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The three parsers were trained and tuned by their creators on various sections of the WSJ portion of the Penn Treebank. | 0 | We have developed a general approach for combining parsers when preserving the entire structure of a parse tree is important. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | As we have said, parse quality decreases with sentence length. |
They plan on extending instance-weighting to other standard SMT components and capture the degree of generality of phrase pairs. | 0 | Thus, provided at least this amount of IN data is available—as it is in our setting—adapting these weights is straightforward. |
they evaluate various specific aspects of the segmentation, as well as the overall segmentation performance. | 0 | Clearly this is not the only way to estimate word-frequencies, however, and one could consider applying other methods: in partic ular since the problem is similar to the problem of assigning part-of-speech tags to an untagged corpus given a lexicon and some initial estimate of the a priori probabilities for the tags,... |
This paper presents a maximum entropy-based named entity recognizer (NER). | 0 | Two lists, Corporate-Suffix-List (for corporate suffixes) and Person-Prefix-List (for person prefixes), are collected from the training data. |
they showed that the average agreement among the human judges is .76, and the average agreement between ST(system) and the humans is .75, or about 99% of the interhuman agreement. | 0 | For example, hanzi containing the INSECT radical !R tend to denote insects and other crawling animals; examples include tr wal 'frog,' feng1 'wasp,' and !Itt she2 'snake.' |
the "Potsdam Commentary Corpus" or PCC consists of 170 commentaries from Ma¨rkische Allgemeine Zeitung, a German regional daily. | 0 | (Webber et al., 2003)). |
Throughout this paper we compare with several packages: SRILM 1.5.12 (Stolcke, 2002) is a popular toolkit based on tries used in several decoders. | 0 | Timing is based on plentiful memory. |
Due to many similarly performing systems, the author was not able to draw strong conclusions on the question of correlation of manual and automatic evaluation metrics. | 0 | All systems (except for Systran, which was not tuned to Europarl) did considerably worse on outof-domain training data. |
The departure from the traditional token-based tagging approach allow them to explicitly capture type-level distributional properties of valid POS tag assignments as part of the model. | 0 | Instead, we condition on the type-level tag assignments T . Specifically, let St = {i|Ti = t} denote the indices of theword types which have been assigned tag t accord ing to the tag assignments T . Then θt is drawn from DIRICHLET(α, St), a symmetric Dirichlet which only places mass on word types indicated by St. Thi... |
This paper discusses the Potsdam Commentary Corpus, a corpus of german assembeled by potsdam university. | 0 | 2.1 Part-of-speech tags. |
Each out-of-domain phrase pair was characterized by a set of simple features intended to reflect how useful it would be. | 0 | Jiang and Zhai (2007) suggest the following derivation, making use of the true OUT distribution po(s, t): where each fi(s, t) is a feature intended to charac- !0ˆ = argmax pf(s, t) log pθ(s|t) (8) terize the usefulness of (s, t), weighted by Ai. θ s,t pf(s, t)po(s, t) log pθ(s|t) The mixing parameters and feature weigh... |
BABAR's performance in both domains of terrorism and natural disaster, and the contextual-role knowledge in pronouns have shown successful results. | 0 | Analysis of the data revealed that the contextual role knowledge is especially helpful for resolving pronouns because, in general, they are semantically weaker than definite NPs. |
The authors believe automatic paraphrase discovery is an important component for building a fully automatic information extraction system. | 0 | buy - acquire (5) buy - agree (2) buy - purchase (5) buy - acquisition (7) buy - pay (2)* buy - buyout (3) buy - bid (2) acquire - purchase (2) acquire - acquisition (2) acquire - pay (2)* purchase - acquisition (4) purchase - stake (2)* acquisition - stake (2)* unit - subsidiary (2) unit - parent (5) It is clear that ... |
Other kinds of productive word classes, such as company names, abbreviations,and place names can easily be handled given appropriate models. | 0 | (1992). |
This architecture provides a uniform framework in which it is easy to incorporate not only listed dictionary entries but also morphological derivatives, and models for personal names and foreign names in transliteration. | 0 | We asked six native speakers-three from Taiwan (TlT3), and three from the Mainland (M1M3)-to segment the corpus. |
Nevertheless, only a part of this corpus (10 texts), which the authors name "core corpus", is annotated with all this information. | 0 | The choice of the particular newspaper was motivated by the fact that the language used in a regional daily is somewhat simpler than that of papers read nationwide. |
The authors in this paper describe a search procedure for statistical machine translation (MT) based on dynamic programming (DP). | 0 | This approach is compared to another reordering scheme presented in (Berger et al., 1996). |
We chose one of four labels for each example: location, person, organization, or noise where the noise category was used for items that were outside the three categories. | 0 | Recent results (e.g., (Yarowsky 95; Brill 95; Blum and Mitchell 98)) have suggested that unlabeled data can be used quite profitably in reducing the need for supervision. |
they showed that the average agreement among the human judges is .76, and the average agreement between ST(system) and the humans is .75, or about 99% of the interhuman agreement. | 0 | (1992). |
It is probably the first analysis of Arabic parsing of this kind. | 0 | We also collapse unary chains withidentical basic categories like NP â NP. |
From a DP-based solution to the traveling salesman problem, they present a novel technique to restrict the possible word reordering between source and target language in order to achieve an eÃcient search algorithm. | 0 | A position is presented by the word at that position. |
The authors believe automatic paraphrase discovery is an important component for building a fully automatic information extraction system. | 0 | First, from a large corpus, we extract all the NE instance pairs. |
Das and Petrov, in this paper, approached inducing unsupervised part-of-speech taggers for languages that had no labeled training data, but had translated text in a resource-rich language. | 0 | So far the graph has been completely unlabeled. |
This architecture provides a uniform framework in which it is easy to incorporate not only listed dictionary entries but also morphological derivatives, and models for personal names and foreign names in transliteration. | 0 | For previously unseen hanzi in given names, Chang et al. assign a uniform small cost; but we know that some unseen hanzi are merely acci dentally missing, whereas others are missing for a reason-for example, because they have a bad connotation. |
They have made use of local and global features to deal with the instances of same token in a document. | 0 | This might be because our features are more comprehensive than those used by Borthwick. |
The texts were annotated with the RSTtool. | 0 | For developing these mechanisms, the possibility to feed in hand-annotated information is very useful. |
NER is useful in many NLP applications such as information extraction, question answering, etc .Chieu and Ng have shown that the maximum entropy framework is able to use global information directly from various sources. | 0 | For example, if a token starts with a capital letter and ends with a period (such as Mr.), then the feature InitCapPeriod is set to 1, etc. First Word: This feature group contains only one feature firstword. |
The corpus was annoted with different linguitic information. | 0 | 2.4 Underspecified rhetorical structure. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | For example, one of the ATB samples was the determiner -"" ; dhalikâthat.â The sample occurred in 1507 corpus po sitions, and we found that the annotations were consistent. |
There is no global pruning. | 0 | The details are given in (Tillmann, 2000). |
This paper talks about KenLM: Faster and Smaller Language Model Queries. | 0 | IRSTLM 5.60.02 (Federico et al., 2008) is a sorted trie implementation designed for lower memory consumption. |
In order to handle the necessary word reordering as an optimization problem within the dynamic programming approach, they describe a solution to the traveling salesman problem (TSP) which is based on dynamic programming. | 0 | In German, the verbgroup usually consists of a left and a right verbal brace, whereas in English the words of the verbgroup usually form a sequence of consecutive words. |
Nevertheless, only a part of this corpus (10 texts), which the authors name "core corpus", is annotated with all this information. | 0 | A corpus of German newspaper commentaries has been assembled at Potsdam University, and annotated with different linguistic information, to different degrees. |
For the perplexity and translation tasks, we used SRILM to build a 5-gram English language model on 834 million tokens from Europarl v6 (Koehn, 2005) and the 2011 Workshop on Machine Translation News Crawl corpus with duplicate lines removed. | 0 | Further, we report current resident memory and peak virtual memory because these are the most applicable statistics provided by the kernel. |
There is no global pruning. | 0 | To explicitly handle the word reordering between words in source and target language, we use the concept of the so-called inverted alignments as given in (Ney et al., 2000). |
It is annotated with several data: morphology, syntax, rhetorical structure, connectors, correference and informative structure. | 0 | The knowledge base then can be tested for its relation-inference capabilities on the basis of full-blown co-reference information. |
Their method did not assume any knowledge about the target language, making it applicable to a wide array of resource-poor languages. | 0 | 7). |
The resulting model is compact, efficiently learnable and linguistically expressive. | 0 | (2010) reports the best unsupervised results for English. |
The authors believe automatic paraphrase discovery is an important component for building a fully automatic information extraction system. | 0 | The availability of comparable corpora is limited, which is a significant limitation on the approach. |
NER is useful in many NLP applications such as information extraction, question answering, etc .Chieu and Ng have shown that the maximum entropy framework is able to use global information directly from various sources. | 0 | A secondary reference resolution classifier has information on the class assigned by the primary classifier. |
However, these approaches are ill-equipped to directly represent type-based constraints such as sparsity. | 0 | encodes the one tag per word constraint and is uni form over type-level tag assignments. |
Across eight European languages, their approach results in an average absolute improvement of 10.4% over a state-of-the-art baseline, and 16.7% over vanilla hidden Markov models induced with the Expectation Maximization algorithm. | 0 | To initialize the graph for label propagation we use a supervised English tagger to label the English side of the bitext.7 We then simply count the individual labels of the English tokens and normalize the counts to produce tag distributions over English word types. |
Their work is closely related to recent approaches that incorporate the sparsity constraint into the POS induction process. | 0 | 5 We choose these two metrics over the Variation Information measure due to the deficiencies discussed in Gao and Johnson (2008). |
The problem of coreference resolution has received considerable attention, including theoretical discourse models and supervised machine learning systems. | 0 | KS Function Ge nde r filters candidate if gender doesnât agree. |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | However their work did not consider other types of lexical expectations (e.g., PP arguments), semantic expectations, or context comparisons like our case- frame network.(Niyu et al., 1998) used unsupervised learning to ac quire gender, number, and animacy information from resolutions produced by a statistical pronoun r... |
Their work is closely related to recent approaches that incorporate the sparsity constraint into the POS induction process. | 0 | The final model tions. |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | We generate these caseframes automatically by running AutoSlog over the training corpus exhaustively so that it literally generates a pattern to extract every noun phrase in the corpus. |
Evaluation was done automatically using the BLEU score and manually on fluency and adequacy. | 0 | This data set of manual judgements should provide a fruitful resource for research on better automatic scoring methods. |
It is well-known that English constituency parsing models do not generalize to other languages and treebanks. | 0 | As a result, Habash et al. |
It is annotated with several data: morphology, syntax, rhetorical structure, connectors, correference and informative structure. | 0 | This means that the PCC cannot grow particularly quickly. |
It is annotated with several data: morphology, syntax, rhetorical structure, connectors, correference and informative structure. | 0 | The motivation for our more informal approach was the intuition that there are so many open problems in rhetorical analysis (and more so for German than for English; see below) that the main task is qualitative investigation, whereas rigorous quantitative analyses should be performed at a later stage. |
However, these approaches are ill-equipped to directly represent type-based constraints such as sparsity. | 0 | Evaluation Metrics We report three metrics to evaluate tagging performance. |
This paper presents a maximum entropy-based named entity recognizer (NER). | 0 | Besides size of training data, the use of dictionaries is another factor that might affect performance. |
This paper talks about Pseudo-Projective Dependency Parsing. | 0 | We also see that the increase in the size of the label sets for Head and Head+Path is far below the theoretical upper bounds given in Table 1. |
This paper talks about Exploiting Diversity in Natural Language Processing: Combining Parsers. | 0 | We model each parse as the decisions made to create it, and model those decisions as independent events. |
This corpus has several advantages: it is annotated at different levels. | 0 | Within the RST âuser communityâ there has also been discussion whether two levels of discourse structure should not be systematically distinguished (intentional versus informational). |
They focused on phrases which two Named Entities, and proceed in two stages. | 0 | We picked two domains, the CC-domain and the âPerson â Companyâ domain (PC-domain), for the evaluation, as the entire system output was too large to evaluate. |
All the texts were annotated by two people. | 0 | Assigning rhetorical relations thus poses questions that can often be answered only subjectively. |
This paper presents a maximum entropy-based named entity recognizer (NER). | 0 | This might be because our features are more comprehensive than those used by Borthwick. |
They focused on phrases which two Named Entities, and proceed in two stages. | 0 | In total 13,976 phrases are assigned to sets of phrases, and the accuracy on our evaluation data ranges from 65 to 99%, depending on the domain and the size of the sets. |
We chose one of four labels for each example: location, person, organization, or noise where the noise category was used for items that were outside the three categories. | 0 | A contextual rule considers words surrounding the string in the sentence in which it appears (e.g., a rule that any proper name modified by an appositive whose head is president is a person). |
This paper offers a broad insight into of Arabic constituency parsing by analyzing the interplay of linguistic phenomena, annotation choices, and model design. | 0 | Our evaluation includes both weighted and un- weighted lattices. |
Here both parametric and non-parametric models are explored. | 0 | We show the results of three of the experiments we conducted to measure isolated constituent precision under various partitioning schemes. |
In this paper, the authors proposed an approach for instance-weighting phrase pairs in an out-of-domain corpus in order to improve in-domain performance. | 0 | The sentence-selection approach is crude in that it imposes a binary distinction between useful and non-useful parts of OUT. |
They incorporated instance-weighting into a mixture-model framework, and found that it yielded consistent improvements over a wide range of baselines. | 0 | First, we aim to explicitly characterize examples from OUT as belonging to general language or not. |
Their results show that their high performance NER use less training data than other systems. | 0 | Same for . In the case where the next token is a hyphen, then is also used as a feature: (init- Caps, ) is set to 1. |
They plan on extending instance-weighting to other standard SMT components and capture the degree of generality of phrase pairs. | 0 | The corpora for both settings are summarized in table 1. |
The authors believe automatic paraphrase discovery is an important component for building a fully automatic information extraction system. | 0 | For example, out of 905 phrases in the CC- domain, 211 phrases contain keywords found in step 2. |
Vijay-Shankar et all considered the structural descriptions produced by various grammatical formalisms in terms of the complexity of the paths and the relationship between paths in the sets of structural descriptions that each system can generate. | 0 | We use Alternating Turing Machines (Chandra, Kozen, and Stockmeyer, 1981) to show that polynomial time recognition is possible for the languages discussed in Section 4.3. |
The AdaBoost algorithm was developed for supervised learning. | 0 | The approach builds from an initial seed set for a category, and is quite similar to the decision list approach described in (Yarowsky 95). |
In this paper, the authors are of the opinion that the sequence models-based approaches usually treat token-level tag assignment as the primary latent variable. | 0 | 5 68.1 34. |
Their empirical results demonstrate that the type-based tagger rivals state-of-the-art tag-level taggers which employ more sophisticated learning mechanisms to exploit similar constraints. | 0 | As is standard, we report the greedy one-to-one (Haghighi and Klein, 2006) and the many-to-one token-level accuracy obtained from mapping model states to gold POS tags. |
An extended lexicon model is defined, and its likelihood is compared to a baseline lexicon model, which takes only single-word dependencies into account. | 0 | During the search process, a partial hypothesis is extended by choosing a source sentence position, which has not been aligned with a target sentence position yet. |
The bias of automatic methods in favour of statistical systems seems to be less pronounced on out-of-domain test data. | 0 | We confirm the finding by Callison-Burch et al. (2006) that the rule-based system of Systran is not adequately appreciated by BLEU. |
All the texts were annotated by two people. | 0 | Our annotators pointed out that very often they made almost random decisions as to what relation to choose, and where to locate the boundary of a span. |
Koehn and Monz carried out an extensive manual and automatic evaluation of machine translation performance on European language pairs. | 0 | About half of the participants of last year’s shared task participated again. |
The authors believe automatic paraphrase discovery is an important component for building a fully automatic information extraction system. | 0 | The larger sets are more accurate than the small sets. |
All the texts were annotated by two people. | 0 | Having explained the various layers of annotation in PCC, we now turn to the question what all this might be good for. |
They extended previous work on discriminative weighting by using a finer granularity, focusing on the properties of instances rather than corpus components, and used simpler training procedure. | 0 | Figure 1 shows sample sentences from these domains, which are widely divergent. |
In this paper the authors present a stochastic finite-state model for segmenting Chinese text into words. | 0 | set was based on an earlier version of the Chang et a!. |
There are clustering approaches that assign a single POS tag to each word type. | 0 | 1 61.7 37. |
the "Potsdam Commentary Corpus" or PCC consists of 170 commentaries from Ma¨rkische Allgemeine Zeitung, a German regional daily. | 0 | The paper explains the design decisions taken in the annotations, and describes a number of applications using this corpus with its multi-layer annotation. |
The departure from the traditional token-based tagging approach allow them to explicitly capture type-level distributional properties of valid POS tag assignments as part of the model. | 0 | 2 56.2 32. |
The AdaBoost algorithm was developed for supervised learning. | 0 | When this feature type was included, CoBoost chose this default feature at an early iteration, thereby giving non-abstaining pseudo-labels for all examples, with eventual convergence to the two classifiers agreeing by assigning the same label to almost all examples. |
Koehn and Monz carried out an extensive manual and automatic evaluation of machine translation performance on European language pairs. | 0 | The other half was replaced by other participants, so we ended up with roughly the same number. |
One can trivially create situations in which strictly binary-branching trees are combined to create a tree with only the root node and the terminal nodes, a completely flat structure. | 0 | The results in Table 2 were achieved on the development set. |
The AdaBoost algorithm was developed for supervised learning. | 0 | . |
they showed that the average agreement among the human judges is .76, and the average agreement between ST(system) and the humans is .75, or about 99% of the interhuman agreement. | 0 | Foreign names are usually transliterated using hanzi whose sequential pronunciation mimics the source language pronunciation of the name. |
NER is useful in many NLP applications such as information extraction, question answering, etc .Chieu and Ng have shown that the maximum entropy framework is able to use global information directly from various sources. | 0 | Borth 2MUC data can be obtained from the Linguistic Data Consortium: http://www.ldc.upenn.edu 3Training data for IdentiFinder is actually given in words (i.e., 650K & 790K words), rather than tokens Table 6: Comparison of results for MUC7 wick (1999) reported using dictionaries of person first names, corporate names an... |
It is well-known that English constituency parsing models do not generalize to other languages and treebanks. | 0 | 72 77. |
Here we present two algorithms. | 0 | To see this, note thai the first two terms in the above equation correspond to the function that AdaBoost attempts to minimize in the standard supervised setting (Equ. |
This assumption, however, is not inherent to type-based tagging models. | 0 | For other languages, we use the CoNLL-X multilingual dependency parsing shared task corpora (Buchholz and Marsi, 2006) which include gold POS tags (used for evaluation). |
They focused on phrases which two Named Entities, and proceed in two stages. | 0 | D o m ai n # of ph ras es t o t a l p h r a s e s ac cu ra cy C C 7 o r m o r e 1 0 5 8 7 . 6 % 6 o r l e s s 1 0 6 6 7 . 0 % P C 7 o r m o r e 3 5 9 9 9 . 2 % 6 o r l e s s 2 5 5 6 5 . 1 % Table 1. |
The authors cluster NE instance pairs based on the words in the context using bag-of-words methods. | 0 | Step 2. |
Instance-weighting approach improved over a wide range of baselines, giving gains of over 2 BLEU points over the best non-adapted baseline. | 0 | Log-linear combination (loglin) improves on this in all cases, and also beats the pure IN system. |
Their results show that their high performance NER use less training data than other systems. | 0 | A token that is allCaps will also be initCaps. |
The use of global features has shown excellent result in the performance on MUC-6 and MUC-7 test data. | 0 | For MUC6, for example, Corporate- Suffix-List is made up of ltd., associates, inc., co, corp, ltd, inc, committee, institute, commission, university, plc, airlines, co., corp. and Person-Prefix- List is made up of succeeding, mr., rep., mrs., secretary, sen., says, minister, dr., chairman, ms. . For a token that is in ... |
There are clustering approaches that assign a single POS tag to each word type. | 0 | Here, we conThis model is equivalent to the standard HMM ex cept that it enforces the one-word-per-tag constraint. |
Finally, several coreference systems have successfully incorporated anaphoricity determination modules. | 0 | Figure 1 reveals that an event that âdamagedâ objects may also cause injuries; a disaster that âoccurredâ may be investigated to find its âcauseâ; a disaster may âwreakâ havoc as it âcrossesâ geographic regions; and vehicles that have a âdriverâ may also âcarryâ items. |
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