needs to be more intelligent. This helps it avoid traps like shooting sections of itself into a planet with an atmosphere and watching them burn up dumbly, again and again. To be discussed in Part 3, it will have to face 'smart' threats that try to divert its output or sabotage its output as a ransom for pirates back home. So yes, eventually it will need to level of intelligence of an AI... which is probably the point at which it might be meaningful to send a small detachment of humans to manage to system-spanning decade-old colony... that's actually a good idea. Send robot 'seeds' ahead, have them send back millions of tons of free equipment and materials over a century, then use all that free stuff to build fast spaceships to send actual humans to manage the huge colony for cheap! 3. I can't speak to the rest, but the technology required to create a self-replicating bacterial colony that spits out starships is well beyond the weirdness event horizon where most stories simply cannot be told because there are no humans left to tell them. 1. I don't quite agree. The 'starships' the bacterial colony would produce are not very complex. This topic will be covered in the next post, but the colony can afford to use very inefficient yet very simple solar concentrators and thermo-electric system to power huge, wasteful lasers as engines for returning payloads. These are the sort of things you can make in a 3D printer today. Even so, you can get away with 'dumb' colonies that receive blueprints and detailed instructions from home. The first thing the colony builds is a large radio receiver. It listens to instructions, and executes them until a new set is delivered. On Earth, the effect of such technologies is that bulk manufacturing would become massively cheaper. Instead of a large car factory, you'd have vats of programmable bacteria churning out simple items. Complex items, such as microprocessors and efficient lasers, would have to be built using expensive and complex 'regular' factories. Overall, a small effect. 2. With respect, you don't know what you're talking about. If we have the technology to reprogram bacteria to produce any sort of laser, no matter how primitive, then we already have all the technology necessary to engineer other organisms (and ourselves) in the true sense of the word. Which means that there won't be any humans around to run an interstellar colony as a long-term risk vehicle. There might be something else around instead, but it will be so alien that talking about joint stock companies or whatever is pointless. An analogy: I show you a model rocket built with a simple black powder motor. You then point out that this rocket demonstrates all the principles needed for space travel and begin to speculate as to how many trips to mars we could make per month using a 'suitably scaled up' version. I should also note that I've worked with bacteria (simple stuff - plasmid construction and cloning in E. coli for use in plant transformation experiments) for what that's worth. 3. To be fair, we are both speculating within the borders of plausibility and realism. I'd also like to point out that this blog tries to accommodate all sorts of settings, ranging from alternative history Cold Wars to ultra-futuristic space opera inspired by the Culture, so if programmed bacteria are unlikely or not depends mainly on the setting's author. But, back to the points you raised. If programmed bacteria, which already exist and are being developed towards producing drugs and fighting cancer, can be developed to the point where they can produce macro-scale structures such as refineries and lasers... it does not necessarily mean that we are able to engineer other organisms. A living, breathing artificial creature has dozens of macro-scale structures and literal thousands of type of micro-structures, from hormone glands to the little muscles which raise hairs when you're cold to trap air next to your skin. It is a much more complex task than building lasers! Also, creating artificial organisms is an entirely different path of research from programming bacteria to make machines, and it is unlikely that even the tools being used are similar. To finish on that topic, even if we can both make bacteria into miniature factories AND produce artificial organisms... how will this hurt the concept of sending tiny colony seeds to other start systems? Humans running a colony were never part of the concept described in this post - in fact, it would be very detrimental to interstellar trade because if humans are needed, then the minimum size of an interstellar operations becomes prohibitively expensive! No, it will be autonomous colonies that evolve based on the information received from us. I don't understand what you mean by 'something else around', sorry. Could you clarify? 4. My point regarding bacteria is that any self-assembling machine is going to require some means of self-assembly. You could very easily make a bunch of bacterial strains which can act as components of a machine, but getting those components to grow into the machine itself puts you firmly within the range of engineering organisms from the ground up. Which bacteria aren't really suited for, but that's another conversation. Talking about sending a packet of cells over and having it grow into a factory is, compared to present-day biotech, the difference between chariots and modern car factories. And present-day biotech is already in danger of smashing the biological underpinnings of human society - including the 'human' part. My comment about 'something else' is that your civilisation capable of sending self-growing laser colonies to another star won't have anything we would recognise as human in it. It might have hundreds of different species of sapients floating around (some descended from us), or might have a single species of hyper-intelligent creatures whose thoughts we cannot fathom. It might not have anything we'd recognise as a mind at all - a vast radio-linked colony organism or a sentient ecosystem. We don't know. What it manifestly will not have is human actors as we understand them today. And that pretty much rules out any assumptions we can make to underpin concepts like long-term investments or joint stock companies. 5. Bacteria are designed by nature to self-replicate. They do it by growing copies of their internal proteins and molecules, then dividing into two. The 'programmed' part is for them to produce unnatural proteins with artificial effects. For example, they could have specific triggers to start sifting through ingested matter for silicon. The silicon accumulated inside the bacteria, then it dies. The dead cell remains are eaten away by enzymes produced by another set of bacteria, leaving a deposit of silicon. A third set of bacteria produces acid. A fourth set deposits markers in specific patterns. The acid is used to etch lines and grids in the silicon. A fifth set deposits conductive metals. Eventually, an electrical circuit is produced. The circuit works like any inanimate machine - the bacteria just build it. I personally believe that developments in biotechnology that produce self-replicating colonies of programmed bacteria will be correlated with developments that allow humans to change themselves, but they are not necessarily causated. A new technology that allows bacteria to grow in patterns is not the same technology that grows new intelligent species. The techniques to build lasers using a group of cells is not the same technique for increasing intelligence in human brains. The tools will be similar, but one will not mean the other. And, even if all your statements are realized and we become a designer species before we start colonies in other star systems.... it does not invalidate the concept of sending small seeds over interstellar distances. That still stands. As for financial realities changing with the players, this is not true. Finance models and things like investments, stocks and interest rates are based on mathematics and will forever remain true. What people do with them or how much they trust or value them is a matter outside the scope of this blog post. 6. Matter Beam, I would like to nitpick. Consider: Your bacterium colony would not only have to construct a laser and the cargo sails that ride it back, it would also have to construct the powerplant that powers the whole setup, mining gear to break up rock for biorefining, refineries for materials that can't be biorefined, transport mechanisms for everything- All this, from local materials, in an intelligent manner that best advances the objective of sending raw materials back, in one of the most inhospitable environments known to man. Your bacterium colony would thus seem to fit your description of an artificial organism, both in terms of makeup(scale differences aside) and difficulty of engineering. 7. The level of complexity is still incomparable. Here is a general list of the number of different types of cells, systems and processes in the human body. About 200 types. 79 different types of organ. 10 systems. This ignores multiples of the organs, systems created from the interaction between organs in specific places (like saliva, tongue and mouth internal epithelial layer allowing us to pass food into the esophagus), as well as the literal billions of different types of chemical reactions, millions of drugs that can affect the body in different ways and the zottabytes per gram of data contained in DNA. The number of parts in a laser are much, much lower. Instructions for building laser are nowhere as dense as the information in DNA, and they're the most complex thing in the whole project... and even then, you can beam instructions afterwards without having to store them on the bacteria themselves. The whole point of programmable bacteria is to 'bolt-on' a certain level of artificial functioning to an organism far more complex than what can be achieved in a laboratory. Most of the hard work, such as converting sunlight into energy without any rare materials or replicating itself with a low error rate and no external infrastructure, is done by the natural part of the bacteria. 8. Anonymous, I think our gracious host has his mind set on this concept. Argument from experience seems to have failed. Pointing out that his concept effectively is the design of a massive multicellular organism has failed. Pointing out that bacteria are capable of, at best, producing colonies rather than organisms (there's a reason that we're eukaryotes rather than bacteria) will similarly fail. Matter Beam, you are correct that there is nothing to stop some sort of biotechnologically advanced civilisation from sending over a seed over interstellar distances. But, again, this gets far into the weirdness boundary where the other capabilities of such a civilisation make it hard to determine whether the other assumptions will hold true. It may be that, with that level of technology at your disposal, you could simply send over a terraforming package and follow it up with a citizen-growing organism for populating your new colony. After all, why trade when you have the ability to simply export your civilisation wholesale? The underlying rationale driving the exercise, in other words, might be rendered moot. Regarding the idea that a bacterial colony capable of producing and shipping raw materials would be simpler than a eukaryotic organism complexity of structures and the data storage required - I simply disagree with you. That said: I'd love to hear any concrete proposals that you have for producing such devices, as these would be revolutionary even in a primitive form. Do you happen to have a scheme for the genetic pathways involved, the regulation of expression, a process flowchart or the like? 9. Matter Beam, while Thom is making most of my argument, he has two specific assumptions we both share that he seems to only lightly touch on. Namingly, that Bacterium cannot be expected to provide all or even most of the manufacturing processess required. Creating and managing the requisite infrastructure for a complete and fully operational colony-that is, one capable of sending home goods as required while supporting itself and sustaining it's own growth- is substantionally more difficult than constructing and managing the laser array that actually sends the goods along. While I cannot comment on the first point due to lack of expertise in things biological, I will comment briefly on the second. Even assuming the best case scenario, that bacteria can be made to produce all the machinery required from raw materials in one step, the fact is that individual asteriods almost never have all the resources you need to expand and send home. C-types in particular, which you'll need for CHON to grow your bacteria, almost never have metals or silicon in substantial quality. You'd have to spread the colony to a few different asteriods to get everything you need. This requires interplanetary transport mechanisms to trade resources between asteriods. Also, radios and sosphisticated enough intelligences to coordinate and plan this activity. If the transport mechanism is some species of rocket, propellant needs must also be met. If it's momentum tethers, the momentum stored in each tether must be managed such that no one tether spends all of their momentum. Etc etc-there will always be a cost and management challenge associated with transporting stuff between nodes insystem, and one the colony have to solve in order to get anything done. 10. Quantity, blah. Thom, I do believe that last sentence was unneeded. Matter Beam is trying to provide a plausible mechanism for interstellar trade for fiction, so I think we can gloss over some of the finer details. 11. Anonymous, Tone is hard to convey via text, so I should clarify: I would be genuinely interested in any reasonably comprehensive proposals as to a mechanism for getting your bacterial colony to manufacture objects, because it really would be a breakthrough worth investigating and commercialising. I'm sincerely hopeful that Matter Beam has inventive concept, as I believe that such things need not be conceptually complex, and need to be restricted to experts in the field. In terms of story, you are indeed allowed to fudge the details. The best SF, however, becomes stronger by thinking through the technology and its implications. Greg Bear wrote a very interesting biotech SF novel (blood music) which was made stronger by the fact that he had a semi-realistic concept for how his DNA computing was supposed to work. 12. @Thom S: I'll have to be honest. The focus of this article was to place the energy cost and possible returns of an interstellar colony within a financially reasonable situation to allow it to become interesting sooner than later. From that resulted a list of requirements (interplanetary transport network, self-replicating colony). I tried to find existing concepts that matched those requirements and wrote about them. For example, the Laser Weapon Web can be converted into an Interplanetary Laser Web to handle boosting the payload to near-lightspeed, while the combination of bacterial manufacturing (http://www.creative-biolabs.com/Bacterial-Manufacturing.html), their ability to handle metals (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioleaching) and a demonstrated ability to arrange themselves into artificial structures and perform machine-like tasks (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10404-007-0252-6) allow for self-replicating colonies. As noted, they are only one solution of several. Maybe we'll skip straight to dry inorganic nanotechnology before we get a good handle on bionanotechnology? I don't know! This is really the downside to ToughSF's approach to hard science fiction. Is there one good solution based on available data? Will the author's tastes (organic/inorganic solution) prevail due to the vagueness of the data available? I cannot cut one way or the other without disregarding the interests of authors who want to do things differently. I prefer to accommodate instead of alienate. Now to the question of complexity: I personally think that a laser is far less complex than a biological organ, that a colony of interacting systems can be done in an 'additional' manner than an 'integrated' manner and that managing the colony can be divided like it is done in our own body: blind sub-systems 'directed' by a superior system. In this case, the superior system is our investors beaming up specific instructions to the colony. Now I concede, my personal idea of the situation might have bled into the supposed objective assessment of the options available to authors for implementing the interstellar seed concept for trade between star system, but I must warn you against expanding the scope of the argument. Bionanotechnology on the level required to produce a self-replicating colony does have some serious implications for the rest of the setting, and I am happy to discuss them (the whole point of this blog!), but I don't want the secondary implications to affect the initial premise. For example, suppose we thought inorganic nanotechnology was THE best solution. There are clear examples of modern research and study into how nano-assemblers can perform the function of larger machines, which is perfect for extrapolating into how they could work into the interstellar seed concept. Would your arguments have been the same? I think not. Therefore, it is best to separate the discussion on bacteria-based bionanotechnology from the broader idea of interstellar trade and seed-colonies. Here, to restart that discussion: what if we used eukaryotic animal and plant cells instead of bacteria? Would some of the issues with complexity be solved? 13. @Anonymous (find and use a name, even in signature!): The way I worked it out was that the bacteria were only the first layer of a larger, more conventional system of machines servicing each other. For example, the bacteria organically sift through a comet's volatiles and extract the resources they need to reproduce. The metals would be interacted with by specific, artificial enzymes and clustered in pockets where a second breed of bacteria would sort them by elements by chemical process, a third breed would eat and deposit select elements in specific shapes, a fourth breed layered the shapes, a fifth... ... and so on until we have the biological equivalent of a 3D-printed robot. The robot can now mechanically move ores around much more quickly than bacteria. The robot can build bigger versions of itself. The larger, mechanical 3D printer produce nozzles and solar panels. A solar thermal rocket can nudge around a comet into a rendezvous with a rocky asteroid. By the time we are producing lasers and returning products to the Solar System, the bacteria are a tiny portion of the larger colony. Their only function would be to become interplanetary seeds. An early colony would find it cheaper to shoot off a new seed to a nearby asteroid than to build a rocket to reach it. Afterwards, a mature colony will move around with spaceships and start extracting and refining using industrial machines, because the bacteria are too slow. As for the CHON availability and the choice of object to land on, consider this report: https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/evidence-from-esas-rosetta-spacecraft-suggests-that-comets-are-more-icy-dirtball-than-dirty-snowball/199168.article Comets are likely to have a useful portion of their mass as 'dirt', and that dirt resembles the composition of planetary surfaces. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen all present: http://www.space.com/28884-rosetta-comet-nitrogen-discovery.html The Rosetta comet is 10000 million tons, and it isn't even one of the bigger comets in our solar system. If an interstellar seed lands on one of these, it has all the resources it could ever need to reach the later stages of colony development. 14. Matter Beam, Thank you for the generous reply. My arguments regarding nanomachines would indeed be different, for the simple reason that I know nothing much about nanotechnology and its real-world possibilities. I'm accordingly much more naive and inclined to grant nanobots perhaps-magical powers than I am GMOs. Moving on: eukaryotic organisms (which include plants, animals and fungi) would actually work much better here, with the proviso that bacterial symbiotes might be part of the package as well (think nitrogen fixation and symbiotic cyanobacteria). Eukaryotes have essentially solved the issue of growing, differentiating and controlling a bunch of specialised cell types, so using their solutions would be a logical way to proceed. Chromosomes also have far less restrictive data storage capacities, so you would avoid the issue of your bacteria not having enough instruction space to perform the complex intracellular interactions needed to produce a designed structure. 15. My take on a 'realistic' story which uses biotechnology but otherwise fits your scenario as closely as possible: Singularitarians are wrong - becoming smarter does not result in you being better-equiped to solve the generalised problem of intelligence. Instead, intelligence turns out to be a process which becomes exponentially more complex as you go, while providing only a linear return. We're proof of that already, after all - being smart (as in, high-IQ smart) seems to come with enough negative tradeoffs so that no fitness advantage accrued and human intelligence plateaued across the planetary population long before the invention of agriculture. So sapients aren't much smarter than they are now. They also aren't in danger of developing power sources or travel systems which completely break with the laws of physics as we know them. Fusion is still the best energy source available, even after thousands of years of development and refinement. Some sapients, however, are much more long-lived - hundreds of years in some carefully self-cultivated clades. And long lives allow for truly long-term investments. The seed to the stars is literally that - a small package of carefully designed organisms and starter nutrients sent on the long journey across the stars by a tiny but incredibly sophisticated ship. The ship, massing at most a few kilograms, is capable of delivering its cargo to a distant asteroid around a foreign star. Once delivered, the seed hatches into a variety of organisms which begin to produce a space-based ecosystem. They may be joined, at intervals, by more seeds containing different organisms for filling out more advanced niches created by the pioneer species. Over time (perhaps thousands of years) the initial ecosystem grows to encompass other solar bodies and becomes increasingly complex. The climax of this carefully-designed complexity is the creation and launch of return vessels bearing scarce resources back to the home system. Alternatively, the final series of seeds might be some sort of egg-ship for sapient clades rich enough to afford a trip for their offspring to the ultimate in luxury housing: an entire solar system turned into an Eden for them to live in. 16. @Thom S: Well then there we have it! We'd need a biological package where bacteria mindlessly reproduce and create the appropriate environment for eukaryotic cells to start performing more complex tasks. I think the problem with quantifying 'nanotechnology' is that the term can be applied to such a broad spectrum of uses and capabilities. It might be as broad as grouping a dagger and an atom bomb under the category 'weapon'. The biggest problem with nanotechnology in these situations (the wild) is that they won't have comfortable, temperature regulated and top-down controlled environments to work in. They'd also have to gain a level of complexity unimaginable today to do their work without constant supervision. Just list the number of proteins and sugars dotting the surface of a human cell required to allow it to be transported to certain parts of the body, recognised as part of the body or to allow specific elements entry and exit from the cell. A nanobot would need similar systems to prevent it by being consumed by its neighbour, continuing to function after being damaged or to signal that it needs more energy ect. This round-about argument is to make the point that relying on the natural solutions to all these problems and just piggybacking our rough modifications on living cells is much easier to accomplish. By the time we can recreate the majority of the functions of a self-sufficient cell in an inorganic format, we might as well use the cell. 17. @Thom S: Certainly an interesting assessment of intelligence: there's a lot you can write from that! However, are you sure that a colony on another star system would take "thousands of years" to become usable? Unless your target is the terraformation of an entire planet, then the colony will likely become profitable within a few years. Exponential growth with uncapped access to energy and raw materials will allow any self-replicating colony to expand at close to the maximum rate of growth... this is an exponential growth. Also, the transport system that returns payloads to the home system can be used in reverse: to capture a large spaceship without requiring a second stage. This means, theoretically, as soon as you start receiving 1 ton or larger products, then you can return 1 ton or larger spaceships and expect them to be captured into the destination system... 18. My uninformed suspicion about nanotechnology is that it ends up looking a lot like biotechnology. But that ruins all of the wonderful 'nanotech as magic' stories that power so much modern SF. In terms of time span, I am being conservative as I don't know what the bottleneck in a cometary ecosystem would be. If the bottleneck is something like a micronutrient, then you might see fairly rapid colonisation and ecological succession. My concept for how the initial colonisation would work is that your keystone organism would be something like a space-adapted lichen or algae; which would cover the surface of the asteroid in a thick mat of biofilm. The mat would insulate the surface - allowing liquid water to form underneath and preventing outgassing to an extent. Secondary organisms would work to extend the liquid layer and extract nutrients. Some would live entirely under the mat, while some would poke structures through into space in order to harvest sunlight. The asteroid would become a miniature jungle floating on an expanding sea. In time, the climax organisms which provide the actual goods would emerge. These would probably be animals of some sort; capable of feeding on the biomass stored in the mat and energy harvesters. 19. Matter Beam, I went away, came back, and reviewed this topic again, and had a thought. Part of the problem is the management and computational aspect-the colony would need to decide how to allocate resources so as to best advance the mission on it's own, as Mission Control have years of communication lag to deal with. In addition, several tasks require calculation more sophisticated DNA computing might be useful in this. We would use the existing molecules in the organism to perform computations without dedicated neuron cells. We only really need fast reaction times for maneuvering in space near other objects, such as docking a material transport to a colony or fire control for the laser array, which can be handled by conventional electronics or dedicated neurons. This would also mean that the organism itself can be made programmable, without hard-coding all the instructions into the DNA itself-just enough to set up the 'computer.' As an aside, it would be nice for you to cover DNA computing sometime-perhaps as a sequel to your nanotechnology post. P.S. Got a name. 20. "We only really need fast reaction times for maneuvering in space near other objects, such as docking a material transport to a colony or fire control for the laser array." Should be "We only really need fast reaction times for things like as docking a material transport to a colony or fire control for the laser array," Too bad I can't seem to edit my comment. 21. DNA computing is certainly a solution to many of the colony's problems, but current concepts have a major fault: sorting through and reading the data produced by the molecules requires a computer nearly as powerful as the DNA computer itself! One way around this problem is to simply use the DNA as a storage medium that allows simple cells to build more efficient electric brains, and those brains 'read' software out of the DNA to become reasonably effective management programs. Another problem with all sorts of chemical computing is that they work best when given a lot of options, and have to test each one. Parallel processing is excellent for defeating combinatorial problems. Managing a colony is more of a problem of identifying opportunities, matching situations to problem-solving methods and optimizing responses, such as, not trying to do the same thing over and over when the first time failed. DNA computing would not help much in this case... I'll add 'Future Computing' to my list of topics, thanks! 22. "Another problem with all sorts of chemical computing is that they work best when given a lot of options, and have to test each one." This seems like half the required for managing the colony-simulating possible courses and futures. The other would be paring down generated solutions until you have just the best possible ones. Maybe have the DNA computer output solutions with a molecule that carries a variable for desirability, and then have an enzyme that grabs two solutions and cuts up the solution with less desirability? Just a random thought. 23. I'm not too well versed in computing, but I do know that project management has too many 'desirability' factors and intractable issues for a powerful yet simplistic tool like chemical computing to solve. The hardest part would be converting the complicated multi-variable management problem into a mathematical problem that a computer can solve. This is a problem even today and some very strong AI would be necessary to perform this task autonomously. Then, once you've got your mathematical model, you'll realize that it is only valid for that specific situation and that number of variables. If you encounter a 'pop-up threat', you'll have to devise a new one. Either way, project management greatly reduces the utility of having super-fast computing, as most of the time and resources would be dedicated to understanding the situation and figuring out how to convert it into solvable models anyway. 24. Why not close the loop? If you're already going to use biology to seed self replicators to do difficult tasks, grow a biological AI onsite once you need one. Don't send people, send their genes! One of your first things you'll want is a device that transforms information from the corporate overlords into an arbitrary sequence of genes. This level of DNA writing technology already exists. Use that to assemble human gametes (this technology does not exist) and grow people onsite. This approach can generally cut mass requirements for any biotech you want to send. Or just include some frozen human embryos in your seed package. The first generation will come out pretty weird being raised by AI systems and cometary jungle lizards, but they'll provide your strong AI without ponying up the tremendous expense of sending whole people. There is also the issue of indoctrinating them to put the company first. Humans are not the most loyal and reliable of systems and these isolated people could conceivably stop shipping things until their demands are met. They will likely have a very different perspective raised by bots, literally grown to command an ever expanding industrial complex the size of a solar system. Us Sol-grubbers might find them...alien. Humanoid aliens! Don't piss them off, that same giant industrial complex is literally designed to fire as many r-bombs as possible in as little time as possible. This is all assuming no uploading, since that makes travel just information flow. 25. Encoding enough information to be executed by self-replicating cells to make something functional like a radio dish to receive further instruction is going to be wildly difficult. Doing the same to 'grow' an AI out of a few grams of radiation hardened soup is even more difficult than that! You probably don't want to send human DNA itself. You get your self-replicators to build a suitable environment and give them the ability to create complex bio-molecules out of local materials. I don't really think the first generation of humans will grow up to be very weird. Machines can emulate humans pretty well for the sake of your infants, and as they grow up they'll have each other and a planet's worth on data on how to keep the kids sane. How they turn out morally is... an entirely different question. There's some good scifi material in there. 26. However you build the dish,I was merely pointing out that a sequencer building radio transmitted plans is a big mass advantage. Whatever combination of comet soup bacteria and robots you're using, you're still building a radio dish. The biological AI I'm referring to is the humans themselves. I'm not so sure how well we can build nanny bots, but I'm pretty sure whatever the build looks like it'll make pretty different kids than a culture saturated with people. Perhaps not inhuman, but they'll have a very different experience growing up with only a few peers to talk to compared to the uncounted billions teeming around Sol. 27. Really enjoying this blog! I've been into hard scifi worldbuilding for a long time now, so this is right up my alley. 4. I find your article very helpful, because I am designing my fictious universe with STL interstellar travel :3 But, in my universe, the distances between stars are quite small in a few lightmonths to 2 lightyears range 1. That's an ingenious solution to interstellar travel: just put everything close to each other. 2. If the stars are close enough to have significant influence over each other, enough to orbit a center of gravity between them and cause tidal effects on the planets around each, then you could have cases of planets being flung out of the star systems. They'd make for interesting destinations. 5. Colonies that can either grow themselves or attend to non-growing but productive tasks..... Sounds like the old 'invest interest in capital or spend it' argument. 'My next question sir, is whether you want to let the colony expand further with minimal productive activity. In this business we call that 'reinvesting the interest' and it is the lowest risk strategy. On the other hand, you could have it produce goods now for return to earth with minimal self-expansion. That is a higher risk strategy of course, but isn't out of the question.' 1. The growth rate and specialisation fraction would be determined by models trying to find the optimal output vs growth ratio. The decisions to be made will be discussed in Part 3. One modern financial caveat to 'reinvesting the growth' is that the share price integrates the future value of a growing investment. Selling these shares allows you to cash in on your growth without increasing your output. 6. If I'm correctly understanding the points being made here, the main emphasis is having products or commodity's that are profitable enough, and interesting enough to the business communities to commit vast amounts of resources to be tied up for very long amounts of time, with the promise of really big returns at the end. One such possible scenario I can see is one much like the current movie 'Passengers', where a group of very rich people pay through the nose to be boarded in stasis on a star ship, travelling to a new colony exo-planet for a much better life. Another possibility may be that a way has been found to ram scoop anti-matter, dark matter, or exotic matter on some sort of super tanker ship in interstellar space in quantities impossible on Earth. But only if done while travelling very far away at insanely fast speeds. Or perhaps an unduplicate-able substance found only on a far away planet that can extend human life, restore youth, or cure an otherwise incurable disease. Any of those can make a decent plot in a sci-fi where such technology is available. 1. The things you mention are usually called 'McGuffinite': a substance or service that can only be obtained in space, and is sufficient reason to go there. Interstellar Trade Is Possible focuses on a realistic method for trading with the stars without requiring McGuffinite. Using simple financial analysis, we can determine that a self-replicating colony that grows indefinitely will always become cheaper to operate than an interplanetary version that can only encroach onto human space. The use of micro-scale spacecraft reduces the 'vast amount of resources' to a much more manageable version. So, the emphasis is not on the value of the products, but the simple fact that interstellar products will always end up being competitive. 7. I need a little mathematical help from someone who know calculus. (a subject I now wish I had taken at some point in my past). If an advanced propulsion space ship was accelerating at 1 G. from zero, how fast would it be going after half a billion kilometers? Would such speeds double, and triple if accelerating 2 G's, or 3 G's? or is that an entirely different formula? Finally how far at 1 G acceleration would it take to reach 50% c? 1. Ah, the acceleration-distance formula. We know that Velocity = Acceleration Time. We know that Distance = 0.5 * Acceleration * Time * Time 1G to 0.5 billion km. 9.81m/s^2 to 510^8m. 510^8 = 0.5 * 9.81 * T * T T * T = 101936799 T = 10096 V = 10096 * 9.81 = 99045 The spaceship will reach 99km/s. 1G to 50%c 9.81m/s^2 to 1.510^8m/s. V = A T T = V/A = 1.510^8/9.81 = 15290519 D = 0.5 A * T * T = 0.5 * 9.81 * 15290519 ^ 2 D = 1146788990825688 = 1.15 trillion km 8. Question for the economy within the solar system: What industries/ trades/ locations would prefer a traditional rocket over a laser-launched lightcraft? 1. To clarify: I mean when travelling between planets- nothing to do with chemical rockets from surface to orbit. 2. Well, laser-launch runs on money and energy. We cant exactly tell right now which places will be able to afford it in the future, but we can discuss energy. Mercury will definitely favour beamed propulsion. It would be silly not to use the abundant sunlight. Stations orbiting Venus would get 175% of the expected sunlight due to the reflective cloud layer, so they would be inclined to developing the system. Aerobraking in and riding a laser out would be very cheap. Its hard to say what a future Earth would do. Sunlight is still plentiful, but the outrage of installing big honking weaponizable lasers over the heads of population centres would have to balanced against the desire not to smog up low orbits with radioactive exhaust trails and tons of fissile fuel sitting in reactors. I think power beamed up from the ground through an orbital relay would be very likely. Jupiter has its natural electrical power station Io, making everything cheap. Lasers would be used there for sure. Everywhere else is more likely to use traditional 'independent' rockets. Asteroid hoppers are unlikely to trail a gigantic laser behind them. Saturn and Uranus do not have the benefit of plentiful sunlight, so will rely on nuclear power. Using nuclear power directly in a rocket engine instead of converting it into electricity, beaming it, absorbing the laser and converting the power back into heat and propulsion will be much more efficient and give you more deltaV per kilogram of fissile fuel. I hope this answers some of your question. 3. It does thankyou! 4. There is the matter of scaling things up. A large laser battery orbiting Mercury might become more feasible/economical if the cost can be amortized by powering ships across the solar system. Since Robert L forward had suggested Terawatt laser systems orbiting Mercury could power starships (using massive fresnel lens systems scattered across the solar system), there seems no reason such a system could not be able to accommodate spacecraft moving from Neptune to Uranus, for example. Indeed, the Mercurials could drive most other competitors out of business by building more laser transmitters and spreading more beam aiming and focusing devices across the solar system faster than their competitors, and being where sunlight is most abundant, have dramatic cost advantages as well. This is very much like the laser web concept that was discussed in one of the early posts in this blog. Indeed, the only reason to have "self propelled" ships would be for the equivalent of the Coast Guard or Navy, where not being dependent on the power beam would allow for independent actions. Even there, CG and Naval vessels would probably use the power web for economy, and because that is where most of the possible targets or vessels in need of investigation or saving would be. 5. @Thucydides: Bearing in mind that a self-propelled craft can go on its way even when there's a long queue to use the laser network. I'd be more convinced by a 'mixed economy' involving self-propelled craft and Mercurial lightcraft working together rather than one pushing out the other- especially when demand for the network is high. 6. @Thucydides: I make this point in Part 2, which deals with transport energy and cost, that trying to write off the investment in a massive laser battery by saying it will sell electricity to Earth on the downtime is a silly idea. Robert L Forward is a bit too naive in that regard. The Laser Weapon Web, under its Laser Transport Network guise, will be explored in detail as well. There are also the kinetic streams and particle beam alternatives that have to be mentioned as viable alternatives if large scale laser technology doesn't become as cheap as we hope for. Small nitpick on the final point you made - laser thermal technology, in the cheapest continuous wave version, is very likely going to be less efficient than the on-board nuclear rockets that military spacecraft will use. They provide power, yes, but not propellant. So a high Isp nuclear electric or gas-core rocket will want to stick to its own propulsion system that try to use 1000s Isp max laser thermal systems. In fact, if we really go for cost effectiveness, laser thermal Isp will be around 400-500s using water or carbon dioxide. The can be packed into extreme mass ratio propellant tanks, and do not cost energy to produce like liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen splitting and condensing processes. This makes them competitive compared to chemical fuels (slightly higher Isp AND cheaper propellant) and nuclear rockets (no on-board reactor). The table turn if the laser transport network has a 'premium' service composed of high-energy pulsed lasers that can ablate solid propellants to achieve both incredible exhaust velocities and stupid power-to-weight ratios... 7. @Geoffrey S H: There is definitely more to be said about interplanetary laser webs and how they could plausibly be built up in a setting where both independent (nuclear) and alternative (kinetic stream, particle beam) propulsion is available. However, to keep within the spirit of this blog, I cannot start imposing specific assumptions on the settings the readers might have for the concepts described to remain valid. I believe this was a failing of Rocketpunk Manifesto, where many points raised and solutions described were specific to Rick's vision of a slightly anachronistic, sometimes contrived future dubbed the 'Plausible Midfuture'. 8. I can see how different starting assumptions make for different outcomes. The main issue that I was thinking about is economics. Even with an on board nuclear power plant, tapping into a "laser web" allows for greater economy, although it also ties you to the web. Military or "Space Guard" craft will likely still want to or need to use the web, partly because that is where most of the space traffic will be, and partly to economize on the use of the expensive nuclear power plants. Once they come into range of the target, it is easy to cast off from the Web and fire up the nuclear engine, with the added bonus that you are not needing to use any of your on board energy or reaction mass to get up to velocity, all your deltaV cam be used for combat or rescue manoeuvres. Given the very different operating environments, the nuclear powered spacecraft will likely be sitting on a boost or trans stage which used the laser web for power. How it gets back to the laser stage could be interesting; use too much of your nuclear reactor remass and you might not be able to dock and ride the laser beam home..... 9. @Thucydides: Quite true. It's up to the author, but the point of this blog, a always, is to give you the tools to make a diverse and interesting setting grounded in reality. For example, I can easily see a setting where nuclear materials are government controlled. The solid cores in NTRs are 'loaned' and you have to submit documentation and detailed flight plans to use them at all. This would be the essential distinction between military/space guard craft and civilian ones. Another thought is that chemical rockets become useful for combat and other off-grid operations if a laser booster is involved. Even more so if the lasers are of the ultra-high Isp pulsed type. 5-10km/s deltaV is easily achieved with a set of drop tanks, and the thrust generated rivals or exceed nuclear engines... 9. Quite interesting article! P.S. Assuming, of course, that there would be still more-or-less modern-type capitalistic economy by the time when interstellar trade would became technically possible... 1. Ah well, we all need some sort of anchor point to keep the fiction relatable to the audience. Its also very hard to judge whether you are working out the consequences correctly without some sort of ceteris paribus: if everything changes at once (the technology, the economy and the people), you can't explain how we moved from our current situation to the potential setting. 2. Markets seem to be "natural" in the way ecologies are, an efficient mechanism for ordering flows of energy, information and capital. "Capitalism" is the currently best efficient known way of tapping into and utilizing markets, and market capitalism has existed for thousands of years (ancient Phoenician merchants would not have much difficulty understanding today's market, they would be amazed more at the scale and scope of things, and the sheer speed of market transactions). Needless to say, if there is some sort of post capitalist mechanism to tap markets, it is by definition beyond our understanding at this time (since no one has invented it yet).
• Share this on Facebook \| Twitter The Effect of Fiddletown Soil on Grape Growing Local vineyards are very stressed in this marginal terrain. Fiddletown borders land that is not arable for grape production. Rainfall is scarce and usually ranges between 30 and 40 inches per year. Despite these difficult conditions, most vineyards are dry farmed, meaning they are not irrigated. Grape yield rarely exceeds three tons per acre and is usually between one and two. This translates into massively flavored wines. Zinfandel from the region has an uncommon amount of depth and concentration. The AVA’s soils have a significant amount of granite in them. They are deep, fairly well drained, and very unfertile. These poor soils stress the vines, causing phenols, pigments, and tannins to develop in grape skins. Zinfandel typically gets its body primarily from alcohol, but Fiddletown Zin is also quite tannic. The scientific name for most of this soil is Sierra-Ahwahee. Its texture is classified as sandy-loam. Most growers choose southwest facing slopes to plant their vines. This allows for the maximum amount of sun exposure during the day to counteract cool overnight temperatures. Some soil contains a significant amount of oxidized iron and is red in color. Two local wineries, Terra Rouge and Le Mulet Rouge, allude to this red soil in their name. > Fiddletown and other Sierra Foothills Wineries • Share this on Facebook \| Twitter
Meaning: stranger, enemy, guest friend, and family Xenos. It’s one of the most complicated words in history, for one of the most tangled topics in history. Because Xenos can mean stranger. It can mean enemy. It can mean “guest friend.” Or it can cover the entire topic of Greek hospitality, and the idea that spans the entire course of human history. It means help, safety, sanctuary, friend, and family. Xenos can mean welcoming foreigners into your home and treating them like family. It’s an ambiguous word on purpose because humans have always been divided on the issue of offering their own homes, earnings, food, and families to strangers. The Syrian refugee crisis–and the exodus occurring out of many Middle Eastern countries–once again raises the virtue of Xenos before politicians and citizens . Xenos always comes down to the issues of trust and generosity. It is a risk, certainly. It asks hosts to humble themselves, change routines, and give. It simultaneously asks guests to respect the house, tread gently, and contribute what they can. Now where has that ideology gone? It has disappeared into a vast library of literature and ideas, shelved snugly between Plato’s allegory of the cave and Steinbeck’s concept of “timshel.” It is packed away, waiting for a society that gently will wiggle it off of the shelf, and blow the dust off, and crack open the spine of its doors and policies so that strangers can have shelter and blessing. The refugees in Syria need the world and the United States. They stumble and flee a war stricken land. They are turning to the world, watching with anxious eyes, filled with the images of the horrors they’ve seen and the children that have died. They are looking for a sanctuary; they are looking for healing. They are looking for Xenos. Some in the world are stepping up, Germany is accepting refugees by the thousands. Yet others are turning away from Syria, shoving away the old concepts that ruled in the ancient kingdoms as foolish, risky, and upsetting. But Xenos also involves a potential mystery of fate, faith, and destiny. It is centered on the idea that any human could be a holy god. To mistreat anyone was a grave sin. The guest could have been a god or an angel. Xenos expected that the stranger was sacred, a person to be honored. Xenos follows the small children from Honduras that cling to the top of trains as they are jolted down to the path to what they hope is a better future than the drug invested corrupted world that they have always known. These children are looking for help. They are looking for a family to take them in. We must not raise walls and taxes to stop these refugees. We must not shove away the concept of Xenos because we don’t trust these people. We must not forget that we were once all immigrants in this land, struggling to survive, and welcomed by people who were worried about us. We were all once shown Xenos. It is what this country is built upon, but we have hurried past this, eager to argue that the immigrants are rapists and drug dealers. And Xenos lingers at street corners and twists around people curled up on park benches. It dwells in the homelessness that we consider a plague, who are sifting through the uncaring masses for a friend. In this world, this country, this state, this city and this school, we should pursue Xenos.In this country Xenos has become a form of weakness, a sign of stupidity. We urge you to not let it become so. We have to create a generation that sees Xenos as not a thing of the past, but as the only way to a bright future. We must trust each other, no matter how difficult it is at the beginning. We must fan the flame, and create a society, where we don’t have to turn away orphans and families that have been torn apart. We must become a culture that believes in Xenos. About The Author Related Posts Leave a Reply Your email address will not be published.
Paving the Way for Citizen Diplomacy Talyn Rahman-Figueroa, CEO of Grassroot Diplomat, discusses how everyone is a diplomat in today's globalised world. The old stereotype of diplomacy is that of an elderly and dignified gentleman who is engaged in negotiations with men of similar calibre. Diplomacy is not just negotiations and secret disclosures but a formal representation of a recognised nation. Back before globalisation, sending diplomatic envoys to foreign lands was the only way to ensure international engagement at a face-to-face level. Nowadays, the era of the internet, satellite TV and cheap flights has made it easier for people to become more mobile than ever. Students are no longer restricted to undertake studies in their own countries but are encouraged to explore the language, culture and activities of other nations. In fact, foreign governments everywhere are using cultural exchange programmes to engage individual citizens to promote cross-cultural knowledge and understanding with people of other countries. This concept is known as ‘citizen diplomacy’ and it is a developing phenomenon that is being used to complement official diplomacy. Think of the last time you travelled abroad. What was the first question you were asked by local people? If the answer is, “Where do you come from?”, then you were unofficially engaging as a representative of your country. Citizen diplomacy is an emerging concept which suggests that individuals have the right to engage in foreign relations. In a society where cheap flights and travel information are abundant, it has become easier for ordinary citizens to engage with the rest of the world on a more personal level. An increase in human mobility has meant that we have become less dependent on diplomats to tell us what to expect of foreign countries and are better informed through our own experiences. Travellers tend to be more empathetic and can help to change the image and perception of their country, simply by engaging with local people on a personal and emotional level. Face-to-face contact is a powerful tool of communication that brings credibility and ordinary citizens are more likely to sell a positive image than a government broadcast. Governments understand this power and have demonstrated the force of citizen diplomacy through constructed programmes. Through exchange programmes for example, citizen diplomats are able to cultivate relationships with every country. At a university setting, it is no accident that you are likely to meet citizens of every continent. The visa process is lenient for international students looking to study in another country as it means increasing capacity to foster common value and mutual national interest. Student exchange programmes epitomise the concept of citizen diplomacy. The Japanese government, for example, uses its JET Programme (Japanese Exchange and Teaching) to advance and promote international exchange and respect between Japan and other nations. JET is popular amongst international students as it is one of the easiest routes in obtaining a work visa in a country that is otherwise shut to foreign workers. As a programme backed by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, JET helps to promote and establish Japan as a nation that is open to all foreigners. Similarly, the American summer scheme Camp America is advertised at secondary schools across the United Kingdom to strengthen the US-Anglo special relationship. By attracting British students to an American exchange programme, British students learn to dismiss any anti-American sentiment they may have by increasing cross-cultural understanding and knowledge of real Americans they work with. In July 2011, the British government has also extended a bid to attract 10,000 Brazilian students into British universities to strengthen diplomatic ties with Brazil, whose economic strength is rapidly increasing. Citizen diplomacy is not only demonstrated by individuals but is also practiced by non-government organisations too. For instance, American NGO World Meets US involves itself in citizen-level diplomacy by translating foreign articles to connect Americans with the rest of the world and informing them about global perceptions of their nation. Likewise, independent diplomatic agency Grassroot Diplomat makes its mission to bridge the gap between civil society and political leaders by connecting both groups of any nation for one joint cause. Despite the power of citizen diplomacy, it may not always be a force for good. According to online travel provider Expedia, foreigners have labelled Britons as the worst tourists abroad. As a nation that has a history of colonialism, it is detrimental to Britain’s image that their citizens make the least effort to speak the local dialect and can be disrespectful to a foreign environment when abroad. Burmese opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi long stated that tourism could be useful to boost the image of her country but added a note of caution to how they could use the information they learn about. In her speech, Suu Kyi stated that “Tourists have to be careful not to deceive themselves; if they want to see the country, they can find all sorts of excuses for doing so…but what they have to understand is how far their visits really go to help the people”. With all this said, it is important for tourists and students alike to quietly observe and absorb the culture and norms of a foreign society they have decided to visit to bring about mutual respect and understanding. As official envoys for their country, diplomats are controlled seekers of information and have special training to collect, transform and utilise information into intelligence sources. As ordinary citizens, information that travellers obtain tends to be linked to their own experiences and emotion, and may not necessarily reflect well for the country they visited. Diplomacy is a delicate art of persuasion, negotiation and building ties and it has become more vital than ever for governments to rely on their citizens to establish better links with foreign allies. So the next time you meet a foreign visitor or you travel to a new destination, think of how your words and actions influence the image of the country you are from.
October 2017 « Sep Why the EU elites must crush the Greek revolt We all know that Greece is responsible for its own problems – the country is utterly corrupt; anyone with any money doesn’t pay any tax; the billions handed over in EU aid for building roads and other infrastructure have mostly been stolen; much of the money given under the Common Agricultural Policy is for olive trees and other crops that don’t exist; the billions in war reparations paid by the Germans have also all been stolen and so on. On that basis, you could conclude that the Greeks should knuckle down, do some work, pay some taxes and pay off their debts. But their economy has shrunk by a quarter since 2008 and their debt at 175% of GDP is unsustainable. Something needs to give. In life, we are often where we are and not where we would like to be. We therefore have to decide our policies on reality. In the case of Greece this means some form of debt forgiveness and boost to their economy in return for serious efforts to stamp out corruption and collect some taxes. After all, Germany was responsible for over 30 million deaths in WWII, but the Allies realised that the only way forward was to allow Germany a new start, free of unsustainable debt. There is no other solution for Greece. But the EU elites cannot allow this to happen because: 1. The PIIGS – if the other members of the PIIGS (Portugal, Italy, Ireland and Spain) saw the Greeks getting concessions while they are forced to endure austerity and repay their debts, their people would revolt against their governments for not getting similar concessions. Moreover, if the Greeks got concessions and managed to successfully grow their economy within the Eurozone, voters in the other PIIGS would also demand an end to austerity and policies to boost their economies. Furthermore, as in Greece, most of the other PIIGS are also facing popular revolts against the EU – there’s Podemos in Spain, and Beppo Grillo’s party in Italy. If Greece’s Syriza succeeds in facing down its EU rulers, that would give a massive boost to anti-austerity, anti-EU parties in other countries. For their governments to survive, Greece cannot be allowed to succeed. 2. Germany and its cowardly cronies – if Germany and its sycophants (Holland, Finland, Denmark) allowed the Greeks to default on their debts, they’d have to explain to their taxpayers why hundreds of billions of Euros of their money have been flushed down the pan. Moreover, if Greece successfully grew its economy as part of a debt-forgiveness, economic-boost policy, then their people would start asking why they too have been subject to austerity rather than growth-based policies. The political establishment would be utterly discredited. So, the Greek revolt against the EU elites must be crushed. But the absolute worst scenario for the EU elites would be for Greece to renege on its debts, leave the Eurozone and succeed in growing its economy outside the Eurozone. If that happened, other PIIGS countries would also demand their freedom threatening the whole dream of a single European superstate controlled by Germany and administered by a corrupt hereditary bureaucratic elite based in Brussels. The solution to Greece’s problems is quite simple. But it cannot be allowed to happen because it would call into question the whole EUSSR project. Sorry Greeks, but you must be brought to heel otherwise others will also start to think about rebelling against the EU elites too. And they can’t allow that to happen. 3 comments to Why the EU elites must crush the Greek revolt Leave a Reply You can use these HTML tags
Homepage - Südtiroler Weinmuseum Deutsch \| Italiano Culture ∙ History ∙ Wine The South Tyrolean Wine Museum lies in the oldest winegrowing area of the German-speaking lands. Opened in 1955 in Ringberg Castle, above Lake Kaltern, it is the oldest winegrowing museum in Italy. The museum is today located in the centre of the wine village of Kaltern, just 15 kilometres from Bozen, in the former Di Pauli winery. An interesting groined vault in the pressing rooms dates from the year 1693, while stone pointed-arch doors and a deep cellar give it a special atmosphere. The exhibition displays exhibits of a centuries-old cultural history. School program Offers for school classes School year 2017/2018 How are barrels made? How did winegrower work in the past? School classes search for clues. The programme for school classes is available in German or Italian. Guided tour Between old vines and centuries-old traditions Guided tour in German every Thursday from 10 am to 11.30 am Visitors can learn about millennia-old South Tyrolean wine history and about the variety of the local wine tradition. You can visit the vineyard and discover ancient grape varieties. At the end of the guided tour a glass of wine is tasted in the atmospheric deep cellar. The guided tour is held in German. Wine tasting South Tyrol has a rich heritage of wine making. The museum presents the winegrowers' daily work in the vineyard, wine production and storage, the farmers' working tools and implements, glass and ceramic, and the relation between wine and religion.
The picture of Dorian Grey Appunto inviato da oliguana Voto 5 Riassunto della trama del libro scritto in lingua inglese molto esauriente (1 pagine formato doc) THE PICTURE of DORIAN GREY THE PICTURE of DORIAN GREY This story is about wanting to stay young and not knowing the consequences of such a desire. Everything starts out in Basil Hallward's studio. Basil is a painter that is obsessed with Dorian Grey, a young beautiful gentleman that catches everyone's eye thanks to his beautiful and innocent aspect. On this particular day, Basil is accompanied by Lord Henry, one of his close friends, who is very fascinated by Dorian aspect. In the same day, Dorian posses for his portrait and then retires to the garden with Lord Henry. They talk about youth and its great importance, about how it shouldn't be taken for granted, etc. When the picture is finished, Dorian makes a simple wish. He asks for his picture to grow old instead of him. Dorian keeps the picture and is fond of his new friend, Lord Henry. They go everywhere together and Henry teaches Dorian new things about life that he never knew existed. Dorian falls in love with an actress (Sybil Vane) from the lower sides of London. But after she messes up in one of her plays, he despises her and decides never to see her again because he doesn't like her way of acting. He goes home and realizes that his picture has changed; it had grown old and shows the sign of Dorian's first cruel action. The next day he is told that the actress he used to admire had committed suicide. Dorian fells no sorrow and Lord Henry tells him to take it as if it were just part of a play, a tragic scene that had come to a dramatic end. He realizes that his stupid wish had come true, and the portrait is the mirror of his soul. So he decides to hide the painting so no one else can see it. Dorian's life changes because of a book, (à rebours by Huysman) that he receives from Lord Henry. The protagonist of this book is a young Parisian very handsome that with the passing of time became old and doesn't tolerate his image reflected in the water or in the mirrors. Dorian fells a sort of pleasure mixed with cruelty thinking that he has never feel the same sensation of the Parisian because he will be young forever. As the years go by, people start to hate the once beloved Dorian Grey. Rumours are spread that he is a bad influence and that evil follows him wherever he goes. Many people don't believe that nonsense, and are still blown away by his ravaging good looks. Dorian Grey lives a double life: in one hand he takes part with Lord Henry to many parties and is taken like a model of elegance by youth, on the other hand sometimes he disappears and frequents sordid taverns. They can't believe that such a handsome man can do such terrible things. Then one night, Basil visits him. They have a chat about the reputation that Dorian is getting on the streets. Basil tells him that such affairs, as he had been known to be a part off, were bad for the soul. Dorian tells him he no longer has a soul, and decides to show him the picture he once had painted of him. The picture had become horrid, old, and ha
Listening and how to listen Edward de Bono writes: A good listener shows that he or she is paying attention to what is being said. A good listener respects the speaker. A good listener shows that he or she is genuinely interested in what he or she hears. A good listener gets value from what is heard and shows that he or she is getting value. All the above are to do with real attitudes and not just pretended attitudes. Unless you are going to be talking all the time, you are going to have to listen. So, do it well and get the most out of listening.” (italics in original, p.66) “There are few things uglier than a listener who does not want to listen and is only waiting for the moment that he or she can speak.” (p.67) Talking can show how smart you are. Talking can convince others of your views. Talking can help you clarify your own thinking. But talking only rarely gives you something new. Listening, on the other hand, can give you new ideas – if you try to receive them.” (p.67) Take note of the words being used. Take note especially of the adjectives. Adjectives are almost always subjective. Adjectives tell you what the person feels rather than objective reality.” (p.70) “Pay attention to the turn of phrase and the analogies that are used. Some of them might be useful for you to use yourself in the future.” (p.70) “This is a very useful part of listening. You repeat back to the speaker what you think that person has been saying. [-p.71] Such repetition indicates that you have understood what was said. It also clarifies the situation in your own mind.” (pp.70-71) To summarise, condense, recapitulate and feed back what has been understood is flattering to the speaker, who wants to know if his or her message has been received.” (p.71) Questions are very much part of listening. They show attention and interest. They allow for the further exploration of certain points. They permit the clarification of any misunderstanding. They enable the speaker to elaborate on points which seem to be of interest to the listener. They can be used to check up on things.” (p.72) MORE DETAILS“You may ask for more details around a point which particularly interests you. …This shows interest and attention and allows you to get far more value from your listening. The speaker may be trying to make a point and has no way of knowing which part of his or her discourse is of most interest to his audience. It is up to the listeners to ask questions to get more details around the more interesting points.” (p.73) As you listen there are always at least two focuses. The person speaking may be trying to make a point, to express an opinion or to create one side of an argument. You need to pay attention to this. What is the speaker trying to achieve? How well is the speaker achieving this? Do you agree with the speaker’s main point? Is the speaker convincing? Respect for the speaker means that you are listening to what the speaker is ‘trying to do’. At the same time there is a second focus. Let us say you are driving along a road and you want to get to town ‘B’. As you drive along you pass through a quaint village or you drive by an historic site. You stop to explore what has caught your interest. So as you listen, the second focus is concerned with matters of interest that arise in what you hear but have little direct relevance to the case the speaker is trying to make. …The trick is to keep both focuses in mind if you are to get full value from listening. Suppose you only focus on the main argument being made. At the end you find you do not agree with the argument. If you have only focused [-p.75] on the argument you have gained very little. However, if you have also focused on the ‘interest content’ of what has been said, you may have learned important new information, alternative perceptions and different experiences.” (pp.74-75) “Questions are important because they are one of the main means of interaction between people in conversation or in any type of communication. What would the world be like if we were not allowed to ask questions? Ask this question to anyone you like. Most people would answer that life would be very difficult. It would be hard to communicate and almost impossible to get what we wanted if other people were involved. The real answer is that it would make almost no difference at all. A question is simply a way of directing attention.” (p.77) “For about two thousand four hundred years we have been satisfied with argument as a way of thinking. The method was designed by the Greek Gang of Three: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Argument is an excellent method and has served us well. At the same time, as we have seen, it is unsophisticated. Each side makes a ‘case’ and then seeks to defend that case and prove the other ‘case’ to be wrong. It says, in short: ‘I am right and you are wrong.’ In argument the motivation may be high because it is an aggressive motivation. The actual exploration of the subject is low. …a prosecutor in a court of law will not mention points which help the defence case and will certainly not make an effort to find them. The same holds for the defence attorney. We use argument not because we think it is such a wonderful method – but because we do not know any other method.” (p.89) Ref: Edward de Bono (c2004) How to Have a Beautiful Mind. Vermilion: London. About backyardbooks This entry was posted in early years education, Teaching excellence and tagged , , , . Bookmark the permalink. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s
What is Islam? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other meanings, including people named ‘Islam’, see Islam (disambiguation). Islam (Arabic: الإسلامal-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] ( listen)[note 1]) is the Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of the one, incomparable God (Arabic: الله‎, Allāh), and by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad‘s demonstrations and real-life examples (called the Sunnah, collected through narration of his companions in collections of Hadith). Islam literally means “submission (to God).”[1] Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive (see Islam (term)).[2][3] Muslims regard their religion as the completed and universal version of a primordial, monotheistic faith revealed at many times and places before, including, notably, to the prophets Abraham, Moses and Jesus. Islamic tradition holds that previous messages and revelations have been changed and distorted over time.[4] Religious practices include the Five Pillars of Islam, which are five obligatory acts of worship.[5] Islamic law (Arabic: شريعة Šarīʿah) touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, encompassing everything from banking and warfare to welfare and the environment.[6] The majority of Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the Sunni and Shi’a.[7] Islam is the predominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, and large parts of Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.[8] Sizable communities are also found in China and Russia, and parts of the Balkans. About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim country,[9] 31% in the Indian Subcontinent,[9] and 20% in Arab countries.[10] Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world. With approximately 1.57 billion Muslims[11] (see Islam by country), Islam is the second-largest religion in the world and arguably the fastest growing religion in the world.[12][13][14][15][16] Etymology and meaning The word Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m, and is derived from the Arabic verb Aslama, which means “to accept, surrender or submit.” Thus, Islam means acceptance of and submission to God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshiping him, following his commands, and avoiding polytheism. The word is given a number of meanings in the Qur’an. In some verses (ayat), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: “Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam.”[17][improper synthesis?] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as “religion”): “Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion.”[18] Still others[who?] describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[19] Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence) where it represents acts of worship (`ibādah) and Islamic law (sharia).[20] Articles of faith The Qur’an states that all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the “Day of Judgment“.[21][improper synthesis?] Also, there are other beliefs that differ between particular sects. The Sunni concept of predestination is called divine decree,[22] while the Shi’a version is called divine justice.[improper synthesis?] Unique to the Shi’a is the doctrine of Imamah, or the political and spiritual leadership of the Imams.[23] Muslims believe that God revealed his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl). For them, Muhammad was God’s final prophet and the Qur’an is the holy book of revelations he received over more than two decades.[24] In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine revelation—either directly from God or through angels. The Qur’an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[25] Islamic theology says that all of God’s messengers since Adam preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God.[26][27] According to the Qur’an [28] the will of God is brought to the nations by the descendants of Abraham and Imran. Islam is described in the Qur’an as “the primordial nature upon which God created mankind”,[29] and the Qur’an states that the proper name Muslim was given by Abraham.[30] As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in Arabia in the early 7th century.[31] Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur’an calls Jews and ChristiansPeople of the Book” (ahl al-kitāb), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[4] Islam’s fundamental theological concept is tawhīd—the belief that there is only one god. The Arabic term for God is Allāh; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words al- (the) and ʾilāh (deity, masculine form), meaning “the god” (al-ilāh), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic Alāhā.[32] The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, tawhīd is expressed in the shahadah (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God’s messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that Jesus was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology, Jesus was just a man and not the son of God;[33] God is described in a chapter (sura) of the Qur’an as “…God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him.”[34] The first sura in a Qur’anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi Muslims consider the Qur’an to be the literal word of God; it is the central religious text of Islam revealed in Arabic.[35] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur’an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632. The Qur’an was reportedly written down by Muhammad’s companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third caliph. From textual evidence Islamic studies scholars find that the Qur’an of today has not changed significantly since it was standardized[36][37] The Qur’an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[38] The Qur’an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the “sourcebook of Islamic principles and values”.[39] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Muhammad’s life, to both supplement the Qur’an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur’anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[40] The word Qur’an means “recitation”. When Muslims speak in the abstract about “the Qur’an”, they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur’an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original’s inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur’an, or “interpretations of its meaning”, not as the Qur’an itself.[41] Hadith are narrations originating from the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Mohammad. Hadith are regarded by traditional schools of jurisprudence as important tools for understanding the Qur’an and in matters of jurisprudence.[42] Hadith were evaluated and gathered into large collections mostly during the reign of Umar bin Abdul Aziz during the 8th and 9th centuries. These works are referred to in matters of Islamic law and history to this day. The two main denominations of Islam, Shi`ism and Sunnism, have different sets of Hadith collections. The Hadith enables Muslims to acquire the Sunnah (habits) or usual practices of Muhammad.[43] The Muslim usage of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of Muhammad, the last prophet of Islam. Recording sunnah was an Arabic tradition, and once people converted to Islam, they brought the tradition to the religion[44]. Among Sunni Muslims, Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim collections are considered authentic. Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (malak) means “messenger”, like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur’an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in perfect obedience.[45][improper synthesis?] Angels’ duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person’s actions, and taking a person’s soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man’s behalf. The Qur’an describes angels as “messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases…”[46] Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the site of Muhammad‘s tomb. Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of prophets—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.[47] For the last 22 years of his life, in 610, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur’an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.[48] In Islam, the “normative” example of Muhammad’s life is called the Sunnah (literally “trodden path”). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith (“reports”), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi’i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad’s actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur’an.[51] Resurrection and judgment Belief in the “Day of Resurrection”, yawm al-Qiyāmah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, “Day of Judgment” and as-sā`a, “the Last Hour”) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur’an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of Islamic scholars. The Qur’an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.[52] The Qur’an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, usury and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise (jannah) as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur’anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (ridwān).[53] Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[54] In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa’l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur’anic verses such as “Say: ‘Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector’…”[55] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the “Preserved Tablet”.[56] The Shi’a understanding of free will is called “divine justice” (Adalah). This doctrine, originally developed by the Mu’tazila, stresses the importance of man’s responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God’s creation and foreknowledge of all things.[57] Duties and practices Five Pillars The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic: أركان الإسلام) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi’a Muslims subscribe to different sets of pillars which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.[58] The Five Pillars of Islam are: Muslims performing salah (prayer) at the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. The Sharia (literally: “the path leading to the watering place”) is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and “constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief”.[65] Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur’an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur’an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.[66] Fiqh, or “jurisprudence”, is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh (“legal theory”, or “principles of jurisprudence”). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur’an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi’i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.[67] Religion and state Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between “matters of church” and “matters of state”; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called “Grievance courts” over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.[68] Etiquette and diet Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with “as-salamu `alaykum” (“peace be unto you”), saying bismillah (“in the name of God“) before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male offspring. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah (“funeral prayer”) over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[69] Jihad means “to strive or struggle” (in the way of God) and is considered the “Sixth Pillar of Islam” by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities.[70] Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as “exerting one’s utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation.” Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one’s own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.[71] Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[72][73] Jihad also refers to one’s striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[74] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi’a and Sufis, distinguish between the “greater jihad”, which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the “lesser jihad”, defined as warfare.[75] Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of offensive conflict, whereas others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, and leaders or states, Islamic or otherwise, who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.[76][77] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.[78] Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[77] For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi‘s[79] occultation in 868 AD.[80] The Great Mosque of Kairouan also known as the Mosque of Uqba was founded by Arab general Uqba Ibn Nafi in 670. It is the oldest mosque in the western Islamic world [81] and represents one of the best architectural examples of Islamic civilization [82], city of Kairouan, Tunisia. Islam’s historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the Islamic world. Within a century of Muhammad’s first recitations of the Qur’an, an Islamic empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east ; one of the best preserved architectural examples of Islamic spread, is the Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) considered as the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world [81]. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the Middle Ages, but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the Ottomans and Mughals fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century new religious and political movements and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.[83] Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750) Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. He made his last farewell sermon at the age of 63 in the year 632 and died 72 days later.[84] Right after his death disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad’s intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr’s immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or “Wars of Apostasy”.[85] The territory of the Caliphate in 750 His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā’ ar-rāshidūn (“Rightly Guided Caliphs“). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.[86] When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the “First Fitna”), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu’awiyah, who was governor of the Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.[87] Although there was discord, the period until the death of Ali in 661 is remembered as a kind of golden age by some[who?] Muslims. It was the Age of the Rashidun or “rightly-guided ones,” when Muhammad’s close companions led the community of Muslims.[84] These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi’a.[88] After Mu’awiyah’s death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the “Second Fitna“. Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia.[89] While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing, rather, poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.[90] For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;[91] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad’s uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi’a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[92] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the “Islamic Golden Age“, with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.[93] Golden Age (750–1258) The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh’habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi’i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.[94] Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[95] Finally, Sufism and Shi’ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi’ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.[96] The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.[97] In the medieval period, a few Arab philosophers like the poet Al-Ma’arri adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.[98] Fragmentation and Invasions Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin’s Ayyubid forces By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. In the 10th century the powerful Ghaznavids conquered the Persian region and a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the name of Islam. They were replaced by the Ghurids in the 12th century. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph’s titular authority.[99] During this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.[2] Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in the West began to be reversed. The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the Crusades, aimed at reversing Muslim military conquests within the eastern part of the former Roman Empire, especially in the Holy Land. Initially successful in this aim, and establishing the Crusader states, these gains were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.[100] In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran the Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250[101] and in alliance with the Golden Horde halted the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain Jalut. Over the next century the Mongol Khanates converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia, eastern Europe and the Indian subcontinent. The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.[102] The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century.[103] It is probable that the Mongols and merchant caravans making use of the opportunities of free passage offered by the Pax Mongolica inadvertently brought the plague from Central Asia to the Middle East and Europe.[104] Plague epidemics kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century.[105] New dynasties and colonialism (1030–1918) The Seljuk Turks conquered Abbassid lands, adopted Islam and become the de facto rulers of the caliphate. They captured Anatolia by defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They fell apart in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various semi-autonomous Islamic dynasties such as the powerful Ayyubids who conquered Egypt and a Jerusalem in the name of Islam. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman Empire (named after Osman I) emerged from among these “Ghazi emirates” and established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, which succumbed shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser extent, cannonry.[106] The Taj Mahal was built by Muslim rulers of the Mughal Empire in Agra, India. Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[107] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur’an.[108] From the 14th century to the 16th century much of the eastern Islamic world was experiencing another golden age under the Timurid dynasty. In the early 16th century, the Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi’a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained in power for two centuries until being usurped by the Hotaki dynasty in the early-18th century. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.[109] After the invasion of Persia and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in the mid 13th century, Delhi became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.[110] Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting with the Ghaznavids in the 10th century. The prominent ones included the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia, but by the early-18th century the Sikh Maratha Empire was becoming the pre-eminent power in northern India until they were weaken by the Durrani Empire in the mid-18th century. Around the 18th century, despite attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. It was during the 18th century that the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.[111] By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty,[112] and overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[113][114] In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated. Modern times (1918–present) By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European powers. After World War I losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed prominence.[115] During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[116] Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.[117] The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[118] Islamic revival and Islamist movements In countries like Iran revolutionary movement replaced secular regime with an Islamic state, while transnational groups like Osama bin Laden‘s al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to further their goals. In contrast, Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam’s sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for “independent thought on religious matters”.[119] Modern criticism of Islam includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on apostates from Islam. Critics like Ibn Warraq question the morality of the Qu’ran, saying that its contents justify the mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians.[120] Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik,[121] Syed Ameer Ali,[122] Ahmed Deedat,[123] Yusuf Estes,[124] as well as Zakir Naik and others of Peace TV, which is a global Islamic satellite channel intended to correct the misconceptions about Islam. Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.[125] Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.[126] The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.[127] In contrast, Pascal Bruckner and Paul Berman have entered the “Islam in Europe” debate. Berman identifies a “reactionary turn in the intellectual world” represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam.[128] Muslim population by percentage A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population or 1.57 billion people are Muslims.[7] Of those, 87–90% are Sunni and 10–13% are Shi’a,[7] with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 50 countries are Muslim-majority,[129] and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.[130] Approximately 62% of the world’s Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.[131][132] In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[133] According to a recent study in the United States, the People’s Republic of China has the eighth highest Muslim population with up to 65.3 million individuals[131] but other figures show only 20 million.[134] Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,[135] and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas and Australia. Faisal Mosque in Islamabad, Pakistan Family life Islam prohibits women from showing their hair in public. The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur’an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman’s share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[137] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[138] A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word “divorce”.[139] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy in Islam, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[140] The Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cycle. The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad’s fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar, with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.[141] The year 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 CE. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[142] Similar to the Jewish calendar, days in the Islamic calendar last from sunset to sunset.[143] Other religions A view of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, a holy site in both Islam and Judaism that has been a source of controversy. According to Islamic doctrine, Islam was the primordial religion of mankind, professed by Adam.[144] At some point, a religious split occurred, and God began sending prophets to bring his revelations to the people.[145] In this view, Abraham, Moses, Hebrew prophets, and Jesus were all Prophets in Islam, but their message and the texts of the Torah and the Gospels were corrupted by Jews and Christians. Similarly, every child is born in the domain of Islam, but is converted to some other faith if the parents/guardians are not Muslims.[146] Islamic law divides non-Muslims into several categories, depending on their relation with the Islamic state. Christians and Jews who live under Islamic rule are known as dhimmis (“protected peoples”). According to this regulation, the personal safety and security of property of the dhimmis is guaranteed in return for paying tribute (jizya) to the Islamic state. The status was extended to other groups like Zoroastrians and Hindus,[147] but not to atheists or agnostics.[148] Those who live in non-Muslim lands (dar al-harb) are known as harbis, and upon entering into an alliance with the Muslim state become known as ahl al-ahd. Those who receive a guarantee of safety while residing temporarily in Muslim lands are known as ahl al-amān. Their legal position is similar to that of the dhimmi except that they are not required to pay the jizya. The people of armistice (ahl al-hudna) are those who live outside of Muslim territory and agree to refrain from attacking the Muslims.[149][150] Apostasy from Islam is prohibited, and is punishable by death.[151][152] The Alevi, Yazidi, Druze, Bábí, Bahá’í, Berghouata and Ha-Mim movements either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Some consider themselves separate while others still sects of Islam though controversial in certain beliefs with mainstream Muslims. Ahmadiyyat, a reformatory sect in Islam is considered to be non-Muslim by many mainstream Muslims. For this reason the government of Pakistan has declared them to be non-Muslim, although international organisations such as Amnesty International have viewed such a move is against international human rights.[153] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, incorporates aspects of both Islam and Hinduism.[154] Islam consists of a number of religious denominations that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is between the Sunni and the Shi’a, with Sufism generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, 70% of the world’s Muslims are Sunni,[155] 20% are Shi’a with the 10% being other various small minorities and Islamic sects.[156] Sunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam, comprising 70%[155] of the world’s 1.5 billion Muslims,[157] hence the title ‘Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah’ (people of the principle and majority). In Arabic, as-Sunnah literally means “principle” or “path”. The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad’s life) as recorded in the Qur’an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. There are four recognised madh’habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable. There are other Islamic sects that may be considered as being Sunni yet are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing bidah (innovations) and extreme political views which are divorced from Islam.[158] The Shi’a constitute about 15% of Islam,[159] coming as the second-largest branch.[160] They believe in the political and religious leadership of Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who according to most Shi’a are in a state of ismah, meaning infallibility. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shi’a, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds “absolute spiritual authority” among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.[161] Approximately 40% of worldwide Shi’a adherents are concentrated in Iran, with other significant population in Iraq, Pakistan, and India.[160] Shi’a make up the majority of the Muslim population in several countries, including Iran (90–95%), Iraq (65–70%), Azerbaijan, Bahrain, and Lebanon.[160] Shi’a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (iṯnāʿašariyya) which the label Shi’a generally refers to. Although the Twelver Shi’a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Twelver Shi’a follow a legal tradition called Ja’fari jurisprudence.[162] Other smaller groups include the Ismaili and Zaidi, who differ from Twelvers in both their line of successors and theological beliefs.[163] Sufi whirling dervishes in Turkey Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of “intuitive and emotional faculties” that one must be trained to use.[164] Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified religious innovation. Many Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi’a, but others classify themselves simply as ‘Sufi’[165].[166] Some Sufi groups can be described as non-Islamic when their teachings are very distinct from Islam. Ahmadiyya (Urdu: احمدِیہ) is a religious movement founded towards the end of the 19th century and originating with the life and teachings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908). Ghulam Ahmad was an important religious figure who claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies about the world reformer of the end times, who was to herald the Eschaton as predicted in the traditions of various world religions and bring about the final triumph of Islam as per Islamic prophecy. He claimed that he was the Mujaddid (divine reformer) of the 14th Islamic century, the promised Messiah (“Second Coming of Christ”) and Mahdi awaited by Muslims.[167][168][169][170][171] Ahmadi emphasis lay in the belief that Islam is the final law for humanity as revealed to Muhammad and the necessity of restoring to it its true essence and pristine form, which had been lost through the centuries. Thus, Ahmadis view themselves as leading the revival and peaceful propagation of Islam.[172] The Ahmadis were among the earliest Muslim communities to arrive in Britain and other Western countries.[172]. It is to be noted that Ahmadis are conisdered non-muslims by mainstream muslims. In fact they were declared non-Muslims in Pakistan in 1974.[[1]] The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is Ibadism. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman.[173]. There are communities of Ibadis that took refuge in the Mzab oases in southern Algeria, the Nafusa Mountains in western Libya, and in Djerba Island (Tunisia), in order to avoid persecution in certain periods of history.[174] Liberal and progressive movements have in common a religious outlook which depends mainly on Ijtihad or personal interpretations of scriptures.[175][176] The recent Salafi movement, also known as Wahhabi, which sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam by refuting the established schools of thought of Sunni Islam. Quranist is a term used to refer to Muslims who reject hadith, or reported traditions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and follow the Qur’an, a sacred text of Islam, exclusively.[177] Cultural Muslim Generally, a Muslim is defined by faith in the religion of Islam; however, in the modern world there are religiously unobservant, agnostic or atheist individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences or fear of retribution for apostasy, an approach discussed by Malise Ruthven.[178] Leave a Reply WordPress.com Logo Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s
Dismiss Notice Join Physics Forums Today! Gravity and massless particles? 1. Oct 16, 2004 #1 I'm sure this is a very newbie-level question, but how is it that massless particles and light are affected by gravity? I've been reading about the 'ghost condensate' theory, and the latest article in New Scientist that says these massless 'ghost' particles should have been sucked up by black holes a long time ago and so they probably don't exist anymore if they ever did. Bearing in mind I haven't got a clue about the intricacies of the ghost condensate idea beyond what I read in magazines, and that I've obviously got my idea of how gravity works wrong because light can't escape a black hole either, I've been confused on the most primal level possible with this. 2. jcsd 3. Oct 16, 2004 #2 User Avatar Staff Emeritus Gold Member Dearly Missed We ought to have the answer to this question in a FAQ, but we don't, so I'll answer. In general relativity the curved geometry, which is what gravity is, is caused by momentum, energy and the rate they are changing, not by mass by itself Massless particles have momentum and energy even though they don't have mass, so they curve spacetime geometry, and thus they gravitate. 4. Oct 16, 2004 #3 Ok. Thank you. 5. Oct 19, 2004 #4 All matter has a non-zero and finite gravitational mass. Some exceptions are things which the pressure is negative and so high as to cancel the gravitational effect of the mass. but you're thinking of proper mass (aka rest mass), which is zero for some matter such as photons. 6. Oct 19, 2004 #5 User Avatar Staff Emeritus Science Advisor Gold Member It's not a newbie question. You would have to understand at least the basics of general relativity to know the answer to that question. Any free particle, massless or not, travels on a path through spacetime that in a certain sense is the straightest possible path. In technical terms, the particle's world line is a geodesic. The presence of a heavy object like a star curves spacetime, and the result is that the "straightest possible" paths in spacetime are not straight lines in space. 7. Oct 21, 2004 #6 One does not have to have a curved spacetime for a beam of light to be deflected. A uniform gravitational field (no spacetime curvature) will deflect light too. In fact this was the field that Einstein first used in his very first article (1907) on the equivalence principle. Similar Discussions: Gravity and massless particles? 1. Massless particles (Replies: 13) 2. Massless particles ? (Replies: 4) 3. Massless particles (Replies: 2)
Symphonic Hymns (1942) By Andrew D. McCredie, Professor Adjunctus, Monash University, Melbourne In the course of over three decades since the death of Karl Amadeus Hartmann in 1963, the canons of the musical history of the twentieth century would be radically revised and extended through knowledge that had been revealed on the cultural conditions that prevailed in the middle third of the century. This was the period that subsumed the emergence of the various totalitarian regimes in Central and Southern Europe, of the holocaust and Second World War, of the oppressive political fundamentalism that developed in the Soviet Union and its satellite countries, the dissolution of traditional hegemonies and empires, and of the emergence of new divisions based upon unequal constellations of wealth and resources. For the music historian the resulting new fields of investigation included the state of musical life, creation and performance in totalitarian societies, the musics in emigration, exile and internment as well as the work of those musicians, who, unable to emigrate, were compelled to subsist within communities of a sociopolitical ethos totally alien to their own, and to which they were spiritually opposed. The German composer Karl Amadeus Hartmann (1905-1963), also famed as the visionary pioneering instigator of the Munich “Musica Viva” Concerts (1945-1963), was exemplary of the last of these categories. In his posthumously published series of essays Kleine Schriften (Mainz, 1965), Hartmann could already identify himself as a creator of a Bekenntnismusik, a music of an ideological, political, social and spiritual commitment. At that time, the self-recognition of Hartmann as a Bekenntniskunstler was identified with that central body of his oeuvre, the already published and posthumously recovered works dating from the years 1933-1945, including the postwar revisions of these. Since 1980, however, with the publication of his very earliest works predating 1933, and studies of the text and literary sources of Gesannsszene nach Giraudoux’s Sodom und Gomorrha, a more fully global profile has emerged (as was also in the case of Shostakovich or Allan Pettersson) of a broader humanitarian commitment and social criticism that applied to conditions both before and after the years of the Holocaust. The early works included Wachsfigurenkabinett (Waxworks), a series of five Musikalische Kammerspiele (1929-1932), the Cantata after texts by Johannes Becher (1891-1958) and Karl Marx (1928), which identifies a commitment to the left-wing Marxist socialism of the day with its critical attacks on capitalism, mass productive industrialism, commercialism, worker exploitation, and cultural materialism, often using devices such as jazz and the instrumentalisms associated with the modes of American popular music of the twenties. In the Gesangszene nach Giraudoux, Hartmann’s concerns are with the terminal fragility of empires and hegemonies, the unequal distribution of world resources and wealth, the abuses of science and technology, and the pollution of both the physical and spiritual environments—thereby taking up universalist themes, many of them first envisaged in plans for a never-to-be-completed oratorio on human rights’ declarations, as outlined in correspondence with Valentin Gitermann (April 30, May 3 and 14, June 3, 1950) on the French Revolutionary Les Droits du Citoyen (1791) in connection with the United Nations proclamation of human rights. Moreover, Hartmann could enunciate the basis of an aesthetics of a music commitment, when in an introductory essay to his seventh symphony (1957/1959) he stated: “I seek no cold-blooded cerebral artifice but rather a totally experienced work of art with a message. Such a work needs not to be understood in terms of its structural and technical details, but rather for its spiritual message, one that is not always automatically communicated in words. The work expresses a message of such universality, that verbal for conceptual meanings scaffoldings seem inadequate appearing, by contrast, to be both blind and deaf to its meaning.” This view represented Hartmann’s position during the mid-1950s— at a stage when he sought to propagate his commitment less overtly than under the provocations of over a decade earlier. It was during the postwar era that he either revised or withdrew many of the scores that had been composed between 1933 and 1945, favoring his new stylistic focuses in the concertos, the seventh and eighth symphonies. In these earlier works, including the Symphonic Hymns, his abhorrence and repudiation of developments after 1933 found its fullest expression. In the Kleine Schriften he wrote: “Then came the year 1933. In that year I realized it would be necessary to write down a confession, not out of trepidation or anxiety before that power, but rather as a confrontation. I felt assured that freedom would triumph, even if it involved our total destruction—that is what I believed then.” To facilitate his expression of such abhorrence and spiritual defiance to the Third Reich, Hartmann chose a number of verbal and musical devices and techniques. To the verbal means were the choices of titles or subtitles (Concerto FunebreMusik der Trauer, Sinfonia Tragica; Miserae; Klagegesang), texts (Walt Whitman, Andreas Gryphius, Grimmelschausen) or dedications (Miserae to the early victims of Dachau), or of the overture China kämpf to Chinese students rebel Den Shi-Chua and his Soviet biographer Sergei Tretiakov), the use of historical analogy in texts (the opera Simplicius Simplicissimus), and of provocative textual citation. His choice of the methods of musical execution, moreover, reinforced this verbal stand. Thus, the musical choices selected by him for direct, indirect or veiled citation included those of Jewish incantation and folksong, revolutionary songs, work songs, chorales and propaganda songs (such as the, “International” in the recently recovered finale for the suite Vita Nova of 1943) or musical quotations or models from the works of other composers (Stravinsky, Bart6k, Prokofiev, Webern) or techniques condemned by Nazi aesthetics as entartete (degenerate). The Symphonic Hymns (1942/43) is the second in a trilogy of orchestral works entitled Sinfoniae Dramticae that bridge the years between the creation of the Sinfonia Tragica (1940/41) and Klagegesang (1944/45). This trilogy comprised the sequence of works Symphonische Ouverture “China” (as originally titled), Symphonische Hymnen, and the Symphonic Suite with Narration Vita Nova. Of this trilogy, China kämpf was withdrawn after its first performance in 1947 at Darmstadt, rededicated under the title Symphonische Ouverture to Antonio Mingotti in 1962, under which title it was posthumously revived in 1975 and published. Similarly, the composer withdrew the suite Vita Nova; he soon revised and published the work’s Adagio movement as his single-movement Second Symphony. Its movement with narrator appears to be no longer extant, while the Finale was posthumously published in 1986. Composition of the Symphoniche Hymnen clearly dates—according to the composer’s dates marked at the ends of each movement—from 1942 and 1943; the thirteen months between March 8, 1942 and April 18, 1943 also suggesting a period of final gestation and revisions before the later of the two datings. Rather than adopting the three-movement slow-fast-slow pattern favored by Hartmann in other works of this period, the three movements yield a sequence Fantasia (an Introduction with theme and variations), Adagio, and Toccata (Allegro risoluto). The first movement appears to foreshadow a compositional process in the later Klagegesang in which a series of contrasting movements or movement segments alternate with a short thematically-recurrent Ritornello—these new movement segments in the first movement of the Symphonic Hymns being variations of an originally specifically stated theme. This movement concludes with a Coda for five solo strings, which an interesting and most original conclusion to this movement. The Adagio highlights two contrasting solos for oboe and English horn, the latter suggesting folklorist and populist origins, before yielding to a more animated and luxuriantly scored middle section that culminates in a typically Hartmannian “high point,” before relaxing into a compressed varied reprise of its opening. It is, however, the Toccata finale that illuminates the work’s title Symphonic Hymn. Its opening theme (bars 2, 3 and 4) offers the rhythmic shape, but in diminution, and disguised by a variant intervallic progression of first three measures of the Habsburg “Kaiserhymn” used in the slow movement of Haydn’s String Quartet, Op. 76, No. 3. This movement employs the lively duple meter also for the recently recovered finale of Vita Nova. Its ambiance, extended orchestra dimensions (nowhere else exceeded by this composer), sectional and thematic clarity and lucidity, coupled with luxuriant instrumentation, all make the Symphonic Hymns one of Hartmann’s most engaging early scores.
On April 16, 1787, the first play written by a U.S... April 16, 1986 On April 16, 1787, the first play written by a U.S. citizen, ``The Contrast,`` by Royal Tyler, was produced in New York. In 1789, President-elect George Washington left Mt. Vernon for New York for his inauguration. In 1833, Rev. John Mary Irenaeus St. Cyr became the first Roman Catholic priest assigned permanently to Chicago. In 1862, Congress abolished slavery in the District of Columbia. In 1867, aviator Wilbur Wright was born in Millville, Ind. In 1900, the post office began selling books of stamps. A book of 12 2-cent stamps sold for a quarter. In 1917, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin returned to Russia after years in exile to assume leadership of the Bolshevik revolutionary movement. In 1940, Bob Feller of the Cleveland Indians pitched an opening-day no-hitter against the White Sox in Chicago. In 1945, U.S. troops entered Nurnberg, Germany, during World War II. On the same date, kamikazes hit the carrier Intrepid, killing 9 crewmen and wounding 21. The carrier, credited with the destruction of more than 80 enemy ships and 600 aircraft, was opened in New York in 1982 as the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum. In 1947, more than 500 people died in fires and explosions in Texas City, Tex., when a French freighter loaded with nitrate exploded in the harbor.
Don’t Let The Earth Get Too Warm This article about Global Warming, written by Stephanie Pappas, describes eight current issues that we can already see in the world. In the past 100 years, temperatures have increased by over 1.33 degrees Fahrenheit. This number is certainly not good for our planet. Here are four important changes that we can already detect: 1. As the Arctic region opens up, the U.S is trying to take over the area. It is estimated that 30% of the earth’s undiscovered gas is there and 13% of it’s oil is also there. 2. Because of the temperature changes, penguins, and many other animals are altering their breedings seasons. 3. The climate change is causing less snow to fall on mountain tops every year, making Elk species move upwards to higher grounds. The Elk then eat and destroy their new habitat. 4. Last of all, it is affecting Polar bears by causing them to swim for longer distances to find stable sea ice. Because of this, the mortality rate for cubs has increased to 45%, from 18%. Prepared by Leo
Welcome to drew talley’s site. You will find occasional links and notes (usually related to marine ecology) here. ah. you are wondering about the pulchritudinous namesake of the website? happy to explain. Fundulus parvipinnis, the California killifish, is one of the giants of the marine realm. Not in stature, surely - they only get to be a maximum of 11.5cm, and even a 10 cm one is considered a monster. But this little fish is attractive, charming, hardy, and a serious player in the salt-marsh ecosystems of the Pacific coast. Let’s start with the name. The genus “Fundulus” comes from the Latin fundus for “bottom”, as the first described species of this genus had a habit of burrowing into mud (Moyle 1976). The etymology of the common name “killifish” for members of the Cyprinodontidae is less clear, but may be a contraction of the words “killing fish”, since the word “killing” was used in colonial times for exceptionally effective bait (Moyle 1976). Common names for F. parvipinnis include Pacific killifish (Wells and Zobell 1934, Miller 1943), California mud-fish (Ritter and Bailey 1908), and most commonly, California killifish (Miller and Lea 1976). The California killifish is, as I mentioned, small, and spends his life in (or near) wetlands ranging from Morro Bay, CA all the way down to Bahía Almejas, Baja California Sur (Miller and Lea 1976). In many of these systems, the California kilifish is the numerical dominant of the fish world (sometimes representing as much as 80% of the ichthyofauna). The overall color is an enchanting olive green on the back and sides, with lighter yellowish brown on the underside. Males become darker on the back, and are brighter yellow laterally and on the underside. They develop scale ctenii when breeding, and are distinguished by much longer anal fins than females (Myers 1930). Markings vary between populations. Girard (1854) and Jordan and Evermann (1896) stated that females possess a dark dusky lateral band, while males possess olive-green bars laterally. However, males, females, and juveniles of the population in Anaheim bay possess bars (Fritz 1975), and juvenile fishes taken from Laguna Ojo de Liebre (BCS, Mexico) also possess distinct bars (Talley 2000). They start their short (12-18 month) lives as tiny juveniles - only 7 or 8 mm long, sticking to the high marsh habitats, particularly small intertidal pools and creeks (Fritz 1975). These habitats can be difficult - salinity can go as high as 70 psu or more (personal observation), and temperatures as high as 40°C. Numerous studies (see Talley 2000 and references there) have shown a phenomenal range of tolerances for variation in salinity and temperature - California killifish have been shown to reproduce in salinities from fully fresh to 60, and surviving in ridiculously hypersaline waters (128 PSU). Still, for a little fish like this, dealing with those conditions seems to beat the danger of facing the larger predators in deeper waters. The rest of their lives, killifish make tidal migrations….that is, when the tide comes in, they venture out of the pools into the vegetated marsh, where they can feed on insects, amphipods, etc. that would be unavailable during lower tides. Then as the tides recede, they return to their pools as a refuge. As killifish mature, they increase the distance for their excursions, moving farther up the marsh and farther down into the creeks. Broadly, the larger the killifish, the deeper the water they prefer (Fritz 1976, Talley 2000). On a larger scale, California killifish seem to move very little between marshes. Bernardi and Talley (2000) found high levels of genetic differentiation between populations of California killifish along the coast of Alta and Baja California, and inferred low dispersal between marshes. A low level of genetic exchange is consistent with the reproductive behavior (see below) and large size at hatching (Watson 1992) of F. parvipinnis, and with the observation that California killifish are rarely found along the open coast as larvae or adults (Watson 1992), even immediately offshore of a large estuary (Nordby 1982). There have been a few studies of foraging patterns in F. parvipinnis, and while they differ in details, the broad finding is that crustaceans make up a large proportion of their gut content, but they also consume polychaetes, insects, and small molluscs. Since killifish in turn are an important food resource for piscivorous fishes and birds, this gives them a fairly central location in the food web. And the total amount of energy moving through Fundulus is amazing - for example, Pérez-España et al. estimate that each year 1,930 tons of biomass (mostly microcrustaceans) is consumed and 187 tons of biomass produced (~10% transfer efficiency) by F. parvipinnis in the Ojo de Liebre lagoon. Fundulus parvipinnis spawns on spring high tides, in very shallow waters, possibly to allow access to the high intertidal pools, where eggs would experience relatively warm water temperatures and lowered risk of advection (they do, after all, want to stay on the marsh!). Further, food resources for larval fish may be replenished by the tides (Kneib 1993), therefore synchronizing spawning such that larvae hatch during spring tides and maximum inundation of upper marsh would promote growth. These advantages favor spawning during April-June, which Fritz (1975) considered the peak season. From April through September along the range of F. parvipinnis distribution, spring high tides occur at night. Additionally, the spring is a period during which water temperatures generally are rising (e.g., see West and Zedler 2000), it is also a period of minimum daytime inundation for high intertidal habitats. This low inundation time during daylight means the intertidal pools will be isolated and under insolation for long periods, allowing them to warm and become hypersaline (Lennon 1995, Talley 2000). As warm temperature and high salinity promote rapid hatching and growth for killifish eggs and larvae, spawning in April through June (the reported peak spawning periods in Fritz 1975) would be another selective advantage. Finally, it should be mentioned that densities of temperate, soft-bottom macrofauna, which are common prey items for F. parvipinnis, tend to peak during the Spring and Fall (L. Levin personal communication), and this may provide greater nutrition, promoting egg and sperm production. So, what more could you ask for? An abundant, attractive, and hardy local fish; an interesting life history; an integral part of the food web for an ecosystem that is highly threatened….the California killifish has it all. And now it has its own website Bernardi G, Talley D. 2000. Genetic evidence for limited dispersal in the coastal California killifish, Fundulus parvipinnis. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 255: 187-199. Girard C. 1854. Observations upon a collection of fishes made on the Pacific coast of the United States by Lieut. W.P. Trowbridge, U.S.A, for the Museum of the Smithsonion Institution. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., Proc. 7: 142-157. Kneib RT. 1993. Growth and Mortality in Successive Cohorts of Fish Larvae Within an Estuarine Nursery. Marine Ecology Progress Series 94: 115-127. Miller RR. 1943. Further data on freshwater populations of the Pacific killifish, Fundulus parvipinnis. COPEIA 1: 51-52. Moyle PB. 1976. Inland Fishes of California. Bekeley: University of California Press. Myers GS. 1930. The killifish of San Ignacio and the stickleback of San Ramon, Lower California. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences XIX: 95-104. Perez-Espana H, Galvan-Magana F, Abitia-Cardenas LA. 1998. Growth, consumption and productivity of the California killifish in Ojo de Liebre Lagoon, Mexico. Journal of Fish Biology 52: 1068-1077. Ritter WE, Bailey SE. 1908. On the weight of developing eggs. University of California Publication in Zoology 6: 1-10. Talley DM. 2000. The Role of Resident Fishes in Linking Habitats of a Southern California Salt Marsh. University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA. Watson W. 1992. Cyprinodontidae in Moser HG, ed. The early stages of fishes in the California Current region, vol. Atlas 33 California Cooperative Fisheries Institute (Cal.C.O.F.I.). West JM, Zedler JB. 2000. Marsh-creek connectivity: Fish use of a tidal salt marsh in southern California. Estuaries 23: 699-710.
Thursday, December 21, 2006 Chordal Music In this article, I want to explore an idea that I call chordal music, and how it’s taken shape over the years. We should all be familiar of the idea of a chord (group of notes played in unison) and a chord progression (a sequence of related chords). Whereas a chord progression is defined as a sequence of chords, chordal music requires a slightly more complex definition. It requires first to understand the nature of two of fundamental building blocks of music, “melody” and “harmony.” Melody can be defined simply as a sequence of singular notes, and it’s typically the focus of a song. As a result, it’s most often what you end up singing, humming, or whistling all throughout the day (oh, those dreadful “ear worms”). The most famous melodies throughout history generally map to the most famous pieces in history; consider everything from “Ode To Joy” to “Somewhere Over The Rainbow”. Harmony, on the other hand is the accompaniment to the melody – resting underneath in support. What are the other instruments doing underneath the main “Ode To Joy” melody? What are the guitar, bass, and piano doing underneath Bono’s voice in U2’s “Running To Stand Still”? These represent the harmonic parts. In some cases, however, the two are merged, in which there is not a distinct concept of melody and harmony, but rather just “chords”, each element of which being critical to the overall piece. This is the nature of chordal music – the point at which the melodic and harmonic components are fused together, indistinguishable from each other. Note that fugues and other contrapuntal music should not be confused with this category. In those cases, it can be argued these are intertwined melodies, in which a second iteration of the melody acts simultaneously as a harmony, but both are distinguishable and are indeed a melody. One of the earliest examples of pure chordal music comes from the religious chanting of the medieval and renaissance periods. In Gregorian chants, for example, all vocal parts were considered equal, and worked in unison through the piece. In these cases, there wasn’t a true “melodic” concept, unless you arbitrarily pick off the highest note in the chord and sing that throughout. Everything was harmonic to each other, and songs were simply progressions from one chord to another with no distinguishable melody from the harmony. In other words, the melody and harmonies were the same, representing the first examples of chordal music. Moving forward a little bit, another of the most famous classical pieces is a great example of chordal music: the “Canon in D” by Johann Pachelbel. The cellos introduce the canon, which comes as the root of the chords. From then on out, the other strings progress through a series of harmonies, but never stray from the fundamental chords. In other words, there isn’t a true melody in the piece (though there are many), and the core of the piece is using the harmonies, or chords, as the melodies themselves: D Major, A Major, B Minor, F#Minor, G Major, D Major, G Major, A Major, and repeat, over and over. Music that bases its existence on a fusion of the melody and the harmony. Jumping forward, Bach can be thought of as one of the earliest “masters” of the chord progression and chordal music. Take, for example, the prelude from his “Well Tempered Clavier, Book 1”. This piece might be recognized by anyone who has taken piano lessons – it’s one of the standards in the repertoire, and is a prime example of both chordal music and the chord progression. [BACH SAMPLE] On the surface, you might ask why I would pick this piece – there are barely any “true” chords in it! Yes, you are correct. However, if we examine the construct of the piece, we see that it is comprised purely of chords, just arpeggiated (broken up) versions of them. Let’s take a listen to the same piece, this time in a chorded fashion [SAMPLE 2]. It’s simply one long chord progression! On top of that, there is no clear melody here – these broken chords are all harmonic to each other – again, an example of chordal music. Moving to my friend Beethoven (we’re now friendly), we can find another famous example of the chordal music in the second movement of his 7th Symphony, the famous Allegretto. The central theme to the movement is manifested as a series of chords, starting with the A minor à E major à A minor motive. [BEETHOVEN SAMPLE]. In this case, one might argue that there actually is a melody embedded within, but I would counter that the power in the theme comes from the chords themselves rather than the scatter melodic notes to bridge the chords together. The melody and the harmony are one, and the overall sound is what you are really hearing. I’m going to take a drastic departure for my last example, moving forward almost 200 years. As soon as vocals started entering music, from the early German Lieder to modern rock and roll, chordal music has been harder and harder to find. This is due to the idea that the human voice is primarily used as a melodic vehicle, such that the vocals in a song are almost always a melody and everything else a harmony. However, I believe the track “Everything In Its Right Place” by Radiohead, from the album “Kid A”, is a good example of chordal music, in which the electric piano is driving the song, combining the song’s true melodic and harmonic components. Thom Yorke’s vocal parts, at times, constitutes a primary melody, but, in others blends in with everything else, voiding the track of any true melody or harmony. This is especially clear in the sections in which Thom sings “Yesterday I woke up sucking a lemon, etc”, and later “There are two colors in my head, etc”. It’s harder to appreciate because of the inherent qualities of the human voice, but, when you boil it down to its core, it is chordal music, melodic and harmonic components blended into one. Melody and harmony are two of the primary building blocks of all of music, and each composer and artist must find a way to use them to the advantage of the work. In the traditional case, a melody rises to the surface accompanied by the harmony. In chordal music, the two become one, indistinguishable from the other. Keep an ear out for this rare, but effective, use of the two! Post a Comment << Home
How To: Use ArcIMS with a Proxy Server Use the Proxy Server properties file (aimsproxy.properties) to specify whether your Local Area Network (LAN) uses a proxy server to connect to the Internet. A proxy server is a computer on your LAN that connects to the Internet without compromising the security of your internal network. If you are not sure how your LAN connects to the Internet, contact your system administrator. If you use proxy servers, then set the appropriate properties in the aimsproxy.properties file which is located in the user's Profiles directory on Windows and at $AIMSHOME/Xenv on UNIX. • If your LAN uses a proxy server to connect to the Internet for HTTP protocol requests, then the HostName and Port of the proxy server to use needs to be set. For example: • The same rules apply when connecting via a proxy server and using a secure HTTP protocol (HTTPS), except that you would use the following properties: • If your LAN doesn't use a proxy server and is directly connected to the Internet, do not set these properties. This is the default.
Vaughan’s Vocabulary I enjoy biographies, particularly those about people who are little known to me. Recently I was reading about Mary of Burgundy (1457-82). I learned from the Webster Encyclopedia that she was the daughter and heir of Charles the Bold and the wife of Maximilian of Austria. points out that since Charles had no male heirs, potential marriages with her were plotted almost from the day of her birth, which was one day before Valentine’s Day. Mary was 8 when her mother died. Her father was away from home a great deal. Mary of Burgundy could be used as a metaphor for a child who has various pet animals because exotic animals were often brought to her. She owned several dogs, parrots, monkeys and giraffes. also points out that she developed a keen interest in hunting, riding and other outdoor sports, as well as gardening. The online article points out that she fought to save her land from France and preserved what was to become the modern country of Belgium. I encourage you to read more about this fascinating woman. I especially encourage you to watch a brief but poignant video that can be found by searching for “Mary of Burgundy, Archduchess of Austria.” Burgundy is in A. England. B. France. C. Scotland. D. Canada. E. None of the above 2. Which one is closest to burgundy? A. saffron B. green C. blue D. maroon E. gray No. 1 is B. No. 2 is D. 3. duchess (DUH-chis) A. the wife or widow of a duke B. a woman holding a rank equivalent to duke in her own right C. a woman who holds in her own right the sovereignty or titles of a duchy D. All of the above Mary’s father died when she was only 19, making her Duchess of Burgundy in her own right. D is the answer. Thanks to English Oxford Living Dictionary and for A, B and C. 4. Which one tried to force Mary into a marriage with his son who was 13 years younger than her? A. Philip the Handsome B. Louis XI C. Machiavelli D. Philip IV According to the Royal Women blog, Mary’s stepmother advised her to turn to the Netherlands for help against Louis XI, who tried to force her to marry his dauphin son, Charles. Editor’s Note: Don R. Vaughan, Ph.D., is the pastor of Mt. Vernon Baptist Church near Eupora and is on the faculty of East Mississippi Community College, Golden Triangle Campus. Contact him at
Over the weekend I had the pleasure of helping one of my grandchildren with a school project. What was great about this project and also made it more interesting for me, was the fact that it was based on a type of fish we find swimming in the oceans of the world. Although it is not a fish like that of a bass, trout, or even a tuna it is by far one of the most fascinating creatures that lives in any body of water. If you guessed Shark you are absolutely right!! Helping my grandson Grant with his project even taught me some fascinating facts that I didn’t really know up until now! So I thought I would dedicate this post to the hard work that Grant did for this project and also to promote the fact that spending time with a child helping to grow whatever interest may be festering inside them is priceless. With Grant the fact that he too is interested in fish opens up a bonding that hopefully we can share together and will allow me to teach him all I know when it comes to the waters that fish live in as well as about different fish themselves. The first interesting fact we learned is that Sharks can have shark babies also known as pups in a couple different ways. How sharks have their babies differs on what type of shark it is.. Some sharks can have 1-100 shark pups if they lay their eggs and the sharks hatch outside of the mother. Other sharks keep their eggs inside and the shark pups hatch inside their mothers and then are delivered. One thing that is the same for both however is that sharks do not care for their babies after they are born. Instead they find a safe place and either lay their eggs or leave the newly delivered shark babies to fend for themselves. The next interesting fact that Grant and I learned was that sharks use ⅔ thirds of their brains for smell. Because they have such a heightened sense of smell they are one of the ocean’s top predators. However although sharks are dangerous and we do hear of shark attacks happening, there are only about 100 that happen every year. Only 10 of those result in the death of a human. Sharks often eat alone and even will sometimes eat other sharks! They can go through and use up to 20,000 teeth in their lifetime. They also are the only animal or mammal for that matter on the planet that both the upper and lower jaws move. They have the most powerful jaws around and the size and shape of their teeth depend on the type of shark they are. There are so many more interesting facts I could share with you about sharks, Grant and I learned a lot. I think I may have had a better time then he did with his school report. Fish and grandchildren, you ask me it doesn’t get much better then that. Willamette let you go…lol, until next time my friends!
The decision of when to pick a certain parcel of wine grapes carries much weight. Picking too early or picking too late both bring consequences to the resulting wine. Each decision can be detrimental to the finished wine in regard to its aroma, range of flavour, structure and overall enjoyment. It is not an easy skill to be able taste a grape in the vineyard straight off the vines and tell at what stage of physiological ripeness and where its ripening cycles will go from here, as a number of variables need be taken into account. A wine grape is not physiological ripe for example if it is simply sweet and not acidic. In fact, some acidity is beneficial to a well-balanced wine. The goal is to find the right balance between sweetness and the varietals natural acidity. Grape sampling takes place frequently - in the last few weeks of the season, to determine the current sugars, pH, and acidity of the grapes, as close monitoring of these changes is necessary in the days before harvest. Then for example a few too many days growing on the vine and too much sun exposure can make the numbers change all too quickly. Also while sugars are accumulating inside grapes during the growing season, tannins and phenolic compounds are also ripening. This type of ripeness relates to the grape skins, seeds and even the stalks. The ultimate and ideal timing of readiness for when to pick is when all of these variables happen simultaneously. For this to occur, vines need just the right amount of sunlight, water, available soil nutrients and appropriate vineyard and canopy management. Winemakers need to make a careful decision when to pick if they want their wines to be balanced. If they pick too soon, the acid levels will be too high, the sugars too low and the tannins too aggressive. If they pick too late, the sugar levels will be too high, the acids too low and the tannins will have evolved to a point where they will not provide the wine the required structure. In theory this all sounds simple, but the devil is in the detail. The numerous chemical changes occurring during the ripening process take place in a complicated sequence, and are highly responsive to local conditions. In wine regions, where summers had just enough heat to ripen the varietals planted, the higher the sugar levels the better, because once the grapes have reached about 12 degrees potential alcohol, they would generally be ripe in all the other ways, (give or take small variations). Though because of the constant threat of early autumn rains, it would not pay to leave wine grapes on the vine much beyond this point: as there was a risk of severe quality loss if it started rain heavily while the grapes remain unpicked. As vines began to be planted in new, warmer wine regions, where an average summer has more than enough capacity to ripen the varietals, the rules slightly changed. Picking by sugar levels resulted in harvesting grapes that made wine with distinctive green characteristics and unresolved tannins: the grapes were not fully ripe. This new concept became dubbed ‘physiological’ or ‘phenolic’ ripeness. In these warmer climates the process of sugar ripeness (with rising sugars and lowering acids) seemed to have become uncoupled from the process of physiological ripeness. So growers began leaving the grapes on the vines longer, leading to a concept dubbed as ‘hang time’. Today, several ‘new world’ winemakers often allow their fruit to hang a little longer to taste of riper fruit, meaning grape sugars will be much higher and with less natural acidity left in the grapes - which can result in an earlier drinking wine, but one that can not age as long. This extra hang time was not such a risk in warmer climates, as rain is not a serious threat. This opened up possibilities to winemakers: picking became much more of a stylistic choice than a necessity. Winemakers found that the longer they left the grapes on the vine, the more some consumers and critics enjoyed the resulting wines. They became richer, with a sweeter fruit profile and softer tannins. They also became more concentrated with more texture and darker colour. The alcohol levels became higher, mainly because of increased sugar levels but also because the grapes started dehydrating on the vine as they were left to hang. With vineyard improvements - we now have vertical canopies with good bud spacing, improved clones and rootstocks, good soil nutrition and water management - all leading to the highly desirable result of more rapid and complete ripening with more flavour and colour along with better acidity. For most vineyards and varietals, there is an ideal picking window (which does slide by a few days each growing season) when the grapes fall within acceptable parameters for ripeness. Where one chooses to pick is then a stylistic decision. Pick too late, and the tannins will have already undergone lots of modification on the vine. The wine may taste soft and sweet, but there will be very little opportunity for the tannins to develop. It could well be that as well as making more complicated viticultural interventions to bring sugar levels down, a little compromise with early drinkability could result in wines that have more potential for ageing, and which are more interesting expressions.
Will a humidity sensor switch help control my homes humidity Tuesday, May 9, 2017 America/Los_Angeles by Enerlites Some parts of the Midwest, South and East Coast struggle with humidity year round, sometimes worse than others. Whether you are indoors or outdoors, at times humidity can be stifling and limit some people’s activities. So does the humidity only affect you? What about your home? According to the Environmental Protection Agencies (EPA) research on controlling relative humidity, they recommend keeping indoor humidity low. If possible, keep indoor humidity ideally between 30 and 50 percent, 60 percent maximum. The EPS says, by controlling the relative humidity in a home, the growth of some sources of biological contamination can be minimized. If you don’t live in humid areas, standing water, water-damaged materials, or wet surfaces can also serve as a breeding ground for molds, mildews, bacteria, and insects. House dust mites, are one of the most powerful biological allergens, growing and thriving in damp warm environments. The combination of dust and humidity can easily lead to household mold problems potentially causing health issues. Humidity is caused when high levels of moisture enter building cavities or get inside, when excessive moisture is produced indoors, or when indoor air comes into contact with cold surfaces such as single-pane windows or uninsulated walls. Excess moisture may be the result of activities by the occupants indoors, especially in bathrooms or kitchens. Humidity is the amount of water vapor that air can hold depending on its temperature. Since warm air can hold more moisture than cold air, we talk about “relative humidity” (RH). Since the moisture holding capacity of cool air is less than that of warm air, the excess moisture condenses, usually on the first cold surface. The temperature at which the air can hold no additional moisture is called the “dew point.” Indoor humidity is the result of the amount of moisture produced inside, the relative humidity of the air outdoors, and the building air-exchange rate. Depending on the building air-exchange rate, the same amount of moisture may cause no moisture problems in one house, while resulting in serious mold and mildew in another. When struggling with home humidity problems or other issues related to elevated humidity, or excessive moisture in your air, you must act swiftly. In humid buildings, attic condensation can result in mold and mildew that often grows on clothes or cardboard boxes and can get out of hand quickly. What if you do not have an air conditioner and you live in a humid climate; or what if your swamp cooler doesn’t control humidity? Solving home moisture problems can start with looking for moisture sources outside the house and determining how to control them, minimizing production of humidity inside the house, and installing ventilation where needed can be simple. One of the most effective ways of controlling humidity and household molds is proper bathroom ventilation. No matter where you live, installing a humidity sensor switch like Enerlites dual technology PIR humidity sensor switch is easy and ideal because it automatically sense levels of humidity and turns on and off fans and ventilation systems. It can also control lighting as well as humidity. With built in motion sensors it can detect if someone is in the area and turn off lights when no one is around. More importantly the humidity sensing controlling device can start and stop ventilation, helping to reduce humidity in bathrooms, kitchens, pantries, and even garages or warehouses. For added convenience the PIR Humidity wall sensor switch can also be operated manually. If buying a new home or remodeling your current home a dual technology motion sensing switch with humidity control is a must! Protect your house and make sure your bathroom does not build and collect humidity. For more information, call your local electrical distributor or see our innovative dual technology switch at http://www.enerlites.com/enerlites-dwhos-dual-tech-pir-humidity-wall-sensor-switch.
Creating a real singleton class in Delphi A singleton is a class that supports the creation of just one object. It's like your computer -- there's just one keyboard. So if you were writing Delphi code that simulated your computer, you would want just one object instance to deal with keyboard read, write, and control activities. Articles about singleton classes are rare but there are a few on the Internet. I've seen some in magazines too. But none of these articles include sample code to create a real singleton class. By "real" I mean that the class itself enforces the one-instance requirement, instead of leaving that task to the programmer. All of the articles I have seen so far have required the programmer to use the class in a special way to enforce the singleton pattern. In this article you will see how to create a proper singleton class that includes logic to enforce the one-instance rule. Note: The conventional approach, in which the one-instance rule is maintained explicitly by the programmer, is not without merit. Real singleton classes like the one I present here effectively hide the details and awareness of the singleton pattern from the programmer. The programmer is relieved of the task of enforcing the pattern -- that's good -- but the programmer may also be unaware of the special nature of the class, which is bad. If you don't know that the class is a singleton class then all sorts of errors can crop up. You have been warned! Writing the code Our goal is to write a class that can be used like this: procedure Test; s1, s2 : TSingleton; s1 := TSingleton.Create; s2 := TSingleton.Create; // Do something with s1 and s2 here (I've left out the try...finally blocks and other safeguards for simplicity's sake.) The goal is to make the TSingleton class behave in such a way that both s1 and s2 refer to the same object. Here's what we have to do: • Instantiate the object the first time Create is called (when s1 is created above) • Ensure that when another Create is executed (s2 above), the existing object is reused instead of another one created • Avoid destroying the object when it's not the last reference that is destroyed (when s2 is freed) • Destroy the instance when the last reference is destroyed (when s1 is freed above) Is there a way to override the creation and destruction of a new object in Delphi? There sure is. In the TObject class (the mother of all objects {pun intended}), there are two methods we can use: class function NewInstance: TObject; virtual; procedure FreeInstance; virtual; NewInstance is responsible for allocating memory to hold a new instance of the class, and FreeInstance is responsible for freeing that memory when the class is through with it. These methods control what happens when the object is created and when the object is destroyed. If we overwrite this code, we can alter the default behavior to work the say a singleton class requires. Nothing to it. Tracking instances is a little trickier. We must: 1. Keep track of each existing instance of our class 2. Keep track of how many references there are to this instance 3. Create a new object only when no instance exists 4. Destroy the object when the last reference is removed To keep track of an existing instance, we will use a global variable. Actually, the variable will ultimately be declared inside the Implementation part of a unit so it won't be a true global variable. But the scope must be sufficient to track all the Create and Free calls. We'll call the variable Instance so we know what it refers to. As for keeping track of how many references exist, we need another variable. We can it inside the class or make it a sort-of global like Instance. I'll opt for the latter way but do what you feel is best. I'll name this variable Ref_Count. We now have two variables: Instance : TSingleton = nil; Ref_Count : Integer = 0; I initialize the variables so that initially they don't contain any garbage. I know that the compiler does this automatically, so this is just a readability issue. We'll need to declare the TSingleton class above the variable block, and if you take a look at the example files that you can download at the end of this article you'll see that I've put the declaration in the interface part of the unit so that it's visible outside of it. Here's the declaration of the TSingleton class: TSingleton = class class function NewInstance: TObject; override; procedure FreeInstance; override; class function RefCount: Integer; I added the RefCount function so that we can see that it actually works, and it's often handy to be able to read how many references to the object exist. It's not required, however, so you don't have to add it to your singleton classes if you don't need it. Ok, now for the implementation of the three methods: procedure TSingleton.FreeInstance; Dec( Ref_Count ); if ( Ref_Count = 0 ) then Instance := nil; // Destroy private variables here inherited FreeInstance; class function TSingleton.NewInstance: TObject; if ( not Assigned( Instance ) ) then Instance := inherited NewInstance; // Initialize private variables here, like this: // TSingleton(Result).Variable := Value; Result := Instance Inc( Ref_Count ); class function TSingleton.RefCount: Integer; Result := Ref_Count; And that's it! When you call TSingleton's constructor, a call is placed to the NewInstance method declared in TObject. This method allocates memory to hold the new object and returns it to the constructor. The constructor uses that memory and eventually returns a pointer to the memory to the code that called the constructor. This pointer is usually stored in a variable while the object is in use. I have overridden the NewInstance method so it will allocate the memory only if no instance of the class exists. If there is an existing instance, the function simply returns that instance to the constructor so it will be reused. If we call the constructor three times, an object is created only the first time. The other two calls simply reuse the first object. The reference count variable let us know that we have three references to the single instance. When the program calls the destructor, a call to FreeInstance is placed to free the memory allocated in the constructor. This method, too, is overridden so that the object is destroyed only when the last reference is removed. If you intend to use a singleton in a multithreaded program, treat the object as you would any variable you share between threads. Because that's just what you do: share it between the threads. So you must take special care when changing data. Simplicity itself As you can see, creating a singleton class doesn't require much effort, just the right knowledge and a few lines of code. My code works fine in Delphi 5. The technique will probably work fine with older versions of Delphi, but I haven't tested it so I don't make any guarantees. Before I give you the file to play with, let me give you a few words of warning. • Don't descend from a singleton class. The reason for that is that there is only one instance and reference count variable. If you derive two classes from TSingleton, only one object will be created. The other class will reuse that object, which will be an instance of a different class. Don't go down that road! • You can't make singleton components for the simple reason of ownership. A component is owned by a form and one component can't be owned by several other components. • Remember that the constructor and destructor get called for each new reference as they are created and destroyed. Don't initialize private variables in the constructor and don't free them in the destructor. Instead, build that code into the NewInstance and the FreeInstance methods, as shown in the comments. • The order of adjusting Ref_Count in the two methods in conjunction with the rest of the code in those two methods is critical. It has to do with proper creation and destruction when something goes wrong. If your initialization code raises an exception, the order of doing things like shown above will make sure that the class is destroyed properly. Alter this code at your peril! The file that you can download is just a copy of the unit that declares the singleton class described in this article. Link to file: CodeCentral entry 15083. I'm sure you can find a few places where a singleton class comes in handy and now you have the tools to create your own! If you want to get in touch with me, my email is Happy programming! Share this article! Follow us! Find more helpful articles:
Why are carrots orange? Carotene. However, if you happen to come across heritage varieties, you’ll notice carrots run through a spectrum of white through to yellow to hues of deep purple. So what caused the dominance of the orange carrot? Ex-Cambodia Daily editor and current Washington Post staffer Suzy Khimm delves into the political history of the carrot, which traditionally links the rise of orange variety to the Dutch House of Orange – a tale which may be of questionable authenticity: As it turns out, the political history of carrots is more murky and complicated. The World Carrot Museum–an unsigned, virtual repository of information that Next Nature cites in its original post–calls the link to the House of Orange an “apocryphal” tale dreamed up by historians, though it fails to provide any specific citations for its own conclusion. Orange carrots don’t get mentioned in literature until about 1100. Guerrilla Garden Bounty Guerilla Garden Tomatoes, Melbourne Guerilla Garden, Melbourne the garden
June-July 2014 On the Track of BRETT By: Jamie Goode, Ph.D. Of all wine faults, Brettanomyces is one of the most complex — and also one of the most fascinating, partly because it is one of those “faults” that in some contexts can be regarded as a positive. Indeed, there are many sought-after, expensive wines that owe some of their character to Brettanomyces (usually referred to simply as “brett”). It’s also a controversial topic, with some arguing that brett is to be avoided at all costs, while others think a less dogmatic approach is more in order. First, some basics. Brettanomyces is a genus of yeast, also known as Dekkera (the yeast can exist in two states, and this latter name is used for the sexual, spore-producing form). While several species names are commonly used, the current classification has the wine-relevant brett as just two species, B. bruxellensis and B. anomala, with the former by far the most important. Brett was first discovered by the brewing industry as important component in British and Belgian beer styles in the early years of the 20th century. Indeed, when the first single-culture Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeasts (the species of yeast used for making wine) were used to make British beers, people noticed that something was missing: the imprint of brett, which in the context of a good bitter can add real interest. The reason brett is a problem in winemaking is that it is annoyingly resilient, sitting around, biding its time, and then growing in conditions in which virtually nothing else can. In practical terms, this means that it does its real damage after the regular alcoholic and malolactic fermentations are complete. Brett is slow-growing and tough, and doesn’t need much to feed on. While it is seen in white wines (albeit very rarely), it’s predominantly a red wine problem. And the reason it is such a problem is that it produces some distinctive flavours that, at higher levels, can ruin wines. Recognizing Brett What are the key characteristics of this wine fault as it might be encountered in wine? The first sign is reduced varietal character, followed by the degradation of certain fruity aromas by esterases present in this yeast. Esterases are enzymes that cause the breakdown of esters, important in conferring fruitiness. Pinot Noir, among other grape varieties, is particularly badly hit by brett, because it loses its bright cherry and violet characters. Then, hints of smoke and spice begin to appear, with the chief culprit here being a compound called 4-ethylguaiacol. As the infection progresses, the wine will begin to smell and taste medicinal (4-ethylphenol is largely responsible for this), and it will lose its fruity flesh, exposing the structural bones of the wine. Finally, the wine will begin to smell of barnyards, horses, animal sheds and Band-Aid. t’s difficult to teach people how to spot brett, because the characteristics of bretty wines will vary depending on the substrates that were initially available to the brett cells as they multiplied, the precise strain of brett involved and also the context of the other flavors present in the wine. Depending on the combination of spoilage compounds produced and their relative concentrations, the overall effects of brett will differ. The Prevalence of Brett How common is it? It’s hard to be sure, but at least we can say that it is far from rare in red wines. Wine scientist Pascal Chatonnet, who was responsible for much of the groundbreaking research on this subject, surveyed the incidence of brett in a variety of red wines some years ago and found that just under a third had levels of 4-ethylphenol above 600 μg/litre (4-ethylphenol is used as a diagnostic indicator for the presence of brett; most people can spot it at around 420 μg/litre, but this will vary with the style of wine). He says that he thinks the incidence now will be higher. For his Master of Wine (MW) dissertation, consultant winemaker Sam Harrop did a study in which he presented 25 of the world’s leading Syrah-based wines in a blind tasting, and asked those present to comment on whether they detected brett or not. He then sent samples of these same wines away for chemical analysis for 4-ethylphenol. A striking number of these wines showed above-threshold levels, including some famous names. How It Happens, and Why It Is Increasing So what causes this problem? There’s a misconception that brett contamination is solely a hallmark of wineries with poor hygiene. “Brett can occur in the cleanest cellars,” says New Zealand winemaker Matt Thomson, who is an expert on the subject. It has been identified in every wine region where people have looked for it. Thomson thinks that oak is largely to blame for many infections, because brett can live in the oak and it is almost impossible to get out by cleaning. “If you use new oak, you will get brett: It is not something you can associate just with a dirty cellar.” Brett particularly likes toasted new barrels, and has been found eight millimeters deep in staves. This makes it very hard to remove by steam or ozone cleaning. It can feed off a compound, cellobiose, formed when barrels are toasted. Thomson goes further, suggesting that brett is not only associated with new oak, but also that he has identified specific coopers who have a problem with bretty barrels. Brett is also associated with old barrels. Because it is such a resilient yeast, it will survive most cleaning attempts. What can be done to avoid brett, according to Thomson? This is where things get interesting, because many of the steps that need to be taken in order to ensure clean wines run counter to the sort of winemaking approach you’d want to take to make interesting wines. The first is to avoid barrels. Stainless steel can be cleaned properly, which vastly reduces the risk. Second, you need to avoid cross-contamination. When taking barrel samples Thomson uses plastic barrel thiefs that are used just once, and then sterilized. He also avoids doing rack and return where the wine would go from several barrels to be mixed up in one tank: instead, each barrel is racked separately to tank and returned, and the tank cleaned before the procedure is repeated with the next barrel. The next stage is to keep pH low, either by acidifying or harvesting earlier. This is crucial in the fight against brett. Because brett is widespread, make your wine an uninviting habitat for its growth. If you make your wine in the sort of place where brett is happy growing, it will. Low pH is important for two reasons. First, brett doesn’t like more acidic media. Second, at lower pH any sulphur dioxide (SO2) additions will be much more effective, and more of the SO2 will be in the active (molecular) form. Another important prevention measure is to keep the time from the end of alcoholic fermentation to the end of malolactic fermentation as short as possible. SO2 levels have to be kept low in order to facilitate the malolactic fermentation, which makes this a risky time in terms of potential brett growth. Other preventive steps include avoiding lees aging, keeping barrels topped up, keeping cellar temperatures low, avoiding temperature changes and aggressively cleaning new and used barrels. If brett has been at work on a wine, there are two ways that a winemaker can deal with the problem. The first is to strip out the remaining brett cells by either filtration or the use of a chemical called DMDC (dimethyl dicarbamate, also known by its trade name of Velcorin). The wine will still have the impact of the compounds associated with brett, but at least it won’t get any worse, and will be stable in bottle. The second approach, once the wine is stable, is to use modern cross-flow filtration or nanofiltration technologies to remove compounds such as 4-ethylphenol in a selective manner. This is quite new, and hasn’t yet been widely adopted. Is Brett Always a Problem? So we come to the thorny question: Is brett always a problem, or are there contexts in which it is acceptable? If you are a winemaker, you will probably want to avoid it altogether because it is so difficult to control. But, perhaps through luck, some wines seem to work even though they have noticeable brett. Unlike many other wine faults, which are more clear-cut, it becomes a matter of personal preference. Some people find brett objectionable no matter what the context. This makes brett a problematic wine “fault” when it comes to restaurant service. If a sommelier tries a wine and finds some brett, should he or she point it out to the customer? Probably not, because the customer may find the wine to be perfectly acceptable. If, however, a customer refuses a wine because it is bretty, then in this context the wine is faulty. Brett is something that the trade needs to become more aware of. “Lots of winemakers still haven’t grasped the complexity of Brettanomyces,” says Thomson, “and there’s still a bit of denial out there.” It’s also something that he thinks everyone can get. “All decent tasters can pick the nuances of brett once you tune into it.” In conclusion, I’d suggest that we need to become more aware of brett, while keeping an open mind about wine styles where it adds complexity, and not becoming brett policemen who are always trying to spot it in whatever wine we’re tasting. Some Compounds Produced by Brettanomyces isovaleric acid isoamyl alcohol spicy, smoky, phenolic, cloves sweaty, rancid, cheesy medicinal, stables honey, spice, lilac Content ©2016 The SOMM Journal. All rights reserved
Book Analysis: Great Expectations Only available on StudyMode • Download(s) : 500 • Published : May 24, 2010 Open Document Text Preview Great Expectations There is no single definition in the Victorian society as to what constitutes a “gentleman.” Even the Victorians themselves were unsure exactly what made a gentleman. Some believed it was a person’s central characteristics and others were not sure how long it would take to become one. Some people became gentleman from right of birth, but that alone was not enough. Others were considered gentleman because of their occupation, for example clergymen, army officers, and members of parliament were considered gentlemen, yet other reputable professions such as engineers were not (Cody). Some Victorians believed it could be obtained through chivalry, some others believe that a gentleman is not entitled to live off of the work of others, but still many do. By the later part of the century, the Victorians agreed that a gentleman must receive a traditional, liberal education that was based on Latin and attend an elite public school and with that alone he would be a gentleman no matter what his social class was (Cody). Although Victorian society talks about the monetary aspect of being a gentleman, they overlook the moral aspect. The gentry class of women of the Victorian Era usually inherited their land, their title, and their wealth. It seems like these women did very little, but they did manage their home and household. They attended social parties and balls while enjoying dancing. The unmarried women would spend a lot of time with other unmarried women, but once they were married they became head of the household and then had little time to spend with their friends (Women of Victorian England). In the novel Great Expectations, Biddy is a classmate of Pip. She is a simple, country-girl who eventually becomes very close to him. Biddy does not fit into the traditional Victorian definition of a “gentlewoman”. In Great Expectations, Pip is a poor country-boy who values what a gentleman stands for and spends his life trying to achieve gentleman... tracking img
Few Facts on Sharks Reef sharks in a cavern in Gato island, Malapascua Reef sharks in a cavern in Gato Island, Malapascua In celebration of Shark Week, which was originally developed to raise awareness and respect for sharks, it would be interesting to know few facts about this often misunderstood species.. Hopefully, this will gain more understanding of this amazing marine creatures. 2. Different sharks have different etiquette for feeding. Caribbean reef sharks, for example, have a pecking order catering to large sharks 1st 3. Certain shark species (such as great white) will drown if they stop moving. They lack necessary muscles to pump water through their mouth 4. Blue sharks are piggy eaters. They’ll keep eating until they regurgitate, after which they go back to eating! 5. 20% of sharks are close to extinction because of commercial fisheries accidentally catching sharks with their hooks and nets 6. Researchers have discovered common objects (tires, gasoline tanks, and license plates) left intact inside the stomachs of tiger sharks 7. Hammerhead sharks’ oddly shaped heads, called cephalofoils, are equipped with electrical sensors, making them superior hunters 8. Sharks aren’t color blind. Divers have claimed that sharks are attracted to certain colors, such as the “yummy yellow” of some wetsuits 9. Almost 50 different shark species have light-emitting organs called photospheres. Sharks use their light for camouflage and to attract mates 10. A shark’s size relates to where it hunts: smaller sharks feed near the ocean floor, while larger sharks hunt in the middle ocean depths 12. While more likely to die from drowning, surfers can succumb to shark attacks because of their boards, which to great whites resemble seals 13. Shark fin soup is a delicacy in China and is served at important events like weddings and anniversaries. The dried fins resemble noodles 14. You can’t see a shark’s ears, but their inner ears can track sounds of their prey from lengths of more than 800 feet (244 meters) 15. Sharks are susceptible to the moon’s control of ocean tides. Moon phases affect sharks’ eating habits and draw them closer to shore 16. Sharks have an astounding sense of smell, so powerful that they can detect a single drop of blood in an Olympic-sized pool 17. Signs that a circling shark will attack: it will hunch its back, lower its pectoral fins (fins near its belly) and swim in zigzag motions 18. Even though sharks have razor-sharp teeth, they don’t use them for chewing prey. They are for ripping; resulting chunks are swallowed whole 19. Punching a shark in the nose or poking its eyes can help to fend it off during an attack. Most sharks don’t want to work hard for their food NB. Photo courtesy of my dive buddy Angel during our dive at Gato Island One thought on “Few Facts on Sharks Leave a Reply WordPress.com Logo Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s
No “Gravity” In Space Lie “Gravity” Between The Earth and the Moon space-station-gravityauthor-rd We often see astro-nots performing in their “International Space Station” doing all kinds of gyrations for viewers. They show how things float in space and catching food in their mouths. These stunts are for us to believe that there is no gravity in space. Of course, we know that there is no such thing as gravity period, but just that objects fall; this is another topic. Anyhow, here is something I thought about that I haven’t read in other flat earth literature or seen on flat earth videos and that is: exactly where does “gravity” stop and weightlessness start? We are told that when in space there is no gravity but we are never told and never shown where this so-called “gravity” stops and where its effect is zero. I have not seen from NASA or other space agencies of astro-nots going up in space and some point on the way up they show that there is no gravity. This can be shown very easily – IF what we are told is the truth – by showing how much longer it takes for an object to drop to the floor. Why aren’t we shown this? We all know the answer but following along NASA’s line of of “no gravity in space,” let’s continue. We read in Wikipedia: That means that somewhere between the earth and 205 miles up there is no gravity. OK but where does gravity lose its force? In other words, at what altitude does an object takes longer to fall? This should be able to be shown on a video. I haven’t seen any. Or, are we to believe that at a certain altitude up all of a sudden there is no gravity? Now, even if NASA comes up with a video and information that goes with it, it’ll be fake. Even IF we are told something, then they have to answer another question, which is: At what point in travel to the moon that all of a sudden gravity kicks in again? For example, we are told that the moon has 1/6th the pull of earth. OK, at what altitude did our astronauts feel this? We were never told this. Tangle Web of Lie There is a tangle web of lies NASA and others are faced with once one lie is told. Some other questions are: If the moon is suppose to pull the oceans of the world, and the moon does this from a distance of 237,000 miles, then how can astronauts not be effected by this pull? How can there be no gravity with this range? If the moon pulls on the oceans, this is a massive amount! So, how can there be a place within this force field where there is no gravity? IF what we are told that heavenly bodies have an attractive force on the smaller bodies how is it that the moon, which is much smaller than the earth, pull trillions of tons of water? Then, once it has this pull, why does it release it? If the oceans are pulled away from the land why does the ISS, and all satellites for that matter, be pulled further up in space? Why isn’t the ISS, for example, be pulled to the surface of the moon? Hey, we’d get a free ride there. But on the other hand, with such a pull, how in the world can a little rocket leave the surface and fly back to earth? In short, this is another reason that tells us that “gravity” does not exist, and satellites don’t exist either. About revealed4you This entry was posted in Gravity and tagged . Bookmark the permalink. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s
The World is an “Unfenced Pool:” Common Sense Rules for Protecting Your Child (Part 3) Driving to work this morning, I was stuck in traffic on the 2 Freeway and I looked up to the overpass and watched as two kindergarten-aged children walked across the pedestrian bridge alone. I took the next off-ramp and circled back until I could see that they were not alone. It is a hot day in July. You visit your sister’s house. The children are anxious to get in the swimming pool. You help the children into their swimsuits and then you and your sister retire to the kitchen to talk and share a cup of coffee. Hardly! Our minds have been trained to think of swimming pools or any unprotected water as a potential threat. We automatically shift into protection mode when young children approach water. One adult for every two children in the pool! We understand the importance of that rule and wonder who was not paying attention when a child drowns at a birthday party or in the neighbor’s back yard. We need to create a similar alert watchfulness for young children when they are outside of our homes. This heightened attentiveness does not mean that we alarm our children, become tense, nervous and lash out at the child; rather, we become so practiced in our protective behavior mode, that we can shift into this gear without creating any anxiety in our children. We remain relaxed and natural but with a new set of instincts that change our level of alertness when we are in circumstances where our children might be in danger. Thankfully, most of our children’s activities are contained within schools, playgrounds, and homes. But it is on the edges of these safety zones that danger can lurk. It is the child that strays away from the group, becomes the straggler at the park or when walking to school that is quickly identified as a potential victim by the practiced predator. Most children under the age of five or six are unable to understand danger, whether it is drowning in the neighbor’s pool or being snatched by a stranger or molested at school. They need to have adequate supervision and simple, concise rules of behavior and communication in order to keep them safe. The vulnerability of the young child requires that we as adults stay alert and pay attention. There are thousands of stories of adults intervening in the nick of time to protect a child from danger. This can be from accidents, assaults by strangers, and even from abuse by their own families or caretakers. We have a collective responsibility to protect every child from abuse and violence. In order to begin changing our mindset, let’s look at some simple, but effective, rules that will protect your child. Rules: Part One 1. When outside the home, young children must be in the direct line of vision of an attentive caretaker at all times. 2. Parents must directly participate in the child’s activities whether they are at home or playing with friends. 3. Create a place in your backyard or common areas where children are safe to play under your watchful eye. 4. Attend play dates at other homes, particularly when there are more than 2 or 3 children invited. 5. In public areas: parks, amusement centers, restaurants with child play areas, malls or while shopping never take your eyes and/or your hands off your child. 6. Never let a child go to the public restroom alone. 7. Teach your child to identify strangers. 8. Do not expect your child to be able to fight off an assailant, run, say no or disable his car anymore than they will automatically learn to swim if they fall in the deep end of the pool. Summary: We all want to say yes to our children when they ask to go outside and play. So say yes, pick up a chair and move to the yard, the driveway or the garage. Your child will know you care; the stranger (or neighbor) will know you are watching. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s
What Is Audio Surveillance? For a long time people have been telling me that family, love and happiness are the most important things in life…These days I realized that I can take or leave all that as long as We have this earpiece in the world. Audio surveillance is the act of listening to third-party conversations and recording them. This technique is frequently used by law enforcement, private detectives and government spy agencies. Most audio surveillance consists of either bugging a room, wearing a wire, tapping a phone or distance listening. Each provides distinct advantages and disadvantages, depending on the situation. Wiretapping is one of the most common and simple form of audio surveillance. This is preferred because it is highly inconspicuous and allows for two sides of a conversation to be clearly recorded. Small audio devices, commonly called bugs, are attached to the internal circuitry of a telephone to pick up a conversation. A signal is wirelessly transmitted to another device that records the conversation. The drawback of this method is getting access to a subject’s telephone to properly wiretap it. audio surveillanceA room microphone is another audio surveillance technique that often is utilized. This involves planting a wireless microphone in a room to pick up conversations. Disguised room microphones are available to look like pens, clocks, stuffed animals and a variety of other covert forms. This microphone sends a signal to a receiver, just like a wiretap does, and the signal can be directly recorded. The disadvantage here is access to some rooms and getting only one side of a phone conversation if it takes place in that room. Concealable transmitters known as body wires are well-known devices that have been featured in many television shows and movies. A small microphone and transmitting device are worn under the clothes of a person in order to send a signal back to a receiver and record a conversation. This allows the person wearing the wire to ask questions and get specific details that simply listening to other people’s conversations could not provide. The disadvantage of this method is getting access to the person needed to be recorded and also concealing the microphone in a way that hides it but allows for clear recording. Long-distance microphones are another covert means of audio surveillance. A parabolic microphone, often called a shotgun microphone because of its long shape, has a powerful ability to pick up conversations up to 300 feet (91.4 m) away. Its main disadvantage is its high sensitivity. It can pick up other noises and cannot function if obstructions, such as trees and automobiles, are between the microphone and the conversation. What’s is the Best Bluetooth Headset for Running? Asked by Hiromi in Osaka Hi Hiromi, How’s life in Japan? I’d love to visit one day, but until then, here’s your answer… It all depends on how much you sweat. Yes, I know that’s a little bit indelicate of me, but unfortunately it happens to be true. I’ve read many, many customer reviews of otherwise fine and good headsets that claim to be designed for joggers, but that conk out the first time they get significantly wet… Headsets designed for jogging are often created so that they won’t fall out of your ears as you run, with almost no concern placed on how much you may sweat during the run. Some people sweat a lot and some sweat very little. In either instance, your sweat level needs to be a factor in your purchasing decision (and there’s no nicer way to say it than that!) Then, another factor to consider is how much the headset will isolate you from your surroundings as you run. Noise cancellation headsets might do a superlative job if you’re running past a noisy construction site, but they aren’t going to be much help in the wake of oncoming traffic. Again, it comes down to individual choice. Some runners subscribe to the Linford Christie ‘bullet from a gun’ mentality, whilst others simply enjoy a bit of exercise, but also like to stay aware of what’s going on around them. It is also misleading to assume that a branded headset from a sportswear manufacturer is in any way superior to one designed by a trusted electronics firm. In many/most instances, the opposite is actually true. Sadly, even so called ‘sweat resistant’ headsets are often anything but and there isn’t a lot you can actually do to get your money back. Your best bet, if you ask me, is to buy a mid-range headset, use it specifically for jogging/going to the gym and don’t expect it to last for very long. If it performs badly, chalk it up to experience and buy a different headset, if it lasts for a decent period of time, then replace it with a similar model, or else the same one again. I’ll be honest; every so often I get one of these questions that I find hard to answer, as no amount of research will really help. Type in the name of any ‘Bluetooth Headset for Jogging’ into Amazon (or whatever the Japanese equivalent of Amazon may be) and you’ll read just as many complaints in the reviews as praises. Due to this, I’m reluctant to name specific models, because they may not actually work for you. I’d hate to say, “Oh, this headset works really well”, only to have you write back “Does it b*llocks!”. I have personally reviewed several pairs of headphones online (which you can view by clicking HERE), but not any Bluetooth headsets (to the best of my recollection), so I’m afraid that’s all the advice I can give you on this one! How Noise-canceling Headsets Work? There are two main methods of noise cancellation (although a third shall also be detailed a bit later on) with regards to headsets, earphones and other portable devices. Here’s a bit about them and how they work… With gadgets like tablet computers, smartphones and MP3 players becoming more and more prevalent in modern society, headphones and earpieces are becoming increasingly commonplace. People are now trying to have conversations, listen to music or even hold video conferences in traditionally loud places. From busy streets to crowded trains, it has never been more important for people to be able to hear content clearly and easily whilst they are ‘on the go’ – it is for this reason that noise cancelling headsets have become such a popular consumer item in the early 21st century. Does the Walkie talkie tower actually look like a walkie talkie, and what else does it contain? I’m pleased you inquired. 20 Fenchurch Street, affectionately called as the ‘Walkie Talkie Tower’ and maybe less kindly identified as the ‘Walkie Scorchie’ (yeah, that’s a name that is in no way catching on), is a commercial skyscraper in central London. It’s presently under construction and is not supposed to be completed until next year. When all is said and done, it will have cost some £200 Million to construct. The structure gets its nickname because it is thought to resemble a walkie-talkie (while, to be honest, I can not see it myself). It is also referred to as the pint, a thing that’s much more appropriate. Continue reading What kind of equipment do agents take with them when they’re on an job? You’d believe that the U . s . FBI (being the American FBI and everything) would have access to an earpiece a little cooler that just the common ‘curly cable’ job, wouldn’t you? If forced, We have to say that I usually imagine some old fella, like Desmond Llewelyn in the Bond movies, (or maybe a younger model like Ben Whishaw from ‘Skyfall’) producing many of the gadgets himself after which explaining them to the agents before they go out and protector the President’s life. Continue reading
How To Create New Derivatives Based on Complexity Mathematics equations on whiteAccording to Wikipedia: “In finance, a derivative is a special type of contract that derives its value from the performance of an underlying entity. This underlying entity can be an asset, index, or interest rate, and is often called the “underlying”. Derivatives can be used for a number of purposes – including insuring against price movements (hedging), increasing exposure to price movements for speculation or getting access to otherwise hard to trade assets or markets. Derivatives are used for the following: Given the broad usage of derivatives and the size of the derivatives market, it is interesting to conceive new derivatives. In particular, it is possible to construct derivatives based on the complexity of an underlying as well as on the rate of complexity. Below are a few examples of a trivial complexity derivative based on the following stocks: GE, CAT, PFE, BA, DIS, TRV, INTC, MMM, NKE and MRK. DerivativesBuilding derivatives based on complexity is simple and has a tremendous advantage: it produces a direct measure of its own complexity. Derivatives are said to be highly complex hence potentially dangerous. While this may be true, it is unclear how similar statements may be substantiated without actually measuring the complexity of derivatives! There may in fact exist financial products the dynamics of which may be more complex than that of some derivatives. More elaborate complexity derivatives may be established based on the rate of change of complexity, D = dC(t)/dt, i.e. a derivative of complexity versus time. Derivatives may also be constructed using as underlying a market index. The example below illustrates the evolution of complexity of the S&P index over a decade. It is interesting to note how complexity is increasing but at a slowing pace. This may point to a ‘saturation’ of the system. The creation of complexity-based derivatives may also allow regulators to do the following: 2. Once the most complex (dangerous) derivatives have been identified, they should be withdrawn progressively from circulation in order to reduce the fragility of the global financial system. The hallmark of modern finance is complexity. Why not trade complexity? More soon. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s
Regency Bicentennial: Mount Tambora Erupts Two hundred years ago, today, began the single most violent and explosive volcanic eruption ever to occur on this planet in recorded history. Though this volcano erupted halfway around the world from Great Britain, and few there were aware of the event, in the years that followed, this eruption would have disastrous effects on the climate of not only the British Isles, but all the way round the globe, for a period of over three years. Beyond the immediate physical horror wrought by the actual eruption, and the climatic devastation which followed, this event would also be responsible for a pair of fictional horrors which are with us to this day. When Mount Tambora blew its top and changed the world . . . The great mountain known as Tambora stood on the island of Sumbawa, part of the Sunda Island chain in Indonesia, which lies within the Pacific Ring of Fire. In early April of 1815, at over 14,100 feet, Mount Tambora was the tallest peak in the archipelago. Residents of Sumbawa at the turn of the nineteenth century had no idea the great mountain on their island was a volcano, as it had not erupted for several centuries. During that time, tons of molten rock was building up inside the magma chamber, exerting increasing pressure. A brief initial eruption occurred in 1812, the result of which was a deep rumbling followed by a plume of dark smoke. The mountain went silent again for three years, until early April of 1815. On 5 April, there was a strong eruption, and the following morning, a veil of volcanic ash began to fall over East Java. The mountain continued to emit intermittent explosive sounds over the course of the next few days. All of that was only a precursor to the main event. At about 7 o’clock in the evening of Monday, 10 April 1815, thunderous explosions came from the mountain, as three huge plumes of flame rose from the mountain peak to merge into an enormous column of fire which could been seen for miles as darkness fell. The intense pressure which had been building inside the magma chamber for centuries ripped the mountain apart as it ran red with molten rock all through the night. The explosive eruption was at least four times greater than that of Krakatoa and is estimated to have resulted in a pyroclastic ejection of more than thirty-eight cubic miles of pumice and volcanic ash. When it was over, at least 4,200 feet of height was ripped away from the mountain peak. The explosive sounds of the eruption could be heard at a distance of over a thousand miles. Some Royal Navy ships cruising in the area assumed pirates were attacking one of the islands in the archipelago and tried to locate the supposed battle. The military commander of the city of Djokjakarta assumed a neighboring village was under attack and ordered his troops to march in the direction of the explosion in order to repel invaders. Over eight hundred miles away, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, the British Lieutenant-Governor of Java, at his residence in Batavia, heard the sounds of the eruption. But since he had been informed of the eruption which had occurred five days earlier, he retired for the night with little concern. Only to awake in darkness the next morning, even though it was well past eight o’clock. His garden was knee-deep in volcanic ash and he had to light candles in the middle of the day to find his way through his home. A powerful tsunami hit Java about midnight on 10 April, and earth tremors shuddered through the entire archipelago for another eighteen hours. The village of Tambora, on the slope of the mountain, was obliterated in an instant, while many other villages and towns in an extended area were decimated. The beautiful, natural harbor of Bima, west of Tambora, was clogged with masses of black pumice stone, hundreds of burnt and shattered tree trunks, as well as the hulls of several sunken ships which had been thrown up by the sea. It is estimated that between 10,000 to 12,000 people were killed outright by the eruption itself. Many more perished in the days and weeks that followed of starvation and disease brought on by water poisoned with acidic volcanic ash. Unlike the Mount St. Helens eruption of 1980, which ejected most of its pyroclastic flow horizontally, Mount Tambora erupted almost completely vertically, and with such intense force that much of the pumice, ash and gases were sent high into the stratosphere. The heaviest components of this massive volcanic cloud soon fell back to earth, covering both land and sea in several feet of rock and ash. Crops in the fields were beaten down and covered so deeply they were smothered, denying food to tens of thousands of starving people. The light pumice and its accompanying ash did not sink when they came down into the seas. Instead, they floated, creating huge dark islands which were seen floating throughout the Indian Ocean for at least three years. Many of these "volcanic islands" were so vast that they were a serious hazard to navigation in the area, even to the largest ships. However, the greater global devastation which the Mount Tambora eruption would cause ultimately came from the gases and the lightest particles which were thrown up into the stratosphere. There, the volcanic sulfur dioxide was converted to sulfuric acid in aerosol form, which drifted in the stratosphere for over three years, spreading further and further around the globe with the prevailing winds. This veil of aerosolized sulfuric acid and ash interfered with solar radiation, thus cooling the atmosphere below even as the stratosphere warmed. For the next three years, the world climate was drastically altered by the volcanic veil which Tambora had thrown into the stratosphere. The normally temperate zones of the middle latitudes were colder and subject to extended periods of rain and snow into the summer months while the far north and south latitudes experienced steadily increasing temperatures. Most Regency scholars are familiar with the dire circumstances of 1816, which became known as the "Year Without a Summer" in Europe, and "Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death" on the eastern seaboard of the United States. But what many do no realize is that the climate change wrought by the eruption of Mount Tambora continued well into 1818. It took that long for the volcanic ash and aerosols to finally be washed out of the stratosphere and through the atmosphere. Though it was not known until the 1960s, the Mount Tambora eruption only compounded the effects of another powerful volcanic eruption which took place in 1809. This first volcano is still known simply as the 1809 Unknown, since its location and exact date of eruption remain unknown to this day. But proof of its eruption was discovered in the 1960s when scientists began studying ice cores taken from Greenland and elsewhere in the Arctic Circle. Due in large part to the 1809 Unknown eruption and that of Mount Tambora, the decade of 1810 to 1820 was the coldest of the entire nineteenth century. Epidemics of both cholera and typhus can be traced back to the Mount Tambora eruption. The cholera epidemic began in India in early 1816, where a strain of waterborne cholera was first exposed to humans in the Bay of Bengal. This more virulent strain of cholera spread slowly north and east, devastating the populations of the areas through which it traveled, finally reaching England in 1831. The cold and wet climate in Ireland devastated the vital potato crop, weakening a large part of the population by both hunger and cold. Many of those people became susceptible to typhus and were unable to fight off the parasite which would ultimately kill them. Though crops failed across much of Europe and the eastern United States, the climate change also made possible bumper crops in central Russia and the Midwestern United States. As crops continued to fail year after year, many people living in New England and the Mid-Atlantic states sold up and moved west. They forced the Native Americans off their traditional lands, causing great hardship to many of these tribes. However, these new arrivals were very successful growing crops on their new land. And, with the high demand for this food by those living in areas where crops had failed for years, they could demand high prices. But in 1819, with the atmosphere finally clear of the remnants of Tambora’s eruption, those places were the crops had failed for three years were suddenly bringing in bumper crops. Which caused the bottom to fall out of the grain markets in both the American Mid-West and Russia, thereby causing severe depressions in those areas for several years. Another result of the Tambora eruption was the warming of the Earth at the poles. This caused the ice to recede significantly from the ports of Greenland and extensive shrinking of the polar ice cap. Huge ice floes began breaking free and drifting south into the sea lanes of the Atlantic, disrupting shipping. Many of those who studied weather blamed these enormous ice floes for the reduced temperatures in Europe and America. Whalers and other vessels which traveled north in the period of 1816 to 1818, found few, if any whales, which caused a severe down-turn in that industry. Many of these reports came to the attention of the Second Secretary to the Admiralty, Sir John Barrow, who had his own agenda to advance the glory of the Royal Navy in the wake of the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Barrow decided that Britain should be the first to discover, and claim, the Northwest Passage over the North Pole to the Far East. Few in Britain knew of the eruption of Mount Tambora during the Regency and none of them ascribed the extreme climate change to that natural disaster, certainly not Sir John Barrow. Based on the multiple reports he had received about the shrinking polar cap and the open Arctic Sea, he came to the conclusion that the climate there was warming and would continue to do so. It took Barrow a couple of years to put together an expedition to explore the Northwest Passage, and by the time it sailed, in 1818, the climatic effect of Tambora had been cleaned from the atmosphere and the polar ice cap was rapidly increasing. That first expedition was unable to find any passage through the once-again frozen Arctic. Convinced the captain of the first expedition had not tried hard enough, Barrow organized a follow-up expedition for the summer of the following year. The 1819 expedition lead by Captain William Parry actually wintered over in the Arctic and did bring some of the glory to the Royal Navy which Barrow sought, even though they were not able to find the Northwest Passage. Barrow also arranged the first Arctic expedition led by Sir John Franklin, exploring northern Canada by way of the Coppermine River, from 1819 – 1822. Though many men died during that expedition, Franklin himself survived, only to die with all his men during a later attempt to locate the Northwest Passage in the 1840s. The climate changes cause by Tambora were the most noticeable in terms of color in 1816. There were many snowstorms in Europe and Great Britain which dropped snow which was red, yellow or brown. This was due to the fact that the flakes included tiny bits of volcanic ash. Though there were still extended snow storms right through 1818, the snow that fell after 1816 was more likely to be closer to white than the flakes which came down that first year after the Tambora eruption. But it was not just the snow that changed color. For at least two years after the eruption, the skies were often colored in a range of reds to oranges to yellows. In England, both John Constable and J. M. W. Turner painted a number of landscapes which included these unnaturally colored skies, as did several painters across Europe in those years. It is believed these painters painted what they saw, and today, scientists are studying these paintings and are able to determine the temperature and other climatic conditions based on the sky colors used in those paintings. Travelling on the Continent had become very popular in 1816, when the threat posed by Napoleon was finally over. However, few of those travelers enjoyed their journeys under the cold, wet and dreary weather conditions brought on by the Tambora eruption. The area of the Alps became treacherous for travel due to the much colder temperatures which kept snow in the mountain passes and increased the size of the glaciers which covered the slopes. One group of English travellers found themselves house-bound in June of 1816 due to the intense and violent storms which came through the Alps that year, one after another. These travellers were so bored that they eagerly accepted the invitation of their friend, the poet, Lord Byron, to join him in the villa he had rented near Lake Geneva. Byron’s guests at the Villa Diodati were Mary Godwin, her lover, Percy Bysshe Shelley and Mary’s step-sister, Claire Clairmont. Byron had his personal physician, Dr. John Polidori, living at the villa with him. During three days of incessant cold rain, the group at the Villa Diodati first amused themselves by reading a French translation of German ghost stories. But once they had exhausted those stories and the cold rain continued to fall, the authors in the group challenged each other to write their own stories. Doctor Polidori, wishing to take part, expanded upon a fragment of a story by Byron, calling his story The Vampyre. It was first published in 1819, with Byron given as the author, but eventually was published under Polidori’s own name. This story laid the foundation for what was to become the romantic vampire genre which would remain popular through the nineteenth century right up to the present day. However, the story which was written by Mary Godwin Shelley was most heavily influenced by the weather which had kept the author indoors that cold and wet June. Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, was the story of a creature assembled and given life by Dr. Frankenstein. Though the process is not described in the original story, it is known that Mary and her fellow authors, possibly inspired by the tremendous thunderstorms in the area, discussed the power of galvanism by way of electricity. Ironically, Mary Shelley began and ended her story in the frozen Arctic, at a time when the global climatic changes were warming the poles while cooling the temperate zones. But vast sheets of ice were almost literally under Mary’s feet, as the alpine glaciers were rapidly expanding in that summer after Tambora and she had them for her model of a frozen north. Frankenstein was published anonymously, in 1818, and did well enough to merit another edition in 1822. That second edition was published under the name of the true author, and this classic horror story has never been out of print since. The cataclysmic eruption of Mount Tambora in April of 1815 was a global disaster on a scale which was incomprehensible to those living at the time. It has only been in recent years that scientists have been able to piece together the full story, based on the physical evidence of the effect it had on the planet, coupled with the contemporary reports of the time which have survived. However, even though no one living at the time was aware of the full scope of the devastaion wrought by that eruption, nearly everyone on the planet suffered in some way from the climate changes which stemmed from the eruption of Mount Tambora. For more detail on the eruption and the events that followed: Klingman, William K. and Nicholas P. Klingman, The Year Without Summer: 1816 and the Volcano That Darkened the World and Changed History. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2013. Stommel, Henry and Elizabeth, Volcano Weather: The Story of 1819, The Year Without a Summer. Newport, R. I.: Seven Seas Press, 1983. Wood, Gillen D’Arcy, Tambora: The Eruption that Changed the World. Princeton: Princeton Univeristy Press, 2014. About Kathryn Kane This entry was posted in Oddments and tagged , , , , . Bookmark the permalink. 26 Responses to Regency Bicentennial: Mount Tambora Erupts 1. Interesting, thanks for sharing! I think I have another example for volcano-induced decisions in Regency England: Antonin Carême, chef to The Prince of Wales from 1816, left his job in the Royal Kitchens in England after only little more than a year of service. One of the reasons for this was, it is said, the bad weather. Carême felt depressed by the English climate, and the sad mood added to his other troubles. So he left the services of the Prince of Wales early – all due to the breakout of a volcano very far away…. 2. The weather is so vital for giving a good background to a regency, which is why I’ve been trying to compile a month by month weather chart from 1790-1820. Some years have more data than others…. of course the earlier volcano may be partly the cause of the last ever frost fair in 1814. I never knew there had been a previous one to compound the disaster of Tambora, but it’s been pretty plain in my research that something was going on. 1809 gets off to a chill start with a lot of flooding, but something that may be significant is the 11 days of fog in October, which might be engendered by volcanic dust. At the other end, 1819-1820 see the Long Winter, which lasted from October to March. • Kathryn Kane says: I thought exactly the same thing you did when I learned about the 1809 Unknown. The Little Ice Age was already in progress, but the 1809 Unknown eruption would certainly have exacerbated the cold in the years that followed and could have added to the perfect conjunction of weather and other effects which brought about the 1814 Frost Fair. I wish you luck in your efforts to compile a weather chart. It would certainly be a most valuable resource. Apparently, there were a number of people during that period who kept track of weather. Oddly, I learned that many of them were doctors, since a number of diseases were still ascribed to weather conditions, which is why doctors tracked the weather. Maybe doctor’s records might be a useful source for you. • I’ve been focusing on diaries and letters, including those of Jane Austen, and the Newspaper reports, which are a valuable resource, though the search criteria are sometime a little frustrating. Covering sun, rain, snow, sleet, hail, frost, fine, fog and flood – an excess of f-words – over the same period where the search won’t throw up ‘weather’ only its phenomena. I’m close to a point where I can tabulate it into something approximating readable but still missing data in patches • Jean Sims says: If you want to get into details of climate variation during this time interval, you might check John Farley’s “General view of the agriculture and minerals of Derbyshire; with observations on the means of their improvement” published by McMillan in 1811 (which, in case you don’t happen to have access to the library at Oxford, has been conveniently digitized and made freely available via Google Books Open Library). Farley was a mineral surveyor for the British government and spent about two years in Derbyshire to survey, well, just about everything. It’s heavy on the geology but also includes more general information on methods of coal mining, lead and arsenic processing as well as all sorts of sociological tidbits (religion, livestock, canal boats, etc.). Pages 95 to 105 summarize the climate of various parts of Derbyshire, including 50 years of daily (!!!) rainfall measurements from Chatsworth (p. 99). Just remember that Farley, like Charles Darwin in Origin of Species (1859), wasn’t familiar with some scientific concepts that we take for granted today (e.g., plate tectonics, radiometric dating, biostratigraphy, etc., etc., etc.). • Kathryn Kane says: Thank you very much for the book link and the information on John Farley! I was not aware of his wide ranging activities. There are other visitors here who have a great interest in the weather. I am sure they will find Farley’s General View … a most useful resource. • oo ta muchly Jean, for the book info • Jean Sims says: Hope you find it useful! For all that Farley’s volume was written as a government report, it’s really jammed with interesting little cultural tidbits, like… though the upper class were generally members of the Church of England, many mill owners, estate owners, etc. were not at all displeased if a Methodist began proselytizing to the laborers in their area, because if converted, men would be be less likely to come to work drunk and/or hungover! I’m thinking about just printing the whole book out so that I can mark various passages with sticky notes… -Jean 3. Roger Street says: Professor Hans Lessing suggest that the Mount Tambora eruption may have provided the motivation for the invention of the two-wheeled self-propelled velocipede, originally referred to as the Laufmaschine by its German inventor Baron Karl von Drais (the later English version being referred to as the pedestrian hobby-horse). Professor Lessing says the eruption resulted in a bad harvest and famine in Germany in 1816 causing some 40,000 people to emigrate. As Adam Smith had written earlier, did it make sense to feed horses for transport when people were starving? Hans Lessing suggests that von Drais may have felt the same way and accordingly devised his invention to alleviate the situation. I’m not fully convinced, but it’s an interesting theory. • Kathryn Kane says: Gillen D’Arcy Wood, the author of one of the books I read for this article, agrees with Professor Lessing. The drastic climate change in Europe resulted in a drastic reduction in available food for humans and fodder for animals. Therefore, many horses and other draft animals died of starvation or were slaughtered to provide food for humans. From my own research, I learned that Baron von Drais had been working on various mechanical vehicles for some years before 1816. But in 1816, he focused intensely on his Laufmaschine, making a version which was much less complex and therefore, less expensive to produce, since he wanted to make it affordable for common people who were most in need of inexpensive transportation after the loss of their animals. So, I do buy that theory, too. Based on my research, the bad weather of 1816 to 1818 was indeed responsible for driving a vast number of people to emigrate, not only from Europe to North America, but also within the US. Thousands of people migrated from the eastern seaboard of the United States, from New England to Maryland, into the interior of the continent, where, surprisingly enough, the weather was much more hospitable. The eruption of Mount Tambora really did change the world, in so many ways. • Kathryn Kane says: Very nice!!! The layout is clean and easy to read, and I love the weather-related news tidbits you have included! Regency authors will find it wicked handy. I will be looking forward to the next installments. • You relieve my mind, I had debated about including the news tidbits, but decided that they were relevant. In our modern age, protected by masses of high buildings with lightning conductors and electricity pylons conducting away lightning, flood control and tar macadammed roads as standard even in the most rural of places, we are very much more insulated from the effects of inclement weather than the people 200 years ago and it brings it home that a ‘terrible storm’ deserves the adjective and isn’t just the purple prose of the yellow press if I may be a little colourful. When this eventually goes to publication as a little pamphlet I shall also include new and full moon times listed after each year, which will allow writers to decide when to have balls… I did actually look into eclipses, and went to NASA’s excellent site, and discovered no solar eclipses during the period, which was disappointing, because a story using an eclipse might have been fun. I’m glad you like the layout too, I decided to run with a minimum of boxes and lines, and just put events sequentially. I do feel that too clever a layout can over-egg the pudding at times… 4. Jean Sims says: Great summary of the Tambora eruption and its effects! Just discovered your blog and it is sucking me in when I should really be grading exams… Thanks! -Jean Sims 5. I might try an interlibrary loan on that 6. The copies on Amazon are very dear, but it sounds as though it might be worth getting for those extra snippets. I love the idea of Mill Owners welcoming Methodism for the sobriety! I now have a plot bunny of a proseletysing Methodist maid of a Mill owner’s daughter irritating a local land-owner and also getting under his skin and pricking his conscience [especially if he gambles a lot as Methodism deplores gambling too] and despite himself, falling in love. Non-conformists were barred from an awful lot of things, like holding high public office, commissions in the military and so on, like Catholics and Jews. 7. Jean Sims says: Perhaps the local lord’s eldest son is a rake and general bad boy, such that the family despairs of him… then he falls for the visiting Methodist minister’s daughter who won’t give him the time of day until he cleans himself up… once he does (and wins her heart, of course), his father (and family) has to decide if they will welcome the lowly parson’s daughter as the heir’s bride or if their superior breeding is more important… perhaps a younger brother tries to discredit her by spiking the punch and trying to get her drunk in the middle of a party… there should be a bit of intrigue between the lady’s maid and the rake’s valet as well… foiling those who plot against the young couple… 8. Pingback: Sir Stamford Raffles: When Doing Right Went Horribly Wrong \| The Regency Redingote 9. Kat has kindly given me permission to post an appeal to any readers: if I sent anyone more weather data than is posted on my blog, please can you contact me? I have had a disaster to my flash drive which I was using to store all data as I had melted a computer a little bit, and it’s all gone…. 10. Pingback: 1815: The Year in Review \| The Regency Redingote 11. Pingback: Regency Bicentennial: Horror at Villa Diodati \| The Regency Redingote 12. Pingback: 1816: The Year in Review \| The Regency Redingote 13. Pingback: Regency Bicentennial: The First Ride on the Laufmaschine \| The Regency Redingote Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s
This content is not yet available over encrypted connections. John F. Kennedy Liberal Democrat John F. Kennedy Liberal Democrat Source: U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy in 1960 Monday, May 20, 2013 Mitch: Video: Chicago 1968: The Democratic Convention This post was originally posted at FRS FreeStates on WordPress 1968 is when the Democratic Party changed and no longer became a Northeastern progressive party with a Southern coalition. Made up of people who basically make up the Religious-Right and Neoconservative wing of the Republican Party today. With Liberal Democrats spread out all over the country. By 1968 the Democratic Party was moving away from the South and becoming the party of the Northeast, Midwest and West Coast, as well as the Mid Atlantic. With the emergence of what I call the Green Party wing of the Democratic Party, that is represented by the Progressive Caucus in Congress. That you see today in the Green Party, but also in Occupy Wall Street. And this is how the Democratic Party lost the White House in 1968 because Liberals and Progressives on the Center-Left in the party were now divided between the New-Left in the party made up of Socialists Anarchists as well as Communists. The group called Students For a Democratic Society then was what Occupy Wall Street is of today. “That some things are so awful about America that sometimes it takes violence and people getting arrested to show Americans how bad this country is.” The Democratic Party lost in 1968 because they were divided by their two mainstream wings on the Left. The FDR/LBJ Progressive coalition and the JFK Liberal coalition, with this new coalition that’s called the New-Left. People who are against war, but are in favor of using violence to get their message across. Who are against American capitalism and corporate America, but in favor of the New Deal and Great Society. But would expand into what’s known in Europe as the welfare state. What the Green Party today calls the Green New Deal. The Green Deal would be a whole host of new Federal Government social programs to finish off of what the New Deal and Great Society didn’t accomplish. The New-Left then made up of Students For a Democratic Society and Occupy Wall Street today, are not Pacifists in the sense that they are against violence and would never use violence. They just don’t want violence coming from their government, but are more than willing to use it against government or people in society. That represent what they do not like about America, like private corporations. 1968 is basically when the Democratic Party basically became three political parties. New Democrat Liberals where I am, the FDR Progressives or what’s left of them and Occupy Wall Street today or the Green Party. That sees the Democratic Party and the Republican Party as the same party, but with different names. And even as split as the Democratic Party was back then, they still came within a state or two of winning the 1968 presidential election. But they would’ve done much better without the split happening all in one party.
Sentence Examples with the word unchanged Sulphur in some part escapes unchanged in the faeces. View more Apart from unimportant modifications, the form of the budget must have remained unchanged until the organic reforms of Selim III., while its complete transformation into European shape dates only from the year 1278 (1862), when Fuad Pasha attached a regular budget to his report on the financial situation of the empire. Nor is the effect of these chromates confined to the blocking out simply of one end of the spectrum, as in the visible part, but two distinct absorption bands are seen, which seem unchanged in position if one of the above-mentioned chromates is replaced by another. The tariff system as revised and codified in 1883 would probably have remained unchanged for many years had it not been for the turn taken by political and financial history. Dron was one of those physically and mentally vigorous peasants who grow big beards as soon as they are of age and go on unchanged till they are sixty or seventy, without a gray hair or the loss of a tooth, as straight and strong at sixty as at thirty. The azines are mostly yellow in colour, distil unchanged and are stable to oxidants.
IQ Blog What our very own IQers have to say… Incentives in a creative economy 28 Sep 2017 \| Incentives in a creative economy By Brand Zietsman – Agile Consultant, IQ Business The “Scientific Management” method was introduced by Fredrick W Taylor in 1911. In part, it focuses on the role of management. Management is responsible for determining the best method to complete each task through time and motion study, training the worker in this method, and keeping individual records for incentive-based pay. Taylor popularised formal incentive-based performance management to “motivate” the worker. Around the same time, John B Watson established a new philosophy of psychology called Behaviourism; A branch of psychology that aims to predict and control human behaviour. Behaviourism treats behaviour as the sum of the events that are experienced by the animal, thereby it “recognises no dividing line between man and brute.” In this approach, the “self” has no influence. BF Skinner continued psychological research using this philosophy into the ‘90s. Reward programs in education and business are still based on this work. Taylor’s method and behaviourism make a perfect match; the one disregards the craftsman, and the other the “self”; pride in a craft should, therefore, play no role in motivation. Taylorism created a status differentiation between managers and workers, further reinforced by the manager’s responsibility to design and issue rewards. Imagine, for a second, that you see your neighbour struggling to fix a flat tyre and you decide to help him. He then offers you R20 for your help. How would that make you feel? I am not sure that Skinner’s rats and pigeons felt that way. Humans reason about the meaning behind an incentive, and it greatly affects our sense of autonomy. “Do this, then get that” incentives narrow our focus. If you do X, then I will give you Y, specifically places the focus on Y. It reduces the likelihood that we will take a novel approach to a problem. Eyes on the prize, we will steer away from taking risks, and we will stick to the safe route to ensure that we achieve the goal. “Do this, then get that” extrinsic incentives ignore the value of intrinsic motivation. In my experience, such incentives reduce the likelihood that a task would be intrinsically rewarding as a result. In an organisation I worked at, the CEO launched an innovation reward; a significant monetary incentive, for the best new business idea. Some teams invested a great deal of effort to win the prize, but none of them was judged to be worthy of the award. The development team did not submit an idea to the competition. They did a quarterly Hackathon using company time and resources for 24 hours to work on their ideas. The only rule was that they had to showcase the idea at the end in an open session that could be attended by any interested party. A couple of team members combined some ideas they had generated and implemented a solution that resulted in a 50% saving in effort by one of the organisations call centres during peak demand time. Their only expected reward was to have fun figuring out how to solve a collection of problems that they were interested in; intrinsic reward. They received way more than they expected! They were awarded the innovation prize. Traditional incentives are structured to maintain the status quo, and using them to encourage innovation is a contradiction. As humans, we battle to be innovative under the constraints imposed by them. Research shows that monetary incentive systems create a reinforcing loop. We reward the employee with a financial incentive for good performance; this inhibits intrinsic reward; work starts to “suck” a little, and the primary driver becomes attaining even more extrinsic reward; work starts to “suck” a little bit more, and the dependency on extrinsic reward grows continuously. It can be argued that monetary incentive align with improved performance, and that is right, but only in the short term. I have observed unusual behaviour in many organisations around financial year-end when most would assess performance for the past year to dish out bonuses. Once the bonus is spent, people’s behaviour returns to whatever was normal. Why then do we keep on using these traditional extrinsic reward systems? Psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, says, “To de-emphasise traditional rewards threatens the existing power structure”. Another author states, “The master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house”. I hope we do not need to be that cynical; could this situation exist due to a lack of awareness about alternatives and accompanying proof that alternatives are effective? I have run an experiment with the removal of extrinsic motivation. Our organisation used a traditional KPI (Key Performance Indicator) performance management system. As part of adopting a self-organising team structure, the KPAs (Key Performance Areas) were aligned to be Dev Team Membership, Business Domain Knowledge Development, Technical Skills Development, and Personal Accountability. Dev Team Membership carried a 50% weighting because it is the direct service that the Software Development Department provided to the business. The combined weighting of the other areas made up the remaining 50%. The approach was implemented like most KPI systems, wherein the employee scores themselves and provides evidence to support their score. The manager then discusses the score with the employee and adjusts it up or down based on their assessment of the employee. I was the manager, and from my perspective, I was completely objective, or at least I tried to be. The team grew, and it became tough to have an objective opinion of each team member’s performance. I decided to give 360-degree reviews a try but thought that team members would be hesitant to provide honest feedback if they knew that it would affect a colleague’s pocket. The formal performance management system expected an assessment of employee performance twice per year. In our team, we aimed to have a conversation about these measures on a quarterly basis. I decide to remove the incentive from the equation by running a 360 review during one of the quarterly cycles, not governed by the larger organisation. I agreed with the team that I would personally destroy records of the review if the organisation expected this review to be used as input to the annual incentive scheme. Team members each nominated four other team members whose feedback they would value. I received a bit of criticism for allowing team members to select their reviewers, but it was part of the experiment. I did not believe that they would only choose people that held them in positive regard. I reasoned that if this happens, I will make it part of the review conversation. It is relatively easy to remain aware of the state of relationships in a team of thirty, and therefore easy to highlight. The results were truly astonishing. I did not need to have the conversation about people only asking input from their buddies. Team members valued the feedback from each other; there was no harm in being honest. I tried to anonymise comments, but that was not very successful, the writing style of each team member is like a signature. It turns out it was not necessary to anonymise feedback; there was no conflict as a result of the comments. This specific round of feedback resulted in a significant improvement in most team members’ development, with absolutely no incentive linked to it. The team functioned in a very confrontational environment, not always in the positive sense, however, within the team an environment of trust was developed, starting from recruitment. The experiment is not recommended for just any environment. How do we leverage intrinsic reward, align organisational objectives, and make the process sustainable? Andy Grove originally developed Objectives and Key Results (OKRs) at Intel, and these were later introduced to Google by John Doerr. Here is my OKR for this post: To demonstrate that traditional incentive systems are outdated and to create awareness of alternative methods. Key Results 1. Highlight the origin of traditional incentive systems from a management and psychological perspective. Measure this through feedback from colleagues and friends. 2. Explain the dehumanising impact of rewards. Assess this by gaining feedback from colleagues and friends. 3. Provide an example of intrinsic reward from personal experience. 4. Explain the catch-22 that organisations face regarding traditional incentive systems. Measure this through feedback from colleagues and friends. 5. Explain how OKRs work, and measure this using feedback from colleagues and friends. 6. Less than a seven-minute read, as measured by blog reading time estimation tools. 7. Provide at least two further references that contributed to my thinking. Looking at my OKR, you will see that the “Objective” is a little vague and qualitative, it is the “what” and the “key results” are the “how” (quantitative). Part of the value of OKRs is that they encourage dialogue about the objectives. At an organisational level, departments are encouraged to identify how they will contribute to the organisation’s OKRs. Departmental-level teams are encouraged to identify how they will contribute to the department’s OKRs. At a team level, individuals are encouraged to identify how they will contribute to achieving the team’s goals. The fact that OKRs are negotiated all the way to individual level creates ownership of objectives by individuals. If I find it hard to align my OKRs to that of my team, it is probably an indication that I need to look for opportunities in other areas of the business or possibly a different organisation. That said, not all OKRs have to be organisation-focused at an individual level. I might have two OKRs that contribute to those of my team, and others that focus on my development or a new product idea that I wish to prototype. Key results are meant to be measurable and typically include a “measured by” or “demonstrated by” phrase and timeline. OKRs should challenge you; by not being easy to achieve it adds to one of the key elements contributing to intrinsic motivation. At Google, an acceptable score on your OKRs is a 70% average. This is not to say that all objectives are met to a 70% satisfaction level; it might mean 100% satisfaction on some and less than 70% on others. Review is done on OKRs on a regular basis, typically quarterly. The shorter cycles allow for continued dialogue on progress, support, reprioritisation, and alignment. The review interval is determined by the organisation to support alignment, and the owner of the OKR is responsible for collecting measurement information and finalising the review. During review, OKRs can be introduced or removed to align with changes in direction by the organisation (at the various levels including department, team, and individual). Changes in OKRs could also be based on what was learnt in the previous cycle; a pivot or persevere approach. All OKRs are made visible across the organisation; it encourages transparency in and support from the broader organisation. In Google, even the founders’ OKRs are available to view by anyone. How are individual incentives calculated based on OKRs? OKRs do not contribute to incentives, they utilise intrinsic motivation and should therefore not be combined with extrinsic motivation. They leverage actual motivational factors: Autonomy, Mastery and Purpose (or relatedness). I know that you might argue “We are not Google, it will never work here”. However, it is a framework and thus remains adaptable. Maybe it is too difficult to adopt at an organisational level; then try running experiments at a team or departmental level to prove or disprove its potential value and impact. It is simply too important to ignore; a focus on intrinsic motivation beats any alternative. Google Ventures shared with this with their partners about OKRs. Does that mean that a little extra money in the form of a bonus is gone forever? Everybody appreciates a little extra cash occasionally, but money should not be used as a motivator. Here are a couple of ideas from Management 3.0 on how to manage this aspect. Great Books related to this topic: Drive — Dan Pink Punished by Rewards — Alfie Kohn Flow — Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
Liquid Ventilation Helps Babies With Weak Lungs September 1, 1989\|The New York Times In a dramatic effort to save a premature baby, doctors in Philadelphia recently put an oxygen-carrying liquid into the baby`s lungs to give them a rest from breathing air. Although the baby died 19 hours after ``breathing`` the liquid, the procedure promises to renew interest in the issue of how early a premature baby can be delivered and still survive. The baby girl, born after 28 weeks of gestation, was on a respirator but failing fast because her lungs were too immature to function properly. Her parents gave doctors at Temple University permission to attempt to save her by putting the liquid, a perfluorocarbon, into her lungs; she ``breathed`` the liquid for 15 minutes. The aim was to mimic conditions in the womb, where a fetus has amniotic fluid in its lungs. Dr. Marla R. Wolfson, a physiologist on the research team at Temple, said the liquid ``is kind of a natural transition from the uterine environment to the outside.`` The perfluorocarbons are inert chemicals that can hold large amounts of respiratory gasses. The Temple researchers, led by Dr. Thomas Shaffer, have been experimenting with liquid ventilation in animals for two decades. The Temple doctors and other observers suggest that liquid ventilation may be a step toward keeping babies alive who are even more premature. Currently, experts say that babies cannot survive if they are born before 23 or 24 weeks of gestation because their lungs are too immature. But in animal studies, perfluorocarbons have been pumped gently into and out of lungs, keeping alive animals that were the equivalent of a 20-week human fetus. The age of fetal viability has been an issue in the abortion debate. The U.S. Supreme Court has permitted states to restrict abortions when a fetus would have a chance of surviving outside the womb. Some experts have said they could not forsee a time when a fetus younger than 23 or 24 weeks could survive. Dr. Arthur Caplan, who directs the Center for Bioethics at the University of Minnesota, said that if the liquid ventilation works, it has tremendous social policy implications. ``It was said that there was just nothing that could push back the boundary of fetal viability,`` he said. ``But here`s something that could push it back.`` Experts cautioned, however, that even if the lung problem could be overcome, other immature organs might prevent very premature babies from surviving. ``Since we have so much to learn from 24 weeks on, I would like to put our time and attentton on that group and not try to move farther back,`` said Dr. Mary Ellen Avery, a neonatologist at Children`s Hospital in Boston. ``I`m just not interested in anything that could keep a 20-week-old baby going.`` Dr. Jay S. Greenspan, a neonatologist at Temple, said that the principal aim of the Temple researchers was ``to make babies who were already viable survive with less trauma.`` ``A baby born at 28 weeks of pregnancy has an 80 percent chance of survival,`` he said, ``but 30 to 40 percent of them have chronic lung disease from ventilation. They may have recurrent pneumonias or asthma or serious long-term disability.`` In addition, he said, the air that is pumped in by mechanical ventilators sometimes blows a hole in a premature baby`s lung, which can be fatal or cause brain damage. Greenspan said that the liquid is ``a much gentler form of ventilation.`` In studies involving lambs, animals given perfluorocarbons had much less lung damage than those that breathed air, and the chemicals had no long-term side effects. In recent experiments with fetal lambs that were 110 days old -- the equivalent of 20 weeks of human gestation -- perfluorocarbons kept animals alive when respirators could not, Greenspan said. Seven lambs put on respirators died almost immediately, while six out of seven given perfluorocarbons lived. Greenspan added that the Temple researchers did not have enough money to try to keep the lambs alive for more than eight hours, so they do not know whether the lambs would have developed normally or whether some other organ, like the heart or the kidneys, would have failed. But the researchers were surprised that the liquid kept the lambs alive at all because at that stage of gestation, the capillaries that carry oxygen from the lung have not yet moved close enough to the surface to pick up the oxygen. The Temple researchers proposed that perfluorocarbons can deliver an adequate supply of oxygen because they can penetrate every nook and cranny of the lung and get oxygen to capillaries that might be close to the surface. For now, the liquid ventilation studies in humans will be restricted to babies who have failed on respirators. Greenspan stressed that, at least initially, the group expects to focus on babies born after 24 weeks of pregnancy. Sun Sentinel Articles
Saturday, December 28, 2013 Reading Food Labels Carefully So, let's continue the discussion about reading food labels. I talked briefly about the salt and sugar content so I'd like to address fats, in particular trans fats, that may be in the food you're considering. Trans fat is found in a variety of processed foods like vegetable oil or shortening, margarine, crackers, cookies and many snack foods. What is trans fat? It's a chemical fat formed when manufacturers change a liquid oil into a solid fat. The manufacturer uses a process called hydrogenation to make this new chemical fat. Manufacturers like to use trans fat because it helps them to reduce their costs of production. They also use trans fat to increase the shelf life of the food product. What are the health problems associated with trans fat? Researchers have found that increased heart disease, diabetes and obesity have all been linked to regular consumption of trans fat. What can you do to avoid it? First, take your time when food shopping. Read the food label carefully and look for the words partially hydrogenated vegetable oil or shortening. If it appears, look for another product that does not have this ingredient listed because it's a healthier choice for you and your loved ones. Tuesday, December 17, 2013 Eating right and keeping healthy Today we live exceedingly busy and demanding lives. As a result of this hectic daily pace, many of us are interested in streamlining daily activities as much as possible. One of those major daily activities is time spent in food preparation. It's nice to be able to use prepared foods to keep food prep. time down. When we are purchasing prepared foods, we need to look carefully at the label to be sure about the ingredients that are included. These days, reading a food label may be just like reading a table of contents of a book. It takes time to check each label out. That is making food shopping more complicated than it used to be. So, careful food shopping takes a little longer than it used to. The first thing to keep in mind when reading a food label is to know that it is based on a daily adult diet of 2,000 calories. This is the average amount that an adult consumes. So when a food label gives a percentage, it's telling you how much of that nutrient is provided based on the adult daily caloric intake of 2,000 calories. The other thing that's important to read is the ingredients list. They are listed in order of the amount of each ingredient that is in the food. So, if the first ingredient is tomato, then there's lots of tomato in that food. Be aware of salt and sugar ingredients that appear high on the ingredients list-----they are likely to be salty or sweet foods that are not particularly healthy.
Sunday, June 17, 2007 A new understanding of how DNA shapes our health and makes us human has emerged from the most exhaustive analysis yet of the workings of the human genome. The first "parts list" of genetic elements that are biologically active in the body has revealed that DNA functions in a much more complex fashion than was once assumed, offering insights into the inherited roots of diseases such as diabetes and cancer. The work of the Encode Consortium - the acronym stands for Encyclopedia of DNA Elements - also sheds important light on the genetic differences that separate humans from chimpanzees and other species. While the human genome is made up of approximately three billion DNA "letters", only about 3 per cent of these are known to contribute to 22,000 or so genes - DNA "sentences" containing instructions for making proteins that control the body's chemical reactions. Most of the remaining 97 per cent has traditionally been thought of as "junk DNA", which appeared to be an evolutionary relic that performed no tasks of significance. The new research shows that much of this junk DNA is not redundant but is chemically active in ways that influence how genes are switched on and off. Mutations in these regulatory genetic regions are thus likely to explain some of our varying susceptibility to disease - some have already been linked to type 2 diabetes and prostate and colon tumours. While the bulk of our genes are shared with other organisms, much more of our [so-called] junk DNA is peculiar to our species: 99 per cent of human and chimpanzee genes are identical compared with only 96 per cent of all DNA. As there is more variation in the junk, this could influence traits such as intelligence and language. Ewan Birney, of the European Bioinformatics Institute, near Cambridge, who led the analysis, said: "Our data certainly agree with the idea that many of the differences between mammals lie in this junk DNA. We now have a much better idea of what most of our DNA might actually be doing. That is also going to help us to characterise what is going on in disease." Francis Collins, director of the US National Human Genome Research Institute, which funded the project, said: "This impressive effort has uncovered many exciting surprises and blazed the way for future efforts to explore the functional landscape of the entire human genome." The consortium, which pub-lishes its results today in Nature and Genome Research, set out to examine what every bit of DNA does by looking in detail at 30 million letters or base pairs - 1 per cent of the genome. About 3 per cent of the DNA - the genes - was found to be transcribed into the signalling molecule RNA and then to make proteins. Another 6 per cent hitherto regarded as junk, however, was unexpectedly found to be written into RNA without producing proteins. It is this part of the genome that appears to play a critical regulatory role, controlling when genes are active or silent. Some of this active DNA outside genes, however, appears to make RNA without affecting the functions of cells - it is chemically alive but neutral. While scientists do not yet know what proportion is neutral, or why, one theory is that it provides a stock of genetic material from which potentially useful mutations can arise to drive evolution. "It may be a kind of warehouse for natural selection," Dr Birney said. "Evolution seems to have kept this around for a reason, to somehow set itself up for the future. It is a bit like Pop Idol- if you throw the net widely, you can pick up talent when it appears." The Encode team is working to scale up the project to cover the entire human genome. No comments:
Tuesday, August 16, 2011 Simple Way to Use the Power of the Cloud for Test and Measurement In today's economy technology companies have their resources spread across the globe. These global engineering resources have to work closely together throughout the design and testing life cycle of a product. One major challenge these global engineering teams face is sharing real test data access or control of testing resources across thousands of miles and country borders. In this blog post we will look at a simple but secure example of how to use cloud computing or the cloud to share test data and test resource control across the globe. Cloud computing refers to using hardware and software computing resources in a computer network, such as the internet, for computation and storage, instead of just on a local computer. I am going to use the term “cloud” in this article to refer to computing assets on the internet that are provided by a third party such as Google or Amazon. The cloud can provide three main benefits to test: 1. Share test data across global engineering teams that can be accessed anywhere at any time without a company firewall getting in the way. 2. To serve as an always connected intermediary between your test software and your computing device. Imagine starting or stoping a test from your smart phone at the airport. 3. You can leverage the massive computing capability of the cloud for test applications that require a lot of computing power for post processing measurement data. In this post we will focus on cloud benefits for bullets 1 and 2. For our cloud test example we will use a popular and free cloud service called "Dropbox." Dropbox allows you to set up a folder or file directory on your computing device, such as a PC or smart phone, that is sync'd to the cloud (Dropbox server) for backup. When you change or add a file on one computing device Dropbox will automatically sync the change or addition on any other computing device you have Dropbox installed. For security Dropbox is password protected, for more info on Dropbox click here. For storing, sharing, and viewing test data Dropbox is a great tool for 3 main reasons: 1. It allows you to securely back up your test data on the cloud 2. It allows you to easily share test data among geographically separated teams and companies, such as if you are using a CM that does not have access to your companies intranet. 3. It allows you to access test data from almost anywhere securely without having to deal with a VPN, such as if you wanted to check the outcome of a test on your smart device at an airport in India. Now getting the test data to Dropbox is fairly easy since all major software development environments like Labview, Matlab, or Visual Studio have easy to use APIs that allow you to write data to various file types such as an Excel Spreadsheet. The way we incorporate Dropbox into the test mix is by having our test program write to files that are located in a Dropbox folder. Then as long as the computer running your test program is connected to the internet Dropbox will automatically send your test data to the cloud and sync it to other computing devices sharing that same Dropbox account. Now the test data is safely back-upped and securely shared. We can even go a step further and add certain types of remote control aspects to our test using Dropbox. If instead of just writing data to a file on Dropbox, we have our test program also read from a file we could could control our test from the cloud too! We could do something as simple as use a small section of the test data file for changing basic test settings to something as complex as using a scripting language to change entire test routines. As a proof of concept for this post I setup an example cloud test using Agilent's 34972A DAQ / Switch Unit, VEE programming language, and Dropbox. The example cloud test was created to simulate a long term DAQ type testing environment. It makes temperature, voltage, fan rotation, and irradiance measurements on a DUT. I added two simple settings controls to the test data Excel file that allow you to turn on or off a fan and heater on the DUT. The VEE program reads the settings from the Excel file periodically and uses the control features on the 34972A to change the DUT settings. Below is a screen shot of the excel spread sheet from my example cloud test program (click to enlarge). You can also get your own read-only version of my test data file using the Dropbox link I provided below. To conclude Dropbox provides an easy to use secure way to leverage the power of the cloud to back up, access, and share test data easily and securely. We even looked at a way to use Dropbox and the cloud to control a test remotely from anywhere without the hassle of VPNs. If you have a test example where you use the power of the cloud I would love to hear about please share as a comment or shoot me an email. شركة نقل اثاث بالدمام شركة نقل اثاث بالجبيل شركة نقل اثاث بالقطيف 2. https://www.behance.net/gallery/46472895/_
Elementary Podcasts: Tess & Ravi Audio icon elementary-podcasts-s01-e07.mp3 Task 1 Section 1 - Conversations in English "Your mum and dad live in Brighton now, don’t they?" – Talking about family Section 1 is based on the Introduction. This section looks at how to talk about both your and other people's families. Suggestion: One way to do this section is: • Download the Support Pack and Transcript. • Read the Transcript. Practice materials: Exercise 1 Use this information to complete the Conversations in English activity below. (died two years ago) \| (lives in Swindon) Harry (28, builder) Julia (26, works in an office) Dave (24, works in a bank) Dan (22, graphic designer) Paula (20, student) Practice materials: Exercise 2 There are more practice materials in the Support Pack. Task 2 Section 2 - I'd like to meet... You listened to Muhammed talking about Dr. Muhammed Yunus, the Nobel Prize winner. Can you think of a Nobel Prize winner that you’d like to meet? Or you could tell us about a famous person from your home town or city. Task 3 Section 3 - Quiz Suggestion: You can write your answers in our Support Pack. The quiz in this podcast is called ‘Beginning with…’ – for example, ‘think of a sport beginning with ‘B’ – the answer could be ‘baseball’ or ‘basketball’ for example – there are lots of possibilities. Playing this game is a good way to revise and learn new vocabulary. Practice materials: Exercise 1 Put the words into the correct categories. Practice materials: Exercise 2 You can play ‘Beginning with…’ by yourself, or with a friend. To see some ideas, please download the Support Pack. Task 4 Section 4 - Our Person in... You listened to Susan Harold talking about the taxis in Cairo. Can you tell people about the transport in your city or town? Maybe your city has trams, or ferry boats across a river, or a more unusual form of transport. Task 5 Section 5 - Your turn In Your Turn you heard 5 people answer this question: ‘What’s the best way to travel? What do you think? What’s your favourite way of travelling? Maybe you agree with one of them, or maybe you can think of something different. Write down your opinion and try to explain why it’s the best way to travel. Do this in the comments section below. Task 6 Section 6 - Carolina Suggestion: listen to Carolina's conversation at the chemist and then do the exercises. Practice materials - Exercise 1 Put the phrases in the correct places in the conversation. Practice materials - Exercise 2 Choose all the phrases that are correct. Practice materials - Exercise 3 Please download the Support Pack for more practice materials. Task 7 Section 7 - Joke Suggestion: We suggest you do this: • Listen to the joke. • Do Exercise 2, in which you tell the joke. Practice materials - Exercise 1 Practice materials - Exercise 2 Task 8 Section 8 - Tom the Teacher Practice materials - Exercise 1 Match the first and last parts of sentences to practise the words 'look' and 'sound'. Practice materials - Exercise 2 Complete the sentences with different forms of 'look' and 'sound'. Practice materials - Exercise 3 Practise 'false friends' by choosing the correct word. Your Turn I see that the best way of travel depends on the distance & the country you're in & the country or the place you're going to. If the distance is too much long compared to the country area and different location aspects it is better to use the plane but it is costly, so you should review your financial situation with the purpose of the journey & how much is your time cost. After this compromising you will be determine exactly what you will travel on plane, train or car. If I will travel through town inside my country itself I will do it on the train or on car because i is not long distance between our towns, In other countries you cann't choose the car to travel internally & you will choose to pay to avoid being exhausted from travelling & wasting long time. I mean it depends on the distance you will travel, the purpose of the travel tourism, work or family visit & finally the money you can spend in travelling process itself. That is it. In my view, there isn't a best way to travel. It's a question of distance you have to cover. For instance, if you have to go to another country far away from your home, the best way is by plane. If you want to visit different cities in the same country and enjoy the landscape, maybe the train is the right choise. Are you an enthusiastic driver? Perhaps you want to drive your car or ride your motorcycle and feel the wind in your face. In your city, you could use pubblic transport, to reduce the air pollution. Another solution could be just walking or riding a bicycle, so that you can stay healthy too. In my city public transport is a mess. There are buses and trams, but none of them work well. The buses are old dirty and never in time. Trams were introduced recently, but they don't cover the whole city. The tickets are quite cheap, but people still prefer get to work by car, so the traffic is terrible and the pollution is a big problem. There are also taxis, normal white cars, but they are expensive and only tourists use them. Most of the taxies only accept cash as payment. Tourists who want to visit the city, travel by coach, but there are two more traditional means of transport: one called "motoape" which has a small cabin for the driver and some seats for the passengers on its back. The second one is called "carretto siciliano", which is a buggy pulled by one horse. To avoid the traffic, I prefer to travel on foot or on bicycle. Hi Podcast Team, I'd want to know what means this phrase: "The world’s your oyster." (section 5, your turn, voice 2) Hello Gustavo, You can find a definition of this phrase in the Cambridge Dictionary. You might also be interested in this Shakespeare video, in which this and other phrases are discussed. All the best, The LearnEnglish Team Here in Brazil, taxis are too expensive. After 6 p.m. all the taxis require a fix tax called "bandeira 2". For example, if you take a taxi at 7 p.m., even without starting the ride, you must pay around 5 reais (1,50 dollars, roughly). But for tourists is worse. The taxi drivers usually charge a fix price (very expensive) for all ride, when they are carrying tourists. Hi, team British council. I, in this moment, am traveling Europe by train. It is an awful experience. I had never done this before, because in my contry this way of transport there is not exist. I am happy, in Europe. I`ll stay in Madrid the next 7th and 8th on May2017. there ends my spectacular trip. I invite to travel by train. bless you. I'd prefer to travel by train if you mean a long distance. Because it's the safest transport. Besides, you can rest in the compartment: take a nap, or read a book, or talk to your satellites, or listen to music while watching sceneries through a large window. For me, the best way to travel is by car. I love driving, I love that feeling of having the control of the machine. Specially when the car has a standard gearbox, I do not like very much driving a car with automatic gearbox. Even tough I think that the best way to travel is by car, I also love travel by plane, altough I have just done it a couple of times, the feeling was incredible, specially the first time. That eyesight when the plane starts to listing off and bit by bit you can see how all the things start to getting smaller and smaller, it's simply amazing. Here, in Mexico, the taxis are a real-huge-difficult subject. First, since I live in Mexico City (which is considered one of the most populated countries) the traffic is a nightmare, so if you are planning to take a taxi and you are in a hurry, it could be a very frustrating experience. You could get stuck in the traffic at any moment, specially if you are travelling in the morning or at lunchtime or in the evening, when everybody are coming back to home from work. Second, in my country, unfortunately, not all the cabbies are very honest, some of them may use a modified taximeter, which will increase the amount of the cost arbitrarily, therefore, you could pay more, of the travel, of what's worth. And finally, there is another issue in my country, which is the insecurity, and taking a taxi could be, in some places, very dangerous. Because there are a lot of assaults inside of a taxi everyday. That's the main reason that, nowadays, people choose an Uber cab, rather than a Taxi.
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Thursday, January 14, 2010 Donate but also Learn About Our Role in Haiti's Plight As you donate to support the survivors of the massive earthquake in Haiti, read this, a piece called "Our Role in Haiti's Plight." It says, among other things: The piece is published on a British website and it primarily talks about the role of the United States, but it all applies to Canada too -- from its role in shipping and military interventions to maintain the slavery-based plantation economy in the Carribbean in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, to its active complicity in the coup against the democratically elected president of Haiti in 2004, to its long-term enthusiastic promotion of neoliberalism on the world stage, the settler society in what is now called "Canada" and its ruling institutions have been actively involved in creating the social conditions that have made this natural disaster so much worse than it had to be. Chanda @ Disordered Cosmos said... There is a huge omission in this article that should not be ignored. While it's all well and good to point to the repeated US invasions starting in 1915, it's important to recognize that Haiti's poverty was enforced earlier by another colonial power: France. After a crippling 20 year embargo as retaliation for the slaves taking their freedom, in 1825 France demanded 150 million francs (equivalent to $21 billion today) as payment for lost profits. In other words, France made the former slaves pay for their freedom. Haiti was forced to sign the treaty with French and German gun boats sitting in their harbor. Haiti could not make the first payment and so it was arranged that they would receive loans from French banks, at exorbitant interest rates. Haiti was paying this indemnity for 123 years! The last payment was in 1947. At various points they were spending more money on the interest rate payments than on social services for their own people. It was only after the 1915 invasions that the US became involved, when some of the loans were transferred to American banks. (although I haven't managed to source this last piece of information) This is a particularly large omission since it is in a European newspaper. France must be held accountable too! And in fact, in 2003/4 Aristide demanded reparations from France, a repayment of all 21 billion. Not too long after, he was forcefully and anti-democratically removed from power and exiled from his homeland. Scott said... Yes, I had noticed the strangely late date at which the article begins its account of Haiti's impoverishment. Thanks so much for filling in some of that crucial stuff!! Chanda @ Disordered Cosmos said... I'm starting to get pissed off because EVERYONE is writing articles and talking about how it starts in 1910 with American occupation. Everyone is so obsessed with attacking US imperialism that they can't even be bothered to remember that the US is an imperialist invention of some other powers who were doing it for a long time before. Hatred for the US is allowing people to ignore the truth. The US capitalized on France's behavior. Scott said... Yeah...its kind of like the way that U.S. misdeeds so often get focused on by liberals and left nationalists in the Canadian context in ways that downplay or outright erase the horrid, oppressive history of our own state and corporations. Infuriating. Chanda @ Disordered Cosmos said... Amen! After living in Canada for 3.5 years, all I can think is: a. Stop patting yourselves on the back for not being the US and start getting those homeless shelters in Toronto back open b. And by the way, get the hell out of Afghanistan and Haiti c. Stop sending US refuseniks back to the US to be in jail I'm so tired of the faux-moral superiority that really means not addressing Canadian-problems. Thanks for rockin it Scott. thwap said... Yeah, they left out France and Canada. The Hamilton, Ontario local newspaper re-printed that very essay and never once anywhere else mentioned Canada's role in their latest coup. It's all been rah-rah Canada, we're so kind and generous. Scott said... [Comment spam deleted.]
Towards an agrarian legacy in Kano 0 image_print Kano is an agricultural State. Farming is an important part of life in the state. A large percentage of the state’s population work in the agricultural and pastoral industries. The state has the following as the main crops being produced: groundnut, Guinea corn, Maze, Sugarcane, Gum Arabic, Rice, honey, ginger, pepper, coloring leaves, sugarcane herbs and vegetables. The livestock comprise cattle, sheep, goats, and donkeys, camels and horses . Greater diversity have been developed a wide range of grain, fruit and vegetable crops. The state produces almost all of the agricultural products it consumes. Crop growing contributes to over 50 per cent of the value of agriculture every year. Grain crops are spread fairly evenly across the state. Agriculture is extensive as farms still take up around 60 per cent of all the land. Farmers occupy huge areas of pasture. As irrigation systems were established further inland, new farming practices other than cattle grazing became more viable. The creation of railways has helped to connect the more remote farmers with quicker and easier transport of their produce to cities. Livestock grazing activity, mainly cattle, takes place in most areas of the farming zones. But the population is predicted to grow. As a consequence, there are substantially more mouths to feed. This means the industry has to find ways to increase its production. The only way forward is to further improve the sector’s efficiency by using smarter and more sustainable production methods. These developments have created opportunities in the agricultural sector. Opportunities for investors exist in the areas of greenhouse technologies, irrigation, sustainable agriculture, food processing (valueadded) industry and new (plant) varieties. The investors are going to benefit from rising demand for primary products. The farmers are very receptive to new technologies. In some parts of Kano,large tracts of land are prone to droughts, sometimes lasting several years. Therefore, irrigation is a very important factor in making farming viable in inland Kano. Due to climate change, there is a growing awareness in the agricultural sector that ‘business as usual’ is no longer an option. As a result, a trend is emerging towards more sustainable farming practices. This trend is largely fortified by an increased consumer awareness of, and demand for better produced agricultural products. Making the best use of the available water resources has been a challenge for many years. The demand for more efficient irrigation systems has increased. Besides, the state government endorses the use of more efficient irrigation systems. There are many initiatives, which can have a substantial impact with ample opportunities for future growth. Specific targets include achieving total productivity growth across the state’s key agricultural industries. As more sustainable methods of agriculture will be the future, new varieties of plants, vegetables, grasses and trees will be an important part of this. To this end,the government is determined to provide varieties which are ideally suited for the state’s conditions, can grow in harsh, warm climates, need less water and are pest resistant. Across the state, the government provides assistance to farmers and primary producers to encourage production, employment and export. The government is working to use scientific and technical advances to make farmers efficient in food productivity. Over 5,000 women are to be trained in animal traction in the state. The women would be camped and trained for a few weeks at the Kadawa, Dambatta and Gwarzo animal traction schools in the state, following which they would be given cows to rear. Part of the arrangement is that the women will be trained to obtain milk from the cows which they will sell and reuse the money in other worthy ventures. The policy of the government is to turn around the agricultural sector so they can have all-year-round farming, so that the farmers will be permanently engaged, and have value for their labour. Right now, the state is working on establishing a tomato factory in the state and partnering with relevant agencies to ensure better storage. Another project is establishing preservation and storage facilities. The government is educating famers about aflotoxin which makes maize unmarketable internationally. Agriculture in LGAs in Kano state is getting a boost as the government has released N500 million to the 44 Local Government Areas of the state for agriculture production. The amount was for the purchase of veterinary drugs, establishment of orchards, annual animal vaccination exercise and purchase of five motorcycles for agricultural extension officers in each local government area. The government had also purchased and distributed 80 pieces of traction equipment. Over 500 youths have benefited from the programme, and the government had rejuvenated the Kano State Agricultural Supply Company with the release of N180 million to enable it procure enough fertiliser for farmers. Kano State had also established a radio station for farmers to help provide useful tips that will facilitate sound agricultural performance. The governor is establishing 14 institutes for youth development and eight of these institutes are for agriculture.
• September 23, 2017 / Computer & Multimedia Hard Drive Clock Speed A great way to compare specs on desktop computers is through Shopping.com. Shopping.com pioneered online comparison shopping and today is one of the fastest growing shopping destinations for a comprehensive set of products from thousands of trusted stores from across the Web. With a singular focus on shopping, Shopping.com offers shoppers easy-to-use search tools, engaging content and time saving navigation, along with millions of unbiased product and merchant reviews from the Epinions community, all in one place. • September 20, 2017 / Computer & Multimedia There are definite dangers associated with computer illiteracy. The rapid advancement in technology has allowed for criminal innovations, with numerous internet-based frauds and identity theft becoming commonplace. Therefore, a working knowledge on computers can reduce user vulnerability from unwanted email to computer viruses. Good computer education helps to take a person from beyond having technical skills to learning to work with computers. Proper training provides learners with the knowledge of how information is used, shared and distributed. They can be warned about posting embarrassing photographs and/or comments on social networking sites because a potential employer can unearth them. The importance of a good computer education includes: Improved computer literacy A course in computers allows learners to improve their computer literacy. When they complete their course, learners gain some important skills required to perform various jobs, from simple computer tasks (e.g. using basic applications and navigating the Internet) to more complex tasks (i.e. troubleshooting problems). Every class allows learners to improve their skills, working towards advancing their knowledge in computers and concluding with IT related education. Improved presentation skills Computer literate students can effectively use computers in their studies. They can engage the available technological tools to communicate or present their work in a well-organized and engaging manner. For example, they can create PowerPoint presentations, short movies or digital slideshow presentations in place of standard essay projects and/or standard posters. Improved communication Good computer education offers learners an ideal opportunity to communicate effectively with friends, family and acquaintances from around the world. Enrolling in a computer class allows learners to acquire the necessary knowledge required to work the available communication tools. They acquire the skill to use the communication options provided by advanced technology to share information and/or picture. Improved capacity to find information Advancements in technology has made the process of finding information easier and effective. Long gone are the days of sorting a card catalogue and venturing through stacks of books at the library to find information. Today, an unprecedented amount of information can be accessed through the internet. However, for any person to benefit from this wealth of information, he/she needs to know how to work the computer. Computer courses set time to teach learners proper use of reference software to gather information available on the internet. In addition, learners are taught how to evaluate information, to judge its reliability, validity and usefulness. • September 17, 2017 / Computer & Multimedia • September 14, 2017 / Computer & Multimedia • September 13, 2017 / Computer & Multimedia Another very popular industry making use of • September 5, 2017 / Computer & Multimedia • September 4, 2017 / Computer & Multimedia Multimedia applications of HTC Google Nexus one have been listed below • August 31, 2017 / Computer & Multimedia Nowadays, there are a lot computer virus removal software that have been proven to really do the job. Some can be easily downloaded through the internet while others have to be purchased. For the downloadable ones, it will be just a matter of minutes and the anti-virus is already working on your computer. Before you go and download anti-virus programs, you have to look into the specific details of it. Others offer more features and keeps your computer much more protected, so choose the one which will really offer you with the best defense against computer virus. For the ones which have to be purchased in stores, these usually comes in CDs which will be used for installation. Most of the computer virus removal programs already include antivirus and antispyware installer. It is a brilliant idea to regularly scan your computer for viruses as this will make sure that your computer files and programs are really safe. There are a few common indicators which will let you know that your computer has virus. If your computer is not responding as fast as it should or if the programs are already working too slowly, this can be because your computer has been infected by virus. Files which you cannot access because it is corrupted can also mean that it contains computer virus. Lastly, another indication of a computer virus is when your computer constantly opens websites which you are not trying to access. Determine if your computer is infected or not so you can prevent more serious damage to your files and programs. If it is infected, you can easily solve this problem by using your anti-virus software and allowing it to clean up your computer virus. That is, if your computer has not been seriously damaged yet. It is also important to constantly update your anti-virus software so that it would be more efficient in eradicating virus. Whether you are using an anti-virus program which is downloaded or installed through a CD, always make sure that you have the latest version. This is best for detecting even the latest viruses. Computer virus removal is easy if you just have enough knowledge on computers. Search through the internet first for the best names when it comes to anti-virus software. • August 27, 2017 / Computer & Multimedia Computer viruses can easily spread from one computer to another by attaching itself to programs and files. Do you know what greatly contributes to the spread of virus into you computer and to other computers? It is the action done by the user. Viruses come in executable files. Meaning, it will not really affect your computer unless you run or open the malicious program. Oftentimes, because the user is not aware of malicious files and programs, they initiate it and this causes the activation within the computer. There are a lot of anti-virus programs you can choose from which will enable you to protect your computer. Yet, it is still important to be aware about viruses because this will ensure that you can really avoid those malicious programs and files. It is not enough to just know what a virus is. More importantly, you have to be aware of the other common threats that usually affect computers. Among the most common viruses are worms and Trojan horse. What exactly are these? Worm is an algorithm which can cause damage your computer. The difference of worm among other computer threats is that is capable of spreading through your computer even without running or opening the program. It spreads from one computer to another through various methods of file transfer. What makes it worse is the fact that worms are often capable of replicating itself within your system. On the other hand, Trojan horse is also another destructive program which can be quite tricky. Worms are capable of appearing in disguise. People who receive Trojan horse are often fooled into opening the file because it appears like a useful software or a program file from a reliable source. Trojan horse can do alterations to your computer like changing the desktop settings or adding unnecessary icons. In other cases, it causes more serious damage like deleting files in the hard drive. If you think these two are already serious threats to your computer, there’s something else that is much worse. That is, if virus, worm and Trojan horse were put together in one seriously destructive threat which is also called as the Blended Threat. Blended threats are more sophisticated and more complicated to create. At the same time, it also has a more detrimental effect. It can spread through the entire computer and even to networks which damages the files and programs and can even sacrifice the safety of confidential information within the system. Even worse, blended threats do not need to be activated by the user before it could attack your system, destroying the computer, the network and programs. Keep yourself aware of these things and it will strengthen your defense against the viruses that may destroy your computer. • August 27, 2017 / Computer & Multimedia Acer technical support
"Seaweed: Food or Slimy Green Stuff?" by Frederic Patenaude My readers often ask me if seaweed is a healthy food and is it necessary to include it in the diet in order to get enough minerals. Typically, the reasons people eat seaweeds are: 1- They believe it's good for them. 2- They miss the “salt” taste, and want a natural replacement. Before I answer the question about whether or not we should eat seaweed, let's first ask ourselves: What is Seaweed? The National University of Ireland gives the following definition: “Seaweeds are marine algae, saltwater dwelling, simple organisms that fall into the rather outdated general category of "plants". Most of them are the red (6000 species), brown (2000 species) or green (1200 species) kinds (...) and most are attached by holdfasts, which just have an anchorage function.” Generally, when people look at seaweed, they do not view it as “food.” Seaweed doesn't appeal to our senses. It is an “acquired” taste, not an innate one. If you present a variety of natural foods to people of all ages, they are not likely going to jump at a pond of slimy seaweed to eat it! Eventually, some people get to like it. Personally, I have always found most types of seaweed too “fishy” for my taste. There are just a few that I have liked, and mostly for the salty taste. I think it's a highly overrated “food” and is certainly not important to have in the diet. There are several considerations that make seaweed a poor choice for nutrients in the human diet. Although I'm not “against” some occasional consumption of seaweed, I believe there are more reasons to opt for not having it than there are for having it. The Dry Truth About Seaweed Out of the thousands of varieties of seaweed on the planet, none are poisonous, but very few are eaten by humans. Most varieties are too tough or unappealing to be eaten. In fact, most types of seaweeds sold have been “tenderized,” which means that they have been boiled for a long period of time. These include the popular hijiki, wakame, and many other varieties. A few varieties are eaten raw, but rarely fresh. Seaweed is sold dried. Is Seaweed Vegetarian? Although seaweed appears to be a vegetarian product, it often contains small fish or other forms of ocean life. I was told by a number of credible sources that there is no such thing as vegan “nori”. The way nori is processed almost inevitably invites various little fish to “join the party” before the seaweed is pressed and sold as nori sheets. I don't know about you, but when I learned that, nori kind of instantly lost its appeal. Is it any wonder that it smells so fishy? Seaweed Has a High Mineral Content Seaweed's high mineral content is one of the main reasons people eat it. The mineral content of seaweed - measured by their “ashes”, can reach the proportion of 10 to 50%. It means that if you burn seaweed half of the volume of ashes remaining will be composed strictly of minerals. In comparison, the mineral “ashes” of fruits and vegetables are much lower. - Apples leave mineral ashes of 0,3% - Carrots leave mineral ashes of 1% - Almonds leave mineral ashes of 3% Personally, I find that “too much” is not any better than “too little.” I actually think the mineral concentration of seaweed, especially sodium chloride, is too high, and that this excess is a burden to our filtering and elimination organs. Do We Need It? Mainly, the reason people like seaweed is because it contains a lot of salt. Yes, this salt comes from the ocean, but it's not any better to use than any other type of refined salt. It potentially adds too much sodium to our diet, and this contributes to a large number of health problem, including high blood pressure, which is now epidemic in our society as well as in all other cultures eating high-salt diets Our sodium requirements are so low that we do not ever need to add any type of concentrated salt to the diet. We know for example that about 90 percent of the salt consumed in the standard American diet is eliminated in the urine, as it is in excess of the body's needs. There is enough sodium in the fruits and vegetables that we eat to meet all of our needs.* The so-called benefits of the minerals in seaweed is a curse in disguise. In the end, we're just entertaining our addiction to salt and burdening the body with an excess of minerals, mostly sodium chloride, it must expel. * The sodium issue will be discussed in a future article. Seaweed is Contaminated Seaweed does to the ocean what plants do to our air. They purify it. The downside is that the ocean is much more polluted than our air. Seaweed catches and filters a lot of pollution. Heavy metals, toxic material, and any type of junk that finds its way into our water also has a strong possibility of ending up in your food: in that seaweed that you eat. The Food Standards Agency even advised people not to eat a type of seaweed called hijiki because of the high levels of arsenic that it contains. There are probably various types of toxins that could end up in the seaweed that you eat, simply because the ocean has never been so polluted and it keeps getting worse. When seaweed is labeled as “organic,” it simply means that the seaweed has been tested to make sure the levels of heavy metals they contain is not above a certain level judged “problematic.” It doesn't mean that the seaweed doesn't contain any heavy metal. In fact, it would be impossible to make such a claim because seaweed sold is a wild food that comes from the same ocean that everybody knows to be polluted. This, to me, is probably the biggest argument against regular seaweed consumption. Seaweed Addiction It's hard to believe, but some people get addicted to seaweed. I must confess that I have been one of them. I was buying dulse by the pound, and it didn't take me very long to go through it. Even though I was rinsing it to get salt off, I was probably still getting a lot. That's why I liked eating it. It had that concentrated salty flavor, and a certain chewiness reminiscent of foods I'd eaten in the past. The more I ate dulse, the more I wanted to have dulse, even though I wasn't feeling that great after eating it! While, it wasn't a big addiction to break, at some point I just got sick of it. I decided to really give up salt and since then everything has been working better. My energy has increased, my craving for dulse and salt are gone, and overall I feel much better without it. The Bottom Line The bottom line is that most people do not have to worry about whether or not seaweed is a problem to them, because they rarely eat it. For raw-foodists or vegans who regularly consume seaweed in order to “supplement” their diet, or for those who think they are on a salt-free diet, but simply have replaced the salt shaker with the bag of dulse, it might be time to revise your ideas about seaweed. You might find, like I do, that an occasional taste of it is perfectly okay. More than that, however, is likely to become problematic.
2 Responses to CONTACT 1. Dave B says: You might find this paper interesting. It posits push gravity Plank wavelength pressure generated from zero point energy. Gravity force results from the shadowing effect of the body masses. But I think it may fall apart when dealing with condensed matert. I.e. Neutron stars and black holes. RE light box experiement. Two comments and a question More accurate measurement might be achieved using two light boxes. One above and one below the test mass. Alternately switch on the upper or lower box lamps. Question: a change in the weight of the test mass either increase or decrease means a change in its potential energy equivalent to a change in test mass altitude. Where Does that energy go? I.e. thought experiment: imagine a wheel with a horizontal axle with a one light box situated below the left half of the wheel and another above the right half of the wheel. You now have unbalanced mass and the wheel rotates. This implies free energy or perpetual motion. Or their has to be some torque resisting force as a new mass segment rotates into and out of the light box “field” of influence on the mass above or below it. • Louis says: first: to have 2 boxes means having 2 boxwes. I built only one at a $900 cost… Maybe you can built 2. second: there are many theories to explain what happened. I am more interested in having more effect on gravity at a point where one can block enough to float as in space. It seems that light blocks the pushing force from above and the test mass that was moving east wiht hte planet earth is now moving east again but at a higher altitude, not enough yet to be a satellite, but having the same properties. If enough force coming from above was blocked, the object would be a small satellite hovering over the ground. The most surprising effect is tha tthe weight lost comes back slowly when the lights are turned off because the object velocity ( direction and speed) is changing slowly. Leave a Reply
Dieffenbachia picta ‘Bausei’ Dieffenbachias are native to tropical America, where some 30 species grow. They were introduced into Europe in the mid-19th century; to England and Belgium first, and then their cultivation rapidly spread to other countries. They are named in honour of J. Dieffenbach (1796-), head gardener of the Botanical Gardens in Vienna. They are distributed from Mexico and the Antilles to Peru. Many species readily interbreed. All have stout upright stems that become woody and are thickly covered with long, sheath-like stalks that embrace the stem. The leaf blades are usually ovate with a prominent midrib and are decoratively patterned with blotches, marbling or stripes. They are greatly prized as houseplants for their ornamental foliage. The inflorescence is not very conspicuous – a spadix with a relatively narrow spathe. D. picta has large leaves with stalks about 10-20 cm (4-8 in) long and blades 15-30 cm (6-12 inch) long and 10-15 cm (4-6 in) wide. They are usually yellow-green, with relatively few, dark green blotches that merge to form a dark band on the margin. The yellow often fades to white. It is not difficult to grow. It requires warm conditions, and can be grown equally well in a heated greenhouse and indoors at normal room temperature. It does not tolerate direct sunlight, preferring partial shade. However, it does need adequate light for healthy growth and colourful leaves. It does not have a distinct period of rest but watering should be limited during the cooler months from November to February. It requires a minimum winter temperature of 16°C (60° F). In summer, water liberally and do not allow the compost to become too dry. Feed weekly during the growing period. Like all Dieffenbachias, this one is readily propagated by stem or tip cuttings which may be taken at any time of the year. Because they are poisonous and can cause painful, ugly swellings on the hands, the plants must be cut back with great care. Dieffenbachia maculata (syn. D. picta) This species , from Brazil, is one of the most widely grown. Its stout stem can reach a height of more than 1 m (39 in). The leaf blades, broadly elliptic with a heart-shaped base and a pointed tip, are patterned with irregular white blotches. The spathe and spadix are greenish. It is extremely variable and includes several geographic varieties. Moreover, horticulturists have developed numerous cultivars that are difficult to distinguish from one another, and that often resemble cultivated varieties of the closely related species D. seguina. Probably the most familiar cultivar of D. maculata is ‘Julius Roehrs’; the juvenile form has yellow-green leaves and only the midribs and margins are coloured green. It was developed in the USA in 1936 and its large-scale cultivation started some 11 years later. Dieffenbachia amoena This has large, obovate leaves coloured dark green with yellowish or cream-white blotches, rather like stripes between the secondary veins. The cultivar ‘Mariana’ differs from the type by having leaves with large, pale patches that are white rather than yellowish. Quite often, even the midrib is not green but a pale colour. Growing requirements are the same as for other Dieffenbachias. Sorry, comments are closed for this post.
Green Poems for a Blue Planet by Martin Kiszko Published by Redcliffe Press (ISBN: 978-1906593551) A collection of poems highlighting the threat humans pose to the future of the planet. Martin says I hope these poems provoke a thought, raise a smile, start a conversation, spark an idea, spur us into action, or simply turn on a few 'green’ lights. These poems are certainly thought provoking! There are so many that could be used in class that it is hard to know where to start… The illustrations are appealing and compliment the poems without dominating the page. Many of the poems lend themselves beautifully to being performed, read aloud and shared. Although many are humorous and adopt a light-hearted tone, there is a strong message that comes through, making them an excellent starting point for discussion in RE, PSHE, Science, outdoor lessons etc. There are so many possibilities that I have just highlighted a few. Green Dreams really appeals to me. The word choices are so carefully made and can be used as a starting point for developing vocabulary, using thesauruses, creating word banks etc. The content of the poem is perfect for the subject of a debate and discussion writing. It lends itself to a model for children to write poems of their own on this subject. The opportunities are endless! Very moving and poignant, Tiger Tiger tackles a very serious issue and could form the basis for debates, research, conservation issues, writing in various genres. The original, Tyger, Tyger could be introduced and compared. Street Names could be a starting point for local history or geography work. What are street names in the local area names after? What happened to the trees etc. that roads are named after? What is there now? This could lead onto mapping of the trees that remain in the locality and perhaps organising a nature walk with information about the trees that remain. This is a very exciting book- so much you could do with it!
Experts Reveal the Potential Benefits of Curcumin in GERD Orlando, FL -- (SBWIRE) -- 08/06/2015 -- Gastroesophageal reflux disease, or GERD, is a digestive disorder that affects the stomach, esophagus, and lower esophageal sphincter (LES). GERD often causes indigestion and heartburn, and is believed to be due to a condition known as hiatal hernia. The good news is that in addition to medication or surgery, there is a natural alternative that sufferers can try. Experts reveal the potential benefits of curcumin in GERD. The LES takes care of letting food pass into the stomach and prevents acidic stomach juices from flowing up to the esophagus. When the LES is weak or when it relaxes, gastroesophageal reflux takes place. This allows the acid and the contents of the stomach to flow back up to the esophagus. "Curcumin is a powerful phytochemical found in the ancient, medicinal spice called turmeric. Curcumin is popularized by its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties it contains," said Divine Bounty spokesperson, Melissa Scott. Lifestyle and food habits are considered to be among the major reasons why the prevalence of acid reflux is still increasing. Heartburn, when it's left untreated, can result in GERD, which is a more severe disorder. The use of curcumin is believed to be extremely beneficial for a wide range of ailments. Some of the conditions that can potentially benefit from the use of curcumin are bronchitis, arthritis, inflammation, dyspepsia, menstrual problems, colds and other disorders. It is particularly helpful in disorders that come with inflammation, swelling, and pain. Curcumin is believed to fight indigestion, which is associated with the buildup of pressure on the LES. According to a clinical trial, curcumin can aid in irritable bowel syndrome, dyspepsia, and stomach conditions. Curcumin is also believed to fight peptic ulcers through healing wounds and ulcerations in the gut lining, and thus, reduce pain and discomfort. The anti-inflammatory effects of curcumin are believed to be responsible for reducing pain, swelling, and ulceration as well as the production of acids. According to experts, turmeric is also effective for improving the production of SOD enzyme, which helps clear up reactive oxygen species in the cells. When activated, the reactive molecules will start destroying neighboring cells, and this can cause ulceration and wounding. The anti-oxidative properties of curcumin are believed to significantly help clear up reactive oxygen and limit the damage associated with heartburn. Experts believe that curcumin can be best used as a preventive measure for GERD and other conditions. Curcumin supplements that contain BioPerine, which is a bioavailability enhancing ingredient, are highly recommended by experts ( About Divine Bounty More details are available at M4ary Underwood
From Land to Sea, or Sea to Land: Reconciling Key Features of Terrestrial and Maritime Landscapes 2 months ago From Land to Sea, or Sea to Land: Reconciling Key Features of Terrestrial and Maritime Landscapes Brinnen Carter Sitka National Historical Park National Park ... English subtitle Speaker 1: All right, next person up is Brendan Carter, from Land to Sea or Sea to Land, recognizing key features of terrestrial and maritime landscapes. Brendan is the chief of resources at Shuka National Historical Park, the only national park service unit to commemorate Tlingit resistance European colonial expansion, the expansion of Czarist Russia, and the living native culture of Southeast Alaska. Previously, he was the Cultural Resource Program Manager at the Delaware Water Gap national recreation area, and a museum specialist and archaeologist at the southeast archaeological He's always studied the archaeology of submerged sites, and has advanced degrees in nautical archaeology, and pre-historic underwater archaeology. Speaker 2: All right. You'll have to excuse me, I changed my presentation somewhat between when I submitted the abstract, and the first version of the presentation until now, so I decided it would be deadly boring to just talk about from land to sea, or sea to land, so I couched it, and Alaska Maritime Cultural Landscapes. You'll see me tacking ... I'm going to essentially be blown between 2 winds, the method and theory wind, and the sort of practical, here's the landscape wind. You'll see me tack back and forth through the presentation, so stay with me, please. Thinking about this, I wanted to start with a definition, because they're all often good to start with. I found our National Park Service definition of what a cultural landscape is, and I just wanted to go over it for review. It's a geographic area that's either associated with a historic event activity or person, or exhibiting some other cultural value or aesthetic value. You have to meet those basic characteristics. I also went back and reviewed Westerdol, and he sees it kind of in a more ... It's still focused on the past, but it clearly refers to ongoing cultural values. Note that in its definition, it's focused on remains. The other thing I picked up in this is there may be a subtly in the Swedish in the word remains, that doesn't translate well into If anybody knows Swedish, and can look at that word remains, it may have connotations that aren't effectively brought over into the English. It may have as much to do with ethnographic remains, as archaeological and architectural remains, which were material as well. Seem to very interested in. Now I'm tacking back to Alaska, or the practical Alaska's huge, it's 1.7 million square kilometers. Traditionally, Alaska's population has been really tiny. The first accurate population numbers, well they may or may not be accurate, are from 1880, when they did the census. There were a little over 33 thousand people in Alaska at that point. Even today, there are only 710 thousand people, and the scale there is deceiving, it's about twice the size of Texas, so keep that in mind. One of the things that a small population in a large area yields, is a premium on inner-community awareness and relationships. Also, a high degree of mobility, and trusted connections across that mobile area, so that you can go a long distance, and know somebody in the community that you go to that's a trusted person, that can put you up, feed you, that type of thing. I didn't really appreciate that until I moved there, because from the lower 48, you don't really have ... Your type of community's different. It tends to be much more geographically centralized. You have groups of friends in a local community. Your community doesn't necessarily extend over vast distances into other communities, not necessarily. Another thing, is that trade is assumed to be widespread and relatively regular. There's a regular round to Alaskan life, where you move from place to place, from a winter quarters, to a summer subsistence camp, and so on. Subsistence resources on the other hand, are highly territorial, and vigorously defended. In other words, you may have people in other communities that you visit, but when it comes down to the resources you want to harvest for your subsistence, those are very territorial in nature. My objectives of this is to show that Alaska is a cultural landscape, to show that maritime Alaska is a Maritime Cultural Landscape overlaying multiple marine ethnographic landscapes, and to show that the most important aspects of maritime cultural landscapes are overall historical significance and physical integrity, not individual landscape characteristics, which I think are more units of analysis, rather than actual I was going to do a little overview, but I'll skip that. This is back on the theoretical side of things. I was really interested in this idea of cognitive landscapes, that Westerdal went into. I don't know ... Has anyone ever used Google Do you guys know what that is, does anyone know what that is? When you punch terms into Google, it automatically shows you a list that you can pick from. That's Google Suggest, and there's a great little program online called SEER, that will take 2 Google Suggest terms, and compare them, and show you the relationship between the It's really useful for marketing, because it allows you, as a marketer, to figure out what people are thinking of, or what people are looking for, when you put a particular word in there and search for it. I thought this would be a great little tool to figure out what the connections are between cultural landscapes and maritime landscapes. I started using SEER to see if I could figure out what those relationships were. The first thing I did, is I compared cultural landscapes, and maritime landscapes. What things pop out at you right away, there's no relationship. People who are looking for cultural landscapes are not looking for maritime landscapes, and people who are looking for maritime landscapes aren't looking for cultural landscapes. That shows me, or I would conclude from that, that it's not an overlapping set. There's not much discussion there, there's not much cognition in the general public about the connection between maritime landscapes and cultural landscapes. The other interesting thing here, if anybody here is interested in a job, you notice the most common thing that people are looking for when they look for maritime landscapes is services. You want to start a contract business, I would go into maritime landscape services. Like you might imagine, if you think about Westerdal, and Swedish archaeology, maritime landscapes have a very high prominence in Swedish archaeology. I compared Swedish archaeology and maritime landscapes, and we got a little bit of a connection. It's what you might expect. Less connection from Swedish archaeology to maritime landscapes, but quite a bit the other I then looked at the Maritime Sanctuary Program, and the National Register Program. You can see that there is some connection there, but about the same that you see for Swedish archaeology. Here, this where it becomes very interesting. Where's Hans? I thought, Alaska and Hawaii are kind of twin states, way out there in the Pacific. We have a lot of cultural connections. I thought I'd do that, and you can start to see there's a much stronger relationship than Alaska and Hawaii. Between the concept between maritime landscapes, and Hawaiian and Alaskan archaeology. That's an important point. I wanted to back check my information, because you start using some of these tools, you don't know what the hell you're doing sometimes. I checked archaeology and nautical archaeology against each other, and yeah, this kind of makes senses. People are interested in jobs, they're interested in what the salary is, and they're interested in how to get a degree. My sort of off the cuff interpretation of this was, everybody's got to make a living, and can I make a living doing either nautical archaeology or archaeology? With that in mind, I just wanted to review this definition we've already seen it. Is Alaska a cultural landscape? It's a geographic area, that's absolutely true, I should probably catch up here. Let's see, it's associated with a historic event, I thought I'd put the check in there that bought Alaska. 7.2 million dollars. It's funny, I live in Sitca now, and the United States paid about 200 thousand dollars extra, over 7 million dollars, because there was an ice plant in Sitca, that was the only source for ice for San Francisco, up until the purchase. The Russians had been supplying ice for San Francisco, and it was a very lucrative market, They paid an extra 200 thousand for Alaska, just because of that. It's also associated with the resumption of Manifest Destiny, and the Gold Rush, the western pacific exploration, and also whaling. We've already talked about that somewhat. Also, the expansion of fishery. It's definitely associated with an activity, a very important activity. It's also associated with one of the most important diplomats in American history, William He was the visionary leader that had the idea that they could buy Alaska from Russia. One of the things that he's credited with is reinvigorating the Manifest Destiny, or the prominence of America on the world stage after the Civil War, and Alaska played a major role in that. I think I've shown Alaska as a cultural landscape. I wanted to go over kind of what that landscape looks like. I went in, and sort of blocked out the area of Alaska where you didn't have a major influence of the sea, and you can see both from the amount of area that is on the coast, and connected by the ocean, and also the major river systems in Alaska, that clearly, a majority of Alaska, if not two thirds of Alaska is all some type of Maritime Influence Landscape. That really overlays with a number of language groups, and ethnographic landscapes, that were very prominent as late as the mid 1700's and many of them continue today. About 30 percent of Alaska's population is native Alaskan, and most of the folks still strongly associate with these basic language groups, and cultural groups. The cultural landscape of Alaska is overlayed on these ethnographic landscapes. When I got to Alaska, we had a couple of projects cued up for funding. One was the Russian Bishop's house, cultural landscape report. The other was ... Actually we only had that I thought that it would be deadly boring to just study the Russian Bishop's house in Sitca, Alaska as a cultural landscape, because it's about an acre of land and 3 buildings. There are 3 buildings in a little cluster. I said why not repurpose that, and talk more broadly about what the ecclesiastical landscape of Russian America would look like, and how would it contribute to the use of the Russian Bishop's house in Sitca, because we're charged with the studying, we're the only unit in the park service that studies Russian America, so why not use the cultural landscape money that we get, and have a broader focus. I right now got a number of folks that are looking at Russian American Orthodox landscapes all across Alaska, and how they're connected, and how they contribute to the significance of the Russian Bishop's house, and the landscape in Sitca. The other thing that I was very interested in was expansion of the commercial landscape, and we funded a Maritime Cultural Landscape project to study the commercial landscape of Russian America, and the expansion of Russian companies into Alaska, and that includes significant resources like the Erskin House and the Berinoff Castle in Sitca. They both have parallels, so they're going to end up being merged together. I'm going to tack back, and talk about the various things that you would find in a typical cultural landscape. These are basically characteristics, so I don't think I have to go through them too intensively, and they're straight from landscape line, so you can look them up. I'd also mentioned that the characteristics of the landscape had changed, so there's an evolutionary aspect to it that's important to recognize. That means that we can evolve into something else, we can talk about something else if we want to. I wanted to figure out where maritime landscapes fits into this broad NPS perspective. The important thing here is there's some things that change, and there's some things that stay the same, and I wanted to use this as an example in Sitca. This is the development of Sitca early on. That area there is from 1804, and is 1867, so you can see a development of a commercial landscape here, but with elements of it changing, and elements staying the same. I think that's important to recognize. This is just a brief review of Westerdal's Here's the nuts and bolts of the theory part of it. I tried to figure out how these could be merged into some sort of system that would work for Maritime Cultural Landscapes, using characteristics from cultural landscapes, and some of them maritime cultural landscape features that Westerdal does. You have natural features and systems, you could work that as maritime ecosystems and Land use is fishing grounds, coastal industry. Cultural traditions, what Westerdal would call cognitive landscape would be maritime traditions, and maritime ethnography. You could use circulation, has kind of a special meaning and nautical terms, they would be maritime routes and water-site circulation. Westerdal would call those network of sailing Topography, essentially we can go through this, I can give you my presentation so you can review them at your leisure. There are some specific sea terms that I think need to be included. Things that are a part of a maritime landscape, that aren't typically talked about in cultural Those are celestial features. What a star field looks like at sea, because it's critical for navigation and way finding, and it has a special meaning in the pacific islands where there's different systems of You need to have a special category for winds, waves, currents, and ice. Those are typically used as well for navigation, but are also special conditions at sea. You also need to have some sort of special consideration of weather, because weather makes all the difference when you're at sea. With that, I wanted to sort of switch back and talk about significance and integrity. I think significance and integrity are as important, or more important than what I talked about before, because the characteristics are really ontological terms, and aren't really a substitute for the actual resources you see in the field. At some point in the future, you'll see some sort of updating of the Russian American NHL theme study to incorporate ecclesiastical landscapes and commercial landscapes of Russian
Please choose a language Pay My Bill Make a difference Donate Looking for a doctor? Click Here Patient Portal Click Here What To Know About Child Eye Health Having good eyesight is an important part of completing activities and daily responsibilities. Vision is used to gather information, trigger motor responses, and estimate distances. While adults may be able to detect a change in their vision, it is often difficult for children to identify and express. Emily Mason, Occupational Therapist at Keystone Pediatric Therapies, shares what parents need to know about children’s eye health. Are eye chart screenings enough? Many children are required to have annual eye exams via school or the doctor. However, while these facilities are evaluating children’s visual acuity (clarity of vision), they are often not examining developmental eye movements, or how the eyes are working together. The prevalence of visual deficits and difficulties is increasing among children with special needs, affecting 75% to 90% of these children. What are developmental eye movements? Developmental eye movements include saccades, tracking/pursuits, and convergence. Saccadic eye movements are quick movements of the eyes between two points in various directions (left and right, diagonally, up and down). These movements should be a short, quick movement between the targets, and the child should be able to do it without moving his or her head. These eye movements are important for tasks such as spatial awareness and reading. Pursuits, or tracking, are eye movements that follow a moving object in various directions. The children’s eyes should be moving together, and they should not lose the target object. If the child’s eyes are jumping, or they are required to move their head to track, the child may be experiencing a visual impairment. Convergence is defined as the inward movement of both eyes. This means that the eyes are coming together to focus on a target object. A child’s eyes should move inwards together, in a smooth movement. If one or both of the child’s eyes are not converging or if the convergence is delayed, the child will have difficulty focusing on objects and will have more difficulty participating in activities. What are some signs a child may be having vision difficulty? If a child is experiencing visual deficits, it can have a huge impact on their performance during daily activities. Children with visual impairment often experience increased difficulty with academic activities – often struggling with handwriting, math, reading and attention. In addition to academic activities, children may also struggle with dressing tasks such as tying shoes and fastening buttons or zippers, which limits overall independence. Vision also plays an important role in motor components of activities such as hand-eye coordination, balance and manipulating small pieces, which are all skills needed to engage in daily activities. How can occupational therapy help? Occupational therapists work to improve and sustain quality of life and independence of their patients during their daily lives. Since vision is an important aspect of participating in activities, occupational therapists can integrate vision activities into treatment sessions. By working to improve how a patient’s eyes work together, occupational therapists can, as a result, help to improve a person’s or child’s overall performance and participation in activities that are important to the patient.
Sniglets & Reframing A sniglet is a word that does not have a dictionary meaning. Two sniglets that I use often with my students are quest and tuiz. These are both summative assessments that are longer than a quiz, but shorter than a test. Here are a few sniglets that I came up with: Excusababble: (noun) When a student give a reason or explanation for not having his or her homework done.excuses Froggerama: (noun) The six minute passing time when one must weave through crowds of people to get from one classroom to another. Queentee: (noun) A nickname given to a person, mostly teachers, who can complete multiple tasks at the same time. Snapaholic: (noun) A person who is addicted to using Snapchat. Sniglets are a wonderful way to emphasize a situation that regular words cannot. What’s the Problem Really? During my first year of teaching, I was the varsity basketball assistant coach. After weeks of practice and going through our new offense we finally had our first game. The girls were prepared, nervous, and excited to get on the court. Despite a hard fought battle on the court, our team ended up losing the game. I remember at halftime the point guard telling the head coach in the locker room that the wing players were not getting open. She had no one to pass the ball to and kept turning the ball over. The head coach and I were telling the other players to get open on the wing, set screens, and move without the ball. We had gone over these things in practice, but thought that this was the problem. The next day we watched the film of the game and saw that the guards getting open was not the real problem. The point guard was dribbling right into the trap on the press break and dribbling around the three point line on offense. The guards were open on the wing right away, but she was waiting too long to pass the ball. By the time she passed the defense shifted and stole the ball. When we showed her the film she began to realize what we were talking about. The next few practices we focused on getting her to look up the floor and pass to the open players right when she sees them. The number of turnovers decreased in the next game and we had more fast break opportunities off of the press break. It is crazy to see the difference in what we thought the problem was and then watching the film back, what actually occurred. Watching film is key in any sport and can highlight mistakes and make them more obvious for players to see. It also displays great plays and gives them context to determine the difference between turnovers and scoring possessions. Through this example of redefining this problem in coaching I learned that it is important to look at a problem through different lenses. We need to consider the situation from different perspectives before jumping to conclusions and defining what we think is the problem. Once the problem is reframed, it is easier to come up with a successful solution. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s
Technology content trusted in North America and globally since 1999 7,702 Reviews & Articles \| 57,116 News Posts TweakTown Rating: 9.5%Manufacturer: FIC More Features How does DDR work? DDR works by using both the rising edge and falling edge of the clock cycle as opposed to PC100/133 SDRAM which uses only the falling edge of the clock cycle. DDR SDRAM uses a new rating standard in order to determine it's PC rating, PC2100 DDR SDRAM actually runs at 266MHz. The way the rating is worked out is this. You take the System Bus, Multiply it by 8 and then multiply it again by 2. So for PC2100 SDRAM we get 133x8x2=2168. This is also the amount of bandwidth the SDRAM supplies so PC2100 SDRAM supplies 2.1GB/s. This is the easiest formula to work this out. Below is a diagram showing how DDR SDRAM works... The AMD 760 supports the new PC1600 and PC2100 DDR SDRAM standards. Unlike VIA's chipsets, the AMD 760 chipset runs it's memory bus synchronous to the FSB. This means that the FSB your CPU uses is the same as the memory uses, you can't get the memory clock on the AMD 760 to +PCICLK like VIA chipsets can. Also another mis-report we have seen in our travels is that the AMD 760 Northbridge doesn't support multiplier adjustments, this is false. The AMD 760 does support multiplier adjustments, as you will see later on in this review. While AMD recommends that motherboard manufactures use the AMD 766 Viper2 Southbridge, however, FIC and most others using the AMD 760 chipsets are using the new VIA 686B Southbridge. The reason behind this according to FIC is that VIA's 686B Southbridge is more supported by the Windows operating system and VIA's USB controllers are a lot more compatible then AMD's 766's. - Overclocking Features The FIC AD11, like the AZ11E has support for overclockers. Two banks of four dipswitches are provided. The top set of Dipswitches (pictured above) adjusts the CPU clock multiplier. The range of the adjustments are form 5x up to 12.5x. Located next to the dipswitches is the jumper, when set to the 1-2 position the CPU runs on its FID multiplier, when set to 2-3 the FID signal is overridden and the multiplier adjustment switches are active. The second set of dipswitches control the CPU core voltage. Again located next to the dipswitches controls the VID. When set to 1-2 the CPU uses its VID to supply the motherboard with the voltage requirements. When set to 2-3 the dipswitches are active and you can control the CPU core voltage. You can adjust the CPU core voltage from 1.45 up to 1.85 in 0.25V increments. FSB adjustments are provided inside the BIOS and can be adjusted from 100Mhz up to 150MHz. A jumper beside the DDR DIMM slots controls the manual override for the FSB selection. While you can adjust the FSB in BIOS you can also use the jumper to set the FSB to either 100MHz or 133MHz. - Socket Layout The Socket A layout is a very clean one, the room provided gave enough room to put either a Thermaltake Orb or Alpha's biggest Socket A cooler the PEP66-T cooler in its default position, making it ideal for overclockers.
Alte Eidgenossenschaft Timeline: Principia Moderni IV (Map Game) OTL equivalent: Old Swiss Confederacy . 1315 - Present Early Swiss cross.svg Unus pro omnibus, omnes pro uno Swiss PMIV Map.png Swiss Confederacy in light purple Official languages Swiss German, Romand, Romansh, Unified Swiss Ethnic groups Swiss Demonym Swiss Religion Roman Catholic, Waldensian, Islam, Eastern Orthodoxy Government Confederation of cantons - Head of State Tre Guppa - Pact of Brunnen signed 1315 - United legislature established 1400 The Swiss Confederacy is a confederal state in Europe consisting of ten autonomous cantons; Uri, Grisons, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Glarus, Berne, Zürich, Zug, Fribourg and Valais. Each canton is largely self-governing, primarily through elected councils, the ten uniting primarily in foreign policy and to uphold shared freedoms, particularly in the face of Austrian aggression. Nominally members of the Holy Roman Empire, the Swiss largely reject its rule. As of 1400, under the Pact of Lucerne, the cantons also share a legislature, the Tagastzung, which allows can make decisions on areas of national interest, such as collective financial and trade policy. Islamic Influences In 1706, Swiss Explorers went to North Africa and the Middle East, bringing back various Islamic Sciences and the religion itself. The Academy of Islamic Mathematics and Art was opened up in Zurich by one of the explorers who had actually converted to Islam. They created a small commune known as Schveis Mekka or Swiss Mecca. Nation Building Unified Swiss Language In 1706, Swiss Linguist and Nationalist Hans Zuremburg set about creating a unified Swiss language to be used in Swiss schools and to eventually replace the common languages used in the region. His work was funded by the Tagastzung legislature. He is set to finish it by 1710 University Building In 1706, the Tagastzung decided to initiate a new education program where off-duty diplomats, soldiers, and merchants would teach children about regional politics, Swiss Democracy, and a variety of other subjects about the world. This was aimed at creating a new generation of crafty Swiss who have very good social skills. Universities made so far include: Radical Syndicalist University, Linguistic University, Islamic Culture University, Belkan Culture University, Burgundian Culture University, Islamic Engineering University, and European Engineering University. Swiss Mercenary Corps The Swiss mercenary corps are a large group of soldiers from the Swiss Confederacy and neighboring cantons that hire themselves out to different nations. They have no allegiance except they won't fight against Switzerland. There are approximately 5,000 men and women in them and they possess state of the art guns and machinery made at the finest engineering universities(see above). Some of them settle down in the areas that they fight in to form small Swiss communities. There is currently a community of 500 Swiss people living on the frontier of British Arcadia, most of whom are or were mercenaries. There is also a community of 1,000 in Aragon, a community of 20(mostly from Swiss Mecca) in Rashidun, and a community of 300 in the Belkan Empire. The others are either travelling all the time or in the service of mainland European armies. Syndicalist Movement The Syndicalist movement is one of the first counter-culture movements known, and was born originally in democratic Swiss universities. Its adherents quickly grew to a group of radical intellectuals, militant peasants, and the urban lower class. They possess a faction which focuses on purely philosophy in the cities and a larger, more militant faction in the frontiers. They have become a growing nuisance to traders and the states bordering the confederacy. Ad blocker interference detected!
You are here Shroud of Turin I. The Birth of the Problem - II. The Linen Sheet known as the “Shroud of Turin” - III. The Information displayed by the Linen and the Information given by the Gospels about the Crucifixion and the Burial of Jesus of Nazareth - IV. Main Historical Steps of the Path of the Shroud - V. Analysis of the Experimental Sciences on the Shroud. 1. The Dating of the Shroud. 2. The Formation of the Image on the Shroud. - VI. Critical Evaluation of our knowledge of the Shroud of Turin - VII. The Shroud between Science and Faith: Relic, Icon, Message. 1. The Origin of the Religious Relationship. 2. The dynamics the relationship. 3. The Message. I. The Birth of the Problem Between the 25th and the 28th of May 1898, the lawyer Secondo Pia took the first photographs of the Shroud kept as a relic in the cathedral of the city of Turin. At the time, the linen was exposed to the public to celebrate the anniversary of the marriage of Vittorio Emanuele (III) of Savoy with Elena of Montenegro. When developing the plates, Pia noticed that in the photographic negative in front of him, was clearly visible a positive image, whilst the signs present on the original shroud and on its positive image turned out to be like a photographic negative of reality (thus inverting the lighter and darker shades of the image). The discovery provoked very strong emotions. Suddenly the features of the suffering man of the Shroud became ever more recognizable and familiar, above all those of the face. This gave origin to a surge of varied initiatives in the field of scientific research that were never again interrupted. A new a-typical discipline called “shroudology” was then born, which was to gather together all scientists interested in the study of this ancient linen. The new perspectives of scientific research provoked a new awareness of the religious relationship that links the believer to the sheet of the Shroud and to the image impressed upon it, increasing both the enthusiasm and the questioning of the possibility that it could actually be the image of Jesus of Nazareth. At the same time, lively discussions began regarding the so-called “authenticity” of the Shroud, centered on two problems: a) whether the sheet originated from the outset of the Christian era (a problem of dating) and b) whether the image on the Shroud had been produced by the contact between the sheet and the lifeless body of Jesus after his removal from the cross (the problem of the image’s origin). No ancient discovery concerning Christian origins has ever provoked such interest, because a unique mark is present in the object, one that draws us closer in a very unique way to the “marked” person. Questions instantly arise: is this the sheet that actually touched the body of Jesus of Nazareth after he was taken down from the cross? Does the image that it presents truly reproduce the features of the man so important for Christian life? To be able to respond to these questions is something that appeals to the minds and hearts of every person. The point is to clarify if only a positive answer to that question would legitimize a religious relationship between the believer and this peculiar linen sheet with its image (see below, VII). The climate in which the discussions and research developed was very animated from the beginning. It witnessed a heightened sensitivity in 1988, when the analysis of the component of C14 (a radioactive carbon isotope) present in the Shroud’s fabric was carried out. The result of this analysis dated the origin of the Shroud’s cloth to between 1260 and 1390 (see below, V.1). The controversial tendencies in the discussions gave witness to extreme positions: one side stated that the verdict was definitive and thus one had to consider as sanctioned the illegitimacy of a religious relationship between the believer and the Shroud; the other side referred to the unreliability of the result (frequently claiming that it had been reached using improper procedures), thus defending the “authenticity” of the discovery of the Shroud and the legitimacy of the religious relationship with it. First of all a correct position concerning the problem needs to be given. The problem arises from, or more precisely it is sharpened by, a scientific announcement, that is the existence of a negative image and its dating. But where exactly does the problem of the science-faith relationship with respect to the Shroud lie? What can or must faith expect from science and what conditions does science impose on faith? First of all one must clarify in which category of religious reality the Shroud is placed: is the image referenced to a fact? Is it the relic of the removal of Jesus from the cross and of his burial (for some also of his resurrection)? An affirmative reply must undoubtedly be given to the first question, since scientific procedures have stated that the image looks not handmade, but linked to a true human corpse; the reply to the second question is categorized as one of possibility. Once again one must ask: what then are the consequences that a specific answer to the preceding questions could have on the relationship of that reality with faith? Where does it put the relationship with faith? Certainly it puts it at the level of the truthfulness of the sign; perhaps also at the level of authenticity of the relic? And therefore, in which way does this act positively in favor of the process which leads to faith? Where does it place the level of significance? Is it in the expressiveness of the image; or also in the materiality of the relationship with the body of Jesus? Why is the religious emotion stronger when facing the awareness of a “physical” contact: why is the density of memory greater? Does it need that “density” to justify the pastoral proposal of devotion or solemn cult toward the Shroud? Is the sign of the Shroud “truer” if the cloth is certain to have touched the body of Jesus? Does the potential absence of such “density” of meaning constitute only a negative aspect because of the situation of uncertainty that derives from it? The reply to these huge problems requires a complex journey of research. Its articulation constitutes the summary of our exploration: a) we begin from the reading of the Shroud’s reality; b) we compare the finding with the data about the passion and burial of Jesus as reported by the Gospels; c) we propose a description of the steps (certain, probable, possible) of the journey that the Shroud has completed before to reaching us; d) to look at the research of the scientists, mathematicians and at the experiments carried out on the Shroud. In conclusion, this enables us to do two things: e) to formulate a judgement on the level of knowledge regarding the reality of the Shroud; f) to offer a religious evaluation of the state of things, with a reply to the questions above. The Shroud of Turin is an ancient linen sheet, of good fabric, of a herringbone structure, around 4.36 meters long (a little bit more when it is stretched) and around 110 centimeters wide. The front and back images of a man are visible on the cover of the sheet, a man who died from the tortures of crucifixion (in the traditional position the frontal part is to the left, the back to the right). The image is not visible on the back of the sheet. On the cover the image is caused by darkening (due to oxidization and dehydration) of the surface fibers of the stretched threads of the fabric; an independent color (carmine) and by contrast they have only the bloodstains, scattered a bit everywhere over the body. The blood has penetrated the barrier of the sheet and is clearly visible on the reverse. After the intervening controversy in the 1980’s between W. McCrone and the chemists J.H. Heller and A. Adler, and the studies undertaken by these last two and by P. Baima Bollone, today one can no longer doubt the reality of the bloodstains (cf. Baima Bollone and Adler, in Barberis and Zaccone, 1998); the analysis, moreover, identified the blood group as AB (cf. Baima Bollone, 1998, pp. 175-178). There can be no doubt that the man represented in the image of the shroud is dead. We have several indications of that. The cadaverous rigidity, evident in the position of the head, as it does not lean backwards on the sheet, but, rather, is inclined slightly forwards; the reclined position of the left foot (for those looking at him, and therefore the right foot of the person crucified), that, after the nails were removed from the cross, has not returned completely parallel to the other, and instead was taut; the stiffness of the limb muscles that touch the floor of the tomb and that have lost the elasticity of life without having taken on the softness of the corpse which begins to decompose. It shows moreover the “cadaverous” blood that gushes from the wound in the chest (because of the hemolysis of the blood) and, in the whole, "the existence of a damaging complex of gravity the result being incompatible with life" (Baima Bollone, 2000b, p. 185). The causes of death are characterized by the torture suffered by the man and visible in the image, particularly the marks of nails in the hands and feet. In addition to these signs, which point directly and unequivocally to crucifixion, the shroud preserves the memory of many other tortures: the face is swollen and covered by a veil of blood (which was also revealed by the electronic scanning of the reverse of the Shroud’s cloth, where images are not visible, while every presence of blood is revealed); it shows swellings, a probable fracture of the nasal septum and a split lip; the hair falls rigidly to the side of the face because of the clotted blood and the beard is also rigid; the forehead is furrowed by a stream of blood, that stops at the eyebrow and, coming over the wrinkles, assumes the figure of an upside down “3” or of a Greek epsilon (ε). Also on the head, the hairs are soaked in blood an one can detect the presence of a multiplicity of small wounds that have damaged the scalp and have caused widespread haemorraging, that flows to the nape of the neck (a place of high hematic density). On the posterior part of the body (back and legs) numerous indications of strokes probably produced by a whip (the presence of it also on the anterior part shows the winding effect impressed by ropes or leather straps) are particularly visible. Again on the posterior part, at shoulder height, two dark stains are noticeable, probably from the rubbing of the trunk of the body over the cross, the patibulum (gibbet), as it was carried by the condemned man (except that which deals with “cadaverous bruising,” cf. Zacà, in Baima Bollone, 2000b, p. 178). On the front part of the human figure, in the fifth intercostal position, a large wound is present (4.5 x 1.5 cm) from which that cadaverous blood came, the blood that during the transport of the body has formed a belt across the back. Returning to the wrist wounds, from the left (the only one discovered, as the other is hidden under the left hand) a double flow of blood can be seen, due to the diverse positions assumed on the cross of the condemned man in the effort of making inhalation from the thorax possible. The man of the Shroud thus died from the torture of crucifixion. What it is more difficult to say, is who this man was. The Shroud owes its name and its interest to the Gospels; nevertheless one has the impression that, of all the sciences that are involved with the Shroud, biblical exegesis has the least to say about it. It is very clear that the Gospels are not able to give an indication that will lead us to conclude that the sheet conserved at Turin is 2000 years old and covered the body of Jesus Christ. Nevertheless, when looking at the Shroud one cannot also avoid looking at the Gospels. The fact that for centuries multitudes of the faithful have instinctively connected what they have observed on the sheet with what the Gospels narrate of the Passion of Jesus, can only provoke the scientist’s curiosity. Other secular remnants have in themselves a very weak symbolism and arouse interest almost exclusively because of a long tradition of popular devotion to them. The Shroud, on the other hand, has an original message of its own, provoking a religious sentiment that transcends the sheet, and becomes a living relationship with Him to whom the sheet seems to refer. The image of the Shroud is a “story,” whoever reads it discovers the truth of an event and also manages to follow its development. The fact that another story exists, this time a literary one, that narrates an analogous event —and analogous in a unique way— the protagonist of which we know as well as the facts that preceded his death, obliges the researcher to perform a first check. Biblical exegesis is competent on this second story. It is responsible for clarifying all of that which corresponds and that which is incompatible within the two “stories”. By reading the Gospels, can we consider —with grounds for truth— the hypothesis that the actual “Turin Shroud” corresponds to the funeral sheet that wrapped the body of Jesus? Or is such a correspondence incompatible with the data recorded by the Scriptures? The setting for the Gospel story regarding the Shroud is that of the Passion and burial of Jesus of Nazareth (cf. Mk chs. 26-27; Lk chs. 22-23; Jn chs. 18-19) and of the discovery of the empty tomb (cf. Jn 20:3-10; Lk 24:12) (cf. Ghiberti, 1982). The verification of the possible convergences can begin with the very name given to the linen sheet. The “find” preserved at Turin has more than one, according to language: Turin Shroud or also Holy Shroud, Sindone de Torino, Linceul de Turin or Saint Suaire, Sábana Santa, Heiliges Gratuch or Turiner Grabtuch. The Latin name that has accompanied the presence in the West of this sheet is that of Sacrosancta Sindon Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, from which the Italian “Sindone” is derived. This is a technical term, because it is not usually applied to other sheets or covers. This term is one of those present in the three synoptic Gospels (Mt, Mk and Lk) to indicate the sheet (or a sheet) used for the burial of Jesus. Exegesis looks to see whether originally the name indicated the Shroud that we know. The answer could be given only if one keeps in mind both the semantic potentiality of the term and the verbs that indicate the use made of this cloth. The semantic spectrum of the Greek sindón leads us to a cloth or sheet that could be found in an unbleached state or already prepared for a specific use (for example, as a tunic, that could be used for burial purposes). The possibilities of meaning are therefore wide and leave open the questions on the forms, on the type of material (most likely linen) and on its size, because the documentation of the use is numerous and imprecise. It is in a sindón that the body of Jesus is wrapped. “Wrap” could also be understood as placing the cloth that lies under the corpse over the front part of the body, making it turn behind the head, just as was thought happened with the sheet of Turin. Certainly, if the Shroud of Turin did not exist, we would perhaps not be drawn instinctively to interpret the verb “to wrap” in this sense, but it is important that such a meaning is not excluded by the semantic capacity of the term. In the Gospel according to John (cf. Jn 19:38-42, to be completed with vv. 20:3-10) the details are provided, but they are not easily reconcilable with those of the synoptic Gospels. It no longer speaks of the “Shroud”, instead it refers to a “cloth” (Gr. othónia) and then a “towel” (Gr. soudárion), while in the case of the burial of Lazarus (cf. Jn 11:38-44) it speaks, more than that of a towel, also of “burial bands” (Gr. keiríai). These bands or strips (that were not used for the burial of Jesus) served to firmly bind the hands and the feet, so that during the journey towards the sepulcher the limbs of the body would not come away, given that the body is buried a short time after death (and therefore would not have totally succumbed to cadaverous rigidity). The “cloths” are indicated in the plural and are therefore this is a sign that more than one of them was seen, whilst the “towel” (that of Lazarus “covered” the face: cf. Jn 11:44) for Jesus “had covered his head” (cf. Jn 20:7). Now, the Shroud of Turin is the a single cloth and, moreover, does not suggest the presence of a towel over the head, given that the intensity of the Shroud’s image is homogeneous on all of the body’s surface, with no less intensity on the face. A possible suggestion comes from the way in which the cloths appeared to those who found them “lying” in the tomb: if Jesus would have been wrapped (in reality John says “rolled”) in the way that is foreseen in the Shroud, then after the resurrection the visitor would have seen the cloth in its upper and lower parts, as an apparent plurality. The towel could also have been folded, or rolled, and used around the face under the chin, and so it would not have been interposed between the face and the Shroud. It holds true that in the synoptic Gospels and in John there are elements to favor a certain wrapping of the body of Jesus for the burial, though it is not easy to imagine in concrete terms how it was carried out. This excludes the possibility that the sindón can be considered a death tunic, because it would not be practical to speak of wrapping in a tunic (the unexpected circumstances of the death of Jesus and the haste in placing the body also make the recourse to a tunic improbable); instead two possibilities remain: either the body was placed in a large cloth, and upon this were gathered the items of cloth (which were then fixed with bindings), or it was placed on the lower half of the cloth (long and stretched), that was then wrapped behind the head and then brought down to the front part (this is the way suggested by the vision of the image on the shroud). On the basis of John’s data we can neither negate nor affirm the addition of some item of fabric omitted by the synoptic Gospels: we cannot exclude the possibility that for transporting the body on the brief journey to the sepulcher something analogous to the bindings or keiríai were used to keep the feet and hands together. One could conclude that the use of the expression “wrap in a shroud” could also be used to explain that which we see today in the shroud sheet: a cloth of that form, used in that way. Due to the particularities of the tortures suffered by the two protagonists of the two stories, Jesus of Nazareth and the man of the Shroud, the consistencies between them are quite suggestive. There is an exceptional coincidence between the tortures described in the Gospels and those visible on the image of the Shroud: the crown of thorns, facial harassment, flagellation, nailing of hands and feet, wound on the side. Some of these features are not so usual in the old descriptions —generally quite sparing of details— of crucifixions (i.e. the crowning with thorns, the spear that pierced the man after his death): to find them both in the Gospel and on the Shroud is a clear indication of correlation between the two “stories.” The most natural explanation of the presence of such features, suggests that they came about from the contact between the shroud and the body of Jesus once he was taken down from the cross; were it not Jesus, it would then be normal to ask ourselves whether those tortures were inflicted on a different person in exactly the same way. This remains, however, a gratuitous conjecture. There are some difficulties though in admitting the compatibility between the Shroud and the Gospels (cf. Ghiberti, in Scannerini and Savarino, 2000, pp. 273-284). First of all the image on the shroud seems to be the outcome of an almost perfectly perpendicular projection. The differences in the intensity of the colors seem only to be a consequence of the distance between the different points of the body from the shroud, and not due to the presence of other kind of linen cloths. Is all that compatible with the verbs used by the Gospels? Concerning the “plurality” of the cloths and the towel “over his head”, a probable answer has already been given above. Regarding the verbs which indicate the wrapping of the corpse (Gr. entylísso, eneiléo, déo) it is not clear whether or not they mean a kind of wrapping which includes all parts of the body. The procedure with which the ointments were used (Gr. arómata, myron, smyrna, alóe) is perhaps less important for our research. Besides, the grave (gr. mnemeîon, mnêma, táphos) does not represent a problem. Maybe a “trough grave” (hollow in the shape of a bath) could better explain the orthogonal projection on a new shroud, stretched and kept in a half-rigid position on the corpse. We still do not know precisely how the Jews of Jesus’ time used to prepare the corpse before the burial (Gr. entaphiázei, in Jn 19:40). We presume that in such a big occasion as the parasceve of that “great sabbath” the rituals of the preparation of the corpse would have been shorter than usual. The fact then that the corpse was that of a sentenced man, implies other possible prescriptions. What interests us is the conclusion of the very probable omission of the washing of the corpse. The man of the Shroud has a beard and long hair; some suggest that he might have had a kind of pony-tail plaît. Does this coincide with the Jewish customs for men’s hair at the time of Jesus? The objections regarding the hair do not seem to be convincing, neither for the “pony-tail” (whose presence is disputable) nor concerning the alleged impossibility of having long hair: it is not to be excluded that Jesus lived at least a period of his life as “Nazirite” (a Jewish vow which included the prohibition of shaving the head); moreover, the prohibition of having long hair cannot be shown as a practised law. Methodologically though, it will be necessary to consider the question of the historiographical intentions of the evangelists when they (or their sources) chose to adopt a specific terminology. It is possible that the narrative intentions of those stories do not include single episodes, especially in John. From all the particularities that we have mentioned here, we can equally reach the conclusion that between the “Shroud” and the pages of the Gospels there is no incompatibility. IV. Main Historical Steps of the Path of the Shroud The most ancient story about the “Shroud” is linked to a very uncertain event: the date of its origin. The report of the analysis of C14 present in the cloth, made public on the 13th of October 1988, dates it between 1260 and 1390: if it is to be believed, the story of the Shroud coincides with its known European period; if it is not, then it is possible to think of an earlier origin. In 1353 in Lirey, in the diocese of Troyes in France, a church was completed in honor of the Annunciation of Mary by Geoffroy de Charny, who entrusted the Shroud to the canons of the church itself (cf. Zaccone, 1997). The Shroud soon became an object of veneration and attracted crowds of pilgrims. This fact arouses many controversies that lasted for decades and involved many figures of authority such as Bishop Pierre d’Arcy, King Charles VI and the anti-pope Clement VII. First, accusations were made that the Shroud was a false relic, ending with permission being given for its exhibition, though with some cautions. From that time on, we are able to read the history of the Shroud in an uninterrupted fashion. In 1418 the Shroud was removed from the church of Lirey by the last Charny, Margaret, wife of Humbert de La Roche; in 1453 she handed it over to Louis of Savoy. The Savoys kept it as a precious relic and always carried it with them wherever they went until 1502 when they placed it in the chapel of their palace in Chambéry, which, in 1506, received its own liturgy (the feast is the 4th of May) from Pope Julius II (1503-1513), and where it suffered the disastrous fire of the 4th of December 1532. The effects of the damage were carefully repaired by the Poor Clare nuns of Chambéry in 1534. In 1578 Emanuel Philibert ordered the cloth to be brought to Turin, the new capital of his duchy and in 1694 it was placed in the Guarini Chapel, built on the dividing line between the cathedral and the Royal Palace of Turin. The Shroud again went with the Royal family to Liguria in 1706 and left the city for one more, and final, time between 1939 and 1946, going to the Benedictine Abbey of Montevergine, in Campania, to escape the dangers of the bombings of World War II. The exhibitions during the Savoyard and Torinese periods were initially very frequent, but from 1700 became considerably more rare. They were common when the feasts of the dynasty were celebrated: for example for the marriage of Vittorio Emanuele (II) in 1842, of Umberto (I) in 1868, of Vittorio Emanuele (III) in 1898, of Umberto (II) in 1931 (the last two were delayed). There were successive exhibitions in 1933 (for the “Jubilee of Redemption”), in 1978 (for the 400 anniversary of its arrival in Turin), in 1998 (for the centenary of the first photograph, the 500th anniversary of the cathedral and the 1600th anniversary of the Council of Turin) and in 2000 (for the Jubilee to mark the end of the Second Millennium). In 1973 a televised exhibition was permitted. On various occasions there were private exhibitions, for example, in 1804 when Pius VII passed through Turin on the way to France; in 1980 for Pope John Paul II; and on 14th April 1997, after the fire on the night of 11th/12th (from which the Shroud escaped undamaged). How the Shroud reached Lirey is not clearly known: some say it was a gift or a “conquest”. The latter is hypothetical and is reconstructed on the basis of information whose interpretation is uncertain (cfr. Dubarle, 1985; Dubarle and Leynen, 1998). The year 1204 is crucial for the news that the Latin crusades had reached the city of Constantinople. One of them, Robert de Clari, describes the relics that he venerated in the Christian Capital of the Orient: among them a Shroud on which the image of Christ is visible. After the sacking of Constantinople its presence there can no longer be recalled and one assumes that it reached the West or ended up in the hands of the Templars or, after a stay in Athens, ended up in the hands of French knights who had resided there. The assertion that the Shroud of Turin is identical to the shroud venerated in Constantinople is less easy to make than maintaining it was certainly the same appeared in Lirey. In awaiting a sure response to such a question, how can we fail to ask what happened to that shroud before it arrived in Constantinople? It is fairly probable that it was preserved in the capital of the Eastern Empire since 944, when the emperor Roman I Lecapenus (920-944) managed to come into possession of the Mandylion of Edessa. This obviously presupposes accepting the identification of the two finds a one and the same reality. The principal source of information is the homily of Gregory the Referendary on the arrival of the image on the 16th August 944. He speaks of the bloodied face and the side from which blood and water pours. In Edessa (today Urfa) such an image was present at the beginning of the 7th century. There is a reference to that in the legend connected to the King of Edessa Abgar V (9-46 A.D.), as reported by Eusebius of Cesarea (260-339). According to Eusebius, the king, who had fallen gravely ill, had an image sent to him by Jesus himself. For the presence of the Mandylion in Edessa and the hypothesis of its relationship with the Shroud we refer to Wilson (1978 and 1998), Dubarle (1985), Dubarle and Leynen (1998), Zaninotto in Zaccone (1997). The historical core in this complex mass of information is obscure and to solve its difficulties many possible responses have been put forward. The Mandylion showed only the face of Jesus, but they speak of a tetradiplon cloth (i.e. doubled in four), probably because the long sheet, folded twice and then in four, left only one eighth of the total area visible, i.e., that of the face (on this question cf. Dietz, in Scannerini and Savarino, 2000, pp. 330-357, who correct and complete the hypothesis). This face was contemplated by the artists who followed Emperor Justinian I, a pious devotee to the relic of Edessa. He had introduced a “model” for the face of Jesus (testified by the ancient icons of Saint Catherine in Sinai) that seem to have had constant features: a bearded face with long hair, parted from the crown of the head, perhaps completed by a curl left free on the center of the forehead; the face was asymmetrical, due to a swelling in the left cheek. From a certain moment onward, it was spread the so-called depiction of the “body taken down from the cross” and laid on a linen cloth placed on the ground. For a long time it seems that the Shroud was looked at only for that part that showed the face. For some of the people of Edessa, the Mandylion constituted a relic, for others a reason for scandal, especially in the iconoclast period. This would also explain its periodic appearances in the form of copies produced time by time (the mandilia): noteworthy are those of Genoa and the Vatican, but they were also to be displayed in Constantinople. Whoever accepts this hypothesis, links the movement of the Shroud from Jerusalem to Edessa to one of the phases of the tradition of Abgar V, and places the date somewhere in the middle of the Second Century. The state of things briefly described here is judged in a different way by scholars: the lack of sure information over a period of thirteen centuries is held by some to be an insurmountable difficulty, one of the weakest points in the scientific discussion about the Shroud. Others hold that the absence of reliable data for such an object is not exceptional at all, when compared with other ancient finds, which often carry no other message than their own reality. It is true, however, that the reconstruction of the story of the Shroud requires recourse to other information that can only be offered by the scientific study of the object itself. V. Analysis of the Experimental Sciences on the Shroud When was the Shroud with its image made? How was the image itself formed? History could answer the first question, while historical data are certainly not enough to answer the second. Indeed they are lacking in both and require a systematic recourse to experimental sciences. "The Turin Shroud is undoubtedly a medical-legal record that must be studied using criteria and techniques which are proper to disciplines belonging to that area, one located in the middle between clinical anatomy and human sciences" (Baima Bollone 2000c, p. 4). The 20th century has seen a great number of sciences involved with the Shroud; here we shall only look at those that focus on our two problems. 1.The Dating of the Shroud. In demonstrating the age of the Shroud, it is not controversial to say that it dates back to at least the middle of the 14th Century (Lirey): later attributions, for example to the life of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), are a scientific absurdity. Here we will mention some elements favorable to its dating back to ancient times and some others which make this hypothesis questionable. Palynology, or science of pollen, started to have a role in dating the Shroud when professor Max Frei, an expert from the criminal police of Zurich, obtained material preserved in the interstices between the threads by applying adhesive bands to the surface of the Shroud (between November 1973 and October 1978). Among these residues he found the spores of various plants. By studying such material by means of an ordinary optical microscope and later by an electronic scanning microscope, Frei identified the pollens of 58 different plant species by comparing them with pictures of known pollens. At the time of his untimely death he was working on the identification of another 15 species. Frei himself travelled to Israel to deepen his knowledge of the botany in that area; later on, Israeli botanical experts (Avinoam Danin and Uri Baruch) were to intervene. None of the species discovered were extinct, all of them were known. From the spores found on the Shroud, the criminologist went back to the different localities in which the linen sheet had to have been. The discoveries of Frei and the studies of Danin and Baruch allowed one to say that the Shroud had been in the Mediterranean area. Moreover, some species are proper only to areas which correspond to the place of Edessa or to present day Israel. The most interesting observation concerns the fact that three species (Cistus creticus, Gundelia Tournefortii, Zygophyllum dumosum) survive together in some areas of Palestine. All of this allow us to hypothesize about the trajectory of the movements of the Shroud. It also favors the idea that the sheet laid open in a certain season of the year, that is in Spring. Does it also lead to any conclusions about the date of the Shroud? Only the story of botany would permit a response, if one of the species found within the Shroud tissue were to be extinct for example, exactly 2000 years ago. The fact that that branch of botany is still underdeveloped, and that all the species found up to this point are still living, removes the point of this argument. The trail is correct, but the research is not yet conclusive. Numismatics (cataloging and historical dating of coins) is a notoriously recent instrument of dating archaeological finds. The findings of Filas (from 1954) and those of P. Baima Bollone and N. Balossino (1997), who detected on the eyes of the crucified man of the Shroud the signs of the presence of various low-value coins (of the lepton family) coined by Pilate in the years 29 and 30 of the Common Christian Era, are of great interest in that respect. In fact they would allow us to date the time of the burial of the crucified man of the Shroud to those same years. Nevertheless the findings are not sure and this research also is not conclusive (cf. Balossino, in Barberis and Zaccone, 1998). The method of historical dating by measuring C14 chemical abundance is able to estimate the years that have passed from the time in which organisms, that were present in some particular finding, have ceased to live. This takes advantage of the carbon cycle existing in nature, based on the following fundamental fact. In organic matter three carbon isotopes exist, C12, C13 and C14, having an increasing mass number (whose nuclei are formed by six protons and, respectively, by six, seven and eight neutrons). Of these isotopes, C14 is present in a minimal amount. It is unstable and radioactive. It undergoes neutron decay (n —> p) emitting β particles (electrons), and transforming itself, as time goes on, into the Nitrogen isotope N14. While the organism remains alive, the total amount of C14 remains in a state of equilibrium with the other Carbon isotopes through the metabolic exchange with external environment. From the moment in which life stops, the amount of the radioisotope is no longer renewed and gradually begins to diminish in a constant fashion, having reduced to 50% of its mass after a period of approximately 5,730 years. The research by this method was applied to our case, supposing that the fabric of the Shroud was made just after the cessation of the plant’s life from which the fibers were extracted and thus used, after a short time, for the burial purpose that we know. From the measurement of the chemical abundance of C14 present on the Shroud today, the age of the Shroud can be measured. In order to carry out this examination on some samples of the linen cloth, it was decided to use a mass accelerator spectrometer. The analysis was entrusted to the laboratories of Zurich, Oxford and Tucson. The sampling was carried out on the 21th of April 1988. A sample of 50 mg weight was sent to each laboratory. Along with the sample of the Shroud, they were delivered other three samples of ancient fabrics whose age were known (ranging from the Roman to the Late Medieval period). The examination would have to be carried out blindly, but the sample of the Shroud was identified immediately. The result the examination was communicated to Cardinal Anastasio Ballestrero, the papal custodian of the Shroud, on the 28th of September of that year. He made it public on the 13th of October. According to the three laboratories, the Shroud was dated back to a period between 1260 and 1390 of the Christian Era. The intensity of the controversy that followed this news is easily understandable considering what was at stake, but it was also caused by the report of some improper aspects which would have occurred during the development of the procedure. We do not want to list them here; certainly, the refusal to accept both the presence of scientific representatives of the owner of the Shroud and the collaboration of scholars of the Shroud, prevented the researches from taking advantage of a wider knowledge, for instance in order to enable the samples to be freed from pollution. Against the results obtained during the 1988 analysis two kinds of objections were made, firstly by A. Kouznetsov and secondly by L.A. Garza Valdes. The Russian scholar Kouznetsov took a sample of cloth, which dated back certainly to the Roman period, and exposed it to a simulation of fire in conditions similar to that which happened in Chambéry in 1532 (including contact with water and the presence of silver ions), finding out a radiocarbon “rejuvenation” of the analyzed tissue. The Texan scholar Valdes Gauze instead made the hypothesis that living micro-organisms of the liconothelia type have been present for a long time on the sheet, thus altering the radiodating. The results of these tests are not sufficient for overturning the radiocarbon report of 1988. The experiments carried out by Kouznetsov’s showed a retro-dating that is still not sufficient, and those made by Garza Valdes were performed on material that was not definitely from the Shroud. Nevertheless, these researches indicate the possibility that the 1988 measurements could not have taken into account all the conditionings on the Shroud in the course of its history. Today it seems reasonable to affirm that "the problem of the radio-carbon dating of the Shroud is still open; although the results obtained in the 1988 measurements are a step forward in solving that complex scientific and historical puzzle which is the Turin Shroud, they cannot be considered conclusive" (Savarino, in Barberis and Zaccone 1998, p. 205). In addition to direct tests, “indirect tests” could also be indicative of the age of the Shroud, in particular those that lead one to exclude any falsifying or deceit about its origin. The knowledge gained by the discovery of photography, and, with photography, by computer analysis that showed the characteristic of tri-dimensionality, is unfavorable in classing the Shroud as a medieval artefact, because the product easily goes far beyond all the projectual possibilities of that age. A “negative” test could be considered the same quality of the fabric, once held to be too refined and complex for a hypothesis of Palestine origin from the era of Christ. Today, however, both the presence of linen fabrics and the binding technique known as “fish spine” are well documented in the area of Egypt and Syria from the centuries preceding the pre-Christian era (cfr. Baima Bollone, 2000c, pp. 13-17). 2. The Formation of the Image on the Shroud. Today no procedure is yet known that could explain the way in which the human image on the Shroud was formed. Photographic and computer research have lead us to exclude presence of signs of pictorial tampering. Experiments of every kind have been carried out in accordance with the details of the Gospel accounts, especially using ointments as reported by John 19,39-40. Images and marks have been produced in several ways, but none of them having the resolution and accuracy shown by the signs on the Shroud (cf. Baima Bollone, 2000b, p. 161; Milanesio, Siracusa and Zacà, 1997; Balossino and Siracusa, in Ghiberti and Casale, 1998). Three classes of explanations have now been proposed, resulting from more or less in-depth experiments: image formation through contact, through vapor (vaporigraphy), or image formation by radiating energy. Scientists are convinced that these kinds of explanations, however, can only give a partial account of how the image was actually produced. Two main streams of thought are in evidence today: some suggest that the image was obtained thanks to the heating of a statue or cast in bronze on which the Shroud was placed, others suggest that it was produced by the emission of light (or other forms of energy) that occurred at the time of Jesus’ resurrection. The first resulted unsustainable by simply comparing the Shroud with a number of attempts made following the above procedure. In contrast to the image on the Shroud, the image formed in the simulations is visible also on the back of the cloth, and it disappears within a few months. The second suggestion, instead, has the limit of being untestable, as the resurrection is an unrepeatable event which goes beyond the field of experimental sciences (for a suggestive proposal by Sebastiano Rodante see Scannerini and Savarino, 2000, pp. 167-168). From the scientific viewpoint, nobody can say what will happen in the future: for the time being the only objective attitude is that of the nescimus, i.e., we do not know. At this point at least some partial results need to be stated. The correspondence between the Gospel accounts and the “account” of the Shroud allow us to hypothesize that there was a relationship between the event of Jesus’ Passion and the formation of the image of the Shroud. The possibility still remains, as already pointed out, that the image is that of a man who experienced the same crucifixion and death as Jesus of Nazareth, and who was then wrapped in the cloth that we know as the Shroud today. But this hypothesis, though not impossible, is not supported by any argument and, looked at closely, is also highly improbable. If, instead, the Shroud was the funeral cloth used in the burial of Jesus himself, even without needing to endorse any of the theories proposed to explain the image’s formation (all insufficient), it is inevitable to admit a “contact”, that is, a fairly close connection, between the corpse and the sheet. The latter shows up, in this respect, several different marks: the signs due to the blood must have preceded the formation of the image of the whole body, and affected the fabric deeper with respect to what caused the complete image. The blood is visible on the back, the image is not. We cannot say if the intensity of the image has varied in time: whether at the beginning it was immediately fairly visible, whether with time, it has diminished. The intensity of the contrast between the image and the background has certainly diminished, and therefore it has become difficult to see the complete image with its distinguishing marks. VI. Critical Evaluation of our knowledge of the Shroud of Turin The steps taken up to this stage, demand a careful conclusion. Starting from the similarity existing between the account in the New Testament of the passion and death of Jesus of Nazareth and the data that can be observed on the Shroud, we have carried out an initial attempt to verify whether the account of Jesus’ burial is compatible with the image of the Shroud. The conclusion is that “there is no incompatibility” between them. Focusing our attention on the possibility that the Shroud (sheet and image) is the cloth or one of the clothes used for burying Jesus (we usually would call this fact “historical authenticity”), we have looked for clues, in the fields of historical and experimental sciences, that could confirm or contradict the authenticity of the Shroud. It was possible to say with certainty that the origin of the image is not the work of a painter. The discovery of the negative-positive photographic effect and of the three-dimensional character of the Shroud’s image, leads us to exclude any intentional falsification. In fact, until quite recently, the knowledge of those effects was unknown not only to the common people but also to scientists. The same can be said of all possible artificial interventions that have been tried so far, which have shown themselves to be incapable of supporting the hypothesis of planned interference to produce the result that we have. Except for the C14 analysis, the various sciences applied to the study of the Shroud of Turin show that this linen sheet is an unicum: it is an object that can be explained only if we suppose that its origin lies in its use when burying Jesus. None of the results provide a judgement of historical or experimental certainty, capable of demonstrating that the Shroud was the burial sheet of Jesus, but their convergence is highly significant. The nature of such a conclusion is not mathematical in character: the only “mathematical” result is the one concerning the carbonium analysis, which seems to deny that the origin of the Shroud dates back to Jesus. Actually, the method by measuring the C14 isotope would provide mathematical certainty, only when a complete thorough knowledge of all the situations and circumstances of each single case or find is definitely available. However, this certainty is far from being acknowledged. We still have many cases of divergence between the dates indicated by archaeologists or botanists (for example, starting from the rings of a tree trunk) and those indicated by radiocarbon measurements. It is right therefore to continue the research along all the avenues open to us. In the difficulty of evaluating this mass of data, the method of computing the probabilities can be of some help (cf. Barberis, in Barberis and Savarino, 1997 and in Barberis and Zaccone 1998; cf. also Fanti and Marinelli, 1999). It is an attempt to provide a quantitative, not merely a qualitative, evaluation of how probable is a conjecture or the happening of a specific event. The method is very suggestive, but must be applied with scientific correctness. The computation of the degree of probability for a statement or an event depends on the correctness of our archaeological and historical knowledge, which needs to be based on a precise amount of information. Unfortunately, the information we have is often approximate and incomplete. For this reason calculations can change a great deal depending on the operators. For instance, a statement such as «the Shroud of Turin is authentic because it has all the characteristics of a Hebrew burial sheet of the 1st century» can be refused from all viewpoints when one acknowledge the fact that we do not know anything about Hebrew funeral sheets of the 1st century, simply because the relevant documentation is missing. The accuracy of the level of probability of each single statement is also variable: if, for instance, the abrasions on the shoulder and shoulder blade of the man in the Shroud had not been caused by the patibulum carried by the convicted man before reaching the place of torture, but had only been “corpse-like bruises,” the probability that such signs can be attributed to crucifixion would be significantly reduced. Although we hesitate to use the probabilistic method, which may have been viewed with excessive enthusiasm, its suggestive strength remains. The cumulative convergence of many probabilities, of various degrees, increases the truthfulness of the affirmation of the direct origin of the Shroud from the event of the death and burial of Jesus of Nazareth. According to similar considerations made by Y. Delage, P. de Gail and T. Zeuli, Barberis concludes his calculations claiming that «within a sample of 200 billion crucified men only one would have all the seven relevant characteristics owned by the man of the Shroud» (Barberis, in Barberis and Zaccone, 1998, p. 275). Fanti and Marinelli (1999), with a more complex calculation of probabilities (but in numerous points not spared by criticism), set forth that the authenticity of the Shroud can be demonstrated with the highest level of confidence, near to 100%, thus claiming for the Shroud the qualification of a true religious relic (cf. p. 188). However, I consider it impossible to share this last conclusion, since these authors do not take into account enough the prudential limits set by the response of the C14 analysis, which so far has been put into debate, but not cancelled. Neither do they seem to give enough weight to the uncertainties that remain in the field of historical reconstruction. Nevertheless, the probability method is of some relevance, although it does not allow one to acknowledge in a demonstrative way the authenticity of the Shroud, not even in a “moral” sense. The sum of the probabilities increases, maybe, the degree of the global probability, but it does not produce absolute certainty; this is particularly true when the case is questionable (at times very questionable , as in the case of supposed writings on the fabric or for the coins over the eyes) or when the research that supports this has not yet reached a conclusion (as in the case of the pollens or, above all, in the recognizing of the coins). VII. The Shroud between Science and Faith: Relic, Icon and Message The path here summarized allows us to say that it is possible that the Shroud of Turin belongs to the first century of the Christian era; it is also possible that the body of Jesus, once taken down from the cross, was wrapped in it. It is reasonable to acknowledge that these assertions carry a degree of serious probability. To go beyond this, affirming that we have a complete certainty of that, seems to us to be unjustified. We have also to add that it would be unjustified to assert that the Shroud is definitely an object of the Late Medieval or Modern ages; completely less legitimate is to state that the Shroud is a deliberate fake. There are reasons in favor of the Later Medieval period, but they are not definitive. At the same time, there is no absolute certainty that the Shroud is from the Roman era and that it was in contact with the body of the crucified Jesus: the reasons and proofs we have still do not solve the problem in a satisfactory manner. The question arises whether the previous conclusions lead to consequences for the Christian faith in the Son of God, crucified and risen from the dead. The reality of the Shroud seems to point us towards two things: to recognize the obscurity in which our knowledge is debated (only for the time being? or perhaps it will always be so?); to value all the aspects contained in this “mystery,” as the Shroud is an image undoubtedly related to the passion and death of Jesus, a sheet that could have wrapped his body. The believer can be brought to think that, at least for the moment, God has decided that for the fundamental issues aroused by the Shroud —that are a suitable object for scientific research, but also lead one to “suspect” the existence of a dimension that transcends that research— it is not possible to give a unambiguous, decisive answer. 1. The Origin of the Religious Relationship. Having recognized what belongs to the mere facts, one can then look at the consequences there involved. Past and present history has always noted that the faith of believers had a specific interest in the Shroud. In order to characterize such a religious relationship, we must start from what is more typical of the Shroud itself: that is, the image it contains and the exceptional correspondence between this image and a very special event as recorded by the Gospels. The Shroud gives a particularly evocative testimony of the event of the passion and death of Jesus, expressing with visual language what the Gospels express, much more concisely, with literary language. It follows that, for those who are acquainted with the history of Jesus, the vision of the Shroud becomes a spontaneous reference to the Gospels and the Shroud itself becomes a witness, a silent yet eloquent echo of the voice of the Gospel. All of this happens in the believer’s feeling before the questions on the “why” of the Shroud are asked, and before answers are looked for by means of scientific investigation. The relationship between the believer and the Shroud is, in its spontaneous phase, pre-scientific in nature. One can indeed say that, before the dialogue with science begins, a direct relationship between the history of Jesus and the origin of the Shroud has already been postulated, because of the exceptional nature of the connection between the two narrations. Science is called into play for the verification of this “suspicion” and for the reply to every other question regarding the cloth, its conservation, and the origin of the image. The “religious” relationship, which involves at some level the believer’s faith, has already begun, and this is quite legitimate. The presence of such an immediate and original relationship is what explains and justifies the corresponding pastoral initiatives undertaken by the Church, having the Shroud as its object. The characteristics of the relationship of faith are set out on a wide range. First of all the veneration for an object that, by the nature of its mark, refers back to the person who is the direct object of believer’s faith and love, that is to Jesus Christ. It is obvious that the sign, the Shroud in itself, is not directly the target of any act of faith, but it is undeniable that it is placed in the “economy” of faith, developing an auxiliary function. Nor it is, in itself, the object of the believer’s love, though it reflects something which brings the beloved person of Jesus closer to us, and therefore it is looked upon with a feeling of reverence and devotion. The sign here involved is not conventional, but natural. It is an image that carries a direct representation of the event, a representation that is, moreover, particularly alive. In the period of history known to us, it is not known if a reflection developed on the function of the image of the Shroud comparable to the Eastern theology of the icon. As known, the sensitivity of Western culture is characterized by a realism that often prevails over a reflection that would value the symbolic element. Nevertheless, the theology of the icon, even if in a way all of its own, is not extraneous from the context of the Shroud (see Schönborn, 1988, and Mondzain, 1996, who reach at different conclusions on this respect). Given the certainty —that seems to be completely consolidated— that in the reality of the Shroud one can exclude any pictorial intervention, the use of the concept of “icon” assumes here some exceptional aspects. Different from the painting of icons, there is no “technique” in the Shroud, but in spite of this the “functionality” and the “message” of the image is not absent. The reference must be acknowledged at a superior level. It is an icon of the unknown, an icon that implements the wealth of its mystery, placing it in the depth of God’s silence. 2. The Dynamics of the Relationship. The problem of the Shroud affects many fields of knowledge and belief. Since it is an image, and many also call it a relic, one is immediately confronted with the problem of the relationship that images and relics would have with faith. But concerning the Shroud, this relationship is quite unique. In fact, whoever denies the relevance of the image-relic relationship within the path of one’s faith, willingly resorts to the scientific analysis of the Shroud in order to show whether the qualification of a true relic would not be correct. Calvin, for example, resorted to exegesis and to history in order to claim that deceit was being committed; another group of contemporary evangelicals resorts to scientific arguments in order to put forward the same interpretation (cf. Papini, 1982 and 1998), meaning that the eventual admission of the authenticity of the Shroud would create a certain uneasiness. There is then a set of problems that we could group under the name of “the question of the Shroud” and that concern the claim that science would have the role of conditioning the believer’s faith. However, such a claim does not seem to be reasonable. If the religious relationship with the Shroud is born in a pre-scientific phase (without becoming neither anti-scientific, nor unscientific), it follows that scientific research cannot condition it. It is important to maintain this vision, because it enables even those, who are convinced that science has unsurpassable objections against the authenticity of the find, to welcome the special message that comes from the image of the Shroud. The possibility that this sheet truly wrapped the lifeless body of Jesus has a great strength of involvement, but adds nothing to the intelligence of Christian faith. More than the mind, it would be the “heart” to be affected by the response. The fundamental reason for believing and acting as Christians comes from what Jesus did and said. The image of the Shroud, on the other hand, represents and testifies, in an in unsurpassable way, precisely Jesus’ life and death. It is even possible to see an educational function in the margin of uncertainty associated with our studies on the Shroud. By giving this “aid” to our faith, without freeing us completely from scientific uncertainty, the God who has resurrected His Son seems to want to invite us to focus only on the essential part of the message. The weakness of the instrument does not make us love it less. Indeed it reconciles it with our weakness: the little that we know invites us to love more. This is nothing other than the “style” of Jesus, who insisted on giving value to weak things. 3. The Message. The Shroud is a humble and weak reality. It must be accepted as such. But it is also an extremely expressive, effective, demanding sign. It is so “humble” that we do not have the last word on its place of origin, on the era in which it originates, on the process of formation of the image it shows. It must be accepted with its own level of truth, without forcing it towards degrees of certainty that we may wish to have, but don’t. The Shroud is “weak,” because it does not have at all the sacramental efficacy of the Eucharist, as it is only a reference to it. What is more, the Shroud is by no means necessary in order to reach salvation. For many it is not important, for very many it was not and it is not known, and this has not diminished in the believers their awareness and their commitment in answering Christ’s call to follow him. For many non-Christians or Christians of other non-Catholic confessions, the Shroud is not accepted as being a legitimate companion in the path towards God. It is therefore a very poor sign and, when conceptualized it also becomes a fairly complicated thing. It is difficult to respect the poverty of the Shroud, a sign of expectancy, a sign of the silence of the tomb. However, the Shroud exists and it says the same things as the Gospel regarding the death and burial of Jesus. Indeed it becomes a distinctive sign only through the Gospel. It says these things in a way that no other does, and it says them today, in the so-called “civilization of the image.” It could be said that this sign has waited until our time in order to show itself to a great number of people, in order to become an even greater resonance chamber of that message. Since the Shroud speaks the same words as the Gospels, it is justifiable that some believers do as much as possible so that these words are also heard by others. This image is a meaningful call to the most neglected passage of the St. Paul’s “creed”: "and he was buried" (1Cor 15:4), that is also in need of being restored in our time. The conclusion of this article is the one suggested by the reflections that John Paul II proposed at the time of his pilgrimage to the Shroud, on May 24, 1998 (cf. ORWE 27.5.1998, pp. 1 and 4). "The Shroud is a challenge to our intelligence. It first of all requires of every person, particularly the researcher, that he humbly grasp the profound message it sends to his reason and his life. The mysterious fascination of the Shroud forces questions to be raised about the sacred Linen and the historical life of Jesus. Since it is not a matter of faith, the Church has no specific competence to pronounce on these questions. She entrusts to scientists the task of continuing to investigate, so that satisfactory answers may be found to the questions connected with this Sheet, which, according to tradition, wrapped the body of our Redeemer after he had been taken down from the cross. The Church urges that the Shroud be studied without pre-established positions that take for granted results that are not such; she invites them to act with interior freedom and attentive respect for both scientific methodology and the sensibilities of believers." Then the Pope continues to point out that the contemplation of this image can assist contemporary evangelization. "The Shroud is a mirror of the Gospel [...] and invites us to pattern our lives on the life of the One who gave himself to us." "The image of human suffering is reflected in the Shroud. [...] The Shroud not only spurs us to abandon our selfishness but leads us to discover the mystery of suffering, which, sanctified by Christ’s sacrifice, achieves salvation for all humanity." "The Shroud is also an image of God’s love as well as of human sin. [...]. Echoing the word of God and centuries of Christian consciousness, the Shroud whispers: believe in God’s love, the greatest treasure given to humanity, and flee from sin, the greatest misfortune in history." "The Shroud is also an image of powerless [...]. It is the experience of Holy Saturday, an important stage on Jesus’ path to Glory, from which a ray of light shines on the sorrow and death of every person." "The Shroud is an image of silence [...]. The Shroud expresses not only the silence of death but also the courageous and fruitful silence of triumph over the transitory, through total immersion in God’s eternal present." To approach the Shroud, John Paul II concludes, "is precisely a 'coming to see' this tragic and enlightening sign of the passion which proclaims the Redeemer’s love. This icon of Christ abandoned in the dramatic and solemn state of death [...] urges us to go to the heart of the mystery of life and death, to discover the great and consoling message it has left us. The Shroud shows us Jesus in the moment of his greatest helplessness and reminds us that in the abasement of that death lies the salvation of the whole world. The Shroud thus becomes an invitation to face every experience, including that of suffering and extreme helplessness, with the attitude of those who believe that God’s merciful love overcomes every poverty, every limitation, every temptation to despair." Documents of the Catholic Church related to the subject: We present here only a selection of books, without any reference to the many articles published on the subject. Bibliographies can be found in Dervieux (1929 and 19362) and Fossati (1978). E. DERVIEUX, Bibliografia della SS. Sindone di N.S.G.C. venerata in Torino (Chieri: Tipografia M. Ghirardi, 1929); L. FOSSATI, Breve saggio critico di bibliografia e di informazione sulla Sacra Sindone. Dal primo Congresso Nazionale di Studi (1939) al secondo Congresso Internazionale (1978) (Torino: Bottega d’Erasmo, 1978); M. ANTONACCI, The Resurrection of the Shroud. New Scientific, Medical and Archeological Evidence (New York: M. Evans & Co., 2000); P.L. BAIMA BOLLONE, Sindone o no (Torino: SEI, 1990); P.L. BAIMA BOLLONE, S. ZACÀ, La Sindone al miscroscopio. Esame medico-legale (Leumann-Torino: LDC, 1996); P.L. BAIMA BOLLONE, Sepoltura del Messia e Sudario di Oviedo (Torino: SEI, 1997); P.L. BAIMA BOLLONE, Gli ultimi giorni di Gesù (Milano: Mondadori, 1999); P.L. BAIMA BOLLONE et al., Il grande libro della Sindone (Cinisello Balsamo: San Paolo, 2000°); P.L. BAIMA BOLLONE, Sindone. 101 domande e risposte (Cinisello Balsamo: San Paolo, 2000b); P.L. BAIMA BOLLONE, Sindone e scienza all’inizio del terzo millennio (Torino: I libri de La Stampa, 2000c); N. BALOSSINO, L’immagine della Sindone. Ricerca fotografica e informatica (Leumann-Torino: LDC, 1997); B. BARBERIS, P. SAVARINO, Sindone, radiodatazione e calcolo delle probabilità (Leumann-Torino: LDC, 1997); B. BARBERIS, G.M. ZACCONE (eds.), Sindone: cento anni di ricerca (Roma: Istituto Poligrafico Zecca dello Stato, 1998); F. BARBESINO, M. MORONI, Lungo le strade della Sindone. Ricerca di possibili itinerari da Gerusalemme a Torino (Cinisello Balsamo: San Paolo, 2000); P. BARBET, La passione di N. S. Gesù Cristo secondo il chirurgo (Torino: L.I.C.E.-Berruti, 1954); W. BULST, H. PFEIFFER, Das Turinier Grabtuch und das Christusbild, vol. I: Das Grabtuch. Forschungsberichte und Untersuchungen (Frankfurt a. M.: J. Knecht, 1987); vol. II: Das echte Christusbild. Das Grabtuch, der Schleier von Manoppello und ihre Wirkungsgeschichte in der Kunst (Frankfurt a.M.: J. Knecht, 1991); O. CELIER, Le signe du linceul. Le Saint Suaire de Turin. De la relique à l’image (Paris: Cerf, 1992); CENTRO INTERNAZIONALE DI SINDOLOGIA, Osservazioni alle perizie ufficiali sulla Santa Sindone 1969-1976 (Torino: Centro Internazionale di Sindonologia, 1977); P. COERO-BORGA, G. INTRIGILLO (eds.), La Sindone. Nuovi studi e ricerche (Cinisello Balsamo: Paoline, 1986); L. COPPINI, F. CAVAZZUTTI, Le icone di Cristo e la Sindone. Un modello per l’arte cristiana (Cinisello Balsamo: San Paolo, 2000); A.-M. DUBARLE, Historie ancienne du Linceul de Turin jusqu’au XIII siècle (Paris: O.E.I.L., 1985); A.-M. DUBARLE, H. LEYNEN, Histoire ancienne du Linceul de Turin (Paris: Fr.-X. De Guibert, 1998); G. FANTI, E. MARINELLI, Cento prove sulla Sindone. Un giudizio probabilistico sull’autenticità (Padova: Ed. Messaggero, 1999); G. GHIBERTI, La sepoltura di Gesù. I vangeli e la Sindone (Roma: Marietti, 1982); G. GHIBERTI, Sindone, Vangeli e vita cristiana (Leumann-Torino LDC, 1996); G. GHIBERTI, U. CASALE (eds.), Dossier sulla Sindone (Brescia: Queriniana, 1998); G. GHIBERTI, Sindone verso il 2000 (Casale Monferrato: Piemme, 1999); P.A. GRAMAGLIA, L’uomo della Sindone non è Gesù Cristo. Un’ipotesi storica fondata su documenti finora trascurati (Torino: Claudiana, 1978); C. LAVERGNE, La preuve de la résurrection de Jésus d’après Jean 20,7; Le sudarium et la position des linges après la résurrection; Le corps glorieux et la preuve que Jésus est ressuscité (Torino: Centro Internazionale di Sindonologia, 1961); A. MILANESIO, S. SIRACUSA, S. ZACÀ, Un’immagine inspiegabile. Ipotesi sulla formazione dell’immagine sulla Sindone (Leumann-Torino: LDC, 1997); M.-J. MONDZAIN, Image, icône, économie. Les sources byzantines de l’immaginaire contemporain (Paris: Ed. du Seuil, 1996); M. MORONI, La Sindone. Indagini scientifiche (Cinisello Balsamo: San Paolo, 1988); A. PALEOTTO, Esplicatione del Sacro Lenzuolo dove fu involto il Signore Presso gli Heredi di Cis Rossi 1599, ripr. anast., unita al fascicolo introduttorio La Sindone nel secolo XVI. Prima pubblicazione in lingua italiana della reliquia custodita a Torino, a cura di G.M. Onini (Torino: Tipolitografia F.lli Scaravaglio, 2000); C. PAPINI, La Sindone, un mistero che si svela. Il ‘verdetto’ americano non conferma l’autenticità (Torino: Claudiana, 1982); C. PAPINI, Sindone: Una sfida alla scienza e alla fede. Il ‘mistero’ svelato (Torino: Claudiana, 1998); O. PETROSILLO, E. MARINELLI, La Sindone. Un enigma alla prova della scienza (Milano: Rizzoli, 1990); D. RAFFARD DE BRIENNE, Dictionnaire du Linceul de Turin (Éditions de Paris, 1997); G. RICCI, L’uomo della Sindone è Gesù. Diamo le prove (Vigodarzere (PD: Carroccio, 1989); S. RODANTE, La realtà della Sindone nella riflessione di un medico (Milano: Massimo, 1987); S. SCANNERINI, Mirra, aloe, pollini e altre tracce. Ricerca botanica sulla Sindone (Leumann-Torino: LDC, 1997); S. SCANNERINI, P. SAVARINO (eds.), The Turin Shroud. Past, present and future (Torino-Cantalupa: Sindon-Effatà, 2000); C. SCHÖNBORN, God's Human Face. The Christ-icon (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1994); M.-C. VAN OOSTERWYCK-GASTUCHE, La radiocarbone face au Linceul de Turin. Journal d’une Recherche (Paris: Fr.-X. De Guibert, 1999); P. VIGNON, Le Saint Suaire de Turin devant la Science, l’Archéologie, l’Histoire, l’Iconographie, la Logique (Torino: Bottega d’Erasmo, 1978); I. WILSON, The Turin Shroud (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1978); I. WILSON, The Blood and the Shroud. The passionate controversy still enflamming the world’s most famous carbon-dating test (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998); G.M. ZACCONE, Sulle tracce della Sindone. Storia antica e recente (Leumann-Torino: LDC, 1997); G. ZANINOTTO, La tecnica della crocifissione romana (Roma: Centro Romano di Sindonologia, 1984). Among the internet web sites we suggest:, from the Diocesis of Turin;, from Centro Internazionale di Sindonologia di Torino;, a web site which provides links with other Centers of Studies on the Shroud of Turin in the world.
Presentation is loading. Please wait. Presentation is loading. Please wait. Microprocessor Systems Similar presentations Presentation on theme: "Microprocessor Systems"— Presentation transcript: 1 Microprocessor Systems 2 8259 – Priority Interrupt Controller 3 8259 Chip The Intel 8259 is a family of Programmable Interrupt Controllers (PIC) designed and developed for use with the Intel 8085 and Intel 8086 microprocessors. The 8259 acts as a multiplexer, combining multiple interrupt input sources into a single interrupt output to interrupt a single device. 4 Programmable Interrupt Controller A Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC) is a device which allows priority levels to be assigned to its interrupt outputs. When the device has multiple interrupt outputs to assert, it will assert them in the order of their relative priority. Common modes of a PIC include hard priorities, rotating priorities, and cascading priorities. PIC often allow the cascading of their outputs to inputs between each other. PIC typically have a common set of registers: Interrupt Request Register (IRR), In-Service Register (ISR), Interrupt Mask Register (IMR). The IRR specifies which interrupts are pending acknowledgement, and is typically a symbolic register which can not be directly accessed. The ISR register specifies which interrupts have been acknowledged, but are still waiting for an End Of Interrupt (EOI). The IMR specifies which interrupts are to be ignored and not acknowledged. A simple register schema such as this allows up to two distinct interrupt requests to be outstanding at one time, one waiting for acknowledgement, and one waiting for EOI. 5 8259 Internal Diagram 6 Basic Interrupt Event External device sends an interrupt signal, to one of the Interrupt Request (IR) pin, or an internal interrupt occurs. The 8259 Chip signal to the CPU the interrupt via the INT pin. The CPU finishes the present instruction and sends Interrupt Acknowledge (INTA). The interrupt type is sent to the CPU via the Data bus. The contents of the flag registers are pushed onto the stack. Both the interrupt and flags are cleared. This disables the IR pin. The contents of the code segment register (CS) are pushed onto the Stack. The contents of the instruction pointer (IP) are pushed onto the Stack. The interrupt vector contents are fetched, from and then placed into the IP and into the CS so that the next instruction executes at the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) addressed by the interrupt vector. While returning from the interrupt-service routine by the Interrupt Return (IRET) instruction, the IP, CS and Flag registers are popped from the Stack and return to their state prior to the interrupt. 7 Initialization Command Words 8 Initialization Command Words Whenever a command is issued with A0 = 0 and D4 = 1, this is interpreted as Initialization Command Word 1 (ICW1). ICW1 starts the initialization sequence during which the following automatically occur: The edge sense circuit is reset, which means that following initialization, an interrupt request (IR) input must make a low-to-high transition to generate an interrupt. The Interrupt Mask Register is cleared. IR7 input is assigned priority 7. The slave mode address is set to 7. Special Mask Mode is cleared and Status Read is set to IRR. If IC4 = 0, then all functions selected in ICW4 are set to zero. 9 ICW1 LTIM: If LTIM = 1, then the 8259 will operate in the level interrupt mode. Edge detect logic on the interrupt inputs will be disabled. ADI: CALL address interval. ADI = 1 ISR's are 4 bytes apart (0200, 0204, etc). If ADI = 0 ISR’s are 8 byte apart (0200, 0208, etc) SNGL: Single. Means that this is the only 8259 in the system. If SNGL = 1 no ICW3 will be issued. IC4: If this bit is set, ICW4 has to be read. If ICW4 is not needed, set IC4 = 0. D4 - D7: Are not used in 8086 Processor 10 ICW1 11 ICW3 This word is read only when there is more than one 8259 in the system and cascading is used, in which case SNGL = 0. It will load the 8-bit slave register. Master mode: 1 indicates slave is present on that interrupt, 0 indicates direct interrupt Slave mode: ID3 - ID2 - ID1 is the slave ID number. Slave 4 on IR4 has ICW3 = 04h ( ) 12 ICW4 SFNM: If SFNM = 1 the special fully nested mode is programmed. BUF: If BUF = 1 the buffered mode is programmed. In buffered mode SP’/EN’ pin becomes an enable output and the master/slave determination is by M/S. M/S: If buffered mode is selected: M/S = 1 means the 8259 is programmed to be a master, M/S = 0 means the 8259 is programmed to be a slave. If BUF = 0, M/S has no function. AEOI: If AEOI = 1 the Automatic End Of Interrupt mode is programmed. Mode: Microprocessor mode = 0 sets the 8259 for MCS-80, 85 system operation, Microprocessor Mode = 1 sets the 8259 for 8086 system operation. 13 Operational Command Words 14 Operation Command Words After the Initialization Command Words (ICWs) are programmed into the 8259, the chip is ready to accept interrupt requests at its input lines. However, during the 8259 operation, a selection of algorithms can command the 8259 to operate in various modes through the Operation Command Words. 15 OCW1 OCW1 sets and clears the mask bits in the Interrupt Mask Register (IMR). M7 - M0 represent the eight mask bits. M = 1 indicates the channel is masked, M = 0 indicates the channel is enabled. 16 OCW2 R, SL, EOI - These three bits control the Rotate and End of Interrupt modes and combinations of the two. L2, L1, L0 - These bits determine the interrupt level acted upon when the SL bit is active. 17 References 18 Note Għamlu li tridu bihom tistaw timodifikawhom, tarmuhom li jiġi f’raskom għamlu. 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How to Become a Video Game Designer Being a video game designer is more than just a childhood dream; it’s a fast-growing profession that involves both talent and skill. Video game designers work hard to bring video game ideas to life, and they have an extraordinary amount of freedom within their profession. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, a video game designer will usually make a median of $81,140 a year. Those within the video game profession can look forward to a lot of mobility as they grow and learn more about the trade. Bachelor's Degree Find Related CareersSOURCE: US Bureau of Labor Statistics What Does a Video Game Designer Do? Video game designers focus on developing the core mechanics for a video game. A video game designer could potentially develop the mechanics and requirements for a smartphone game, video game console game or computer console. 3D games and 2D games will have different challenges and technology, but the overall design process will usually be similar. Video game designers often have skills in both art and programming, and can contribute to multiple areas of the video game development process. A video game designer will often begin by directing concept art. Concept art will often be done by specialized concept artists which are skilled in understanding the needs of the video game developer and turning them into visual art. The video game designer will need to determine all the assets needed for the game and the way the game will work. Video game designers sometimes operate entirely on their own and create their own games from scratch. These are independent game designers, and they sometimes produce their own games for public consumption. How Do You Become a Video Game Designer? Many video game designers are self-trained, but the fastest path to becoming a video game designer is to obtain a degree. There are Associate’s Degree programs for video game design that are accessible completely online, as well as courses through trade schools and community colleges. There are also Bachelor’s Degree design programs for those that are interested in learning more about the industry, but it usually isn’t essential to acquiring a position. A game designer will usually need to present a portfolio of their work when trying to procure a position with a game company. A portfolio is especially useful for those that do not have any formal training. Those that are interested in securing a positionwith one of the larger video game companies may want to independently create their own video game as a proof of their skill. Video game designers can also work with mod systems to create their own game through a framework provided by another game development kit. How Do You Advance as a Video Game Designer? Video game designers work with many of the same programming languages that other programmers do. Video game designers skilled in 3D art can make a movie into animated films, or they can directly sell their art assets, while video game designers that are purely programmers will be able to move into other programming fields. According to O*Net Online, the field of computer programming has relatively fast growth as compared to video game design, which means it can easily be moved into for those that are looking for a different field with different opportunities. As with all talent-oriented fields, video game designers advance within the industry through successful projects. The more successful projects a video game designer works on, the larger salary they will be able to command. Very successful video game designers will be able to open their own design studios. Recent Articles View all articles How to Become a Music DirectorIf you have natural music ability and a flair for directing, you may want to combine your talents ... How to Become a RapperJOB OVERVIEW Have you ever wanted to be a rapper? Do you have a knack for poetry? Are you full of ... How to Become an Illustrator How to Become a Flea Market Artist How to Become a Dancer How to Become a Curator How to Become a Technical Writer
BU Today In the World + Science & Tech Keeping Up with the Oil Spill Environment prof updates his Encyclopedia of Earth daily Watch this video on YouTube Listen to Cutler Cleveland, a CAS professor of geography and environment, discuss the ecological damage caused by BP’s Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Watch more here. It’s Day 52. Despite a recent prediction from BP that the flow of oil into the Gulf of Mexico will soon be reduced to a trickle (one executive even pegged the end as precisely as next week), no one knows for sure when it’s going to stop or even how much crude is spewing each day or what the final, disastrous tally will look like. But online, Cutler Cleveland is painting as precise a picture as can be found these days. The College of Arts & Sciences professor of geography and environment and editor of the Encyclopedia of Earth, a Wikipedia-like ecological resource with strict quality control, has seen the entry on the BP oil spill grow almost as quickly as the slick itself. From undersea plumes and natural oil seeps to cleanup efforts and analysis of rhetoric from the government as compared to from BP, Cleveland and his contributors have created a reliable go-to information source for the media and the public on what is now considered the worst environmental disaster in U.S. history. BU Today talked with Cleveland about the spill and its coverage. BU Today: How often do you update the entry on the BP oil spill? A couple of times a day. Right now, I’m working on the confusion over the drilling moratorium. On the 27th, Obama publicly rescinded his proposal for exploratory drilling offshore and a couple of days later Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar issued a memorandum to the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and told them not to process any new applications for drilling permits for so-called deep wells. Then there was a lot of confusion within MMS about what “deep” really meant. Last Wednesday, they actually issued a couple of permits for shallow wells off the coast of Louisiana and Mississippi. The next day, they rescinded those permits. It looks like they will allow for some shallow water drilling after some review, but for the time being, deep-water drilling is off limits. There are said to be naturally occurring oil seeps in the Gulf. How does their output compare to the BP leak? We know from remote sensing and satellite imagery that there are a lot of natural seeps in the Gulf of Mexico. It’s quite an active area, but these seeps are spread over the entire Gulf of Mexico and occur rather slowly. A couple of the biggest oil seeps in the world have been studied in great detail, including one off the coast of California that seeps about 100 barrels a day. The Deepwater Horizon leak is releasing 12,000 to 19,000 a day. That’s 3 to 12 times the amount of oil per day compared to all the seeps across the entire Gulf of Mexico. Does that mean that sea life has a certain immunity to oil toxicity? In a limited sense. There’s a substantial microbial community in the Gulf of Mexico water column that degrades oil. The existence of these microbes is probably due in part to the existence of these oil seeps. Presumably, some or a lot of the oil being released by the Deepwater Horizon is being degraded by these natural processes. The rate of such a sudden, concentrated, and massive event is certainly overwhelming to most natural mechanisms for oil dispersal and breakdown. Some have painted ecological doomsday scenarios for the Gulf of Mexico. Could all this oil actually render the gulf no longer viable? I doubt it. The amount of oil that’s in that field is in the order of tens of millions of barrels. If the leak completely drained this reservoir, and I’m not even sure a single well could do that, that would be a huge of amount of oil, but the Gulf of Mexico is a very large body of water. While that amount of oil would cause large-scale ecological harm, it seems a bit far-fetched that it would actually kill off the entire Gulf of Mexico. What ecological impacts from the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill are we still dealing with? What we know from the Exxon spill is that the ecosystem does recover, eventually. But we also know that there are some fairly long-lasting impacts. A number of the fisheries and bird populations that were impacted took several generations to recover. If you go to the shoreline of many of those areas and dig down with a shovel a foot or so and watch the water fill in, you’ll see oil on top of it. There’s oil still down in the sediment and in extreme weather, some of the oil can be reworked and reintroduced into the water column, where it can potentially have impact. What does the public need to understand about the ramifications of this current spill? The importance of wetlands. The environment supports human life in a lot of ways. We tend to think about that in terms of what we extract: wood, water, oil, coals, metals, fish. There’s also this vast array of ecosystem services that support human life: the provision of fresh water, nutrient cycling, a stable climate, pest control, pollination. Wetlands, per acre, are among the most important ecosystems on the planet. Louisiana has among the largest concentration of coastal wetlands in the world that support, among other things, one of the most productive fisheries in the world. The Louisiana wetlands had been under siege by humans even before the oil spill. The oil companies have had their way in Louisiana for more than half a century in terms of exploring for oil and gas under the wetlands and in the coastal waters. A lot of the wetlands have been lost, converted to open water due to canals and other activity by the oil and gas companies and human activity in general. So this spill just adds insult to injury in terms of the loss of their importance. And once wetlands are converted to open water, are they lost for good? For all intents and purposes. In south Louisiana, the Mississippi River brings tons of sediment. When it floods, it deposits this sediment and plants establish themselves. Over time, the Mississippi has built up land and eroded it in other places. But since humans started to levee the Mississippi to prevent flooding, and dredged canals, the wetlands were converted to open water. Without input of sediment, the marshes disappear. A lot of the disappearance is from the oil and gas industry. The state of Louisiana never met a drilling permit it didn’t like. It’s only as people have started to understand how important wetlands are ecologically and biologically that the state has started to wise up. But there’s a long way to go. Caleb Daniloff can be reached at cdanilof@bu.edu. 3 Comments on Keeping Up with the Oil Spill • Anonymous on 06.10.2010 at 10:41 am Oil Spill I have been following the oil spill since the day it happened–primarily because I was enrolled in Earth Science for my spring 2010 semester at Boston University. I became so interested in it–and horrified by it–that I considered e-mailing my Earth Science professor my questions after classes let out. I knew that asking a Boston University professor would provide me with accurate, academic answers without the media bias and fear-mongering. I was pleased to see that BU posted this article–it answered many of the questions I’d planned to ask! Your article was easy to understand for those of us who aren’t science majors but also really care about what’s happening in the world of science (especially environmental science). What’s happening is a tragedy on all accounts but I’m glad BU is helping to keep people informed. The only other thing I want to know is how I can help. Watching this happen is hard enough–I think I speak for many Americans when I say that it’s even harder to feel helpless. • Anonymous on 06.10.2010 at 3:35 pm Ramifications along the entire GOM I’m really glad to see Prof. Cleveland stress the ramifications to the Louisiana wetlands, which are ecologically and economically important for the United States in terms of wildlife, fisheries, and oil and gas production. But the entire Gulf of Mexico has already been and will continue to be negatively impacted by this spill as well (from commercial to recreational activites spanning from Texas to Florida). This is going to have a profound effect on these states’ economies, which feeds into the status of the U.S. economy in general. So when it comes time for mitigation and recovery, remember it will not just be a localized issue, but a national one. • Kettledrum on 06.14.2010 at 5:30 am Dubious data We already know BP lied consistently and constantly about the current flow rates. Real scientists have estimated from 10,000 to 150,000 barrels a day currently being released – yet the Professor gladly quotes the low end of the range. More to the point, I’d like to know where the Professor gets the information that the reservoir has only “tens of millions barrels” in it. Is this another BS number from BP? Why would he so happily believe them? Have they in any way shown themselves to be trustworthy so far? Think about it. Why would BP go to so much trouble and expense, so far and so deep, for such a relatively trivial amount of oil? There are many fields in the world that produce a million barrels a day. It cost BP millions of dollars a day to run that rig. I simply don’t believe this lowball estimate. The numbers do not make economic sense. “According to BP data from about five years ago, there are four separate reservoirs containing a total of 2.5 billion barrels (barrels not gallons). One of the reservoirs has 1.5 billion barrels. I saw an earlier post here quoting an Anadarko Petroleum report which set the total amount at 2.3 billion barrels. One New York Times article put it at 2 billion barrels.” This is the critical number. We need to know. Repeating the lies from a corporation and a government that do nothing but lie is not helpful, Professor. Update your Wiki four times a day if it makes you feel better, but it’s only as good as the data that goes in, and yours data sounds dubious. We need the truth. How big is it? How bad is it going to get? Post Your Comment (never shown)
Adverse Effects of EPA’s Clean Power Plan The effects of the EPA’s Clean Power Plan (CPP) will be widespread across the United States, but a closer look at a Florida COOP demonstrates the negative consequences that the CPP will have on ordinary people. The Seminole Electric Cooperative serves 1,400,000 people throughout much of Florida. Seminole Electric Cooperative uses coal to generate most of the electricity it produces for nine distribution cooperatives. It primarily uses two 650 MW coal-fired power plants, a 500 MW natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) power plant and five aero-derivative peaking gas turbines rated 310 MW to generate electricity. Nine distribution cooperatives distribute the electricity generated by Seminole to 1,400,000 people throughout many areas of Florida. These people will be harmed by the effects of the CPP. Map showing Florida coop's served by Seminole Electric Cooperative Map showing Florida coop’s served by Seminole Electric Cooperative The EPA’s CPP could require Seminole’s two coal-fired power plants to close prematurely. While many radical environmentalists will applaud their closing, Seminole’s customers will suffer the consequences. These units, according to the EPA, will have 20 years cut off their operating life. The loans associated with the two coal-fired plants amount to nearly $700,000,000, and these loans will have to be paid off even when the two coal-fired power plants don’t generate electricity and produce income. Unfortunately, there will be a financial penalty for the 1,400,000 people as they will bear the burden of paying off these loans. Interestingly, the Seminole coal-fired power plant that will have to be closed, received a “top plant award” from Power Magazine in 2009. In addition, it is believed the NGCC power plants, that also produce CO2 emissions, will have to be operated at substantially reduced capacity. Meanwhile, the lost generation from the two coal-fired power plants and from the NGCC power plants will have to be replaced. It might be replaced with wind and solar, but these will make the electricity more costly for the 1,400,000 people served by Seminole. Renewables will also create reliability problems since solar and wind are unreliable. Until now the 1,400,000 people served by Seminole have paid a low price for their electricity, but the CPP will result in higher costs for electricity. Many of the 1,400,000 people affected by the higher costs will be seniors, who can least afford the higher cost of electricity. The CPP will also affect all Florida residents, of which 18.1%, or 5.331,000, are seniors. While the other electric utilities serving Florida have a smaller percentage of their generating capacity using coal, it is still significant. Using more natural gas in Florida may be a problem as studies have shown that the transmission lines in Florida may not be able to accommodate the needed output from additional natural gas power plants. According to the EIA, 23% of Florida’s electricity was generated using coal, and all the units that supplied this electricity will be affected by the CPP. The end result is that all 5,331,000 seniors in Florida will be adversely affected by the CPP. Since coal is the least costly method for generating electricity, followed closely by natural gas, the addition of wind and solar power generation facilities to replace the electricity that will no longer be generated from coal-fired power plants will mean higher costs for seniors, and also for low and middle income citizens. The situation at Seminole is a microcosm of what will happen across the United States. While the precise circumstances surrounding each location around the country will be different, the outcome will be similar: Higher costs for all Americans. * * * * * * It’s easy to subscribe to articles by Donn Dears. 0 Replies to “Adverse Effects of EPA’s Clean Power Plan” 1. Agreed Donn. I recently wrote about how covering rural New York State with sprawling, unreliable wind factories is harming both our environment and all New York State taxpayers & ratepayers. See: Wind Power Destruction in New York State: ‘Clean’ Power Plan Problem: Industrial Wind vs. Rural America, Electricity Markets: 2. Donn, Thanks for another great article. It escapes me to understand the logic of those who still believe we can continue our lifestyle on renewable energy despite all the technical and economic facts and experience in Europe. I liked the quote from Freeman in one of the links.. ― Milton Friedman This seems to apply to a lot more than energy. 3. Pingback: Weekly Climate and Energy News Roundup #210 \| Watts Up With That? 4. The Coal Industry knew it was a matter of time, especially with the pollutants from Seminole Electric in North Florida to that community. Which is worst jobs or lives, • I think you will find that Seminole produces very few pollutants, and that the community is not being adversely affected by the coal-fired power plant. Why didn’t you look into how much the power plant is emitting before you made superficial and uninformed comments.The Seminole plant isn’t causing anyone to die, so your comment is based on ignorance. Leave a Reply

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