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They focused on phrases which two Named Entities, and proceed in two stages. | 0 | Automatic Paraphrase Discovery based on Context and Keywords between NE Pairs |
Human judges also pointed out difficulties with the evaluation of long sentences. | 0 | This is the first time that we organized a large-scale manual evaluation. |
On the basis of that observation, they described a class of formalisms which they called Linear Context- Free Rewriting Systems (LCFRs), and showed they were recognizable in polynomial time and generated only semilinear languages. | 0 | In an existential state an ATM behaves like a nondeterministic TM, accepting if one of the applicable moves leads to acceptance; in an universal state the ATM accepts if all the applicable moves lead to acceptance. |
They employed a PCFG-based generative framework to make both syntactic and morphological disambiguation decisions which were not only theoretically clean and linguistically justified but also probabilistically appropriate and empirically sound. | 0 | Furthermore, some of the arcs represent lexemes not present in the input tokens (e.g. h/DT, fl/POS), however these are parts of valid analyses of the token (cf. super-segmental morphology section 2). |
This paper talks about Unsupervised Models for Named Entity Classification. | 0 | The algorithm, called CoBoost, has the advantage of being more general than the decision-list learning alInput: (xi , yi), , (xim, ) ; x, E 2x, yi = +1 Initialize Di (i) = 1/m. |
The PROBING data structure uses linear probing hash tables and is designed for speed. | 0 | Our test machine has two Intel Xeon E5410 processors totaling eight cores, 32 GB RAM, and four Seagate Barracuda disks in software RAID 0 running Linux 2.6.18. |
The resulting model is compact, efficiently learnable and linguistically expressive. | 0 | For each feature type f and tag t, a multinomial Ïtf is drawn from a symmetric Dirichlet distribution with concentration parameter β. |
The corpus was annoted with different linguitic information. | 0 | This was also inspired by the work on the Penn Discourse Tree Bank7 , which follows similar goals for English. |
The departure from the traditional token-based tagging approach allow them to explicitly capture type-level distributional properties of valid POS tag assignments as part of the model. | 0 | The model starts by generating a tag assignment for each word type in a vocabulary, assuming one tag per word. |
It is probably the first analysis of Arabic parsing of this kind. | 0 | 8 We use head-finding rules specified by a native speaker. |
The resulting model is compact, efficiently learnable and linguistically expressive. | 0 | While our method also enforces a singe tag per word constraint, it leverages the transition distribution encoded in an HMM, thereby benefiting from a richer representation of context. |
They found replacing it with a ranked evaluation to be more suitable. | 0 | See Figure 3 for a screenshot of the evaluation tool. |
All the texts were annotated by two people. | 0 | html 4 www.wagsoft.com/RSTTool assigning rhetorical relations is a process loaded with ambiguity and, possibly, subjectivity. |
The approach assumes that the word reordering is restricted to a few positions in the source sentence. | 0 | A dynamic programming recursion similar to the one in Eq. 2 is evaluated. |
They extended previous work on discriminative weighting by using a finer granularity, focusing on the properties of instances rather than corpus components, and used simpler training procedure. | 0 | Jiang and Zhai (2007) suggest the following derivation, making use of the true OUT distribution po(s, t): where each fi(s, t) is a feature intended to charac- !0ˆ = argmax pf(s, t) log pθ(s|t) (8) terize the usefulness of (s, t), weighted by Ai. θ s,t pf(s, t)po(s, t) log pθ(s|t) The mixing parameters and feature weigh... |
Their empirical results demonstrate that the type-based tagger rivals state-of-the-art tag-level taggers which employ more sophisticated learning mechanisms to exploit similar constraints. | 0 | Top 5 Bot to m 5 Go ld NN P NN JJ CD NN S RB S PD T # â , 1T W CD W RB NN S VB N NN PR P$ W DT : MD . +P RI OR CD JJ NN S WP $ NN RR B- , $ â . +F EA TS JJ NN S CD NN P UH , PR P$ # . â Table 5: Type-level English POS Tag Ranking: We list the top 5 and bottom 5 POS tags in the lexicon and the predictions of our m... |
The first method builds on results from (Yarowsky 95) and (Blum and Mitchell 98). | 0 | The question of what soft function to pick, and how to design' algorithms which optimize it, is an open question, but appears to be a promising way of looking at the problem. |
The problem of coreference resolution has received considerable attention, including theoretical discourse models and supervised machine learning systems. | 0 | For example, management succession systems must distinguish between a person who is fired and a person who is hired. |
BABAR's performance in both domains of terrorism and natural disaster, and the contextual-role knowledge in pronouns have shown successful results. | 0 | For each candidate antecedent, BABAR identifies the caseframe that would extract the candidate, pairs it with the anaphorâs caseframe, and consults the CF Network to see if this pair of caseframes has co-occurred in previous resolutions. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | splitIN captures the verb/preposition idioms that are widespread in Arabic. |
The problem of coreference resolution has received considerable attention, including theoretical discourse models and supervised machine learning systems. | 0 | Terrorism systems must distinguish between people who perpetrate a crime and people who are victims of a crime. |
Nevertheless, only a part of this corpus (10 texts), which the authors name "core corpus", is annotated with all this information. | 0 | information structure. |
They found replacing it with a ranked evaluation to be more suitable. | 0 | Still, for about good number of sentences, we do have this direct comparison, which allows us to apply the sign test, as described in Section 2.2. |
They believe that global context is useful in most languages, as it is a natural tendency for authors to use abbreviations on entities already mentioned previously. | 0 | If is not initCaps, then (not-initCaps, ) is set to 1. |
The overall performance of their joint framework demonstrated that a probability distribution obtained over mere syntactic contexts using a Treebank grammar and a data-driven lexicon outperformed upper bounds proposed by previous joint disambiguation systems and achieved segmentation and parsing results on a par with s... | 0 | (we ignored the 419 trees in their development set.) |
Most IE researchers have been creating paraphrase knowledge by hand and specific tasks. | 0 | We propose an unsupervised method to discover paraphrases from a large untagged corpus, without requiring any seed phrase or other cue. |
A beam search concept is applied as in speech recognition. | 0 | The proof is given in (Tillmann, 2000). |
The model incorporates various recent techniques for incorporating and manipulating linguistic knowledge using finite-state transducers. | 0 | 4. |
They believe that global context is useful in most languages, as it is a natural tendency for authors to use abbreviations on entities already mentioned previously. | 0 | If any of the tokens from to is in Person-Prefix- List, then another feature Person-Prefix is set to 1. |
This corpus has several advantages: it is annotated at different levels. | 0 | Like in the co-reference annotation, G¨otzeâs proposal has been applied by two annotators to the core corpus but it has not been systematically evaluated yet. |
The model incorporates various recent techniques for incorporating and manipulating linguistic knowledge using finite-state transducers. | 0 | For example, suppose one is building a ITS system for Mandarin Chinese. |
Their results suggested that it was possible to learn accurate POS taggers for languages which did not have any annotated data, but have translations into a resource-rich language. | 0 | We would like to thank Ryan McDonald for numerous discussions on this topic. |
The evaluation compares the performance of the system with that of several human judges and inter-human agreement on a single correct way to segment a text. | 0 | set was based on an earlier version of the Chang et a!. |
They have made use of local and global features to deal with the instances of same token in a document. | 0 | We have estimated the performance of IdentiFinder ' 99 at 200K words of training data from the graphs. |
In this paper the authors present a stochastic finite-state model for segmenting Chinese text into words. | 0 | 3. |
The AdaBoost algorithm was developed for supervised learning. | 0 | Before describing the unsupervised case we first describe the supervised version of the algorithm: Input to the learning algorithm: n labeled examples of the form (xi, y„). y, is the label of the ith example (given that there are k possible labels, y, is a member of y = {1 ... 0). xi is a set of mi features {x,1, Xi2 . |
The TRIE model uses less memory than the smallest lossless alternative and is still faster than SRILM. | 0 | Unlike Germann et al. (2009), we chose a model size so that all benchmarks fit comfortably in main memory. |
Due to many similarly performing systems, they are not able to draw strong conclusions on the question of correlation of manual and automatic evaluation metrics. | 0 | Sentences and systems were randomly selected and randomly shuffled for presentation. |
From a DP-based solution to the traveling salesman problem, they present a novel technique to restrict the possible word reordering between source and target language in order to achieve an eÃcient search algorithm. | 0 | Final (F): The rest of the sentence is processed monotonically taking account of the already covered positions. |
It is well-known that English constituency parsing models do not generalize to other languages and treebanks. | 0 | However, when grammatical relations like subject and object are evaluated, parsing performance drops considerably (Green et al., 2009). |
On the basis of that observation, they described a class of formalisms which they called Linear Context- Free Rewriting Systems (LCFRs), and showed they were recognizable in polynomial time and generated only semilinear languages. | 0 | We insisted that each structure dominates a bounded number of (not necessarily adjacent) substrings. |
They showed that it was useful to abstract away from the details of the formalism, and examine the nature of their derivation process as reflected by properties their trees, find that several of the formalisms considered can be seen as being closely related since they have derivation tree sets with the same structure a... | 0 | Unbounded dependencies between branches are not possible in such a system. |
Explanations for this phenomenon are relative informativeness of lexicalization, insensitivity to morphology and the effect of variable word order and these factors lead to syntactic disambiguation. | 0 | The ATB has a much higher fraction of nuclei per tree, and a higher type-level error rate. |
Explanations for this phenomenon are relative informativeness of lexicalization, insensitivity to morphology and the effect of variable word order and these factors lead to syntactic disambiguation. | 0 | The orthographic normalization strategy we use is simple.10 In addition to removing all diacritics, we strip instances of taTweel J=J4.i, collapse variants of alif to bare alif,11 and map Ara bic punctuation characters to their Latin equivalents. |
In this paper the authors present a stochastic finite-state model for segmenting Chinese text into words. | 0 | Other kinds of productive word classes, such as company names, abbreviations (termed fijsuolxie3 in Mandarin), and place names can easily be 20 Note that 7 in E 7 is normally pronounced as leO, but as part of a resultative it is liao3.. |
This paper conducted research in the area of automatic paraphrase discovery. | 0 | As we shall see, most of the linked sets are paraphrases. |
The contextual rules are restricted and may not be applicable to every example, but the spelling rules are generally applicable and should have good coverage. | 0 | In a fully supervised setting, the task is to learn a function f such that for all i = 1...m, f (xi,i, 12,i) = yz. |
Other kinds of productive word classes, such as company names, abbreviations,and place names can easily be handled given appropriate models. | 0 | gaolgaolxing4xing4 'happily' In the particular form of A-not-A reduplication illustrated in (3a), the first syllable of the verb is copied, and the negative markerbu4 'not' is inserted between the copy and the full verb. |
Their method did not assume any knowledge about the target language, making it applicable to a wide array of resource-poor languages. | 0 | Our results outperform strong unsupervised baselines as well as approaches that rely on direct projections, and bridge the gap between purely supervised and unsupervised POS tagging models. |
The code is open source, has minimal dependencies, and offers both C++ and Java interfaces for integration. | 0 | Tokens were converted to vocabulary identifiers in advance and state was carried from each query to the next. |
The bias of automatic methods in favour of statistical systems seems to be less pronounced on out-of-domain test data. | 0 | Judges where excluded from assessing the quality of MT systems that were submitted by their institution. |
The manual evaluation of scoring translation on a graded scale from 1â5 seems to be very hard to perform. | 0 | Annotators suggested that long sentences are almost impossible to judge. |
They showed that it was useful to abstract away from the details of the formalism, and examine the nature of their derivation process as reflected by properties their trees, find that several of the formalisms considered can be seen as being closely related since they have derivation tree sets with the same structure a... | 0 | The property of semilinearity is concerned only with the occurrence of symbols in strings and not their order. |
Other kinds of productive word classes, such as company names, abbreviations,and place names can easily be handled given appropriate models. | 0 | Another question that remains unanswered is to what extent the linguistic information he considers can be handled-or at least approximated-by finite-state language models, and therefore could be directly interfaced with the segmentation model that we have presented in this paper. |
Throughout this paper we compare with several packages: SRILM 1.5.12 (Stolcke, 2002) is a popular toolkit based on tries used in several decoders. | 0 | This range is collapsed to a number of buckets, typically by taking the hash modulo the number of buckets. |
Their method did not assume any knowledge about the target language, making it applicable to a wide array of resource-poor languages. | 0 | To establish a soft correspondence between the two languages, we use a second similarity function, which leverages standard unsupervised word alignment statistics (§3.3).3 Since we have no labeled foreign data, our goal is to project syntactic information from the English side to the foreign side. |
It is probably the first analysis of Arabic parsing of this kind. | 0 | But the city name Sharm Al- Sheikh is also iDafa, hence the possibility for the incorrect annotation in (b). |
However, using the top-level semantic classes of WordNet proved to be problematic as the class distinctions are too coarse. | 0 | The F- measure score increased for both domains, reflecting a substantial increase in recall with a small decrease in precision. |
This paper presents a maximum entropy-based named entity recognizer (NER). | 0 | Both BBN and NYU have tagged their own data to supplement the official training data. |
The PROBING data structure uses linear probing hash tables and is designed for speed. | 0 | Interpolation search formalizes the notion that one opens a dictionary near the end to find the word “zebra.” Initially, the algorithm knows the array begins at b +— 0 and ends at e +— |A|−1. |
A beam search concept is applied as in speech recognition. | 0 | This measure has the advantage of being completely automatic. |
This paper talks about KenLM: Faster and Smaller Language Model Queries. | 0 | We attain these results using several optimizations: hashing, custom lookup tables, bit-level packing, and state for left-to-right query patterns. |
The first method builds on results from (Yarowsky 95) and (Blum and Mitchell 98). | 1 | The first method builds on results from (Yarowsky 95) and (Blum and Mitchell 98). |
Explanations for this phenomenon are relative informativeness of lexicalization, insensitivity to morphology and the effect of variable word order and these factors lead to syntactic disambiguation. | 0 | 3 Techniques for automatic vocalization have been studied (Zitouni et al., 2006; Habash and Rambow, 2007). |
This architecture provides a uniform framework in which it is easy to incorporate not only listed dictionary entries but also morphological derivatives, and models for personal names and foreign names in transliteration. | 0 | (a) I f f fi * fi :1 }'l ij 1§: {1M m m s h e n 3 m e 0 shi2 ho u4 wo 3 cai2 ne ng 2 ke4 fu 2 zh e4 ge 4 ku n4 w h a t ti m e I just be abl e ov er co m e thi s C L dif fic 'When will I be able to overcome this difficulty?' |
Two general approaches are presented and two combination techniques are described for each approach. | 0 | The substructures that are unanimously hypothesized by the parsers should be preserved after combination, and the combination technique should not foolishly create substructures for which there is no supporting evidence. |
For the perplexity and translation tasks, we used SRILM to build a 5-gram English language model on 834 million tokens from Europarl v6 (Koehn, 2005) and the 2011 Workshop on Machine Translation News Crawl corpus with duplicate lines removed. | 0 | We compare three hash tables: our probing implementation, GCC’s hash set, and Boost’s8 unordered. |
Human judges also pointed out difficulties with the evaluation of long sentences. | 0 | We received submissions from 14 groups from 11 institutions, as listed in Figure 2. |
They have made use of local and global features to deal with the instances of same token in a document. | 0 | Frequency is calculated by counting the number of distinct previous tokens that each token has (e.g., if Electric Corp. is seen 3 times, and Manufacturing Corp. is seen 5 times during training, and Corp. is not seen with any other preceding tokens, then the âfrequencyâ of Corp. is 2). |
The evaluation compares the performance of the system with that of several human judges and inter-human agreement on a single correct way to segment a text. | 0 | The cost estimate, cost(i¥JJ1l.fn is computed in the obvious way by summing the negative log probabilities of i¥JJ1l. |
In this paper the authors present a stochastic finite-state model for segmenting Chinese text into words. | 0 | More formally, we start by representing the dictionary D as a Weighted Finite State Trans ducer (WFST) (Pereira, Riley, and Sproat 1994). |
they showed that the average agreement among the human judges is .76, and the average agreement between ST(system) and the humans is .75, or about 99% of the interhuman agreement. | 0 | In Chinese text, individual characters of the script, to which we shall refer by their traditional name of hanzi,Z are written one after another with no intervening spaces; a Chinese sentence is shown in Figure 1.3 Partly as a result of this, the notion "word" has never played a role in Chinese philological tradition, ... |
The TRIE model uses less memory than the smallest lossless alternative and is still faster than SRILM. | 0 | Raj and Whittaker (2003) show that integers in a trie implementation can be compressed substantially. |
The model incorporates various recent techniques for incorporating and manipulating linguistic knowledge using finite-state transducers. | 0 | (Other classes handled by the current system are discussed in Section 5.) |
However, using the top-level semantic classes of WordNet proved to be problematic as the class distinctions are too coarse. | 0 | Therefore we opted to use the much 7 The DempsterShafer theory assumes that one of the hypotheses in θ is correct, so eliminating all of the hypotheses violates this assumption. |
Using less training data than other systems, their NER can perform as well as other state-of-the-art NERs. | 0 | As far as we know, no other NERs have used information from the whole document (global) as well as information within the same sentence (local) in one framework. |
The bias of automatic methods in favour of statistical systems seemed to be less pronounced on out-of-domain test data. | 0 | Given the closeness of most systems and the wide over-lapping confidence intervals it is hard to make strong statements about the correlation between human judgements and automatic scoring methods such as BLEU. |
The corpus was annoted with different linguitic information. | 0 | After the first step towards breadth had been taken with the PoS-tagging, RST annotation, and URML conversion of the entire corpus of 170 texts12 , emphasis shifted towards depth. |
The features were weighted within a logistic model that gave an overall weight that was applied to the phrase pair and MAP-smoothed relative-frequency estimates which were combined linearly with relative-frequency estimates from an in-domain phrase table. | 0 | The logistic function, whose outputs are in [0, 1], forces pp(s, t) <_ po(s, t). |
Their work is closely related to recent approaches that incorporate the sparsity constraint into the POS induction process. | 0 | The type-level posterior term can be computed according to, P (Ti|W , T âi, β) â Note that each round of sampling Ti variables takes time proportional to the size of the corpus, as with the standard token-level HMM. |
The texts were annotated with the RSTtool. | 0 | While RST (Mann, Thompson 1988) proposed that a single relation hold between adjacent text segments, SDRT (Asher, Lascarides 2003) maintains that multiple relations may hold simultaneously. |
they evaluate various specific aspects of the segmentation, as well as the overall segmentation performance. | 0 | If one is interested in translation, one would probably want to consider show up as a single dictionary word since its semantic interpretation is not trivially derivable from the meanings of show and up. |
There are clustering approaches that assign a single POS tag to each word type. | 0 | Simply assigning to each word its most frequent associated tag in a corpus achieves 94.6% accuracy on the WSJ portion of the Penn Treebank. |
Nevertheless, only a part of this corpus (10 texts), which the authors name "core corpus", is annotated with all this information. | 0 | ⢠Bridging links: the annotator is asked to specify the type as part-whole, cause-effect (e.g., She had an accident. |
Throughout this paper we compare with several packages: SRILM 1.5.12 (Stolcke, 2002) is a popular toolkit based on tries used in several decoders. | 0 | Typical data structures are generalized Bloom filters that guarantee a customizable probability of returning the correct answer. |
The authors in this paper describe a search procedure for statistical machine translation (MT) based on dynamic programming (DP). | 0 | The Levenshtein distance between the automatic translation and each of the reference translations is computed, and the minimum Levenshtein distance is taken. |
However, using the top-level semantic classes of WordNet proved to be problematic as the class distinctions are too coarse. | 0 | Second, BABAR performs reliable case resolution to identify anaphora that can be easily resolved using the lexical and syntactic heuristics described in Section 2.1. |
Throughout this paper we compare with several packages: SRILM 1.5.12 (Stolcke, 2002) is a popular toolkit based on tries used in several decoders. | 0 | Both implementations employ a state object, opaque to the application, that carries information from one query to the next; we discuss both further in Section 4.2. |
Instance-weighting approach improved over a wide range of baselines, giving gains of over 2 BLEU points over the best non-adapted baseline. | 0 | This suggests a direct parallel to (1): where ˜p(s, t) is a joint empirical distribution extracted from the IN dev set using the standard procedure.2 An alternative form of linear combination is a maximum a posteriori (MAP) combination (Bacchiani et al., 2004). |
Das and Petrov, in this paper, approached inducing unsupervised part-of-speech taggers for languages that had no labeled training data, but had translated text in a resource-rich language. | 0 | While there might be some controversy about the exact definition of such a tagset, these 12 categories cover the most frequent part-of-speech and exist in one form or another in all of the languages that we studied. |
NER is useful in many NLP applications such as information extraction, question answering, etc .Chieu and Ng have shown that the maximum entropy framework is able to use global information directly from various sources. | 0 | Since MUC6, BBN' s Hidden Markov Model (HMM) based IdentiFinder (Bikel et al., 1997) has achieved remarkably good performance. |
An extended lexicon model is defined, and its likelihood is compared to a baseline lexicon model, which takes only single-word dependencies into account. | 0 | diesem 3. |
This architecture provides a uniform framework in which it is easy to incorporate not only listed dictionary entries but also morphological derivatives, and models for personal names and foreign names in transliteration. | 0 | As we shall argue, the semantic class affiliation of a hanzi constitutes useful information in predicting its properties. |
Throughout this paper we compare with several packages: SRILM 1.5.12 (Stolcke, 2002) is a popular toolkit based on tries used in several decoders. | 0 | Performance improvements transfer to the Moses (Koehn et al., 2007), cdec (Dyer et al., 2010), and Joshua (Li et al., 2009) translation systems where our code has been integrated. |
Combining multiple highly-accurate independent parsers yields promising results. | 0 | We call this approach parse hybridization. |
However, using the top-level semantic classes of WordNet proved to be problematic as the class distinctions are too coarse. | 0 | For example, a personâs full name will match with just their last name (e.g., âGeorge Bushâ and âBushâ), and a company name will match with and without a corporate suffix (e.g., âIBM Corp.â and âIBMâ). |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | markBaseNP indicates these non-recursive nominal phrases. |
Koehn and Monz carried out an extensive manual and automatic evaluation of machine translation performance on European language pairs. | 0 | In this shared task, we were also confronted with this problem, and since we had no funding for paying human judgements, we asked participants in the evaluation to share the burden. |
Instance-weighting approach improved over a wide range of baselines, giving gains of over 2 BLEU points over the best non-adapted baseline. | 0 | Table 2 shows results for both settings and all methods described in sections 2 and 3. |
The features were weighted within a logistic model that gave an overall weight that was applied to the phrase pair and MAP-smoothed relative-frequency estimates which were combined linearly with relative-frequency estimates from an in-domain phrase table. | 0 | The linear LM (lin lm), TM (lin tm) and MAP TM (map tm) used with non-adapted counterparts perform in all cases slightly worse than the log-linear combination, which adapts both LM and TM components. |
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